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+The Project Gutenberg eBook of Turquois mosaic art in ancient
+Mexico, by Marshall H. Saville
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
+will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
+using this eBook.
+
+Title: Turquois mosaic art in ancient Mexico
+
+Author: Marshall H. Saville
+
+Release Date: December 27, 2021 [eBook #67027]
+
+Language: English
+
+Produced by: Alan Thompson and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+             at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+             generously made available by The Internet Archive)
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART IN
+ANCIENT MEXICO ***
+
+
+
+
+
+                             CONTRIBUTIONS
+                               FROM THE
+                     MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN
+                            HEYE FOUNDATION
+                               VOLUME VI
+
+
+
+
+                          TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART
+                           IN ANCIENT MEXICO
+
+
+[Illustration: PL. I
+
+SHIELD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
+
+
+
+
+                          TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART
+                           IN ANCIENT MEXICO
+
+                                  BY
+                          MARSHALL H. SAVILLE
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+                               NEW YORK
+                     MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN
+                            HEYE FOUNDATION
+                                 1922
+
+
+
+
+                CONDÉ NAST PRESS      GREENWICH, CONN.
+
+
+
+
+                                  TO
+                          GEORGE GUSTAV HEYE
+
+        _In appreciation of his long-continued interest in all
+         that pertains to the study of the aboriginal race of
+      America, which has reached fruition in the opening of the_
+
+                     MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN
+
+                            HEYE FOUNDATION
+
+            _this volume is dedicated by the author and the
+                         staff of the Museum_
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The writer has undertaken the present study of Mexican Turquois Mosaics
+in honor of the approaching opening to the public of the Museum of
+the American Indian, Heye Foundation, the only institution devoted
+exclusively to the study of the aboriginal American peoples ever
+established; and the proximate International Congress of Americanists
+to be held at Rio de Janeiro this summer. Owing to lack of time it has
+been impossible to obtain new photographic illustrations of all the
+specimens of mosaic-work in European museums, but the author desires to
+express his thanks to T. A. Joyce, Esq., for his courtesy in furnishing
+photographs of the examples in the British Museum. To Dr. Franz
+Heger, of the State Natural History Museum, Vienna, we are under deep
+obligations for photographs and description of the interesting Xolotl
+figure preserved in that Museum. Dr. S. K. Lothrop has kindly had
+photographs made of the objects of this class in the Prehistoric and
+Ethnographic Museum in Rome, and has made certain valuable observations
+concerning them. To Drs. A. M. Tozzer and H. J. Spinden special
+acknowledgment is due for their generous permission to illustrate the
+mosaics from Chichen Itza, thus anticipating their own description of
+the objects in the work now being prepared regarding one of the most
+important discoveries ever made in ancient America. The fine drawings
+are from the pen of William Baake, and the beautiful plates represent
+the best efforts of the Heliotype Company. Finally must be acknowledged
+the characteristic generosity of one of the trustees of the Museum,
+James B. Ford, Esq., who has made it possible for us to publish this
+paper, and to whom the Museum is indebted for its acquisition of the
+precious collection of Mexican mosaics which are now described for the
+first time.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                     PAGE
+
+  PREFACE                                              ix
+
+  INTRODUCTION                                          1
+
+  EARLIEST HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF TURQUOIS MOSAIC
+  IN MEXICO                                             3
+
+    The Grijalva Expedition, 1518                       3
+
+    Loot obtained by Cortés, 1519-1525                  8
+
+  TRIBUTE OF MOSAIC PAID TO THE AZTEC RULERS           22
+
+  SOURCE OF TURQUOIS                                   27
+
+  THE AZTEC LAPIDARIES AND THEIR WORK                  29
+
+  OBJECTS DECORATED WITH MOSAIC                        40
+
+  EXISTING SPECIMENS OF MOSAIC                         47
+
+    Minor Examples                                     48
+
+    Chichen Itza Specimens                             55
+
+    Major Examples                                     59
+
+      Helmet                                           60
+
+      Masks                                            60
+
+      Skull Masks                                      67
+
+      Shields                                          68
+
+      Ear-plug                                         79
+
+      Animal Figures                                   80
+
+      God Figure                                       82
+
+      Knife Handles                                    82
+
+      Human Femur Musical Instrument                   84
+
+  CONCLUSION                                           86
+
+  NOTES                                                92
+
+  LIST OF WORKS DESCRIBING MEXICAN MOSAICS            103
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+           PLATES
+
+                                                                   PAGE
+
+        I. Wooden shield with turquois mosaic decoration
+           Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
+           New York                                      _Frontispiece_
