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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #67027 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/67027)
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-The Project Gutenberg eBook of Turquois mosaic art in ancient
-Mexico, by Marshall H. Saville
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
-will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
-using this eBook.
-
-Title: Turquois mosaic art in ancient Mexico
-
-Author: Marshall H. Saville

-
-Release Date: December 27, 2021 [eBook #67027]
-
-Language: English

-
-Produced by: Alan Thompson, Charlene Taylor, and the Online Distributed
-             Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
-             produced from images generously made available by The
-             Internet Archive)
-
-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART IN
-ANCIENT MEXICO ***
-
-
-
-
-
-                             CONTRIBUTIONS
-                               FROM THE
-                     MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN
-                            HEYE FOUNDATION
-                               VOLUME VI
-
-
-
-
-                          TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART
-                           IN ANCIENT MEXICO
-
-
-[Illustration: PL. I
-
-SHIELD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
-
-
-
-
-                          TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART
-                           IN ANCIENT MEXICO
-
-                                  BY
-                          MARSHALL H. SAVILLE
-
-                            [Illustration]
-
-                               NEW YORK
-                     MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN
-                            HEYE FOUNDATION
-                                 1922
-
-
-
-
-                CONDÉ NAST PRESS      GREENWICH, CONN.
-
-
-
-
-                                  TO
-                          GEORGE GUSTAV HEYE
-
-        _In appreciation of his long-continued interest in all
-         that pertains to the study of the aboriginal race of
-      America, which has reached fruition in the opening of the_
-
-                     MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN
-
-                            HEYE FOUNDATION
-
-            _this volume is dedicated by the author and the
-                         staff of the Museum_
-
-
-
-
-PREFACE
-
-
-The writer has undertaken the present study of Mexican Turquois Mosaics
-in honor of the approaching opening to the public of the Museum of
-the American Indian, Heye Foundation, the only institution devoted
-exclusively to the study of the aboriginal American peoples ever
-established; and the proximate International Congress of Americanists
-to be held at Rio de Janeiro this summer. Owing to lack of time it has
-been impossible to obtain new photographic illustrations of all the
-specimens of mosaic-work in European museums, but the author desires to
-express his thanks to T. A. Joyce, Esq., for his courtesy in furnishing
-photographs of the examples in the British Museum. To Dr. Franz
-Heger, of the State Natural History Museum, Vienna, we are under deep
-obligations for photographs and description of the interesting Xolotl
-figure preserved in that Museum. Dr. S. K. Lothrop has kindly had
-photographs made of the objects of this class in the Prehistoric and
-Ethnographic Museum in Rome, and has made certain valuable observations
-concerning them. To Drs. A. M. Tozzer and H. J. Spinden special
-acknowledgment is due for their generous permission to illustrate the
-mosaics from Chichen Itza, thus anticipating their own description of
-the objects in the work now being prepared regarding one of the most
-important discoveries ever made in ancient America. The fine drawings
-are from the pen of William Baake, and the beautiful plates represent
-the best efforts of the Heliotype Company. Finally must be acknowledged
-the characteristic generosity of one of the trustees of the Museum,
-James B. Ford, Esq., who has made it possible for us to publish this
-paper, and to whom the Museum is indebted for its acquisition of the
-precious collection of Mexican mosaics which are now described for the
-first time.
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS
-
-
-                                                     PAGE
-
-  PREFACE                                              ix
-
-  INTRODUCTION                                          1
-
-  EARLIEST HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF TURQUOIS MOSAIC
-  IN MEXICO                                             3
-
-    The Grijalva Expedition, 1518                       3
-
-    Loot obtained by Cortés, 1519-1525                  8
-
-  TRIBUTE OF MOSAIC PAID TO THE AZTEC RULERS           22
-
-  SOURCE OF TURQUOIS                                   27
-
-  THE AZTEC LAPIDARIES AND THEIR WORK                  29
-
-  OBJECTS DECORATED WITH MOSAIC                        40
-
-  EXISTING SPECIMENS OF MOSAIC                         47
-
-    Minor Examples                                     48
-
-    Chichen Itza Specimens                             55
-
-    Major Examples                                     59
-
-      Helmet                                           60
-
-      Masks                                            60
-
-      Skull Masks                                      67
-
-      Shields                                          68
-
-      Ear-plug                                         79
-
-      Animal Figures                                   80
-
-      God Figure                                       82
-
-      Knife Handles                                    82
-
-      Human Femur Musical Instrument                   84
-
-  CONCLUSION                                           86
-
-  NOTES                                                92
-
-  LIST OF WORKS DESCRIBING MEXICAN MOSAICS            103
-
-
-
-
-ILLUSTRATIONS
-
-
-           PLATES
-
-                                                                   PAGE
-
-        I. Wooden shield with turquois mosaic decoration
-           Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
-           New York                                      _Frontispiece_
-
-       II. Stone idol with mosaic decoration  National Museum,
-           Mexico                                                    22
-
-      III. _a_, Wooden staff with turquois mosaic decoration,
-           from Sacred cenote, ruins of Chichen Itza,
-           Yucatan  Peabody Museum, Cambridge
-
-           _b_, Wooden rattle with turquois mosaic decoration,
-           from Sacred cenote, ruins of Chichen Itza, Yucatan
-           Peabody Museum, Cambridge                                 22
-
-       IV. Wooden helmet with mosaic decoration  British
-           Museum, London                                            24
-
-        V. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration
-           British Museum, London                                    26
-
-       VI. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration
-           British Museum, London                                    28
-
-      VII. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration
-           Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome                 30
-
-     VIII. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration
-           Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome                 32
-
-       IX. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration
-           Museum of the American Indian, Heye
-           Foundation, New York                                      34
-
-        X. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration
-           Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
-           New York                                                  36
-
-       XI. Wooden mask (fragment) with turquois mosaic
-           decoration  Museum of the American Indian,
-           Heye Foundation, New York                                 38
-
-      XII. Wooden mask (fragment) with turquois mosaic
-           decoration  Museum of the American Indian,
-           Heye Foundation, New York                                 40
-
-     XIII. Wooden mask with mosaic decoration  Museum
-           of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
-           New York                                                  42
-
-      XIV. Wooden mask with mosaic decoration  Museum
-           of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
-           New York                                                  44
-
-       XV. Wooden mask (fragment) with mosaic decoration
-           Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
-           New York                                                  46
-
-      XVI. Wooden mask formerly covered with mosaic decoration
-           Museum of the American Indian,
-           Heye Foundation, New York                                 48
-
-     XVII. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration,
-           from Honduras  Museum of the American
-           Indian, Heye Foundation, New York                         50
-
-    XVIII. Skull mask with mosaic decoration  Ethnographical
-           Museum, Berlin                                            52
-
-      XIX. Skull mask with mosaic decoration  British Museum,
-           London                                                    54
-
-       XX. Wooden shield with turquois mosaic decoration
-           British Museum, London                                    56
-
-      XXI. Wooden shield with turquois mosaic decoration
-           State Natural History Museum, Vienna                      58
-
-     XXII. Back of wooden shield illustrated in Pl. I. Museum
-            of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
-            New York                                                 60
-
-    XXIII. Wooden shield with mosaic decoration. Museum
-           of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
-           New York                                                  62
-
-     XXIV. Wooden shield with mosaic decoration. Museum
-           of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
-           New York                                                  64
-
-      XXV. Wooden shield (fragment) with mosaic decoration.
-           Museum of the American Indian, Heye
-           Foundation, New York                                      66
-
-     XXVI. Wooden shield (fragment) with mosaic decoration.
-           Museum of the American Indian, Heye
-           Foundation, New York                                      68
-
-    XXVII. Wooden shield (fragment) with mosaic decoration.
-           Museum of the American Indian, Heye
-           Foundation, New York                                      70
-
-   XXVIII. Wooden shield (fragment) with mosaic decoration.
-           Museum of the American Indian, Heye
-           Foundation, New York                                      72
-
-     XXIX. Wooden shield (fragment) with mosaic decoration.
-           Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
-           New York                                                  74
-
-      XXX. Wooden ear-plug with mosaic decoration. Museum
-           of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
-           New York                                                  76
-
-     XXXI. Wooden head with head-piece, with mosaic decoration.
-           National Museum, Copenhagen                               78
-
-    XXXII. _a_, Wooden jaguar head with mosaic decoration.
-           Ethnographical Museum, Berlin
-
-           _b_, Wooden head of animal and human face in
-           jaws with mosaic decoration. National Museum,
-           Copenhagen                                                78
-
-   XXXIII. _a_, Wooden head of animal with mosaic decoration.
-           State Natural History Museum, Vienna
-
-           _b_, Wooden head of monkey with mosaic decoration.
-           British Museum, London                                    78
-
-    XXXIV. _a_, Wooden two-headed jaguar figure with mosaic
-           decoration. Ethnographical Museum, Berlin
-
-           _b_, Wooden bird’s head with mosaic decoration.
-           Museum, Gotha                                             78
-
-     XXXV. Wooden animal figure on haunches with mosaic
-           decoration. British Museum, London                        78
-
-    XXXVI. Wooden double-headed snake figure with mosaic
-           decoration. British Museum, London                        80
-
-   XXXVII. Wooden figure of Xolotl god with mosaic decoration.
-           State Natural History Museum, Vienna                      80
-
-  XXXVIII. Flint knife with wooden handle with mosaic decoration.
-           British Museum, London                                    82
-
-    XXXIX. _a_, Wooden knife handle with mosaic decoration.
-           Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome
-
-           _b_, Wooden knife handle with mosaic decoration.
-           Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome                 82
-
-       XL. Human femur musical instrument with mosaic
-           decoration. Prehistoric and Ethnographic
-           Museum, Rome                                              84
-
-
-      TEXT FIGURES
-
-   1. Bowl filled with turquois. After Tribute Roll of Montezuma     24
-
-   2. Ten masks of turquois. After Tribute Roll of Montezuma         24
-
-   3. Small bag filled with turquois. After Tribute Roll of
-      Montezuma                                                      25
-
-   4. Shields with turquois mosaic decoration. After Tribute
-      Roll of Montezuma                                              25
-
-   5. Serpent scepter with turquois mosaic decoration. After
-      Sahagun, manuscript of the Real Palacio, Madrid                43
-
-   6. _a_, Gold crown with turquois mosaic decoration. After
-      Sahagun, manuscript of the Real Palacio, Madrid
-
-      _b_, Gold crown. After Tribute Roll of Montezuma               45
-
-   7. Pottery disc with hematite mosaic decoration, from
-      Cuilapa, Oaxaca. American Museum of Natural History,
-      New York                                                       51
-
-   8. Gold shield breast ornament with turquois mosaic decoration,
-      from Yanhuitlan, Oaxaca. National Museum,
-      Mexico                                                         52
-
-   9. Wooden object (fragment) with turquois mosaic decoration,
-      from Sacred cenote, ruins of Chichen Itza, Yucatan.
-      Peabody Museum, Cambridge                                      57
-
-  10. Wooden object (fragment) with turquois mosaic decoration,
-      from Sacred cenote, ruins of Chichen Itza,
-      Yucatan. Peabody Museum, Cambridge                             57
-
-  11. Rattle of the god Xipe Totec. After Sahagun, manuscript
-      of the Real Palacio, Madrid                                    58
-
-  12. _a_, _b_, _c_, Crowns with mosaic decoration, from sculptured
-      wall, Temple of the Jaguars, ruins of Chichen
-      Itza, Yucatan. After Maudslay                                  58
-
-  13. Mask with mosaic decoration, from sculptured wall,
-      Temple of the Jaguars, ruins of Chichen Itza, Yucatan.
-      After Maudslay                                                 59
-
-  14. Mask with mosaic decoration, from sculptured wall,
-      Temple of the Jaguars, ruins of Chichen Itza, Yucatan.
-      After Maudslay                                                 59
-
-  15. Mask of wood with turquois mosaic decoration. Prehistoric
-      and Ethnographic Museum, Rome. After
-      Pigorini                                                       63
-
-  16. God Paynal with shield decorated with turquois mosaic.
-      After Sahagun, manuscript of the Real Palacio, Madrid          70
-
-  17. God Paynal with shield decorated with turquois mosaic.
-      After Sahagun, Florentine manuscript                           70
-
-  18. Glyphs of the town of Culhuacan. After Codex Telleriano
-      Remensis                                                       74
-
-  19. Knife handle of wood with turquois mosaic decoration.
-      Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome. After
-      Pigorini                                                       83
-
-
-
-
-TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART IN ANCIENT MEXICO
-
-BY MARSHALL H. SAVILLE
-
-
-
-
-INTRODUCTION
-
-
-One of the tragedies of the discovery of the New World was the abrupt
-and summary blotting out of the flourishing and still advancing
-civilization of the Aztec and other Mexican tribes. Had their complete
-conquest and subjection been delayed a few decades they in all
-probability would have developed a written phonetic language. Their
-intellectual abilities are evidenced by a study of the intricate
-calendar system, and the picture and hieroglyphic records which
-survive. The triumphs of their architectural attainments are well
-known, and may be investigated in the numerous monuments and buildings
-in the ruined cities scattered throughout Mexico. They had made notable
-strides toward civilization in certain of the minor fine arts. Ignorant
-of glass and of glazed pottery, they nevertheless developed the
-ceramic art to a high degree of excellence. Their inventive genius and
-technical skill were manifest in their goldsmith’s art.[1]
-
-Without the knowledge of iron, in the working of hard precious
-and semi-precious stones into idols and personal ornaments, their
-craftsmanship was equal to that of the best lapidaries of Europe at
-the beginning of the sixteenth century. In the lapidarian art they had
-advanced so far as to fashion and adorn many objects with designs, both
-geometric and realistic, in stone mosaic, employing turquois chiefly
-for this purpose, but also making use of other stones--marcasite and
-shell. But the supreme esthetic achievement of the Aztecs was the
-production of a class of mosaics in which they used tiny bits of
-colored feathers instead of stones in making the designs. This unique
-art was employed in adorning objects for personal use, for warfare, or
-for priestly ceremonies. The patterns were produced by applying the
-tiny bits of feathers with glue either directly on wood or on wooden
-objects covered with skin or with native paper. From descriptions of
-feather mosaics in the writings of early chroniclers, and from a study
-of the handful of specimens which have escaped the ravages of time, it
-is evident that this art reached the highest artistic level attained by
-any of the aboriginal tribes of America.
-
-We will not enter into a discussion of feather mosaics at this time,
-but will consider primarily the parallel art of turquois mosaic. Aside
-from the numerous historical notices contained in the early chronicles
-and in the inventories of the loot of the Aztecs sent to Europe by
-Cortés, there is little of this art upon which to base a careful
-study that has survived. It is one of the most interesting and highly
-developed arts of ancient America, but it was practised by only a
-few tribes. Apart from the Mexican region where turquois mosaic was
-most highly developed, excellent examples have been found with other
-ancient remains of the Pueblos of Arizona and New Mexico, and incrusted
-objects have also been found with ancient burials on the coast of
-Peru, indicating a somewhat similar technique though far less skill in
-application. The materials usually employed in Mexico were turquois,
-jadeite, malachite, quartz, beryl, garnet, obsidian, marcasite, gold,
-bits of red and other colored shell, and nacre. The base upon which
-the incrustation was laid was wood, stone, gold, shell, pottery, and
-possibly leather and native paper, the mosaic being held in place by
-means of a tenacious vegetal pitch or gum, or a kind of cement.
-
-
-
-
-EARLIEST HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF TURQUOIS MOSAIC IN MEXICO
-
-THE GRIJALVA EXPEDITION, 1518
-
-
-The first knowledge received by Europeans of the existence of turquois
-mosaic objects among the Mexicans was by members of the expedition sent
-out from Cuba by the governor, Diego Velásquez, during the spring of
-1518, under the command of Juan de Grijalva. After reaching the shores
-of Yucatan near the island of Cozumel, the party coasted the Yucatan
-peninsula, reaching the territory of the present State of Campeche,
-which had been discovered the previous year by Francisco Hernández de
-Córdoba. Proceeding westward along unknown lands, they reached a great
-river in the State of Tabasco, to which the name of the commandant was
-given, and it is still known as Rio de Grijalva. Here, according to
-some accounts, the expedition obtained the first specimens of turquois
-mosaic. We shall consider this point later. Leaving the Rio de Grijalva
-they went westward and arrived at the site of the present city of Vera
-Cruz, where they obtained by barter with the Indians a considerable
-treasure, including some objects of turquois mosaic, which Grijalva
-decided to send immediately to the governor in Cuba with a report of
-his discoveries up to that time. Consequently, on June 24, 1518, one of
-Grijalva’s captains, Pedro de Alvarado, set out on the return voyage to
-Fernandina (Cuba), while Grijalva himself continued the exploration of
-the eastern coast of Mexico.
-
-The provenience of the treasure obtained by Grijalva on this first
-expedition of discovery to the coasts of Tabasco and Vera Cruz in 1518
-is not at all clear from the accounts of this voyage in the writings
-both of the eye-witnesses themselves and of those who shortly afterward
-wrote of the conquest from the reports of the participants in the
-events. It has been generally assumed that Grijalva obtained mosaic
-objects from the Indians of Tabasco; this is specifically stated
-by both Oviedo and Gomara, who recorded detailed accounts of the
-Grijalva expedition. The account by Oviedo[2] is even more extended
-and valuable than the narrations of the eye-witnesses, namely, Juan
-Díaz[3] the chaplain, and the redoubtable Bernal Díaz. Oviedo states
-that his account is from the report forwarded to the King of Spain by
-the governor Velásquez, who sent out the expedition from Cuba. Gomara,
-who for a time was chaplain of Cortés in Spain, never visited the New
-World, but had access to the various reports sent to Spain regarding
-the conquest.
-
-Unfortunately in the writings of the eye-witnesses no detailed
-descriptive lists are to be found relating just what pieces of
-mosaic-work were obtained by Grijalva from the Mayan Indians of Tabasco
-and the people of the coast of the present State of Vera Cruz. The
-extended account given by Oviedo recites the voyage from day to day and
-the character of various objects received from the Tabasco Indians,
-followed by the list of specimens obtained from the Mexican Indians
-near the Isla de Sacrificios, Vera Cruz. We will quote from these
-lists later. Gomara’s list is quite extended. In the first part of
-his _Historia de las Indias_ he describes various articles procured
-by Grijalva from the Indians at the mouth of the river in Tabasco,
-to which his name was applied, followed in turn by the inventory of
-objects obtained at San Juan de Ulua, Vera Cruz. In the second part of
-his history, the _Conquista de Mexico_, he gives only a single long
-inventory of the barter obtained, as he says, “from the Indians of
-Potonchan [Tabasco], San Juan de Ulua, and other places of that coast.”
-It seems highly probable, however, that such interesting and valuable
-loot must have been accompanied with an inventory when it was sent
-to Spain late in 1518 or early in 1519 by Governor Velásquez. Oviedo
-mentions seeing the things, apparently in Barcelona, in May 1519. It
-is possible that both Oviedo and Gomara may have had access to such an
-inventory, or if not, they wrote their own descriptions of the objects
-after seeing them.
-
-Bernal Díaz, who accompanied both Grijalva and Cortés to Mexico,
-wrote his history nearly fifty years after the stirring events of the
-discovery and conquest. He was a prejudiced writer, and seems to have
-been largely animated in his old age to tell the story of the conquest
-primarily to refute many of the statements of Gomara. Bernal Díaz
-writes bluntly at the very outset of his invaluable history, which he
-calls the “True History,” that he speaks “here in reply to all that
-has been said and written by persons who themselves knowing nothing,
-have received no true account from others of what really took place,
-but who nevertheless now put forward any statements that happen to suit
-their fancy.” While not describing the treasure obtained by Grijalva,
-he mentions “some gold jewels some (of which) were diadems and others
-were in the shape of ducks like those of Castile, and other jewels like
-lizards, and three necklaces of hollow beads, and other articles of
-gold not of much value, for they were not worth more than two hundred
-pesos.”[4] These he states were obtained from the Indians of Potonchan.
-For some reason he apparently was not greatly impressed either by the
-technical excellence or by the esthetic beauty of the objects procured
-by barter from the vicinity of the present city of Vera Cruz; he simply
-writes that the Spaniards were engaged for six days in trading with the
-Indians and got more than sixteen thousand dollars’ worth of jewelry of
-low-grade gold worked into various forms. He then says: “This must be
-the gold which the historians Gomara, Yllescas, and Jovio say was given
-by the natives of Tabasco, and they have written it down as though it
-were true, although it is well known to eye-witnesses that there is no
-gold in the province of the Rio de Grijalva or anywhere near it, and
-very few jewels.”[5] Torquemada wrote in later years to the same effect.
-
-In none of the accounts by the participants of this expedition are
-mosaic pieces specifically mentioned. The chaplain of Grijalva’s
-fleet, Juan Díaz, states merely that they were given “a mask of gold
-beautifully wrought, and a little figure of a man with a little mask of
-gold, and a crown of gold beads with other jewels and stone of various
-colors.” This report was first printed in Venice, March 3, 1520,
-appearing in Italian as an appendix to the _Itinerario_ of Ludovico de
-Varthema.
-
-An anonymous independent relation in Italian of this voyage seems to
-have been printed at Venice in the same year under the title _Littera
-Mãdata della Insula de Cuba_, etc., the copy in the Marciana Library,
-Venice, being the only one known. From a photostat copy of the Italian
-we are able to present a translation of the mention of these objects,
-somewhat similar to that given by Juan Díaz. The _Littera Mãdata_
-states that the Spaniards obtained “a mask of gold, and the figure of a
-man all of gold, seemingly of the age of twelve, and a fan of gold, and
-other jewels of divers colors.”[6]
-
-Another anonymous early printed report, in Latin, without date or place
-of printing, affords practically the same information as that contained
-in the _Itinerario_ of Juan Díaz and in the _Littera Mãdata_.[7]
-
-The earliest printed information regarding the Grijalva voyage in which
-mosaic objects are specifically noted is in Peter Martyr’s _De Nvper
-Sub D. Carolo Repertis Insulis_, printed in Basle in 1521. In speaking
-of the valuable objects obtained by Grijalva in Coluacan (Vera Cruz),
-and sent to Spain, he mentions that “the cacique brought a small golden
-statue of a man, also a gold fan, and a mask beautifully wrought and
-decorated with stones.”[8] It will be observed that these objects
-correspond with those mentioned in the reports noted above, only that
-Peter Martyr speaks of the decoration of the mask with stones. With the
-exception of this note by Peter Martyr, who saw the objects in Spain,
-there is, as we have said, no special statement regarding mosaic-work
-to be found in the earliest known printed accounts of the Grijalva
-voyage. In 1535 the great work of Oviedo was first published, and here
-we find the following itemized description of pieces of mosaic-work,
-said to have been obtained from the Indians of Potonchan, Tabasco.[9]
-
- Another mask covered from the nostrils upward with well set
- mosaic-work of stones resembling turquoises, and from the nostrils
- downward with a thin plate of hammered gold.
-
- Another mask resembling the first, but the stones were placed from the
- eyes upward, and below them there were thin plates of beaten gold over
- wood, the ears being of turquois mosaic-work.
-
- Another mask made with bands or rods of wood, two of the strips being
- covered with mosaic-work, and the remaining other three with thin
- beaten gold.
-
- A thin disc with a figure of a cemi or devil, covered above with
- beaten gold-leaf, and in other parts were scattered some stones.
-
- A tablet of wood like the headstall of a horse in armor, covered over
- with thin gold-leaf, with some strips of black stones well set between
- the gold.
-
- The head of a dog covered with stones, and very well made.
-
-From Ulua in Vera Cruz these mosaic pieces are noted:
-
- Two masks of small stones like turquois set over wood like mosaic,
- with some spangles of gold in the ears.
-
- Two guariques of blue stones set in gold, each having eight pendants
- of the same.
-
- A mask of stone mosaic-work.
-
-In the work of Gomara, printed in 1553, appears also an extended
-account of this barter.[10]
-
-Seler[11] and Lehmann[12] believe that most of the mosaic objects
-“apparently came from the eastern provinces, i.e., Tabasco.”
-Relying on the authority of both Oviedo and Gomara, Lehmann further
-uses in his discussion the original Nahuatl text of Sahagun in
-the Florentine manuscript copied and translated by Seler. In this
-section of Sahagun’s work relating to the attributes of the Mexican
-deities occurs the paragraph, “_In jtlatquj Quetzalcoatl coa-xaiacatl
-xiuhticatl achivalli, quetzalapanecaiotl_,” which Lehmann renders, “The
-Quetzalcoatl dress, the snake-mask with turquois work, the feather
-ornament of the people of Quetzalapan (Tabasco).”[13] But there
-is no mention in early chronicles or on early maps of any town _in
-this region_ bearing the name Quetzalapan, and Torquemada in giving
-an account of some of the wars of Montezuma writes that “during the
-twelfth year of his reign (which was in 1514), his armies set out for
-the land of the Chichimecas, and entered the Huaxteca, subduing those
-of Quetzalapan.”[14] Other places bearing the name Quetzalapan were in
-the present states of Morelos, Guerrero, and Colima.[15] In recounting
-the episode of the conquest of this town, Clavijero writes explicitly
-that “Montezuma sent out an army in 1512 to the north against the
-Quetzalapanecas and conquered them with but little loss.”[16] Hence
-the place mentioned by Sahagun would seem to have been in Vera Cruz,
-and probably the region of Huaxteca or Cuexteca, for the Aztecs had
-considerable communication with this territory.
-
-
-LOOT OBTAINED BY CORTÉS, 1519-1525
-
-But the treasures of native art secured by the Grijalva expedition were
-insignificant by comparison with the enormously valuable loot obtained
-the next year (1519) by Cortés. It is not necessary in this study of
-Mexican mosaics to enter into the details of the expedition which set
-out from Cuba to follow the discoveries of Grijalva and which resulted
-in the conquest of Mexico. This has been done many times, but in the
-main most weight is given to the writings of the Spanish participants
-and to the early chroniclers. We have already studied in considerable
-detail the accounts of the art objects sent to Spain by Cortés, as
-contained in these early writings, and especially the inventories which
-accompanied the shipments of objects sent to Europe by the conqueror.
-Let us quote here merely what we wrote in presenting a summary of the
-events that occurred when Cortés first landed on the coast of Vera Cruz.
-
- After the arrival of the Spaniards on the coast of Vera Cruz, the
- Indians were not long in ignorance of the consuming thirst of the
- conquerors for gold. In order to placate the formidable strangers
- with childlike confidence that by giving them their wish the invasion
- of his dominions would be averted, Montezuma sent rich presents to
- Cortés through Tendile (Teuhtlile), governor of Cuetlaxtla (the
- modern Cotastla), which was then subject to the Aztecs. When all this
- treasure thus brought together was ready to be sent to Spain, with the
- report of the voyage, an inventory or list of the objects was drawn
- up and despatched with two special messengers, Alonso Portocarrero
- and Francisco de Montejo, who were charged to deliver the treasure to
- the King. These valuable gifts have been briefly described by several
- members of the expedition who saw them before they left Mexico,
- and on their receipt in Spain they were described by various other
- chroniclers.
-
-From the inventory, which we translated, we select the items relating
-to objects ornamented with stone mosaic.
-
- Item: two collars of gold and stone mosaic-work (precious stones)....
-
- Another item: a box of a large piece of feather-work lined with
- leather, the colors seeming like martens, and fastened and placed in
- the said piece, and in the center (is) a large disc of gold, which
- weighed sixty ounces of gold, and a piece of blue stone mosaic-work a
- little reddish, and at the end of the piece another piece of colored
- feather-work that hangs from it.
-
- Item: a miter of blue stone mosaic-work with the figure of monsters in
- the center of it, and lined with leather which seems in its colors to
- be that of martens, with a small (piece) of feather-work which is, as
- the one mentioned above, of this said miter.
-
- Item: ... a scepter of stone mosaic-work with two rings of gold, and
- the rest of feather-work.
-
- Item: an armlet of stone mosaic-work....
-
- Item: a mirror placed in a piece of blue and red stone mosaic-work,
- with feather-work stuck to it, and two strips of leather stuck to
- it....
-
- Item: some leggings of blue stone mosaic-work, lined with leather, of
- which the colors seem like martens; on each one of them (there are)
- fifteen gold bells.
-
- Item: two colored (pieces of) feather-work which are for two (pieces
- of) head armor of stone mosaic-work....
-
- More: two guariques (ear ornaments) of blue stone mosaic-work, which
- are to be put in the head of the big crocodile.
-
- More: another head armor of blue stone mosaic-work with twenty gold
- bells which hang pendent at the border, with two strings of beads
- which are above each bell, and two guariques of wood with two plates
- of gold.
-
- Item: another head armor of blue stone mosaic-work with twenty-five
- gold bells, and two beads of gold above each bell, that hang around it
- with some guariques of wood with plates of gold, and a bird of green
- plumage with the feet, beak, and eyes of gold.
-
- Moreover: sixteen shields of stone mosaic-work with their colored
- feather-work hanging from the edge of them, and wide-angled slab with
- stone mosaic-work with its colored feather-work, and in the center of
- the said slab, made of stone mosaic-work, a cross of a wheel which is
- lined with leather, which has the color of martens.
-
- Again: a scepter of red stone mosaic-work, made like a snake, with its
- head, teeth, and eyes (made) from what appears to be mother-of-pearl,
- and the hilt is adorned with the skin of a spotted animal, and below
- the said hilt hang six pieces of small feather-work.
-
- Item: a piece of colored feather-work which the lords of this land
- are wont to put on their heads, and from it hang two ear-ornaments of
- stone mosaic-work with two bells and two beads of gold, and above a
- feather-work of wide green feathers, and below hang some white, long
- hairs.[17]
-
-Peter Martyr, who saw the specimens in Spain shortly after they
-arrived, speaks of “certain miters beset with precious stones of divers
-colors, among which some are blue, like unto sapphires.” Also “two
-helmets garnished with precious stones of a whitish blue color: one of
-these is edged with bells and plates of gold, and under every bell two
-knobs of gold. The other, beside the stones wherewith it is covered, is
-likewise edged with XXV golden bells and knobs: and hath on the crest,
-a green bird with the feet, bill, and eyes of gold.”[18]
-
-Las Casas describes “a helmet of plates of gold, and little bells
-hanging (from it), and on it stones like emeralds.” Also “many shields
-made of certain thin and very white rods, intermingled with feathers
-and discs of gold and silver, and some very small pearls, like
-misshapen pearls.”[19]
-
-These are some of the statements of early Spaniards. Let us now
-consider what the Indians have said about the treasure given by
-Montezuma to Cortés at that time. Our best source of information is
-the great _Historia_ composed by Fray Bernardino de Sahagun, who spent
-many years in the valley of Mexico gathering information at first-hand
-from intelligent Indians. This was shortly after the conquest when
-the natives still retained vivid recollections of the fall of their
-country. Without this work the history of ancient Mexico, and of the
-customs and traditions of the Indians, could not be written.
-
-We must not lose sight of the fact that Montezuma, for a number of
-reasons which we need not relate here, expected the “second coming” of
-the culture-hero Quetzalcoatl, the great beneficent god of the Aztecs.
-This myth was one of the several causes that led to the comparatively
-easy conquest of a numerous and warlike people by the Spaniards. We
-have translated several chapters of Sahagun’s _Historia_ relating
-to the first coming of the Christians to the coast of Mexico, which
-contain a description of some of the gifts sent by Montezuma to Cortés,
-while he still believed the Spanish conqueror to be the great god
-Quetzalcoatl. It is really a report transmitted to us from the Aztecs,
-and is a most fascinating chapter of the history of the conquest of
-Mexico.[20]
-
- CHAPTER II. _Of the first (Spanish) ships which arrived at this land
- said to have been those of Juan de Grijalva._
-
- The first time that ships appeared on the coast of New Spain, the
- captains of Montezuma, who were called calpixques, who were near the
- coast, at once went to see what it was that had come, never having
- seen ships; one of whom was the calpixque of Cuextecatl, named Pinotl:
- other calpixques went with him, one of whom, named Yaotzin, lived in
- the town of Mictlanquauhtla, another named Teozinzocatl resided in the
- town of Teociniocan, another named Cuitlalpitoc was not a calpixque
- but the servant of one of these calpixques, and principalejos, and
- another principalejo named Tentlil. These went to see what the thing
- was, and carried some things to sell under pretence, so as to see what
- the thing was: they carried some rich mantles which only Montezuma,
- and no other (person), wore, nor had permission to wear: they entered
- canoes and went to the ships, saying amongst themselves, “We are here
- to guard this coast; it is right that we should know for a certainty
- what this is, in order to carry accurate news to Montezuma.” They
- entered at once the canoes and commenced to paddle to the ships,
- and when they arrived near the vessels and saw the Spaniards, all
- kissed the prows of the ships, in sign of adoration, thinking that
- it was the god Quetzalcoatl that had returned, which god, as appears
- in the history, was already expected. Then the Spaniards spoke and
- said: “Who are you? Whence have you come? From where are you?” Those
- who came in the canoes responded, “We have come from Mexico.” The
- Spaniards said, “If it is true that you are Mexicans, tell us what
- is the name of the Lord of Mexico.” They replied, “Our Lord, he is
- called Montezuma,” and then they presented all of those rich mantles
- which they had brought to him who went as general of those ships,
- who was, as is said, Grijalva, and the Spaniards gave to the Indians
- some glass beads, some green and others yellow, and the Indians when
- they saw them were very much astonished and esteemed them greatly,
- and then they (the Spaniards) dismissed the Indians, saying, “Now we
- return to Castile, and will soon return and will (then) go to Mexico.”
- The Indians returned to land and soon departed for Mexico, where they
- arrived in a day and a night, to give the news of what they had seen
- to Montezuma, and they brought to him the beads which had been given
- them by the Spaniards, and spoke to him (Montezuma) as follows: “Our
- Lord, we are deserving of death; hear what we have seen, and what we
- have done. Thou hast placed us on guard at the seashore; we have seen
- some gods on the sea, and went to receive them, and give them various
- rich mantles; look at these beads that they gave us, saying to us,
- ‘Is it true that you are Mexicans? Look at these beads, give them to
- Montezuma, that he may know of us.’” And they told him all that had
- happened when they were with those (people) on the sea in the ships.
- Montezuma responded: “You have come tired and worn out; go and rest.
- I have received this (news) in secret, and command you not to say
- anything whatever about what has happened.”
-
- CHAPTER III. _Of what Montezuma disposed after he heard the news from
- those who saw the first (Spanish) ships._
-
- As soon as he (Montezuma) heard the news from those who had come from
- the seashore, he ordered to be called at once the highest chief of
- those who were called Cuextecatl, and the others who had come with
- the message, and ordered them to place guards and lookouts in all the
- farms along the shores of the sea, the one called Naulitlantoztlan,
- and the other Mictlanquactla, so that they might see when those ships
- returned, and at once give a report. The calpixques and captains then
- left, and at once ordered the placing of lookouts on the said farms,
- and Montezuma then summoned the most confidential of his chieftains
- and communicated to them the news which had arrived, and showed them
- the glass beads which the messengers had brought, and said, “It seems
- to me that they are precious stones; take great care of them in the
- wardrobe that none of them be lost, and if any are lost, those who
- have charge of the wardrobe will have to pay.” One year hence, in the
- year thirteen rabbit, those who were on guard saw ships on the sea,
- and at once came with great speed to give notice to Montezuma. As soon
- as he had heard the news, Montezuma despatched men for the reception
- of Quetzalcoatl, because he thought that it was him who came, because
- they expected him daily, and as he had received news that Quetzalcoatl
- had gone by sea toward the east, and the ships came from the eastward,
- for this (reason) they thought that it was he: he sent five of his
- chief lords to receive him and to present to him a great present,
- which he sent. Of those who went the most prominent one was called
- Yallizchan, the second in rank Tepuztecatl, the third Tizaoa, the
- fourth Vevtecatl, and the fifth Veicaznecatlheca.
-
- CHAPTER IV. _What Montezuma ordered when he learned the second time
- that the Spaniards had returned, this was D. Hernando Cortés._
-
- To the above mentioned (messengers) Montezuma spoke, and said, “Look,
- it has been said that our Lord Quetzalcoatl has arrived; go and
- receive him and listen to what he may say to you with great attention;
- see to it that you do not forget anything of what he may say; see
- here these jewels which you are to present to him in my behalf, and
- which are all the priestly ornaments that belong to him.” First a
- mask wrought in a _mosaic of turquois_; this mask had wrought in
- the same stones a doubled and twisted snake, the fold of which was
- the beak of the nose; then the tail was parted from the head, and
- the head with part of the body came over one eye so that it formed
- an eyebrow, and the tail with a part of the body went over the other
- eye, to form the other eyebrow. This mask was inserted on a high and
- big crown full of rich feathers, long and very beautiful, so that on
- placing the crown on the head, the mask was placed over the face: it
- had for a (central) jewel a medallion of gold, round and wide: it
- was tied with nine strings of precious stones, which, placed around
- the neck, covered the shoulders and the whole breast: they carried
- also a large shield bordered with precious stones with bands of gold
- which went from the top to the bottom of it, and other bands of pearls
- crossing over the gold bands from the top to bottom of it, and in
- the spaces left by these bands, which were like the meshes of a net,
- were placed zapitos (little toads) of gold. This shield had edgings
- in the lower part; there was attached on the same shield a banner
- which came out from the handle of the shield, made of rich feathers:
- it also had a big medallion made of _mosaic-work_ which was fastened
- and girded around the loins: they carried also strings of precious
- stones with gold bells placed in between the stones to be tied to
- the ankles: they carried also a bishop’s staff all decorated with
- _turquois mosaic-work_, and the crook of it was like the head of a
- snake turned around or coiled. They also carried sandals (cotaras)
- such as great lords were accustomed to wear. They also carried the
- ornaments or finery with which Tezcatlipoca was adorned, which was a
- head-piece made of rich feathers which hung down on the back almost to
- the waist, and was strewn all over with stars of gold. They carried
- also ear-ornaments of gold: they had hanging from them little gold
- bells and strings of little white and beautiful sea-shells. From
- these strings hung a piece of leather like a plastron (peto), and it
- was carried tied in such a manner that it covered the breast down to
- the waist: this plastron had strewn on it and hanging from it many
- little shells. They carried also a corselet of painted white cloth;
- the lower border of this corselet was edged with white feathers in
- three strips all around the border: they also carried a rich mantle
- the cloth of which was a light blue, and embroidered all over with
- many designs of a very fine blue: this mantle was worn around the
- waist, the (four) corners tied to the body: over this mantle was
- worn a medallion of _turquois [work]_ attached to the body over the
- loins: they also carried strings of gold bells to tie around the
- ankles, and also white sandals (cotaras) like those the lords are
- wont to wear. They also carried the ornaments and decorations of the
- god Tlalocantecutli, which were, a mask with its feather-work, and
- a banner like the one above mentioned: also wide ear-ornaments of
- chalchivitl with snakes of chalchivites inside: and also a corselet
- painted with green designs, and strings or collar of precious stones,
- and also a medallion with which they girded the loins, like the one
- above described, with a rich mantle, with which they girded themselves
- like the one described above, and golden bells to place on the feet,
- and the staff like the one above described. Other ornaments which they
- carried were also of the same Quetzalcoatl, a miter of tiger-skin, and
- hanging from the miter a hood of raven’s feathers: the miter also had
- a large chalchivitl rounded at the end, and also round ear-ornaments
- of _turquois mosaic_ with a hook of gold called ecacozcatl, and a
- rich mantle with which he girded himself, and some gold bells for the
- feet, and a shield which had in the center a round plate of gold,
- which shield was bordered with rich feathers. From the lower part of
- the shield came out a sash of rich feathers in the shape of the one
- above described: it had a staff wrought in _turquois mosaic_, and
- its crook was set with rich stones or conspicuous pearls. They also
- had on top of it all some sandals (cotaras), such as the lords were
- accustomed to wear. All these things were brought by the messengers
- and presented, as they say, to D. Hernando Cortés. Many other things
- they presented to him which are not written about, such as a miter of
- gold made like a periwinkle with edging of rich feathers which hung
- over the shoulders, and another plain miter of gold and other jewels
- of gold which are not written about. All these things were placed in
- hampers (petacas), and upon taking leave from Montezuma he said to
- them, “Go and worship in my name the god who comes, and say to him we
- have been sent here by your servant Montezuma: these things which we
- bring have been sent by him, for you have come to your dwelling, which
- is Mexico.” These messengers set out on the road at once, and arrived
- at the seaside, and there took canoes [_cañas_, undoubtedly _canoas_
- was written], and arrived at a place called Xicalanco: from there they
- took other canoes with all their clothes, and reached the ships, and
- then those of the ships asked them, “Who are you, and whence have you
- come?” And those of the canoes answered, “We come from Mexico.” And
- those of the ships said to them, “Perchance you are not from Mexico,
- but falsely say you are from Mexico and deceive us.” And upon this
- they took and gave (bartered?), until they were satisfied on both
- sides, and they tied the canoe to the ship, and a ladder was let down,
- by which they climbed up to the ship and came to where D. Hernando
- Cortés was.
-
- CHAPTER V. _Of what happened when the messengers of Montezuma entered
- the ship of D. Hernando Cortés._
-
- They commenced to climb up to the ship on the ladders, and brought
- the presents that Montezuma had commanded them to carry. When they
- were in front of the captain D. Hernando Cortés, all kissed the ground
- [deck] in his presence, and spoke in this wise: “May the god whom we
- come to adore in the name of his servant Montezuma, who for him rules
- and governs the city of Mexico, know, and who says that the god has
- come after much hardship.” And at once they took out the ornaments
- they had brought, and placed them in front of the captain D. Hernando
- Cortés, adorning him with them, placing first the crown and mask
- which has been described above, and all the other things: they put
- around his neck the collars of (precious) stones with the jewels of
- gold which they had brought, and put on his left arm the shield above
- described, and all the other things were placed in front of him in the
- order they were accustomed to put their presents. The captain said,
- “Is there something more?” And they said to him, “We have not brought
- anything else than these things that are here.” The captain at once
- ordered them to be tied, and ordered shots of artillery fired, and the
- messengers who were tied hand and foot, when they heard the thunder of
- the bombardment, fell on the floor like dead, and the Spaniards lifted
- them from the floor, and gave them wine to drink, with which they
- strengthened them and revived them. After this captain D. Hernando
- Cortés said to them, through the interpreter: “Listen to what I say
- to you. I have been told that the Mexicans are valiant men, that they
- are great conquerors and great warriors, and are very skillful at
- arms: they tell me that one Mexican alone is enough to conquer from
- ten to twenty of his enemies. I wish to prove whether this is true,
- and whether you are so strong as I have been told.” Then he ordered
- swords and shields to be given them that they might fight with as many
- Spaniards, so that he might see who might win, and the Mexicans then
- said to captain Cortés, “May it please your grace to listen to our
- excuse, for we are not able to do what you command, and it is because
- our Lord Montezuma has sent us to do nothing else than to salute you
- and give you this present, we cannot do anything else, nor are we
- able to do what you order us, for if we did we should offend our Lord
- Montezuma, and he would order us killed.” And the captain responded:
- “You will have to do by all means what I say. I have to see what kind
- of men you are, for over yonder in our country we have been told that
- you are very courageous men: arm yourselves with these arms and be
- ready that we encounter one another tomorrow on the (battle) field.
-
- CHAPTER VI. _Of how the messengers of Montezuma returned to Mexico
- with the report of what they had seen._
-
- After what has been related was done, they took leave of the
- captain, and entered their canoes, and commenced to go toward the
- land, paddling with great speed, and saying to one another, “There
- are valiant men; let us exert ourselves to paddle before anything
- happens.” They arrived very quickly at the town of Xicalanco, and
- there they ate and rested a little, and then they got into their
- canoes again, and paddling with great speed they arrived at the town
- called Tecpantlayacac, and from there began to journey by land,
- running with great speed, and they reached the town called Cuetlaxtla:
- there they ate and rested a little, and those of the town begged them
- that they should rest at least a day, but they responded that they
- could not, because they had to go with great speed to make known to
- Montezuma what they had seen, very new things, and never before seen
- nor heard of, of which no one else could speak about: and so traveling
- with great speed by night and day, they arrived in Mexico by night.”
-
-In the accounts of the vast treasure secured by Cortés from Montezuma
-before his untimely death, there is to be found no specific mention
-or description of objects decorated with stone mosaic. Much of the
-treasure secured in the final sack of Tenochtitlan (Mexico) was lost.
-The “empire” of the Aztecs was completely subjugated in 1521. From
-that time, and up to 1525, Cortés sent to Europe at various intervals
-great quantities of loot, gathered as tribute from the stores of the
-Indians, accompanied with inventories, a number of which have been
-published. From these inventories we select the following items which
-clearly relate to stone mosaic objects.
-
- _Report of the Feather-work and Jewels sent to Spain to be distributed
- to the following Churches and Monasteries and Special Persons._
- [Without date.]
-
- For the Lord Bishop of Burgos
-
- Item: something like a staff (crosier) of stone mosaic-work of many
- colors, for him (the Bishop).
-
- _Copy of the Register of the Gold, Jewels, and other Things which
- are to go to Spain in the Ship Santa María de la Rábida, its Master
- (being) Juan Baptista. (The year 1522.)_
-
-This report contains a register of much treasure sent in one of the
-several ships which left Mexico in June, 1522, in charge of the
-treasurer Julian Alderete, and Alonso Dávila and Antonio de Quiñones,
-proctors. The register contains statements of the monetary value of
-certain treasure registered by various persons, among whom we find one
-Juan de Rivera, who carried treasure for himself, Cortés, and other
-persons named in the inventory; but none of the articles is described.
-In the margin of the report are notes stating that a considerable
-portion remained in the Azores. In another inventory, from which we
-shall quote later, are descriptions of certain pieces, jewels, and
-feather-work that remained in the Azores in charge of the above-named
-proctors. According to Peter Martyr the greater part of this treasure
-was destined for the King of Spain, but it never reached him, for the
-vessel, which with the others had put into the Azores to escape French
-pirates, was captured later by these corsairs and the rich spoils of
-the Aztecs went to augment the treasure of Francis I.
-
-The ship _Santa María de la Rábida_ seems to have arrived in Sevilla
-in November, 1522, and Peter Martyr saw the treasure that it brought
-and interviewed Juan de Rivera at length concerning the people and
-country of New Spain. The account which he wrote, based on a view of
-the wonderful objects and what Rivera had told him, comprises an entire
-book in the Fifth Decade of his _De Orbe Novo_, first printed in 1530.
-It contains a mass of valuable and generally trustworthy information,
-gleaned not only at first hand from Rivera, but also from a young
-native Mexican whom Rivera had brought to Spain as a slave and servant.
-This account supplies certain information describing the treasure,
-which is missing in the inventory. The report is so interesting that
-we quote what Peter Martyr writes about some of the objects of stone
-mosaic-work which Rivera displayed.[21]
-
- We have been particularly delighted with two mirrors of exceptional
- beauty: the first was bordered with a circle of gold, one palm in
- circumference, and set in green wood; the other was similar. Ribera
- states that there is stone found in these countries, which makes
- excellent mirrors when polished; and we admit that none of our mirrors
- more faithfully reflect the human face.
-
- We also admire the artistically made masks. The _superstructure_ is of
- wood, covered over with stones, so artistically and perfectly joined
- together that it is impossible to detect their lines of junction, with
- the fingernail. They seem to the naked eye to be one single stone,
- of the kind used in making their mirrors. The ears of the mask are
- of gold, and from one temple to another extend two green lines of
- emeralds; two other saffron colored lines start from the half-opened
- mouth, in which bone teeth are visible; in each jaw two natural teeth
- protrude between the lips. These masks are placed upon the faces of
- the gods, whenever the sovereign is ill, not to be removed until he
- either recovers or dies.
-
-Peter Martyr gives us details regarding the King’s share of the loot
-brought by the _Santa María de la Rábida_, writing as follows:
-
- Without mentioning the royal fifth, that ship brings the treasure
- which is composed of a part of what Cortés amassed, at the cost
- of risks and dangers, and the share belonging to his principal
- lieutenant: they offer it all in homage to their King. Ribera has been
- instructed to present to the Emperor in his master’s [Cortés’] name
- the gifts he sends, while the others will be presented in the name of
- their colleagues by the officers who, as I have said, remained behind
- at the Azores.... The treasure destined for the Emperor is on board
- the vessel which has not yet arrived: but it is said that it amounts
- to 32,000 ducats of smelted gold in the form of bars. Were all the
- rings, jewels, shields, helmets, and other ornaments now smelted, the
- total would amount to 150,000 ducats. The report has spread, I know
- not how, that French pirates are on the watch for these ships: may
- they come safely in.
-
-As we have stated, the ships were captured and the treasure was
-irretrievably lost to the Spaniards. An inventory of the treasure,
-preserved in Spain, reads:
-
- _Statement of Pieces, Jewels, and Feather-work sent from New Spain for
- His Majesty, and that Remained in the Azores in the Charge of Alonso
- Dávila and Antonio Quiñones._ [Without date.]
-
- Statement of the pieces, jewels, and feather-work that are sent to
- Their Majesties in the following boxes:
-
- A shield with blue stone mosaic-work with its rim of gold.
-
- A shield of stone mosaic-work, with a rim of blue and red feathers.
-
- A shield of stone mosaic-work, the casco (crown) of feathers and the
- clasps of gold, and on the rim some long green feathers.
-
- A shield of stone mosaic-work and confas (shells) with some pendants
- on the rim, of large and small gold bells.
-
- _Report of the Objects of Gold that are Packed in a Box for His
- Majesty which are Sent in Care of Diego de Soto._ [Without date.]
-
- A face of gold with the features of stone mosaic-work.
-
- A face of tiger-skin [_sic_] with two ear-ornaments of gold and stone
- mosaic-work.
-
- _Report of the Things Carried by Diego de Soto from the Governor in
- Addition to what he Carries Listed in a Notebook of Certain Sheets of
- Paper for His Majesty_. [Without date.]
-
- A large shield with some moons of stone mosaic-work and with much gold.
-
- Two stone mosaic-work shields.
-
-The final inventory from which we extract items relating to stone
-mosaic-work objects is dated 1525. It is:
-
- _Report of the Gold, Silver, Jewels, and Other Things that the
- Proctors of New Spain Carry to His Majesty._ (_Year of 1525_.)
-
- A large head of a duck of blue stone mosaic-work.
-
- Two pieces of gold, such as the natives of these parts wear in their
- ears with some red and blue stones, weighing altogether ten pesos.
-
- A bracelet with four greenstones set in gold like the hoof of a stag.
- Not weighed.
-
- Another bracelet of gold with ten pieces like azicates, and two claws
- of greenstone set in gold.
-
- An armlet of tiger-skin with four greenstones and four small bars of
- gold of little weight.
-
- A shell like a venerica set in gold with a greenstone in the center.
-
- A large shell set in gold with a face of greenstone, with some blue
- and yellow little stones around the neck.
-
- A butterfly of gold with the wings of venera, and the body and head of
- greenstone.
-
- Two veneras, one purple and the other yellow, each one respectively
- with greenstones in the center and other blue ones around it, set in
- gold.
-
- Another white venera, set in gold, having some blue and red eyes, the
- one inserted in the other.
-
- A monster of gold with some greenstone mosaic-work in the belly,
- weighing altogether eleven pesos.
-
- A poniard (or jewel broncha) of white shell set in gold, weighing
- altogether thirty-seven pesos, five tomins.
-
- A butterfly of shell, of fancy work, set in gold, weighing altogether
- eleven pesos, six tomins.[22]
-
-
-
-
-TRIBUTE OF MOSAIC PAID TO THE AZTEC RULERS
-
-
-Mosaic objects, and especially the raw material for their manufacture,
-formed a part of the annual tribute paid by some of the coast provinces
-of ancient Mexico to the Aztec kings of Tenochtitlan. We have the
-pictorial representation of some of the objects of such tribute in
-an important native book or codex, painted in colors on maguey fiber
-paper, known as the Tribute Roll of Montezuma. This original codex was
-at one time in the famous Boturini collection, and is now one of the
-treasured possessions of the Museo Nacional in the City of Mexico. It
-lacks, however, several leaves which were abstracted about a century
-ago, and which came into possession of Joel R. Poinsett, who had been
-American Minister to Mexico, and who presented them to the American
-Philosophical Society of Philadelphia in 1830, where they now are. On
-the pages have been written explanations of the pictures and figures
-in both Nahuatl and Spanish. “The Nahuatl words look as if made by
-a pencil, style, or short brush similar to that used in delineating
-the figures, and with a sepia-like preparation; while the Spanish
-ones have evidently been made with an ink containing iron, and an
-instrument which disturbed the gloss of the paper, as is shown by its
-penetration to fibres adjacent, giving the lines a sort of hazy margin
-occasionally.”[23]
-
-Some time between the years 1534 and 1550, Don Antonio de Mendoza, the
-first Viceroy of Mexico, during this period, had the Indians prepare
-for the Emperor Charles V, a book on European paper, containing a
-pictorial account, in colors, of some things relating to the history
-and life of the natives of the Mexican plateau. It was painted in three
-sections, the first being a chronological record of the Aztec kings and
-their conquests, the third relating to the habits and customs of the
-natives and especially of the education of Mexican youth.
-
-[Illustration: PL. II
-
-STONE IDOL: THE GODDESS COATLICUE, WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-NATIONAL MUSEUM, MEXICO]
-
-[Illustration: PL. III
-
-STAFF AND RATTLE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-PEABODY MUSEUM, CAMBRIDGE]
-
-The _second_ part was a copy of the Tribute Roll above referred to.
-These pictures were given to other Indians for the interpretation of
-their import, which was written down in the Nahuatl language, and
-another person, well versed in both the Indian and Spanish languages,
-made a translation into Spanish, which was incorporated in the book.
-It was then despatched to Spain, probably about the year 1549, but the
-vessel was captured by French pirates, and the book came into the hands
-of the French geographer, André Thevet, in 1553. After Thevet’s death
-it was purchased, about the year 1584, by Richard Hakluyt, at that time
-chaplain to the English Ambassador to France. Hakluyt bequeathed the
-volume to Samuel Purchas, who published it, without colors, with an
-English translation of the text, in _Purchas His Pilgrimes_, London,
-1625. The English text was translated into French and accompanied with
-the plates was published by Melchisedec Thevenot in his _Relations des
-Divers Voyages_, in 1663. The codex ultimately became the property
-of Selden, and with some other original Mexican codices later became
-a part of the Bodleian Library at Oxford, where it is now preserved.
-In 1831, Lord Kingsborough issued it for the first time in colors,
-together with a new and more accurate English rendering of the Spanish
-text, in his monumental work on the _Antiquities of Mexico_.
-
-The Tribute Roll was published by Archbishop Lorenzana in Mexico in
-1770, in his edition of the _Cartas de Cortés_, the drawing, uncolored,
-being traced in a very inferior manner from the original in Mexico.
-Finally, Dr. Antonio Peñafiel included a beautiful colored facsimile of
-the Tribute Roll in his work, _Monumentos del Arte Mexicano Antiguo_,
-published in Berlin in 1890, the missing leaves, in Philadelphia,
-being reproduced from a very poor drawing of the codex on European
-paper, probably executed for Boturini. These leaves were published in
-exact facsimile in 1892, with an article entitled, The Tribute Roll of
-Montezuma, edited by Dr. D. G. Brinton and Henry Phillips, in vol. XVII
-of the _Transactions of the American Philosophical Society_.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 1]
-
-On plate XVIII (we refer to the Peñafiel edition), in the second
-section of the plate, among other objects of tribute is a small bowl
-containing pieces of cut turquois (see fig. 1). In the explanation
-given by Purchas, this item is described as “a little panne full of
-Turkes stones,” and in the Kingsborough text it has been translated
-“a little vessel of small turquois stones.” On the plate published
-by Lorenzana is the caption, “Matlauac Rosilla con q. se tiñe
-azul.” The word _matlauac_ is probably a corruption of the Nahuatl
-word _matlaltic_, meaning ‘blue,’ but the rest of the sentence in
-Spanish is confused, for _rosilla_ means ‘reddish,’ and _con q. se
-tiñe azul_, ‘with which they dyed blue,’ seems to indicate that the
-phrase is incomplete. Accompanying the objects depicted as tributes
-are the hieroglyphs of the towns which paid them. These glyphs have
-been interpreted in the same manner in all of the reproductions
-of the codex, but we use the spelling adopted by Peñafiel, in
-preference to that given by Purchas or by Kingsborough. They are:
-(1) _Quiyauhtecpan_, “temple of rain or of its deities” _Tlaloc_
-or _Chalchiuhtlicue_; (2) _Olinalan_, “place of earthquakes;” (3)
-_Cuauhtecomatlan_, “place of tecomates;” (4) _Cualac_, “place of good
-drinkable water;” (5) _Ichcatlan_, “cotton-plantation;” (6) _Xala_,
-“sandy ground.” These places are given in the explanation as being
-“cities of warm provinces.”
-
-In the third section of the same plate (XVIII) are the objects shown in
-figs. 2 and 3. Peñafiel writes of fig. 2 as “ten little figures worked
-in turquois.” Only one object painted blue is depicted, the number
-ten being indicated by the ten dots. That masks form this tribute is
-clearly evident; in Purchas the description is “tenne halfe faces of
-rich blew Turkey stones,” and in Kingsborough, “likewise 10 middling
-sized masks of rich blue stones like turquois.”
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 2]
-
-[Illustration: PL. IV
-
-HELMET OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 3]
-
-The second item in this section (fig. 3) is described by Peñafiel as “a
-small bag of the same stones.” Kingsborough’s statement is, “a large
-bag of the said blue stones,” while in Purchas the translation reads,
-“a great trusse full of the said Turkey stones.” On the bag which is
-painted blue, with two red vertical bands, is the Aztecan hieroglyph
-for stone, _tetl_. The towns whence this tribute was exacted are:
-(1) _Yoaltepec_, “place consecrated to the deity of the night;” (2)
-_Ehaucalco_, “in the place of tanning;” (3) _Tzilacapan_, “river of
-chilacayotes;” (4) _Patlanalan_, “place where parrots abound;” (5)
-_Ixicayan_, “where the water comes down;” (6) _Ichcaatoyac_, “river of
-cotton.” These cities are of the warm provinces.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 4]
-
-The only finished objects of mosaic-work in the Tribute Roll are
-on plate XXXII. This is one of the leaves of the original codex in
-Philadelphia, and we have traced fig. 4 from this original. They are
-described by Purchas as “two pieces like platters decked or garnished
-with rich Turkey stones.” Kingsborough mentions them as “two pieces
-like salvers ornamented or set with rich turquoise stones.” Lorenzana
-has correctly printed the legend which we find reproduced in the
-Philadelphia publication of this leaf; it is “_Ontetl xiuhtetl_,”
-followed by the Spanish, “turquesas o piedras finas.” _Ontetl_ is
-Nahuatl for “two,” and _xiuhtetl_, or _xiuitl tetl_, “turquois stone.”