+
+       II. Stone idol with mosaic decoration  National Museum,
+           Mexico                                                    22
+
+      III. _a_, Wooden staff with turquois mosaic decoration,
+           from Sacred cenote, ruins of Chichen Itza,
+           Yucatan  Peabody Museum, Cambridge
+
+           _b_, Wooden rattle with turquois mosaic decoration,
+           from Sacred cenote, ruins of Chichen Itza, Yucatan
+           Peabody Museum, Cambridge                                 22
+
+       IV. Wooden helmet with mosaic decoration  British
+           Museum, London                                            24
+
+        V. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration
+           British Museum, London                                    26
+
+       VI. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration
+           British Museum, London                                    28
+
+      VII. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration
+           Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome                 30
+
+     VIII. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration
+           Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome                 32
+
+       IX. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration
+           Museum of the American Indian, Heye
+           Foundation, New York                                      34
+
+        X. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration
+           Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
+           New York                                                  36
+
+       XI. Wooden mask (fragment) with turquois mosaic
+           decoration  Museum of the American Indian,
+           Heye Foundation, New York                                 38
+
+      XII. Wooden mask (fragment) with turquois mosaic
+           decoration  Museum of the American Indian,
+           Heye Foundation, New York                                 40
+
+     XIII. Wooden mask with mosaic decoration  Museum
+           of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
+           New York                                                  42
+
+      XIV. Wooden mask with mosaic decoration  Museum
+           of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
+           New York                                                  44
+
+       XV. Wooden mask (fragment) with mosaic decoration
+           Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
+           New York                                                  46
+
+      XVI. Wooden mask formerly covered with mosaic decoration
+           Museum of the American Indian,
+           Heye Foundation, New York                                 48
+
+     XVII. Wooden mask with turquois mosaic decoration,
+           from Honduras  Museum of the American
+           Indian, Heye Foundation, New York                         50
+
+    XVIII. Skull mask with mosaic decoration  Ethnographical
+           Museum, Berlin                                            52
+
+      XIX. Skull mask with mosaic decoration  British Museum,
+           London                                                    54
+
+       XX. Wooden shield with turquois mosaic decoration
+           British Museum, London                                    56
+
+      XXI. Wooden shield with turquois mosaic decoration
+           State Natural History Museum, Vienna                      58
+
+     XXII. Back of wooden shield illustrated in Pl. I. Museum
+            of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
+            New York                                                 60
+
+    XXIII. Wooden shield with mosaic decoration. Museum
+           of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
+           New York                                                  62
+
+     XXIV. Wooden shield with mosaic decoration. Museum
+           of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
+           New York                                                  64
+
+      XXV. Wooden shield (fragment) with mosaic decoration.
+           Museum of the American Indian, Heye
+           Foundation, New York                                      66
+
+     XXVI. Wooden shield (fragment) with mosaic decoration.
+           Museum of the American Indian, Heye
+           Foundation, New York                                      68
+
+    XXVII. Wooden shield (fragment) with mosaic decoration.
+           Museum of the American Indian, Heye
+           Foundation, New York                                      70
+
+   XXVIII. Wooden shield (fragment) with mosaic decoration.
+           Museum of the American Indian, Heye
+           Foundation, New York                                      72
+
+     XXIX. Wooden shield (fragment) with mosaic decoration.
+           Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
+           New York                                                  74
+
+      XXX. Wooden ear-plug with mosaic decoration. Museum
+           of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
+           New York                                                  76
+
+     XXXI. Wooden head with head-piece, with mosaic decoration.
+           National Museum, Copenhagen                               78
+
+    XXXII. _a_, Wooden jaguar head with mosaic decoration.
+           Ethnographical Museum, Berlin
+
+           _b_, Wooden head of animal and human face in
+           jaws with mosaic decoration. National Museum,
+           Copenhagen                                                78
+
+   XXXIII. _a_, Wooden head of animal with mosaic decoration.
+           State Natural History Museum, Vienna
+
+           _b_, Wooden head of monkey with mosaic decoration.
+           British Museum, London                                    78
+
+    XXXIV. _a_, Wooden two-headed jaguar figure with mosaic
+           decoration. Ethnographical Museum, Berlin
+
+           _b_, Wooden bird’s head with mosaic decoration.