-The mosaic character of these two pieces is graphically represented by
-the ancient artist. The towns paying the tribute illustrated on this
-sheet are as follows: (1) _Tochpan_, or _Tuchpan_, “over the rabbit;”
-(2) _Tlaltizapan_, “place situated over chalk;” (3) _Cihuateopan_, “in
-the temple of Cihuacoatl;” (4) _Papantla_, “place of the priests;” (5)
-_Ocelotepec_, “place of the ocelot;” (6) _Mihuapan_, “river of the ears
-of corn;” (7) _Mictlan_, “place of rest.”
-
-In the _Crónica_ of Tezozomoc is an account of the campaign of the
-Aztecan king Ahuitzotl into southern Mexico in 1497. The towns of
-Xuchtlan, Amaxtlan, Izhuatlan, Miahuatla, Tecuantepec, and Xolotlan,
-in the region of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, had revolted against him.
-After the complete rout of the rebellious Indians, it was related
-by Tezozomoc that “the kind of arms carried by the coast people
-was very rich, so much so that the undisciplined soldiers began to
-strip the bodies of the dead of the very rich feather-work pieces
-called _quetzalmanalli_, and from their military ornaments remove a
-round emerald like a mirror which sparkled in its perfection, called
-_xiuhtezcatl_. Others of the dead carried on the back of their arms
-that which was called _yacazcuil_, outside of fine gold, and in the
-nose they wore stones; others (wore) gold, and the shield which they
-carried had a very rich greenstone in the center, and around it a
-decoration of very fine stones set in (mosaic-work), said shield being
-called _xiuhchimal_.” Those who remained after the slaughter came to
-Ahuitzotl, saying: “Our Lords, let us speak. We will give our tribute
-of all that is produced and yielded on these coasts, which will be
-chalchihuitl of all kinds and colors, and other small stones called
-_teoxihuitl_ (turquois) for setting in very rich objects [mosaic],
-and feathers of the richest sort brought forth in the whole world,
-very handsome birds, the feathers of which are called _xiuhtototl_,
-_tlaquechol_, _tzinitzcan_, and _zacuan_; tanned skins of the tiger
-(ocelot), lions (puma), and great wolves, and other stones veined with
-many divers colors.”[24]
-
-In the same _Crónica_ we read that Montezuma, who succeeded Ahuitzotl
-after his death in 1502, received a royal tribute from his vassals in
-Xaltepec, a coast town of Tehuantepec, among which were “broad collars
-[_sic_] for the ankles, strewn with gold grains and very rich stone
-mosaic-work.”[25]
-
-[Illustration: PL. V
-
-MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON]
-
-
-
-
-SOURCE OF TURQUOIS
-
-
-The source of the considerable quantity of turquois used in Mexico
-in pre-Spanish times for personal ornaments and mosaic incrustation
-is still an unsolved problem. Thus far no prehistoric workings have
-been found in Mexico. Only recently turquois has been discovered at
-the silver mines at Bonanza, Zacatecas, but Dr. Kunz, who has called
-our attention to this, writes that he has no information regarding
-prehistoric workings there.[26] In the extensive bibliography on the
-geology of Mexico by Aguilar y Santillan[27] we find only a single
-entry for turquois, that being the study of Mexican mosaics in Rome by
-Pigorini.[28] Pogue[29] writes that there are no important turquois
-deposits that do not show signs of prehistoric exploitation, and he
-is also of the opinion that it is very difficult to trace the source
-of the turquois used by the Indians of ancient Mexico and Central
-America. Pogue’s conclusion is that “as no occurrence at all adequate
-as an important source has been discovered south of the present Mexican
-boundary, it therefore seems probable that the Aztecs and allied
-peoples, through trade with tribes to the north, obtained supplies
-of turquois from the Cerrillos hills [New Mexico] and perhaps other
-localities of the Southwest.”
-
-Sahagun is the only early chronicler who affords information concerning
-this point. He writes explicitly that “the Toltecs had discovered
-the mine of precious stones in Mexico, called _xiuitl_, which are
-turquoises, which mine, according to the ancients, was in a hill called
-Xiuhtzone, close to the town of Tepotzotlan [State of Hidalgo].” We
-will quote other statements by Sahagun concerning turquois:
-
- The turquois occurs in mines. There are some mines whence more or less
- fine stones are obtained. Some are bright, clear, and transparent;
- while others are not.... _Teoxiuitl_ is called turquois of the gods.
- No one has a right to possess or use it, but always it must be
- offered or devoted to a deity. It is a fine stone without any blemish
- and quite brilliant. It is rare and comes from a distance. There are
- some that are round and resemble a hazelnut cut in two. These are
- called _xiuhtomolli_.... There is another stone, used medicinally,
- called _xiuhtomoltetl_, which is green and white, and very beautiful.
- Its moistened scrapings are good for feebleness and nausea. It is
- brought from Guatemala and Soconusco [State of Chiapas]. They make
- beads strung in necklaces for hanging around the neck.... There are
- other stones, called _xixitl_; these are low-grade turquoises, flawed
- and spotted, and are not hard. Some of them are square, and others are
- of various shapes, and they work with them the mosaic, making crosses,
- images, and other pieces.[30]
-
-If we are to credit Sahagun, turquois was worked not only in the
-immediate region of the central Mexican plateau, but they received
-supplies from distant points, and specifically from Chiapas and
-Guatemala. The raw material mentioned in the Tribute Roll of Montezuma
-as coming from coast towns and from the south, must also be taken into
-consideration. Hence, notwithstanding the present lack of information
-respecting the localities where turquois is to be found _in situ_
-in central and southern Mexico, we cannot reject the opinion that
-ultimately ancient workings will be found at more than one site in
-Mexico. We do not believe it necessary to assume that the source
-of supply of both the Toltecs and the Aztecs, as well as of other
-tribes, such as the Tarasco, and the Mixtec and Zapotec, which also
-made use of this material, was the far-distant region of New Mexico.
-It was formerly asserted by some students that the jadeite of Middle
-America must have come by trade from China,[31] because no deposits
-have as yet been found in the former region; but it is now known by
-chemical analysis that the Middle American jadeite is distinct from
-that of Asia. In fact, the writer has long held that not alone in one,
-but in at least five, different localities, jadeite will in time be
-discovered.[32]
-
-[Illustration: PL. VI
-
-MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON]
-
-
-
-
-THE AZTEC LAPIDARIES AND THEIR WORKS
-
-
-The development of the art of the lapidaries and mosaic-workers, like
-that of the goldsmiths, is attributed by Sahagun to the Toltecs, under
-the beneficent influence of Quetzalcoatl, the culture hero god. In
-treating of the pre-Aztec people called Tultecas, or people of Tollan
-or Tula, by Sahagun, he states that they were very skilful in all that
-pertained to the fine arts. He writes:
-
- The Tultecas were careful and thorough artificers, like those of
- Flanders at the present time, because they were skilful and neat in
- whatsoever they put their hands to; everything (they did) was very
- good, elaborate, and graceful, as for example, the houses that they
- erected, which were very beautiful, and richly ornamented inside with
- certain kinds of precious stones of a green color as a coating (to the
- walls), and the others which were not so adorned were very smooth,
- and worth seeing, and the stone of which they were fashioned appeared
- like a thing of mosaic.... They also knew and worked pearls, amber,
- and amethyst, and all manner of precious stones, which they made into
- jewelry.[33]
-
-We find another statement to the effect that--
-
- The lapidary is very well taught, and painstaking in his craft, a
- judge of good stones, which, for working, they take off the rough part
- and bring together or cement with others very delicately with bitumen
- or wax, in order to make mosaic-work.[34]
-
-In the pictorial section of the Florentine manuscript of Sahagun,[35]
-in the Codex Mendoza,[36] and in the Mappe Tlotzin,[37] are pictures
-delineating artisans engaged in various crafts, such as weavers,
-painters, carpenters (wood-carvers), stone carvers, lapidaries,
-goldsmiths, and feather-mosaic workers, yet we find no actual
-representation of turquois-mosaic workers. In the third section of
-the Codex Mendoza appears a picture of a father teaching his son the
-secrets of the lapidary’s art. The interpreter of the codex writes:
-
- The trades of a carpenter, jeweler (lapidary), painter, goldsmith,
- and embroiderer of feathers, accordingly as they are represented and
- declared, signify that the masters of such arts taught these trades
- to their sons from their earliest boyhood, in order that, when grown
- up to be men, they might attend to their trades and spend their time
- virtuously, counseling them that idleness is the root and mother of
- vices, as well as of evil-speaking and tale-bearing, whence followed
- drunkenness and robberies, and other dangerous vices, and setting
- before their imaginations many other grounds of alarm, that hence they
- might submit to be diligent in everything.
-
-The elaborate series of pictures of the various crafts in the
-Florentine manuscript of Sahagun (laminas liv to lxiv) includes those
-that show in detail the work of the goldsmiths and the feather-workers;
-but the illustrations devoted to the lapidaries we are unable to
-correlate, in the absence of the text, with the Nahuatl text of the
-Sahagun manuscript in the Real Academia de la Historia in Madrid, which
-we will give later from the study by Dr. Seler containing a translation
-of the native text into French. This description of the work of the
-lapidaries informs us only concerning the working and polishing of the
-stones. Unlike the other accounts by Sahagun regarding the goldsmiths
-and the feather-workers, which enlighten us with respect to the details
-of these two fine arts, he does not here enter into any description
-concerning the delicate work of the artists who fashioned the beautiful
-pieces of stone mosaic. Although such work was turned out by the
-Aztecan workmen, as we have already demonstrated, it seems highly
-probable that in times immediately preceding the Spanish conquest, the
-Aztecan kings Ahuitzotl and Montezuma obtained a considerable number of
-such objects through tribute and by barter with the tribes living in
-what are now the states of Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, and western Chiapas. As
-our knowledge of Mexican archeology, now all too meager, is extended,
-it is very probable that we will find vestiges of this art in the
-Pacific state of Guerrero, where great numbers of jadeite and other
-greenstone objects have been discovered, with a respectable number
-of specimens indicating the high artistic skill of the indigenes of
-that section. We may also hope to find relics of this art in the area
-of Matlaltzincan culture to the north of the valley of Mexico, and
-also in the field of Tarascan culture in the states of Michoacan and
-Jalisco, for, as will be related, mosaic specimens have been recovered
-from ancient ruins as far north as the State of Zacatecas.
-
-[Illustration: PL. VII
-
-MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-PREHISTORIC AND ETHNOGRAPHIC MUSEUM, ROME]
-
-Sahagun’s account (chap. II) of the work of the lapidaries we herewith
-append, with the Nahuatl text and a translation of the French rendering
-by Seler.[38]
-
- 1. _In tlateque tulteca ynic quitequi yn yztac tehuilotl yoan
- tlapaltehuilotl yoan chalchiuitl yoan quetzalitztli ynica teoxalli
- yoan tlaquauac tepuztli._
-
- 1. The lapidary artisans cut rock-crystal, amethyst, emerald, both
- common and precious, by means of emery and with an instrument of
- tempered copper:
-
- 2. _Auh ynic quichiqui tecpatl tlatetzotzontli._
-
- 2. And they scraped it by means of cutting flint.
-
- 3. _Auh ynic quicoyonia ynic quimamali teputztlacopintli._
-
- 3. And they dug it out (hollowed) and drilled it by means of a little
- tube of copper.
-
- 4. _Niman yhuian quixteca quipetlaua quitemetzhuia, auh yn yc
- quicencaua._
-
- 4. And then they faceted it very carefully; they burnished (polished)
- it and gave it the final luster.
-
- 5. _Ytech quahuitl yn quipetlaua ynic pepetlaca, ynic motonameyotia
- ynic tlanextia._
-
- 5. They polished it set in wood, so that it comes to be very
- brilliant, shining, glossy.
-
- 6. _Anoço quetzalotlatl ynitech quilau ynic quicencaua ynic
- quiyecchiua yn intultecayo tlatecque._
-
- 6. Or they polish it mounted in bamboo, and the lapidaries finish it
- thus, and conclude their work.
-
- 7. _Auh çannoiuhqui yn tlapaltehuilotl ynic mochiua ynic mocencaua._
-
- 7. And in the same manner they work and smooth amethyst.
-
- 8. _Achtopa quimoleua quihuipeua teputztica yn tlatecque yn tulteca
- ynic yyoca quitlatlalia yn qualli motquitica tlapaltic yn itaqui._
-
- 8. In the first place the lapidary artisans break into pieces the
- amethyst and crush it with an instrument of copper, for they work only
- the beautiful pieces which are entirely reddish.
-
- 9. _Çan niman yuhqui tlatlalia yn campa monequiz quimoleua tepuztica._
-
- 9. They do not set up the precious stones named in this manner, except
- in the parts where it is necessary, when they break them with the
- copper instrument.
-
- 10. _Auh niman quichiqui quixteca yoan quitemetzhuia yoan quipetlaua
- ytech quahuitl yn tlapetlaualoni ynic quiyectilia ynic quicencaua._
-
- 10. Then they scrape it, and they facet it, and they smooth it, and
- they polish it, mounted in wood, set on the instrument called polisher
- or burnisher, and they manufacture and finish it.
-
- 11. _Auh yn yehoatl yn moteneua eztecpatl ca cenca tlaquauac chicauac
- camo ma vel motequi ynica teoxalli._
-
- 11. The stone called blood silex (heliotrope) is very hard and very
- strong, and they do not cut it well with emery.
-
- 12. _Çaçan motlatlapana motehuia._
-
- 12. They break it and they cut it up in any kind of way.
-
- 13. _Yoan motepehuilia yn itepetlayo yn amo qualli, yn amo uel no
- mopetlaua._
-
- 13. And they throw away the vein-stone, the useless stone, that which
- does not lend itself readily to polishing.
-
- 14. _Çan yehoatl mocui motemolia yn qualli, yn vel mopetlaua yn eztic,
- yn uel cuicuiltic._
-
- 14. They do not take or seek except the beautiful pieces that lend
- themselves to good polishing, the red-banded, that permit themselves
- to be well cut.
-
- 15. _Michiqui atica yoan ytech tetl cenca tlaquauac vnpa uallauh yn
- matlatzinco._
-
- 15. They rub them with water and mounted in a very hard stone that
- comes from the country of Matlatzinca [district of Toluca].
-
- 16. _Ypampa ca uel monoma namiqui, yniuh chicauac tecpatl noyuh
- chicauac yn tetl, ynic monepanmictia._
-
- 16. And because these two stones are companions, the one to the other,
- as the silex is very hard, so the stone is hard, they kill one another
- (the one kills the other).
-
- 17. _Çatepan mixteca yca teoxalli yoan motemetzhuia yca ezmellil._
-
- 17. Then they facet and polish them by means of emery.
-
- 18. _Auh çatepan yc mocencaua yc mopetlaua, yn quetzalotlatl._
-
- 18. And they finish and polish them with bamboo.
-
- 19. _Ynic quicuecueyotza quitonameyomaca._
-
- 19. In this way they make them scintillate and give to them a luster
- like the rays of the sun.
-
- 20. _Auh yn yehoatl motocayotia vitzitziltecpatl niman yuh yolli
- tlacati._
-
- 20. And that which they call hummingbird silex (stone of a thousand
- colors) is (in color like) an animal of that nature.
-
- 21. _Miyec tlamantli ynic mocuicuiloua, iztac yoan xoxoctic yoan
- yuhquin tletl, anoço yuhqui citlali yoan yuhquin ayauhcoçamalotl._
-
- 21. It is tinted (painted) in a thousand colors, white, blue, clear
- brilliant red, black with white spots, and the color of the rainbow.
-
- 22. _Çan tepiton xalli ynic michiqui ynic mopetlaua._
-
- 22. They scrape it and simply polish it with fine sand.
-
- 23. _Auh yn yehoatl motocayotia xiuhtomolli camo tlaquauac camo
- ezmellil ytech monequi ynic michiqui ynic mixteca yoan ynic
- motemetzhuia yoan ynic mopetlaua ynic moquetzalotlahuiaya ynic
- motonameyotia motlanexyotia._
-
- 23. The stone that they call round turquois is not very hard, so
- they have no need of emery to scrape, facet, smooth, or polish, for
- they apply to it the bamboo, then it receives its radiant luster and
- brilliancy.
-
- 24. _Auh yn yehoatl teoxihuitl ca amo cenca tlaquauac._
-
- 24. The fine turquois is not very hard either.
-
- 25. _Çanno tepiton xalli ynic mopetlaua ynic moyectilia auh yn
- uel no yc motlanextilmaca motonameyomaca occentlamantli ytoca
- xiuhpetlaualoni._
-
- 25. They polish it likewise with fine sand and they give to it a very
- brilliant luster and radiance by the method of another polisher,
- called the polisher of turquois.
-
-[Illustration: PL. VIII
-
-MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-PREHISTORIC AND ETHNOGRAPHIC MUSEUM, ROME]
-
-Regarding the patron deities of the lapidaries, Sahagun has given us a
-detailed account which is so interesting that we translate _in extenso_.
-
- The lapidaries who worked precious stones in the time of their
- pagandom adored four gods, or better said devils: the first was
- called _Chicunavitzcuintli_, the second _Naoalpilli_, the third
- _Macuilcalli_, and the fourth _Cintcutl_: to all these last three
- gods they made a festival when there reigned the sign or character
- called _Chicunavitzcuintli_, which is a woman, and for this (reason)
- they painted it so: to this (one) they attributed the cosmetics of the
- women, and in order to signify this they painted it with a crosier
- in the right hand, and in the left they put a shield, in the which
- (shield) there was represented a foot. They also put ear-ornaments of
- gold on it, and from the cartilage of the nose hung a butterfly of the
- same metal, and they dressed it (the idol) with a _uipil_ and woman’s
- shirt that was woven white and red, and also the skirts: they put on
- some sandals, also colored, having some paintings that appeared like
- almonds. To all these four (gods) they gave their images or their
- titles, so that they might die in their service on the day of their
- festival. That one called _Naoalpilli_ they decked out, and they cut
- the strands of hair in unequal lengths, very badly cut, disheveled or
- standing on ends, and divided in two parts. They put on the forehead
- a delicate plate of gold (thin) like paper, some earrings of gold in
- the ears, and in the hand a crosier decorated with rich feathers, and
- in the other (hand) a shield made like a net, and in four parts it had
- rich feathers badly placed. They also dressed it with a jacket woven
- white and red, with edging in the lower end: they also put on it some
- colored sandals. And the other god, called _Macuilcalli_, they also
- composed like a man, the hair cut in the middle of the head like a
- ridge, that is called _quachichiquille_, and this ridge was not of
- hair but made of the richest feathers. They placed in the temples some
- plates of delicate gold, and a jewel hung from the neck also, made
- of a round and wide marine shell. In the hand a crosier made of rich
- feathers was placed, and in the other hand was a shield with some
- circles of red, some inside the others; they had the body painted
- vermilion color, and they also put on it some sandals of the same
- color. The other god, called _Cinteutl_, was fashioned in the likeness
- of a man, with a mask wrought like mosaic-work, with some rays of the
- same (mosaic-work), coming out of the same mask. They put on it a
- jacket of cloth dyed light-blue; a jewel of gold hung from the neck.
- They place it (the idol) on a high platform from which it looked out,
- which platform, called _cincalli_, was composed of cornstalks after
- the manner of a _xacal_. They adorned it with some white sandals,
- the fastenings of which were made of loose cotton; they say that to
- these gods they attribute the artifice of working precious stones, of
- the making of barbotes (the tops of helmets), and ear-ornaments of
- black stone, of crystal, and of amber, and of other white (stones).
- They also attribute to these gods the working of beads, anklets,
- strings of pearls which they carried on their wrists, and all kinds of
- work in stones and chalchihuites, and the hollowing-out and polishing
- of all the stones; they said that these gods had invented it, and for
- this reason they were honored as gods, and to them the elder artisans
- of this craft and all the other lapidaries made a festival. By night
- they intoned their hymns and set the captives who were to die, on
- watch in their honor, and they did not work during the festival. This
- (festival) was celebrated in Xochimilco, because they said that the
- forefathers and ancestors of the lapidaries had come from that town,
- and there was the place of origin of these artisans.[39]
-
-[Illustration: PL. IX
-
-MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION. NEW YORK]
-
-The ruler of the eighteenth week of the astrological calendar, or
-_tonalamatl_, was a goddess named _Chantico_ or _Quaxolotl_, also
-nicknamed _Chiconaui-itzcuintli_,[40] from the ninth day of the
-thirteen-day period or week. Seler writes:
-
- She was the goddess of Xochimilco, and consequently also the chief
- deity of the guild of the tlatecque, of the stone cutters, the
- stone polishers, the jewelers, who were also supposed to come from
- Xochimilco. (Duran calls her wrongly Ciuacoatl and identifies her
- with the goddess of Colhuacan, which place stood opposite the city
- of Xochimilco).... Besides _Chiconaui-itzcuintli_ the stone-cutters
- had still a few other titles for the goddess. Such were Papaloxaual
- and Tlappepalo, i.e., “she of the red butterfly painting,” and
- “she with the red butterfly,” and these have reference to fire....
- The stone-cutters also gave their goddess a butterfly as her nasal
- ornament, which, red and white, are the colors of her robe.[41]
-
-In some of the different versions or paintings of the _tonalamatl_
-contained in old Mexican codices, opposite the delineation of the
-goddess Chantico there is placed a fasting man in an enclosure. In both
-Codex Borbonicus[42] and Codex Telleriano Remensis,[43] this figure is
-found. Seler describes it as--
-
- an enclosure inlaid with gold discs or rings. The interpreter
- designates it as “house of gold.” Beyond doubt this name has
- reference to one of the four little fasting houses (_necaualcalli_)
- which the hero of Tollan, Quetzalcoatl, built for himself, and
- naturally corresponded to the four quarters of the heavens, the
- first of which was said to be made of gold or embellished with gold
- (_coztic teocuitlacalli_), the second decorated with red musselshells
- (_tapachcalli_), the third with turquoises (_xiuihcalli_), the fourth
- with white musselshells (_teccizcalli_).[44]
-
-Seler draws this inference from the legend given by Sahagun, which we
-have translated in full below.
-
-As often is the case, there is some confusion in the description
-of Chantico in the early writings. This deity is also asserted to
-be a male. In the explanation of the Codex Telleriano Remensis the
-attributes of Chantico or Cuaxolotle are recited. It is said that--
-
- Chantico presided over these thirteen signs (a division of the
- tonalamatl, or divinatory calendar), and was the lord of chile or of
- the yellow woman. He was the first who offered sacrifice after having
- eaten fried fish; the smoke of which (sacrifice) ascended to heaven;
- at which Tonacotli (Tonacatecutli, the father of all the gods) became
- incensed, and pronounced a curse against him that he should be changed
- into a dog, which accordingly happened, and he named him Chantico on
- this account, which is another name for Miquitlatecotle. From this
- transgression the destruction of the world ensued. He was called Nine
- Dogs, from the sign on which he was born. Chantico or Cuaxolotle
- is the symbol which the country people of Xolotle wear on their
- heads.[45] (The symbol of the city of Xolotlan in the Codex Mendoza is
- the head of a Dog.)
-
-In the Sahagun manuscript of the Real Palacio in Madrid[46] the deity
-is painted with the shirt and skirt of a woman, and also in the Codex
-Borbonicus[47] and the Tonalamatl Aubin.[48] In his explanation
-of the last codex Seler has treated exhaustively of the various
-representations and attributes of this goddess.[49]
-
-Among the laws of the Mexicans was the following:
-
- They hung and very severely punished those sons who squandered the
- property left them by their fathers, or destroyed the arms, jewels, or
- remarkable things that their fathers had left.[50]
-
-[Illustration: PL. X
-
-MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
-
-In another study[51] we have called attention, as follows, to the daily
-traffic of gold and precious stones in the great market of Tenochtitlan.
-
- Cortés describes the great market of Tenochtitlan, and the great
- quantity of things daily exposed for sale included jewels of gold,
- silver, and stones. The Anonymous Conqueror, in describing the great
- market, states that “on one side of the plaza are those who sell
- gold, and adjoining are those who sell precious stones of various
- classes set in gold, in the shapes of various birds and animals.”[52]
- This refers to mosaic jewels with stone and gold inlays. Cortés
- further informs us that Montezuma had in his house representations
- in gold, silver, stones, or feathers, of every object of his domain,
- beautifully executed; and there is also a statement (by Ixtlilxochitl)
- that in the collection of Nezahualcoyotl, king of Texcoco, were the
- representations in stone mosaic-work and gold of every bird, fish, or
- animal which could not be obtained alive.[53]
-
-A most interesting description is given by Sahagun of one of the
-edifices erected by the Toltecs in Tula. If true, it clearly shows
-that in pre-Aztec times much more elaborately decorated buildings were
-erected than in the more recent period, for there are no accounts in
-the writings of the Spaniards of such lavishly ornamented buildings
-existing in the numerous cities conquered by them during the beginning
-of the sixteenth century. This is corroborated by the excavations now
-being conducted in the ruins of Teotihuacan, the greatest city known
-to us from Toltec times, where some marvelous structures have been
-unearthed.[54] The temple in question is said by Sahagun to have been
-built in honor of Quetzalcoatl, and included in its embellishment some
-of the most precious work of which they were capable.
-
- It had four halls. The eastern one (had the walls) covered with plates
- of gold, and it was called the golden hall or house. The western
- hall was called the hall of emeralds, or turquoises, because inside
- they had (the walls) covered with fine stonework, with all manner of
- stones, all placed and joined (together) as a coating or covering,
- like work of mosaic. The southern hall had the walls of divers marine
- shells, and in place of any other covering, they had silver, which
- was put together so nicely with the shells that the joints were not
- visible. The fourth hall, the northern one, had the walls made of
- colored jasper and shell, put on in a very ornamental manner.[55]
-
-The fame of this temple or palace seems to have been firmly
-established, as Sahagun recurs to it in another part of his history,
-but in less detail. Sahagun follows the fortunes of the culture
-hero while he was in the ascendency in Tula, and states that
-later, owing to circumstances which it is needless to relate in
-this place, Quetzalcoatl determining to abandon Tula, ordered the
-burning of “all the houses that he had made of silver and shell, and
-furthermore commanded that other precious things should be buried
-in the neighboring hills and ravines.”[56] This indicates that the
-mosaic-decorated building was laid in ruins, and part of the treasure,
-at least, was buried before the inhabitants left the region and
-commenced the migration southward.
-
-In presenting the tradition of this migration of Quetzalcoatl, Sahagun
-states that he (Quetzalcoatl) is reputed to have made and erected some
-houses underground which are called _Mientlancalco_. This of course
-refers to the famous ruins of Mitla, and seems to be an authentic
-tradition of the Nahuan origin of this important city of southern
-Mexico. It is doubly significant, when considered in connection with
-the description of the mosaic-decorated buildings in Tula, for, as is
-well known, the dominant architectural feature of the Mitla group of
-structures is the mosaic treatment of many of their outer and inner
-walls.
-
-[Illustration: PL. XI
-
-MASK OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
-
-It is not necessary to give more than brief attention to this
-application of mosaic-work in architecture. The traditional
-mosaic-decorated buildings of Tula have disappeared, but the structures
-of Mitla are still standing in an excellent state of preservation, and
-moreover are easily accessible to travelers by rail and automobile;
-therefore they have been visited and admired by more people than
-perhaps any ruins in ancient America. In the embellishment of the walls
-a true mosaic decoration was employed, differing in kind only from
-the turquois mosaic on small objects. Geometric patterns were produced
-by fitting together small stones of different shapes and sizes, some
-of which were more deeply imbedded than others, so that the designs
-were traced out by the stones which projected more than others; in
-single panels, several planes were necessary to bring out the desired
-patterns. In many cases the stones are so neatly fitted that the joints
-can hardly be traced. We have written elsewhere that--
-
- the massiveness of the construction and simple and chaste
- ornamentation place the Mitla structures in a class unapproached by
- any other existing ruined edifices in ancient America. The workmanship
- revealed in the stonework, the elegant precision with which the
- stones are laid and carved, is not equaled in any of the Mayan
- ruins. However, as noted by Holmes, the geometric fretwork mosaics
- differ from the great façades of the Mayan buildings “in subject
- matter rather than in kind, for the decorated surfaces there, though
- depicting animal forms, are mosaics in the sense that they are made
- up of separate hewn or carved stones set in mortar to form ornamental
- designs.”[57]
-
-
-
-
-OBJECTS DECORATED WITH MOSAIC
-
-
-In the ancient chronicles are found many descriptions of the employment
-of mosaic-work decoration in the central Mexican region. From the
-writings of Sahagun and others it is clearly evident that many
-such decorated objects were made for and were used as parts of the
-paraphernalia with which great idols of wood or of stone representing
-various deities were adorned for the frequent religious festivals which
-occurred at stated intervals. The rulers and the priests and members of
-the so-called nobility used such objects on these occasions. The major
-employment of the mosaic art seems to have been for the adornment of
-objects or ornaments used ceremonially, such as crowns or head-bands,
-helmets, masks, shields, scepters, ear-ornaments, nose-ornaments,
-breast-plates, bracelets, and anklets. The material on which the mosaic
-incrustation was placed was chiefly wood, but gold, shell, bone, and
-stone were also used. Small figures of the gods, either in human or in
-animal form, as well as musical instruments, were thus adorned. There
-are also indications that pottery vessels were sometimes decorated by
-embedding turquois in the clay.
-
-Unfortunately we still possess only scant knowledge of the various
-objects ornamented in this manner. In the data obtained from the early
-chronicles there is abundant evidence that, in the central plateau of
-Mexico during the period immediately preceding the Spanish conquest,
-the art was highly developed. Visual evidence is at hand in the few
-beautiful examples now in European museums, specimens which were sent
-across the water by Cortés during the earliest period of the conquest,
-between the years 1518 and 1525.
-
-A few references from some of the early writers regarding the use of
-turquois mosaic by the Aztecs will be presented.
-
-[Illustration: PL. XII
-
-MASK OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
-
-Stone idols were often decorated with mosaic incrustations. Andrés
-de Tapia describes an idol probably representing Huitzilopochtli,
-showing this type of embellishment, in the great temple at
-Tenochtitlan. Tapia’s account is worthy of attention, for he was one of
-the captains of Cortés, and took a prominent part in the capture of the
-capital of Montezuma. He writes:
-
- There were two idols on two pedestals, each one of the bulk of an ox;
- the pedestals measured a yard in height, and above these (were) two
- idols, each one almost three yards in height, of polished grain: and
- the stone was covered over with nacre, which is the shell in which
- pearls are created, and over this (mother-of-pearl), fastened with
- bitumen after the manner of paste, were (set in) many jewels of gold,
- and men, snakes, birds, and histories (hieroglyphs), made of small
- and large turquoises, of emeralds and amethysts, so that all the
- mother-of-pearl was covered, except in some places where they left it
- (uncovered) so as to make work with the stones. These idols had plump
- snakes of gold (as) girdles, and for collars each (one had) ten or
- twelve hearts made of gold, and for the face a mask of gold and eyes
- of mirror (obsidian or iron pyrites), and they had another face in the
- back of the head like the head of a man without flesh.[58]
-
-Pomar describes the idol of Huitzilopochtli as of wood, “having on
-the breast a jewel of turquoises set in gold, with some gold bells
-(hanging), and on the face (were) two stripes of gold and two of
-turquoises, very beautifully wrought and placed.”[59]
-
-In describing this idol, Bernal Díaz writes that “the whole body was
-covered with precious stones, and gold and pearls, and with seed pearls
-stuck on with a paste that they make in this country out of a sort of
-root, and all the body and head was covered with it, and the body was
-girdled by great snakes made of gold and precious stones.” He goes on
-to mention another idol close to it, which held “a short lance and a
-shield richly decorated with gold and stones.”[60]
-
-Concerning the ancestral treasure of the Aztecan kings which Montezuma
-inherited from his father Axayacatl, finally exacted by Cortés from the
-unfortunate ruler, Bernal Díaz describes “three blowguns with their
-pellet molds and their coverings of jewels and pearls, and pictures in
-feathers of little birds covered with pearl shell, and other birds, all
-of great value.[61]
-
-Tezozomoc, in describing the great sacrifices offered to the god
-Huitzilopochtli in honor of the coronation of Montezuma, and the
-presents brought by neighboring chiefs and lords as tributes from the
-various towns under their jurisdiction, writes:
-
- In the center of the great square there was a building (_xacal_) where
- was the _teponaztli_, and the great _tlapanhuehuetl_ with which they
- made music. On the _xacal_ was the device of the Mexican arms with a
- small _peñula_ (rock?) of painted paper, like a natural rock, with a
- great cactus (_tuna_) on it, and on the cactus a royal eagle having
- in its claws a great mangled snake, and the eagle had a crown of
- doubled or twisted paper very well (made) and gilded, and (with) very
- rich stone mosaic-work round about it, in the Mexican custom called
- _teocuitla amayxcuatzolli_.[62]
-
-At this festival Montezuma had the king of Aculhuacan attired in
-special raiment, which Tezozomoc describes as “a netted mantle with
-much rich stonework in the knots of the mantle, and with little gold
-bells hanging from the fringe.[63]
-
-According to Sahagun, Xiuhtecutli, god of fire, wore “earrings in the
-holes of the ears worked with mosaics of turquois.... In his left hand
-he carried a shield with five greenstones called _chalchihuite_, placed
-like a cross on a round gold plate, which nearly covered the whole of
-the shield.”[64]
-
-[Illustration: PL. XIII
-
-MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
-
-Chalchihuitlicue, goddess of water, fountains, and rivers, wore
-earrings of turquois fashioned in mosaic-work. In describing the
-idol of Quetzalcoatl, Sahagun says that, for ceremonial occasions,
-ear-ornaments of turquois mosaic were placed on it, and “in the
-right hand was placed a scepter like a bishop’s crosier or staff,
-the upper part crooked like a bishop’s staff, and wrought with stone
-mosaic-work.” In treating of the presents sent to Cortés by Montezuma
-we have already given the description of the paraphernalia pertaining
-to this deity. This scepter is there described as having “the crook
-like the head of a snake turned around or coiled.” In the codices the
-god or his priest is represented with this staff with a crook, but the
-serpent-headed scepter is shown by Sahagun (manuscript of the Real
-Palacio, Madrid, estampa VII, fig. 1) as part of the ceremonial outfit
-of Huitzilopochtli (fig. 5). The body of the serpent is painted blue,
-representing the scales done in turquois mosaic.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 5]
-
-In describing the god Tezcatlipoca, Pomar states that he was
-represented with “a mask with three stripes (_vetas_) of _espejuelo_
-(either transparent lamellated gypsum [selenite], or more probably
-obsidian), and two of gold, which crossed over the face.”[65] The idol
-was fashioned from wood in the figure of a man. _Espejuelo_, he states,
-was a kind of shining metal called _tezcapoctli_.
-
-In the invocation to the god Paynal, which has been preserved to us in
-the original Mexican tongue by Sahagun, is the strophe, “_yxiuh chimal,
-xiuhtica tlatzaqualli chimalli imax mani_,” which has been translated
-by Seler, “the blue shield, covered with the turquois mosaic, hangs
-from his arm ... he carries the (blue mosaic) shield.”[66] This chapter
-was copied by Seler from the manuscript in the Real Palacio, Madrid.
-In the reproduction of the pictorial part of the manuscript published
-in colors by Troncoso, we find the representation of this deity, in
-which the mosaic shield is graphically drawn and painted blue (see our
-fig. 70, p. 17). Sahagun (book 1, chap. 2) briefly describes “this god
-called Paynal, who was a kind of under-captain of Huitzilopochtli.” He
-is said to have been a man adored as a god.
-
-The Anonymous Conqueror affords valuable information regarding the use
-of shields. He says:
-
- They use shields of various kinds, made of thick reeds which grow in
- that country, interwoven with cotton of double thickness, and they
- cover them with precious stones (turquois mosaic-work) and round
- plates of gold, which make them so strong that nothing can go through
- them, unless from a good crossbow. Some arrows, it is true, pierced
- them, but could do no harm. And because some of these shields have
- been seen in Spain, I say that they are not of the kind borne in
- war, but only those used in the festivals and dances which they are
- accustomed to have.[67]
-
-In his chapter devoted to a consideration of “the finery that the lords
-used in their dances,” Sahagun mentions “bracelets of mosaic-work made
-of turquoises,” and also “masks worked in mosaic, and (having) false
-hair such as they now use, and some plumes of gold which came out of
-the masks.” He further describes the costumes, as follows:
-
- They also wear attached to the wrists thick bands of black leather
- made soft with balsam, and decorated with a large bead of chalchihuitl
- or other precious stone. They also wore labrets of chalchihuitl set in
- gold, placed through the flesh, although they do not have this custom
- now. They also have these ornaments made of large rock-crystals,
- with blue feathers set in them, which give them the appearance of
- sapphires. They wear also many other precious stones protruding
- through openings made in the lower lip. The noses of the great lords
- are also pierced, and they wear in the openings fine turquoises and
- other precious stones, one on each side. They wear also some strings
- of precious stones around the neck; they wear a disc of gold hanging
- from a collar, and in the middle of it a plain precious stone, and
- around the circumference some pendants of pearls. They use bracelets
- of mosaic-work made of turquois, with some rich feathers which come
- out from them higher than the head, and bordered with rich plumes and
- gold, and some bands of gold which rise with the feathers.[68]
-
-[Illustration: PL. XIV
-
-MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION. NEW YORK]
-
-The distinctive head-band or crown worn by the Mexican rulers is
-mentioned by numerous early writers and illustrated in many codices.
-It was known as the _xiuhtzolli_ or _xiuhuitzontli_, and was called
-also _copilli_. We have selected for illustration (fig. 6) two examples
-from the codices. The first (_a_) is taken from the Sahagun manuscript
-of the Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid (estampa XVII). This page
-contains pictures of a number of Aztecan rulers, all represented with
-the turquois-mosaic crown painted blue. Moreover, the hieroglyphic
-name of Montezuma, here placed above his head, is a mosaic crown. The
-crown itself was of gold, on which the turquois mosaic was placed. The
-other example (_b_) is from the Tribute Roll of Montezuma (Peñafiel
-edition, pl. XIX). It is part of the hieroglyph for the place-name
-Tecmilco, signifying “the lands of the royal crown,” the combination
-being the crown painted blue resting on the sign for cultivated land.
-Our figure shows a plain gold crown, but it is painted blue in the
-codex.
-
-[Illustration: _a_ FIG. 6 _b_]
-
-A copper crown from Tenango, State of Mexico, has been figured by
-Peñafiel. It is properly a head-band with a triangular projection
-with rounded top which rose from the forehead, and was probably worn
-by a warrior or sub-chief.[69] In this work Peñafiel illustrates the
-mask in Rome (see our pl. VII), and states that the upper part is a
-_xiuhhuitzolli_, or turquois-mosaic crown. We will discuss this point
-later. Many years ago, in Mexico, the writer heard of a gold _copilli_
-as having been found in the Matlaltzincan region near Toluca, but was
-never able to verify the story. A few extracts from the chroniclers,
-relating to these golden crowns with turquois mosaic, follow.
-
-In the Codex Cozcatzin the Aztec king Axayacatl is represented with the
-_xiuhuitzontli_, the turquois mosaic-work head-band.[70]
-
-In the selection of Ahuitzotl as king, Tezozomoc writes:
-
- They put on him the crown which was blue, of rich stone mosaic-work,
- (in shape) like a half miter called _xiuhtzolli_ (or _xihuitzolli_),
- and also placed on him, among other things, a netted mantle strewn
- with small stonework. This formed part of his costume when he went to
- the temple of Huitzilopochtli to worship. When adored by neighboring
- subjugated tribes he wore a crown of gold (adorned) with much stone
- mosaic-work of a half miter shape, and on the left shoulder was put a
- sash called _matemacatl_ which was all gilded and enameled with fine
- stone mosaic-work, which was also called _teocuitla cozehuatl_, as
- we now speak of a shoe-ribbon, and on the foot was placed something
- like an anklet of _acero_ [_sic_] strewn with emerald stones, all
- gilded.[71]
-
-Duran states that among the offerings buried with the Aztec king
-Ahuitzotl were “crowns of the fashion that they used, of gold and of
-stone mosaic-work.”[72]
-
-It is related by Tezozomoc that after the death of Netzahualpilli, king
-of Texcoco, Montezuma assembled the senate of Aculhuacan in order to
-select a new king. The choice fell on the fifth son, Quetzalacxoyatl.
-In the ceremony of investiture they placed on him “the blue crown or
-forehead-band decorated with stone mosaic-work.”[73]
-
-The Anonymous Conqueror writes:
-
- To guard the head, they carry things like the heads of serpents,
- tigers, lions, or wolves with open jaws, and the head of the man is
- inside the head of the creature as if it was being devoured. They
- are of wood covered over with feathers and with jewels of gold and
- precious stones, which is a wonderful sight.[74]
-
-From Alonso de Molina’s _Vocabulario Mexicano_ (Mexico, 1555, reprinted
-1571) we are able to interpret the Nahuan words which occur in the
-chronicles in connection with the use of turquois in the decoration
-of various objects. The following are some of the more common:
-_nacochtli_, ear-plugs; _tentetl_, labret; _yacaxuitl_, nose-ornament;
-_copilli_, crown; _xiuhxayacatl_, mask of turquois mosaic; _xayacatl_,
-mask; _cactli_, sandal; _tilmatl_, mantle; _amaneahapantli_,
-mantle for lords richly wrought; _teopixcatla-quemitl_, vestment
-of priests; _ecaceuaztli_, fan; _chimalli_, shield; _teteotl_,
-stone idol; _tequacuilli_, large stone idol or statue; _xiuitl_,
-turquois; _tlaquauac xiuitl_, hard turquois; _xiuhtomolli_, turquois;
-_omichicauaztli_, bone musical instrument; _ayacachtli_, rattle.
-
-[Illustration: PL. XV
-
-MASK OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
-
-
-
-
-EXISTING SPECIMENS OF MOSAIC
-
-
-We will now consider the existing specimens of mosaic-work. It has been
-demonstrated, by the extended quotations from the old chronicles and
-codices, that this art was considerably employed in adorning objects
-of a special nature in connection with the dress of kings, nobles,
-warriors, and priests, and the paraphernalia of the gods. We have at
-present no actual examples of many of the objects which we have learned
-were thus ornamented, consequently whatever conception we may gain by
-a study of existing specimens will give us an inadequate idea of the
-art. It is evident that the most elaborate works in stone mosaic sent
-to Europe, as noted in the inventories, have not been preserved, a fact
-borne out by the descriptions in the early accounts of the discovery
-and “things” of Mexico. Moreover, many of the pieces now in European
-museums are either in a poor state of preservation or are incomplete.
-
-Until recently only twenty-four major examples of mosaic-work had
-come to light and been placed on record by printed description and
-illustration. Of these twenty-three are in Europe. The other specimen
-was found a few years ago in a cave in Honduras, and for some time was
-exhibited in the National Museum at Washington, but later came into the
-possession of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. The
-twenty-three known specimens in Europe were probably all sent to the
-Old World by Cortés or his companions.
-
-Some years ago an Indian found a deposit of ceremonial objects of
-wood, incrusted with mosaic-work, in a cave in the mountains of the
-Mixteca region of the State of Puebla. These specimens, seventeen in
-number, are now exhibited in the Museum of the American Indian, Heye
-Foundation. The chief object of this monograph is to describe and
-illustrate this unique collection.
-
-We are also now enabled to record and illustrate, through the courtesy
-of the officials of the Peabody Museum, Harvard University, four other
-objects decorated with mosaic-work. These were found in the sacred
-_cenote_ at the ruins of Chichen Itza, Yucatan, and are now exhibited
-in the Central American hall of the Museum mentioned. This brings the
-number of known specimens to forty-five, of which twenty-two are in
-the United States, and twenty-three in Europe. These specimens are now
-preserved in the following museums:
-
- British Museum, London, nine specimens.
-
- Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome, five specimens.
-
- Ethnographical Museum, Berlin, three specimens.
-
- State Natural History Museum, Vienna, three specimens.
-
- National Museum, Copenhagen, two specimens.
-
- Museum, Gotha, one specimen.
-
- Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, New York, eighteen
- specimens.
-
- Peabody Museum, Cambridge, four specimens.
-
-In this census are not included the minor objects with mosaic
-decoration, which we will also describe. Of the forty-five pieces
-enumerated, all but three are of wood; two are human skulls, and one a
-human femur. As the European specimens have hitherto been described,
-and in some instances their history traced to the middle of the
-sixteenth century, it will be necessary only to refer the student
-to these studies, note of which will be found in the bibliography
-at the close of this volume. In the present study we have assembled
-photographs or drawings of all of these major specimens, as well as of
-nearly all the minor pieces, and drawings of some of the mosaic objects
-represented in color in the codices. Our pictorial record is therefore
-practically complete.
-
-
-MINOR EXAMPLES
-
-The use of mosaic incrustation in the decoration of stone idols is
-illustrated in pl. II. This stone figure, 3 feet 10 inches high, came
-from Cozcatlan, district of Tehuacan, Puebla, and is now preserved in
-the National Museum of Mexico. It represents the goddess Coatlicue,
-mother of Huitzilopochtli, the Aztecan war god. The Sahagun manuscript
-in the Real Palacio, Madrid, represents this deity with a rattlesnake
-girdle around the waist; held in the right hand is a staff in the
-form of a rattlesnake with the head downward, and having depending
-feathers projecting from the rattles, which are opposite the face of
-the figure. Above the deity is the caption “_Yztac ciuatl coatlicue_.”
-This statue, together with another, of colossal size, also in the
-Museo Nacional of Mexico, has often been denominated _Teoyamiqui_,
-and again at times it has been called _Mictecacihuatl_. The turquois
-decoration is still preserved in the statue illustrated, in the
-incrustation of the circular ear-ornaments and in the discs of mosaic
-in each cheek. The teeth are made of white shell; the inner part of
-the mouth is of red shell; the nose is inlaid with white shell. There
-are traces of incrustation around the eyes, but this mosaic feature is
-practically destroyed. In the breast is set a circular mirror of iron
-pyrites. Around the upper part of the forehead are small holes which
-probably at one time contained stone or shell inlays. A poorly colored
-representation of this idol has been published by Brocklehurst, with
-the title “Teoyamiqui, goddess of death.”[75]
-
-[Illustration: PL. XVI
-
-MASK OF WOOD, MOSAIC DECORATION MISSING
-
-MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
-
-One of the most interesting uses of turquois-mosaic decoration was in
-the embellishment of wooden covers for the ancient books or codices. We
-are fortunate in still having preserved even a single example bearing
-traces of this art. In 1896 the Due de Loubat had reproduced the first
-of his series of Mexican codices, being the first to appear in exact
-facsimile, even to the ancient binding. This work was Codex Vaticanus
-No. 3773, a pre-Columbian Nahua picture-writing preserved in the
-Vatican Library. In a pamphlet by Francisco del Paso y Troncoso which
-accompanies the reproduction is an interesting description of the book,
-from which we quote with respect to the covers:
-
- It is of fine and thin wood. Each cover measures six by five
- inches.... The wood of the covers is whitish, and traces of the
- brilliant lacquer which covered it may still be seen.... (One) cover
- bears a character which shows us that this is the point at which to
- begin the reading of the book. As in modern binding the first cover
- bears a lettering or coat-of-arms; so too, as a rule, the Indians
- indicated the beginning of their books, and placed on the first cover
- the decorative incrustations which indicate that here is the first
- page.... On the center of the cover, placed two in a line, are four
- reliefs. At first these appeared to have been made by impression on
- the lacquer, but Monseigneur Francisco Plancarte, who examined them
- with a microscope, has discovered that they are composed of a paste
- with which the Indians fasten precious stones in their settings, and
- in these incrustations we have the impress left by the inequalities of
- the materials once fixed on the surface. One round greenstone is left,
- of the kind used by the Mexicans in their mosaics; it is on the upper
- right-hand corner of the volume, when held ready to be opened. Below
- it, in the lower right-hand corner may be observed a corresponding
- conical shaped depression, and the remains of the lacquer in which a
- stone was fixed. In the other angles there is no trace of anything,
- proving that nothing existed there of the same kind as that which
- remains.
-
-In the Loubat reproduction all these features are faithfully
-represented, even to the single greenstone remaining in place.
-
-The existence of mosaic objects in the Zapotecan region of Oaxaca was
-one of the important discoveries made by the Loubat Expedition of the
-American Museum of Natural History, under the direction of the writer,
-during the winters of 1898 and 1902. In mounds locally called _mogotes_
-were discovered stone burial chambers in which skeletons interred with
-numerous offerings were uncovered.
-
-In the burial vaults at Xoxo, excavated in 1898, practically no
-personal ornaments were found, but fragments of mosaic objects were
-discovered in the form of bits of shell, obsidian, jadeite, turquois,
-and hematite, on fragmentary stucco matrices.[76]
-
-[Illustration: PL. XVII
-
-MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION FROM HONDURAS
-
-MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
-
-In the graves and tombs at Cuilapa were discovered many personal
-ornaments made of jadeite, amazon stone, and turquois. In an excavation
-made during January, 1902, in the great temple mound, or teocalli,
-dominating the group of mogotes at Cuilapa, a grave was discovered on
-the summit at a depth of six feet from the surface. It contained the
-skeleton of a child, whose bones, together with the accompanying
-artifacts, were stained bright-red by hematite paint which had been
-thrown into the grave. Surrounding the skeleton were seventeen
-greenstone idols in the form of human figures; more than four hundred
-beads of greenstone and jadeite of varying sizes; thirty-five shells
-of various kinds, perforated for suspension; bits of mother-of-pearl,
-obsidian, and hematite, which evidently were fragments of disintegrated
-mosaic objects; but the most interesting objects recovered were a pair
-of small discs of pottery, upon the flat upper surfaces of which were
-cemented small pieces of very thin, highly-polished hematite, placed in
-mosaic. These last were undoubtedly mirrors, although from the small
-perforation in the center of each we are inclined to regard the pair as
-having been used also as ear-ornaments. One of these specimens should
-be in the Museo Nacional of Mexico, where it belongs; the other is in
-the American Museum of Natural History. The latter, now illustrated for
-the first time (fig. 7), is an inch and three-quarters in diameter, and
-an eighth of an inch in thickness. Our reproduction of this interesting
-object has been made possible by the courtesy of Dr. Clark Wissler,
-Curator of Anthropology.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 7]
-
-An interesting specimen of the combination of gold with turquois
-mosaic in jewelry has been recently figured in colors, and described
-by the writer (see fig. 8).[77] It is in the form of a shield, with
-four arrows or darts and pendent bells, and has an extreme length of
-three and one-eighth inches from the top of the shield to the bottom
-of the central bells. We have described in detail the meaning of the
-hieroglyph formed by the mosaic-work, and shown that the brooch-like
-jewel was the insignia of one of the four principal chiefs of the
-Aztecan army, who governed one of the four wards, or _calpullis_, into
-which Tenochtitlan, the capital of Montezuma, was divided. As a matter
-of fact, the jewel was found in a grave in Yanhuitlan, in the Mixteca
-region of Oaxaca. It is the only known specimen that shows turquois
-set on gold, a combination to which we have called attention, in
-quoting from Sahagun and others, regarding turquois mosaic on crowns,
-bracelets, and other gold objects for personal adornment.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 8]
-
-In the collections of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye
-Foundation, are three mirrors faced with highly-polished marcasite
-on their original matrices, apparently slate--the only specimens of
-this character that we have seen. Two of these mirrors, which were
-collected by William Niven from ancient graves near Iguala, Guerrero,
-are perforated for suspension, and all three average five inches in
-diameter and a quarter of an inch in thickness. With these mirrors
-were found numerous little unpolished cubes of iron pyrites, which
-may have been intended for use in mosaic-work. There are, however, a
-number of rather thin, flat, irregularly shaped pieces, with very thin
-matrix of stone, and with beveled edges, which unquestionably have been
-parts of mirrors made in mosaic fashion similar to those found in the
-Cuilapa grave, the only difference being that the inlays from Iguala
-are larger and thicker than those on the Cuilapa specimens, which are
-simply thin sheets of hematite. The region where the Iguala specimens
-were discovered was probably the seat of a people of Nahuan culture.
-
-[Illustration: PL. XVIII
-
-MASK OF HUMAN SKULL WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-ETHNOGRAPHICAL MUSEUM, BERLIN]
-
-In 1908 Dr. Manuel Gamio conducted an important excavation of an
-ancient building at the site known as the monuments of Alta Vista, near
-Chalchihuites, Zacatecas, in northern Mexico. In a large chamber called
-the Hall of the Columns, Gamio found two mosaics in a small circular
-compartment in the concrete floor. One of these was a disc of yellow
-pottery encircled by a ring of wood, the entire object being about two
-and three-quarters inches in diameter and three-eighths of an inch
-thick. The wooden ring bore traces of a coating of resin, and many tiny
-bits which formed the mosaic incrustation were found with it, although
-not in place. The bits that had formed the mosaic were thin plates
-of worked turquois, beryl, and steatite. From the fact that the disc
-contained perforations, evidently for suspension, Gamio described it as
-a breast ornament.
-
-The other mosaic piece Gamio believes to have been a labret. He writes
-that “at first glance its shape may be described as resembling the
-bridge of a violin.... Its nucleus is wood, carved to represent two
-symmetrical figures of an alligator (_caiman_), united at the belly.
-Crowning the head are two head plumes, each having two branches. Above
-the point of union of the two reptiles there is a square projection
-with a perforation.”[78] The surface of the ornament had been covered
-with small spherical plates of turquois, beryl, and steatite.
-
-Near these two mosaic ornaments were found numerous small pieces of
-turquois and beryl of different shapes.
-
-In October, 1921, the Spanish newspaper _La Prensa_, New York,
-published a short account, received by letter from the City of Mexico,
-describing what purported to be an extraordinary discovery made early
-in the autumn. It related to the finding of a stone mask decorated in
-mosaic, discovered by one of the assistants of the Museo Nacional in
-a sepulchral chamber in Guerrero. This mask was described as being
-about eight inches high, the human face being partly covered with an
-incrustation of small pieces of turquois, with small bits of coral
-shell above the eyebrows and below the nose. Each eye was formed by an
-oval piece of pearl shell, with pupils of hematite. The mosaic covering
-was missing from the upper part of the forehead and the chin.
-
-The newspaper _Excelsior_ of Mexico City, under date of October 20,
-1921, published a photograph of the specimen and a detailed study of
-the object in a statement signed by José María Arreola, a member of
-the staff of the Department of Anthropology in the City of Mexico.
-In this statement Arreola casts doubt on the authenticity of the
-specimen, pointing out that none of the known pieces of mosaic-work
-in European collections are of stone; that the surface of the mask is
-polished, which would make it difficult for the incrustation to have
-adhered during centuries of burial; that there are no traces of dirt
-in the cracks between the pieces of turquois, and finally he calls
-attention to a strong odor of glue which pervades the object. These
-arguments seemed sufficient to cast serious doubt as to the genuineness
-of the mosaic decoration of the mask. No such question was raised in
-regard to the mask itself. In a brief article entitled “Una Mascara de
-Mosaico Falsificada,” published in _Ethnos_ (nos. 8-12, dated Mexico,
-Nov. 1920-Mar. 1921), the same writer categorically asserts that the
-specimen is fraudulent, and calls on the reputed finder, Sr. Don
-Porfirio Aguirre, to present the evidence regarding the exact place
-where the specimen was discovered in order that further excavation may
-be made with a view of establishing beyond question the history of such
-an important and unique discovery.[79]
-
-[Illustration: PL. XIX
-
-MASK OF HUMAN SKULL WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON]
-
-Precious and semi-precious stones were occasionally inserted singly for
-decorative purposes. In this respect we may simply refer, in passing,
-to the custom in ancient Mexico and Central America of decorating the
-teeth by inserting inlays in the upper incisors, turquois, jadeite,
-hematite, obsidian, and rock-crystal having been used in such manner.
-Rarely two, and in one instance three, insets have been found in a
-single tooth; but this form of decoration can in no sense be considered
-as mosaic.[80]
-
-Another example of the use of turquois as an inlay is supposed to
-be unique. Many years ago we obtained from Don Francisco Belmar a
-beautiful tripod vessel supporting against the side a polychrome human
-figure in the round, representing the god Macuilxochitl, god of dance
-and sport--the deity represented with the painted design around the
-mouth. It is not necessary here to discuss the question raised by Seler
-regarding the attributes and representations of the two analogous
-gods Macuilxochitl and Xochipilli. The vessel here seems clearly to
-be Macuilxochitl, corresponding with that given by Sahagun in the
-manuscript of the Real Palacio, Madrid. What is of interest is the
-disc of turquois inserted in the clay on the upper left-hand part of
-the chest, unquestionably there placed to denote some attribute of the
-deity.
-
-
-CHICHEN ITZA SPECIMENS
-
-We will now consider some interesting examples from the Mayan ruins
-of Chichen Itza, Yucatan, which were found in the sacred well, or
-_cenote_, at that site. This sacred well is described by Casares in
-1905[81] as arousing the admiration and awe of the Indians even to
-this day. It is about 450 feet north of the great pyramid known as the
-Castillo, and a paved way, several inches high, leads to it. At the
-brink is a small temple. The cenote is about 150 feet in diameter; the
-level of the water is 70 feet below the surface, and it is 40 feet
-deep, with a deposit of mud estimated to be about 30 feet in thickness.
-Landa writes: “They [the Maya] held Cozumel and the well of Chichen
-Itza in the same veneration as do pilgrims now Jerusalem and Rome,
-and so they used to visit them, carrying their offerings chiefly to
-Cozumel, as holy places, and when they could not go, they sent them.”
-In another place this author states that “they had the habit then of
-throwing into this well living men as sacrifices to their gods in
-time of drought, and they thought that these would not die, though
-they never saw them again. They used also to throw precious stones
-and the things they most prized. Just on the brink of the well is a
-small building where I found all kinds of idols in honor of all the
-gods of the land.”[82] Casares adds: “What Landa, Cogolludo, and all
-other writers had narrated from mere hearsay, one of the distinguished
-members of the [American Antiquarian] Society, Mr. E. H. Thompson,
-has had the satisfaction to realize, bringing to light the truth of
-these statements, by diligent and intelligent work, the results of
-which I will not mention, as that grateful and honorable task belongs
-exclusively to him.”[83]
-
-Holmes wrote in 1895 of the sacred cenote as follows:
-
- The Sacred Cenote is larger, and more symmetrical than the other, and,
- occurring in the midst of the somber forest, is a most impressive and
- awe-inspiring spectacle. Its charm is enhanced by the weird stories
- of human sacrifice associated correctly or incorrectly with its
- history. The walls are nearly circular and approach the perpendicular
- closely all around. They are diversified only by the encircling ribs
- and pitted grooves produced by the uneven weathering of the massive,
- horizontally-bedded limestones. The water has a light coffee color
- and looks very impure. It is shallow on one side and of unknown depth
- on the other. A small tomb-like ruin is perched upon the brink. It
- is conjectured that this structure had something to do with the
- ceremonies attending the casting of victims and treasure into the
- terrible pool. There has been some talk of exploring the accumulations
- from the bottom of this cenote with the expectation of securing works
- of art or other treasures, but the task is a most formidable one and
- will require the erection of strong windlasses and efficient dredging
- apparatus. It is doubtful if promised results warrant the outlay
- necessary for carrying out the work in a thorough manner.[84]
-
-[Illustration: PL. XX
-
-SHIELD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON]
-
-Nevertheless, a few years later, as hinted by Casares, Mr. Edward H.
-Thompson secured the complete confirmation of the traditions concerning
-the character of the cenote. He brought out of the mud a most amazing
-archeological treasure. Through the kindness of Prof. A. M. Tozzer we
-are enabled to include here drawings of four pieces of mosaic-work
-which were among the many interesting things discovered. As Professor
-Tozzer and Dr. Spinden are engaged in an exhaustive study of the cenote
-material for publication, we will not further anticipate the results of
-their investigations.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 9]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 10]
-
-In figs. 9 and 10 are illustrated two small fragments of wooden
-objects from the cenote which still retain portions of turquois-mosaic
-decoration. In fig. 9 the irregularly shaped piece in the center is
-a thin plate of gold. Both fragments are evidently from objects of
-considerable size. Several wooden teeth covered with the same kind of
-mosaic incrustation were probably from a jaguar mask or head.
-
-Pl. III represents two fairly complete specimens from the cenote. Of
-these, _a_ is a small staff or scepter, the face of which is covered
-with turquois mosaic, and it is possible that the headdress was once
-similarly incrusted. In _b_ is shown a rattle of wood, within which
-is a copper bell. Only two bits of turquois of the mosaic decoration
-remain.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 11]
-
-In this object we find in the Mexican pictures an instrument analogous
-to the one last mentioned. In both of the Sahagun manuscripts, that of
-the Real Palacio in Madrid and the one in Florence, are representations
-of the deity Xipe Totec. In the former manuscript is found the name
-of the god written above the figure, _Xippe anavatlitec_, translated
-by Seler as “Xipe, lord of the coastland.” He is an earth deity, “our
-lord the flayed,” for he is represented wearing loosely about him a
-human skin. He was the patron deity of the goldsmiths of the valley of
-Mexico, and is said to have been paid special homage by the people of
-the Teotitlan district, the beginning of the highway to Tabasco. In
-the pictures given by Sahagun, and in other codices, this god carried
-a long staff which terminates in a kind of rattle (fig. 11), similar
-in shape to that found in the cenote of Chichen Itza. It was called
-_chicauaztli_ by the Nahua, and Seler asserts that the rattlestick of
-the god Xipe was carried, besides him, only by the goddesses of the
-earth.[85] Sahagun describes it as a scepter made after the manner
-of the calyx of the poppy where the seed is, with something like the
-point of a dart fastened in and rising from the upper part.[86] The
-resemblance of the cenote specimen to the one shown in the Sahagun
-manuscript suggests that it was brought from the Nahuan region.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 12]
-
-In the sculptured wall of the Temple of the Jaguars at Chichen Itza
-are represented a considerable number of warriors and priests dressed
-in elaborate costumes and paraphernalia. Several of these persons wear
-the typical triangular head-band or crown of the Nahuas, on which
-may be distinguished turquois-mosaic decoration (fig. 12). Two of
-these priests or warriors have their faces covered with unmistakable
-turquois-mosaic masks (figs. 13, 14).[87] This points to Nahuan
-influence, and we have other instances of this influence both at
-Chichen Itza and at Uxmal. We are thus led to the belief that the
-mosaics recovered from the cenote were brought to Chichen Itza from
-Nahuan territory.
-
-[Illustration: PL. XXI
-
-SHIELD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-STATE MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, VIENNA]
-
-Another example of a turquois mosaic mask in stone sculpture is
-found at the back of the profile face, in front of the ear, of
-the human figure carved on the front of stela 11 at Seibal, in the
-region of the upper Usumacinta, Department of Peten, Guatemala. It was
-photographed by Maler in 1895, and illustrated and described by him
-in his monograph, Explorations of the Upper Usumatsintla and Adjacent
-Region (_Memoirs of the Peabody Museum, Harvard University_, vol. IV,
-no. 1, Cambridge, 1908). Morley has deciphered the date on this stela
-as 10.1.0.0.0, corresponding approximately, according to his method of
-correlation, to 590 A.D. It appears to have been a hotun-marker, or
-stone erected every five years, and is placed in the Great Period of
-Mayan civilization.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 13]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 14]
-
-
-MAJOR EXAMPLES
-
-The more important major specimens now remain to be considered. As all
-these objects are of wood, with the exception of numbers 3 and 9, we
-will not repeat this in our descriptions. They are:
-
-1. Helmet or head-piece
-
-2. Wooden masks
-
-3. Skull masks
-
-4. Shields
-
-5. Ear-plug
-
-6. Animal figures
-
-7. God figure
-
-8. Knife handles
-
-9. Human femur musical instrument.
-
-
-_Helmet_
-
-The helmet or head-piece on pl. IV is in the British Museum, and was
-first described and illustrated in colors in 1895 by Sir Charles
-Hercules Read. From his study we take the following notes:[88] The
-helmet is hollowed out inside to fit the head and is painted green; the
-exterior is carved with two projections, perhaps intended to represent
-the upper mandibles of eagles. The space between the inner upper part
-of the two beaks and the two outer faces of the beaks bears traces of
-red paint. With this exception, the outer surface has been covered with
-a mosaic of turquois, malachite, pearl shell, and pink shell, inlaid or
-incrusted on a bed of dark-brown gum. A great number of the pieces of
-mosaic have fallen out. It contains, fashioned in dark-green malachite
-pieces, two involved animal figures, which Read conjectures are
-rattlesnakes with crested heads. Judging from the plate accompanying
-Read’s study (no measurements are given), the specimen has an extreme
-height of 7½ inches and a diameter of 7¼ inches. The illustration which
-we reproduce, as well as of the other specimens in London, we owe to
-the kindness of T. A. Joyce, Esq., of the British Museum.
-
-
-_Masks_
-
-The mask on pl. V is in the British Museum, and is one of the best
-preserved specimens of mosaic-work from Mexico. It is of cedar, the
-outer surface being covered with a mosaic of minute pieces of turquois,
-of a brilliant color beneath the eyes and on the forehead, while on
-the other parts the color is a poor grayish-green. The face is studded
-with irregularly shaped cabochon turquoises. The eyes, nostrils, and
-mouth are all pierced; the first are filled with oval pieces of pearl
-shell, each with a circular hole for the pupil. The gum surrounding the
-shell and keeping it in position is gilded. In the half-open mouth is a
-row of seven teeth of white shell set in the upper jaw. On each temple
-is set a pierced square of pearl shell. The inside of the mask is
-painted red. Its height is 6½ inches, the width 6 inches.
-
-[Illustration: PL. XXII
-
-BACK OF SHIELD SHOWN ON PLATE I
-
-MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
-
-On pl. VI is shown another mosaic mask in the British Museum. We follow
-Read’s description. It is of cedar, and the lower left-hand part
-of the face is missing. Over the face are represented two entwined
-serpents curving around the eyes and mouth, and the rattle-tipped
-tails rest over the right and left of the forehead. The whole of the
-surface of the mask is covered with a mosaic of turquois, bright-blue
-and dull-green in color, arranged in such manner that the two snakes
-are distinct in color. The rattle of each snake upon the temples are
-modeled of the same gum as that in which the stones are embedded, and
-it seems possible that they were formerly gilded. The mouth of the
-mask is slightly open and contains teeth of white shell in the upper
-jaw. There is a slit over each eye and a hole in each temple. The
-inside of the mask is painted red. Height 6.9 inches, width 6.6 inches.
-Read believes that the heads of the two snakes were on the lower
-checks, which are incomplete. Maudslay identifies this mask with that
-described by Sahagun in the chapter which we have translated (see p.
-14), relating to the objects pertaining to the god Quetzalcoatl which
-were presented by Montezuma to Cortés.[89] In this description only
-one serpent is mentioned, and Sahagun states that “the head with part
-of the body came over one eye so that it formed an eyebrow, and the
-tail with a part of the body went over the other eye to form the other
-eyebrow.” In the plate the two rattles are clearly seen, and Holmes
-has published a diagrammatic drawing differentiating the bodies of the
-serpents. If Sahagun’s description is accurate, this specimen cannot be
-the one mentioned by him. It is, however, one of the most interesting
-pieces of mosaic that has survived.
-
-The very interesting mask of wood shown on pl. VII is in the
-Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum in Rome. It is one of the best
-preserved pieces in Europe, and its history is known as far back as
-1553. It was purchased for the Museum by Giglioli from Cosimo de Medici
-for two and a half francs. It was first illustrated in colors by
-Pigorini,[90] and our illustration is from a photograph just received
-from Rome through the kindness of Dr. S. K. Lothrop. The specimen is
-11 inches high and 5⅜ inches broad, being the tallest mosaic mask that
-has thus far come to light. It represents a human face placed in what
-appears to be the flat open jaws of a snake or an animal, a common
-motive in Middle American art. The back of the mask is flat, and there
-are ovate openings for the eyes. From the nose hangs an ornament of a
-type familiar in central Mexico. Over the forehead appear what seem to
-be raised twined bodies of serpents, and from the left of the upper
-part of the face projects the plumed head of a serpent. We are unable
-to say if the head of the other snake once projected from the opposite
-side of the mask, but it seems impossible that the artist would have
-made this elaborate piece so symmetrical. From Dr. Lothrop’s notes
-it appears that the turquois around the sides is of a slightly faded
-color, but the major portion is brilliant and glistening. The materials
-used are turquois, pink shell, white shell, mother-of-pearl, jadeite
-(for the facial lumps), and a dull-black stone. This remarkable piece
-is a veritable work of art, and from the serpent motive we would class
-it as a Quetzalcoatl mask.
-
-[Illustration: PL. XXIII
-
-SHIELD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
-
-The other mask in Rome (pl. VIII) was illustrated as early as 1648.
-This illustration, and the one published by Pigorini (fig. 15), are
-front views. Our plate, from a photograph taken for Dr. Lothrop, is a
-sideview presenting interesting features which are not revealed in the
-illustrations hitherto published. The materials employed are turquois,
-malachite, pink shell, white shell, mother-of-pearl, an unidentifiable
-black stone, and garnet. The edges of the orbits and the protruding
-tongue are painted red, while the fangs are painted white. On the side
-of the face, below the right eye, is the head of an alligator, in the
-neck of which is set a garnet. Attention is called also to the peculiar
-nose and the curling tongue. A considerable portion of the mosaic is
-lost. This mask is larger than the masks in London and New York, being
-8⅝ inches high, with an extreme length, including the protruding
-tongue, of 11 inches. Dr. Lothrop writes that in his description
-Pigorini has done scant justice to this remarkable piece.
-
-On pls. IX to XVI are illustrated the series of masks from the cave
-recently discovered in Mexico, which are in the Museum of the American
-Indian, Heye Foundation. They fall into two classes, those on pls. IX
-to XII being ornamented with turquois mosaic, and so nearly alike in
-workmanship that they might well be the product of one artist, while
-the masks on pls. XIII to XV are different in character, the mosaic
-pieces being larger and coarser, and considerable stone other than
-turquois was employed in the decoration. They are all in a damaged
-condition and lack the chin. All the mosaic incrustations are set in a
-bed of gum.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 15]
-
-The best-preserved specimen is illustrated in colors on pl. IX; it is
-7½ inches high, and 6¾ inches wide. Bands of light and dark turquois
-will be observed on the forehead and temples. Around the lower margin
-of the face is a band of blackish to dark-brown stones. On the sides of
-the mask are two large black discs made of a composition resembling
-charcoal and sticky clay. This substance is present in a number of the
-other masks, and we venture the conjecture that it may be the material
-used by the goldsmiths in modeling figures to be cast in gold. Sahagun
-describes it as follows:
-
- The master gives them the charcoal, which they grind very fine.
- And when it is ground they add a little clay, the glutinous earth
- which they use in their pottery. They mix the charcoal with the clay
- and stir it, and knead it in such manner that the two substances
- constitute one solid mass. And when they have the mass prepared, they
- shape it into thin discs which they expose to the sun.... For two
- days these objects dry, and become very hard. When the charcoal is
- well dried and very hard, it is cut, then carved by means of a little
- scraper of copper.[91]
-
-The tip of the nose, as well as the chin, is gone. There are traces
-of red paint over the mouth and in the circular spaces on each side
-of the nose. When the specimen was received, the missing section of
-the lower part of the face was covered with a band of tin, as in
-the mask (pl. XVI) from which the mosaic has disappeared. From this
-circumstance we believe that the objects in this cave deposit were used
-by the Indians after the Spanish conquest, possibly until comparatively
-recent times. Our reasons for this belief will be found in the chapter
-translated from Motolinia in our conclusion. If we assume that at
-certain intervals during centuries the Indians resorted to the cave to
-worship in secret their ancient gods, we can explain the worn condition
-of nearly all of these specimens. Undoubtedly they were preserved and
-treasured for many generations, revered as precious relics of a lost
-but not entirely forgotten civilization. There is not the slightest
-reason for doubting their origin in pre-Spanish times.
-
-[Illustration: PL. XXIV
-
-SHIELD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
-
-The mask on pl. X is 6½ inches high and 6¼ inches wide. It is quite
-similar to the one last described, but lacks the encircling lower
-marginal band. The outer zone is of light turquois, with zones of a
-darker shade toward the center. There are traces of red paint above the
-mouth and in the spaces on each side of the nose. On the left temple
-are the remains of a black disc of the same material as on the other
-mask.
-
-The right section of the mask on pl. XI is 7¼ inches in height. The
-turquois incrustation is light-blue in color. There are traces of red
-paint above the mouth. The black composition inlay on the temple is
-square, and contains a biconical depression which does not pass through
-the wood. Around the eye is a raised design, possibly a serpent’s body.
-The entire lower zone is at present without decoration, and possibly
-was never covered with mosaic.
-
-The mask fragment on pl. XII is 7⅜ inches high. The small section of
-mosaic remaining on the forehead is dark-blue, while that on the rest
-of the face is light-blue. There is a black composition disc on the
-temple, and traces of red paint above the mouth. The marking on the
-plain surface on the forehead appears to be ancient.
-
-We now come to the other group. On pl. XIII is a mask 6⅜ inches high
-and 5¾ inches wide. A portion of the chin still remains, with mosaic
-decoration, indicating that the missing chins in the other masks were
-probably thus embellished. In general appearance this specimen differs
-widely from those just described. The pieces used in the mosaic are
-rougher in shape and larger. A few bits of bright-green turquois are
-found on the forehead, but the rest of the incrustation is a stone of a
-brownish- or grayish-green color. The distinctive feature is the band
-which encircles the forehead, running downward and ending at the sides
-of the nose. It is of black composition, but is highly polished, and
-there are pieces of light-brown color. Traces of red paint appear above
-the mouth.
-
-The mask on pl. XIV is 6¾ inches high and 5¼ inches wide. It lacks the
-chin, but still retains a goodly part of the mosaic. This specimen is
-somewhat different in treatment from the others, closely resembling
-in technique the mask fragment which follows on pl. XV. The mass of
-incrustation is outlined by a band of single light brownish-gray
-stones. The forehead has a mosaic of blackish and dark-green stones,
-the same effect being seen on each side of the plain space at the
-sides of the nose, merging into lighter zones on the cheeks. Red paint
-is above the mouth and on the spaces at the side of and below the nose.
-This mask had a tin band or plate over the missing chin. The space
-above the eyes is coated black, the material being probably obtained by
-thinning the black composition into a coarse paint by the addition of
-melted gum or wax. Two black composition discs are on the temples.
-
-The fragment of mask on pl. XV is 5⅝ inches high. As before stated, it
-resembles the mask just described. The mosaic, of large bits of stone,
-is outlined by a line of single lighter stones. The forehead contains
-a mosaic of greenish stones, and the space above the ridge of the nose
-has a patch of light-red shell bits. The space on each side of the nose
-and in the mouth is painted red, while that above the eyes is painted
-jet black. A black composition disc is on the temple.
-
-The mask without mosaic on pl. XVI is 6⅞ inches high and 5¼ inches
-wide. The wood is of a light color, and rather soft. We have left on
-this specimen the tin plate which replaces the missing chin. That
-this mask was once covered with mosaic decoration may be seen in the
-fragment remaining at the right side of the mouth. The eyes in this
-specimen are semi-lenticular in shape, differing from the others which
-are either ovate or lenticular in outline.
-
-This closes our description of the specimens found in the deposit in
-the cave in the Mixteca. With them were found some fragments of native
-paper made of _amate_ fiber, two of which enclosed regularly shaped
-small masses of gum incense. In one of these several pieces of the
-gum were held together by an interlaced string of flexible bark. They
-provide further proof that the cave was resorted to for religious
-ceremonies or sacrifices.
-
-[Illustration: PL. XXV
-
-SHIELD OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
-
-The next mask to be considered, on pl. XVII, is the only specimen known
-from Central America, and with the pieces found recently in the Mexican
-cave are the only major specimens found under archeological conditions.
-This mask is 8½ inches high, and the three facial projections extend
-4 inches from the face. It is in the Museum of the American Indian,
-Heye Foundation. This interesting object was found some years ago in
-a cave in the mountainous region of Honduras, in an arroyo on the
-headwaters of a small stream flowing into the Rio Chamelecon, about 25
-miles from the ruins of the ancient city of Naco. Hundreds of copper
-bells of varying sizes and shapes were found at the same time. The mask
-has been figured and described by A. H. Blackiston, whose description
-follows:
-
- First in interest in the writer’s collection is a large life-sized
- mask of white cedar which was covered with mosaics of turquois and
- other stones set in a thick gum or pitch with which it was coated.
- Three greatly elongated straight projections answer for the nose and
- the two lips. Holes were cut for the eyes and two small ones on the
- sides for the thongs which bound it to the head. A large cavity in
- the forehead was evidently the setting of the crowning stone of the
- collection, though of what nature this was we unfortunately are unable
- to surmise, as it evidently became loosened and dropped out years
- before its discovery. Along the sides of the face are depressions in
- the coating of gum for regularly shaped stones about half an inch long
- by three-eighths of an inch in width, arranged in parallel rows--none
- of which remain at present. The rest of the surface, as noted, was
- covered with small turquois mosaics, a number of which are in place
- today.[92]
-
-
-_Skull Masks_
-
-The two final masks to be described are the skull masks in the
-Ethnographical Museum in Berlin, and in the British Museum, London. On
-pl. XVIII is represented the Berlin example, which has been described
-by Uhle and illustrated in colors, three-fourths natural size.[93]
-Only the front of the skull has been used, and it was incrusted with
-sky-blue to pale slabs of turquois. The mask is 6⅝ inches in height.
-Our illustration is a photograph of the lithograph published by Uhle.
-
-The skull mask in the British Museum (pl. XIX) has been illustrated
-many times, and is one of the best-known pieces of Mexican mosaic.
-It has also been repeatedly described, so that it is not necessary to
-present a detailed description at this time. Suffice it to say that
-the back of the skull has been cut away, and the front covered with
-five broad transverse mosaic bands, alternating from the top downward,
-of lignite (not obsidian, as all writers have described it, we are
-informed by Joyce) and turquois. The inside is lined with leather, on
-which traces of red paint still remain.
-
-
-_Shields_
-
-Richly decorated shields or chimallis played a prominent part in
-certain phases of the life of the ancient Mexicans. Mrs. Nuttall, in
-her interesting and instructive study, “On Old Mexican Shields,”[94]
-has pointed out that “all authorities agree that the shields were
-of two kinds. The first consisted of the military shields used
-for protection in warfare by all grades of warriors; the second
-comprised the shields carried, for display only, in religious dances
-and festivals.” In this study Mrs. Nuttall has made the following
-classification of shields, based on an extended examination of the
-chronicles of early writers:
-
- 1. Plain, unadorned war-shields (_yaochimalli_) of several kinds, used
- by the common soldiers.
-
- 2. Gala shields (_totopchimalli_), indicating the military rank and
- achievement of chiefs. These seem to have been indiscriminately used
- in warfare or feasts and dances. Their general structure seems to have
- been alike in either case, though it is obvious that they may have
- been more or less light and strong. Shields of this category sometimes
- reproduced one or more features of the military costume, body-painting
- and adornments pertaining to each grade. The shield in Museo Nacional
- is an example of this kind. Others exhibited the emblematic device of
- a militant god, Huitzilopochtli, Xipe, Yiacatecuhtli, etc., marking an
- order of chivalry--and to this division the Stuttgart specimens belong.
-
- 3. Shields, presumably of the supreme war-chief, exhibiting in
- picture-writing the name of his people or his personal appellation.
- Nothing certain is known about this group, but its existence seems
- vouched for by a series of indications.
-
- 4. Shields pictured in the codices with deities only exhibiting
- their emblematic devices or reproducing features of their symbolic
- attire. Such shields seem to have been carried, in religious dances
- and festivals, by the living images of the deities in whose honor they
- were held.
-
- 5. Shields of most precious materials, with strange and elaborate
- designs, described in the Inventories. As they are not mentioned
- elsewhere, it is not possible to state anything definite about them,
- but it is obvious that they were intended for the use of individuals
- of supreme rank. The beautiful shield at Castle Ambras belongs to
- this group. It is, consequently, the sole forthcoming specimen with a
- valid, though shadowy, right to the title of “Montezuma’s shield.”
-
-[Illustration: PL. XXVI
-
-SHIELD OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
-
-In the inventories of the Cortés loot, 150 shields are enumerated,
-mostly decorated with feathers, but 25 are specified as being
-ornamented with turquois mosaic, while others were garnished with
-gold. Of the feather-mosaic shields, one example is in Vienna (the
-shield formerly in Castle Ambras), two are in Stuttgart, and one is in
-the Museo Nacional, Mexico. Of the turquois mosaic shields, one is in
-London, and one in Vienna; none exists in Mexico. To this number we
-are now able to add eight specimens in New York, namely, one perfect
-shield, two nearly complete ones, and five fragments, all from the cave
-in the Mixteca.
-
-We have already given numerous extracts from the early writers
-concerning the use of mosaic shields as part of the paraphernalia
-of the deities. In figs. 16-17 are two representations of the god
-Paynal, holding in his right hand a mosaic shield. Fig. 16 is from the
-Florentine manuscript of Sahagun (lamina 8), while fig. 17 is from the
-Real Palacio manuscript of the same author. In the original the shield
-is painted blue. These are the only examples we have been able to find
-in the Mexican codices where the mosaic character of the shield is
-unquestionably delineated.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 16]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 17]
-
-We will now consider the two mosaic shields in Europe. On pl. XX is the
-shield in the British Museum. Its early history is unknown, other than
-that it was purchased in 1866 from a dealer who stated that it came
-from Turin. Quite a little of the mosaic is missing, but not enough to
-destroy the intricate and interesting designs. It has been described by
-Read, accompanied with a drawing of the figures.[95] The shield is of
-cedar, with a diameter of 12¼ inches. The material used for the mosaic
-is turquois and shell. The center of the design consists of a circle in
-relief, the edge of which is divided into four equal parts by angular
-points in pink shell, and each quarter of the circumference has three
-large but irregular pieces of shell at intervals. It is a _tonatiuh_,
-or sun disc, and a figure of a serpent is disposed meander-fashion
-vertically over the entire central portion. One edge of the snake is
-bordered with imitation studs formed of brown gum, of which a few still
-preserve a covering of very thin gold-leaf. The head is placed at the
-upper left side, the tail ending in three feathers at the lower right
-edge of the circle. On each side are two human figures, and at the
-center, near the top, projecting from the body of the snake, is a
-bifurcated design, probably a tree, upon which rests, in a pear-shaped
-enclosure, a human figure on its back. Through the shield are many
-irregular perforations, and twenty-five small holes are regularly
-disposed around the edge, possibly for the suspension of feathers, or
-bits of stone, gold, or gold-leaf, over gum, may have been inserted.
-Two larger holes are near the upper margin.
-
-[Illustration: PL. XXVII
-
-SHIELD OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
-
-On pl. XXI we reproduce the Vienna shield.[96] It is larger than the
-London specimen, being 16½ inches in diameter, and the designs are not
-so involved as in the London shield. Unfortunately the greater part
-of the mosaic has fallen out, but the figures in most cases may be
-traced by the impressions in the gum matrix. The designs consist of
-two _tonatiuh_, or sun discs, placed one above the other. In the upper
-_tonatiuh_ is a human figure. There are many examples of this motive
-in Mexican sculptures and codices. Across the center of the shield,
-between the two sun discs, is a procession of human figures, four each
-on the right and the left, all facing the center. Between them is a
-human figure, head-downward, in the act of falling or plunging from the
-upper sun disc. Above this line of figures are four others, two on each
-side of the sun disc, which they face. Below, facing the lower disc,
-are three other figures on each side, and lower still are two more on
-each side. The total number of human figures, so far as we are able
-to determine, is twenty-four. This shield was formerly in the Castle
-Ambras, near Innsbruck, and its history is traceable to 1596, it being
-mentioned in an inventory of that date.
-
-We cannot identify these two shields with those described in the Cortés
-inventories, but there is no reason to doubt that they formed part of
-that treasure. As examples of mosaic art, they are priceless, even in
-their damaged condition.
-
-The circumstances attending the discovery of the shields now in New
-York have already been alluded to. Pl. I is an exact reproduction in
-colors of one of these, the most important example of aboriginal
-American mosaic art known. It is in an almost perfect state of
-preservation, and is practically of the same size as the London
-specimen, being 12¾ inches in diameter, with an average thickness of
-three-eighths of an inch. The wood is probably cedar. In a highly
-esthetic manner the mosaic incrustation has been set in a bed of gum,
-with alternating massing of light and dark turquoises to produce bands
-or zones of shading in light or dark bluish-green. It is estimated
-that nearly 14,000 individual pieces enter into the composition of
-this mosaic, the greater number being tiny circular bits. The design
-represents a sun disc, with eight pointers in the outer rim. Inside of
-the innermost of the two raised narrow encircling bands is a picture of
-ceremonial or mythological character. We hesitate at an interpretation,
-but the main features may quite certainly be recognized. We are of
-the opinion that the scene portrayed perhaps relates to the worship
-of the planet Venus. It is in the region where this shield was found
-that Seler, after making exhaustive comparative studies of several
-pre-Columbian codices, concludes:
-
- We have to look for the home of the Codex Borgia group of
- manuscripts.... It was a land inhabited by Aztec-speaking peoples;
- it was conterminous with the Zapotec territory, and it lay on the
- trade-route which led to the coast, and to the Maya-peopled district
- of Tabasco.... Indeed we also know that in this very region astronomic
- observation was highly developed, and the Morning Star (Venus) held in
- special veneration.[97]
-
-The upper horizontal band of the shield represents the celestial
-region. It recalls, with its feather fringe at the top and dots hanging
-from the lower section, the design around the so-called calendar
-stone collected by Humboldt, now in the Berlin Museum, and the upper
-encircling rim above the procession of figures of the so-called stone
-of Tizoc, as well as some of the upper bands in the murals of Mitla.
-If this is the celestial band, as we believe, it is quite appropriate
-to find on it the _tonatiuh_, or sun, represented in the rosette in
-the center. We find here two sets of four pointers each, radiating
-from the central disc of feathers, which surrounds a lozenge-shaped
-piece on which is a tiny pit below two horizontal lines. In the Real
-Palacio manuscript of Sahagun (estampa XII) are pictures of various
-symbols for heavenly bodies, one being a small disc with tiny dots,
-explained by Sahagun as being the sign for Venus. We have endeavored to
-identify this glyph with that of the symbol for turquois or jewel, or
-the sign for chalchihuitl. There is a slight resemblance, but we hold
-the opinion, as before stated, that it is the sign for the sun. We have
-been unable to find the exact counterpart of this combination either in
-the codices or in sculptures.
-
-[Illustration: PL. XXVIII
-
-SHIELD OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
-
-We now come to a feature which is also found in the Vienna shield,
-namely, a person falling or descending from the sun or celestial
-regions. The injured condition of the Vienna specimen renders it
-impossible to distinguish the sex of the figure, but in the New York
-specimen a woman is represented, probably a goddess. On several pages
-of the Codex Nuttall Zouche[98] (pp. 4, 19, 21) are representations
-of human figures hanging from or plunging from the heavenly band.
-Seler has connected these scenes with the Venus period of the Mexican
-calendar. Attached to the band on our shield are five dots. Taken in
-connection with the eight dots below, respectively four on each side of
-the hieroglyph at the bottom, one recalls the suggestive fact that the
-Mexicans were acquainted with the correspondence of eight solar years
-to five Venus periods, and reckonings connected with the correction of
-these two periods have been established by both Seler and Bowditch.[99]
-In the Codex Selden is found an analogous picture, the band of the sky,
-with a central _tonatiuh_, and a descending human figure attached,
-below which are two figures. This scene has been interpreted by
-Beyer[100] as representing the solar god accepting human sacrifice. In
-our shield, the feature which follows in Codex Selden, depicting this
-sacrifice, is absent.
-
-In our shield, facing the plunging figure, are two human figures, one
-on each side, holding something like a staff in each hand, similar
-to those held in the hands of the goddess. From the mouth of each
-of these figures protrudes an unknown object, perhaps a conch-shell
-trumpet, but it is not supported by the hands.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 18]
-
-Above a horizontal band just over the bottom of the inner encircling
-rim is a hieroglyph. It is the well-known glyph for Culhuacan, or
-Colhuacan, the name of an important town in the valley of Mexico in
-ancient times. The form of the glyph, a mountain with a curved peak,
-is derived from the tradition that the Nahuan people originated where
-there was a mountain with a curved peak, called in the Nahuan language
-_Culhuacan_. The sign is interwoven with the legendary history of the
-ancient tribes in central Mexico, Teuculhuacan being the province far
-to the north where were situated the Seven Caves of Chicomostoc, the
-primeval home whence sallied the Seven Tribes. In the Codex Boturini I,
-this legend is pictured. In fig. 18 are two forms of the glyph taken
-from the Codex Telleriano Remensis. On each side of this glyph on the
-shield are four dots, not to be confounded with the representations
-of shells attached to the glyph. These eight dots should have a
-calendric meaning, and we might stretch our imagination and consider
-the glyph to be _Calli_, a day-sign and also year-bearer, represented
-by the conventional figure of a house, which would give us the date
-8 _Calli_, capable of being coordinated with either the year 1461 or
-1513. The general character of the glyph, however, seems to be too well
-established as Culhuacan to admit of such hypothesis.
-
-[Illustration: PL. XXIX
-
-SHIELD OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
-
-In a letter to the writer Dr. H. J. Spinden advances an explanation
-of the combination of the figures in this sun-disc shield. With his
-permission we quote him verbatim:
-
- I am inclined to believe that the design as a whole represents a sun
- shield, the eight radiating bars being the rays, while the celestial
- band, the three human figures, and the Colhuacan glyph replace the
- parts of the sun’s face, namely, the head-band, the two eyes and nose
- (the plunging figure in lieu of the nose), and the mouth. This may
- seem pretty far-fetched at first glance, but it is quite in the spirit
- of Aztec art. On the Calendar Stone, around the face of the sun god
- and the _ollin_ symbol with the enclosed glyphs of the four ages,
- is, first, a circle of the day signs, second, a circle of quincunx
- figures, supposed to be the classical hieroglyphs or rather symbols
- of turquoises, third, a frieze of eagles’ feathers. Multiple rays of
- different sizes complete the picture. In the actual shield before us
- we have the turquois mosaic, and the holes around the rim suggest that
- eagles’ feathers may once have been attached. Compare the sun shield
- or sun basket of the Pueblo Indians, and the various sun shields on
- Mayan monuments. Now, the sun and turquois seem to be pretty closely
- connected symbolically--both mean divine. The hieroglyph of the sun
- is used for the _teo_, god, in place names, while the prefix _xiuh_
- means divine in connection with various objects. Jade, on the other
- hand, means precious. The sun in Aztec ritual is pretty closely
- connected with riches and jewels, and the sun disc may easily have
- been conceived of as a gem-studded object. I think it quite possible,
- therefore, that the design on this shield was intended to symbolize
- the face of the sun, and the fact that complete figures engaged in
- some ritualistic function replaces the parts of a realistic face does
- not detract from the theory.
-
-The back of the shield is shown in pl. XXII. Through the two vertical
-ridges are pairs of holes, evidently for the leather thongs for holding
-the shield. The twenty-eight small holes around the edge of the shield
-were probably for the insertion of feathers or other ornaments, as in
-the British Museum shield.
-
-In technique our shield is similar in all respects to the two mosaic
-shields in Europe. In all three the incrustation is in a bed of gum
-that has been spread over the wood.
-
-We now come to the series of seven mosaic shields in New York, shown in
-pls. XXIII-XXIX. In these we are dealing with a different technique,
-and one which is new to us. For the matrix a kind of cement like fine
-gritty brown sand was used in place of gum. They are unfortunately in a
-considerably damaged state, but two are more or less complete. In these
-examples the wood has been roughly shaped, and in all of them the marks
-of the copper or stone adzes are clearly visible, for there was no
-final smoothing of the wood as in the three specimens before described.
-The probable reason for this is seen in the shield on pl. XXIII. On the
-face of this specimen, on portions of the lower edge, especially at the
-left, are traces of a coarse native paper made from the _amate_ tree,
-which occurs as a band that had been glued to the wood. Traces of paper
-also are found in the same place on the shield fragment illustrated
-on pl. XXIV. It is impossible to state definitely if this paper once
-extended from the edge to the raised body of the mosaic decoration.
-On the fragmentary shield just referred to may be seen a faint black
-line, made with some substance like graphite, running partly around the
-circumference 1 to 1⅞ inches from the edge. It is probably the artist’s
-line in arranging for some class of decoration, perhaps delimiting the
-section to be covered with paper. On the first shield no such line is
-found, but it seems certain that the rough wood between the narrow band
-of paper and the mosaic must have been covered either with paper or
-with some other material. There is no trace of cement, and we are led
-to believe that the paper once extended over the entire plain surface
-of the wood. Parchment or soft leather may also have been stretched
-tightly over the outer zones of shields which show no traces of paper.
-On this surface some type of decoration was undoubtedly placed. We
-recall the quotation given above concerning the use of turquois
-mosaic decoration on paper, in connection with the worship of the god
-Huitzilopochtli. Feather-mosaics, so far as we know, were generally
-made either on parchment or on paper. The codices were made either of
-leather, parchment, or paper, often sized with stucco. In rare cases
-the painting was applied directly on the paper. It is undoubtedly true
-that one or the other of these processes of decoration completed the
-ensemble of the shields we are now considering.
-
-[Illustration: PL. XXX
-
-EAR PLUG OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
-
-Another point of difference in this series of shields is the material
-spread over the wood to receive the incrusted stones. It must have
-solidified slowly to have allowed for the careful and laborious work
-of fixing the pieces in the plastic matrix. In the case of the matrix
-of gum, material could have been applied and would have hardened
-immediately, for by tests, even after the lapse of centuries, we have
-found it possible to loosen the bits by the application of heat to the
-stone; but in the case of the cement matrix this is not possible. We do
-not know what liquid was used to harden the cement, which is now quite
-friable.
-
-Relatively speaking, comparatively little turquois was used in this
-class of mosaics. Different shades of a soft light-gray stone was
-employed in the outer zones, while darker stones interspersed with
-turquois of varying shades, some almost white, and bits of lignite and
-obsidian, are found.
-
-A final unique feature may be noted in the shields on pls. XXVII and
-XXVIII. In the outer band will be observed the irregular inner edges of
-the two lines of stones which form the border. In pl. XXVII the space
-is filled in with a sprinkling of gritty, almost sand-like, bits of
-faded whitish-blue bastard turquois. It appears to have been spattered
-or sprinkled on while the matrix was very soft. In the case of the
-shield on pl. XXVIII, the material is somewhat coarser, and consists of
-rough bits of the same stone used in the broad light band within the
-outer border.
-
-These shields, so far as we are able to judge from the fragmentary
-sections, contained no pictures or figures as in the other type. In
-general execution they are inferior in workmanship, and less refined
-and finished in appearance. In fact, they constitute a quite distinct
-and, up to the present, unknown type of stone mosaic from Mexico.
-
-The first shield of this series (pl. XXIII) is in two fragments, a
-portion of one edge being missing. It has an average diameter of 15
-inches, and a thickness of one-half to three-quarters of an inch, the
-mosaic disc rising one-eighth of an inch above the wood. The mosaic
-portion has a diameter of 10¼ inches. It appears to be a sun shield,
-judging by the eight pointers which radiate from the band surrounding
-the circular design in the center, which suggest a conventional
-representation of the sun. In the center the darker bits are obsidian.
-A portion of the matrix and of the mosaic incrustation has fallen off,
-and on the matrix near the upper left is a greasy patch which may be
-candle grease.
-
-The shield on pl. XXIV is the same size as the preceding one, 15 inches
-in diameter. It is also in two sections, and a larger section of the
-side is missing. This likewise is probably a sun shield, but it has no
-pointers. Where the outer band has fallen off toward the lower part
-can be seen a faint incised line which the artist placed there as a
-guide-line in following out the circular mosaic decoration. In the
-center the black bits are lignite.
-
-The next shield shown (pl. XXV) consists of a half section only. It
-was slightly larger than any other shield in the collection, having a
-diameter of 15¼ inches and a thickness of 1 inch. It was a sun shield,
-and had four pointers identical with those on the famous calendar stone
-of the Aztecs. There are traces of a paper band glued around the outer
-edge; the black line has already been referred to. The central disc,
-with the white lines made of very tiny bits, is similar to the central
-part of the shield on pl. XXIII.
-
-[Illustration: PL. XXXI
-
-HEAD WITH HEAD-PIECE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-NATIONAL MUSEUM, COPENHAGEN]
-
-[Illustration: PL. XXXII
-
-A
-
-JAGUAR HEAD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-ETHNOGRAPHICAL MUSEUM, BERLIN
-
-B
-
-ANIMAL HEAD OF WOOD WITH HUMAN FACE IN OPEN JAW
-
-WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-NATIONAL MUSEUM, COPENHAGEN]
-
-[Illustration: PL. XXXIII
-
-A
-
-ANIMAL HEAD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-STATE NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM, VIENNA
-
-B
-
-MONKEY HEAD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON]
-
-[Illustration: PL. XXXIV
-
-A
-
-TWO-HEADED JAGUAR FIGURE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-ETHNOGRAPHICAL MUSEUM, BERLIN
-
-B
-
-BIRD HEAD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-MUSEUM, GOTHA]
-
-[Illustration: PL. XXXV
-
-ANIMAL FIGURE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON]
-
-
-One of the most interesting specimens is reproduced in pl. XXVI, which
-is 14⅞ inches in diameter. This is the only shield of the series
-bearing a figure. It had four pointers, which suggest a sun disc,
-but the symbol seems clearly to be a conventional cross-section of a
-conch-shell, the well-known and often delineated symbol of Ehecatl,
-god of the air, one of the various attributes of the god Quetzalcoatl.
-In this example the light pieces of stone are larger than
-in any other piece, but they are cut exceedingly thin. Around the
-outer edge of the mosaic is a faint incised line, and three lines may
-be seen projecting from the pointers, showing that the artist carried
-his guide-lines beyond the zone finally used. The circular line is so
-regular that there is no doubt that the workman used our methods, tying
-a piece of cord to an awl and working from the exact center of the
-shield.
-
-The two fragments on pl. XXVII and XXVIII are the same size--15 inches
-in diameter. They are similar in workmanship; the special feature,
-the sprinkled outer band, has already been alluded to. In the first
-specimen an irregular cavity on the upper face was apparently filled in
-with cement, traces of which remain. The two holes in each shield are
-modern, but the two specimens came to us joined with leather strings.
-They are, however, sections of separate shields.
-
-The last shield of the series (pl. XXIX) has a height of 14⅝ inches. It
-comprises little more than a third of the original object, hence the
-diameter must have been fully 15 inches or more. As in the others, we
-find the encircling bands, but as no part of the center remains, we do
-not know if it had a figure or was like the others of the series.
-
-
-_Ear-plug_
-
-With the deposit of masks and shields in the cave in the Mixteca,
-now in the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, was the
-unique wooden object shown on pl. XXX. It is spool-shaped, the bottom
-flat, the upper part concave and covered with a mosaic of dark-green
-turquois, with a central disc of dark rose-colored shell. It is 1½
-inch high, with a diameter of 1¾ inch at the upper and lower rims.
-There is no doubt that this specimen was an ear-plug. The sides of the
-spool show the small gouges of the cutting instrument with which it was
-fashioned, and the entire surface not covered with mosaic was painted
-rose-red.
-
-
-_Animal Figures_
-
-The specimen in the National Museum in Copenhagen, shown on pl. XXXI,
-has been described in detail by Lehmann,[101] and our illustration is
-taken from his photograph. It is considerably damaged, much of the
-mosaic incrustation having disappeared. The materials are turquois,
-malachite, shell, and mother-of-pearl. In its original state it was one
-of the imposing pieces of this art. The upper projecting part rising
-from the top of the head probably simulated a plumed head-dress. Its
-extreme height is about 10½ inches, and the diameter only 3¾ inches.
-
-On pl. XXXII are illustrated two animal heads. The first (_a_), a
-jaguar head, in the Ethnographical Museum in Berlin, has been described
-in detail by Lehmann in his paper published in the _Proceedings of
-the Fifteenth Congress of Americanists_, held at Quebec in 1906. It
-is 5¾ inches high, and the mosaic is composed of turquois, malachite,
-and shell. The other specimen (_b_) is in the National Museum at
-Copenhagen.[102] It seems to represent a serpent’s head with a human
-face in the open jaws. The mosaic is turquois, malachite, and reddish
-shell. It has an extreme length of 13½ inches and is 8¼ inches high.
-Much of the incrustation has fallen off.
-
-The animal head shown on pl. XXXIII, _a_, is in the Vienna Museum, and
-has been illustrated by Heger in three views.[103] Our drawing is the
-side-view, after Heger. This object is 4⅝ inches long from front to
-back. Much of the mosaic has fallen away, and the pieces of jadeite,
-obsidian, and shell are larger and the work is generally coarser than
-in any of the other examples in Europe. Heger’s photographs depict a
-leather thong issuing from a hole at the back of the head.
-
-[Illustration: PL. XXXVI
-
-DOUBLE-HEADED SERPENT OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON]
-
-[Illustration: PL. XXXVII
-
-FIGURE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION, GOD XOLOTL
-
-STATE MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, VIENNA]
-
-The other mosaic on this plate (_b_) is in the British Museum. It
-represents a monkey-like head of white wood, with open mouth. The
-mosaic coating is of turquois, malachite, and other stones. The back
-has a hemispherical depression coated round the sides with a thick
-layer of brown gum, smoothly finished, containing some woolen threads.
-The turquoises are  chiefly of the pale-greenish variety, but
-above the sides of the mouth are two patches of bright-blue stones.
-Each eye is set in the lower edge of a protuberance coated with
-malachite, the eyes themselves being convex discs of highly polished
-iron pyrites set in a ring of shell. Height 4 inches, width 2.7 inches.
-
-An interesting piece is the two-headed jaguar figure in the
-Ethnographical Museum in Berlin (pl. XXXIV, _a_).[104] It is covered
-with bits of turquois and malachite, together with some obsidian,
-shell, and mother-of-pearl. The eyes are of malachite. This specimen
-measures 12⅝ inches in length, and the workmanship seems to be very
-artistic.
-
-An important and unique example of mosaic art is shown on pl. XXXIV,
-_b_, which represents a bird’s head embellished with an incrustation of
-turquois, malachite, obsidian, mother-of-pearl, red coral, and white
-shell, but much of the mosaic has fallen out. This specimen is in the
-Museum in Gotha.[105]
-
-A much injured specimen in the British Museum is illustrated on pl.
-XXXV, which represents an animal on his haunches, with open mouth and
-protruding tongue. On its back is a circular, cup-like receptacle.
-It is cut from a hard, pale-brown wood. Almost the entire surface
-was originally covered with mosaic laid in a bed of black gum, the
-component pieces being turquois, malachite, pink shell, pearl shell,
-and fragments of iron pyrites. The cup-shaped receptacle on the back
-of the animal is now covered with a transparent varnish, except in one
-place where the black gum and bits of mosaic are still in place. The
-varnish shows here and there fragments of gold-leaf, perhaps indicating
-that the cup was once entirely gilded. The height is 6.8 inches.[106]
-
-The gracefully modeled breast-ornament representing a two-headed
-serpent (pl. XXXVI) is in the British Museum. The base is of
-light-colored wood, hollowed at the back and painted red. The front of
-the snake is covered with turquois mosaic; the teeth and fangs in each
-open jaw of the snake are made of white shell, while the edges of the
-gums are indicated with pink shell. Across each nose is a raised band
-of turquois and red shell. The heads have mosaic-work on both sides,
-and it is probable that the eye-sockets formerly contained discs of
-iron pyrites. On the upper edges of the two loops of the bodies are
-holes for suspension. Length 17⅛ inches, height 8 inches.
-
-
-_God Figure_
-
-The figure of the deity shown in pl. XXXVII is in the Vienna Museum.
-It has been described by Dr. Heger, who has kindly sent me a number
-of photographs of the object, and some details regarding it. This has
-been identified by Dr. Seler as representing the god Xolotl, one of
-the deities or guardians of the Tonalamatl.[107] The specimen does not
-contain much mosaic decoration, being of highly polished wood. It is 3½
-inches high and 2¾ inches broad. Dr. Heger has courteously sent me the
-following notes concerning the specimen:
-
- The posterior circular cavity (see side view) is partly filled with a
- resin-like mass, by means of which the piece must have been fastened
- to some other object. Vestiges of this resin-like substance are found
- in all the hollowed places where today some of the inlay is missing,
- as in each of the three rounded oval incurvations, of both lateral
- walls, in which probably small heads [of mosaic?] were also incrusted.
-
- The eyes and the six small teeth consist of milk-white shells; the
- two hook-like canines consist of white mother-of-pearl-like shells.
- The two large ear-lobes, as well as the inferior part of the nasal
- septum, are perforated transversely. The pretty little human head at
- the navel of the figure probably consists of pitch-black obsidian.
- The ear-pendants are missing on the left side. The pupils of the eye
- (right one missing) are enclosed in small rings of mother-of-pearl.
- Projecting from the opened mouth, there is above the red tongue
- another small white shell-plate with three sharp downward points
- (teeth). The little head shows injury in several places.
-
-[Illustration: PL. XXXVIII
-
-STONE KNIFE WITH HANDLE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON]
-
-[Illustration: PL. XXXIX
-
-A
-
-B
-
-KNIFE HANDLES OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-PREHISTORIC AND ETHNOGRAPHIC MUSEUM, ROME]
-
-_Knife Handles_
-
-The next group of objects to be noted consists of knife handles. The
-beautiful specimen on pl. XXXVIII is in the British Museum. It
-is a chipped leaf-shape bladed knife of honey-colored chalcedony.
-The handle is of a soft, light-colored wood, carved in the form of a
-crouching human figure. The actual socket in which the blade is fixed
-proceeds from the chest of the figure, which grasps it with a hand on
-each side, and rests his chin on the top. The socket is firmly bound
-with cord. The figure and the socket up to the binding have been
-covered with a mosaic, chiefly of turquois, varied with malachite and
-white, pink, purple, and orange shell, as well as a few pieces of pearl
-shell. Much of the mosaic has disappeared. The figure wears an eagle
-mask, the face appearing in the open jaws. This knife, which measures
-12½ inches in length, is one of the most artistic of mosaic specimens.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 19]
-
-Belonging to this class are the two handles on pl. XXXIX, which
-are in the Museum in Rome. They have been illustrated in colors by
-Pigorini. Through the interest of Dr. Lothrop we are enabled to present
-photographs of these two very interesting objects, together with some
-additional observations concerning them. The first piece (pl. XXXIX,
-_a_, and fig. 19 after Pigorini), is in the form of a crouching figure
-with an animal head and wide-open mouth. It has been described as a
-knife handle, like the other specimen (_b_), which is unquestionably
-of that character, but Dr. Lothrop writes that the front of this piece
-(_a_), where the knife blade should be inserted, is smoothly covered
-with a kind of cement, while in the belly of the figure is a large
-hole. From Dr. Lothrop’s examination of the specimen he was unable to
-satisfy himself whether it was a knife handle or was intended to be
-placed on the head of a staff. The materials used for the incrustation
-are turquois, reddish shell, dull white shell, mother-of-pearl, and
-small flakes of gold. In the Pigorini illustration, which represents
-the side opposite that shown here, two flakes of gold are shown, one in
-the eye, the other on the arm between elbow and shoulder.
-
-The other piece (pl. XXXIX, _b_), unquestionably a knife handle, as
-stated, of the same technique as the specimens in the British Museum,
-represents a crouching human figure. The materials are turquois,
-dark-green malachite, white shell, mother-of-pearl, and red shell.
-Lothrop calls our attention to the tiny pieces of turquois set in shell
-on the shoulder and in other places. He also states that a portion of a
-broken chert (?) blade is still imbedded in the socket in front of the
-figure.
-
-
-_Human Femur Musical Instrument_
-
-The last of the specimens of mosaic to be described is the musical
-instrument (_omichicauaztli_) made from a left human femur, illustrated
-on pl. XL. This unique example, which is in the Museum in Rome, has
-been reproduced in colors by Pigorini. The mosaic seems to have been
-confined to the head and neck, although the trochanter major may also
-have been covered at one time. The incrustation at present consists
-of gum in which are pinkish-orange bits of colored shell. A modern
-copper chain is attached to the bone, from which hangs an oliva shell,
-undoubtedly ancient.
-
-[Illustration: PL. XL
-
-HUMAN FEMUR MUSICAL INSTRUMENT WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
-
-PREHISTORIC AND ETHNOGRAPHIC MUSEUM, ROME]
-
-According to Dr. Lothrop, the oliva shell shows signs of wear, and was
-probably the instrument used for rasping the bone, as the bone is
-sound and produces a rather musical tone when scraped with the shell,
-as if the bone were of china.
-
-Notched human bones are not uncommon in ancient Mexico, and some have
-been found elaborately engraved. In the course of excavations made in
-1900 in the street back of the Cathedral in the City of Mexico, were
-uncovered many small pottery models of musical instruments which had
-been placed there undoubtedly when the foundations of the great Aztecan
-_teocalli_ were laid. The writer secured for the American Museum of
-Natural History examples of these interesting models. Among them was a
-notched bone having attached to it a model of the handled instrument
-with which it was rubbed or rasped.[108]
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-Finally, attention is called to three objects of wood, of Mexican
-origin, in the Museo Borgiano, Rome. They have been described by
-Colini, and two of the pieces illustrated, in the _Bollettino della
-Società Geografica Italiana_.[109] The first is an idol representing
-a human figure, 17¾ inches in height; the other two specimens, those
-figured by Colini, are masks, and it is highly probable that all of
-these pieces were once decorated, at least in part, with mosaic. One of
-the masks is 6⅞ inches, and the other 7⅛ inches, in height.
-
-
-
-
-CONCLUSION
-
-
-In view of the considerable number of objects of stone mosaic that
-were sent to Europe during the first years of the Spanish conquest
-of Mexico, part of the loot obtained by Hernán Cortés, it is quite
-possible that other examples are still hidden away either in Spain or
-in Italy, which some day will be brought to light. Only twenty years
-ago two wonderfully preserved carved ceremonial spear-throwers, or
-atlatls, of wood, covered with delicate gold-leaf, were found in an
-old leather-covered case in a house in Florence, and are now exhibited
-in the Ethnological Museum of that city. It is not to be doubted that
-they were sent from Mexico by Cortés himself, and remained stored away,
-unknown to the world, until recent times. Bushnell, who figured and
-described these atlatls, believes that they were formerly in the famous
-collection of the Medicis, and that other objects of Mexican origin
-may be hidden away in Italy, to be revealed from time to time.[110]
-Again, in 1891, Mrs. Zelia Nuttall was the first to bring to our
-notice the important mosaic shield, and the still more interesting
-feather-mosaic shield in the Castle Ambras near Innsbruck, which were
-shortly afterward transferred to the ethnographical section of the
-State Natural History Museum in Vienna.[111]
-
-We should call attention here to the possibilities of finding mosaics
-in Mexico, emphasizing the fact that the collection in the Museum of
-the American Indian, Heye Foundation, was found under archeological
-conditions. Until now we have been somewhat sceptical in regard to the
-possibility of wooden objects of such a fragile and perishable nature
-being discovered either in tombs or in ruined buildings in Middle
-America. As we have already written, the few traces of this mosaic art
-found heretofore in excavations have been of a fragmentary character.
-No specimens of wood covered with mosaic have been found previously
-in Mexico, with the exception of the small rim of wood excavated by
-Gamio in Zacatecas, and the four pieces from Chichen Itza. In the
-tropical and temperate zones, where the most important ancient sites
-are situated, artifacts of wood of any sort have rarely been unearthed.
-It is true that in some of the remote villages carved wooden drums
-(_teponaztli_) have been religiously guarded from the time of the
-conquest, and are brought out and played at certain festivals during
-the year. But these drums are kept in the cabildos, and are preserved
-with zealous care.
-
-We would again call attention to the statement of Sahagun regarding
-the tradition of the abandonment of Tula, that Quetzalcoatl ordered
-certain precious things to be buried in the neighboring hills and
-ravines. This, of course, refers to times long anterior to the coming
-of white men. After this unfortunate event, fatal indeed to the
-Indian, the natives undoubtedly secreted a vast amount of material.
-The circumstances concerning this have been told by Father Motolinia.
-As this account is but little known, we have translated literally the
-entire chapter, for it reveals to us the miserable state into which the
-aborigines had fallen within twenty years after their subjugation.
-
- _Of how there was an end of idols and of the feasts which the Indians
- were wont to prepare, and of the vanity and the endeavor which the
- Spaniards displayed in (their) search for idols._
-
- The feasts which the Indians made, as is told in the first part
- (of this book), with their ceremonies and pomp, all ended from the
- beginning (of the time) that the Spaniards were making war (on them),
- because the Indians had so much to think about in their tribulations
- that they did not think of their gods, not even of themselves,
- because they had so much sorrow that in order to remedy that, all the
- principal (things in their lives) were stopped.
-
- In every town they had an idol or demon whom they considered chiefly
- as their mediator, and called him such, and they honored and adorned
- him with jewels and garments, and the best they could find they
- offered him, each town as it was (able to), and more so in the
- capitals of provinces. These principal idols I mention, as soon as
- the city of Mexico was taken by the Spaniards, with their jewels and
- wealth the Indians hid in the most secret place they could find; a
- large part of the gold that was on (or with) the idols and in the
- temples they gave as tribute to the Spaniards under whose patronage
- they belonged; for they could not do otherwise because in the
- beginning the tributes were so excessive that all the Indians could
- scrape together or search for, nor what the lords and chiefs had,
- would suffice; besides, they were forced (to pay tributes) with such
- iniquity that they also gave the gold they had in the temples of the
- demons (idols), and even when this was exhausted they paid tribute in
- slaves, and many times not having slaves in order to comply (with the
- taxes), they gave free (Indians) as slaves.
-
- These principal idols, with the insignia and ornaments or garments
- belonging to the demons, the Indians hid, some in the earth, others in
- caves, and still others in the woods. Later, when the Indians became
- converted and were baptized, they unearthed many (of them), and they
- brought them to the courtyards of the churches to burn them publicly.
- Others rotted in the earth, because after the Indians had received
- (or accepted) the Faith, they were ashamed to take out those they
- had hidden, and would rather let them rot than that anyone should
- know that they hid them. And when they were importuned to tell (talk)
- about their principal idols and their vestments, they took them out,
- all decayed, of which I am a witness, for I have seen it (done) many
- times. The excuse they gave was good, for they said, “When we hid it,
- we did not know God, and we thought the Spaniards would soon return to
- their (own) country, and after we came to understand (about) God, we
- left it to rot, because we were afraid and ashamed to take it out.”
- In other towns these principal idols with their vestments were in the
- care of the lords or of the principal priests of the demons, and those
- kept them so secretly that hardly anyone knew about them except two or
- three people who guarded them, and of these (idols) they also brought
- a very large number to the monasteries to burn them. In many other
- remote villages, far away from Mexico, when the monks went there to
- preach, they told them in their sermons and before christening them
- that the first thing they had to do was to bring all the idols they
- had and all the insignias of the demons to burn (them): and in this
- manner they also gave and brought a large quantity which was publicly
- done in many parts (of the country): because wherever the doctrine
- and the word of God has reached, not a thing has remained that they
- knew or could tell about, for if from now on for a hundred years they
- should dig in the courts of the temples of the ancient idols, they
- would always find idols, because there were so many that they had
- made: for it happened that when a child was born they made an idol,
- and the following year (they made) one a little larger, and after
- four years they made another one, and as the child grew up they went
- on making idols, and of these (idols) the foundations and walls are
- filled, and in the courts there are many of them. In the year (15)39
- and in the year (15)40 several Spaniards, some with authority and
- some without it, to show their zeal of the Faith, and thinking that
- they were accomplishing something (worth while), began to dig and to
- unearth the dead and to urge the Indians that they should give them
- idols: and in some parts (of the country) this reached such a stage
- that the Indians went to look for the idols that were decayed and
- forgotten in the earth, and some of the Indians were even so sorely
- tormented that, to tell the truth, they made new idols and gave them
- (to the Spaniards) that they should cease maltreating them.
-
- Mixed with the great zeal they (the Spaniards) showed in searching
- for idols, (there was) not a little covetousness, and it was because
- the Spaniards (would say), in such a village, or in such a parish,
- there are (were) idols of gold, or of chalchihuitl which is a stone
- of great value, and they imagined that there was an idol weighing ten
- or fifteen arrobas: but in truth they came (too) late, because all
- the gold and precious stones were spent and cashed in and safely in
- the power (hands) of the Spaniards who first held those Indians under
- their jurisdiction. They also thought of finding an idol of stone
- which would be worth as much as a city, and certainly, although I
- have seen many idols which were adored and held highly by the Indians
- and (were) very (greatly) revered as chief gods, and some were of
- chalchihuitl, the one which seemed to me to be worth most, I do not
- think that in Spain they would give ten pesos of gold for it: for
- this they upset and stir and scandalize the towns with their truly
- indiscrete zeal, because if there really is still an idol in some
- village, it is either rotten or so (completely) forgotten or (held or
- kept) so secretly that in a town of ten thousand inhabitants there
- are not even five who know it, and they hold them for what they are,
- either for stones or for wood. Those who thus upset these Indians who
- go their straight way, are like Laban who went to meet Jacob to look
- for his property, and to upset his house in search of his idols,
- because of this that I am telling here I have great experience and I
- (can) see the deceit in which they go about and the way they have to
- disturb and disfavor (hurt) these poor Indians who have forgotten so
- absolutely their idols, as if it were a hundred years ago (that they
- had had them).[112]
-
-Hernándo Ruiz de Alarcon, in his treatise on the superstitions of the
-natives of New Spain, relates that when they went to the hills or
-other remote places where their idols were hidden away, or to certain
-piles of stones where they often made offerings and sacrifices, they
-carried there offerings which were sometimes copal incense wrapped in
-_quauhamatl_, a kind of white paper made from the bark of a soft tree.