+           Museum, Gotha                                             78
+
+     XXXV. Wooden animal figure on haunches with mosaic
+           decoration. British Museum, London                        78
+
+    XXXVI. Wooden double-headed snake figure with mosaic
+           decoration. British Museum, London                        80
+
+   XXXVII. Wooden figure of Xolotl god with mosaic decoration.
+           State Natural History Museum, Vienna                      80
+
+  XXXVIII. Flint knife with wooden handle with mosaic decoration.
+           British Museum, London                                    82
+
+    XXXIX. _a_, Wooden knife handle with mosaic decoration.
+           Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome
+
+           _b_, Wooden knife handle with mosaic decoration.
+           Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome                 82
+
+       XL. Human femur musical instrument with mosaic
+           decoration. Prehistoric and Ethnographic
+           Museum, Rome                                              84
+
+
+      TEXT FIGURES
+
+   1. Bowl filled with turquois. After Tribute Roll of Montezuma     24
+
+   2. Ten masks of turquois. After Tribute Roll of Montezuma         24
+
+   3. Small bag filled with turquois. After Tribute Roll of
+      Montezuma                                                      25
+
+   4. Shields with turquois mosaic decoration. After Tribute
+      Roll of Montezuma                                              25
+
+   5. Serpent scepter with turquois mosaic decoration. After
+      Sahagun, manuscript of the Real Palacio, Madrid                43
+
+   6. _a_, Gold crown with turquois mosaic decoration. After
+      Sahagun, manuscript of the Real Palacio, Madrid
+
+      _b_, Gold crown. After Tribute Roll of Montezuma               45
+
+   7. Pottery disc with hematite mosaic decoration, from
+      Cuilapa, Oaxaca. American Museum of Natural History,
+      New York                                                       51
+
+   8. Gold shield breast ornament with turquois mosaic decoration,
+      from Yanhuitlan, Oaxaca. National Museum,
+      Mexico                                                         52
+
+   9. Wooden object (fragment) with turquois mosaic decoration,
+      from Sacred cenote, ruins of Chichen Itza, Yucatan.
+      Peabody Museum, Cambridge                                      57
+
+  10. Wooden object (fragment) with turquois mosaic decoration,
+      from Sacred cenote, ruins of Chichen Itza,
+      Yucatan. Peabody Museum, Cambridge                             57
+
+  11. Rattle of the god Xipe Totec. After Sahagun, manuscript
+      of the Real Palacio, Madrid                                    58
+
+  12. _a_, _b_, _c_, Crowns with mosaic decoration, from sculptured
+      wall, Temple of the Jaguars, ruins of Chichen
+      Itza, Yucatan. After Maudslay                                  58
+
+  13. Mask with mosaic decoration, from sculptured wall,
+      Temple of the Jaguars, ruins of Chichen Itza, Yucatan.
+      After Maudslay                                                 59
+
+  14. Mask with mosaic decoration, from sculptured wall,
+      Temple of the Jaguars, ruins of Chichen Itza, Yucatan.
+      After Maudslay                                                 59
+
+  15. Mask of wood with turquois mosaic decoration. Prehistoric
+      and Ethnographic Museum, Rome. After
+      Pigorini                                                       63
+
+  16. God Paynal with shield decorated with turquois mosaic.
+      After Sahagun, manuscript of the Real Palacio, Madrid          70
+
+  17. God Paynal with shield decorated with turquois mosaic.
+      After Sahagun, Florentine manuscript                           70
+
+  18. Glyphs of the town of Culhuacan. After Codex Telleriano
+      Remensis                                                       74
+
+  19. Knife handle of wood with turquois mosaic decoration.