-This work, written in 1620, is entitled, _Tratado de las Supersticiones
-y Costumbres Gentilicas que oy viuen entre los Indios Naturales desta
-Nueva España_, and was published for the first time in 1892 by the
-Museo Nacional of Mexico. The present writer has noted such stone
-piles, particularly in Yucatan.
-
-It is probable that we have here an explanation of the existence of our
-deposit of mosaic-incrusted wooden shields and masks, which leads us
-to hope that still further discoveries of this character may be made.
-The climatic conditions in certain parts of the highlands of Middle
-America, where this deposit was found in a cave, favor this assumption.
-There are great sections of comparatively dry, wind-swept, almost
-desert plains, treeless hill-slopes, and ravines, where the chief
-vegetation is cacti in the lower altitudes, while higher up pines and
-oaks abound. Here wooden objects should be indefinitely preserved in
-ancient tombs or in caves, protected by a covering of loose, dry earth,
-the condition under which our collection was found.
-
-The discovery of this remarkable collection of mosaics emphasizes the
-fact that the investigation of the archeology of Mexico is hardly
-commenced, in view of the vast amount of material hidden under the
-ruins of thousands of ancient settlements and burial places, and
-probably in countless caves, which still remain untouched by the
-archeologist.
-
-As revealed by the surprising results of Thompson’s dredging in the
-sacred cenote in Yucatan, a wealth of archeological material also lies
-buried in the mud under the waters of sacred wells and lakes. This is
-notably so in the case of Lake Chapala, on the borders of Michoacan
-and Jalisco in Mexico,[113] and of Lake Amatitlan in Guatemala, where
-thousands of pottery vessels and other objects have been recovered from
-the bottoms of the lakes by divers, and from the mud when the waters
-have receded from the shores during times of extreme drought. These
-objects had been thrown into the waters as offerings to the gods.
-
-The recent results of the systematic exploration of the great mounds
-at Teotihuacan have been quite surprising, and have shed new light on
-the archeology of the central plateau of Mexico. Even more important is
-the discovery of culture sequences in stratified deposits in the valley
-of Mexico, the investigations showing three distinct culture layers
-distinguished by the character of the pottery. Of great significance
-are the discoveries recently made under the great lava flow called the
-Pedregal, at the very edge of the City of Mexico, where the artifacts
-correspond _in toto_ with those found in the bottom layer of the
-stratified deposits.[114] These discoveries mark a great advance in
-our knowledge of the history of ancient Mexico, but, as we have before
-stated, they are only a beginning. Buried underground are the “books”
-the student must study, if ever the tangled history of Middle America
-is to become known and the story of the development of this exceedingly
-interesting division of the human race is to be recorded.
-
-
-
-
-NOTES
-
-
-[1] See Saville, The Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico, _Museum of the
-American Indian, Heye Foundation, Indian Notes and Monographs_, 1920.
-
-[2] Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, Historia General y Natural
-de las Indias, edition of the Real Academia de la Historia, tomo I,
-primera parte, lib. XVII, caps, VIII-XVIII, pp. 502-537, Madrid, 1851.
-
-[3] The Itinerary of Grijalva, written by chaplain Juan Díaz, was
-undoubtedly recorded in Spanish, but we know it only from the Italian
-translation of 1520. It was translated into Spanish by Joaquin Garcia
-Icazbalceta and published by him in his _Documentos para la Historia
-de México_, tomo I, Mexico, 1858. A translation into English, with
-translations of other accounts, relating to this voyage, will appear in
-the _Publications of the Cortes Society_ under the title, The Voyage of
-Juan de Grijalva to Yucatan and the Mexican Coast in 1518.
-
-[4] We quote here from the edition of Bernal Díaz published by the
-Hakluyt Society, bearing the title, The True Conquest of New Spain,
-translated into English by Alfred Percival Maudslay. The citation is
-from vol. I, pp. 48-49, London, 1908.
-
-[5] Bernal Díaz, op. cit., vol. I, p. 53. In the work of Torquemada,
-Monarchia Indiana, is an important statement bearing on this matter, of
-which we give the following translation _in extenso_:
-
-“And this present it was that Gomara and Antonio de Herrera make
-confused mention as having been brought to Ferdinand Cortés by the
-governors of Montezuma on his first landing, which they notice in
-the following words: ‘Which present it is said was sent for Juan de
-Grijalva, when he touched on those shores; but that, notwithstanding
-the haste of those who carried it, they found that he was gone.’ The
-fact was as they state; but I do not understand how those who drew
-up the account of which Herrera availed himself, could have omitted
-that which I say in this chapter, and many other particulars which
-shall be observed in the sequel; since the circumstances which they
-mention, and those which I relate, are intimately connected with each
-other, and those who could have given an account of the former, could
-likewise have done so of the latter; although I think that the error
-lay in their seeking information only from the Spaniards, who at that
-period returned from the Indies, without verifying facts by applying
-to the Indians, who were mainly concerned in most of them, or I may
-say in all, since they were the mark which all who have written on
-the affairs of the conquest strove to hit, and were those who were
-very well acquainted with them, and in the beginning recorded them
-by means of figures and characters, and afterward, when some of the
-most curious amongst them had learned how to write, wrote them down;
-which histories are in my possession: and so high is the estimation
-in which I hold them, on account of their language and the style of
-their composition, that I should be glad to feel myself competent to
-the task of translating them into Spanish with the same elegance and
-grace as the Mexicans penned them in their own language; and since
-these histories are true and authentic, I follow them to the letter;
-but lest the accounts which they contain should appear strange to
-those who read them, I affirm that they are merely a true relation of
-what actually happened, but that other authors have not noticed them
-before me, because the few that have written on the affairs of the
-Indies were ignorant of the events which then occurred, nor had they
-any one to give them the requisite information; neither should I have
-mentioned these facts had I not found that they were verified by Father
-Bernardino de Sahagun, a grave and pious ecclesiastic, who was of the
-second number of those who undertook the conversion of the natives of
-New Spain, but was the first of the investigators of the most secret
-things of this land, of which he knew all the secrets, and employed
-himself for more than sixty years in composing works in the Mexican
-language and in incorporating into it all the information which he was
-able to acquire.” Lib. IV, cap. XIII.
-
-[6] This important work will be reprinted in facsimile, with a
-translation into English, in the author’s proposed work on the voyage
-of Grijalva, as mentioned in Note 3.
-
-[7] This account will also be reprinted in facsimile, with a
-translation into English, in the author’s account of the voyage of
-Grijalva. The title is, Provinciæ Sive Regiones in India Occidentali
-Noviter Repertæ in Vltima Navigatione. The known copies are in the John
-Carter Brown Library, Providence, and the New York Public Library.
-
-[8] I quote here from the translation made and edited by Francis A.
-MacNutt, De Orbe Novo, vol. II, pp. 19-20, New York, 1912.
-
-[9] The chapters relating to the voyage of Grijalva have been
-translated into English by the writer and will appear in the proposed
-work mentioned in Note 3.
-
-[10] Francisco López de Gomara, edition of Don Enrique de Vedia,
-Historiadores Primitivos de Indias, in _Biblioteca de Autores
-Españoles_, tomo I, Madrid, 1877.
-
-[11] Eduard Seler, Ein Kapitel aus dem Geschichtswerk des P. Sahagun,
-p. 124, Berlin, 1890.
-
-[12] Lehmann, in his Methods and Results in Mexican Research, Paris,
-1909, writes: “Hardly less remarkable are the mosaics made of more or
-less precious stones, shells, etc. No less than twenty-three pieces are
-known in various museums, the finest being in London, Rome, and Berlin.
-The stones when cut to shape are embedded in a peculiar substance
-(_tzinacanquauhcuitlatl_) covering the whole surface of the object
-to be decorated; the latter were chiefly of wood, rarely of bone or
-stone. Two masks are skilfully prepared human skulls. The usual shapes
-are shields, helmets, knife handles and trinkets. The small cup-shaped
-heads and the double-jaguar in the Berlin Museum are of doubtful
-meaning. Most of these objects apparently come from the Eastern
-provinces, i. e., Tabasco. We know from other sources that it was only
-under king Ahuizotl, with the conquest of the Tzapotec district, that
-the Mexicans became acquainted with turkois-mosaics, shields, earrings,
-etc.” This is a translation of his Ergebnisse und Aufgaben der
-mexikanistischen Forschung, published in _Archiv für Anthropologie_,
-Neue Folge, band VI, heft 2 u 3, Braunschweig, 1907.
-
-[13] See Lehmann in our List of Works Describing Mexican Mosaics, under
-1906.
-
-[14] Juan de Torquemada, Monarchia Indiana, Barcia edition, Madrid,
-1732, lib. II, cap. LXXIX, p. 215.
-
-[15] See Antonio Peñafiel, Nomenclatura Geográfica y Etimológica de
-México, Mexico, 1897.
-
-[16] Clavigero, The History of Mexico, Cullen transl., vol. II, p. 232,
-London, 1787.
-
-[17] Saville, The Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico, op. cit.
-
-[18] Peter Martyr, op. cit., vol. II, p. 46.
-
-[19] Las Casas, Historia de las Indias, tomo IV, cap. CXXI, pp.
-284-286, Madrid ed., 1876.
-
-[20] Fr. Bernardino de Sahagun, Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva
-España, Bustamante ed., lib. 12, caps, II-VI, pp. 5-12, Mexico, 1829.
-
-Notes to Chapter III. The two places mentioned here, Naulitlantoztlan
-and Mictlanquactle, are given by Torquemada (op. cit., lib. IV, cap.
-XIII, p. 379) as four different towns. Nauhtla and Toztla, the first
-two, are recognizable as being combined into one place-name by Sahagun.
-This is also the case with Mictla and Quauhtla, the third and fourth
-towns of Torquemada, the Mictlanquactle of Sahagun. Brasseur de
-Bourbourg transforms them to Nauhtlan, Tochtlan, and Mictlan-Quauhtla,
-in which he is followed by Orozco y Berra.
-
-Vigil, the editor of Tezozomoc, states that the town of Mictlancuauhtla
-has disappeared, but in a map or plan of Vera Cruz in the collection of
-Icazbalceta, sent in 1580 to Philip II by the alcalde Alvaro Patiño,
-the place is still mentioned, under a corrupted form of the name, as
-Metlangutla.
-
-The name of the five lords sent by Montezuma to receive Cortés,
-conceived to be Quetzalcoatl, are spelled differently by Torquemada
-(op. cit., P-379), and they more closely approach the orthography of
-Molina’s dictionary. They are, Yohualychan, Tepuztecatl, Tizahua,
-Huehuetecatl, and Hueycamecateca.
-
-Notes to Chapter VI. This Xicalanco is not to be confused with the
-Mexican colonial town of the same name near the Laguna de Términos,
-Tabasco. A branch of the Nahuan Mexican people called Xicalancas from
-the name of their first ruler, Xicalancatl, settled on the coast of
-Vera Cruz in the region between the present city of Vera Cruz and the
-Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
-
-Torquemada relates that the messengers, on leaving the ship of Cortés,
-“paddled rapidly away, and came to a little island called Xicalanco,
-where they ate, and rested a little, and they left there and came to
-a town on the seashore called Tecpantlayacac; from there they went to
-Cuetlaxtla, which is some leagues in the interior, where they spent
-the night; the lords and chief of the town begged them to remain there
-that day and rest, but they replied that the need for speed for their
-journey was great.”--Op. cit., lib. IV, cap. XIV, p. 384.
-
-[21] Peter Martyr, op. cit., vol. II, pp. 196-197.
-
-[22] Saville, Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico. The inventories of the
-loot obtained by Cortés are given in English translation on pp. 56-102.
-
-[23] This is quoted from the study of Dr. J. Cheston Morris on the
-“Physical and Technographical Characteristics” of the leaves, in the
-article, “The Tribute Roll of Montezuma,” edited by Dr. Daniel G.
-Brinton, Henry Phillips, Jr., and Dr. J. Cheston Morris, published in
-_Transactions of the American Philosophical Society_, vol. XVII, N. S.,
-pt. II, art. IV, p. 61, Philadelphia, 1892.
-
-[24] The very important Crónica Mexicana, written by Hernando Alvarado
-Tezozomoc, was published by José M. Vigil in his _Biblioteca Mexicana,
-Colección Metódica de Obras y Documentos Relativos a la Historia,
-Geografía, Literatura, Estadística y Legislación de México_, 1881. The
-quotation is from cap. LXXVI, pp. 543-544.
-
-[25] Tezozomoc, op. cit., cap. LXXXIX, p. 600.
-
-[26] Dr. George F. Kunz has kindly placed in our hands his publications
-relating to precious stones. In this connection consult his Gems and
-Precious Stones, New York, 1892; his important paper, New Observations
-on the Occurrences of Precious Stones of Archæological Interest in
-America (extrait des _Mémoires et Déliberations du XVᵉ Congrès des
-Américanistes tenue à Québec du 10 au 15 Septembre 1906_, Quebec,
-1907); and Gems and Precious Stones of Mexico, Mexico, 1907.
-
-[27] The work of Rafael Aguilar y Santillan is entitled Bibliografía
-Geológica y Minera de la República Mexicana completada hasta el año de
-1904, _Boletín del Instituto Geológico de México_, núm. 17, Mexico,
-1908.
-
-[28] The interesting study of Luigi Pigorini describing the Mexican
-mosaics in Rome is entitled Gli Antichi Oggetti Messicani Incrostati di
-Mosaico esistenti nel Museo Preistorico ed Etnografico di Roma, _Reale
-Accademia dei Lincei_, Rome, Anno CCLXXXII, 1884-85, 3ª serie, vol.
-XII, pp. 1-9, I pl. with 5 colored illustrations.
-
-[29] The important study by Joseph E. Pogue, The Turquois. A Study of
-its History, Mineralogy, Geology, Ethnology, Archæology, Mythology,
-Folklore, and Technology, appears as the third memoir of Vol. XII,
-_Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences_, Washington, 1915.
-
-[30] Fray Bernardino de Sahagun, Historia General de las Cosas de
-Nueva España que en Doce Libros y Dos Volúmenes Escribió el R. P.
-Fr. Bernardino de Sahagun, published by Carlos María de Bustamante,
-4 vols., Mexico, 1829. Also published by Lord Kingsborough. The
-quotations are from the Bustamante edition, tomo III, lib. II, cap.
-VII, p. 284, and cap. VIII, pp. 296-297.
-
-[31] On this subject consult the paper by Dr. A. B. Meyer, Die
-Nephritfrage, ein ethnologisches Problem, Berlin, 1883, of which
-an abstract (“The Nephrite Question”) was published in _American
-Anthropologist_, O. S., vol. I, no. 3, Washington, July, 1888.
-
-[32] Saville, A Votive Adze of Jadeite from Mexico, _Monumental
-Records_, New York, May, 1900.
-
-[33] Sahagun, op. cit., tomo III, lib. 10, cap. XXIX, p. 107.
-
-[34] Ibid., cap. vii, p. 19.
-
-[35] The pictorial part of the section of the great work of Sahagun
-in Florence was reproduced in facsimile by the late Mexican scholar,
-Sr. D. Francisco del Paso y Troncoso, for the Mexican government. Only
-recently has the work been received in Mexico, and we are under the
-greatest obligations to Sr. D. Luis Castillo Ledon, Director of the
-Museo Nacional, Mexico, for a copy which we have recently received,
-and which has been of such great assistance in the preparation of
-this study of Mexican mosaics. It is an Atlas, denominated Vol. V, of
-158 estampas (plates). The plates relating to arts and crafts are to
-illustrate Libro IX, and include pl. lv to lxxvi.
-
-[36] We refer the student to the edition of Lord Kingsborough, vol. I.
-
-[37] The Mappe Tlotzin once formed a part of the Boturini collection;
-it was afterward acquired by Aubin, later by Goupil, and is now in the
-National Library in Paris. It has been published in colors (pl. i-iii)
-in Mémoires sur la Peinture Didactique et l’Écriture Figurative des
-Anciens Méxicains, par J. M. A. Aubin, with an introduction by E. T.
-Hamy, Paris, 1885. The pictures referred to are on pl. ii.
-
-[38] Eduard Seler, L’Orfèverie des Anciens Mexicains et leur Art de
-Travailler la Pierre et de Faire des Ornements en Plumes, _Compte rendu
-de la VIIIᵉᵐᵉ Session du Congrès International des Américanistes_,
-Paris, pp. 401-452. The chapter on the art of the lapidaries is on pp.
-418-425. The article, with slight changes in the French translation of
-the Nahuatl text, and some revision, is included in Seler’s Gesammelte
-Abhandlungen zur Amerikanischen Sprach- und Alterthumskunde, Zweiter
-Band, pp. 620-663, Berlin, 1904. The section on the lapidaries’ art is
-on pp. 635-640.
-
-[39] Sahagun, op. cit., tomo II, lib. 9, cap. XVII, pp. 389-391.
-
-[40] The goddess is figured in the numerous examples of the tonalamatl
-in the various codices, of which facsimiles are to be found in all
-important libraries.
-
-[41] The Tonalamatl of the Aubin Collection. An Old Mexican Picture
-Manuscript in the Paris National Library. Published at the Expense of
-his Excellency the Duke of Loubat. With Introduction and Explanatory
-Text by Dr. Eduard Seler. Berlin and London, 1900-1901, p. 115.
-
-[42] The Codex Borbonicus is in the National Library, Paris. It was
-published in exact facsimile, with an introduction by Dr. E. T.
-Hamy, Paris, 1899. The scene referred to is on p. 18 of the Paris
-reproduction.
-
-[43] The important Codex Telleriano Remensis was published in
-facsimile, with an introduction by E. T. Hamy, by the Duke of Loubat,
-Paris, 1899. The illustration referred to is on p. 22 verso, of the
-plates.
-
-[44] Seler, op. cit. (Note 41), p. 118.
-
-[45] Kingsborough, vol. VI, p. 129.
-
-[46] Sahagun, see reproduction of Troncoso, estampa x, fig. 34.
-
-[47] Codex Borbonicus, p. 18.
-
-[48] Tonalamatl Aubin, op. cit., pl. 18.
-
-[49] Seler, op. cit., pp. 114-118.
-
-[50] This quotation is from the Libro de Oro y Tesoro Indico, a
-precious manuscript in the library of the late Joaquín García
-Icazbalceta. Icazbalceta writes as follows about the author: “We do not
-know who was Fr. Andrés de Alcobiz, who in the year 1543 collected in
-Spain these laws of the Mexicans. It is published in _Nueva Colección
-de Documentos para la Historia de México_, tomo III, p. 313, Mexico,
-1891.
-
-[51] Saville, Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico, p. 119.
-
-[52] Anonymous Conqueror, translated by Marshall H. Saville,
-publication of the Cortes Society, no. I, pp. 65-67, New York, 1917.
-
-[53] Obras Históricas de Don Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, tomo I,
-Historia Chichimeca, cap. XXXVI, p. 180, published in Mexico in 1892
-under the editorship of Dr. Alfredo Chavero.
-
-[54] We refer here to the labors of Mexican archeologists begun by
-Leopoldo Batres, and continued by Dr. Manuel Gamio. An elaborate work,
-edited by Gamio, treating of the exploration of this region, has just
-been printed in Mexico.
-
-[55] Sahagun, op. cit., tomo III, lib. 10, cap. XXIX, p. 107.
-
-[56] Ibid., tomo I, lib. 3, cap. XII, p. 255.
-
-[57] Saville, The Cruciform Structures of Mitla and Vicinity, _Putnam
-Anniversary Volume_, p. 187, New York, 1909.
-
-[58] Relación de Andrés de Tapia, published for the first time by
-Icazbalceta in _Colección de Documentos para la Historia de México_,
-tomo II, pp. 582-583, Mexico, 1866.
-
-[59] The Relación de Texcoco was written by Juan Bautista Pomar, a
-mestizo, and a grandson of the Texcocan king Nezahualpitzintli on his
-mother’s side. It was composed for Philip II, and belongs to the class
-of Relations like those of Yucatan, etc. It was first published by
-Icazbalceta in his _Nueva Colección de Documentos para la Historia de
-México_, tomo II. The quotation is from p. 10.
-
-[60] Bernal Díaz, op. cit., vol. II, book VI, chap. xcii, p. 74.
-
-[61] Ibid., chap. CIV, p. 138.
-
-[62] Tezozomoc, op. cit., cap. LXXXVI, p. 592.
-
-[63] Ibid., cap. LXXXVII, p. 593.
-
-[64] Sahagun, op. cit., tomo I, lib. I, cap. XIII, p. 18.
-
-[65] Pomar, op. cit., pp. 8-9.
-
-[66] Seler, Altmexikanische Studien, Ein Kapitel aus dem Geschichtswerk
-des P. Sahagun. _Sonderabzug der Veröffentlichungen aus dem Königlichen
-Museum für Völkerkunde_, I, 4, p. 123, Berlin, 1890.
-
-[67] Anonymous Conqueror, op. cit., p. 22.
-
-[68] Sahagun, op. cit., tomo III, lib. 8, cap. IX, p. 289.
-
-[69] Antonio Peñafiel, Indumentaria Antigua Vestidos Guerreros y
-Civiles de los Mexicanos, pl. 149, Mexico, 1903.
-
-[70] The Codex Coxcatzin has been published in part by Eugène Boban
-in _Documents pour Servir à l’Histoire du Méxique_, Atlas, pl. 41-45,
-Paris, 1891.
-
-[71] Tezozomoc, op. cit., cap. LXI, p. 469; cap. LXIX, pp. 506-507.
-
-[72] Diego Duran, Historia de las Indias de Nueva-España y Islas de
-Tierra Firme, tomo I, cap. LI, p. 407, Mexico, 1867.
-
-[73] Tezozomoc, op. cit., cap. CI, p. 659.
-
-[74] Anonymous Conqueror, op. cit., p. 22.
-
-[75] Thomas Unett Brocklehurst, Mexico To-day, pl. XXXIV, London, 1883.
-
-[76] See Saville, Exploration of Zapotecan Tombs in Southern Mexico,
-_American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. I, pp. 350-362, April, 1899;
-and Funeral Urns from Oaxaca, _American Museum Journal_, vol. IV, pp.
-49-69, New York, 1904.
-
-[77] Saville, Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico, pp. 151-163, pl. i,
-viii.
-
-[78] Manuel Gamio, Los Monumentos Arqueológicos de las Inmediaciones
-de Chalchihuites, Zacatecas, sobretiro del tomo II de los _Anales del
-Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Historia y Etnología_, pp. 467-492,
-5 plans, 8 pl., Mexico, 1910. This is the first piece of work by
-Gamio, and presents the results of the first important archeological
-exploration undertaken in this part of Mexico.
-
-[79] We have just received the first number (Jan.-Feb., 1922) of
-tomo I, época 4ª, of the _Anales del Museo Nacional de Arqueología,
-Historia y Etnografía_ of Mexico, which have long been interrupted. In
-it is announced the forthcoming appearance of a paper relating to this
-subject, “Máscara con Mosaicos de Turquesas.--Dictámenes Periciales.”
-It is to be hoped that the authenticity of this object will be cleared
-of all suspicion by the proposed study.
-
-[80] On this subject consult Saville, Precolumbian Decoration of the
-Teeth in Ecuador, etc., _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. 15,
-1913; reprinted as _Contributions from the Heye Museum_, vol. I, no. 2,
-1913.
-
-[81] David Casares, A Notice of Yucatan with Some Remarks on its Water
-Supply, _Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society_, pp. 207-230,
-Oct., 1905.
-
-[82] Diego de Landa, Historia de las Cosas de Yucatan, edition of Juan
-de Dios de la Rada y Delgado, p. 84, Madrid, 1881.
-
-[83] Casares, op. cit., p. 226.
-
-[84] William H. Holmes, Archeological Studies among the Ancient Cities
-of Mexico, _Anthropological Series, Field Columbian Museum_, vol. I,
-no. 1, Chicago, 1895. Part I, Monuments of Yucatan, Section on Chichen
-Itza, p. 137.
-
-[85] Seler, Codex Vaticanus No. 3773. Elucidation published at the
-expense of the Duke of Loubat, Berlin and London, 1902-1903. In this
-study Seler treats at length of the God Xipe Totec.
-
-[86] Sahagun, op. cit., tomo I, lib. I, cap. XVIII, p. 28.
-
-[87] The two mosaic masks on the sculptured wall at Chichen Itza
-are taken from the drawings on pl. 46 and 47 of the great work of
-Alfred P. Maudslay published as part of _Biologia Centrali-Americana:
-or Contributions to the Knowledge of the Fauna and Flora of Mexico
-and Central America_, edited by F. Ducane Godman and Osbert Salvin.
-Archæology, vol. III (Plates). London, 1895-1902. The crowns are from
-pl. 38, 49-59. The crown with the feathers is from the doorway column
-of Temple A, of the Ball Court.
-
-[88] The first extended study of Mexican turquois mosaics, based
-especially on some of the specimens now in the British Museum, was made
-by E. T. Stevens and published in his Flint Chips, pp. 324-328, London,
-1870. Read’s paper did not appear until 1895.
-
-[89] See Maudslay’s edition of Bernal Díaz, op. cit., vol. I, app.,
-pp. 299-302. Maudslay gives photographs of the two wooden masks in the
-British Museum, which he calls “Masks of Quetzalcoatl,” and of the
-skull mask which he denominates “Mask of Tezcatlipoca.”
-
-[90] See List of Works following.
-
-[91] See translation in Saville, Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico, pp.
-126-127.
-
-[92] See List of Works following.
-
-[93] See List of Works following. Our illustration is a photograph of
-the colored lithographic plate of Uhle.
-
-[94] Zelia Nuttall, On Ancient Mexican Shields, _Separat-Abdruck aus
-Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, Bd. V, 21 pp., Leiden, 1892.
-
-[95] Read, in his study, gives only a drawing of this shield. Our
-illustration, a direct photograph, does not show the designs so clearly
-as the drawing.
-
-[96] Our illustration is a copy of the photograph published by Heger.
-See List of Works following.
-
-[97] Seler, Codex Fejérváry, An Old Mexican Picture Manuscript in
-the Liverpool Free Public Museum, published at the Expense of His
-Excellency the Duke of Loubat, p. 210, Berlin and London, 1901-1902.
-
-[98] The Codex Nuttall or Zouche was published by the Peabody Museum,
-Cambridge, in 1892. The original is now in the British Museum.
-
-[99] On this subject consult the elucidations of Mexican codices by
-Seler, published at the expense of the Duke of Loubat. Also, Mexican
-and Central American Antiquities, Calendar Systems, and History,
-being translations from the German of papers by Seler, Förstemann,
-and others, published as _Bulletin 28, Bureau of American Ethnology_,
-Washington, 1904. The studies of C. P. Bowditch will be found in his
-Numeration, Calendar Systems and Astronomical Knowledge of the Mayas,
-Cambridge, Mass., 1910.
-
-[100] Hermann Beyer, El llamado “Calendario Azteca,” Mexico, 1921, an
-important study of interpretation of the calendar stone of the Aztecs.
-
-[101] This specimen was first illustrated by Lehmann in his paper, Die
-altmexikanischen Mosaiken des Ethnographischen Museums in Kopenhagen,
-_Globus_, 1907. Our illustration is a drawing from the photograph
-reproduced in this study.
-
-[102] See Note 101.
-
-[103] See Heger, 1892, in List of Works.
-
-[104] Our drawing is from the photograph published by Lehmann in his
-paper in the _Proceedings of the Fifteenth International Congress of
-Americanists_, Quebec, 1907.
-
-[105] Our drawing of this specimen is made from the illustration
-published by Oppel. See List of Works, 1896.
-
-[106] Illustrations of this piece have just been published for the
-first time by Lehmann in his Altmexikanische Kunstgeschichte: Ein
-Entwurf in Umrissen, Berlin, 1922(?).
-
-[107] See Seler’s remarks to Heger’s paper, List of Works, 1890.
-
-[108] Consult Seler, Altmexikanische Knochenrasseln, _Gesammelte
-Abhandlungen_, Zweiter Band, pp. 672-694, Berlin, 1904; also Lumholtz,
-Unknown Mexico, vol. ii, pp. 428-430, New York, 1902.
-
-[109] As Colini’s paper is not easily consulted, we append his
-description of these three Mexican wooden objects:
-
-“L’idolo, a guisa di figura umana, è alto m.o. 45 [17¾ inches high].
-La testa è molto grande, senza alcuna proporzione con le altre
-parti del corpo ed è sormontana da un ornamento. La faccia conserva
-ancora traccie del rosso con cui era colorita, il naso è piccolo ma
-largo e schiacciato, gli occhi sono incavature ovali ed hanno sotto
-tre incisioni circolari, come se si fossero volute rappresentare
-le occhiaje di persona vecchia o malata. Anche vicino agli angoli
-della bocca, poco sopra, sono incise due linee oblique, riempite di
-bianco, quasi a guisa di rughe. Tiene le braccia sollevate con le
-mani sull’ornamento della testa, ma le altre parti del corpo non sono
-affatto distinte. Posa sopra una base decorata con incisioni colorite
-in bianco, di cui manca però una parte, cosicché non è possibile
-comprendere pienamente la sua forma primitiva, la quale sembra che
-fosse rettangolare. In ogni modo era troppo sottile per sostenere
-l’idolo, e perciò dobbiamo credere che facesse parte di un apparecchio
-più complicato.
-
-“Delle maschere l’una (V. Tav. in fine, fig. 2) nel tipo e
-nell’espressione somiglia a quella incrosta di mosaico, descritta da
-Ulisse Aldrovandi la quale oggi si conserva nel Museo Etnografico
-Nazionale di Roma [6⅞ inches high]. Il naso è lungo, sottile ed
-arcuato; ma non essendo incavato nell’interno, la maschera non potrebbe
-adattarsi faccia. Gli occhi consistono in rozze aperture ovali, sotto
-le quali, a breve distanza, sono incisi due profondi solchi, a guisa
-di semicerchi, come nell’idolo. Intorno la fronte, sopra la radice
-del naso, corre una larga fascia in rilievo. Fra le labbra inferiore
-allungate, esce la lingua, che si ripiega sul mento: della parte
-inferiore non è possibile formarsi un concetto perchè è stata tagliata.
-Conserva qua e là le traccie della tinta rossa, ma sono meno evidenti
-che nell’idoli. Sulla fascia della fronte, nella lingua e sul naso
-possono ancora notarsi delle linee incise, riempite di materia bianca.
-
-“L’altra maschera (tav., fig. I) è lavorata con maggiore cura
-[7⅛ inches high]: ha la faccia simmetrica nelle varie parti e
-proporzionata. Le labbra sono piccole, ma, quello inferiore essendo
-rotto, non è possibile indovinarne la forma. Ha il naso arcuato, e
-largo alla base, ed è internamente incavato in modo che la maschera
-potrebbe adattarsi alla faccia, e siccome la bocca, le narici e gli
-occhi sono forati, cosi il portatore potrebbe benissimo vedere,
-respirare e parlare. Nella parte inferiore delle occhiaje, agli
-angoli, si notano due piccole incavature ad arco, la cui forma
-farebbe supporre che vi fossero adattati pezzi di madreperla a guisa
-di occhi, come in quelle del Museo Christy. In generale i lineamente
-mostrano quella espressione placida e contemplativa, che, secondo il
-Tylor, e caratteristica dei lavori aztechi e degli egiziani, tanto
-se si riguardano le massiccie sculture in pietra, quanto le piccole
-teste di terracotta. Ambedue queste maschere, nella parte superiore
-corrispondente alla fronte, hanno fori nei quali forse s’immettevano
-cordoncini per sospenderle: la prima ne ha due grandi agli angoli,
-l’altra quattro più piccoli intorno.” (See note under List of Works,
-1885.)
-
-[110] D. I. Bushnell, Jr., Two Ancient Mexican Atlatls, _American
-Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. 7, no. 2, 1905; also North American
-Ethnographical Material in Italian Collections, _ibid._, vol. 8, 1906.
-
-[111] See Note 94.
-
-[112] Fr. Toribio Motolinia, Historia de los Indios de Nueva
-España, Tratado Tercero, cap. XX, pp. 247-249, edition published by
-Icazbalceta, _Colección de Documentos para la Historia de México_, tomo
-1, Mexico, 1858.
-
-[113] Consult Frederick Starr, The Little Pottery Objects of Lake
-Chapala, Mexico, _Bulletin II, Department of Anthropology, University
-of Chicago_, Chicago, 1897.
-
-[114] An important summary of these discoveries has recently been
-published by Gamio; see Las Excavaciones del Pedregal de San Angel y
-la Cultura Arcaica del Valle de Mexico, _American Anthropologist_,
-N. S., vol. 22, no. 2, 1920. Also the paper of Hermann Beyer, Sobre
-Antigüedades del Pedregal de San Angel, _Memorias de la Sociedad
-Científica “Antonio Alzate” de México_, tomo 37, núm. 8, Oct., 1917;
-and Ramon Mena, El Hombre de “El Pedregal” de San Angel, _Escuela
-Naciona, Preparatoria Curso de 1918_.
-
-
-
-
-LIST OF WORKS DESCRIBING MEXICAN MOSAICS
-
-
-1648
-
-ALDROVANUS, ULYSSES. Musæum metallicum. Bologna.
-
-In this work are a brief description (p. 550) and illustrations of two
-of the specimens now in the Museum in Rome, namely, one of the knife
-handles (our pl. XXXIX), and the mask (our pl. VIII). This book is vol.
-XIII of the fourteen volumes of the _Opera Omnia_ of Aldrovanus, issued
-in 1602-1668.
-
-
-1861
-
-TYLOR, E. B. Anahuac: or Mexico and the Mexicans, ancient and modern.
-London.
-
-See pp. 110, 235, 337-339, I fig. Dr. Tylor illustrates the knife with
-handle in the figure on p. 101. In the appendix (pp. 337-339), article
-V is a “Description of three very rare specimens of ancient Mexican
-mosaic work (in the collection of Henry Christy, Esq.).” These objects
-are now in the British Museum.
-
-
-1866
-
-BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG, E., and WALDECK, F. Palenque et autres ruines de
-l’ancienne civilisation du Mexique. Collection de vues, bas-reliefs,
-morceaux d’architecture, coupes, vases, terre cuites, cartées et plans,
-dessinés d’après nature et relevés par M. de Waldeck. Texte rédigé par
-M. Brasseur de Bourbourg.... Ouvrage publié sous les auspices de S.
-E. M. le Ministre de l’instruction publique. Paris. Arthur Bertrand,
-Editeur. Plates. Monuments anciens du Mexique.
-
-Describes (p. VIII) and illustrates in color (pl. XLIII, XLIV) the
-mosaic-handled knife and mosaic skull mask formerly in the Hertz
-collection, now in the British Museum.
-
-
-1867
-
-LÉOUZON LE DUC, L. Rapport sur les antiquités mexicaines conservées à
-Copenhague. _Archives de la Commission Scientifique du Mexique_, Tome
-III. Paris.
-
-Two Mexican mosaics in the Copenhagen Museum are described (tome III,
-pp. 157-158), as follows:
-
-“Voici maintenant trois pièces qui, à mon avis, méritent une attention
-toute particulière.
-
-“D’abord, une tête d’alligator, de 19 centimètres de longueur. Cette
-tête est sculptée en bois et creusée par derrière. La gueule de
-l’alligator est largement ouverte et ses mâchoires encadrent une tête
-humaine fixée au fond du palais.
-
-“Ensuite, une tête d’idole, également sculptée en bois et évidée
-intérieurement, avec une coiffure très-élevée et évasée au sommet,
-d’une hauteur totale, y compris la tête, de 24 centimètres. La bouche
-de l’idole est vaste, ses lèvres fortement tendues découvrent une
-double rangée de longues dents; ses oreilles sont ornées de pendelogues.
-
-“Ces deux pièces offrent cette singularité remarquable qu’elles sont
-garnies en partie, et ont dû l’avoir été en entier, de petits fragments
-d’os la plupart quadrangulaires, blanc ou teints en vert, en rouge et
-en noir, fixés sur le bois à l’aide d’une espèce de résine, ce qui leur
-donne l’aspect d’une mosaïque. Fort endommagées, elles n’ont guère
-conservé d’intacts que les yeux, dont les prunelles sont formées d’os
-blancs, noirs et rouges, et entourées d’un cordon d’os verts. L’état
-du bois qui les compose suffrirait à lui seul pour établir leur haute
-antiquité, si déjà leur caractère symbolique ne la rendait évidente.
-L’une et l’autre out été achetées à Rome, où l’on suppose qu’elles
-avaient été apportées de Mexico par un missionnaire.”
-
-
-1869
-
-SQUIER, E. G. Observations on a collection of chalchihuitls from
-Central America. _Annals of the New York Lyceum of Natural History_,
-vol. IX, August, article XIV, pp. 252-253, fig. I.
-
-The mosaic skull in the British Museum is illustrated, after Waldeck.
-
-
-1870
-
-STEVENS, EDWARD T. Flint chips. A guide to prehistoric archæology,
-as illustrated by the collection in the Blackmore Museum, Salisbury.
-London.
-
-Aztec mosaic work, pp. 324-328. Describes specimens in the Christy
-collection.
-
-
-1880
-
-STEINHAUER, C. L. Das Königliche Ethnographische Museum zu Copenhagen.
-Hand-catalog für die Besuchenden. Copenhagen.
-
-Describes (p. 19) the two mosaics in the Copenhagen Museum. In the 1866
-edition the description is on p. 22.
-
-
-1883
-
-BROCKLEHURST, THOMAS UNETT. Mexico to-day: a country with a great
-future, and a glance at the prehistoric remains and antiquities of the
-Montezumas. London.
-
-Describes (p. 184) and reproduces in colors (pl. XXXIII) the
-human-skull mask in the British Museum. Pl. XXXIV illustrates the
-goddess Coatlicue, showing the turquois-mosaic in colors--the specimen
-to which Peñafiel refers, vide 1903. See our pl. II.
-
-
-1885
-
-COLINI, G. A. Collezioni etnografiche del Museo Borgiano. _Bollettino
-della Società Geografica Italiana_, Roma, Anno XIX, vol. XXII; serie
-II, vol. X, pp. 316-325, 914-932.
-
-In this article Colini (pp. 324-325) describes two masks and an idol
-in the Museo Borgiano in Rome. Regarding these specimens he quotes
-from Vitæ Synopsis Stephani Borgiæ, S. R. E. Cardinalis amplissimi,
-S. Congr. de Propaganda Fide Præfecti, Roma, 1805, p. 44, “Classis
-mexicana: multa lignea et testacea idolorum simulacra forma et figura
-singulari, ac gente mexicanæ propia.” He describes the idol as being
-made of wood in the form of a human figure, 45 cm. high. The two masks
-of wood are described, and figured on the plate containing drawings
-of other American antiquities. It is highly probable that these three
-objects were formerly decorated with mosaic.
-
-PIGORINI, LUIGI. Gli antichi oggetti Messicani incrostati di mosaico
-esistenti nel Museo Preistorico ed Ethnografico di Roma. _Reale
-Accademia dei Lincei_, Anno CCLXXXII, 1884-1885. 9 pp., I pl. with 5
-colored figs.
-
-BASTIAN, A. Zwei altmexikanische Mosaiken. _Verhandlungen der Berliner
-Gesellschaft für Anthropologie_, p. 201.
-
-
-1888
-
-BASTIAN, A., and UHLE, MAX. Schädelmaske von Mexico und Analogien
-aus der Südsee. _Veröffentlichungen aus dem Königlichen Museum für
-Völkerkunde, Herausgegeben von der Verwaltung_, Berlin, Oct.
-
-A description (pp. 2-3) and colored illustration (T. I., I) of the
-mosaic-skull mask in the Berlin Museum.
-
-ANDREE, RICHARD. Die altmexikanischen Mosaiken. _Beitrage zur
-Ethnographie von Amerika aus dem Internationalen Archiv für
-Ethnographie._ Leiden.
-
-Brief notice (p. 8) of the specimen in Gotha.
-
-
-1889
-
-ANDREE, RICHARD. Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche. Neue Folge.
-Leipzig.
-
-Description (pp. 127-130) of the mosaic specimen in Gotha.
-
-
-1890
-
-PEÑAFIEL, ANTONIO. Monumentos del arte Mexicano antiguo. Berlin.
-
-Description (Text, p. 23) and illustration in colors (Atlas, pl. 123)
-of the knife with mosaic handle in the British Museum.
-
-ANDREE, RICHARD. Sur une ancienne mosaique mexicaine. _Congrès
-International des Américanistes, Compte-rendu de la septième session_,
-Berlin, 1888. Berlin.
-
-Describes the Gotha specimen (pp. 146-148).
-
-HEGER, FRANZ. Sur quelques objets archéologiques du Mexique et
-de l’Amérique du Sud. _Congrès International des Américanistes,
-Compte-rendu de la septième session_, Berlin, 1888, pp. 93-97.
-
-The author describes (p. 94) one of the mosaic pieces in the Vienna
-Museum. In the discussion of this paper, Seler (p. 104) identifies the
-animal-like figure as representing the god Xolotl.
-
-
-1892
-
-PI Y MARGIL, FRANCISCO. Historia de la América antecolombiana. Tomo
-primero, segunda parte. Barcelona.
-
-Two colored illustrations (opposite p. 1214) of the mosaic-handled
-knife in the British Museum.
-
-HEGER, FRANZ. Altmexikanische Reliquien aus dem Schlosse Ambras in
-Tirol. _Annalen des K. K. Naturhistorischen Hofmuseums_, B. VII, Heft
-4, pp. 310-400, pl. XVIII, XXII. Vienna.
-
-In this paper Dr. Heger describes and illustrates the shield and animal
-head (three views) of turquois mosaic in the Vienna Museum.
-
-
-1895
-
-READ, CHARLES HERCULES. On an ancient Mexican head-piece coated with
-mosaic. _Archæologia_, vol. LIV, 16 pp., pl. XXVIII, fig. 1-6, London.
-
-Gives in colors and describes for the first time the mosaic head-piece,
-and illustrates all but one of the eight other pieces, in the British
-Museum.
-
-
-1896
-
-OPPEL, A. Die altmexikanischen Mosaiken. _Globus_, Bd. LXX, Nr. 1
-(June), pp. 4-12, 15 fig., Braunschweig.
-
-Figures seven mosaic pieces in the British Museum, five pieces in Rome,
-one piece in Berlin, a piece in Gotha, and a section of the shield in
-Vienna.
-
-
-1903
-
-PEÑAFIEL, ANTONIO. Indumentaria Antigua Mexicana. Vestidos Guerreros y
-Civiles de los Mexicanos. Mexico.
-
-Dr. Peñafiel, in chapter XXIII, under the heading “Incrustaciones
-de Mosaico,” describes some of the mosaic pieces in Europe which he
-states are the most important specimens. “Of this class of works the
-Museo Nacional (Mexico) can count as having only one, in the statue
-of Coatlicue coming from Tehuacan.” On pl. 26 are given the British
-Museum knife, and the two knife-handles in Rome; on pl. 117 one of the
-masks in Rome; on pl. 118(A) the skull mask in Berlin, and (B) the mask
-in Rome; pl. 123 is the femur musical instrument in Rome; and pl. 168
-restorations of the knife-handle specimens with blades, in Rome. These
-illustrations are all in colors, excepting the last.
-
-
-1906
-
-BUSHNELL, DAVID I., Jr. North American ethnographical material
-in Italian museums. _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. VIII,
-Lancaster, Pa.
-
-On pp. 245-246 the author briefly describes the five mosaic pieces in
-Rome, and regarding one of the masks (our pl. VII, _a_) quotes from the
-inventory of the Guardaroba Medicea, 1553, showing the specimen to have
-been in the Medici collection.
-
-LEHMANN, WALTER. Altmexikanische Mosaiken und die Geschenke König
-Motecuzomas und Cortés. _Globus_, Bd. XV, Nr. 20, pp. 318-322,
-Braunschweig, 29 Nov.
-
-In this study Lehmann enumerates the twenty-three Mexican mosaic pieces
-in European museums and gives considerable documentary material from
-the early chroniclers.
-
-
-1907
-
-KUNZ, GEORGE FREDERICK. Gems and precious stones of Mexico. Mexico.
-
-On pp. 7-10, Dr. Kunz discusses turquois and describes some of the
-turquois mosaic specimens in European museums. On p. 52 he concludes
-that “it must be considered as possible, at least, that other
-localities containing turquois were once known, and may be hereafter
-re-discovered.”
-
-LEHMANN, WALTER. Altmexikanische Mosaiken in Kgl. Museum für
-Völkerkunde zu Berlin. _Congrès International des Américanistes, XVᵉ
-Session, tenue à Quebec en 1906_, tome II, pp. 339-349, 4 fig., Quebec.
-
-Describes and illustrates two pieces of Mexican mosaics in the
-Ethnographical Museum of Berlin, a double-jaguar figure, and a jaguar
-head. The first came from the estate of Alexander von Humboldt, the
-second was transferred to the Berlin Museum from the Ducal Museum of
-Braunschweig.
-
-LEHMANN, WALTER. Die altmexikanischen Mosaiken des Ethnographischen
-Museums in Kopenhagen. _Globus_, Bd. XCI, Nr. 21, pp. 332-335, 6 June,
-1907. Abb. I-III.
-
-The author describes and figures the two pieces in Copenhagen, giving
-front and side views, and two different drawings of one of the masks in
-Rome.
-
-
-1908
-
-DÍAZ DEL CASTILLO, BERNAL. (Maudslay, A. P., translator and editor.)
-The true history of the conquest of New Spain. Edition of the Hakluyt
-Society, vol. I, London.
-
-Under the title “Montezuma’s Gifts to Cortés,” Maudslay describes
-(Appendix, pp. 299-302) and illustrates (pl. 13-16) the three mosaic
-masks in the British Museum. Pl. 16 is a rear view of the skull mask
-showing the leather strap by which it was attached to the head. This
-mask Maudslay identifies as probably that of Tezcatlipoca, and the
-other two as belonging to Quetzalcoatl.
-
-
-1910
-
-GAMIO, MANUEL. Los monumentos arqueológicos de las inmediaciones de
-Chalchihuites, Zacatecas. _Anales del Museo Nacional de Arqueología,
-Historia y Etnología_, tome II, pp. 469-492, pls. 1-8, Mexico.
-
-On pl. 8 are figured two pieces of mosaic-work found in the ruins near
-Chalchihuites.
-
-BLACKISTON, A. HOOTON. Recent discoveries in Honduras. _American
-Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. 12, Lancaster, Pa.
-
-Describes (p. 539) and illustrates (pl. XLVI) the mosaic wooden mask
-found in 1908 in a cave in an arroyo on the headwaters of a small
-stream flowing into the Rio Chamelecon, about 25 miles distant from the
-ruins of the ancient city of Naco. This specimen is now in the Museum
-of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. See our pl. XVII.
-
-
-1912
-
-JOYCE, T. A. A short guide to the American antiquities in the British
-Museum. London.
-
-Joyce describes (p. 14) and illustrates (figs. 12-17) six of the mosaic
-pieces in the British Museum.
-
-
-1914
-
-JOYCE, T. A. Mexican archæology. An introduction to the archæology of
-the Mexican and Mayan civilizations of pre-Spanish America. New York
-and London.
-
-In pl. I is reproduced in colors the skull mask, and in pl. XVIII, fig.
-1, the knife with handle. Reference to these is made on p. 141.
-
-HOLMES, W. H. Masterpieces of aboriginal American art. II. Mosaic
-work, minor examples. _Art and Archæology_, vol. I, no. 3, Washington,
-November.
-
-A description (pp. 91-102) of some of the more important specimens of
-mosaics, with colored frontispiece and 9 figures.
-
-
-1915
-
-POGUE, JOSEPH E. The turquoise. A study of its history, mineralogy,
-geology, ethnology, archæology, mythology, folklore, and technology.
-_Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences_, vol. XII, part II, third
-memoir, Washington.
-
-Mexican mosaics are described on pp. 93-97; fig. 4 illustrates the bird
-mask in Gotha; pl. 15-17, Mexican mosaics in the British Museum and in
-Rome (10 pieces). The Use of Turquois in Mexico and Central America:
-Use as Attested by Historical Evidence, pp. 90-92; Use as Attested by
-Objects, pp. 93-97.
-
-
-1921
-
-ARREOLA, JOSÉ MARÍA. Como legítima el Museo Nacional ha adquirido una
-pieza falsificada. _El Excelsior_, Mexico, Oct. 20.
-
-Illustrates in this signed newspaper article a stone mask with turquois
-mosaic decoration said to have been found in Guerrero. He concludes
-that it is fraudulent.
-
-LEHMANN, WALTER. Altmexikanische Kunstgeschichte ein Entwurf in
-Umrissen. Band 8 des Orbis Pictus. Weltkunst-Bücherei herausgegeben von
-Paul Westheim. Berlin.
-
-In this short study of old Mexican art history Dr. Lehmann illustrates
-a number of notable Mexican antiquities. The Xolotl figure in Vienna
-is illustrated, front and side views, pl. 7, and the crouching animal
-figure in the British Museum is given on pl. 8. He gives brief
-descriptions in the description of plates on pp. 22-23.
-
-
-1922
-
-GAMIO, MANUEL. Una máscara de mosaico falsificada. [A counterfeit
-mosaic mask.] _Ethnos_, tomo I, núms. 8-12, pp. 260-264, Mexico, Nov.
-1920-Mar. 1921.
-
-Gamio denounces as fraudulent the stone mosaic mask claimed to have
-been discovered in Guerrero by Porfirio Aguirre.
-
-MENA, RAMON. La arqueología debe de estar en manos de arqueológicos.
-_El Universal_, Mexico, April 2.
-
-In this signed newspaper article Mena defends the authenticity of the
-stone mask decorated with turquois mosaic, said to have been found in
-Guerrero.
-
-
-
-
-  Transcriber’s Notes:
-
-  Italics are shown thus: _sloping_.
-
-  Small capitals have been capitalised.
-
-  Variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained.
-
-  Punctuation has been retained as published.
-
-*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART IN ANCIENT
-MEXICO ***
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-<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Turquois mosaic art in ancient Mexico, by Marshall H. Saville</p>
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
-at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
-are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
-country where you are located before using this eBook.
-</div>
-
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Turquois mosaic art in ancient Mexico</p>
-  <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Marshall H. Saville</p>
-<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: December 27, 2021 [eBook #67027]</p>
-<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p>
-  <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Alan Thompson, Charlene Taylor, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p>
-<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART IN ANCIENT MEXICO ***</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</span></p>
-
-
-<p class="c p6">
-CONTRIBUTIONS</p>
-<p class="c little">FROM THE</p>
-<p class="c">MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN</p>
-<p class="c">HEYE FOUNDATION</p>
-<p class="c">VOLUME VI</p>
-
-
-
-
-
-<p class="c p4 xlarge">
-TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART</p>
-<p class="c xlarge">IN ANCIENT MEXICO
-</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter1" id="f1">
-<p class="captiona">PL. I</p>
-<a id="fig1" href="images/fig1big.jpg">
-<img src="images/fig1.jpg" alt="" />
-</a>
-<p class="caption">SHIELD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK</p>
-</div>
-
-
-
-
-
-<h1>
-TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART<br />
-IN ANCIENT MEXICO<br />
-</h1>
-<p class="c p4 little">
-BY</p>
-
-<p class="c large">
-MARSHALL H. SAVILLE</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter1">
-<img src="images/fig2.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-
-<p class="c p6">
-NEW YORK</p>
-
-<p class="c">
-MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN</p>
-
-<p class="c">
-HEYE FOUNDATION</p>
-
-<p class="c xlarge">
-1922
-</p>
-
-
-
-
-<p class="c p6 more">
-CONDÉ NAST PRESS      GREENWICH, CONN.
-</p>
-
-
-
-
-<p class="c p6 little">
-TO</p>
-
-<p class="c large">
-GEORGE GUSTAV HEYE</p>
-
-<p class="c">
-<i>In appreciation of his long-continued interest in all<br />
-that pertains to the study of the aboriginal race of<br />
-America, which has reached fruition in the opening of the</i>
-</p>
-
-<p class="c">
-<span class="smcap">Museum of the American Indian</span></p>
-
-<p class="c">
-<span class="smcap">Heye Foundation</span></p>
-
-<p class="c">
-<i>this volume is dedicated by the author and the<br />
-staff of the Museum</i>
-</p>
-
-
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The</span> writer has undertaken the present study of Mexican
-Turquois Mosaics in honor of the approaching opening to the
-public of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
-the only institution devoted exclusively to the study of
-the aboriginal American peoples ever established; and the
-proximate International Congress of Americanists to be held
-at Rio de Janeiro this summer. Owing to lack of time it has
-been impossible to obtain new photographic illustrations of all
-the specimens of mosaic-work in European museums, but the
-author desires to express his thanks to T. A. Joyce, Esq., for
-his courtesy in furnishing photographs of the examples in the
-British Museum. To Dr. Franz Heger, of the State Natural
-History Museum, Vienna, we are under deep obligations for
-photographs and description of the interesting Xolotl figure
-preserved in that Museum. Dr. S. K. Lothrop has kindly had
-photographs made of the objects of this class in the Prehistoric
-and Ethnographic Museum in Rome, and has made certain
-valuable observations concerning them. To Drs. A. M.
-Tozzer and H. J. Spinden special acknowledgment is due for
-their generous permission to illustrate the mosaics from Chichen
-Itza, thus anticipating their own description of the objects in
-the work now being prepared regarding one of the most important
-discoveries ever made in ancient America. The fine drawings
-are from the pen of William Baake, and the beautiful
-plates represent the best efforts of the Heliotype Company.
-Finally must be acknowledged the characteristic generosity of
-one of the trustees of the Museum, James B. Ford, Esq., who
-has made it possible for us to publish this paper, and to whom
-the Museum is indebted for its acquisition of the precious
-collection of Mexican mosaics which are now described for
-the first time.</p>
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</span></p>
-
-<p class="ph2">CONTENTS</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<table>
-
-<tr><td class="tdl"></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><span class="more">PAGE</span></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Preface</span></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#PREFACE">ix</a></td></tr>
-
-
-<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span> </td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">1</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Earliest Historical Accounts of Turquois Mosaic<br />
-                    in Mexico</span></td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#c3">3</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdlp">The Grijalva Expedition, 1518</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c3a">3</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdlp">Loot obtained by Cortés, 1519-1525</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c4">8</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Tribute of Mosaic Paid to the Aztec Rulers</span></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c5">22</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Source of Turquois</span></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c6">27</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Aztec Lapidaries and Their Work</span></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c7">29</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Objects Decorated with Mosaic</span></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c8">40</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Existing Specimens of Mosaic</span></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c9">47</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdlp">Minor Examples</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c10">48</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdlp">Chichen Itza Specimens</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c11">55</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdlp">Major Examples</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c12">59</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdlp2">Helmet</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c13">60</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdlp2">Masks</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c14">60</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdlp2">Skull Masks</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c15">67</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdlp2">Shields</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c16">68</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdlp2">Ear-plug</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c17">79</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdlp2">Animal Figures</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c18">80</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdlp2">God Figure</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c19">82</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdlp2">Knife Handles</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c20">82</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdlp2">Human Femur Musical Instrument</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c21">84</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Conclusion</span></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c22">86</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Notes</span></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c23">92</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">List of Works Describing Mexican Mosaics</span></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#c24">103</a></td></tr>
-
-
-</table>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</span></p>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</span></p>
-
-<p class="ph2">ILLUSTRATIONS</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p class="c">
-<span class="smcap">Plates</span>
-</p>
-
-<table>
-
-<tr><td class="tdr"></td>
-    <td class="tdl"></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><span class="more">PAGE</span></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">I.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden shield with turquois mosaic decoration<br />
-                    Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,<br />
-                    New York </td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f1"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">II.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Stone idol with mosaic decoration  National Museum,<br />
-                    Mexico</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f3">22</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">III.</td>
-    <td class="tdl"><i>a</i>, Wooden staff with turquois mosaic decoration,<br />
-                    from Sacred cenote, ruins of Chichen Itza,<br />
-                    Yucatan  Peabody Museum, Cambridge</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt"></td>
-    <td class="tdl"><i>b</i>, Wooden rattle with turquois mosaic decoration,<br />
-                    from Sacred cenote, ruins of Chichen Itza, Yucatan<br />
-                    Peabody Museum, Cambridge</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f4">22</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">IV.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden helmet with mosaic decoration  British<br />
-                    Museum, London</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f5">24</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">V.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration<br />
-                    British Museum, London</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f6">26</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">VI.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration<br />
-                    British Museum, London</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f7">28</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">VII.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration<br />
-                    Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f8">30</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">VIII.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration<br />
-                    Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f9">32</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">IX.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration<br />
-                    Museum of the American Indian, Heye<br />
-                    Foundation, New York </td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f10">34</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">X.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration<br />
-                    Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,<br />
-                    New York</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f11">36</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</span></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XI.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden mask (fragment) with turquois mosaic<br />
-                    decoration  Museum of the American Indian,<br />
-                    Heye Foundation, New York</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f12">38</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XII.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden mask (fragment) with turquois mosaic<br />
-                    decoration  Museum of the American Indian,<br />
-                    Heye Foundation, New York</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f13">40</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XIII.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden mask with mosaic decoration  Museum<br />
-                    of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,<br />
-                    New York</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f14">42</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XIV.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden mask with mosaic decoration  Museum<br />
-                    of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,<br />
-                    New York</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f15">44</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XV.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden mask (fragment) with mosaic decoration<br />
-                    Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,<br />
-                    New York</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f16">46</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XVI.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden mask formerly covered with mosaic decoration<br />
-                    Museum of the American Indian,<br />
-                    Heye Foundation, New York</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f17">48</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XVII.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration,<br />
-                    from Honduras  Museum of the American<br />
-                    Indian, Heye Foundation, New York</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f18">50</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XVIII.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Skull mask with mosaic decoration  Ethnographical<br />
-                    Museum, Berlin</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f19">52</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XIX.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Skull mask with mosaic decoration  British Museum,<br />
-                    London</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f20">54</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XX.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden shield with turquois mosaic decoration<br />
-                    British Museum, London</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f21">56</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XXI.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden shield with turquois mosaic decoration<br />
-                    State Natural History Museum, Vienna</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f22">58</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XXII.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Back of wooden shield illustrated in Pl. I. Museum<br />
-                    of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,<br />
-                    New York</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f23">60</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</span></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XXIII.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden shield with mosaic decoration. Museum<br />
-                    of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,<br />
-                    New York</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f24">62</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XXIV.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden shield with mosaic decoration. Museum<br />
-                    of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,<br />
-                    New York</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f25">64</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XXV.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden shield (fragment) with mosaic decoration.<br />
-                    Museum of the American Indian, Heye<br />
-                    Foundation, New York</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f26">66</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XXVI.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden shield (fragment) with mosaic decoration.<br />
-                    Museum of the American Indian, Heye<br />
-                    Foundation, New York</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f27">68</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XXVII.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden shield (fragment) with mosaic decoration.<br />
-                    Museum of the American Indian, Heye<br />
-                    Foundation, New York</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f28">70</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XXVIII.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden shield (fragment) with mosaic decoration.<br />
-                    Museum of the American Indian, Heye<br />
-                    Foundation, New York</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f29">72</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XXIX.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden shield (fragment) with mosaic decoration.<br />
-                    Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,<br />
-                    New York</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f30">74</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XXX.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden ear-plug with mosaic decoration. Museum<br />
-                    of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,<br />
-                    New York</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f31">76</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XXXI.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden head with head-piece, with mosaic decoration.<br />
-                    National Museum, Copenhagen</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f32">78</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XXXII.</td>
-    <td class="tdl"><a href="#f33"><i>a</i></a>, Wooden jaguar head with mosaic decoration.<br />
-                    Ethnographical Museum, Berlin</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt"></td>
-    <td class="tdl"><a href="#f34"><i>b</i></a>, Wooden head of animal and human face in<br />
-                              jaws with mosaic decoration. National Museum,<br />
-                              Copenhagen</td>
-    <td class="tdrb">78</td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XXXIII.</td>
-    <td class="tdl"><a href="#f35"><i>a</i></a>, Wooden head of animal with mosaic decoration.<br />
-                    State Natural History Museum, Vienna</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt"></td>
-    <td class="tdl"><a href="#f36"><i>b</i></a>, Wooden head of monkey with mosaic decoration.<br />
-                    British Museum, London</td>
-    <td class="tdrb">78<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</span></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XXXIV.</td>
-    <td class="tdl"><a href="#f37"><i>a</i></a>, Wooden two-headed jaguar figure with mosaic<br />
-                    decoration. Ethnographical Museum, Berlin</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt"></td>
-    <td class="tdl"><a href="#f38"><i>b</i></a>, Wooden bird’s head with mosaic decoration.<br />
-                    Museum, Gotha</td>
-    <td class="tdrb">78</td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XXXV.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden animal figure on haunches with mosaic<br />
-                    decoration. British Museum, London</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f39">78</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XXXVI.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden double-headed snake figure with mosaic<br />
-                    decoration. British Museum, London</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f40">80</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XXXVII.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Wooden figure of Xolotl god with mosaic decoration.<br />
-                    State Natural History Museum, Vienna</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f41">80</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XXXVIII.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Flint knife with wooden handle with mosaic decoration.<br />
-                    British Museum, London</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f42">82</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XXXIX.</td>
-    <td class="tdl"><i>a</i>, Wooden knife handle with mosaic decoration.<br />
-                    Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt"></td>
-    <td class="tdl"><i>b</i>, Wooden knife handle with mosaic decoration.<br />
-                    Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f43">82</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="tdrt">XL.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Human femur musical instrument with mosaic<br />
-                    decoration. Prehistoric and Ethnographic<br />
-                    Museum, Rome</td>
-    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#f44">84</a></td></tr>
-
-</table>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<p class="c p2"><span class="smcap">Text Figures</span></p>
-
-<table>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdrt">1.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Bowl filled with turquois. After Tribute Roll of<br /> Montezuma</td>
-<td class="tdrb"><a href="#f46">24</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdrt">2.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Ten masks of turquois. After Tribute Roll of<br /> Montezuma</td>
-<td class="tdrb"><a href="#f47">24</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdrt">3.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Small bag filled with turquois. After Tribute Roll of<br />
-                Montezuma</td>
-<td class="tdrb"><a href="#f48">25</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdrt">4.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Shields with turquois mosaic decoration. After Tribute<br />
-                Roll of Montezuma</td>
-<td class="tdrb"><a href="#f49">25</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdrt">5.</td>
-<td class="tdl"> Serpent scepter with turquois mosaic decoration. After<br />
-                 Sahagun, manuscript of the Real Palacio, Madrid</td>
-<td class="tdrb"><a href="#f50">43</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</span></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdrt">6.</td>
-<td class="tdl"><i>a</i>, Gold crown with turquois mosaic decoration. After<br />
-                Sahagun, manuscript of the Real Palacio, Madrid</td>
-<td class="tdrb"></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdrt"></td>
-<td class="tdl"><i>b</i>, Gold crown. After Tribute Roll of Montezuma</td>
-<td class="tdrb"><a href="#f51">45</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdrt">7.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Pottery disc with hematite mosaic decoration, from<br />
-                Cuilapa, Oaxaca. American Museum of Natural History,<br />
-                New York</td>
-<td class="tdrb"><a href="#f52">51</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdrt">8.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Gold shield breast ornament with turquois mosaic decoration,<br />
-                from Yanhuitlan, Oaxaca. National Museum,<br />
-                Mexico</td>
-<td class="tdrb"><a href="#f53">52</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdrt">9.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Wooden object (fragment) with turquois mosaic decoration,<br />
-                from Sacred cenote, ruins of Chichen Itza, Yucatan.<br />
-                Peabody Museum, Cambridge</td>
-<td class="tdrb"><a href="#f54">57</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdrt">10.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Wooden object (fragment) with turquois mosaic decoration,<br />
-                from Sacred cenote, ruins of Chichen Itza,<br />
-                Yucatan. Peabody Museum, Cambridge</td>
-<td class="tdrb"><a href="#f54">57</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdrt">11.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Rattle of the god Xipe Totec. After Sahagun, manuscript<br />
-                of the Real Palacio, Madrid</td>
-<td class="tdrb"><a href="#f55">58</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdrt">12.</td>
-<td class="tdl"><i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, Crowns with mosaic decoration, from sculptured<br />
-                wall, Temple of the Jaguars, ruins of Chichen<br />
-                Itza, Yucatan. After Maudslay</td>
-<td class="tdrb"><a href="#f56">58</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdrt">13.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Mask with mosaic decoration, from sculptured wall,<br />
-                Temple of the Jaguars, ruins of Chichen Itza, Yucatan.<br />
-                After Maudslay</td>
-<td class="tdrb"><a href="#f57">59</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdrt">14.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Mask with mosaic decoration, from sculptured wall,<br />
-                Temple of the Jaguars, ruins of Chichen Itza, Yucatan.<br />
-                After Maudslay</td>
-<td class="tdrb"><a href="#f57">59</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdrt">15.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Mask of wood with turquois mosaic decoration. Prehistoric<br />
-                and Ethnographic Museum, Rome. After<br />
-                Pigorini</td>
-<td class="tdrb"><a href="#f58">63</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdrt">16.</td>
-<td class="tdl">God Paynal with shield decorated with turquois mosaic.<br />
-                After Sahagun, manuscript of the Real Palacio, Madrid</td>
-<td class="tdrb"><a href="#f59">70</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdrt">17.</td>
-<td class="tdl">God Paynal with shield decorated with turquois mosaic.<br />
-                After Sahagun, Florentine manuscript</td>
-<td class="tdrb"><a href="#f59">70</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xviii">[Pg xviii]</span></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdrt">18.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Glyphs of the town of Culhuacan. After Codex Telleriano<br />
-                Remensis</td>
-<td class="tdrb"><a href="#f60">74</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-<tr>
-<td class="tdrt">19.</td>
-<td class="tdl">Knife handle of wood with turquois mosaic decoration.<br />
-                Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome. After<br />
-                Pigorini</td>
-<td class="tdrb"><a href="#f61">83</a></td>
-</tr>
-
-</table>
-
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</span></p>
-
-<p class="c xlarge">TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART IN ANCIENT MEXICO</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="c more"><span class="smcap">By</span> MARSHALL H. SAVILLE</p>
-
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 class="nobreak p2" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div>
-<img class="drop-capp" src="images/fig45.jpg"  alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p class="drop-capp">ONE of the tragedies of the discovery of the New
-World was the abrupt and summary blotting out of
-the flourishing and still advancing civilization of the
-Aztec and other Mexican tribes. Had their complete conquest
-and subjection been delayed a few decades they in all probability
-would have developed a written phonetic language.
-Their intellectual abilities are evidenced by a study of the
-intricate calendar system, and the picture and hieroglyphic
-records which survive. The triumphs of their architectural
-attainments are well known, and may be investigated in the
-numerous monuments and buildings in the ruined cities scattered
-throughout Mexico. They had made notable strides
-toward civilization in certain of the minor fine arts. Ignorant
-of glass and of glazed pottery, they nevertheless developed
-the ceramic art to a high degree of excellence. Their inventive
-genius and technical skill were manifest in their goldsmith’s
-art.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
-
-<p>Without the knowledge of iron, in the working of hard
-precious and semi-precious stones into idols and personal
-ornaments, their craftsmanship was equal to that of the best
-lapidaries of Europe at the beginning of the sixteenth century.
-In the lapidarian art they had advanced so far as to fashion
-and adorn many objects with designs, both geometric and
-realistic, in stone mosaic, employing turquois chiefly for this
-purpose, but also making use of other stones&mdash;marcasite and
-shell. But the supreme esthetic achievement of the Aztecs was
-the production of a class of mosaics in which they used tiny
-bits of colored feathers instead of stones in making the designs.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</span>
-This unique art was employed in adorning objects for personal
-use, for warfare, or for priestly ceremonies. The patterns were
-produced by applying the tiny bits of feathers with glue either
-directly on wood or on wooden objects covered with skin or
-with native paper. From descriptions of feather mosaics in
-the writings of early chroniclers, and from a study of the
-handful of specimens which have escaped the ravages of time,
-it is evident that this art reached the highest artistic level
-attained by any of the aboriginal tribes of America.</p>
-
-<p>We will not enter into a discussion of feather mosaics at
-this time, but will consider primarily the parallel art of turquois
-mosaic. Aside from the numerous historical notices contained
-in the early chronicles and in the inventories of the loot of the
-Aztecs sent to Europe by Cortés, there is little of this art upon
-which to base a careful study that has survived. It is one of
-the most interesting and highly developed arts of ancient
-America, but it was practised by only a few tribes. Apart
-from the Mexican region where turquois mosaic was most
-highly developed, excellent examples have been found with
-other ancient remains of the Pueblos of Arizona and New
-Mexico, and incrusted objects have also been found with
-ancient burials on the coast of Peru, indicating a somewhat
-similar technique though far less skill in application. The
-materials usually employed in Mexico were turquois, jadeite,
-malachite, quartz, beryl, garnet, obsidian, marcasite, gold,
-bits of red and other colored shell, and nacre. The base upon
-which the incrustation was laid was wood, stone, gold, shell,
-pottery, and possibly leather and native paper, the mosaic
-being held in place by means of a tenacious vegetal pitch or
-gum, or a kind of cement.</p>
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="c3">EARLIEST HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF TURQUOIS
-MOSAIC IN MEXICO</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class="c large" id="c3a"><span class="smcap">The Grijalva Expedition</span>, 1518</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The</span> first knowledge received by Europeans of the existence
-of turquois mosaic objects among the Mexicans was by members
-of the expedition sent out from Cuba by the governor,
-Diego Velásquez, during the spring of 1518, under the command
-of Juan de Grijalva. After reaching the shores of Yucatan
-near the island of Cozumel, the party coasted the Yucatan
-peninsula, reaching the territory of the present State of Campeche,
-which had been discovered the previous year by
-Francisco Hernández de Córdoba. Proceeding westward along
-unknown lands, they reached a great river in the State of
-Tabasco, to which the name of the commandant was given,
-and it is still known as Rio de Grijalva. Here, according to
-some accounts, the expedition obtained the first specimens
-of turquois mosaic. We shall consider this point later. Leaving
-the Rio de Grijalva they went westward and arrived at the
-site of the present city of Vera Cruz, where they obtained by
-barter with the Indians a considerable treasure, including some
-objects of turquois mosaic, which Grijalva decided to send
-immediately to the governor in Cuba with a report of his discoveries
-up to that time. Consequently, on June 24, 1518, one
-of Grijalva’s captains, Pedro de Alvarado, set out on the return
-voyage to Fernandina (Cuba), while Grijalva himself continued
-the exploration of the eastern coast of Mexico.</p>
-
-<p>The provenience of the treasure obtained by Grijalva on
-this first expedition of discovery to the coasts of Tabasco and
-Vera Cruz in 1518 is not at all clear from the accounts of this
-voyage in the writings both of the eye-witnesses themselves
-and of those who shortly afterward wrote of the conquest
-from the reports of the participants in the events. It has been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span>
-generally assumed that Grijalva obtained mosaic objects from
-the Indians of Tabasco; this is specifically stated by both
-Oviedo and Gomara, who recorded detailed accounts of the
-Grijalva expedition. The account by Oviedo<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> is even more
-extended and valuable than the narrations of the eye-witnesses,
-namely, Juan Díaz<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> the chaplain, and the redoubtable Bernal
-Díaz. Oviedo states that his account is from the report forwarded
-to the King of Spain by the governor Velásquez, who
-sent out the expedition from Cuba. Gomara, who for a time
-was chaplain of Cortés in Spain, never visited the New World,
-but had access to the various reports sent to Spain regarding
-the conquest.</p>
-
-<p>Unfortunately in the writings of the eye-witnesses no detailed
-descriptive lists are to be found relating just what pieces
-of mosaic-work were obtained by Grijalva from the Mayan
-Indians of Tabasco and the people of the coast of the present
-State of Vera Cruz. The extended account given by Oviedo
-recites the voyage from day to day and the character of various
-objects received from the Tabasco Indians, followed by the
-list of specimens obtained from the Mexican Indians near the
-Isla de Sacrificios, Vera Cruz. We will quote from these lists
-later. Gomara’s list is quite extended. In the first part of his
-<i>Historia de las Indias</i> he describes various articles procured
-by Grijalva from the Indians at the mouth of the river in
-Tabasco, to which his name was applied, followed in turn by
-the inventory of objects obtained at San Juan de Ulua, Vera
-Cruz. In the second part of his history, the <i>Conquista de
-Mexico</i>, he gives only a single long inventory of the barter
-obtained, as he says, “from the Indians of Potonchan [Tabasco],
-San Juan de Ulua, and other places of that coast.” It seems
-highly probable, however, that such interesting and valuable
-loot must have been accompanied with an inventory when it
-was sent to Spain late in 1518 or early in 1519 by Governor
-Velásquez. Oviedo mentions seeing the things, apparently in
-Barcelona, in May 1519. It is possible that both Oviedo and
-Gomara may have had access to such an inventory, or if not,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span>
-they wrote their own descriptions of the objects after seeing
-them.</p>
-
-<p>Bernal Díaz, who accompanied both Grijalva and Cortés
-to Mexico, wrote his history nearly fifty years after the stirring
-events of the discovery and conquest. He was a prejudiced
-writer, and seems to have been largely animated in his old age
-to tell the story of the conquest primarily to refute many of
-the statements of Gomara. Bernal Díaz writes bluntly at the
-very outset of his invaluable history, which he calls the “True
-History,” that he speaks “here in reply to all that has been
-said and written by persons who themselves knowing nothing,
-have received no true account from others of what really took
-place, but who nevertheless now put forward any statements
-that happen to suit their fancy.” While not describing the
-treasure obtained by Grijalva, he mentions “some gold jewels
-some (of which) were diadems and others were in the shape of
-ducks like those of Castile, and other jewels like lizards, and
-three necklaces of hollow beads, and other articles of gold not
-of much value, for they were not worth more than two hundred
-pesos.”<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> These he states were obtained from the Indians of
-Potonchan. For some reason he apparently was not greatly
-impressed either by the technical excellence or by the esthetic
-beauty of the objects procured by barter from the vicinity of
-the present city of Vera Cruz; he simply writes that the
-Spaniards were engaged for six days in trading with the Indians
-and got more than sixteen thousand dollars’ worth of jewelry
-of low-grade gold worked into various forms. He then says:
-“This must be the gold which the historians Gomara, Yllescas,
-and Jovio say was given by the natives of Tabasco, and they
-have written it down as though it were true, although it is
-well known to eye-witnesses that there is no gold in the province
-of the Rio de Grijalva or anywhere near it, and very few
-jewels.”<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Torquemada wrote in later years to the same
-effect.</p>
-
-<p>In none of the accounts by the participants of this expedition
-are mosaic pieces specifically mentioned. The chaplain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span>
-of Grijalva’s fleet, Juan Díaz, states merely that they were
-given “a mask of gold beautifully wrought, and a little figure
-of a man with a little mask of gold, and a crown of gold beads
-with other jewels and stone of various colors.” This report was
-first printed in Venice, March 3, 1520, appearing in Italian as
-an appendix to the <i>Itinerario</i> of Ludovico de Varthema.</p>
-
-<p>An anonymous independent relation in Italian of this
-voyage seems to have been printed at Venice in the same year
-under the title <i>Littera Mãdata della Insula de Cuba</i>, etc., the
-copy in the Marciana Library, Venice, being the only one
-known. From a photostat copy of the Italian we are able to
-present a translation of the mention of these objects, somewhat
-similar to that given by Juan Díaz. The <i>Littera Mãdata</i> states
-that the Spaniards obtained “a mask of gold, and the figure of
-a man all of gold, seemingly of the age of twelve, and a fan of
-gold, and other jewels of divers colors.”<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
-
-<p>Another anonymous early printed report, in Latin, without
-date or place of printing, affords practically the same information
-as that contained in the <i>Itinerario</i> of Juan Díaz and in
-the <i>Littera Mãdata</i>.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
-
-<p>The earliest printed information regarding the Grijalva
-voyage in which mosaic objects are specifically noted is in
-Peter Martyr’s <i>De Nvper Sub D. Carolo Repertis Insulis</i>,
-printed in Basle in 1521. In speaking of the valuable objects
-obtained by Grijalva in Coluacan (Vera Cruz), and sent to
-Spain, he mentions that “the cacique brought a small golden
-statue of a man, also a gold fan, and a mask beautifully wrought
-and decorated with stones.”<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> It will be observed that these
-objects correspond with those mentioned in the reports noted
-above, only that Peter Martyr speaks of the decoration of the
-mask with stones. With the exception of this note by Peter
-Martyr, who saw the objects in Spain, there is, as we have
-said, no special statement regarding mosaic-work to be found
-in the earliest known printed accounts of the Grijalva voyage.
-In 1535 the great work of Oviedo was first published, and here
-we find the following itemized description of pieces of mosaic-work,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span>
-said to have been obtained from the Indians of Potonchan, Tabasco.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Another mask covered from the nostrils upward with well set
-mosaic-work of stones resembling turquoises, and from the nostrils
-downward with a thin plate of hammered gold.</p>
-
-<p>Another mask resembling the first, but the stones were placed
-from the eyes upward, and below them there were thin plates of
-beaten gold over wood, the ears being of turquois mosaic-work.</p>
-
-<p>Another mask made with bands or rods of wood, two of the
-strips being covered with mosaic-work, and the remaining other
-three with thin beaten gold.</p>
-
-<p>A thin disc with a figure of a cemi or devil, covered above with
-beaten gold-leaf, and in other parts were scattered some stones.</p>
-
-<p>A tablet of wood like the headstall of a horse in armor, covered
-over with thin gold-leaf, with some strips of black stones well set
-between the gold.</p>
-
-<p>The head of a dog covered with stones, and very well made.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>From Ulua in Vera Cruz these mosaic pieces are noted:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Two masks of small stones like turquois set over wood like mosaic,
-with some spangles of gold in the ears.</p>
-
-<p>Two guariques of blue stones set in gold, each having eight
-pendants of the same.</p>
-
-<p>A mask of stone mosaic-work.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the work of Gomara, printed in 1553, appears also an
-extended account of this barter.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
-
-<p>Seler<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> and Lehmann<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> believe that most of the mosaic
-objects “apparently came from the eastern provinces, i.e.,
-Tabasco.” Relying on the authority of both Oviedo and
-Gomara, Lehmann further uses in his discussion the original
-Nahuatl text of Sahagun in the Florentine manuscript copied
-and translated by Seler. In this section of Sahagun’s work
-relating to the attributes of the Mexican deities occurs the
-paragraph, “<i>In jtlatquj Quetzalcoatl coa-xaiacatl xiuhticatl
-achivalli, quetzalapanecaiotl</i>,” which Lehmann renders, “The
-Quetzalcoatl dress, the snake-mask with turquois work, the
-feather ornament of the people of Quetzalapan (Tabasco).”<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span>
-But there is no mention in early chronicles or on early maps of
-any town <i>in this region</i> bearing the name Quetzalapan, and
-Torquemada in giving an account of some of the wars of
-Montezuma writes that “during the twelfth year of his reign
-(which was in 1514), his armies set out for the land of the
-Chichimecas, and entered the Huaxteca, subduing those of
-Quetzalapan.”<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Other places bearing the name Quetzalapan
-were in the present states of Morelos, Guerrero, and Colima.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>
-In recounting the episode of the conquest of this town, Clavijero
-writes explicitly that “Montezuma sent out an army in
-1512 to the north against the Quetzalapanecas and conquered
-them with but little loss.”<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> Hence the place mentioned by Sahagun
-would seem to have been in Vera Cruz, and probably the
-region of Huaxteca or Cuexteca, for the Aztecs had considerable
-communication with this territory.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c large" id="c4"><span class="smcap">Loot Obtained by Cortés</span>, 1519-1525</p>
-
-<p>But the treasures of native art secured by the Grijalva
-expedition were insignificant by comparison with the enormously
-valuable loot obtained the next year (1519) by Cortés.
-It is not necessary in this study of Mexican mosaics to enter
-into the details of the expedition which set out from Cuba to
-follow the discoveries of Grijalva and which resulted in the
-conquest of Mexico. This has been done many times, but in
-the main most weight is given to the writings of the Spanish
-participants and to the early chroniclers. We have already
-studied in considerable detail the accounts of the art objects
-sent to Spain by Cortés, as contained in these early writings,
-and especially the inventories which accompanied the shipments
-of objects sent to Europe by the conqueror. Let us
-quote here merely what we wrote in presenting a summary of
-the events that occurred when Cortés first landed on the coast
-of Vera Cruz.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>After the arrival of the Spaniards on the coast of Vera Cruz,
-the Indians were not long in ignorance of the consuming thirst of
-the conquerors for gold. In order to placate the formidable strangers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span>
-with childlike confidence that by giving them their wish the invasion
-of his dominions would be averted, Montezuma sent rich
-presents to Cortés through Tendile (Teuhtlile), governor of Cuetlaxtla
-(the modern Cotastla), which was then subject to the Aztecs.
-When all this treasure thus brought together was ready to be sent
-to Spain, with the report of the voyage, an inventory or list of the
-objects was drawn up and despatched with two special messengers,
-Alonso Portocarrero and Francisco de Montejo, who were charged
-to deliver the treasure to the King. These valuable gifts have been
-briefly described by several members of the expedition who saw
-them before they left Mexico, and on their receipt in Spain they
-were described by various other chroniclers.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>From the inventory, which we translated, we select the items
-relating to objects ornamented with stone mosaic.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Item: two collars of gold and stone mosaic-work (precious
-stones)....</p>
-
-<p>Another item: a box of a large piece of feather-work lined with
-leather, the colors seeming like martens, and fastened and placed in
-the said piece, and in the center (is) a large disc of gold, which
-weighed sixty ounces of gold, and a piece of blue stone mosaic-work
-a little reddish, and at the end of the piece another piece of colored
-feather-work that hangs from it.</p>
-
-<p>Item: a miter of blue stone mosaic-work with the figure of monsters
-in the center of it, and lined with leather which seems in its
-colors to be that of martens, with a small (piece) of feather-work
-which is, as the one mentioned above, of this said miter.</p>
-
-<p>Item: ... a scepter of stone mosaic-work with two rings of
-gold, and the rest of feather-work.</p>
-
-<p>Item: an armlet of stone mosaic-work....</p>
-
-<p>Item: a mirror placed in a piece of blue and red stone mosaic-work,
-with feather-work stuck to it, and two strips of leather stuck
-to it....</p>
-
-<p>Item: some leggings of blue stone mosaic-work, lined with leather,
-of which the colors seem like martens; on each one of them (there
-are) fifteen gold bells.</p>
-
-<p>Item: two colored (pieces of) feather-work which are for two
-(pieces of) head armor of stone mosaic-work....</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span></p>
-
-<p>More: two guariques (ear ornaments) of blue stone mosaic-work,
-which are to be put in the head of the big crocodile.</p>
-
-<p>More: another head armor of blue stone mosaic-work with
-twenty gold bells which hang pendent at the border, with two
-strings of beads which are above each bell, and two guariques of
-wood with two plates of gold.</p>
-
-<p>Item: another head armor of blue stone mosaic-work with
-twenty-five gold bells, and two beads of gold above each bell, that
-hang around it with some guariques of wood with plates of gold,
-and a bird of green plumage with the feet, beak, and eyes of gold.</p>
-
-<p>Moreover: sixteen shields of stone mosaic-work with their colored
-feather-work hanging from the edge of them, and wide-angled slab
-with stone mosaic-work with its colored feather-work, and in the
-center of the said slab, made of stone mosaic-work, a cross of a
-wheel which is lined with leather, which has the color of martens.</p>
-
-<p>Again: a scepter of red stone mosaic-work, made like a snake,
-with its head, teeth, and eyes (made) from what appears to be
-mother-of-pearl, and the hilt is adorned with the skin of a spotted
-animal, and below the said hilt hang six pieces of small feather-work.</p>
-
-<p>Item: a piece of colored feather-work which the lords of this land
-are wont to put on their heads, and from it hang two ear-ornaments
-of stone mosaic-work with two bells and two beads of gold, and above
-a feather-work of wide green feathers, and below hang some white,
-long hairs.<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Peter Martyr, who saw the specimens in Spain shortly
-after they arrived, speaks of “certain miters beset with precious
-stones of divers colors, among which some are blue, like unto
-sapphires.” Also “two helmets garnished with precious stones
-of a whitish blue color: one of these is edged with bells and
-plates of gold, and under every bell two knobs of gold. The
-other, beside the stones wherewith it is covered, is likewise
-edged with <span class="allsmcap">XXV</span> golden bells and knobs: and hath on the crest,
-a green bird with the feet, bill, and eyes of gold.”<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
-
-<p>Las Casas describes “a helmet of plates of gold, and little
-bells hanging (from it), and on it stones like emeralds.” Also
-“many shields made of certain thin and very white rods, intermingled<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span>
-with feathers and discs of gold and silver, and some
-very small pearls, like misshapen pearls.”<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
-
-<p>These are some of the statements of early Spaniards. Let
-us now consider what the Indians have said about the treasure
-given by Montezuma to Cortés at that time. Our best source
-of information is the great <i>Historia</i> composed by Fray Bernardino
-de Sahagun, who spent many years in the valley of
-Mexico gathering information at first-hand from intelligent
-Indians. This was shortly after the conquest when the natives
-still retained vivid recollections of the fall of their country.
-Without this work the history of ancient Mexico, and of the
-customs and traditions of the Indians, could not be written.</p>
-
-<p>We must not lose sight of the fact that Montezuma, for a
-number of reasons which we need not relate here, expected the
-“second coming” of the culture-hero Quetzalcoatl, the great
-beneficent god of the Aztecs. This myth was one of the several
-causes that led to the comparatively easy conquest of a numerous
-and warlike people by the Spaniards. We have translated
-several chapters of Sahagun’s <i>Historia</i> relating to the
-first coming of the Christians to the coast of Mexico, which
-contain a description of some of the gifts sent by Montezuma
-to Cortés, while he still believed the Spanish conqueror to be
-the great god Quetzalcoatl. It is really a report transmitted to
-us from the Aztecs, and is a most fascinating chapter of the
-history of the conquest of Mexico.<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Chapter II.</span> <i>Of the first (Spanish) ships which arrived at this land
-said to have been those of Juan de Grijalva.</i></p>
-
-<p>The first time that ships appeared on the coast of New Spain, the
-captains of Montezuma, who were called calpixques, who were near
-the coast, at once went to see what it was that had come, never
-having seen ships; one of whom was the calpixque of Cuextecatl,
-named Pinotl: other calpixques went with him, one of whom,
-named Yaotzin, lived in the town of Mictlanquauhtla, another
-named Teozinzocatl resided in the town of Teociniocan, another
-named Cuitlalpitoc was not a calpixque but the servant of one of
-these calpixques, and principalejos, and another principalejo named<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span>
-Tentlil. These went to see what the thing was, and carried some
-things to sell under pretence, so as to see what the thing was: they
-carried some rich mantles which only Montezuma, and no other
-(person), wore, nor had permission to wear: they entered canoes and
-went to the ships, saying amongst themselves, “We are here to guard
-this coast; it is right that we should know for a certainty what this
-is, in order to carry accurate news to Montezuma.” They entered
-at once the canoes and commenced to paddle to the ships, and when
-they arrived near the vessels and saw the Spaniards, all kissed the
-prows of the ships, in sign of adoration, thinking that it was the
-god Quetzalcoatl that had returned, which god, as appears in the
-history, was already expected. Then the Spaniards spoke and
-said: “Who are you? Whence have you come? From where are
-you?” Those who came in the canoes responded, “We have come
-from Mexico.” The Spaniards said, “If it is true that you are Mexicans,
-tell us what is the name of the Lord of Mexico.” They replied,
-“Our Lord, he is called Montezuma,” and then they presented all of
-those rich mantles which they had brought to him who went as
-general of those ships, who was, as is said, Grijalva, and the Spaniards
-gave to the Indians some glass beads, some green and others
-yellow, and the Indians when they saw them were very much
-astonished and esteemed them greatly, and then they (the Spaniards)
-dismissed the Indians, saying, “Now we return to Castile,
-and will soon return and will (then) go to Mexico.” The Indians
-returned to land and soon departed for Mexico, where they arrived
-in a day and a night, to give the news of what they had seen to
-Montezuma, and they brought to him the beads which had been
-given them by the Spaniards, and spoke to him (Montezuma) as
-follows: “Our Lord, we are deserving of death; hear what we have
-seen, and what we have done. Thou hast placed us on guard at the
-seashore; we have seen some gods on the sea, and went to receive
-them, and give them various rich mantles; look at these beads that
-they gave us, saying to us, ‘Is it true that you are Mexicans? Look at
-these beads, give them to Montezuma, that he may know of us.’”
-And they told him all that had happened when they were with those
-(people) on the sea in the ships. Montezuma responded: “You have
-come tired and worn out; go and rest. I have received this (news)
-in secret, and command you not to say anything whatever about
-what has happened.”</p>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span>
-<p><span class="smcap">Chapter III.</span> <i>Of what Montezuma disposed after he heard the news
-from those who saw the first (Spanish) ships.</i></p>
-
-<p>As soon as he (Montezuma) heard the news from those who had
-come from the seashore, he ordered to be called at once the highest
-chief of those who were called Cuextecatl, and the others who had
-come with the message, and ordered them to place guards and
-lookouts in all the farms along the shores of the sea, the one called
-Naulitlantoztlan, and the other Mictlanquactla, so that they might
-see when those ships returned, and at once give a report. The calpixques
-and captains then left, and at once ordered the placing of
-lookouts on the said farms, and Montezuma then summoned the
-most confidential of his chieftains and communicated to them the
-news which had arrived, and showed them the glass beads which the
-messengers had brought, and said, “It seems to me that they are
-precious stones; take great care of them in the wardrobe that none
-of them be lost, and if any are lost, those who have charge of the
-wardrobe will have to pay.” One year hence, in the year thirteen
-rabbit, those who were on guard saw ships on the sea, and at once
-came with great speed to give notice to Montezuma. As soon as he
-had heard the news, Montezuma despatched men for the reception
-of Quetzalcoatl, because he thought that it was him who came, because
-they expected him daily, and as he had received news that
-Quetzalcoatl had gone by sea toward the east, and the ships came
-from the eastward, for this (reason) they thought that it was he: he
-sent five of his chief lords to receive him and to present to him a great
-present, which he sent. Of those who went the most prominent one
-was called Yallizchan, the second in rank Tepuztecatl, the third
-Tizaoa, the fourth Vevtecatl, and the fifth Veicaznecatlheca.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Chapter IV.</span> <i>What Montezuma ordered when he learned the
-second time that the Spaniards had returned, this was D. Hernando
-Cortés.</i></p>
-
-<p>To the above mentioned (messengers) Montezuma spoke, and
-said, “Look, it has been said that our Lord Quetzalcoatl has arrived;
-go and receive him and listen to what he may say to you with great
-attention; see to it that you do not forget anything of what he may
-say; see here these jewels which you are to present to him in my
-behalf, and which are all the priestly ornaments that belong to
-him.” First a mask wrought in a <i>mosaic of turquois</i>; this mask had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span>
-wrought in the same stones a doubled and twisted snake, the fold of
-which was the beak of the nose; then the tail was parted from the
-head, and the head with part of the body came over one eye so that
-it formed an eyebrow, and the tail with a part of the body went over
-the other eye, to form the other eyebrow. This mask was inserted
-on a high and big crown full of rich feathers, long and very beautiful,
-so that on placing the crown on the head, the mask was placed
-over the face: it had for a (central) jewel a medallion of gold, round
-and wide: it was tied with nine strings of precious stones, which,
-placed around the neck, covered the shoulders and the whole breast:
-they carried also a large shield bordered with precious stones with
-bands of gold which went from the top to the bottom of it, and other
-bands of pearls crossing over the gold bands from the top to bottom
-of it, and in the spaces left by these bands, which were like the
-meshes of a net, were placed zapitos (little toads) of gold. This shield
-had edgings in the lower part; there was attached on the same
-shield a banner which came out from the handle of the shield, made
-of rich feathers: it also had a big medallion made of <i>mosaic-work</i>
-which was fastened and girded around the loins: they carried also
-strings of precious stones with gold bells placed in between the stones
-to be tied to the ankles: they carried also a bishop’s staff all decorated
-with <i>turquois mosaic-work</i>, and the crook of it was like the head
-of a snake turned around or coiled. They also carried sandals (cotaras)
-such as great lords were accustomed to wear. They also
-carried the ornaments or finery with which Tezcatlipoca was
-adorned, which was a head-piece made of rich feathers which hung
-down on the back almost to the waist, and was strewn all over with
-stars of gold. They carried also ear-ornaments of gold: they had
-hanging from them little gold bells and strings of little white and
-beautiful sea-shells. From these strings hung a piece of leather like a
-plastron (peto), and it was carried tied in such a manner that it
-covered the breast down to the waist: this plastron had strewn on it
-and hanging from it many little shells. They carried also a corselet of
-painted white cloth; the lower border of this corselet was edged with
-white feathers in three strips all around the border: they also carried
-a rich mantle the cloth of which was a light blue, and embroidered
-all over with many designs of a very fine blue: this mantle was
-worn around the waist, the (four) corners tied to the body: over this
-mantle was worn a medallion of <i>turquois [work]</i> attached to the body<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span>
-over the loins: they also carried strings of gold bells to tie around the
-ankles, and also white sandals (cotaras) like those the lords are wont
-to wear. They also carried the ornaments and decorations of the
-god Tlalocantecutli, which were, a mask with its feather-work, and a
-banner like the one above mentioned: also wide ear-ornaments of
-chalchivitl with snakes of chalchivites inside: and also a corselet
-painted with green designs, and strings or collar of precious stones,
-and also a medallion with which they girded the loins, like the one
-above described, with a rich mantle, with which they girded themselves
-like the one described above, and golden bells to place on the
-feet, and the staff like the one above described. Other ornaments
-which they carried were also of the same Quetzalcoatl, a miter of
-tiger-skin, and hanging from the miter a hood of raven’s feathers:
-the miter also had a large chalchivitl rounded at the end, and also
-round ear-ornaments of <i>turquois mosaic</i> with a hook of gold called
-ecacozcatl, and a rich mantle with which he girded himself, and
-some gold bells for the feet, and a shield which had in the center a
-round plate of gold, which shield was bordered with rich feathers.
-From the lower part of the shield came out a sash of rich feathers in
-the shape of the one above described: it had a staff wrought in
-<i>turquois mosaic</i>, and its crook was set with rich stones or conspicuous
-pearls. They also had on top of it all some sandals (cotaras), such as
-the lords were accustomed to wear. All these things were brought by
-the messengers and presented, as they say, to D. Hernando Cortés.
-Many other things they presented to him which are not written
-about, such as a miter of gold made like a periwinkle with edging of
-rich feathers which hung over the shoulders, and another plain
-miter of gold and other jewels of gold which are not written about.
-All these things were placed in hampers (petacas), and upon taking
-leave from Montezuma he said to them, “Go and worship in my
-name the god who comes, and say to him we have been sent here by
-your servant Montezuma: these things which we bring have been
-sent by him, for you have come to your dwelling, which is Mexico.”
-These messengers set out on the road at once, and arrived at the seaside,
-and there took canoes [<i>cañas</i>, undoubtedly <i>canoas</i> was written],
-and arrived at a place called Xicalanco: from there they took other
-canoes with all their clothes, and reached the ships, and then those
-of the ships asked them, “Who are you, and whence have you come?”
-And those of the canoes answered, “We come from Mexico.” And<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span>
-those of the ships said to them, “Perchance you are not from Mexico,
-but falsely say you are from Mexico and deceive us.” And upon
-this they took and gave (bartered?), until they were satisfied on
-both sides, and they tied the canoe to the ship, and a ladder was let
-down, by which they climbed up to the ship and came to where D.
-Hernando Cortés was.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Chapter V.</span> <i>Of what happened when the messengers of Montezuma
-entered the ship of D. Hernando Cortés.</i></p>
-
-<p>They commenced to climb up to the ship on the ladders, and
-brought the presents that Montezuma had commanded them to
-carry. When they were in front of the captain D. Hernando Cortés,
-all kissed the ground [deck] in his presence, and spoke in this wise:
-“May the god whom we come to adore in the name of his servant
-Montezuma, who for him rules and governs the city of Mexico,
-know, and who says that the god has come after much hardship.”
-And at once they took out the ornaments they had brought, and
-placed them in front of the captain D. Hernando Cortés, adorning
-him with them, placing first the crown and mask which has been
-described above, and all the other things: they put around his neck
-the collars of (precious) stones with the jewels of gold which they
-had brought, and put on his left arm the shield above described,
-and all the other things were placed in front of him in the order they
-were accustomed to put their presents. The captain said, “Is there
-something more?” And they said to him, “We have not brought
-anything else than these things that are here.” The captain at once
-ordered them to be tied, and ordered shots of artillery fired, and the
-messengers who were tied hand and foot, when they heard the
-thunder of the bombardment, fell on the floor like dead, and the
-Spaniards lifted them from the floor, and gave them wine to drink,
-with which they strengthened them and revived them. After this
-captain D. Hernando Cortés said to them, through the interpreter:
-“Listen to what I say to you. I have been told that the Mexicans
-are valiant men, that they are great conquerors and great warriors,
-and are very skillful at arms: they tell me that one Mexican alone is
-enough to conquer from ten to twenty of his enemies. I wish to
-prove whether this is true, and whether you are so strong as I have
-been told.” Then he ordered swords and shields to be given them
-that they might fight with as many Spaniards, so that he might see<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span>
-who might win, and the Mexicans then said to captain Cortés, “May
-it please your grace to listen to our excuse, for we are not able to do
-what you command, and it is because our Lord Montezuma has
-sent us to do nothing else than to salute you and give you this
-present, we cannot do anything else, nor are we able to do what you
-order us, for if we did we should offend our Lord Montezuma, and
-he would order us killed.” And the captain responded: “You will
-have to do by all means what I say. I have to see what kind of men
-you are, for over yonder in our country we have been told that you
-are very courageous men: arm yourselves with these arms and be
-ready that we encounter one another tomorrow on the (battle)
-field.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Chapter VI.</span> <i>Of how the messengers of Montezuma returned to Mexico
-with the report of what they had seen.</i></p>
-
-<p>After what has been related was done, they took leave of the
-captain, and entered their canoes, and commenced to go toward the
-land, paddling with great speed, and saying to one another, “There
-are valiant men; let us exert ourselves to paddle before anything
-happens.” They arrived very quickly at the town of Xicalanco, and
-there they ate and rested a little, and then they got into their canoes
-again, and paddling with great speed they arrived at the town called
-Tecpantlayacac, and from there began to journey by land, running
-with great speed, and they reached the town called Cuetlaxtla:
-there they ate and rested a little, and those of the town begged
-them that they should rest at least a day, but they responded that
-they could not, because they had to go with great speed to make
-known to Montezuma what they had seen, very new things, and
-never before seen nor heard of, of which no one else could speak
-about: and so traveling with great speed by night and day, they
-arrived in Mexico by night.”</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the accounts of the vast treasure secured by Cortés from
-Montezuma before his untimely death, there is to be found no
-specific mention or description of objects decorated with stone
-mosaic. Much of the treasure secured in the final sack of
-Tenochtitlan (Mexico) was lost. The “empire” of the Aztecs
-was completely subjugated in 1521. From that time, and up to
-1525, Cortés sent to Europe at various intervals great quantities<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span>
-of loot, gathered as tribute from the stores of the Indians,
-accompanied with inventories, a number of which have been
-published. From these inventories we select the following items
-which clearly relate to stone mosaic objects.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Report of the Feather-work and Jewels sent to Spain to be distributed
-to the following Churches and Monasteries and Special Persons.</i>
-[Without date.]</p>
-
-<p class="c">For the Lord Bishop of Burgos</p>
-
-<p>Item: something like a staff (crosier) of stone mosaic-work
-of many colors, for him (the Bishop).</p>
-
-<p><i>Copy of the Register of the Gold, Jewels, and other Things which are
-to go to Spain in the Ship Santa María de la Rábida, its Master
-(being) Juan Baptista. (The year 1522.)</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>This report contains a register of much treasure sent in one
-of the several ships which left Mexico in June, 1522, in charge of
-the treasurer Julian Alderete, and Alonso Dávila and Antonio
-de Quiñones, proctors. The register contains statements of the
-monetary value of certain treasure registered by various persons,
-among whom we find one Juan de Rivera, who carried
-treasure for himself, Cortés, and other persons named in the
-inventory; but none of the articles is described. In the margin
-of the report are notes stating that a considerable portion
-remained in the Azores. In another inventory, from which we
-shall quote later, are descriptions of certain pieces, jewels,
-and feather-work that remained in the Azores in charge of the
-above-named proctors. According to Peter Martyr the greater
-part of this treasure was destined for the King of Spain, but it
-never reached him, for the vessel, which with the others had
-put into the Azores to escape French pirates, was captured
-later by these corsairs and the rich spoils of the Aztecs went
-to augment the treasure of Francis I.</p>
-
-<p>The ship <i>Santa María de la Rábida</i> seems to have arrived
-in Sevilla in November, 1522, and Peter Martyr saw the
-treasure that it brought and interviewed Juan de Rivera at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span>
-length concerning the people and country of New Spain. The
-account which he wrote, based on a view of the wonderful
-objects and what Rivera had told him, comprises an entire
-book in the Fifth Decade of his <i>De Orbe Novo</i>, first printed in
-1530. It contains a mass of valuable and generally trustworthy
-information, gleaned not only at first hand from Rivera, but
-also from a young native Mexican whom Rivera had brought
-to Spain as a slave and servant. This account supplies certain
-information describing the treasure, which is missing in the
-inventory. The report is so interesting that we quote what
-Peter Martyr writes about some of the objects of stone mosaic-work
-which Rivera displayed.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>We have been particularly delighted with two mirrors of exceptional
-beauty: the first was bordered with a circle of gold, one palm
-in circumference, and set in green wood; the other was similar.
-Ribera states that there is stone found in these countries, which
-makes excellent mirrors when polished; and we admit that none of
-our mirrors more faithfully reflect the human face.</p>
-
-<p>We also admire the artistically made masks. The <i>superstructure</i> is
-of wood, covered over with stones, so artistically and perfectly
-joined together that it is impossible to detect their lines of junction,
-with the fingernail. They seem to the naked eye to be one single
-stone, of the kind used in making their mirrors. The ears of the
-mask are of gold, and from one temple to another extend two green
-lines of emeralds; two other saffron colored lines start from the half-opened
-mouth, in which bone teeth are visible; in each jaw two
-natural teeth protrude between the lips. These masks are placed
-upon the faces of the gods, whenever the sovereign is ill, not to be
-removed until he either recovers or dies.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Peter Martyr gives us details regarding the King’s share of
-the loot brought by the <i>Santa María de la Rábida</i>, writing as
-follows:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Without mentioning the royal fifth, that ship brings the treasure
-which is composed of a part of what Cortés amassed, at the cost of
-risks and dangers, and the share belonging to his principal lieutenant:
-they offer it all in homage to their King. Ribera has been instructed
-to present to the Emperor in his master’s [Cortés’] name the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span>
-gifts he sends, while the others will be presented in the name of their
-colleagues by the officers who, as I have said, remained behind at the
-Azores.... The treasure destined for the Emperor is on board the
-vessel which has not yet arrived: but it is said that it amounts to
-32,000 ducats of smelted gold in the form of bars. Were all the
-rings, jewels, shields, helmets, and other ornaments now smelted,
-the total would amount to 150,000 ducats. The report has spread, I
-know not how, that French pirates are on the watch for these ships:
-may they come safely in.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>As we have stated, the ships were captured and the treasure
-was irretrievably lost to the Spaniards. An inventory of the
-treasure, preserved in Spain, reads:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Statement of Pieces, Jewels, and Feather-work sent from New Spain for
-His Majesty, and that Remained in the Azores in the Charge of
-Alonso Dávila and Antonio Quiñones.</i> [Without date.]</p>
-
-<p>Statement of the pieces, jewels, and feather-work that are sent to
-Their Majesties in the following boxes:</p>
-
-<p>A shield with blue stone mosaic-work with its rim of gold.</p>
-
-<p>A shield of stone mosaic-work, with a rim of blue and red feathers.</p>
-
-<p>A shield of stone mosaic-work, the casco (crown) of feathers and
-the clasps of gold, and on the rim some long green feathers.</p>
-
-<p>A shield of stone mosaic-work and confas (shells) with some
-pendants on the rim, of large and small gold bells.</p>
-
-<p><i>Report of the Objects of Gold that are Packed in a Box for His Majesty
-which are Sent in Care of Diego de Soto.</i> [Without date.]</p>
-
-<p>A face of gold with the features of stone mosaic-work.</p>
-
-<p>A face of tiger-skin [<i>sic</i>] with two ear-ornaments of gold and stone
-mosaic-work.</p>
-
-<p><i>Report of the Things Carried by Diego de Soto from the Governor in
-Addition to what he Carries Listed in a Notebook of Certain Sheets of
-Paper for His Majesty</i>. [Without date.]</p>
-
-<p>A large shield with some moons of stone mosaic-work and with
-much gold.</p>
-
-<p>Two stone mosaic-work shields.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The final inventory from which we extract items relating to
-stone mosaic-work objects is dated 1525. It is:</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Report of the Gold, Silver, Jewels, and Other Things that the Proctors
-of New Spain Carry to His Majesty.</i> (<i>Year of 1525</i>.)</p>
-
-<p>A large head of a duck of blue stone mosaic-work.</p>
-
-<p>Two pieces of gold, such as the natives of these parts wear in their
-ears with some red and blue stones, weighing altogether ten pesos.</p>
-
-<p>A bracelet with four greenstones set in gold like the hoof of a stag.
-Not weighed.</p>
-
-<p>Another bracelet of gold with ten pieces like azicates, and two
-claws of greenstone set in gold.</p>
-
-<p>An armlet of tiger-skin with four greenstones and four small bars
-of gold of little weight.</p>
-
-<p>A shell like a venerica set in gold with a greenstone in the center.</p>
-
-<p>A large shell set in gold with a face of greenstone, with some blue
-and yellow little stones around the neck.</p>
-
-<p>A butterfly of gold with the wings of venera, and the body and
-head of greenstone.</p>
-
-<p>Two veneras, one purple and the other yellow, each one respectively
-with greenstones in the center and other blue ones around
-it, set in gold.</p>
-
-<p>Another white venera, set in gold, having some blue and red eyes,
-the one inserted in the other.</p>
-
-<p>A monster of gold with some greenstone mosaic-work in the belly,
-weighing altogether eleven pesos.</p>
-
-<p>A poniard (or jewel broncha) of white shell set in gold, weighing
-altogether thirty-seven pesos, five tomins.</p>
-
-<p>A butterfly of shell, of fancy work, set in gold, weighing altogether
-eleven pesos, six tomins.<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
-</div>
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="c5">TRIBUTE OF MOSAIC PAID TO<br />
-THE AZTEC RULERS</h2>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Mosaic</span> objects, and especially the raw material for their
-manufacture, formed a part of the annual tribute paid by some
-of the coast provinces of ancient Mexico to the Aztec kings of
-Tenochtitlan. We have the pictorial representation of some
-of the objects of such tribute in an important native book or
-codex, painted in colors on maguey fiber paper, known as the
-Tribute Roll of Montezuma. This original codex was at one
-time in the famous Boturini collection, and is now one of the
-treasured possessions of the Museo Nacional in the City of
-Mexico. It lacks, however, several leaves which were abstracted
-about a century ago, and which came into possession of Joel R.
-Poinsett, who had been American Minister to Mexico, and
-who presented them to the American Philosophical Society of
-Philadelphia in 1830, where they now are. On the pages have
-been written explanations of the pictures and figures in both
-Nahuatl and Spanish. “The Nahuatl words look as if made by
-a pencil, style, or short brush similar to that used in delineating
-the figures, and with a sepia-like preparation; while the Spanish
-ones have evidently been made with an ink containing iron, and
-an instrument which disturbed the gloss of the paper, as is
-shown by its penetration to fibres adjacent, giving the lines a
-sort of hazy margin occasionally.”<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
-
-<p>Some time between the years 1534 and 1550, Don Antonio
-de Mendoza, the first Viceroy of Mexico, during this period,
-had the Indians prepare for the Emperor Charles V, a book
-on European paper, containing a pictorial account, in colors,
-of some things relating to the history and life of the natives
-of the Mexican plateau. It was painted in three sections, the
-first being a chronological record of the Aztec kings and their
-conquests, the third relating to the habits and customs of the
-natives and especially of the education of Mexican youth.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f3">
-<p class="captiona">PL. II</p>
-<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">STONE IDOL: THE GODDESS COATLICUE, WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">NATIONAL MUSEUM, MEXICO</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter1" id="f4">
-<p class="captiona">PL. III</p>
-<img src="images/fig4.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">STAFF AND RATTLE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">PEABODY MUSEUM, CAMBRIDGE</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span></p>
-<p>The <i>second</i> part was a copy of the Tribute Roll above referred
-to. These pictures were given to other Indians for the interpretation
-of their import, which was written down in the
-Nahuatl language, and another person, well versed in both the
-Indian and Spanish languages, made a translation into Spanish,
-which was incorporated in the book. It was then despatched
-to Spain, probably about the year 1549, but the vessel was
-captured by French pirates, and the book came into the hands
-of the French geographer, André Thevet, in 1553. After
-Thevet’s death it was purchased, about the year 1584, by
-Richard Hakluyt, at that time chaplain to the English Ambassador
-to France. Hakluyt bequeathed the volume to Samuel
-Purchas, who published it, without colors, with an English
-translation of the text, in <i>Purchas His Pilgrimes</i>, London, 1625.
-The English text was translated into French and accompanied
-with the plates was published by Melchisedec Thevenot in
-his <i>Relations des Divers Voyages</i>, in 1663. The codex ultimately
-became the property of Selden, and with some other original
-Mexican codices later became a part of the Bodleian Library
-at Oxford, where it is now preserved. In 1831, Lord Kingsborough
-issued it for the first time in colors, together with a
-new and more accurate English rendering of the Spanish text,
-in his monumental work on the <i>Antiquities of Mexico</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The Tribute Roll was published by Archbishop Lorenzana in
-Mexico in 1770, in his edition of the <i>Cartas de Cortés</i>, the drawing,
-uncolored, being traced in a very inferior manner from the
-original in Mexico. Finally, Dr. Antonio Peñafiel included a
-beautiful colored facsimile of the Tribute Roll in his work,
-<i>Monumentos del Arte Mexicano Antiguo</i>, published in Berlin in
-1890, the missing leaves, in Philadelphia, being reproduced
-from a very poor drawing of the codex on European paper,
-probably executed for Boturini. These leaves were published
-in exact facsimile in 1892, with an article entitled, The Tribute
-Roll of Montezuma, edited by Dr. D. G. Brinton and Henry
-Phillips, in vol. <span class="allsmcap">XVII</span> of the <i>Transactions of the American Philosophical
-Society</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f46">
-<img src="images/fig46.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="captionb"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1</span></p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>On plate <span class="allsmcap">XVIII</span> (we refer to the Peñafiel edition), in the second
-section of the plate, among other objects of tribute is a small
-bowl containing pieces of cut turquois (see fig.
-1). In the explanation given by Purchas, this
-item is described as “a little panne full of
-Turkes stones,” and in the Kingsborough text
-it has been translated “a little vessel of small
-turquois stones.” On the plate published by
-Lorenzana is the caption, “Matlauac Rosilla con q. se tiñe
-azul.” The word <i>matlauac</i> is probably a corruption of the
-Nahuatl word <i>matlaltic</i>, meaning ‘blue,’ but the rest of the
-sentence in Spanish is confused, for <i>rosilla</i> means ‘reddish,’ and
-<i>con q. se tiñe azul</i>, ‘with which they dyed blue,’ seems to indicate
-that the phrase is incomplete. Accompanying the objects
-depicted as tributes are the hieroglyphs of the towns which
-paid them. These glyphs have been interpreted in the same
-manner in all of the reproductions of the codex, but we use the
-spelling adopted by Peñafiel, in preference to that given by
-Purchas or by Kingsborough. They are: (1) <i>Quiyauhtecpan</i>,
-“temple of rain or of its deities” <i>Tlaloc</i> or <i>Chalchiuhtlicue</i>; (2)
-<i>Olinalan</i>, “place of earthquakes;” (3) <i>Cuauhtecomatlan</i>, “place
-of tecomates;” (4) <i>Cualac</i>, “place of good drinkable water;”
-(5) <i>Ichcatlan</i>, “cotton-plantation;” (6) <i>Xala</i>, “sandy ground.”
-These places are given in the explanation as being “cities of
-warm provinces.”</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f47">
-<img src="images/fig47.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="captionb"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the third section of the same plate (<span class="allsmcap">XVIII</span>) are the objects
-shown in figs. 2 and 3. Peñafiel writes of fig. 2 as “ten little
-figures worked in turquois.” Only one object
-painted blue is depicted, the number ten
-being indicated by the ten dots. That masks
-form this tribute is clearly evident; in Purchas
-the description is “tenne halfe faces of
-rich blew Turkey stones,” and in Kingsborough,
-“likewise 10 middling sized masks
-of rich blue stones like turquois.”</p>
-
-
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f5">
-<p class="captiona">PL. IV</p>
-<img src="images/fig5.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">HELMET OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON</p>
-</div>
-
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f48">
-<img src="images/fig48.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="captionb"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The second item in this section (fig. 3) is described by
-Peñafiel as “a small bag of the same stones.” Kingsborough’s
-statement is, “a large bag of the said blue
-stones,” while in Purchas the translation
-reads, “a great trusse full of the said
-Turkey stones.” On the bag which is
-painted blue, with two red vertical bands,
-is the Aztecan hieroglyph for stone, <i>tetl</i>.
-The towns whence this tribute was exacted are: (1) <i>Yoaltepec</i>,
-“place consecrated to the deity of the night;” (2) <i>Ehaucalco</i>,
-“in the place of tanning;” (3) <i>Tzilacapan</i>, “river of chilacayotes;”
-(4) <i>Patlanalan</i>, “place where parrots abound;” (5) <i>Ixicayan</i>,
-“where the water comes down;” (6) <i>Ichcaatoyac</i>, “river of cotton.”
-These cities are of the warm provinces.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f49">
-<img src="images/fig49.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="captionb"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The only finished objects of mosaic-work in the Tribute Roll
-are on plate <span class="allsmcap">XXXII</span>. This is one of the leaves of the original
-codex in Philadelphia,
-and
-we have traced
-fig. 4 from this
-original. They
-are described
-by Purchas as
-“two pieces
-like platters
-decked or garnished
-with rich Turkey stones.” Kingsborough mentions
-them as “two pieces like salvers ornamented or set with rich
-turquoise stones.” Lorenzana has correctly printed the legend
-which we find reproduced in the Philadelphia publication of
-this leaf; it is “<i>Ontetl xiuhtetl</i>,” followed by the Spanish,
-“turquesas o piedras finas.” <i>Ontetl</i> is Nahuatl for “two,” and
-<i>xiuhtetl</i>, or <i>xiuitl tetl</i>, “turquois stone.” The mosaic character
-of these two pieces is graphically represented by the ancient
-artist. The towns paying the tribute illustrated on this sheet
-are as follows: (1) <i>Tochpan</i>, or <i>Tuchpan</i>, “over the rabbit;”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span>
-(2) <i>Tlaltizapan</i>, “place situated over chalk;” (3) <i>Cihuateopan</i>,
-“in the temple of Cihuacoatl;” (4) <i>Papantla</i>, “place of the
-priests;” (5) <i>Ocelotepec</i>, “place of the ocelot;” (6) <i>Mihuapan</i>,
-“river of the ears of corn;” (7) <i>Mictlan</i>, “place of rest.”</p>
-
-<p>In the <i>Crónica</i> of Tezozomoc is an account of the campaign
-of the Aztecan king Ahuitzotl into southern Mexico in 1497.
-The towns of Xuchtlan, Amaxtlan, Izhuatlan, Miahuatla,
-Tecuantepec, and Xolotlan, in the region of the Isthmus of
-Tehuantepec, had revolted against him. After the complete
-rout of the rebellious Indians, it was related by Tezozomoc
-that “the kind of arms carried by the coast people was very
-rich, so much so that the undisciplined soldiers began to strip
-the bodies of the dead of the very rich feather-work pieces
-called <i>quetzalmanalli</i>, and from their military ornaments
-remove a round emerald like a mirror which sparkled in its
-perfection, called <i>xiuhtezcatl</i>. Others of the dead carried on the
-back of their arms that which was called <i>yacazcuil</i>, outside of
-fine gold, and in the nose they wore stones; others (wore) gold,
-and the shield which they carried had a very rich greenstone
-in the center, and around it a decoration of very fine stones set
-in (mosaic-work), said shield being called <i>xiuhchimal</i>.” Those
-who remained after the slaughter came to Ahuitzotl, saying:
-“Our Lords, let us speak. We will give our tribute of all that
-is produced and yielded on these coasts, which will be chalchihuitl
-of all kinds and colors, and other small stones called
-<i>teoxihuitl</i> (turquois) for setting in very rich objects [mosaic],
-and feathers of the richest sort brought forth in the whole
-world, very handsome birds, the feathers of which are called
-<i>xiuhtototl</i>, <i>tlaquechol</i>, <i>tzinitzcan</i>, and <i>zacuan</i>; tanned skins of
-the tiger (ocelot), lions (puma), and great wolves, and other
-stones veined with many divers colors.”<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
-
-<p>In the same <i>Crónica</i> we read that Montezuma, who succeeded
-Ahuitzotl after his death in 1502, received a royal tribute
-from his vassals in Xaltepec, a coast town of Tehuantepec,
-among which were “broad collars [<i>sic</i>] for the ankles, strewn
-with gold grains and very rich stone mosaic-work.”<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f6">
-<p class="captiona">PL. V</p>
-<img src="images/fig6.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="c6">SOURCE OF TURQUOIS</h2>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The</span> source of the considerable quantity of turquois used in
-Mexico in pre-Spanish times for personal ornaments and mosaic
-incrustation is still an unsolved problem. Thus far no prehistoric
-workings have been found in Mexico. Only recently
-turquois has been discovered at the silver mines at Bonanza,
-Zacatecas, but Dr. Kunz, who has called our attention to this,
-writes that he has no information regarding prehistoric workings
-there.<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> In the extensive bibliography on the geology of
-Mexico by Aguilar y Santillan<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> we find only a single entry for
-turquois, that being the study of Mexican mosaics in Rome
-by Pigorini.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> Pogue<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> writes that there are no important
-turquois deposits that do not show signs of prehistoric exploitation,
-and he is also of the opinion that it is very difficult to
-trace the source of the turquois used by the Indians of ancient
-Mexico and Central America. Pogue’s conclusion is that “as
-no occurrence at all adequate as an important source has been
-discovered south of the present Mexican boundary, it therefore
-seems probable that the Aztecs and allied peoples, through
-trade with tribes to the north, obtained supplies of turquois
-from the Cerrillos hills [New Mexico] and perhaps other localities
-of the Southwest.”</p>
-
-<p>Sahagun is the only early chronicler who affords information
-concerning this point. He writes explicitly that “the
-Toltecs had discovered the mine of precious stones in Mexico,
-called <i>xiuitl</i>, which are turquoises, which mine, according to
-the ancients, was in a hill called Xiuhtzone, close to the town
-of Tepotzotlan [State of Hidalgo].” We will quote other statements
-by Sahagun concerning turquois:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The turquois occurs in mines. There are some mines whence
-more or less fine stones are obtained. Some are bright, clear, and
-transparent; while others are not.... <i>Teoxiuitl</i> is called turquois
-of the gods. No one has a right to possess or use it, but always it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span>
-must be offered or devoted to a deity. It is a fine stone without any
-blemish and quite brilliant. It is rare and comes from a distance.
-There are some that are round and resemble a hazelnut cut in two.
-These are called <i>xiuhtomolli</i>.... There is another stone, used
-medicinally, called <i>xiuhtomoltetl</i>, which is green and white, and very
-beautiful. Its moistened scrapings are good for feebleness and
-nausea. It is brought from Guatemala and Soconusco [State of
-Chiapas]. They make beads strung in necklaces for hanging around
-the neck.... There are other stones, called <i>xixitl</i>; these are
-low-grade turquoises, flawed and spotted, and are not hard. Some
-of them are square, and others are of various shapes, and they
-work with them the mosaic, making crosses, images, and other
-pieces.<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>If we are to credit Sahagun, turquois was worked not only
-in the immediate region of the central Mexican plateau, but
-they received supplies from distant points, and specifically
-from Chiapas and Guatemala. The raw material mentioned
-in the Tribute Roll of Montezuma as coming from coast towns
-and from the south, must also be taken into consideration.
-Hence, notwithstanding the present lack of information
-respecting the localities where turquois is to be found <i>in situ</i>
-in central and southern Mexico, we cannot reject the opinion
-that ultimately ancient workings will be found at more than
-one site in Mexico. We do not believe it necessary to
-assume that the source of supply of both the Toltecs and the
-Aztecs, as well as of other tribes, such as the Tarasco, and the
-Mixtec and Zapotec, which also made use of this material, was
-the far-distant region of New Mexico. It was formerly asserted
-by some students that the jadeite of Middle America must
-have come by trade from China,<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> because no deposits have
-as yet been found in the former region; but it is now known
-by chemical analysis that the Middle American jadeite is
-distinct from that of Asia. In fact, the writer has long held
-that not alone in one, but in at least five, different localities,
-jadeite will in time be discovered.<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f7">
-<p class="captiona">PL. VI</p>
-<img src="images/fig7.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="c7">THE AZTEC LAPIDARIES AND THEIR WORKS</h2>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>The development of the art of the lapidaries and mosaic-workers,
-like that of the goldsmiths, is attributed by Sahagun
-to the Toltecs, under the beneficent influence of Quetzalcoatl,
-the culture hero god. In treating of the pre-Aztec people called
-Tultecas, or people of Tollan or Tula, by Sahagun, he states
-that they were very skilful in all that pertained to the fine arts.
-He writes:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Tultecas were careful and thorough artificers, like those of
-Flanders at the present time, because they were skilful and neat in
-whatsoever they put their hands to; everything (they did) was very
-good, elaborate, and graceful, as for example, the houses that they
-erected, which were very beautiful, and richly ornamented inside with
-certain kinds of precious stones of a green color as a coating (to the
-walls), and the others which were not so adorned were very smooth,
-and worth seeing, and the stone of which they were fashioned appeared
-like a thing of mosaic.... They also knew and worked
-pearls, amber, and amethyst, and all manner of precious stones,
-which they made into jewelry.<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>We find another statement to the effect that&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The lapidary is very well taught, and painstaking in his craft, a
-judge of good stones, which, for working, they take off the rough part
-and bring together or cement with others very delicately with bitumen
-or wax, in order to make mosaic-work.<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the pictorial section of the Florentine manuscript of
-Sahagun,<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> in the Codex Mendoza,<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> and in the Mappe Tlotzin,<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a>
-are pictures delineating artisans engaged in various crafts,
-such as weavers, painters, carpenters (wood-carvers), stone
-carvers, lapidaries, goldsmiths, and feather-mosaic workers,
-yet we find no actual representation of turquois-mosaic workers.
-In the third section of the Codex Mendoza appears a picture
-of a father teaching his son the secrets of the lapidary’s art.
-The interpreter of the codex writes:</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The trades of a carpenter, jeweler (lapidary), painter, goldsmith,
-and embroiderer of feathers, accordingly as they are represented and
-declared, signify that the masters of such arts taught these trades
-to their sons from their earliest boyhood, in order that, when grown
-up to be men, they might attend to their trades and spend their
-time virtuously, counseling them that idleness is the root and
-mother of vices, as well as of evil-speaking and tale-bearing, whence
-followed drunkenness and robberies, and other dangerous vices, and
-setting before their imaginations many other grounds of alarm, that
-hence they might submit to be diligent in everything.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The elaborate series of pictures of the various crafts in the
-Florentine manuscript of Sahagun (laminas liv to lxiv) includes
-those that show in detail the work of the goldsmiths
-and the feather-workers; but the illustrations devoted to the
-lapidaries we are unable to correlate, in the absence of the
-text, with the Nahuatl text of the Sahagun manuscript in the
-Real Academia de la Historia in Madrid, which we will give
-later from the study by Dr. Seler containing a translation of
-the native text into French. This description of the work of the
-lapidaries informs us only concerning the working and polishing
-of the stones. Unlike the other accounts by Sahagun regarding
-the goldsmiths and the feather-workers, which enlighten us
-with respect to the details of these two fine arts, he does not
-here enter into any description concerning the delicate work
-of the artists who fashioned the beautiful pieces of stone
-mosaic. Although such work was turned out by the Aztecan
-workmen, as we have already demonstrated, it seems highly
-probable that in times immediately preceding the Spanish
-conquest, the Aztecan kings Ahuitzotl and Montezuma obtained
-a considerable number of such objects through tribute
-and by barter with the tribes living in what are now the states
-of Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, and western Chiapas. As our knowledge
-of Mexican archeology, now all too meager, is extended, it is
-very probable that we will find vestiges of this art in the
-Pacific state of Guerrero, where great numbers of jadeite and
-other greenstone objects have been discovered, with a respectable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span>
-number of specimens indicating the high artistic skill
-of the indigenes of that section. We may also hope to find relics
-of this art in the area of Matlaltzincan culture to the north of
-the valley of Mexico, and also in the field of Tarascan culture
-in the states of Michoacan and Jalisco, for, as will be related,
-mosaic specimens have been recovered from ancient ruins as
-far north as the State of Zacatecas.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f8">
-<p class="captiona">PL. VII</p>
-<img src="images/fig8.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">PREHISTORIC AND ETHNOGRAPHIC MUSEUM, ROME</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>Sahagun’s account (chap. <span class="allsmcap">II</span>) of the work of the lapidaries
-we herewith append, with the Nahuatl text and a translation
-of the French rendering by Seler.<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>1. <i>In tlateque tulteca ynic quitequi yn yztac tehuilotl yoan tlapaltehuilotl
-yoan chalchiuitl yoan quetzalitztli ynica teoxalli yoan tlaquauac
-tepuztli.</i></p>
-
-<p>1. The lapidary artisans cut rock-crystal, amethyst, emerald,
-both common and precious, by means of emery and with an instrument
-of tempered copper:</p>
-
-<p>2. <i>Auh ynic quichiqui tecpatl tlatetzotzontli.</i></p>
-
-<p>2. And they scraped it by means of cutting flint.</p>
-
-<p>3. <i>Auh ynic quicoyonia ynic quimamali teputztlacopintli.</i></p>
-
-<p>3. And they dug it out (hollowed) and drilled it by means of a
-little tube of copper.</p>
-
-<p>4. <i>Niman yhuian quixteca quipetlaua quitemetzhuia, auh yn yc
-quicencaua.</i></p>
-
-<p>4. And then they faceted it very carefully; they burnished
-(polished) it and gave it the final luster.</p>
-
-<p>5. <i>Ytech quahuitl yn quipetlaua ynic pepetlaca, ynic motonameyotia
-ynic tlanextia.</i></p>
-
-<p>5. They polished it set in wood, so that it comes to be very
-brilliant, shining, glossy.</p>
-
-<p>6. <i>Anoço quetzalotlatl ynitech quilau ynic quicencaua ynic quiyecchiua
-yn intultecayo tlatecque.</i></p>
-
-<p>6. Or they polish it mounted in bamboo, and the lapidaries
-finish it thus, and conclude their work.</p>
-
-<p>7. <i>Auh çannoiuhqui yn tlapaltehuilotl ynic mochiua ynic mocencaua.</i></p>
-
-<p>7. And in the same manner they work and smooth amethyst.</p>
-
-<p>8. <i>Achtopa quimoleua quihuipeua teputztica yn tlatecque yn
-tulteca ynic yyoca quitlatlalia yn qualli motquitica tlapaltic yn itaqui.</i></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span></p>
-
-<p>8. In the first place the lapidary artisans break into pieces the
-amethyst and crush it with an instrument of copper, for they work
-only the beautiful pieces which are entirely reddish.</p>
-
-<p>9. <i>Çan niman yuhqui tlatlalia yn campa monequiz quimoleua
-tepuztica.</i></p>
-
-<p>9. They do not set up the precious stones named in this manner,
-except in the parts where it is necessary, when they break them with
-the copper instrument.</p>
-
-<p>10. <i>Auh niman quichiqui quixteca yoan quitemetzhuia yoan quipetlaua
-ytech quahuitl yn tlapetlaualoni ynic quiyectilia ynic quicencaua.</i></p>
-
-<p>10. Then they scrape it, and they facet it, and they smooth it,
-and they polish it, mounted in wood, set on the instrument called
-polisher or burnisher, and they manufacture and finish it.</p>
-
-<p>11. <i>Auh yn yehoatl yn moteneua eztecpatl ca cenca tlaquauac
-chicauac camo ma vel motequi ynica teoxalli.</i></p>
-
-<p>11. The stone called blood silex (heliotrope) is very hard and very
-strong, and they do not cut it well with emery.</p>
-
-<p>12. <i>Çaçan motlatlapana motehuia.</i></p>
-
-<p>12. They break it and they cut it up in any kind of way.</p>
-
-<p>13. <i>Yoan motepehuilia yn itepetlayo yn amo qualli, yn amo uel
-no mopetlaua.</i></p>
-
-<p>13. And they throw away the vein-stone, the useless stone, that
-which does not lend itself readily to polishing.</p>
-
-<p>14. <i>Çan yehoatl mocui motemolia yn qualli, yn vel mopetlaua yn
-eztic, yn uel cuicuiltic.</i></p>
-
-<p>14. They do not take or seek except the beautiful pieces that
-lend themselves to good polishing, the red-banded, that permit
-themselves to be well cut.</p>
-
-<p>15. <i>Michiqui atica yoan ytech tetl cenca tlaquauac vnpa uallauh
-yn matlatzinco.</i></p>
-
-<p>15. They rub them with water and mounted in a very hard stone
-that comes from the country of Matlatzinca [district of Toluca].</p>
-
-<p>16. <i>Ypampa ca uel monoma namiqui, yniuh chicauac tecpatl
-noyuh chicauac yn tetl, ynic monepanmictia.</i></p>
-
-<p>16. And because these two stones are companions, the one to the
-other, as the silex is very hard, so the stone is hard, they kill one
-another (the one kills the other).</p>
-
-<p>17. <i>Çatepan mixteca yca teoxalli yoan motemetzhuia yca ezmellil.</i></p>
-
-<p>17. Then they facet and polish them by means of emery.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span></p>
-
-<p>18. <i>Auh çatepan yc mocencaua yc mopetlaua, yn quetzalotlatl.</i></p>
-
-<p>18. And they finish and polish them with bamboo.</p>
-
-<p>19. <i>Ynic quicuecueyotza quitonameyomaca.</i></p>
-
-<p>19. In this way they make them scintillate and give to them a
-luster like the rays of the sun.</p>
-
-<p>20. <i>Auh yn yehoatl motocayotia vitzitziltecpatl niman yuh yolli
-tlacati.</i></p>
-
-<p>20. And that which they call hummingbird silex (stone of a
-thousand colors) is (in color like) an animal of that nature.</p>
-
-<p>21. <i>Miyec tlamantli ynic mocuicuiloua, iztac yoan xoxoctic yoan
-yuhquin tletl, anoço yuhqui citlali yoan yuhquin ayauhcoçamalotl.</i></p>
-
-<p>21. It is tinted (painted) in a thousand colors, white, blue, clear
-brilliant red, black with white spots, and the color of the rainbow.</p>
-
-<p>22. <i>Çan tepiton xalli ynic michiqui ynic mopetlaua.</i></p>
-
-<p>22. They scrape it and simply polish it with fine sand.</p>
-
-<p>23. <i>Auh yn yehoatl motocayotia xiuhtomolli camo tlaquauac camo
-ezmellil ytech monequi ynic michiqui ynic mixteca yoan ynic motemetzhuia
-yoan ynic mopetlaua ynic moquetzalotlahuiaya ynic motonameyotia
-motlanexyotia.</i></p>
-
-<p>23. The stone that they call round turquois is not very hard,
-so they have no need of emery to scrape, facet, smooth, or polish, for
-they apply to it the bamboo, then it receives its radiant luster and
-brilliancy.</p>
-
-<p>24. <i>Auh yn yehoatl teoxihuitl ca amo cenca tlaquauac.</i></p>
-
-<p>24. The fine turquois is not very hard either.</p>
-
-<p>25. <i>Çanno tepiton xalli ynic mopetlaua ynic moyectilia auh yn uel
-no yc motlanextilmaca motonameyomaca occentlamantli ytoca xiuhpetlaualoni.</i></p>
-
-<p>25. They polish it likewise with fine sand and they give to it a
-very brilliant luster and radiance by the method of another polisher,
-called the polisher of turquois.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f9">
-<p class="captiona">PL. VIII</p>
-<img src="images/fig9.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">PREHISTORIC AND ETHNOGRAPHIC MUSEUM, ROME</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>Regarding the patron deities of the lapidaries, Sahagun has
-given us a detailed account which is so interesting that we
-translate <i>in extenso</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The lapidaries who worked precious stones in the time of their
-pagandom adored four gods, or better said devils: the first was
-called <i>Chicunavitzcuintli</i>, the second <i>Naoalpilli</i>, the third <i>Macuilcalli</i>,
-and the fourth <i>Cintcutl</i>: to all these last three gods they made a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span>
-festival when there reigned the sign or character called <i>Chicunavitzcuintli</i>,
-which is a woman, and for this (reason) they painted it so: to
-this (one) they attributed the cosmetics of the women, and in order
-to signify this they painted it with a crosier in the right hand, and
-in the left they put a shield, in the which (shield) there was represented
-a foot. They also put ear-ornaments of gold on it, and from
-the cartilage of the nose hung a butterfly of the same metal, and
-they dressed it (the idol) with a <i>uipil</i> and woman’s shirt that was
-woven white and red, and also the skirts: they put on some sandals,
-also colored, having some paintings that appeared like almonds. To
-all these four (gods) they gave their images or their titles, so that
-they might die in their service on the day of their festival. That one
-called <i>Naoalpilli</i> they decked out, and they cut the strands of hair
-in unequal lengths, very badly cut, disheveled or standing on ends,
-and divided in two parts. They put on the forehead a delicate plate
-of gold (thin) like paper, some earrings of gold in the ears, and in the
-hand a crosier decorated with rich feathers, and in the other (hand) a
-shield made like a net, and in four parts it had rich feathers badly
-placed. They also dressed it with a jacket woven white and red,
-with edging in the lower end: they also put on it some colored sandals.
-And the other god, called <i>Macuilcalli</i>, they also composed like
-a man, the hair cut in the middle of the head like a ridge, that is
-called <i>quachichiquille</i>, and this ridge was not of hair but made
-of the richest feathers. They placed in the temples some plates of
-delicate gold, and a jewel hung from the neck also, made of a round
-and wide marine shell. In the hand a crosier made of rich feathers
-was placed, and in the other hand was a shield with some circles of
-red, some inside the others; they had the body painted vermilion
-color, and they also put on it some sandals of the same color. The
-other god, called <i>Cinteutl</i>, was fashioned in the likeness of a man,
-with a mask wrought like mosaic-work, with some rays of the same
-(mosaic-work), coming out of the same mask. They put on it a
-jacket of cloth dyed light-blue; a jewel of gold hung from the neck.
-They place it (the idol) on a high platform from which it looked out,
-which platform, called <i>cincalli</i>, was composed of cornstalks after
-the manner of a <i>xacal</i>. They adorned it with some white sandals,
-the fastenings of which were made of loose cotton; they say that to
-these gods they attribute the artifice of working precious stones, of
-the making of barbotes (the tops of helmets), and ear-ornaments of
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span>black stone, of crystal, and of amber, and of other white (stones).
-They also attribute to these gods the working of beads, anklets,
-strings of pearls which they carried on their wrists, and all kinds of
-work in stones and chalchihuites, and the hollowing-out and polishing
-of all the stones; they said that these gods had invented it, and
-for this reason they were honored as gods, and to them the elder artisans
-of this craft and all the other lapidaries made a festival. By
-night they intoned their hymns and set the captives who were to die,
-on watch in their honor, and they did not work during the festival.
-This (festival) was celebrated in Xochimilco, because they said that
-the forefathers and ancestors of the lapidaries had come from that
-town, and there was the place of origin of these artisans.<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f10">
-<p class="captiona">PL. IX</p>
-<a id="fig10" href="images/fig10big.jpg">
-<img src="images/fig10.jpg" alt="" />
-</a>
-<p class="caption">MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION. NEW YORK</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>The ruler of the eighteenth week of the astrological calendar,
-or <i>tonalamatl</i>, was a goddess named <i>Chantico</i> or <i>Quaxolotl</i>,
-also nicknamed <i>Chiconaui-itzcuintli</i>,<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> from the ninth day of
-the thirteen-day period or week. Seler writes:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>She was the goddess of Xochimilco, and consequently also the
-chief deity of the guild of the tlatecque, of the stone cutters, the
-stone polishers, the jewelers, who were also supposed to come from
-Xochimilco. (Duran calls her wrongly Ciuacoatl and identifies her
-with the goddess of Colhuacan, which place stood opposite the city
-of Xochimilco).... Besides <i>Chiconaui-itzcuintli</i> the stone-cutters
-had still a few other titles for the goddess. Such were Papaloxaual
-and Tlappepalo, i.e., “she of the red butterfly painting,” and “she
-with the red butterfly,” and these have reference to fire.... The
-stone-cutters also gave their goddess a butterfly as her nasal ornament,
-which, red and white, are the colors of her robe.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In some of the different versions or paintings of the <i>tonalamatl</i>
-contained in old Mexican codices, opposite the delineation
-of the goddess Chantico there is placed a fasting man in an
-enclosure. In both Codex Borbonicus<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> and Codex Telleriano
-Remensis,<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> this figure is found. Seler describes it as&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>an enclosure inlaid with gold discs or rings. The interpreter designates
-it as “house of gold.” Beyond doubt this name has reference to
-one of the four little fasting houses (<i>necaualcalli</i>) which the hero of
-Tollan, Quetzalcoatl, built for himself, and naturally corresponded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span>
-to the four quarters of the heavens, the first of which was said to
-be made of gold or embellished with gold (<i>coztic teocuitlacalli</i>), the
-second decorated with red musselshells (<i>tapachcalli</i>), the third with
-turquoises (<i>xiuihcalli</i>), the fourth with white musselshells (<i>teccizcalli</i>).<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Seler draws this inference from the legend given by Sahagun,
-which we have translated in full below.</p>
-
-<p>As often is the case, there is some confusion in the description
-of Chantico in the early writings. This deity is also
-asserted to be a male. In the explanation of the Codex Telleriano
-Remensis the attributes of Chantico or Cuaxolotle are
-recited. It is said that&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Chantico presided over these thirteen signs (a division of the tonalamatl,
-or divinatory calendar), and was the lord of chile or of the
-yellow woman. He was the first who offered sacrifice after having
-eaten fried fish; the smoke of which (sacrifice) ascended to heaven;
-at which Tonacotli (Tonacatecutli, the father of all the gods) became
-incensed, and pronounced a curse against him that he should be
-changed into a dog, which accordingly happened, and he named
-him Chantico on this account, which is another name for Miquitlatecotle.
-From this transgression the destruction of the world ensued.
-He was called Nine Dogs, from the sign on which he was born.
-Chantico or Cuaxolotle is the symbol which the country people of
-Xolotle wear on their heads.<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> (The symbol of the city of Xolotlan
-in the Codex Mendoza is the head of a Dog.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the Sahagun manuscript of the Real Palacio in Madrid<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a>
-the deity is painted with the shirt and skirt of a woman, and
-also in the Codex Borbonicus<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> and the Tonalamatl Aubin.<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a>
-In his explanation of the last codex Seler has treated exhaustively
-of the various representations and attributes of
-this goddess.<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>
-
-<p>Among the laws of the Mexicans was the following:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>They hung and very severely punished those sons who squandered
-the property left them by their fathers, or destroyed the arms, jewels,
-or remarkable things that their fathers had left.<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f11">
-<p class="captiona">PL. X</p>
-<img src="images/fig11.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span></p>
-
-<p>In another study<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> we have called attention, as follows, to the
-daily traffic of gold and precious stones in the great market
-of Tenochtitlan.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Cortés describes the great market of Tenochtitlan, and the great
-quantity of things daily exposed for sale included jewels of gold,
-silver, and stones. The Anonymous Conqueror, in describing the
-great market, states that “on one side of the plaza are those who sell
-gold, and adjoining are those who sell precious stones of various
-classes set in gold, in the shapes of various birds and animals.”<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> This
-refers to mosaic jewels with stone and gold inlays. Cortés further
-informs us that Montezuma had in his house representations in gold,
-silver, stones, or feathers, of every object of his domain, beautifully
-executed; and there is also a statement (by Ixtlilxochitl) that in the
-collection of Nezahualcoyotl, king of Texcoco, were the representations
-in stone mosaic-work and gold of every bird, fish, or animal
-which could not be obtained alive.<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A most interesting description is given by Sahagun of one
-of the edifices erected by the Toltecs in Tula. If true, it
-clearly shows that in pre-Aztec times much more elaborately
-decorated buildings were erected than in the more recent period,
-for there are no accounts in the writings of the Spaniards of
-such lavishly ornamented buildings existing in the numerous
-cities conquered by them during the beginning of the sixteenth
-century. This is corroborated by the excavations now being
-conducted in the ruins of Teotihuacan, the greatest city known
-to us from Toltec times, where some marvelous structures have
-been unearthed.<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> The temple in question is said by Sahagun
-to have been built in honor of Quetzalcoatl, and included in
-its embellishment some of the most precious work of which
-they were capable.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>It had four halls. The eastern one (had the walls) covered with
-plates of gold, and it was called the golden hall or house. The
-western hall was called the hall of emeralds, or turquoises, because
-inside they had (the walls) covered with fine stonework, with all
-manner of stones, all placed and joined (together) as a coating or
-covering, like work of mosaic. The southern hall had the walls of
-divers marine shells, and in place of any other covering, they had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span>
-silver, which was put together so nicely with the shells that the
-joints were not visible. The fourth hall, the northern one, had the
-walls made of colored jasper and shell, put on in a very ornamental
-manner.<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The fame of this temple or palace seems to have been firmly
-established, as Sahagun recurs to it in another part of his
-history, but in less detail. Sahagun follows the fortunes of the
-culture hero while he was in the ascendency in Tula, and
-states that later, owing to circumstances which it is needless
-to relate in this place, Quetzalcoatl determining to abandon
-Tula, ordered the burning of “all the houses that he had made
-of silver and shell, and furthermore commanded that other
-precious things should be buried in the neighboring hills and
-ravines.”<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> This indicates that the mosaic-decorated building
-was laid in ruins, and part of the treasure, at least, was buried
-before the inhabitants left the region and commenced the
-migration southward.</p>
-
-<p>In presenting the tradition of this migration of Quetzalcoatl,
-Sahagun states that he (Quetzalcoatl) is reputed to have
-made and erected some houses underground which are called
-<i>Mientlancalco</i>. This of course refers to the famous ruins of
-Mitla, and seems to be an authentic tradition of the Nahuan
-origin of this important city of southern Mexico. It is doubly
-significant, when considered in connection with the description
-of the mosaic-decorated buildings in Tula, for, as is well known,
-the dominant architectural feature of the Mitla group of
-structures is the mosaic treatment of many of their outer and
-inner walls.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f12">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XI</p>
-<img src="images/fig12.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">MASK OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>It is not necessary to give more than brief attention to this
-application of mosaic-work in architecture. The traditional
-mosaic-decorated buildings of Tula have disappeared, but the
-structures of Mitla are still standing in an excellent state of
-preservation, and moreover are easily accessible to travelers
-by rail and automobile; therefore they have been visited and
-admired by more people than perhaps any ruins in ancient
-America. In the embellishment of the walls a true mosaic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span>
-decoration was employed, differing in kind only from the
-turquois mosaic on small objects. Geometric patterns were
-produced by fitting together small stones of different shapes
-and sizes, some of which were more deeply imbedded than
-others, so that the designs were traced out by the stones which
-projected more than others; in single panels, several planes
-were necessary to bring out the desired patterns. In many
-cases the stones are so neatly fitted that the joints can hardly
-be traced. We have written elsewhere that&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>the massiveness of the construction and simple and chaste ornamentation
-place the Mitla structures in a class unapproached by any
-other existing ruined edifices in ancient America. The workmanship
-revealed in the stonework, the elegant precision with which the
-stones are laid and carved, is not equaled in any of the Mayan ruins.
-However, as noted by Holmes, the geometric fretwork mosaics differ
-from the great façades of the Mayan buildings “in subject matter
-rather than in kind, for the decorated surfaces there, though depicting
-animal forms, are mosaics in the sense that they are made up
-of separate hewn or carved stones set in mortar to form ornamental
-designs.”<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p>
-</div>
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="c8">OBJECTS DECORATED WITH MOSAIC</h2>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">In the</span> ancient chronicles are found many descriptions of the
-employment of mosaic-work decoration in the central Mexican
-region. From the writings of Sahagun and others it is clearly
-evident that many such decorated objects were made for and
-were used as parts of the paraphernalia with which great idols
-of wood or of stone representing various deities were adorned
-for the frequent religious festivals which occurred at stated intervals.
-The rulers and the priests and members of the so-called
-nobility used such objects on these occasions. The
-major employment of the mosaic art seems to have been for the
-adornment of objects or ornaments used ceremonially, such as
-crowns or head-bands, helmets, masks, shields, scepters, ear-ornaments,
-nose-ornaments, breast-plates, bracelets, and anklets.
-The material on which the mosaic incrustation was
-placed was chiefly wood, but gold, shell, bone, and stone were
-also used. Small figures of the gods, either in human or in animal
-form, as well as musical instruments, were thus adorned.
-There are also indications that pottery vessels were sometimes
-decorated by embedding turquois in the clay.</p>
-
-<p>Unfortunately we still possess only scant knowledge of the
-various objects ornamented in this manner. In the data obtained
-from the early chronicles there is abundant evidence
-that, in the central plateau of Mexico during the period immediately
-preceding the Spanish conquest, the art was highly
-developed. Visual evidence is at hand in the few beautiful examples
-now in European museums, specimens which were sent
-across the water by Cortés during the earliest period of the
-conquest, between the years 1518 and 1525.</p>
-
-<p>A few references from some of the early writers regarding the
-use of turquois mosaic by the Aztecs will be presented.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f13">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XII</p>
-<img src="images/fig13.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">MASK OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>Stone idols were often decorated with mosaic incrustations.
-Andrés de Tapia describes an idol probably representing
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span>Huitzilopochtli, showing this type of embellishment, in the
-great temple at Tenochtitlan. Tapia’s account is worthy of
-attention, for he was one of the captains of Cortés, and took a
-prominent part in the capture of the capital of Montezuma.
-He writes:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>There were two idols on two pedestals, each one of the bulk of an
-ox; the pedestals measured a yard in height, and above these (were)
-two idols, each one almost three yards in height, of polished grain:
-and the stone was covered over with nacre, which is the shell in
-which pearls are created, and over this (mother-of-pearl), fastened
-with bitumen after the manner of paste, were (set in) many jewels of
-gold, and men, snakes, birds, and histories (hieroglyphs), made of
-small and large turquoises, of emeralds and amethysts, so that all
-the mother-of-pearl was covered, except in some places where they
-left it (uncovered) so as to make work with the stones. These idols
-had plump snakes of gold (as) girdles, and for collars each (one had)
-ten or twelve hearts made of gold, and for the face a mask of
-gold and eyes of mirror (obsidian or iron pyrites), and they had
-another face in the back of the head like the head of a man without
-flesh.<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Pomar describes the idol of Huitzilopochtli as of wood,
-“having on the breast a jewel of turquoises set in gold, with
-some gold bells (hanging), and on the face (were) two stripes
-of gold and two of turquoises, very beautifully wrought and
-placed.”<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p>
-
-<p>In describing this idol, Bernal Díaz writes that “the whole
-body was covered with precious stones, and gold and pearls,
-and with seed pearls stuck on with a paste that they make in
-this country out of a sort of root, and all the body and head
-was covered with it, and the body was girdled by great snakes
-made of gold and precious stones.” He goes on to mention
-another idol close to it, which held “a short lance and a shield
-richly decorated with gold and stones.”<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
-
-<p>Concerning the ancestral treasure of the Aztecan kings which
-Montezuma inherited from his father Axayacatl, finally exacted
-by Cortés from the unfortunate ruler, Bernal Díaz describes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span>
-“three blowguns with their pellet molds and their
-coverings of jewels and pearls, and pictures in feathers of little
-birds covered with pearl shell, and other birds, all of great
-value.<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p>
-
-<p>Tezozomoc, in describing the great sacrifices offered to the
-god Huitzilopochtli in honor of the coronation of Montezuma,
-and the presents brought by neighboring chiefs and lords as
-tributes from the various towns under their jurisdiction,
-writes:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In the center of the great square there was a building (<i>xacal</i>) where
-was the <i>teponaztli</i>, and the great <i>tlapanhuehuetl</i> with which they made
-music. On the <i>xacal</i> was the device of the Mexican arms with a
-small <i>peñula</i> (rock?) of painted paper, like a natural rock, with a
-great cactus (<i>tuna</i>) on it, and on the cactus a royal eagle having in
-its claws a great mangled snake, and the eagle had a crown of
-doubled or twisted paper very well (made) and gilded, and (with)
-very rich stone mosaic-work round about it, in the Mexican custom
-called <i>teocuitla amayxcuatzolli</i>.<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>At this festival Montezuma had the king of Aculhuacan attired
-in special raiment, which Tezozomoc describes as “a
-netted mantle with much rich stonework in the knots of the
-mantle, and with little gold bells hanging from the fringe.<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p>
-
-<p>According to Sahagun, Xiuhtecutli, god of fire, wore “earrings
-in the holes of the ears worked with mosaics of turquois....
-In his left hand he carried a shield with five greenstones
-called <i>chalchihuite</i>, placed like a cross on a round gold plate,
-which nearly covered the whole of the shield.”<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f14">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XIII</p>
-<img src="images/fig14.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>Chalchihuitlicue, goddess of water, fountains, and rivers,
-wore earrings of turquois fashioned in mosaic-work. In describing
-the idol of Quetzalcoatl, Sahagun says that, for ceremonial
-occasions, ear-ornaments of turquois mosaic were placed
-on it, and “in the right hand was placed a scepter like a bishop’s
-crosier or staff, the upper part crooked like a bishop’s staff, and
-wrought with stone mosaic-work.” In treating of the presents
-sent to Cortés by Montezuma we have already given the description
-of the paraphernalia pertaining to this deity. This
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span>scepter is there described as having “the crook like the head
-of a snake turned around or coiled.” In the codices the god
-or his priest is represented with this staff
-with a crook, but the serpent-headed
-scepter is shown by Sahagun (manuscript
-of the Real Palacio, Madrid, estampa <span class="allsmcap">VII</span>,
-fig. 1) as part of the ceremonial outfit of
-Huitzilopochtli (fig. 5). The body of the
-serpent is painted blue, representing the
-scales done in turquois mosaic.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f50">
-<img src="images/fig50.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="captionb"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In describing the god Tezcatlipoca,
-Pomar states that he was represented with “a mask with three
-stripes (<i>vetas</i>) of <i>espejuelo</i> (either transparent lamellated gypsum
-[selenite], or more probably obsidian), and two of gold,
-which crossed over the face.”<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> The idol was fashioned from
-wood in the figure of a man. <i>Espejuelo</i>, he states, was a kind
-of shining metal called <i>tezcapoctli</i>.</p>
-
-<p>In the invocation to the god Paynal, which has been preserved
-to us in the original Mexican tongue by Sahagun, is the
-strophe, “<i>yxiuh chimal, xiuhtica tlatzaqualli chimalli imax mani</i>,”
-which has been translated by Seler, “the blue shield, covered
-with the turquois mosaic, hangs from his arm ... he carries
-the (blue mosaic) shield.”<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> This chapter was copied by Seler
-from the manuscript in the Real Palacio, Madrid. In the
-reproduction of the pictorial part of the manuscript published
-in colors by Troncoso, we find the representation of this deity,
-in which the mosaic shield is graphically drawn and painted blue
-(see our fig. 70, p. 17). Sahagun (book 1, chap. 2) briefly describes
-“this god called Paynal, who was a kind of under-captain of
-Huitzilopochtli.” He is said to have been a man adored as a
-god.</p>
-
-<p>The Anonymous Conqueror affords valuable information regarding
-the use of shields. He says:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>They use shields of various kinds, made of thick reeds which grow
-in that country, interwoven with cotton of double thickness, and
-they cover them with precious stones (turquois mosaic-work) and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span>
-round plates of gold, which make them so strong that nothing can
-go through them, unless from a good crossbow. Some arrows, it is
-true, pierced them, but could do no harm. And because some of
-these shields have been seen in Spain, I say that they are not of the
-kind borne in war, but only those used in the festivals and dances
-which they are accustomed to have.<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In his chapter devoted to a consideration of “the finery that
-the lords used in their dances,” Sahagun mentions “bracelets of
-mosaic-work made of turquoises,” and also “masks worked in
-mosaic, and (having) false hair such as they now use, and some
-plumes of gold which came out of the masks.” He further describes
-the costumes, as follows:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>They also wear attached to the wrists thick bands of black leather
-made soft with balsam, and decorated with a large bead of chalchihuitl
-or other precious stone. They also wore labrets of chalchihuitl
-set in gold, placed through the flesh, although they do not have this
-custom now. They also have these ornaments made of large rock-crystals,
-with blue feathers set in them, which give them the appearance
-of sapphires. They wear also many other precious stones
-protruding through openings made in the lower lip. The noses of the
-great lords are also pierced, and they wear in the openings fine turquoises
-and other precious stones, one on each side. They wear also
-some strings of precious stones around the neck; they wear a disc of
-gold hanging from a collar, and in the middle of it a plain precious
-stone, and around the circumference some pendants of pearls. They
-use bracelets of mosaic-work made of turquois, with some rich
-feathers which come out from them higher than the head, and bordered
-with rich plumes and gold, and some bands of gold which rise
-with the feathers.<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f15">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XIV</p>
-<img src="images/fig15.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION. NEW YORK</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>The distinctive head-band or crown worn by the Mexican
-rulers is mentioned by numerous early writers and illustrated
-in many codices. It was known as the <i>xiuhtzolli</i> or <i>xiuhuitzontli</i>,
-and was called also <i>copilli</i>. We have selected for illustration
-(fig. 6) two examples from the codices. The first (<i>a</i>) is
-taken from the Sahagun manuscript of the Real Academia de la
-Historia, Madrid (estampa <span class="allsmcap">XVII</span>). This page contains pictures
-of a number of Aztecan rulers, all represented with the turquois-mosaic
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span>crown painted blue. Moreover, the hieroglyphic name
-of Montezuma, here placed above his head, is a mosaic crown.
-The crown itself
-was of gold, on
-which the turquois
-mosaic was
-placed. The other
-example (<i>b</i>) is
-from the Tribute
-Roll of Montezuma
-(Peñafiel
-edition, pl. <span class="allsmcap">XIX</span>).
-It is part of the
-hieroglyph for the place-name Tecmilco, signifying “the lands
-of the royal crown,” the combination being the crown painted
-blue resting on the sign for cultivated land. Our figure shows
-a plain gold crown, but it is painted blue in the codex.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f51">
-<img src="images/fig51.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="captionb"><i>a</i> <span class="pad4"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6</span></span> <i>b</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A copper crown from Tenango, State of Mexico, has been
-figured by Peñafiel. It is properly a head-band with a triangular
-projection with rounded top which rose from the forehead,
-and was probably worn by a warrior or sub-chief.<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> In this work
-Peñafiel illustrates the mask in Rome (see our pl. <span class="allsmcap">VII</span>), and
-states that the upper part is a <i>xiuhhuitzolli</i>, or turquois-mosaic
-crown. We will discuss this point later. Many years ago, in
-Mexico, the writer heard of a gold <i>copilli</i> as having been found
-in the Matlaltzincan region near Toluca, but was never able to
-verify the story. A few extracts from the chroniclers, relating
-to these golden crowns with turquois mosaic, follow.</p>
-
-<p>In the Codex Cozcatzin the Aztec king Axayacatl is represented
-with the <i>xiuhuitzontli</i>, the turquois mosaic-work head-band.<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p>
-
-<p>In the selection of Ahuitzotl as king, Tezozomoc writes:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>They put on him the crown which was blue, of rich stone mosaic-work,
-(in shape) like a half miter called <i>xiuhtzolli</i> (or <i>xihuitzolli</i>),
-and also placed on him, among other things, a netted mantle strewn
-with small stonework. This formed part of his costume when he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span>
-went to the temple of Huitzilopochtli to worship. When adored by
-neighboring subjugated tribes he wore a crown of gold (adorned)
-with much stone mosaic-work of a half miter shape, and on the
-left shoulder was put a sash called <i>matemacatl</i> which was all gilded
-and enameled with fine stone mosaic-work, which was also called
-<i>teocuitla cozehuatl</i>, as we now speak of a shoe-ribbon, and on the foot
-was placed something like an anklet of <i>acero</i> [<i>sic</i>] strewn with emerald
-stones, all gilded.<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Duran states that among the offerings buried with the Aztec
-king Ahuitzotl were “crowns of the fashion that they used, of
-gold and of stone mosaic-work.”<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p>
-
-<p>It is related by Tezozomoc that after the death of Netzahualpilli,
-king of Texcoco, Montezuma assembled the senate
-of Aculhuacan in order to select a new king. The choice fell on
-the fifth son, Quetzalacxoyatl. In the ceremony of investiture
-they placed on him “the blue crown or forehead-band decorated
-with stone mosaic-work.”<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p>
-
-<p>The Anonymous Conqueror writes:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>To guard the head, they carry things like the heads of serpents,
-tigers, lions, or wolves with open jaws, and the head of the man is
-inside the head of the creature as if it was being devoured. They are
-of wood covered over with feathers and with jewels of gold and
-precious stones, which is a wonderful sight.<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>From Alonso de Molina’s <i>Vocabulario Mexicano</i> (Mexico,
-1555, reprinted 1571) we are able to interpret the Nahuan
-words which occur in the chronicles in connection with the use
-of turquois in the decoration of various objects. The following
-are some of the more common: <i>nacochtli</i>, ear-plugs; <i>tentetl</i>, labret;
-<i>yacaxuitl</i>, nose-ornament; <i>copilli</i>, crown; <i>xiuhxayacatl</i>, mask of
-turquois mosaic; <i>xayacatl</i>, mask; <i>cactli</i>, sandal; <i>tilmatl</i>, mantle;
-<i>amaneahapantli</i>, mantle for lords richly wrought; <i>teopixcatla-quemitl</i>,
-vestment of priests; <i>ecaceuaztli</i>, fan; <i>chimalli</i>, shield;
-<i>teteotl</i>, stone idol; <i>tequacuilli</i>, large stone idol or statue; <i>xiuitl</i>,
-turquois; <i>tlaquauac xiuitl</i>, hard turquois; <i>xiuhtomolli</i>, turquois;
-<i>omichicauaztli</i>, bone musical instrument; <i>ayacachtli</i>, rattle.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f16">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XV</p>
-<img src="images/fig16.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">MASK OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span></p>
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="c9">EXISTING SPECIMENS OF MOSAIC</h2>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><span class="smcap">We will</span> now consider the existing specimens of mosaic-work.
-It has been demonstrated, by the extended quotations from the
-old chronicles and codices, that this art was considerably employed
-in adorning objects of a special nature in connection with
-the dress of kings, nobles, warriors, and priests, and the paraphernalia
-of the gods. We have at present no actual examples
-of many of the objects which we have learned were thus ornamented,
-consequently whatever conception we may gain by a
-study of existing specimens will give us an inadequate idea of
-the art. It is evident that the most elaborate works in stone
-mosaic sent to Europe, as noted in the inventories, have not
-been preserved, a fact borne out by the descriptions in the early
-accounts of the discovery and “things” of Mexico. Moreover,
-many of the pieces now in European museums are either in a
-poor state of preservation or are incomplete.</p>
-
-<p>Until recently only twenty-four major examples of mosaic-work
-had come to light and been placed on record by printed
-description and illustration. Of these twenty-three are in
-Europe. The other specimen was found a few years ago in a
-cave in Honduras, and for some time was exhibited in the
-National Museum at Washington, but later came into the possession
-of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation.
-The twenty-three known specimens in Europe were probably
-all sent to the Old World by Cortés or his companions.</p>
-
-<p>Some years ago an Indian found a deposit of ceremonial
-objects of wood, incrusted with mosaic-work, in a cave in the
-mountains of the Mixteca region of the State of Puebla.
-These specimens, seventeen in number, are now exhibited in
-the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. The
-chief object of this monograph is to describe and illustrate this
-unique collection.</p>
-
-<p>We are also now enabled to record and illustrate, through the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span>
-courtesy of the officials of the Peabody Museum, Harvard
-University, four other objects decorated with mosaic-work.
-These were found in the sacred <i>cenote</i> at the ruins of Chichen
-Itza, Yucatan, and are now exhibited in the Central American
-hall of the Museum mentioned. This brings the number of
-known specimens to forty-five, of which twenty-two are in the
-United States, and twenty-three in Europe. These specimens
-are now preserved in the following museums:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>
-British Museum, London, nine specimens.<br />
-
-Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome, five specimens.<br />
-
-Ethnographical Museum, Berlin, three specimens.<br />
-
-State Natural History Museum, Vienna, three specimens.<br />
-
-National Museum, Copenhagen, two specimens.<br />
-
-Museum, Gotha, one specimen.<br />
-
-Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, New York,
-eighteen specimens.<br />
-
-Peabody Museum, Cambridge, four specimens.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In this census are not included the minor objects with mosaic
-decoration, which we will also describe. Of the forty-five pieces
-enumerated, all but three are of wood; two are human skulls,
-and one a human femur. As the European specimens have
-hitherto been described, and in some instances their history
-traced to the middle of the sixteenth century, it will be necessary
-only to refer the student to these studies, note of which will
-be found in the bibliography at the close of this volume. In the
-present study we have assembled photographs or drawings of all
-of these major specimens, as well as of nearly all the minor
-pieces, and drawings of some of the mosaic objects represented
-in color in the codices. Our pictorial record is therefore practically
-complete.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c large" id="c10"><span class="smcap">Minor Examples</span></p>
-
-<p>The use of mosaic incrustation in the decoration of stone idols
-is illustrated in pl. <span class="allsmcap">II</span>. This stone figure, 3 feet 10 inches high,
-came from Cozcatlan, district of Tehuacan, Puebla, and is now
-preserved in the National Museum of Mexico. It represents
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span>the goddess Coatlicue, mother of Huitzilopochtli, the Aztecan
-war god. The Sahagun manuscript in the Real Palacio, Madrid,
-represents this deity with a rattlesnake girdle around the
-waist; held in the right hand is a staff in the form of a rattlesnake
-with the head downward, and having depending feathers
-projecting from the rattles, which are opposite the face
-of the figure. Above the deity is the caption “<i>Yztac ciuatl coatlicue</i>.”
-This statue, together with another, of colossal size, also
-in the Museo Nacional of Mexico, has often been denominated
-<i>Teoyamiqui</i>, and again at times it has been called <i>Mictecacihuatl</i>.
-The turquois decoration is still preserved in the statue
-illustrated, in the incrustation of the circular ear-ornaments and
-in the discs of mosaic in each cheek. The teeth are made of
-white shell; the inner part of the mouth is of red shell; the nose
-is inlaid with white shell. There are traces of incrustation
-around the eyes, but this mosaic feature is practically destroyed.
-In the breast is set a circular mirror of iron pyrites.
-Around the upper part of the forehead are small holes which
-probably at one time contained stone or shell inlays. A poorly
-colored representation of this idol has been published by Brocklehurst,
-with the title “Teoyamiqui, goddess of death.”<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f17">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XVI</p>
-<img src="images/fig17.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">MASK OF WOOD, MOSAIC DECORATION MISSING</p>
-<p class="captiona">MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>One of the most interesting uses of turquois-mosaic decoration
-was in the embellishment of wooden covers for the ancient
-books or codices. We are fortunate in still having preserved
-even a single example bearing traces of this art. In 1896 the
-Due de Loubat had reproduced the first of his series of Mexican
-codices, being the first to appear in exact facsimile, even to the
-ancient binding. This work was Codex Vaticanus No. 3773, a
-pre-Columbian Nahua picture-writing preserved in the Vatican
-Library. In a pamphlet by Francisco del Paso y Troncoso which
-accompanies the reproduction is an interesting description of
-the book, from which we quote with respect to the covers:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>It is of fine and thin wood. Each cover measures six by five inches....
-The wood of the covers is whitish, and traces of the brilliant
-lacquer which covered it may still be seen.... (One) cover bears a
-character which shows us that this is the point at which to begin the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span>
-reading of the book. As in modern binding the first cover bears a
-lettering or coat-of-arms; so too, as a rule, the Indians indicated the
-beginning of their books, and placed on the first cover the decorative
-incrustations which indicate that here is the first page.... On the
-center of the cover, placed two in a line, are four reliefs. At first
-these appeared to have been made by impression on the lacquer, but
-Monseigneur Francisco Plancarte, who examined them with a
-microscope, has discovered that they are composed of a paste with
-which the Indians fasten precious stones in their settings, and in
-these incrustations we have the impress left by the inequalities of
-the materials once fixed on the surface. One round greenstone is
-left, of the kind used by the Mexicans in their mosaics; it is on the
-upper right-hand corner of the volume, when held ready to be
-opened. Below it, in the lower right-hand corner may be observed a
-corresponding conical shaped depression, and the remains of the
-lacquer in which a stone was fixed. In the other angles there is no
-trace of anything, proving that nothing existed there of the same
-kind as that which remains.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the Loubat reproduction all these features are faithfully
-represented, even to the single greenstone remaining in place.</p>
-
-<p>The existence of mosaic objects in the Zapotecan region of
-Oaxaca was one of the important discoveries made by the Loubat
-Expedition of the American Museum of Natural History,
-under the direction of the writer, during the winters of 1898 and
-1902. In mounds locally called <i>mogotes</i> were discovered stone
-burial chambers in which skeletons interred with numerous
-offerings were uncovered.</p>
-
-<p>In the burial vaults at Xoxo, excavated in 1898, practically
-no personal ornaments were found, but fragments of mosaic objects
-were discovered in the form of bits of shell, obsidian, jadeite,
-turquois, and hematite, on fragmentary stucco matrices.<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f18">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XVII</p>
-<img src="images/fig18.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION FROM HONDURAS</p>
-<p class="captiona">MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>In the graves and tombs at Cuilapa were discovered many
-personal ornaments made of jadeite, amazon stone, and turquois.
-In an excavation made during January, 1902, in the great
-temple mound, or teocalli, dominating the group of mogotes at
-Cuilapa, a grave was discovered on the summit at a depth of
-six feet from the surface. It contained the skeleton of a child,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span>
-whose bones, together with the accompanying artifacts, were
-stained bright-red by hematite paint which had been thrown
-into the grave. Surrounding the skeleton were seventeen greenstone
-idols in the form of human figures; more than four
-hundred beads of greenstone and jadeite of varying sizes;
-thirty-five shells of various kinds, perforated for suspension; bits
-of mother-of-pearl, obsidian, and hematite, which evidently
-were fragments of disintegrated mosaic objects; but the most
-interesting objects recovered were a pair of small discs of pottery,
-upon the flat upper surfaces of which were cemented
-small pieces of very thin, highly-polished hematite, placed in
-mosaic. These last were undoubtedly mirrors, although from
-the small perforation in the center of each we are inclined to
-regard the pair as having been used also as ear-ornaments. One
-of these specimens should be in the Museo Nacional of Mexico,
-where it belongs; the other is in the American Museum of
-Natural History. The latter, now illustrated for the first time
-(fig. 7), is an inch and three-quarters
-in diameter, and an
-eighth of an inch in thickness.
-Our reproduction of this interesting
-object has been made possible
-by the courtesy of Dr. Clark
-Wissler, Curator of Anthropology.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f52">
-<img src="images/fig52.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="captionb"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>An interesting specimen of
-the combination of gold with turquois
-mosaic in jewelry has been
-recently figured in colors, and
-described by the writer (see fig.
-8).<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> It is in the form of a shield, with four arrows or darts and
-pendent bells, and has an extreme length of three and one-eighth
-inches from the top of the shield to the bottom of the
-central bells. We have described in detail the meaning of the
-hieroglyph formed by the mosaic-work, and shown that the
-brooch-like jewel was the insignia of one of the four principal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span>
-chiefs of the Aztecan army, who governed one of the four
-wards, or <i>calpullis</i>, into which Tenochtitlan, the capital of
-Montezuma, was divided. As a matter of fact, the jewel was
-found in a grave in Yanhuitlan, in the Mixteca region of Oaxaca.
-It is the only known specimen that shows turquois set on
-gold, a combination to which we have called attention, in quoting
-from Sahagun and others, regarding turquois mosaic on
-crowns, bracelets, and other gold objects for personal adornment.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f53">
-<img src="images/fig53.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="captionb"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the collections of the Museum of the American Indian,
-Heye Foundation, are three mirrors faced with highly-polished
-marcasite on their original matrices, apparently slate&mdash;the
-only specimens of this character that we have seen. Two of
-these mirrors, which were collected by William Niven from
-ancient graves near Iguala, Guerrero, are perforated for suspension,
-and all three average five inches in diameter and a
-quarter of an inch in thickness. With these mirrors were found
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span>numerous little unpolished cubes of iron pyrites, which may
-have been intended for use in mosaic-work. There are, however,
-a number of rather thin, flat, irregularly shaped pieces,
-with very thin matrix of stone, and with beveled edges, which
-unquestionably have been parts of mirrors made in mosaic
-fashion similar to those found in the Cuilapa grave, the only
-difference being that the inlays from Iguala are larger and
-thicker than those on the Cuilapa specimens, which are simply
-thin sheets of hematite. The region where the Iguala specimens
-were discovered was probably the seat of a people of
-Nahuan culture.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f19">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XVIII</p>
-<img src="images/fig19.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">MASK OF HUMAN SKULL WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">ETHNOGRAPHICAL MUSEUM, BERLIN</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>In 1908 Dr. Manuel Gamio conducted an important excavation
-of an ancient building at the site known as the monuments
-of Alta Vista, near Chalchihuites, Zacatecas, in northern Mexico.
-In a large chamber called the Hall of the Columns, Gamio
-found two mosaics in a small circular compartment in the concrete
-floor. One of these was a disc of yellow pottery encircled
-by a ring of wood, the entire object being about two and three-quarters
-inches in diameter and three-eighths of an inch thick.
-The wooden ring bore traces of a coating of resin, and many tiny
-bits which formed the mosaic incrustation were found with it,
-although not in place. The bits that had formed the mosaic
-were thin plates of worked turquois, beryl, and steatite. From
-the fact that the disc contained perforations, evidently for
-suspension, Gamio described it as a breast ornament.</p>
-
-<p>The other mosaic piece Gamio believes to have been a labret.
-He writes that “at first glance its shape may be described as
-resembling the bridge of a violin.... Its nucleus is wood,
-carved to represent two symmetrical figures of an alligator
-(<i>caiman</i>), united at the belly. Crowning the head are two head
-plumes, each having two branches. Above the point of union
-of the two reptiles there is a square projection with a perforation.”<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a>
-The surface of the ornament had been covered with
-small spherical plates of turquois, beryl, and steatite.</p>
-
-<p>Near these two mosaic ornaments were found numerous small
-pieces of turquois and beryl of different shapes.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span></p>
-
-<p>In October, 1921, the Spanish newspaper <i>La Prensa</i>, New
-York, published a short account, received by letter from the
-City of Mexico, describing what purported to be an extraordinary
-discovery made early in the autumn. It related to the
-finding of a stone mask decorated in mosaic, discovered by one
-of the assistants of the Museo Nacional in a sepulchral chamber
-in Guerrero. This mask was described as being about eight
-inches high, the human face being partly covered with an incrustation
-of small pieces of turquois, with small bits of coral shell
-above the eyebrows and below the nose. Each eye was formed
-by an oval piece of pearl shell, with pupils of hematite. The
-mosaic covering was missing from the upper part of the forehead
-and the chin.</p>
-
-<p>The newspaper <i>Excelsior</i> of Mexico City, under date of October
-20, 1921, published a photograph of the specimen and a
-detailed study of the object in a statement signed by José María
-Arreola, a member of the staff of the Department of Anthropology
-in the City of Mexico. In this statement Arreola casts
-doubt on the authenticity of the specimen, pointing out that
-none of the known pieces of mosaic-work in European collections
-are of stone; that the surface of the mask is polished, which
-would make it difficult for the incrustation to have adhered
-during centuries of burial; that there are no traces of dirt in the
-cracks between the pieces of turquois, and finally he calls attention
-to a strong odor of glue which pervades the object.
-These arguments seemed sufficient to cast serious doubt as to
-the genuineness of the mosaic decoration of the mask. No such
-question was raised in regard to the mask itself. In a brief article
-entitled “Una Mascara de Mosaico Falsificada,” published in
-<i>Ethnos</i> (nos. 8-12, dated Mexico, Nov. 1920-Mar. 1921), the
-same writer categorically asserts that the specimen is fraudulent,
-and calls on the reputed finder, Sr. Don Porfirio Aguirre, to
-present the evidence regarding the exact place where the
-specimen was discovered in order that further excavation may
-be made with a view of establishing beyond question the history
-of such an important and unique discovery.<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f20">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XIX</p>
-<img src="images/fig20.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">MASK OF HUMAN SKULL WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span></p>
-
-<p>Precious and semi-precious stones were occasionally inserted
-singly for decorative purposes. In this respect we may simply
-refer, in passing, to the custom in ancient Mexico and Central
-America of decorating the teeth by inserting inlays in the upper
-incisors, turquois, jadeite, hematite, obsidian, and rock-crystal
-having been used in such manner. Rarely two, and in one
-instance three, insets have been found in a single tooth; but
-this form of decoration can in no sense be considered as mosaic.<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p>
-
-<p>Another example of the use of turquois as an inlay is supposed
-to be unique. Many years ago we obtained from Don
-Francisco Belmar a beautiful tripod vessel supporting against
-the side a polychrome human figure in the round, representing
-the god Macuilxochitl, god of dance and sport&mdash;the deity
-represented with the painted design around the mouth. It is
-not necessary here to discuss the question raised by Seler regarding
-the attributes and representations of the two analogous
-gods Macuilxochitl and Xochipilli. The vessel here seems
-clearly to be Macuilxochitl, corresponding with that given by
-Sahagun in the manuscript of the Real Palacio, Madrid. What
-is of interest is the disc of turquois inserted in the clay on the
-upper left-hand part of the chest, unquestionably there placed
-to denote some attribute of the deity.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c large" id="c11"><span class="smcap">Chichen Itza Specimens</span></p>
-
-<p>We will now consider some interesting examples from the
-Mayan ruins of Chichen Itza, Yucatan, which were found in
-the sacred well, or <i>cenote</i>, at that site. This sacred well is described
-by Casares in 1905<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> as arousing the admiration and
-awe of the Indians even to this day. It is about 450 feet north
-of the great pyramid known as the Castillo, and a paved way,
-several inches high, leads to it. At the brink is a small temple.
-The cenote is about 150 feet in diameter; the level of the water
-is 70 feet below the surface, and it is 40 feet deep, with a deposit
-of mud estimated to be about 30 feet in thickness. Landa
-writes: “They [the Maya] held Cozumel and the well of Chichen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span>
-Itza in the same veneration as do pilgrims now Jerusalem and
-Rome, and so they used to visit them, carrying their offerings
-chiefly to Cozumel, as holy places, and when they could not go,
-they sent them.” In another place this author states that “they
-had the habit then of throwing into this well living men as
-sacrifices to their gods in time of drought, and they thought
-that these would not die, though they never saw them again.
-They used also to throw precious stones and the things they
-most prized. Just on the brink of the well is a small building
-where I found all kinds of idols in honor of all the gods of the
-land.”<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> Casares adds: “What Landa, Cogolludo, and all other
-writers had narrated from mere hearsay, one of the distinguished
-members of the [American Antiquarian] Society, Mr.
-E. H. Thompson, has had the satisfaction to realize, bringing
-to light the truth of these statements, by diligent and intelligent
-work, the results of which I will not mention, as that grateful
-and honorable task belongs exclusively to him.”<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p>
-
-<p>Holmes wrote in 1895 of the sacred cenote as follows:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Sacred Cenote is larger, and more symmetrical than the
-other, and, occurring in the midst of the somber forest, is a most impressive
-and awe-inspiring spectacle. Its charm is enhanced by the
-weird stories of human sacrifice associated correctly or incorrectly
-with its history. The walls are nearly circular and approach the
-perpendicular closely all around. They are diversified only by the
-encircling ribs and pitted grooves produced by the uneven weathering
-of the massive, horizontally-bedded limestones. The water has
-a light coffee color and looks very impure. It is shallow on one side
-and of unknown depth on the other. A small tomb-like ruin is
-perched upon the brink. It is conjectured that this structure had
-something to do with the ceremonies attending the casting of victims
-and treasure into the terrible pool. There has been some talk
-of exploring the accumulations from the bottom of this cenote with
-the expectation of securing works of art or other treasures, but the
-task is a most formidable one and will require the erection of strong
-windlasses and efficient dredging apparatus. It is doubtful if promised
-results warrant the outlay necessary for carrying out the work
-in a thorough manner.<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f21">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XX</p>
-<img src="images/fig21.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">SHIELD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span></p>
-
-<p>Nevertheless, a few years later, as hinted by Casares, Mr.
-Edward H. Thompson secured the complete confirmation of
-the traditions concerning the character of the cenote. He
-brought out of the mud a most amazing archeological treasure.
-Through the kindness of Prof. A. M. Tozzer we are enabled to
-include here drawings of four pieces of mosaic-work which were
-among the many interesting things discovered. As Professor
-Tozzer and Dr. Spinden are engaged in an exhaustive study of
-the cenote material for publication, we will not further anticipate
-the results of their investigations.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f54">
-<img src="images/fig54.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="captionb"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9</span> <span class="pad2"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10</span></span></p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>In figs. 9 and 10 are illustrated
-two small fragments of wooden
-objects from the cenote which still
-retain portions of turquois-mosaic
-decoration. In fig. 9 the irregularly
-shaped piece in the center is a
-thin plate of gold. Both fragments
-are evidently from objects of considerable
-size. Several wooden teeth
-covered with the same kind of mosaic
-incrustation were probably
-from a jaguar mask or head.</p>
-
-<p>Pl. <span class="allsmcap">III</span> represents two fairly complete
-specimens from the cenote. Of these, <i>a</i> is a small staff or
-scepter, the face of which is covered with turquois mosaic, and
-it is possible that the headdress was once similarly incrusted.
-In <i>b</i> is shown a rattle of wood, within which is a copper bell.
-Only two bits of turquois of the mosaic decoration remain.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft" id="f55">
-<img src="images/fig55.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="captionb"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In this object we find in the Mexican pictures an instrument
-analogous to the one last mentioned. In both of the Sahagun
-manuscripts, that of the Real Palacio in Madrid and the one
-in Florence, are representations of the deity Xipe Totec. In
-the former manuscript is found the name of the god written
-above the figure, <i>Xippe anavatlitec</i>, translated by Seler as
-“Xipe, lord of the coastland.” He is an earth deity, “our lord
-the flayed,” for he is represented wearing loosely about him a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span>
-human skin. He was the patron deity of the goldsmiths of
-the valley of Mexico, and is said to have been paid special
-homage by the people of the Teotitlan district, the
-beginning of the highway to Tabasco. In the pictures
-given by Sahagun, and in other codices, this
-god carried a long staff which terminates in a kind of
-rattle (fig. 11), similar in shape to that found in the
-cenote of Chichen Itza. It was called <i>chicauaztli</i> by
-the Nahua, and Seler asserts that the rattlestick of
-the god Xipe was carried, besides him, only by the
-goddesses of the earth.<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> Sahagun describes it as a
-scepter made after the manner of the calyx of the
-poppy where the seed is, with something like the
-point of a dart fastened in and rising from the upper
-part.<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> The resemblance of the cenote specimen to
-the one shown in the Sahagun manuscript suggests that it was
-brought from the Nahuan region.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f56">
-<img src="images/fig56.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="captionb"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the sculptured wall of the Temple of the Jaguars at Chichen
-Itza are represented a considerable number of warriors
-and priests dressed in elaborate costumes and paraphernalia.
-Several of these persons wear the typical triangular head-band
-or crown of the Nahuas, on which may be distinguished turquois-mosaic
-decoration (fig. 12). Two of these priests or
-warriors have their faces covered with unmistakable turquois-mosaic
-masks (figs. 13, 14).<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> This points to Nahuan influence,
-and we have other instances of this influence both at Chichen
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span>Itza and at Uxmal. We are thus led to the belief that the
-mosaics recovered from the cenote were brought to Chichen
-Itza from Nahuan
-territory.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f22">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXI</p>
-<img src="images/fig22.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">SHIELD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">STATE MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, VIENNA</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f57">
-<img src="images/fig57.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="captionb"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13</span> <span class="pad3"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14</span></span></p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>Another example
-of a turquois
-mosaic mask in
-stone sculpture
-is found at the
-back of the profile
-face, in front of the ear, of the human figure carved on the
-front of stela 11 at Seibal, in the region of the upper Usumacinta,
-Department of Peten, Guatemala. It was photographed
-by Maler in 1895, and illustrated and described by him in his
-monograph, Explorations of the Upper Usumatsintla and Adjacent
-Region (<i>Memoirs of the Peabody Museum, Harvard University</i>,
-vol. <span class="allsmcap">IV</span>, no. 1, Cambridge, 1908). Morley has deciphered the
-date on this stela as 10.1.0.0.0, corresponding approximately,
-according to his method of correlation, to 590 A.D. It appears
-to have been a hotun-marker, or stone erected every five years,
-and is placed in the Great Period of Mayan civilization.</p>
-
-<p class="c large" id="c12"><span class="smcap">Major Examples</span></p>
-
-<p>The more important major specimens now remain to be considered.
-As all these objects are of wood, with the exception of
-numbers 3 and 9, we will not repeat this in our descriptions.
-They are:</p>
-
-<ul>
-<li>1. Helmet or head-piece</li>
-
-<li>2. Wooden masks</li>
-
-<li>3. Skull masks</li>
-
-<li>4. Shields</li>
-
-<li>5. Ear-plug</li>
-
-<li>6. Animal figures</li>
-
-<li>7. God figure</li>
-
-<li>8. Knife handles</li>
-
-<li>9. Human femur musical instrument.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span></p>
-
-
-<p class="c" id="c13"><i>Helmet</i></p>
-
-<p>The helmet or head-piece on pl. <span class="allsmcap">IV</span> is in the British Museum,
-and was first described and illustrated in colors in 1895 by Sir
-Charles Hercules Read. From his study we take the following
-notes:<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> The helmet is hollowed out inside to fit the head
-and is painted green; the exterior is carved with two projections,
-perhaps intended to represent the upper mandibles of
-eagles. The space between the inner upper part of the two
-beaks and the two outer faces of the beaks bears traces of
-red paint. With this exception, the outer surface has been
-covered with a mosaic of turquois, malachite, pearl shell, and
-pink shell, inlaid or incrusted on a bed of dark-brown gum. A
-great number of the pieces of mosaic have fallen out. It contains,
-fashioned in dark-green malachite pieces, two involved
-animal figures, which Read conjectures are rattlesnakes with
-crested heads. Judging from the plate accompanying Read’s
-study (no measurements are given), the specimen has an extreme
-height of 7½ inches and a diameter of 7¼ inches. The
-illustration which we reproduce, as well as of the other specimens
-in London, we owe to the kindness of T. A. Joyce, Esq.,
-of the British Museum.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c" id="c14"><i>Masks</i></p>
-
-<p>The mask on pl. <span class="allsmcap">V</span> is in the British Museum, and is one of
-the best preserved specimens of mosaic-work from Mexico.
-It is of cedar, the outer surface being covered with a mosaic of
-minute pieces of turquois, of a brilliant color beneath the eyes
-and on the forehead, while on the other parts the color is a poor
-grayish-green. The face is studded with irregularly shaped
-cabochon turquoises. The eyes, nostrils, and mouth are all
-pierced; the first are filled with oval pieces of pearl shell, each
-with a circular hole for the pupil. The gum surrounding the
-shell and keeping it in position is gilded. In the half-open
-mouth is a row of seven teeth of white shell set in the upper
-jaw. On each temple is set a pierced square of pearl shell.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span>The inside of the mask is painted red. Its height is 6½ inches,
-the width 6 inches.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f23">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXII</p>
-<img src="images/fig23.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">BACK OF SHIELD SHOWN ON PLATE I</p>
-<p class="captiona">MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>On pl. <span class="allsmcap">VI</span> is shown another mosaic mask in the British Museum.
-We follow Read’s description. It is of cedar, and the
-lower left-hand part of the face is missing. Over the face are
-represented two entwined serpents curving around the eyes and
-mouth, and the rattle-tipped tails rest over the right and left
-of the forehead. The whole of the surface of the mask is covered
-with a mosaic of turquois, bright-blue and dull-green in color,
-arranged in such manner that the two snakes are distinct in
-color. The rattle of each snake upon the temples are modeled
-of the same gum as that in which the stones are embedded, and
-it seems possible that they were formerly gilded. The mouth of
-the mask is slightly open and contains teeth of white shell in
-the upper jaw. There is a slit over each eye and a hole in each
-temple. The inside of the mask is painted red. Height 6.9
-inches, width 6.6 inches. Read believes that the heads of the
-two snakes were on the lower checks, which are incomplete.
-Maudslay identifies this mask with that described by Sahagun
-in the chapter which we have translated (see p. 14), relating
-to the objects pertaining to the god Quetzalcoatl which were
-presented by Montezuma to Cortés.<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> In this description only
-one serpent is mentioned, and Sahagun states that “the head
-with part of the body came over one eye so that it formed an
-eyebrow, and the tail with a part of the body went over the
-other eye to form the other eyebrow.” In the plate the two
-rattles are clearly seen, and Holmes has published a diagrammatic
-drawing differentiating the bodies of the serpents. If
-Sahagun’s description is accurate, this specimen cannot be the
-one mentioned by him. It is, however, one of the most interesting
-pieces of mosaic that has survived.</p>
-
-<p>The very interesting mask of wood shown on pl. <span class="allsmcap">VII</span> is in
-the Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum in Rome. It is one
-of the best preserved pieces in Europe, and its history is known
-as far back as 1553. It was purchased for the Museum by
-Giglioli from Cosimo de Medici for two and a half francs. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span>
-was first illustrated in colors by Pigorini,<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> and our illustration
-is from a photograph just received from Rome through the
-kindness of Dr. S. K. Lothrop. The specimen is 11 inches high
-and 5⅜ inches broad, being the tallest mosaic mask that has
-thus far come to light. It represents a human face placed in
-what appears to be the flat open jaws of a snake or an animal,
-a common motive in Middle American art. The back of the
-mask is flat, and there are ovate openings for the eyes. From
-the nose hangs an ornament of a type familiar in central
-Mexico. Over the forehead appear what seem to be raised
-twined bodies of serpents, and from the left of the upper part
-of the face projects the plumed head of a serpent. We are
-unable to say if the head of the other snake once projected from
-the opposite side of the mask, but it seems impossible that the
-artist would have made this elaborate piece so symmetrical.
-From Dr. Lothrop’s notes it appears that the turquois around
-the sides is of a slightly faded color, but the major portion is
-brilliant and glistening. The materials used are turquois, pink
-shell, white shell, mother-of-pearl, jadeite (for the facial lumps),
-and a dull-black stone. This remarkable piece is a veritable
-work of art, and from the serpent motive we would class it
-as a Quetzalcoatl mask.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f24">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXIII</p>
-<img src="images/fig24.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">SHIELD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>The other mask in Rome (pl. <span class="allsmcap">VIII</span>) was illustrated as early as
-1648. This illustration, and the one published by Pigorini
-(fig. 15), are front views. Our plate, from a photograph taken for
-Dr. Lothrop, is a sideview presenting interesting features
-which are not revealed in the illustrations hitherto published.
-The materials employed are turquois, malachite, pink shell,
-white shell, mother-of-pearl, an unidentifiable black stone, and
-garnet. The edges of the orbits and the protruding tongue
-are painted red, while the fangs are painted white. On the
-side of the face, below the right eye, is the head of an alligator,
-in the neck of which is set a garnet. Attention is called
-also to the peculiar nose and the curling tongue. A considerable
-portion of the mosaic is lost. This mask is larger than the masks
-in London and New York, being 8⅝ inches high, with an
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span>extreme length, including the protruding tongue, of 11 inches.
-Dr. Lothrop writes that in his description Pigorini has done
-scant justice to this
-remarkable piece.</p>
-
-<p>On pls. <span class="allsmcap">IX</span> to <span class="allsmcap">XVI</span>
-are illustrated the
-series of masks
-from the cave recently
-discovered
-in Mexico, which
-are in the Museum
-of the American
-Indian, Heye
-Foundation. They
-fall into two
-classes, those on
-pls. <span class="allsmcap">IX</span> to <span class="allsmcap">XII</span> being
-ornamented with
-turquois mosaic,
-and so nearly
-alike in workmanship
-that they
-might well be the
-product of one
-artist, while the
-masks on pls. <span class="allsmcap">XIII</span>
-to <span class="allsmcap">XV</span> are different
-in character, the mosaic pieces being larger and coarser,
-and considerable stone other than turquois was employed in
-the decoration. They are all in a damaged condition and lack
-the chin. All the mosaic incrustations are set in a bed of gum.</p>
-
-<div class="figright" id="f58">
-<img src="images/fig58.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="captionb"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The best-preserved specimen is illustrated in colors on pl.
-<span class="allsmcap">IX</span>; it is 7½ inches high, and 6¾ inches wide. Bands of light
-and dark turquois will be observed on the forehead and temples.
-Around the lower margin of the face is a band of blackish
-to dark-brown stones. On the sides of the mask are two large<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span>
-black discs made of a composition resembling charcoal and
-sticky clay. This substance is present in a number of the
-other masks, and we venture the conjecture that it may be the
-material used by the goldsmiths in modeling figures to be cast
-in gold. Sahagun describes it as follows:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The master gives them the charcoal, which they grind very fine.
-And when it is ground they add a little clay, the glutinous earth
-which they use in their pottery. They mix the charcoal with the
-clay and stir it, and knead it in such manner that the two substances
-constitute one solid mass. And when they have the mass prepared,
-they shape it into thin discs which they expose to the sun....
-For two days these objects dry, and become very hard. When the
-charcoal is well dried and very hard, it is cut, then carved by means
-of a little scraper of copper.<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The tip of the nose, as well as the chin, is gone. There are
-traces of red paint over the mouth and in the circular spaces on
-each side of the nose. When the specimen was received, the
-missing section of the lower part of the face was covered with
-a band of tin, as in the mask (pl. <span class="allsmcap">XVI</span>) from which the mosaic
-has disappeared. From this circumstance we believe that the
-objects in this cave deposit were used by the Indians after the
-Spanish conquest, possibly until comparatively recent times.
-Our reasons for this belief will be found in the chapter translated
-from Motolinia in our conclusion. If we assume that at
-certain intervals during centuries the Indians resorted to the
-cave to worship in secret their ancient gods, we can explain the
-worn condition of nearly all of these specimens. Undoubtedly
-they were preserved and treasured for many generations, revered
-as precious relics of a lost but not entirely forgotten civilization.
-There is not the slightest reason for doubting their
-origin in pre-Spanish times.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f25">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXIV</p>
-<img src="images/fig25.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">SHIELD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>The mask on pl. <span class="allsmcap">X</span> is 6½ inches high and 6¼ inches wide.
-It is quite similar to the one last described, but lacks the encircling
-lower marginal band. The outer zone is of light turquois,
-with zones of a darker shade toward the center. There
-are traces of red paint above the mouth and in the spaces on
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span>each side of the nose. On the left temple are the remains of a
-black disc of the same material as on the other mask.</p>
-
-<p>The right section of the mask on pl. <span class="allsmcap">XI</span> is 7¼ inches in height.
-The turquois incrustation is light-blue in color. There are
-traces of red paint above the mouth. The black composition
-inlay on the temple is square, and contains a biconical depression
-which does not pass through the wood. Around the eye
-is a raised design, possibly a serpent’s body. The entire lower
-zone is at present without decoration, and possibly was never
-covered with mosaic.</p>
-
-<p>The mask fragment on pl. <span class="allsmcap">XII</span> is 7⅜ inches high. The small
-section of mosaic remaining on the forehead is dark-blue, while
-that on the rest of the face is light-blue. There is a black composition
-disc on the temple, and traces of red paint above the
-mouth. The marking on the plain surface on the forehead appears
-to be ancient.</p>
-
-<p>We now come to the other group. On pl. <span class="allsmcap">XIII</span> is a mask 6⅜
-inches high and 5¾ inches wide. A portion of the chin still
-remains, with mosaic decoration, indicating that the missing
-chins in the other masks were probably thus embellished. In
-general appearance this specimen differs widely from those
-just described. The pieces used in the mosaic are rougher in
-shape and larger. A few bits of bright-green turquois are found
-on the forehead, but the rest of the incrustation is a stone of
-a brownish- or grayish-green color. The distinctive feature is
-the band which encircles the forehead, running downward and
-ending at the sides of the nose. It is of black composition, but
-is highly polished, and there are pieces of light-brown color.
-Traces of red paint appear above the mouth.</p>
-
-<p>The mask on pl. <span class="allsmcap">XIV</span> is 6¾ inches high and 5¼ inches wide.
-It lacks the chin, but still retains a goodly part of the mosaic.
-This specimen is somewhat different in treatment from the
-others, closely resembling in technique the mask fragment
-which follows on pl. <span class="allsmcap">XV</span>. The mass of incrustation is outlined
-by a band of single light brownish-gray stones. The forehead
-has a mosaic of blackish and dark-green stones, the same effect<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span>
-being seen on each side of the plain space at the sides of the
-nose, merging into lighter zones on the cheeks. Red paint is
-above the mouth and on the spaces at the side of and below the
-nose. This mask had a tin band or plate over the missing chin.
-The space above the eyes is coated black, the material being
-probably obtained by thinning the black composition into a
-coarse paint by the addition of melted gum or wax. Two black
-composition discs are on the temples.</p>
-
-<p>The fragment of mask on pl. <span class="allsmcap">XV</span> is 5⅝ inches high. As before
-stated, it resembles the mask just described. The mosaic, of
-large bits of stone, is outlined by a line of single lighter stones.
-The forehead contains a mosaic of greenish stones, and the
-space above the ridge of the nose has a patch of light-red shell
-bits. The space on each side of the nose and in the mouth is
-painted red, while that above the eyes is painted jet black. A
-black composition disc is on the temple.</p>
-
-<p>The mask without mosaic on pl. <span class="allsmcap">XVI</span> is 6⅞ inches high and
-5¼ inches wide. The wood is of a light color, and rather soft.
-We have left on this specimen the tin plate which replaces the
-missing chin. That this mask was once covered with mosaic
-decoration may be seen in the fragment remaining at the right
-side of the mouth. The eyes in this specimen are semi-lenticular
-in shape, differing from the others which are either ovate or
-lenticular in outline.</p>
-
-<p>This closes our description of the specimens found in the
-deposit in the cave in the Mixteca. With them were found
-some fragments of native paper made of <i>amate</i> fiber, two of
-which enclosed regularly shaped small masses of gum incense.
-In one of these several pieces of the gum were held together by
-an interlaced string of flexible bark. They provide further
-proof that the cave was resorted to for religious ceremonies or
-sacrifices.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f26">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXV</p>
-<img src="images/fig26.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">SHIELD OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>The next mask to be considered, on pl. <span class="allsmcap">XVII</span>, is the only specimen
-known from Central America, and with the pieces found
-recently in the Mexican cave are the only major specimens
-found under archeological conditions. This mask is 8½ inches
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span>high, and the three facial projections extend 4 inches from the
-face. It is in the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation.
-This interesting object was found some years ago in a
-cave in the mountainous region of Honduras, in an arroyo on
-the headwaters of a small stream flowing into the Rio Chamelecon,
-about 25 miles from the ruins of the ancient city of Naco.
-Hundreds of copper bells of varying sizes and shapes were
-found at the same time. The mask has been figured and described
-by A. H. Blackiston, whose description follows:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>First in interest in the writer’s collection is a large life-sized mask
-of white cedar which was covered with mosaics of turquois and other
-stones set in a thick gum or pitch with which it was coated. Three
-greatly elongated straight projections answer for the nose and the
-two lips. Holes were cut for the eyes and two small ones on the sides
-for the thongs which bound it to the head. A large cavity in the
-forehead was evidently the setting of the crowning stone of the collection,
-though of what nature this was we unfortunately are unable
-to surmise, as it evidently became loosened and dropped out years
-before its discovery. Along the sides of the face are depressions in
-the coating of gum for regularly shaped stones about half an inch
-long by three-eighths of an inch in width, arranged in parallel rows&mdash;none
-of which remain at present. The rest of the surface, as
-noted, was covered with small turquois mosaics, a number of which
-are in place today.<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p class="c" id="c15"><i>Skull Masks</i></p>
-
-<p>The two final masks to be described are the skull masks in the
-Ethnographical Museum in Berlin, and in the British Museum,
-London. On pl. <span class="allsmcap">XVIII</span> is represented the Berlin example, which
-has been described by Uhle and illustrated in colors, three-fourths
-natural size.<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> Only the front of the skull has been used,
-and it was incrusted with sky-blue to pale slabs of turquois.
-The mask is 6⅝ inches in height. Our illustration is a photograph
-of the lithograph published by Uhle.</p>
-
-<p>The skull mask in the British Museum (pl. <span class="allsmcap">XIX</span>) has been illustrated
-many times, and is one of the best-known pieces of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span>
-Mexican mosaic. It has also been repeatedly described, so that
-it is not necessary to present a detailed description at this time.
-Suffice it to say that the back of the skull has been cut away,
-and the front covered with five broad transverse mosaic bands,
-alternating from the top downward, of lignite (not obsidian, as
-all writers have described it, we are informed by Joyce) and
-turquois. The inside is lined with leather, on which traces of
-red paint still remain.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c" id="c16"><i>Shields</i></p>
-
-<p>Richly decorated shields or chimallis played a prominent
-part in certain phases of the life of the ancient Mexicans. Mrs.
-Nuttall, in her interesting and instructive study, “On Old
-Mexican Shields,”<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> has pointed out that “all authorities agree
-that the shields were of two kinds. The first consisted of the
-military shields used for protection in warfare by all grades of
-warriors; the second comprised the shields carried, for display
-only, in religious dances and festivals.” In this study Mrs.
-Nuttall has made the following classification of shields, based
-on an extended examination of the chronicles of early writers:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>1. Plain, unadorned war-shields (<i>yaochimalli</i>) of several kinds,
-used by the common soldiers.</p>
-
-<p>2. Gala shields (<i>totopchimalli</i>), indicating the military rank and
-achievement of chiefs. These seem to have been indiscriminately
-used in warfare or feasts and dances. Their general structure seems
-to have been alike in either case, though it is obvious that they may
-have been more or less light and strong. Shields of this category
-sometimes reproduced one or more features of the military costume,
-body-painting and adornments pertaining to each grade. The
-shield in Museo Nacional is an example of this kind. Others exhibited
-the emblematic device of a militant god, Huitzilopochtli,
-Xipe, Yiacatecuhtli, etc., marking an order of chivalry&mdash;and to this
-division the Stuttgart specimens belong.</p>
-
-<p>3. Shields, presumably of the supreme war-chief, exhibiting in
-picture-writing the name of his people or his personal appellation.
-Nothing certain is known about this group, but its existence seems
-vouched for by a series of indications.</p>
-
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span>
-
-<p>4. Shields pictured in the codices with deities only exhibiting
-their emblematic devices or reproducing features of their symbolic
-attire. Such shields seem to have been carried, in religious dances
-and festivals, by the living images of the deities in whose honor
-they were held.</p>
-
-<p>5. Shields of most precious materials, with strange and elaborate
-designs, described in the Inventories. As they are not mentioned
-elsewhere, it is not possible to state anything definite about them,
-but it is obvious that they were intended for the use of individuals
-of supreme rank. The beautiful shield at Castle Ambras belongs
-to this group. It is, consequently, the sole forthcoming specimen
-with a valid, though shadowy, right to the title of “Montezuma’s
-shield.”</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f27">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXVI</p>
-<img src="images/fig27.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">SHIELD OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>In the inventories of the Cortés loot, 150 shields are enumerated,
-mostly decorated with feathers, but 25 are specified
-as being ornamented with turquois mosaic, while others were
-garnished with gold. Of the feather-mosaic shields, one example
-is in Vienna (the shield formerly in Castle Ambras), two are
-in Stuttgart, and one is in the Museo Nacional, Mexico. Of the
-turquois mosaic shields, one is in London, and one in Vienna;
-none exists in Mexico. To this number we are now able to add
-eight specimens in New York, namely, one perfect shield, two
-nearly complete ones, and five fragments, all from the cave in
-the Mixteca.</p>
-
-<p>We have already given numerous extracts from the early
-writers concerning the use of mosaic shields as part of the
-paraphernalia of the deities. In figs. 16-17 are two representations
-of the god Paynal, holding in his right hand a mosaic
-shield. Fig. 16 is from the Florentine manuscript of Sahagun
-(lamina 8), while fig. 17 is from the Real Palacio manuscript
-of the same author. In the original the shield is painted blue.
-These are the only examples we have been able to find in the
-Mexican codices where the mosaic character of the shield is
-unquestionably delineated.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f59">
-<img src="images/fig59.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="captionb"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16</span> <span class="pad5"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17</span></span></p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>We will now consider the two mosaic shields in Europe. On
-pl. <span class="allsmcap">XX</span> is the shield in the British Museum. Its early history is
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span>unknown, other than that it was purchased in 1866 from a
-dealer who stated that it came from Turin. Quite a little of
-the mosaic is missing, but not enough to destroy the intricate
-and interesting designs. It has been described by Read,
-accompanied with a drawing of the figures.<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> The shield is of
-cedar, with a diameter of 12¼ inches. The material used for
-the mosaic is turquois and shell. The center of the design
-consists of a circle in relief, the edge of which is divided into four
-equal parts by angular points in pink shell, and each quarter
-of the circumference has three large but irregular pieces of shell
-at intervals. It is a <i>tonatiuh</i>, or sun disc, and a figure of a serpent
-is disposed meander-fashion vertically over the entire
-central portion. One edge of the snake is bordered with imitation
-studs formed of brown gum, of which a few still preserve a
-covering of very thin gold-leaf. The head is placed at the upper
-left side, the tail ending in three feathers at the lower right edge
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span>of the circle. On each side are two human figures, and at the
-center, near the top, projecting from the body of the snake, is a
-bifurcated design, probably a tree, upon which rests, in a pear-shaped
-enclosure, a human figure on its back. Through the
-shield are many irregular perforations, and twenty-five small
-holes are regularly disposed around the edge, possibly for the
-suspension of feathers, or bits of stone, gold, or gold-leaf, over
-gum, may have been inserted. Two larger holes are near the
-upper margin.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f28">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXVII</p>
-<img src="images/fig28.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">SHIELD OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>On pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXI</span> we reproduce the Vienna shield.<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> It is larger than
-the London specimen, being 16½ inches in diameter, and the
-designs are not so involved as in the London shield. Unfortunately
-the greater part of the mosaic has fallen out, but the
-figures in most cases may be traced by the impressions in the
-gum matrix. The designs consist of two <i>tonatiuh</i>, or sun discs,
-placed one above the other. In the upper <i>tonatiuh</i> is a human
-figure. There are many examples of this motive in Mexican
-sculptures and codices. Across the center of the shield, between
-the two sun discs, is a procession of human figures, four each on
-the right and the left, all facing the center. Between them is a
-human figure, head-downward, in the act of falling or plunging
-from the upper sun disc. Above this line of figures are four
-others, two on each side of the sun disc, which they face. Below,
-facing the lower disc, are three other figures on each side,
-and lower still are two more on each side. The total number
-of human figures, so far as we are able to determine, is twenty-four.
-This shield was formerly in the Castle Ambras, near Innsbruck,
-and its history is traceable to 1596, it being mentioned
-in an inventory of that date.</p>
-
-<p>We cannot identify these two shields with those described in
-the Cortés inventories, but there is no reason to doubt that
-they formed part of that treasure. As examples of mosaic art,
-they are priceless, even in their damaged condition.</p>
-
-<p>The circumstances attending the discovery of the shields now
-in New York have already been alluded to. Pl. <span class="allsmcap">I</span> is an exact
-reproduction in colors of one of these, the most important example<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span>
-of aboriginal American mosaic art known. It is in an
-almost perfect state of preservation, and is practically of the
-same size as the London specimen, being 12¾ inches in diameter,
-with an average thickness of three-eighths of an inch. The
-wood is probably cedar. In a highly esthetic manner the mosaic
-incrustation has been set in a bed of gum, with alternating
-massing of light and dark turquoises to produce bands or zones
-of shading in light or dark bluish-green. It is estimated that
-nearly 14,000 individual pieces enter into the composition of
-this mosaic, the greater number being tiny circular bits. The
-design represents a sun disc, with eight pointers in the outer
-rim. Inside of the innermost of the two raised narrow encircling
-bands is a picture of ceremonial or mythological character. We
-hesitate at an interpretation, but the main features may quite
-certainly be recognized. We are of the opinion that the scene
-portrayed perhaps relates to the worship of the planet Venus.
-It is in the region where this shield was found that Seler, after
-making exhaustive comparative studies of several pre-Columbian
-codices, concludes:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>We have to look for the home of the Codex Borgia group of manuscripts....
-It was a land inhabited by Aztec-speaking peoples; it
-was conterminous with the Zapotec territory, and it lay on the
-trade-route which led to the coast, and to the Maya-peopled district
-of Tabasco.... Indeed we also know that in this very region astronomic
-observation was highly developed, and the Morning Star
-(Venus) held in special veneration.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The upper horizontal band of the shield represents the
-celestial region. It recalls, with its feather fringe at the top and
-dots hanging from the lower section, the design around the so-called
-calendar stone collected by Humboldt, now in the Berlin
-Museum, and the upper encircling rim above the procession of
-figures of the so-called stone of Tizoc, as well as some of the
-upper bands in the murals of Mitla. If this is the celestial band,
-as we believe, it is quite appropriate to find on it the <i>tonatiuh</i>,
-or sun, represented in the rosette in the center. We find here
-two sets of four pointers each, radiating from the central disc of
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span>feathers, which surrounds a lozenge-shaped piece on which is a
-tiny pit below two horizontal lines. In the Real Palacio manuscript
-of Sahagun (estampa <span class="allsmcap">XII</span>) are pictures of various symbols
-for heavenly bodies, one being a small disc with tiny dots, explained
-by Sahagun as being the sign for Venus. We have endeavored
-to identify this glyph with that of the symbol for
-turquois or jewel, or the sign for chalchihuitl. There is a slight
-resemblance, but we hold the opinion, as before stated, that it
-is the sign for the sun. We have been unable to find the exact
-counterpart of this combination either in the codices or in
-sculptures.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f29">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXVIII</p>
-<img src="images/fig29.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">SHIELD OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>We now come to a feature which is also found in the Vienna
-shield, namely, a person falling or descending from the sun or
-celestial regions. The injured condition of the Vienna specimen
-renders it impossible to distinguish the sex of the figure, but in
-the New York specimen a woman is represented, probably a
-goddess. On several pages of the Codex Nuttall Zouche<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> (pp.
-4, 19, 21) are representations of human figures hanging from or
-plunging from the heavenly band. Seler has connected these
-scenes with the Venus period of the Mexican calendar. Attached
-to the band on our shield are five dots. Taken in connection
-with the eight dots below, respectively four on each
-side of the hieroglyph at the bottom, one recalls the suggestive
-fact that the Mexicans were acquainted with the correspondence
-of eight solar years to five Venus periods, and reckonings
-connected with the correction of these two periods have been
-established by both Seler and Bowditch.<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> In the Codex Selden
-is found an analogous picture, the band of the sky, with a
-central <i>tonatiuh</i>, and a descending human figure attached, below
-which are two figures. This scene has been interpreted by
-Beyer<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> as representing the solar god accepting human sacrifice.
-In our shield, the feature which follows in Codex Selden,
-depicting this sacrifice, is absent.</p>
-
-<p>In our shield, facing the plunging figure, are two human
-figures, one on each side, holding something like a staff in each
-hand, similar to those held in the hands of the goddess. From<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span>
-the mouth of each of these figures protrudes an unknown object,
-perhaps a conch-shell trumpet, but it is not supported by
-the hands.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f60">
-<img src="images/fig60.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="captionb"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Above a horizontal band just over the bottom of the inner
-encircling rim is a hieroglyph. It is the well-known glyph for
-Culhuacan, or Colhuacan, the name of an important town in
-the valley of Mexico in ancient times. The form of the glyph,
-a mountain with a curved peak, is derived from the tradition
-that the Nahuan people originated where there was a mountain
-with a curved peak, called in the Nahuan language <i>Culhuacan</i>.
-The sign is interwoven with the legendary history of the ancient
-tribes in central Mexico, Teuculhuacan being the province far
-to the north where were situated the Seven Caves of Chicomostoc,
-the primeval home whence sallied the Seven Tribes. In
-the Codex Boturini I, this legend is pictured. In fig. 18 are
-two forms of the glyph taken from the Codex Telleriano Remensis.
-On each side of this glyph on the shield are four dots,
-not to be confounded with the representations of shells attached
-to the glyph. These eight dots should have a calendric meaning,
-and we might stretch our imagination and consider the
-glyph to be <i>Calli</i>, a day-sign and also year-bearer, represented
-by the conventional figure of a house, which would give us the
-date 8 <i>Calli</i>, capable of being coordinated with either the year
-1461 or 1513. The general character of the glyph, however,
-seems to be too well established as Culhuacan to admit of such
-hypothesis.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f30">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXIX</p>
-<img src="images/fig30.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">SHIELD OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span></p>
-
-<p>In a letter to the writer Dr. H. J. Spinden advances an explanation
-of the combination of the figures in this sun-disc
-shield. With his permission we quote him verbatim:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>I am inclined to believe that the design as a whole represents a
-sun shield, the eight radiating bars being the rays, while the celestial
-band, the three human figures, and the Colhuacan glyph replace
-the parts of the sun’s face, namely, the head-band, the two eyes and
-nose (the plunging figure in lieu of the nose), and the mouth. This
-may seem pretty far-fetched at first glance, but it is quite in the
-spirit of Aztec art. On the Calendar Stone, around the face of the
-sun god and the <i>ollin</i> symbol with the enclosed glyphs of the four
-ages, is, first, a circle of the day signs, second, a circle of quincunx
-figures, supposed to be the classical hieroglyphs or rather symbols of
-turquoises, third, a frieze of eagles’ feathers. Multiple rays of
-different sizes complete the picture. In the actual shield before us
-we have the turquois mosaic, and the holes around the rim suggest
-that eagles’ feathers may once have been attached. Compare the
-sun shield or sun basket of the Pueblo Indians, and the various sun
-shields on Mayan monuments. Now, the sun and turquois seem to
-be pretty closely connected symbolically&mdash;both mean divine. The
-hieroglyph of the sun is used for the <i>teo</i>, god, in place names, while
-the prefix <i>xiuh</i> means divine in connection with various objects.
-Jade, on the other hand, means precious. The sun in Aztec ritual
-is pretty closely connected with riches and jewels, and the sun disc
-may easily have been conceived of as a gem-studded object. I
-think it quite possible, therefore, that the design on this shield was
-intended to symbolize the face of the sun, and the fact that complete
-figures engaged in some ritualistic function replaces the parts of a
-realistic face does not detract from the theory.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The back of the shield is shown in pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXII</span>. Through the two
-vertical ridges are pairs of holes, evidently for the leather
-thongs for holding the shield. The twenty-eight small holes
-around the edge of the shield were probably for the insertion of
-feathers or other ornaments, as in the British Museum shield.</p>
-
-<p>In technique our shield is similar in all respects to the two
-mosaic shields in Europe. In all three the incrustation is in a
-bed of gum that has been spread over the wood.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span></p>
-
-<p>We now come to the series of seven mosaic shields in New
-York, shown in pls. <span class="allsmcap">XXIII</span>-<span class="allsmcap">XXIX</span>. In these we are dealing with
-a different technique, and one which is new to us. For the
-matrix a kind of cement like fine gritty brown sand was
-used in place of gum. They are unfortunately in a considerably
-damaged state, but two are more or less complete. In
-these examples the wood has been roughly shaped, and in all
-of them the marks of the copper or stone adzes are clearly visible,
-for there was no final smoothing of the wood as in the
-three specimens before described. The probable reason for this
-is seen in the shield on pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXIII</span>. On the face of this specimen, on
-portions of the lower edge, especially at the left, are traces of a
-coarse native paper made from the <i>amate</i> tree, which occurs as
-a band that had been glued to the wood. Traces of paper also
-are found in the same place on the shield fragment illustrated
-on pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXIV</span>. It is impossible to state definitely if this paper
-once extended from the edge to the raised body of the mosaic
-decoration. On the fragmentary shield just referred to may
-be seen a faint black line, made with some substance like
-graphite, running partly around the circumference 1 to 1⅞
-inches from the edge. It is probably the artist’s line in arranging
-for some class of decoration, perhaps delimiting the
-section to be covered with paper. On the first shield no such
-line is found, but it seems certain that the rough wood between
-the narrow band of paper and the mosaic must have been covered
-either with paper or with some other material. There is no
-trace of cement, and we are led to believe that the paper once
-extended over the entire plain surface of the wood. Parchment
-or soft leather may also have been stretched tightly over the
-outer zones of shields which show no traces of paper. On this
-surface some type of decoration was undoubtedly placed. We
-recall the quotation given above concerning the use of turquois
-mosaic decoration on paper, in connection with the worship of
-the god Huitzilopochtli. Feather-mosaics, so far as we know,
-were generally made either on parchment or on paper. The
-codices were made either of leather, parchment, or paper, often
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span>sized with stucco. In rare cases the painting was applied directly
-on the paper. It is undoubtedly true that one or the
-other of these processes of decoration completed the ensemble
-of the shields we are now considering.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f31">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXX</p>
-<img src="images/fig31.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">EAR PLUG OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>Another point of difference in this series of shields is the
-material spread over the wood to receive the incrusted stones.
-It must have solidified slowly to have allowed for the careful
-and laborious work of fixing the pieces in the plastic matrix. In
-the case of the matrix of gum, material could have been applied
-and would have hardened immediately, for by tests, even after
-the lapse of centuries, we have found it possible to loosen the
-bits by the application of heat to the stone; but in the case of
-the cement matrix this is not possible. We do not know what
-liquid was used to harden the cement, which is now quite
-friable.</p>
-
-<p>Relatively speaking, comparatively little turquois was used
-in this class of mosaics. Different shades of a soft light-gray
-stone was employed in the outer zones, while darker stones
-interspersed with turquois of varying shades, some almost
-white, and bits of lignite and obsidian, are found.</p>
-
-<p>A final unique feature may be noted in the shields on pls.
-<span class="allsmcap">XXVII</span> and <span class="allsmcap">XXVIII</span>. In the outer band will be observed the irregular
-inner edges of the two lines of stones which form the
-border. In pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXVII</span> the space is filled in with a sprinkling of
-gritty, almost sand-like, bits of faded whitish-blue bastard
-turquois. It appears to have been spattered or sprinkled on
-while the matrix was very soft. In the case of the shield on pl.
-<span class="allsmcap">XXVIII</span>, the material is somewhat coarser, and consists of rough
-bits of the same stone used in the broad light band within the
-outer border.</p>
-
-<p>These shields, so far as we are able to judge from the fragmentary
-sections, contained no pictures or figures as in the
-other type. In general execution they are inferior in workmanship,
-and less refined and finished in appearance. In fact, they
-constitute a quite distinct and, up to the present, unknown type
-of stone mosaic from Mexico.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span></p>
-
-<p>The first shield of this series (pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXIII</span>) is in two fragments, a
-portion of one edge being missing. It has an average diameter
-of 15 inches, and a thickness of one-half to three-quarters of an
-inch, the mosaic disc rising one-eighth of an inch above the
-wood. The mosaic portion has a diameter of 10¼ inches.
-It appears to be a sun shield, judging by the eight pointers
-which radiate from the band surrounding the circular design
-in the center, which suggest a conventional representation of
-the sun. In the center the darker bits are obsidian. A portion
-of the matrix and of the mosaic incrustation has fallen off,
-and on the matrix near the upper left is a greasy patch which
-may be candle grease.</p>
-
-<p>The shield on pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXIV</span> is the same size as the preceding one,
-15 inches in diameter. It is also in two sections, and a larger
-section of the side is missing. This likewise is probably a sun
-shield, but it has no pointers. Where the outer band has fallen
-off toward the lower part can be seen a faint incised line which
-the artist placed there as a guide-line in following out the
-circular mosaic decoration. In the center the black bits are
-lignite.</p>
-
-<p>The next shield shown (pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXV</span>) consists of a half section
-only. It was slightly larger than any other shield in the collection,
-having a diameter of 15¼ inches and a thickness of 1
-inch. It was a sun shield, and had four pointers identical with
-those on the famous calendar stone of the Aztecs. There are
-traces of a paper band glued around the outer edge; the black
-line has already been referred to. The central disc, with the
-white lines made of very tiny bits, is similar to the central part
-of the shield on pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXIII</span>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f32">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXXI</p>
-<img src="images/fig32.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">HEAD WITH HEAD-PIECE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">NATIONAL MUSEUM, COPENHAGEN</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter1" id="f33">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXXII</p>
-<img src="images/fig33.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">JAGUAR HEAD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">ETHNOGRAPHICAL MUSEUM, BERLIN</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter1" id="f34">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXXII</p>
-<img src="images/fig34.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">ANIMAL HEAD OF WOOD WITH HUMAN FACE IN OPEN JAW<br />
-                   WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">NATIONAL MUSEUM, COPENHAGEN</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter1" id="f35">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXXIII</p>
-<img src="images/fig35.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">ANIMAL HEAD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">STATE NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM, VIENNA</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter1" id="f36">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXXIII</p>
-<img src="images/fig36.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">MONKEY HEAD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter1" id="f37">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXXIV</p>
-<img src="images/fig37.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">TWO-HEADED JAGUAR FIGURE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">ETHNOGRAPHICAL MUSEUM, BERLIN</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter1" id="f38">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXXIV</p>
-<img src="images/fig38.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">BIRD HEAD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">MUSEUM, GOTHA</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter1" id="f39">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXXV</p>
-<img src="images/fig39.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">ANIMAL FIGURE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON</p>
-</div>
-
-
-
-<p>One of the most interesting specimens is reproduced in pl.
-<span class="allsmcap">XXVI</span>, which is 14⅞ inches in diameter. This is the only shield
-of the series bearing a figure. It had four pointers, which suggest
-a sun disc, but the symbol seems clearly to be a conventional
-cross-section of a conch-shell, the well-known and often
-delineated symbol of Ehecatl, god of the air, one of the various
-attributes of the god Quetzalcoatl. In this example the light
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span>pieces of stone are larger than in any other piece, but they are
-cut exceedingly thin. Around the outer edge of the mosaic is a
-faint incised line, and three lines may be seen projecting from
-the pointers, showing that the artist carried his guide-lines
-beyond the zone finally used. The circular line is so regular that
-there is no doubt that the workman used our methods, tying a
-piece of cord to an awl and working from the exact center of
-the shield.</p>
-
-<p>The two fragments on pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXVII</span> and <span class="allsmcap">XXVIII</span> are the same size&mdash;15
-inches in diameter. They are similar in workmanship;
-the special feature, the sprinkled outer band, has already been
-alluded to. In the first specimen an irregular cavity on the
-upper face was apparently filled in with cement, traces of which
-remain. The two holes in each shield are modern, but the two
-specimens came to us joined with leather strings. They are,
-however, sections of separate shields.</p>
-
-<p>The last shield of the series (pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXIX</span>) has a height of 14⅝
-inches. It comprises little more than a third of the original
-object, hence the diameter must have been fully 15 inches or
-more. As in the others, we find the encircling bands, but as no
-part of the center remains, we do not know if it had a figure or
-was like the others of the series.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c" id="c17"><i>Ear-plug</i></p>
-
-<p>With the deposit of masks and shields in the cave in the
-Mixteca, now in the Museum of the American Indian, Heye
-Foundation, was the unique wooden object shown on pl.
-<span class="allsmcap">XXX</span>. It is spool-shaped, the bottom flat, the upper part concave
-and covered with a mosaic of dark-green turquois, with a
-central disc of dark rose-colored shell. It is 1½ inch high,
-with a diameter of 1¾ inch at the upper and lower rims.
-There is no doubt that this specimen was an ear-plug. The sides
-of the spool show the small gouges of the cutting instrument
-with which it was fashioned, and the entire surface not covered
-with mosaic was painted rose-red.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span></p>
-
-
-<p class="c" id="c18"><i>Animal Figures</i></p>
-
-<p>The specimen in the National Museum in Copenhagen,
-shown on pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXXI</span>, has been described in detail by Lehmann,<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a>
-and our illustration is taken from his photograph. It is considerably
-damaged, much of the mosaic incrustation having
-disappeared. The materials are turquois, malachite, shell, and
-mother-of-pearl. In its original state it was one of the imposing
-pieces of this art. The upper projecting part rising from the top
-of the head probably simulated a plumed head-dress. Its extreme
-height is about 10½ inches, and the diameter only 3¾
-inches.</p>
-
-<p>On pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXXII</span> are illustrated two animal heads. The first (<i>a</i>), a
-jaguar head, in the Ethnographical Museum in Berlin, has
-been described in detail by Lehmann in his paper published in
-the <i>Proceedings of the Fifteenth Congress of Americanists</i>, held
-at Quebec in 1906. It is 5¾ inches high, and the mosaic is
-composed of turquois, malachite, and shell. The other specimen
-(<i>b</i>) is in the National Museum at Copenhagen.<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> It seems to
-represent a serpent’s head with a human face in the open jaws.
-The mosaic is turquois, malachite, and reddish shell. It has an
-extreme length of 13½ inches and is 8¼ inches high. Much of
-the incrustation has fallen off.</p>
-
-<p>The animal head shown on pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXXIII</span>, <i>a</i>, is in the Vienna
-Museum, and has been illustrated by Heger in three views.<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a>
-Our drawing is the side-view, after Heger. This object is 4⅝
-inches long from front to back. Much of the mosaic has fallen
-away, and the pieces of jadeite, obsidian, and shell are larger
-and the work is generally coarser than in any of the other examples
-in Europe. Heger’s photographs depict a leather
-thong issuing from a hole at the back of the head.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f40">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXXVI</p>
-<a id="fig40" href="images/fig40big.jpg">
-<img src="images/fig40.jpg" alt="" />
-</a>
-<p class="caption">DOUBLE-HEADED SERPENT OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter1" id="f41">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXXVII</p>
-<img src="images/fig41.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">FIGURE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION, GOD XOLOTL</p>
-<p class="captiona">STATE MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, VIENNA</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>The other mosaic on this plate (<i>b</i>) is in the British Museum.
-It represents a monkey-like head of white wood, with open
-mouth. The mosaic coating is of turquois, malachite, and
-other stones. The back has a hemispherical depression coated
-round the sides with a thick layer of brown gum, smoothly finished,
-containing some woolen threads. The turquoises are
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span>chiefly of the pale-greenish variety, but above the sides of the
-mouth are two patches of bright-blue stones. Each eye is set
-in the lower edge of a protuberance coated with malachite, the
-eyes themselves being convex discs of highly polished iron
-pyrites set in a ring of shell. Height 4 inches, width 2.7 inches.</p>
-
-<p>An interesting piece is the two-headed jaguar figure in the
-Ethnographical Museum in Berlin (pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXXIV</span>, <i>a</i>).<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> It is covered
-with bits of turquois and malachite, together with some obsidian,
-shell, and mother-of-pearl. The eyes are of malachite.
-This specimen measures 12⅝ inches in length, and the workmanship
-seems to be very artistic.</p>
-
-<p>An important and unique example of mosaic art is shown on
-pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXXIV</span>, <i>b</i>, which represents a bird’s head embellished with an
-incrustation of turquois, malachite, obsidian, mother-of-pearl,
-red coral, and white shell, but much of the mosaic has fallen out.
-This specimen is in the Museum in Gotha.<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p>
-
-<p>A much injured specimen in the British Museum is illustrated
-on pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXXV</span>, which represents an animal on his haunches,
-with open mouth and protruding tongue. On its back is a circular,
-cup-like receptacle. It is cut from a hard, pale-brown
-wood. Almost the entire surface was originally covered with
-mosaic laid in a bed of black gum, the component pieces being
-turquois, malachite, pink shell, pearl shell, and fragments of
-iron pyrites. The cup-shaped receptacle on the back of the
-animal is now covered with a transparent varnish, except in one
-place where the black gum and bits of mosaic are still in place.
-The varnish shows here and there fragments of gold-leaf, perhaps
-indicating that the cup was once entirely gilded. The
-height is 6.8 inches.<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p>
-
-<p>The gracefully modeled breast-ornament representing a two-headed
-serpent (pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXXVI</span>) is in the British Museum. The base
-is of light-colored wood, hollowed at the back and painted red.
-The front of the snake is covered with turquois mosaic; the
-teeth and fangs in each open jaw of the snake are made of
-white shell, while the edges of the gums are indicated with
-pink shell. Across each nose is a raised band of turquois and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span>
-red shell. The heads have mosaic-work on both sides, and it is
-probable that the eye-sockets formerly contained discs of iron
-pyrites. On the upper edges of the two loops of the bodies are
-holes for suspension. Length 17⅛ inches, height 8 inches.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c" id="c19"><i>God Figure</i></p>
-
-<p>The figure of the deity shown in pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXXVII</span> is in the Vienna
-Museum. It has been described by Dr. Heger, who has kindly
-sent me a number of photographs of the object, and some details
-regarding it. This has been identified by Dr. Seler as representing
-the god Xolotl, one of the deities or guardians of the
-Tonalamatl.<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> The specimen does not contain much mosaic
-decoration, being of highly polished wood. It is 3½ inches high
-and 2¾ inches broad. Dr. Heger has courteously sent me the
-following notes concerning the specimen:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The posterior circular cavity (see side view) is partly filled with a
-resin-like mass, by means of which the piece must have been fastened
-to some other object. Vestiges of this resin-like substance are
-found in all the hollowed places where today some of the inlay is
-missing, as in each of the three rounded oval incurvations, of both
-lateral walls, in which probably small heads [of mosaic?] were also
-incrusted.</p>
-
-<p>The eyes and the six small teeth consist of milk-white shells; the
-two hook-like canines consist of white mother-of-pearl-like shells.
-The two large ear-lobes, as well as the inferior part of the nasal
-septum, are perforated transversely. The pretty little human head
-at the navel of the figure probably consists of pitch-black obsidian.
-The ear-pendants are missing on the left side. The pupils of the
-eye (right one missing) are enclosed in small rings of mother-of-pearl.
-Projecting from the opened mouth, there is above the red
-tongue another small white shell-plate with three sharp downward
-points (teeth). The little head shows injury in several places.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f42">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXXVIII</p>
-<img src="images/fig42.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">STONE KNIFE WITH HANDLE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter1" id="f43">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XXXIX</p>
-<img src="images/fig43.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">KNIFE HANDLES OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">PREHISTORIC AND ETHNOGRAPHIC MUSEUM, ROME</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p class="c" id="c20"><i>Knife Handles</i></p>
-
-<p>The next group of objects to be noted consists of knife handles.
-The beautiful specimen on pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXXVIII</span> is in the British
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span>Museum. It is a chipped leaf-shape bladed knife of honey-colored
-chalcedony. The handle is of a soft, light-colored wood,
-carved in the form of a crouching human figure. The actual
-socket in which the blade is fixed proceeds from the chest of
-the figure, which grasps it with a hand on each side, and rests
-his chin on the top. The socket is firmly bound with cord. The
-figure and the socket up to the binding have been covered with
-a mosaic, chiefly of turquois, varied with malachite and white,
-pink, purple, and orange shell, as well as a few pieces of pearl
-shell. Much of the mosaic has disappeared. The figure wears
-an eagle mask, the face appearing in the open jaws. This knife,
-which measures 12½ inches in length, is one of the most artistic
-of mosaic specimens.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f61">
-<img src="images/fig61.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="captionb"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19</span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Belonging to this class are the two handles on pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXXIX</span>,
-which are in the Museum in Rome. They have been illustrated
-in colors by Pigorini. Through the interest of Dr.
-Lothrop we are enabled to present photographs of these two
-very interesting objects, together with some additional observations
-concerning them. The first piece (pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXXIX</span>, <i>a</i>, and
-fig. 19 after Pigorini), is in the form of a crouching figure with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span>
-an animal head and wide-open mouth. It has been described
-as a knife handle, like the other specimen (<i>b</i>), which is unquestionably
-of that character, but Dr. Lothrop writes that the
-front of this piece (<i>a</i>), where the knife blade should be inserted,
-is smoothly covered with a kind of cement, while in the belly of
-the figure is a large hole. From Dr. Lothrop’s examination of
-the specimen he was unable to satisfy himself whether it was a
-knife handle or was intended to be placed on the head of a
-staff. The materials used for the incrustation are turquois,
-reddish shell, dull white shell, mother-of-pearl, and small flakes
-of gold. In the Pigorini illustration, which represents the side
-opposite that shown here, two flakes of gold are shown, one
-in the eye, the other on the arm between elbow and shoulder.</p>
-
-<p>The other piece (pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXXIX</span>, <i>b</i>), unquestionably a knife handle,
-as stated, of the same technique as the specimens in the
-British Museum, represents a crouching human figure. The
-materials are turquois, dark-green malachite, white shell,
-mother-of-pearl, and red shell. Lothrop calls our attention to
-the tiny pieces of turquois set in shell on the shoulder and in
-other places. He also states that a portion of a broken chert (?)
-blade is still imbedded in the socket in front of the figure.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c" id="c21"><i>Human Femur Musical Instrument</i></p>
-
-<p>The last of the specimens of mosaic to be described is the
-musical instrument (<i>omichicauaztli</i>) made from a left human
-femur, illustrated on pl. <span class="allsmcap">XL</span>. This unique example, which is in
-the Museum in Rome, has been reproduced in colors by Pigorini.
-The mosaic seems to have been confined to the head and
-neck, although the trochanter major may also have been covered
-at one time. The incrustation at present consists of gum
-in which are pinkish-orange bits of colored shell. A modern
-copper chain is attached to the bone, from which hangs an oliva
-shell, undoubtedly ancient.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="f44">
-<p class="captiona">PL. XL</p>
-<img src="images/fig44.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption">HUMAN FEMUR MUSICAL INSTRUMENT WITH MOSAIC DECORATION</p>
-<p class="captiona">PREHISTORIC AND ETHNOGRAPHIC MUSEUM, ROME</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>According to Dr. Lothrop, the oliva shell shows signs of
-wear, and was probably the instrument used for rasping the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span>bone, as the bone is sound and produces a rather musical tone
-when scraped with the shell, as if the bone were of china.</p>
-
-<p>Notched human bones are not uncommon in ancient Mexico,
-and some have been found elaborately engraved. In the course
-of excavations made in 1900 in the street back of the Cathedral
-in the City of Mexico, were uncovered many small pottery
-models of musical instruments which had been placed there undoubtedly
-when the foundations of the great Aztecan <i>teocalli</i>
-were laid. The writer secured for the American Museum of
-Natural History examples of these interesting models. Among
-them was a notched bone having attached to it a model of the
-handled instrument with which it was rubbed or rasped.<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a></p>
-
-<p class="gtb">*****</p>
-
-<p>Finally, attention is called to three objects of wood, of
-Mexican origin, in the Museo Borgiano, Rome. They have
-been described by Colini, and two of the pieces illustrated, in
-the <i>Bollettino della Società Geografica Italiana</i>.<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> The first is
-an idol representing a human figure, 17¾ inches in height; the
-other two specimens, those figured by Colini, are masks, and
-it is highly probable that all of these pieces were once decorated,
-at least in part, with mosaic. One of the masks is 6⅞
-inches, and the other 7⅛ inches, in height.</p>
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="c22">CONCLUSION</h2>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>In view of the considerable number of objects of stone mosaic
-that were sent to Europe during the first years of the Spanish
-conquest of Mexico, part of the loot obtained by Hernán Cortés,
-it is quite possible that other examples are still hidden
-away either in Spain or in Italy, which some day will be brought
-to light. Only twenty years ago two wonderfully preserved
-carved ceremonial spear-throwers, or atlatls, of wood, covered
-with delicate gold-leaf, were found in an old leather-covered
-case in a house in Florence, and are now exhibited in the Ethnological
-Museum of that city. It is not to be doubted that
-they were sent from Mexico by Cortés himself, and remained
-stored away, unknown to the world, until recent times. Bushnell,
-who figured and described these atlatls, believes that they
-were formerly in the famous collection of the Medicis, and that
-other objects of Mexican origin may be hidden away in Italy,
-to be revealed from time to time.<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> Again, in 1891, Mrs. Zelia
-Nuttall was the first to bring to our notice the important mosaic
-shield, and the still more interesting feather-mosaic shield in
-the Castle Ambras near Innsbruck, which were shortly afterward
-transferred to the ethnographical section of the State
-Natural History Museum in Vienna.<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></p>
-
-<p>We should call attention here to the possibilities of finding
-mosaics in Mexico, emphasizing the fact that the collection in
-the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, was
-found under archeological conditions. Until now we have been
-somewhat sceptical in regard to the possibility of wooden objects
-of such a fragile and perishable nature being discovered
-either in tombs or in ruined buildings in Middle America. As
-we have already written, the few traces of this mosaic art found
-heretofore in excavations have been of a fragmentary character.
-No specimens of wood covered with mosaic have been
-found previously in Mexico, with the exception of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span>
-small rim of wood excavated by Gamio in Zacatecas, and the
-four pieces from Chichen Itza. In the tropical and temperate
-zones, where the most important ancient sites are situated,
-artifacts of wood of any sort have rarely been unearthed. It is
-true that in some of the remote villages carved wooden drums
-(<i>teponaztli</i>) have been religiously guarded from the time of the
-conquest, and are brought out and played at certain festivals
-during the year. But these drums are kept in the cabildos,
-and are preserved with zealous care.</p>
-
-<p>We would again call attention to the statement of Sahagun
-regarding the tradition of the abandonment of Tula, that
-Quetzalcoatl ordered certain precious things to be buried in the
-neighboring hills and ravines. This, of course, refers to times
-long anterior to the coming of white men. After this unfortunate
-event, fatal indeed to the Indian, the natives undoubtedly
-secreted a vast amount of material. The circumstances
-concerning this have been told by Father Motolinia. As
-this account is but little known, we have translated literally the
-entire chapter, for it reveals to us the miserable state into which
-the aborigines had fallen within twenty years after their subjugation.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Of how there was an end of idols and of the feasts which the Indians
-were wont to prepare, and of the vanity and the endeavor which the
-Spaniards displayed in (their) search for idols.</i></p>
-
-<p>The feasts which the Indians made, as is told in the first part (of
-this book), with their ceremonies and pomp, all ended from the
-beginning (of the time) that the Spaniards were making war (on
-them), because the Indians had so much to think about in their
-tribulations that they did not think of their gods, not even of themselves,
-because they had so much sorrow that in order to remedy
-that, all the principal (things in their lives) were stopped.</p>
-
-<p>In every town they had an idol or demon whom they considered
-chiefly as their mediator, and called him such, and they honored and
-adorned him with jewels and garments, and the best they could find
-they offered him, each town as it was (able to), and more so in the
-capitals of provinces. These principal idols I mention, as soon as the
-city of Mexico was taken by the Spaniards, with their jewels and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span>
-wealth the Indians hid in the most secret place they could find; a
-large part of the gold that was on (or with) the idols and in the
-temples they gave as tribute to the Spaniards under whose patronage
-they belonged; for they could not do otherwise because in the beginning
-the tributes were so excessive that all the Indians could scrape
-together or search for, nor what the lords and chiefs had, would suffice;
-besides, they were forced (to pay tributes) with such iniquity
-that they also gave the gold they had in the temples of the demons
-(idols), and even when this was exhausted they paid tribute in
-slaves, and many times not having slaves in order to comply (with
-the taxes), they gave free (Indians) as slaves.</p>
-
-<p>These principal idols, with the insignia and ornaments or garments
-belonging to the demons, the Indians hid, some in the earth, others
-in caves, and still others in the woods. Later, when the Indians
-became converted and were baptized, they unearthed many (of
-them), and they brought them to the courtyards of the churches to
-burn them publicly. Others rotted in the earth, because after the
-Indians had received (or accepted) the Faith, they were ashamed to
-take out those they had hidden, and would rather let them rot than
-that anyone should know that they hid them. And when they
-were importuned to tell (talk) about their principal idols and their
-vestments, they took them out, all decayed, of which I am a witness,
-for I have seen it (done) many times. The excuse they gave
-was good, for they said, “When we hid it, we did not know God, and
-we thought the Spaniards would soon return to their (own) country,
-and after we came to understand (about) God, we left it to rot, because
-we were afraid and ashamed to take it out.” In other towns
-these principal idols with their vestments were in the care of the lords
-or of the principal priests of the demons, and those kept them so secretly
-that hardly anyone knew about them except two or three
-people who guarded them, and of these (idols) they also brought a
-very large number to the monasteries to burn them. In many
-other remote villages, far away from Mexico, when the monks went
-there to preach, they told them in their sermons and before christening
-them that the first thing they had to do was to bring all the idols
-they had and all the insignias of the demons to burn (them): and in
-this manner they also gave and brought a large quantity which was
-publicly done in many parts (of the country): because wherever the
-doctrine and the word of God has reached, not a thing has remained<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span>
-that they knew or could tell about, for if from now on for a hundred
-years they should dig in the courts of the temples of the ancient idols,
-they would always find idols, because there were so many that they
-had made: for it happened that when a child was born they made an
-idol, and the following year (they made) one a little larger, and after
-four years they made another one, and as the child grew up they
-went on making idols, and of these (idols) the foundations and walls
-are filled, and in the courts there are many of them. In the year
-(15)39 and in the year (15)40 several Spaniards, some with authority
-and some without it, to show their zeal of the Faith, and thinking
-that they were accomplishing something (worth while), began to dig
-and to unearth the dead and to urge the Indians that they should
-give them idols: and in some parts (of the country) this reached such
-a stage that the Indians went to look for the idols that were decayed
-and forgotten in the earth, and some of the Indians were even so
-sorely tormented that, to tell the truth, they made new idols and gave
-them (to the Spaniards) that they should cease maltreating them.</p>
-
-<p>Mixed with the great zeal they (the Spaniards) showed in searching
-for idols, (there was) not a little covetousness, and it was because
-the Spaniards (would say), in such a village, or in such a parish,
-there are (were) idols of gold, or of chalchihuitl which is a stone of
-great value, and they imagined that there was an idol weighing ten
-or fifteen arrobas: but in truth they came (too) late, because all the
-gold and precious stones were spent and cashed in and safely in the
-power (hands) of the Spaniards who first held those Indians under
-their jurisdiction. They also thought of finding an idol of stone
-which would be worth as much as a city, and certainly, although I
-have seen many idols which were adored and held highly by the Indians
-and (were) very (greatly) revered as chief gods, and some were
-of chalchihuitl, the one which seemed to me to be worth most, I do
-not think that in Spain they would give ten pesos of gold for it:
-for this they upset and stir and scandalize the towns with their truly
-indiscrete zeal, because if there really is still an idol in some village,
-it is either rotten or so (completely) forgotten or (held or kept) so
-secretly that in a town of ten thousand inhabitants there are not
-even five who know it, and they hold them for what they are, either
-for stones or for wood. Those who thus upset these Indians who
-go their straight way, are like Laban who went to meet Jacob to
-look for his property, and to upset his house in search of his idols,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span>
-because of this that I am telling here I have great experience and I
-(can) see the deceit in which they go about and the way they have to
-disturb and disfavor (hurt) these poor Indians who have forgotten
-so absolutely their idols, as if it were a hundred years ago (that they
-had had them).<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Hernándo Ruiz de Alarcon, in his treatise on the superstitions
-of the natives of New Spain, relates that when they went
-to the hills or other remote places where their idols were hidden
-away, or to certain piles of stones where they often made offerings
-and sacrifices, they carried there offerings which were
-sometimes copal incense wrapped in <i>quauhamatl</i>, a kind of
-white paper made from the bark of a soft tree. This work,
-written in 1620, is entitled, <i>Tratado de las Supersticiones y
-Costumbres Gentilicas que oy viuen entre los Indios Naturales
-desta Nueva España</i>, and was published for the first time in 1892
-by the Museo Nacional of Mexico. The present writer has
-noted such stone piles, particularly in Yucatan.</p>
-
-<p>It is probable that we have here an explanation of the existence
-of our deposit of mosaic-incrusted wooden shields and
-masks, which leads us to hope that still further discoveries of
-this character may be made. The climatic conditions in certain
-parts of the highlands of Middle America, where this deposit
-was found in a cave, favor this assumption. There are great
-sections of comparatively dry, wind-swept, almost desert
-plains, treeless hill-slopes, and ravines, where the chief vegetation
-is cacti in the lower altitudes, while higher up pines and
-oaks abound. Here wooden objects should be indefinitely preserved
-in ancient tombs or in caves, protected by a covering of
-loose, dry earth, the condition under which our collection was
-found.</p>
-
-<p>The discovery of this remarkable collection of mosaics emphasizes
-the fact that the investigation of the archeology of
-Mexico is hardly commenced, in view of the vast amount of
-material hidden under the ruins of thousands of ancient settlements
-and burial places, and probably in countless caves,
-which still remain untouched by the archeologist.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span></p>
-
-<p>As revealed by the surprising results of Thompson’s dredging
-in the sacred cenote in Yucatan, a wealth of archeological material
-also lies buried in the mud under the waters of sacred
-wells and lakes. This is notably so in the case of Lake Chapala,
-on the borders of Michoacan and Jalisco in Mexico,<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> and of
-Lake Amatitlan in Guatemala, where thousands of pottery vessels
-and other objects have been recovered from the bottoms of
-the lakes by divers, and from the mud when the waters have
-receded from the shores during times of extreme drought.
-These objects had been thrown into the waters as offerings to
-the gods.</p>
-
-<p>The recent results of the systematic exploration of the great
-mounds at Teotihuacan have been quite surprising, and have
-shed new light on the archeology of the central plateau of Mexico.
-Even more important is the discovery of culture sequences
-in stratified deposits in the valley of Mexico, the investigations
-showing three distinct culture layers distinguished by the
-character of the pottery. Of great significance are the discoveries
-recently made under the great lava flow called the Pedregal,
-at the very edge of the City of Mexico, where the artifacts
-correspond <i>in toto</i> with those found in the bottom layer of
-the stratified deposits.<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> These discoveries mark a great advance
-in our knowledge of the history of ancient Mexico, but,
-as we have before stated, they are only a beginning. Buried
-underground are the “books” the student must study, if ever
-the tangled history of Middle America is to become known and
-the story of the development of this exceedingly interesting division
-of the human race is to be recorded.</p>
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="c23">NOTES</h2>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnotes">
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> See Saville, The Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico, <i>Museum of the American
-Indian, Heye Foundation, Indian Notes and Monographs</i>, 1920.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, Historia General y Natural de
-las Indias, edition of the Real Academia de la Historia, tomo <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, primera
-parte, lib. <span class="allsmcap">XVII</span>, caps, <span class="allsmcap">VIII</span>-<span class="allsmcap">XVIII</span>, pp. 502-537, Madrid, 1851.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> The Itinerary of Grijalva, written by chaplain Juan Díaz, was undoubtedly
-recorded in Spanish, but we know it only from the Italian translation of
-1520. It was translated into Spanish by Joaquin Garcia Icazbalceta and
-published by him in his <i>Documentos para la Historia de México</i>, tomo
-<span class="allsmcap">I</span>, Mexico, 1858. A translation into English, with translations of other
-accounts, relating to this voyage, will appear in the <i>Publications of the
-Cortes Society</i> under the title, The Voyage of Juan de Grijalva to Yucatan
-and the Mexican Coast in 1518.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> We quote here from the edition of Bernal Díaz published by the Hakluyt
-Society, bearing the title, The True Conquest of New Spain, translated into
-English by Alfred Percival Maudslay. The citation is from vol. <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, pp.
-48-49, London, 1908.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Bernal Díaz, op. cit., vol. <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, p. 53. In the work of Torquemada, Monarchia
-Indiana, is an important statement bearing on this matter, of which we
-give the following translation <i>in extenso</i>:</p>
-
-<p>“And this present it was that Gomara and Antonio de Herrera make
-confused mention as having been brought to Ferdinand Cortés by the
-governors of Montezuma on his first landing, which they notice in the
-following words: ‘Which present it is said was sent for Juan de Grijalva,
-when he touched on those shores; but that, notwithstanding the haste of
-those who carried it, they found that he was gone.’ The fact was as they
-state; but I do not understand how those who drew up the account of
-which Herrera availed himself, could have omitted that which I say in this
-chapter, and many other particulars which shall be observed in the sequel;
-since the circumstances which they mention, and those which I relate, are
-intimately connected with each other, and those who could have given an
-account of the former, could likewise have done so of the latter; although
-I think that the error lay in their seeking information only from the Spaniards,
-who at that period returned from the Indies, without verifying facts
-by applying to the Indians, who were mainly concerned in most of them,
-or I may say in all, since they were the mark which all who have written on
-the affairs of the conquest strove to hit, and were those who were very well
-acquainted with them, and in the beginning recorded them by means of
-figures and characters, and afterward, when some of the most curious<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span>
-amongst them had learned how to write, wrote them down; which histories
-are in my possession: and so high is the estimation in which I hold
-them, on account of their language and the style of their composition, that
-I should be glad to feel myself competent to the task of translating them
-into Spanish with the same elegance and grace as the Mexicans penned
-them in their own language; and since these histories are true and authentic,
-I follow them to the letter; but lest the accounts which they contain
-should appear strange to those who read them, I affirm that they are
-merely a true relation of what actually happened, but that other authors
-have not noticed them before me, because the few that have written on
-the affairs of the Indies were ignorant of the events which then occurred,
-nor had they any one to give them the requisite information; neither
-should I have mentioned these facts had I not found that they were verified
-by Father Bernardino de Sahagun, a grave and pious ecclesiastic, who was
-of the second number of those who undertook the conversion of the natives
-of New Spain, but was the first of the investigators of the most secret
-things of this land, of which he knew all the secrets, and employed himself
-for more than sixty years in composing works in the Mexican language
-and in incorporating into it all the information which he was able to
-acquire.” Lib. <span class="allsmcap">IV</span>, cap. <span class="allsmcap">XIII</span>.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> This important work will be reprinted in facsimile, with a translation into
-English, in the author’s proposed work on the voyage of Grijalva, as mentioned
-in Note 3.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> This account will also be reprinted in facsimile, with a translation into
-English, in the author’s account of the voyage of Grijalva. The title is,
-Provinciæ Sive Regiones in India Occidentali Noviter Repertæ in Vltima
-Navigatione. The known copies are in the John Carter Brown Library,
-Providence, and the New York Public Library.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> I quote here from the translation made and edited by Francis A. MacNutt,
-De Orbe Novo, vol. <span class="allsmcap">II</span>, pp. 19-20, New York, 1912.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> The chapters relating to the voyage of Grijalva have been translated into
-English by the writer and will appear in the proposed work mentioned in
-Note 3.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> Francisco López de Gomara, edition of Don Enrique de Vedia, Historiadores
-Primitivos de Indias, in <i>Biblioteca de Autores Españoles</i>, tomo <span class="allsmcap">I</span>,
-Madrid, 1877.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> Eduard Seler, Ein Kapitel aus dem Geschichtswerk des P. Sahagun, p.
-124, Berlin, 1890.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> Lehmann, in his Methods and Results in Mexican Research, Paris, 1909,
-writes: “Hardly less remarkable are the mosaics made of more or less precious
-stones, shells, etc. No less than twenty-three pieces are known in various
-museums, the finest being in London, Rome, and Berlin. The stones when
-cut to shape are embedded in a peculiar substance (<i>tzinacanquauhcuitlatl</i>)
-covering the whole surface of the object to be decorated; the latter were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span>
-chiefly of wood, rarely of bone or stone. Two masks are skilfully prepared
-human skulls. The usual shapes are shields, helmets, knife handles and
-trinkets. The small cup-shaped heads and the double-jaguar in the Berlin
-Museum are of doubtful meaning. Most of these objects apparently come
-from the Eastern provinces, i. e., Tabasco. We know from other sources
-that it was only under king Ahuizotl, with the conquest of the Tzapotec
-district, that the Mexicans became acquainted with turkois-mosaics,
-shields, earrings, etc.” This is a translation of his Ergebnisse und Aufgaben
-der mexikanistischen Forschung, published in <i>Archiv für Anthropologie</i>,
-Neue Folge, band <span class="allsmcap">VI</span>, heft 2 u 3, Braunschweig, 1907.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> See Lehmann in our List of Works Describing Mexican Mosaics, under
-1906.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> Juan de Torquemada, Monarchia Indiana, Barcia edition, Madrid, 1732,
-lib. <span class="allsmcap">II</span>, cap. <span class="allsmcap">LXXIX</span>, p. 215.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> See Antonio Peñafiel, Nomenclatura Geográfica y Etimológica de México,
-Mexico, 1897.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> Clavigero, The History of Mexico, Cullen transl., vol. <span class="allsmcap">II</span>, p. 232, London,
-1787.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> Saville, The Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico, op. cit.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> Peter Martyr, op. cit., vol. <span class="allsmcap">II</span>, p. 46.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> Las Casas, Historia de las Indias, tomo <span class="allsmcap">IV</span>, cap. <span class="allsmcap">CXXI</span>, pp. 284-286, Madrid
-ed., 1876.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> Fr. Bernardino de Sahagun, Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva
-España, Bustamante ed., lib. 12, caps, <span class="allsmcap">II-VI</span>, pp. 5-12, Mexico, 1829.</p>
-
-<p>Notes to Chapter <span class="allsmcap">III</span>. The two places mentioned here, Naulitlantoztlan
-and Mictlanquactle, are given by Torquemada (op. cit., lib. <span class="allsmcap">IV</span>, cap. <span class="allsmcap">XIII</span>, p.
-379) as four different towns. Nauhtla and Toztla, the first two, are recognizable
-as being combined into one place-name by Sahagun. This is also
-the case with Mictla and Quauhtla, the third and fourth towns of Torquemada,
-the Mictlanquactle of Sahagun. Brasseur de Bourbourg transforms
-them to Nauhtlan, Tochtlan, and Mictlan-Quauhtla, in which he is followed
-by Orozco y Berra.</p>
-
-<p>Vigil, the editor of Tezozomoc, states that the town of Mictlancuauhtla
-has disappeared, but in a map or plan of Vera Cruz in the collection of
-Icazbalceta, sent in 1580 to Philip II by the alcalde Alvaro Patiño, the
-place is still mentioned, under a corrupted form of the name, as Metlangutla.</p>
-
-<p>The name of the five lords sent by Montezuma to receive Cortés, conceived
-to be Quetzalcoatl, are spelled differently by Torquemada (op. cit.,
-P-379), and they more closely approach the orthography of Molina’s
-dictionary. They are, Yohualychan, Tepuztecatl, Tizahua, Huehuetecatl,
-and Hueycamecateca.</p>
-
-<p>Notes to Chapter <span class="allsmcap">VI</span>. This Xicalanco is not to be confused with the
-Mexican colonial town of the same name near the Laguna de Términos,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span>
-Tabasco. A branch of the Nahuan Mexican people called Xicalancas from
-the name of their first ruler, Xicalancatl, settled on the coast of Vera Cruz
-in the region between the present city of Vera Cruz and the Isthmus of
-Tehuantepec.</p>
-
-<p>Torquemada relates that the messengers, on leaving the ship of Cortés,
-“paddled rapidly away, and came to a little island called Xicalanco, where
-they ate, and rested a little, and they left there and came to a town on the
-seashore called Tecpantlayacac; from there they went to Cuetlaxtla, which
-is some leagues in the interior, where they spent the night; the lords and
-chief of the town begged them to remain there that day and rest, but they
-replied that the need for speed for their journey was great.”&mdash;Op. cit.,
-lib. <span class="allsmcap">IV</span>, cap. <span class="allsmcap">XIV</span>, p. 384.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> Peter Martyr, op. cit., vol. <span class="allsmcap">II</span>, pp. 196-197.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> Saville, Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico. The inventories of the loot
-obtained by Cortés are given in English translation on pp. 56-102.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> This is quoted from the study of Dr. J. Cheston Morris on the “Physical
-and Technographical Characteristics” of the leaves, in the article, “The
-Tribute Roll of Montezuma,” edited by Dr. Daniel G. Brinton, Henry
-Phillips, Jr., and Dr. J. Cheston Morris, published in <i>Transactions of the
-American Philosophical Society</i>, vol. <span class="allsmcap">XVII</span>, <span class="allsmcap">N. S.</span>, pt. <span class="allsmcap">II</span>, art. <span class="allsmcap">IV</span>, p. 61, Philadelphia,
-1892.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> The very important Crónica Mexicana, written by Hernando Alvarado
-Tezozomoc, was published by José M. Vigil in his <i>Biblioteca Mexicana,
-Colección Metódica de Obras y Documentos Relativos a la Historia, Geografía,
-Literatura, Estadística y Legislación de México</i>, 1881. The quotation is
-from cap. <span class="allsmcap">LXXVI</span>, pp. 543-544.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> Tezozomoc, op. cit., cap. <span class="allsmcap">LXXXIX</span>, p. 600.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> Dr. George F. Kunz has kindly placed in our hands his publications relating
-to precious stones. In this connection consult his Gems and Precious
-Stones, New York, 1892; his important paper, New Observations on the
-Occurrences of Precious Stones of Archæological Interest in America (extrait
-des <i>Mémoires et Déliberations du XVᵉ Congrès des Américanistes tenue
-à Québec du 10 au 15 Septembre 1906</i>, Quebec, 1907); and Gems and Precious
-Stones of Mexico, Mexico, 1907.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> The work of Rafael Aguilar y Santillan is entitled Bibliografía Geológica
-y Minera de la República Mexicana completada hasta el año de 1904,
-<i>Boletín del Instituto Geológico de México</i>, núm. 17, Mexico, 1908.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> The interesting study of Luigi Pigorini describing the Mexican mosaics in
-Rome is entitled Gli Antichi Oggetti Messicani Incrostati di Mosaico esistenti
-nel Museo Preistorico ed Etnografico di Roma, <i>Reale Accademia dei
-Lincei</i>, Rome, Anno CCLXXXII, 1884-85, 3ª serie, vol. <span class="allsmcap">XII</span>, pp. 1-9, I pl.
-with 5 colored illustrations.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> The important study by Joseph E. Pogue, The Turquois. A Study of its
-History, Mineralogy, Geology, Ethnology, Archæology, Mythology, Folklore,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span>and Technology, appears as the third memoir of Vol. <span class="allsmcap">XII</span>, <i>Memoirs of
-the National Academy of Sciences</i>, Washington, 1915.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> Fray Bernardino de Sahagun, Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva
-España que en Doce Libros y Dos Volúmenes Escribió el R. P. Fr. Bernardino
-de Sahagun, published by Carlos María de Bustamante, 4 vols.,
-Mexico, 1829. Also published by Lord Kingsborough. The quotations
-are from the Bustamante edition, tomo <span class="allsmcap">III</span>, lib. <span class="allsmcap">II</span>, cap. <span class="allsmcap">VII</span>, p. 284, and cap.
-<span class="allsmcap">VIII</span>, pp. 296-297.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> On this subject consult the paper by Dr. A. B. Meyer, Die Nephritfrage,
-ein ethnologisches Problem, Berlin, 1883, of which an abstract (“The
-Nephrite Question”) was published in <i>American Anthropologist</i>, <span class="allsmcap">O. S.</span>, vol. <span class="allsmcap">I</span>,
-no. 3, Washington, July, 1888.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> Saville, A Votive Adze of Jadeite from Mexico, <i>Monumental Records</i>,
-New York, May, 1900.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> Sahagun, op. cit., tomo <span class="allsmcap">III</span>, lib. 10, cap. <span class="allsmcap">XXIX</span>, p. 107.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> Ibid., cap. vii, p. 19.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> The pictorial part of the section of the great work of Sahagun in Florence
-was reproduced in facsimile by the late Mexican scholar, Sr. D. Francisco
-del Paso y Troncoso, for the Mexican government. Only recently has the
-work been received in Mexico, and we are under the greatest obligations
-to Sr. D. Luis Castillo Ledon, Director of the Museo Nacional, Mexico,
-for a copy which we have recently received, and which has been of such
-great assistance in the preparation of this study of Mexican mosaics. It
-is an Atlas, denominated Vol. <span class="allsmcap">V</span>, of 158 estampas (plates). The plates
-relating to arts and crafts are to illustrate Libro <span class="allsmcap">IX</span>, and include pl. lv
-to lxxvi.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> We refer the student to the edition of Lord Kingsborough, vol. <span class="allsmcap">I</span>.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> The Mappe Tlotzin once formed a part of the Boturini collection; it was
-afterward acquired by Aubin, later by Goupil, and is now in the National
-Library in Paris. It has been published in colors (pl. i-iii) in Mémoires
-sur la Peinture Didactique et l’Écriture Figurative des Anciens Méxicains,
-par J. M. A. Aubin, with an introduction by E. T. Hamy, Paris, 1885.
-The pictures referred to are on pl. ii.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> Eduard Seler, L’Orfèverie des Anciens Mexicains et leur Art de Travailler
-la Pierre et de Faire des Ornements en Plumes, <i>Compte rendu de la VIIIᵉᵐᵉ
-Session du Congrès International des Américanistes</i>, Paris, pp. 401-452.
-The chapter on the art of the lapidaries is on pp. 418-425. The article,
-with slight changes in the French translation of the Nahuatl text, and
-some revision, is included in Seler’s Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur
-Amerikanischen Sprach- und Alterthumskunde, Zweiter Band, pp. 620-663,
-Berlin, 1904. The section on the lapidaries’ art is on pp. 635-640.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> Sahagun, op. cit., tomo <span class="allsmcap">II</span>, lib. 9, cap. <span class="allsmcap">XVII</span>, pp. 389-391.</p>
-
-</div>
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span></p>
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> The goddess is figured in the numerous examples of the tonalamatl in the
-various codices, of which facsimiles are to be found in all important libraries.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> The Tonalamatl of the Aubin Collection. An Old Mexican Picture Manuscript
-in the Paris National Library. Published at the Expense of his
-Excellency the Duke of Loubat. With Introduction and Explanatory
-Text by Dr. Eduard Seler. Berlin and London, 1900-1901, p. 115.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> The Codex Borbonicus is in the National Library, Paris. It was published
-in exact facsimile, with an introduction by Dr. E. T. Hamy, Paris, 1899.
-The scene referred to is on p. 18 of the Paris reproduction.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> The important Codex Telleriano Remensis was published in facsimile,
-with an introduction by E. T. Hamy, by the Duke of Loubat, Paris, 1899.
-The illustration referred to is on p. 22 verso, of the plates.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> Seler, op. cit. (Note 41), p. 118.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> Kingsborough, vol. <span class="allsmcap">VI</span>, p. 129.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> Sahagun, see reproduction of Troncoso, estampa x, fig. 34.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> Codex Borbonicus, p. 18.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> Tonalamatl Aubin, op. cit., pl. 18.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> Seler, op. cit., pp. 114-118.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> This quotation is from the Libro de Oro y Tesoro Indico, a precious manuscript
-in the library of the late Joaquín García Icazbalceta. Icazbalceta
-writes as follows about the author: “We do not know who was Fr. Andrés
-de Alcobiz, who in the year 1543 collected in Spain these laws of the Mexicans.
-It is published in <i>Nueva Colección de Documentos para la Historia de
-México</i>, tomo <span class="allsmcap">III</span>, p. 313, Mexico, 1891.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> Saville, Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico, p. 119.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> Anonymous Conqueror, translated by Marshall H. Saville, publication of
-the Cortes Society, no. I, pp. 65-67, New York, 1917.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> Obras Históricas de Don Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, tomo <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, Historia
-Chichimeca, cap. <span class="allsmcap">XXXVI</span>, p. 180, published in Mexico in 1892 under the
-editorship of Dr. Alfredo Chavero.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> We refer here to the labors of Mexican archeologists begun by Leopoldo
-Batres, and continued by Dr. Manuel Gamio. An elaborate work, edited
-by Gamio, treating of the exploration of this region, has just been printed
-in Mexico.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> Sahagun, op. cit., tomo <span class="allsmcap">III</span>, lib. 10, cap. <span class="allsmcap">XXIX</span>, p. 107.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> Ibid., tomo <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, lib. 3, cap. <span class="allsmcap">XII</span>, p. 255.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> Saville, The Cruciform Structures of Mitla and Vicinity, <i>Putnam Anniversary
-Volume</i>, p. 187, New York, 1909.</p>
-
-</div>
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span></p>
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> Relación de Andrés de Tapia, published for the first time by Icazbalceta
-in <i>Colección de Documentos para la Historia de México</i>, tomo <span class="allsmcap">II</span>, pp. 582-583,
-Mexico, 1866.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> The Relación de Texcoco was written by Juan Bautista Pomar, a mestizo,
-and a grandson of the Texcocan king Nezahualpitzintli on his mother’s
-side. It was composed for Philip II, and belongs to the class of Relations
-like those of Yucatan, etc. It was first published by Icazbalceta in his
-<i>Nueva Colección de Documentos para la Historia de México</i>, tomo <span class="allsmcap">II</span>. The
-quotation is from p. 10.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> Bernal Díaz, op. cit., vol. <span class="allsmcap">II</span>, book <span class="allsmcap">VI</span>, chap. xcii, p. 74.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> Ibid., chap. <span class="allsmcap">CIV</span>, p. 138.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> Tezozomoc, op. cit., cap. <span class="allsmcap">LXXXVI</span>, p. 592.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> Ibid., cap. <span class="allsmcap">LXXXVII</span>, p. 593.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> Sahagun, op. cit., tomo <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, lib. <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, cap. <span class="allsmcap">XIII</span>, p. 18.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> Pomar, op. cit., pp. 8-9.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> Seler, Altmexikanische Studien, Ein Kapitel aus dem Geschichtswerk
-des P. Sahagun. <i>Sonderabzug der Veröffentlichungen aus dem Königlichen
-Museum für Völkerkunde</i>, <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, 4, p. 123, Berlin, 1890.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> Anonymous Conqueror, op. cit., p. 22.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> Sahagun, op. cit., tomo <span class="allsmcap">III</span>, lib. 8, cap. <span class="allsmcap">IX</span>, p. 289.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> Antonio Peñafiel, Indumentaria Antigua Vestidos Guerreros y Civiles de
-los Mexicanos, pl. 149, Mexico, 1903.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> The Codex Coxcatzin has been published in part by Eugène Boban in
-<i>Documents pour Servir à l’Histoire du Méxique</i>, Atlas, pl. 41-45, Paris, 1891.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> Tezozomoc, op. cit., cap. <span class="allsmcap">LXI</span>, p. 469; cap. <span class="allsmcap">LXIX</span>, pp. 506-507.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> Diego Duran, Historia de las Indias de Nueva-España y Islas de Tierra
-Firme, tomo <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, cap. <span class="allsmcap">LI</span>, p. 407, Mexico, 1867.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> Tezozomoc, op. cit., cap. <span class="allsmcap">CI</span>, p. 659.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">[74]</a> Anonymous Conqueror, op. cit., p. 22.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">[75]</a> Thomas Unett Brocklehurst, Mexico To-day, pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXXIV</span>, London, 1883.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">[76]</a> See Saville, Exploration of Zapotecan Tombs in Southern Mexico, <i>American
-Anthropologist</i>, <span class="allsmcap">N. S.</span>, vol. <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, pp. 350-362, April, 1899; and Funeral
-Urns from Oaxaca, <i>American Museum Journal</i>, vol. <span class="allsmcap">IV</span>, pp. 49-69, New
-York, 1904.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">[77]</a> Saville, Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico, pp. 151-163, pl. i, viii.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">[78]</a> Manuel Gamio, Los Monumentos Arqueológicos de las Inmediaciones de
-Chalchihuites, Zacatecas, sobretiro del tomo <span class="allsmcap">II</span> de los <i>Anales del Museo
-Nacional de Arqueología, Historia y Etnología</i>, pp. 467-492, 5 plans, 8 pl.,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span>
-Mexico, 1910. This is the first piece of work by Gamio, and presents the
-results of the first important archeological exploration undertaken in this
-part of Mexico.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">[79]</a> We have just received the first number (Jan.-Feb., 1922) of tomo <span class="allsmcap">I</span>,
-época 4ª, of the <i>Anales del Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Historia y Etnografía</i>
-of Mexico, which have long been interrupted. In it is announced the
-forthcoming appearance of a paper relating to this subject, “Máscara con
-Mosaicos de Turquesas.&mdash;Dictámenes Periciales.” It is to be hoped that
-the authenticity of this object will be cleared of all suspicion by the proposed
-study.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">[80]</a> On this subject consult Saville, Precolumbian Decoration of the Teeth in
-Ecuador, etc., <i>American Anthropologist</i>, <span class="allsmcap">N. S.</span>, vol. 15, 1913; reprinted as
-<i>Contributions from the Heye Museum</i>, vol. <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, no. 2, 1913.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">[81]</a> David Casares, A Notice of Yucatan with Some Remarks on its Water
-Supply, <i>Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society</i>, pp. 207-230,
-Oct., 1905.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">[82]</a> Diego de Landa, Historia de las Cosas de Yucatan, edition of Juan de
-Dios de la Rada y Delgado, p. 84, Madrid, 1881.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">[83]</a> Casares, op. cit., p. 226.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">[84]</a> William H. Holmes, Archeological Studies among the Ancient Cities of
-Mexico, <i>Anthropological Series, Field Columbian Museum</i>, vol. <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, no. 1, Chicago,
-1895. Part I, Monuments of Yucatan, Section on Chichen Itza, p. 137.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">[85]</a> Seler, Codex Vaticanus No. 3773. Elucidation published at the expense
-of the Duke of Loubat, Berlin and London, 1902-1903. In this study
-Seler treats at length of the God Xipe Totec.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">[86]</a> Sahagun, op. cit., tomo <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, lib. I, cap. <span class="allsmcap">XVIII</span>, p. 28.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">[87]</a> The two mosaic masks on the sculptured wall at Chichen Itza are taken
-from the drawings on pl. 46 and 47 of the great work of Alfred P. Maudslay
-published as part of <i>Biologia Centrali-Americana: or Contributions to the
-Knowledge of the Fauna and Flora of Mexico and Central America</i>, edited
-by F. Ducane Godman and Osbert Salvin. Archæology, vol. <span class="allsmcap">III</span> (Plates).
-London, 1895-1902. The crowns are from pl. 38, 49-59. The crown with
-the feathers is from the doorway column of Temple A, of the Ball Court.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">[88]</a> The first extended study of Mexican turquois mosaics, based especially on
-some of the specimens now in the British Museum, was made by E. T.
-Stevens and published in his Flint Chips, pp. 324-328, London, 1870.
-Read’s paper did not appear until 1895.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">[89]</a> See Maudslay’s edition of Bernal Díaz, op. cit., vol. <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, app., pp. 299-302.
-Maudslay gives photographs of the two wooden masks in the British
-Museum, which he calls “Masks of Quetzalcoatl,” and of the skull mask
-which he denominates “Mask of Tezcatlipoca.”</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">[90]</a> See List of Works following.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">[91]</a> See translation in Saville, Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico, pp. 126-127.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">[92]</a> See List of Works following.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">[93]</a> See List of Works following. Our illustration is a photograph of the colored
-lithographic plate of Uhle.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">[94]</a> Zelia Nuttall, On Ancient Mexican Shields, <i>Separat-Abdruck aus Internationales
-Archiv für Ethnographie</i>, Bd. <span class="allsmcap">V</span>, 21 pp., Leiden, 1892.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">[95]</a> Read, in his study, gives only a drawing of this shield. Our illustration, a
-direct photograph, does not show the designs so clearly as the drawing.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">[96]</a> Our illustration is a copy of the photograph published by Heger. See List
-of Works following.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">[97]</a> Seler, Codex Fejérváry, An Old Mexican Picture Manuscript in the Liverpool
-Free Public Museum, published at the Expense of His Excellency
-the Duke of Loubat, p. 210, Berlin and London, 1901-1902.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">[98]</a> The Codex Nuttall or Zouche was published by the Peabody Museum,
-Cambridge, in 1892. The original is now in the British Museum.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">[99]</a> On this subject consult the elucidations of Mexican codices by Seler,
-published at the expense of the Duke of Loubat. Also, Mexican and
-Central American Antiquities, Calendar Systems, and History, being
-translations from the German of papers by Seler, Förstemann, and others,
-published as <i>Bulletin 28, Bureau of American Ethnology</i>, Washington, 1904.
-The studies of C. P. Bowditch will be found in his Numeration, Calendar
-Systems and Astronomical Knowledge of the Mayas, Cambridge, Mass.,
-1910.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">[100]</a> Hermann Beyer, El llamado “Calendario Azteca,” Mexico, 1921, an important
-study of interpretation of the calendar stone of the Aztecs.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">[101]</a> This specimen was first illustrated by Lehmann in his paper, Die altmexikanischen
-Mosaiken des Ethnographischen Museums in Kopenhagen,
-<i>Globus</i>, 1907. Our illustration is a drawing from the photograph reproduced
-in this study.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">[102]</a> See Note 101.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">[103]</a> See Heger, 1892, in List of Works.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">[104]</a> Our drawing is from the photograph published by Lehmann in his paper
-in the <i>Proceedings of the Fifteenth International Congress of Americanists</i>,
-Quebec, 1907.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">[105]</a> Our drawing of this specimen is made from the illustration published by
-Oppel. See List of Works, 1896.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">[106]</a> Illustrations of this piece have just been published for the first time by
-Lehmann in his Altmexikanische Kunstgeschichte: Ein Entwurf in Umrissen,
-Berlin, 1922(?).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">[107]</a> See Seler’s remarks to Heger’s paper, List of Works, 1890.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">[108]</a> Consult Seler, Altmexikanische Knochenrasseln, <i>Gesammelte Abhandlungen</i>,
-Zweiter Band, pp. 672-694, Berlin, 1904; also Lumholtz, Unknown
-Mexico, vol. ii, pp. 428-430, New York, 1902.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">[109]</a> As Colini’s paper is not easily consulted, we append his description of these
-three Mexican wooden objects:</p>
-
-<p>“L’idolo, a guisa di figura umana, è alto m.o. 45 [17¾ inches high]. La
-testa è molto grande, senza alcuna proporzione con le altre parti del corpo
-ed è sormontana da un ornamento. La faccia conserva ancora traccie del
-rosso con cui era colorita, il naso è piccolo ma largo e schiacciato, gli
-occhi sono incavature ovali ed hanno sotto tre incisioni circolari, come se si
-fossero volute rappresentare le occhiaje di persona vecchia o malata. Anche
-vicino agli angoli della bocca, poco sopra, sono incise due linee oblique,
-riempite di bianco, quasi a guisa di rughe. Tiene le braccia sollevate con
-le mani sull’ornamento della testa, ma le altre parti del corpo non sono
-affatto distinte. Posa sopra una base decorata con incisioni colorite in
-bianco, di cui manca però una parte, cosicché non è possibile comprendere
-pienamente la sua forma primitiva, la quale sembra che fosse rettangolare.
-In ogni modo era troppo sottile per sostenere l’idolo, e perciò dobbiamo
-credere che facesse parte di un apparecchio più complicato.</p>
-
-<p>“Delle maschere l’una (<span class="allsmcap">V.</span> Tav. in fine, fig. 2) nel tipo e nell’espressione
-somiglia a quella incrosta di mosaico, descritta da Ulisse Aldrovandi la
-quale oggi si conserva nel Museo Etnografico Nazionale di Roma [6⅞
-inches high]. Il naso è lungo, sottile ed arcuato; ma non essendo incavato
-nell’interno, la maschera non potrebbe adattarsi faccia. Gli occhi consistono
-in rozze aperture ovali, sotto le quali, a breve distanza, sono incisi
-due profondi solchi, a guisa di semicerchi, come nell’idolo. Intorno la
-fronte, sopra la radice del naso, corre una larga fascia in rilievo. Fra le
-labbra inferiore allungate, esce la lingua, che si ripiega sul mento: della
-parte inferiore non è possibile formarsi un concetto perchè è stata tagliata.
-Conserva qua e là le traccie della tinta rossa, ma sono meno evidenti che
-nell’idoli. Sulla fascia della fronte, nella lingua e sul naso possono ancora
-notarsi delle linee incise, riempite di materia bianca.</p>
-
-<p>“L’altra maschera (tav., fig. I) è lavorata con maggiore cura [7⅛ inches
-high]: ha la faccia simmetrica nelle varie parti e proporzionata. Le labbra
-sono piccole, ma, quello inferiore essendo rotto, non è possibile indovinarne
-la forma. Ha il naso arcuato, e largo alla base, ed è internamente incavato
-in modo che la maschera potrebbe adattarsi alla faccia, e siccome la bocca,
-le narici e gli occhi sono forati, cosi il portatore potrebbe benissimo vedere,
-respirare e parlare. Nella parte inferiore delle occhiaje, agli angoli, si
-notano due piccole incavature ad arco, la cui forma farebbe supporre che
-vi fossero adattati pezzi di madreperla a guisa di occhi, come in quelle del
-Museo Christy. In generale i lineamente mostrano quella espressione
-placida e contemplativa, che, secondo il Tylor, e caratteristica dei lavori
-aztechi e degli egiziani, tanto se si riguardano le massiccie sculture in
-pietra, quanto le piccole teste di terracotta. Ambedue queste maschere,
-nella parte superiore corrispondente alla fronte, hanno fori nei quali forse<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span>
-s’immettevano cordoncini per sospenderle: la prima ne ha due grandi agli
-angoli, l’altra quattro più piccoli intorno.” (See note under List of Works,
-1885.)</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">[110]</a> D. I. Bushnell, Jr., Two Ancient Mexican Atlatls, <i>American Anthropologist</i>,
-<span class="allsmcap">N. S.</span>, vol. 7, no. 2, 1905; also North American Ethnographical Material
-in Italian Collections, <i>ibid.</i>, vol. 8, 1906.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">[111]</a> See Note 94.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">[112]</a> Fr. Toribio Motolinia, Historia de los Indios de Nueva España, Tratado
-Tercero, cap. <span class="allsmcap">XX</span>, pp. 247-249, edition published by Icazbalceta, <i>Colección
-de Documentos para la Historia de México</i>, tomo 1, Mexico, 1858.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">[113]</a> Consult Frederick Starr, The Little Pottery Objects of Lake Chapala,
-Mexico, <i>Bulletin II, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago</i>,
-Chicago, 1897.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">[114]</a> An important summary of these discoveries has recently been published
-by Gamio; see Las Excavaciones del Pedregal de San Angel y la Cultura
-Arcaica del Valle de Mexico, <i>American Anthropologist</i>, <span class="allsmcap">N. S.</span>, vol. 22, no.
-2, 1920. Also the paper of Hermann Beyer, Sobre Antigüedades del Pedregal
-de San Angel, <i>Memorias de la Sociedad Científica “Antonio Alzate”
-de México</i>, tomo 37, núm. 8, Oct., 1917; and Ramon Mena, El Hombre de
-“El Pedregal” de San Angel, <i>Escuela Naciona, Preparatoria Curso de 1918</i>.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="books">
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span></p>
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="c24">LIST OF WORKS DESCRIBING MEXICAN MOSAICS</h2>
-</div>
-
-
-
-<p class="c b">1648</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Aldrovanus, Ulysses.</span> Musæum metallicum. Bologna.</p>
-
-<p class="less">In this work are a brief description (p. 550) and illustrations of two of the
-specimens now in the Museum in Rome, namely, one of the knife handles (our
-pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXXIX</span>), and the mask (our pl. <span class="allsmcap">VIII</span>). This book is vol. <span class="allsmcap">XIII</span> of the fourteen
-volumes of the <i>Opera Omnia</i> of Aldrovanus, issued in 1602-1668.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1861</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Tylor, E. B.</span> Anahuac: or Mexico and the Mexicans, ancient and
-modern. London.</p>
-
-<p class="less">See pp. 110, 235, 337-339, I fig. Dr. Tylor illustrates the knife with handle
-in the figure on p. 101. In the appendix (pp. 337-339), article V is a “Description
-of three very rare specimens of ancient Mexican mosaic work (in the collection
-of Henry Christy, Esq.).” These objects are now in the British Museum.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1866</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Brasseur de Bourbourg, E.</span>, and <span class="smcap large">Waldeck, F.</span> Palenque et
-autres ruines de l’ancienne civilisation du Mexique. Collection de
-vues, bas-reliefs, morceaux d’architecture, coupes, vases, terre cuites,
-cartées et plans, dessinés d’après nature et relevés par M.
-de Waldeck. Texte rédigé par M. Brasseur de Bourbourg....
-Ouvrage publié sous les auspices de S. E. M. le Ministre de
-l’instruction publique. Paris. Arthur Bertrand, Editeur. Plates.
-Monuments anciens du Mexique.</p>
-
-<p class="less">Describes (p. <span class="allsmcap">VIII</span>) and illustrates in color (pl. <span class="allsmcap">XLIII</span>, <span class="allsmcap">XLIV</span>) the mosaic-handled
-knife and mosaic skull mask formerly in the Hertz collection, now in
-the British Museum.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1867</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Léouzon le Duc, L.</span> Rapport sur les antiquités mexicaines conservées
-à Copenhague. <i>Archives de la Commission Scientifique du
-Mexique</i>, Tome <span class="allsmcap">III.</span> Paris.</p>
-
-<p class="less">Two Mexican mosaics in the Copenhagen Museum are described (tome <span class="allsmcap">III</span>,
-pp. 157-158), as follows:</p>
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span></p>
-<p class="less">“Voici maintenant trois pièces qui, à mon avis, méritent une attention
-toute particulière.</p>
-
-<p class="less">“D’abord, une tête d’alligator, de 19 centimètres de longueur. Cette tête est
-sculptée en bois et creusée par derrière. La gueule de l’alligator est largement
-ouverte et ses mâchoires encadrent une tête humaine fixée au fond du palais.</p>
-
-<p class="less">“Ensuite, une tête d’idole, également sculptée en bois et évidée intérieurement,
-avec une coiffure très-élevée et évasée au sommet, d’une hauteur totale, y
-compris la tête, de 24 centimètres. La bouche de l’idole est vaste, ses lèvres
-fortement tendues découvrent une double rangée de longues dents; ses oreilles
-sont ornées de pendelogues.</p>
-
-<p class="less">“Ces deux pièces offrent cette singularité remarquable qu’elles sont garnies
-en partie, et ont dû l’avoir été en entier, de petits fragments d’os la plupart
-quadrangulaires, blanc ou teints en vert, en rouge et en noir, fixés sur le bois
-à l’aide d’une espèce de résine, ce qui leur donne l’aspect d’une mosaïque. Fort
-endommagées, elles n’ont guère conservé d’intacts que les yeux, dont les prunelles
-sont formées d’os blancs, noirs et rouges, et entourées d’un cordon d’os
-verts. L’état du bois qui les compose suffrirait à lui seul pour établir leur haute
-antiquité, si déjà leur caractère symbolique ne la rendait évidente. L’une et
-l’autre out été achetées à Rome, où l’on suppose qu’elles avaient été apportées de
-Mexico par un missionnaire.”</p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1869</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Squier, E. G.</span> Observations on a collection of chalchihuitls from
-Central America. <i>Annals of the New York Lyceum of Natural
-History</i>, vol. <span class="allsmcap">IX</span>, August, article <span class="allsmcap">XIV</span>, pp. 252-253, fig. I.</p>
-
-<p class="less">The mosaic skull in the British Museum is illustrated, after Waldeck.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1870</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Stevens, Edward T.</span> Flint chips. A guide to prehistoric archæology,
-as illustrated by the collection in the Blackmore Museum,
-Salisbury. London.</p>
-
-<p class="less">Aztec mosaic work, pp. 324-328. Describes specimens in the Christy collection.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1880</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Steinhauer, C. L.</span> Das Königliche Ethnographische Museum zu
-Copenhagen. Hand-catalog für die Besuchenden. Copenhagen.</p>
-
-<p class="less">Describes (p. 19) the two mosaics in the Copenhagen Museum. In the 1866
-edition the description is on p. 22.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1883</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Brocklehurst, Thomas Unett.</span> Mexico to-day: a country with
-a great future, and a glance at the prehistoric remains and antiquities
-of the Montezumas. London.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span></p>
-
-<p class="less">Describes (p. 184) and reproduces in colors (pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXXIII</span>) the human-skull
-mask in the British Museum. Pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXXIV</span> illustrates the goddess Coatlicue,
-showing the turquois-mosaic in colors&mdash;the specimen to which Peñafiel refers,
-vide 1903. See our pl. <span class="allsmcap">II</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1885</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Colini, G. A.</span> Collezioni etnografiche del Museo Borgiano. <i>Bollettino
-della Società Geografica Italiana</i>, Roma, Anno XIX, vol.
-<span class="allsmcap">XXII</span>; serie <span class="allsmcap">II</span>, vol. <span class="allsmcap">X</span>, pp. 316-325, 914-932.</p>
-
-<p class="less">In this article Colini (pp. 324-325) describes two masks and an idol in the
-Museo Borgiano in Rome. Regarding these specimens he quotes from Vitæ
-Synopsis Stephani Borgiæ, S. R. E. Cardinalis amplissimi, S. Congr. de Propaganda
-Fide Præfecti, Roma, 1805, p. 44, “Classis mexicana: multa lignea et
-testacea idolorum simulacra forma et figura singulari, ac gente mexicanæ
-propia.” He describes the idol as being made of wood in the form of a human
-figure, 45 cm. high. The two masks of wood are described, and figured on the
-plate containing drawings of other American antiquities. It is highly probable
-that these three objects were formerly decorated with mosaic.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Pigorini, Luigi.</span> Gli antichi oggetti Messicani incrostati di mosaico
-esistenti nel Museo Preistorico ed Ethnografico di Roma. <i>Reale
-Accademia dei Lincei</i>, Anno CCLXXXII, 1884-1885. 9 pp., I pl.
-with 5 colored figs.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Bastian, A.</span> Zwei altmexikanische Mosaiken. <i>Verhandlungen der
-Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie</i>, p. 201.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1888</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Bastian, A.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Uhle, Max</span>. Schädelmaske von Mexico und
-Analogien aus der Südsee. <i>Veröffentlichungen aus dem Königlichen
-Museum für Völkerkunde, Herausgegeben von der Verwaltung</i>,
-Berlin, Oct.</p>
-
-<p class="less">A description (pp. 2-3) and colored illustration (T. I., I) of the mosaic-skull
-mask in the Berlin Museum.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Andree, Richard.</span> Die altmexikanischen Mosaiken. <i>Beitrage zur
-Ethnographie von Amerika aus dem Internationalen Archiv für
-Ethnographie.</i> Leiden.</p>
-
-<p class="less">Brief notice (p. 8) of the specimen in Gotha.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1889</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Andree, Richard.</span> Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche.
-Neue Folge. Leipzig.</p>
-
-<p class="less">Description (pp. 127-130) of the mosaic specimen in Gotha.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span></p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1890</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Peñafiel, Antonio.</span> Monumentos del arte Mexicano antiguo.
-Berlin.</p>
-
-<p class="less">Description (Text, p. 23) and illustration in colors (Atlas, pl. 123) of the
-knife with mosaic handle in the British Museum.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Andree, Richard.</span> Sur une ancienne mosaique mexicaine. <i>Congrès
-International des Américanistes, Compte-rendu de la septième
-session</i>, Berlin, 1888. Berlin.</p>
-
-<p class="less">Describes the Gotha specimen (pp. 146-148).</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Heger, Franz.</span> Sur quelques objets archéologiques du Mexique et
-de l’Amérique du Sud. <i>Congrès International des Américanistes,
-Compte-rendu de la septième session</i>, Berlin, 1888, pp. 93-97.</p>
-
-<p class="less">The author describes (p. 94) one of the mosaic pieces in the Vienna Museum.
-In the discussion of this paper, Seler (p. 104) identifies the animal-like figure as
-representing the god Xolotl.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1892</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Pi y Margil, Francisco.</span> Historia de la América antecolombiana.
-Tomo primero, segunda parte. Barcelona.</p>
-
-<p class="less">Two colored illustrations (opposite p. 1214) of the mosaic-handled knife in
-the British Museum.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Heger, Franz.</span> Altmexikanische Reliquien aus dem Schlosse
-Ambras in Tirol. <i>Annalen des K. K. Naturhistorischen Hofmuseums</i>,
-B. <span class="allsmcap">VII</span>, Heft 4, pp. 310-400, pl. <span class="allsmcap">XVIII</span>, <span class="allsmcap">XXII</span>. Vienna.</p>
-
-<p class="less">In this paper Dr. Heger describes and illustrates the shield and animal head
-(three views) of turquois mosaic in the Vienna Museum.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1895</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Read, Charles Hercules.</span> On an ancient Mexican head-piece
-coated with mosaic. <i>Archæologia</i>, vol. <span class="allsmcap">LIV</span>, 16 pp., pl. <span class="allsmcap">XXVIII</span>,
-fig. 1-6, London.</p>
-
-<p class="less">Gives in colors and describes for the first time the mosaic head-piece, and
-illustrates all but one of the eight other pieces, in the British Museum.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1896</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Oppel, A.</span> Die altmexikanischen Mosaiken. <i>Globus</i>, Bd. <span class="allsmcap">LXX</span>,
-Nr. 1 (June), pp. 4-12, 15 fig., Braunschweig.</p>
-
-<p class="less">Figures seven mosaic pieces in the British Museum, five pieces in Rome,
-one piece in Berlin, a piece in Gotha, and a section of the shield in Vienna.</p>
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span></p>
-
-<p class="c b">1903</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Peñafiel, Antonio.</span> Indumentaria Antigua Mexicana. Vestidos
-Guerreros y Civiles de los Mexicanos. Mexico.</p>
-
-<p class="less">Dr. Peñafiel, in chapter <span class="allsmcap">XXIII</span>, under the heading “Incrustaciones de Mosaico,”
-describes some of the mosaic pieces in Europe which he states are the most
-important specimens. “Of this class of works the Museo Nacional (Mexico)
-can count as having only one, in the statue of Coatlicue coming from Tehuacan.”
-On pl. 26 are given the British Museum knife, and the two knife-handles
-in Rome; on pl. 117 one of the masks in Rome; on pl. 118(A) the skull mask in
-Berlin, and (B) the mask in Rome; pl. 123 is the femur musical instrument in
-Rome; and pl. 168 restorations of the knife-handle specimens with blades, in
-Rome. These illustrations are all in colors, excepting the last.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1906</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Bushnell, David I.</span>, Jr. North American ethnographical material
-in Italian museums. <i>American Anthropologist</i>, <span class="allsmcap">N. S.</span>, vol. <span class="allsmcap">VIII</span>,
-Lancaster, Pa.</p>
-
-<p class="less">On pp. 245-246 the author briefly describes the five mosaic pieces in Rome,
-and regarding one of the masks (our pl. <span class="allsmcap">VII</span>, <i>a</i>) quotes from the inventory of
-the Guardaroba Medicea, 1553, showing the specimen to have been in the
-Medici collection.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Lehmann, Walter.</span> Altmexikanische Mosaiken und die Geschenke
-König Motecuzomas und Cortés. <i>Globus</i>, Bd. XV, Nr. 20, pp.
-318-322, Braunschweig, 29 Nov.</p>
-
-<p class="less">In this study Lehmann enumerates the twenty-three Mexican mosaic pieces
-in European museums and gives considerable documentary material from the
-early chroniclers.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1907</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Kunz, George Frederick.</span> Gems and precious stones of Mexico.
-Mexico.</p>
-
-<p class="less">On pp. 7-10, Dr. Kunz discusses turquois and describes some of the turquois
-mosaic specimens in European museums. On p. 52 he concludes that “it
-must be considered as possible, at least, that other localities containing turquois
-were once known, and may be hereafter re-discovered.”</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Lehmann, Walter.</span> Altmexikanische Mosaiken in Kgl. Museum
-für Völkerkunde zu Berlin. <i>Congrès International des Américanistes,
-XVᵉ Session, tenue à Quebec en 1906</i>, tome <span class="allsmcap">II</span>, pp. 339-349, 4
-fig., Quebec.</p>
-
-<p class="less">Describes and illustrates two pieces of Mexican mosaics in the Ethnographical
-Museum of Berlin, a double-jaguar figure, and a jaguar head. The first came<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span>
-from the estate of Alexander von Humboldt, the second was transferred to the
-Berlin Museum from the Ducal Museum of Braunschweig.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Lehmann, Walter.</span> Die altmexikanischen Mosaiken des Ethnographischen
-Museums in Kopenhagen. <i>Globus</i>, Bd. XCI, Nr.
-21, pp. 332-335, 6 June, 1907. Abb. I-III.</p>
-
-<p class="less">The author describes and figures the two pieces in Copenhagen, giving front
-and side views, and two different drawings of one of the masks in Rome.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1908</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Díaz del Castillo, Bernal.</span> (Maudslay, A. P., translator and
-editor.) The true history of the conquest of New Spain. Edition
-of the Hakluyt Society, vol. I, London.</p>
-
-<p class="less">Under the title “Montezuma’s Gifts to Cortés,” Maudslay describes (Appendix,
-pp. 299-302) and illustrates (pl. 13-16) the three mosaic masks in the
-British Museum. Pl. 16 is a rear view of the skull mask showing the leather
-strap by which it was attached to the head. This mask Maudslay identifies as
-probably that of Tezcatlipoca, and the other two as belonging to Quetzalcoatl.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1910</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Gamio, Manuel.</span> Los monumentos arqueológicos de las inmediaciones
-de Chalchihuites, Zacatecas. <i>Anales del Museo Nacional de
-Arqueología, Historia y Etnología</i>, tome <span class="allsmcap">II</span>, pp. 469-492, pls. 1-8,
-Mexico.</p>
-
-<p class="less">On pl. 8 are figured two pieces of mosaic-work found in the ruins near Chalchihuites.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Blackiston, A. Hooton.</span> Recent discoveries in Honduras. <i>American
-Anthropologist</i>, <span class="allsmcap">N. S.</span>, vol. 12, Lancaster, Pa.</p>
-
-<p class="less">Describes (p. 539) and illustrates (pl. <span class="allsmcap">XLVI</span>) the mosaic wooden mask found
-in 1908 in a cave in an arroyo on the headwaters of a small stream flowing into
-the Rio Chamelecon, about 25 miles distant from the ruins of the ancient city
-of Naco. This specimen is now in the Museum of the American Indian, Heye
-Foundation. See our pl. <span class="allsmcap">XVII</span>.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1912</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Joyce, T. A.</span> A short guide to the American antiquities in the
-British Museum. London.</p>
-
-<p class="less">Joyce describes (p. 14) and illustrates (figs. 12-17) six of the mosaic pieces in
-the British Museum.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span></p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1914</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Joyce, T. A.</span> Mexican archæology. An introduction to the archæology
-of the Mexican and Mayan civilizations of pre-Spanish
-America. New York and London.</p>
-
-<p class="less">In pl. I is reproduced in colors the skull mask, and in pl. <span class="allsmcap">XVIII</span>, fig. 1, the
-knife with handle. Reference to these is made on p. 141.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Holmes, W. H.</span> Masterpieces of aboriginal American art. II.
-Mosaic work, minor examples. <i>Art and Archæology</i>, vol. I, no. 3,
-Washington, November.</p>
-
-<p class="less">A description (pp. 91-102) of some of the more important specimens of
-mosaics, with colored frontispiece and 9 figures.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1915</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Pogue, Joseph E.</span> The turquoise. A study of its history, mineralogy,
-geology, ethnology, archæology, mythology, folklore, and
-technology. <i>Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences</i>, vol.
-<span class="allsmcap">XII</span>, part <span class="allsmcap">II</span>, third memoir, Washington.</p>
-
-<p class="less">Mexican mosaics are described on pp. 93-97; fig. 4 illustrates the bird mask
-in Gotha; pl. 15-17, Mexican mosaics in the British Museum and in Rome
-(10 pieces). The Use of Turquois in Mexico and Central America: Use as
-Attested by Historical Evidence, pp. 90-92; Use as Attested by Objects, pp.
-93-97.</p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1921</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Arreola, José María.</span> Como legítima el Museo Nacional ha
-adquirido una pieza falsificada. <i>El Excelsior</i>, Mexico, Oct. 20.</p>
-
-<p class="less">Illustrates in this signed newspaper article a stone mask with turquois
-mosaic decoration said to have been found in Guerrero. He concludes that it
-is fraudulent.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Lehmann, Walter.</span> Altmexikanische Kunstgeschichte ein Entwurf
-in Umrissen. Band 8 des Orbis Pictus. Weltkunst-Bücherei
-herausgegeben von Paul Westheim. Berlin.</p>
-
-<p class="less">In this short study of old Mexican art history Dr. Lehmann illustrates a
-number of notable Mexican antiquities. The Xolotl figure in Vienna is illustrated,
-front and side views, pl. 7, and the crouching animal figure in the
-British Museum is given on pl. 8. He gives brief descriptions in the description
-of plates on pp. 22-23.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span></p>
-
-
-<p class="c b">1922</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Gamio, Manuel.</span> Una máscara de mosaico falsificada. [A counterfeit
-mosaic mask.] <i>Ethnos</i>, tomo <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, núms. 8-12, pp. 260-264,
-Mexico, Nov. 1920-Mar. 1921.</p>
-
-<p class="less">Gamio denounces as fraudulent the stone mosaic mask claimed to have been
-discovered in Guerrero by Porfirio Aguirre.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap large">Mena, Ramon.</span> La arqueología debe de estar en manos de arqueológicos.
-<i>El Universal</i>, Mexico, April 2.</p>
-
-<p class="less">In this signed newspaper article Mena defends the authenticity of the stone
-mask decorated with turquois mosaic, said to have been found in Guerrero.</p>
-
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