+      Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome. After
+      Pigorini                                                       83
+
+
+
+
+TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART IN ANCIENT MEXICO
+
+BY MARSHALL H. SAVILLE
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+One of the tragedies of the discovery of the New World was the abrupt
+and summary blotting out of the flourishing and still advancing
+civilization of the Aztec and other Mexican tribes. Had their complete
+conquest and subjection been delayed a few decades they in all
+probability would have developed a written phonetic language. Their
+intellectual abilities are evidenced by a study of the intricate
+calendar system, and the picture and hieroglyphic records which
+survive. The triumphs of their architectural attainments are well
+known, and may be investigated in the numerous monuments and buildings
+in the ruined cities scattered throughout Mexico. They had made notable
+strides toward civilization in certain of the minor fine arts. Ignorant
+of glass and of glazed pottery, they nevertheless developed the
+ceramic art to a high degree of excellence. Their inventive genius and
+technical skill were manifest in their goldsmith’s art.[1]
+
+Without the knowledge of iron, in the working of hard precious
+and semi-precious stones into idols and personal ornaments, their
+craftsmanship was equal to that of the best lapidaries of Europe at
+the beginning of the sixteenth century. In the lapidarian art they had
+advanced so far as to fashion and adorn many objects with designs, both
+geometric and realistic, in stone mosaic, employing turquois chiefly
+for this purpose, but also making use of other stones--marcasite and
+shell. But the supreme esthetic achievement of the Aztecs was the
+production of a class of mosaics in which they used tiny bits of
+colored feathers instead of stones in making the designs. This unique
+art was employed in adorning objects for personal use, for warfare, or
+for priestly ceremonies. The patterns were produced by applying the
+tiny bits of feathers with glue either directly on wood or on wooden
+objects covered with skin or with native paper. From descriptions of
+feather mosaics in the writings of early chroniclers, and from a study
+of the handful of specimens which have escaped the ravages of time, it
+is evident that this art reached the highest artistic level attained by
+any of the aboriginal tribes of America.
+
+We will not enter into a discussion of feather mosaics at this time,
+but will consider primarily the parallel art of turquois mosaic. Aside
+from the numerous historical notices contained in the early chronicles
+and in the inventories of the loot of the Aztecs sent to Europe by
+Cortés, there is little of this art upon which to base a careful
+study that has survived. It is one of the most interesting and highly
+developed arts of ancient America, but it was practised by only a
+few tribes. Apart from the Mexican region where turquois mosaic was
+most highly developed, excellent examples have been found with other
+ancient remains of the Pueblos of Arizona and New Mexico, and incrusted
+objects have also been found with ancient burials on the coast of
+Peru, indicating a somewhat similar technique though far less skill in
+application. The materials usually employed in Mexico were turquois,
+jadeite, malachite, quartz, beryl, garnet, obsidian, marcasite, gold,
+bits of red and other colored shell, and nacre. The base upon which
+the incrustation was laid was wood, stone, gold, shell, pottery, and
+possibly leather and native paper, the mosaic being held in place by
+means of a tenacious vegetal pitch or gum, or a kind of cement.
+
+
+
+
+EARLIEST HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF TURQUOIS MOSAIC IN MEXICO
+
+THE GRIJALVA EXPEDITION, 1518
+
+
+The first knowledge received by Europeans of the existence of turquois
+mosaic objects among the Mexicans was by members of the expedition sent
+out from Cuba by the governor, Diego Velásquez, during the spring of
+1518, under the command of Juan de Grijalva. After reaching the shores
+of Yucatan near the island of Cozumel, the party coasted the Yucatan
+peninsula, reaching the territory of the present State of Campeche,
+which had been discovered the previous year by Francisco Hernández de
+Córdoba. Proceeding westward along unknown lands, they reached a great
+river in the State of Tabasco, to which the name of the commandant was
+given, and it is still known as Rio de Grijalva. Here, according to
+some accounts, the expedition obtained the first specimens of turquois
+mosaic. We shall consider this point later. Leaving the Rio de Grijalva
+they went westward and arrived at the site of the present city of Vera
+Cruz, where they obtained by barter with the Indians a considerable
+treasure, including some objects of turquois mosaic, which Grijalva
+decided to send immediately to the governor in Cuba with a report of
+his discoveries up to that time. Consequently, on June 24, 1518, one of
+Grijalva’s captains, Pedro de Alvarado, set out on the return voyage to
+Fernandina (Cuba), while Grijalva himself continued the exploration of
+the eastern coast of Mexico.
+
+The provenience of the treasure obtained by Grijalva on this first
+expedition of discovery to the coasts of Tabasco and Vera Cruz in 1518
+is not at all clear from the accounts of this voyage in the writings
+both of the eye-witnesses themselves and of those who shortly afterward
+wrote of the conquest from the reports of the participants in the
+events. It has been generally assumed that Grijalva obtained mosaic
+objects from the Indians of Tabasco; this is specifically stated
+by both Oviedo and Gomara, who recorded detailed accounts of the
+Grijalva expedition. The account by Oviedo[2] is even more extended
+and valuable than the narrations of the eye-witnesses, namely, Juan
+Díaz[3] the chaplain, and the redoubtable Bernal Díaz. Oviedo states
+that his account is from the report forwarded to the King of Spain by
+the governor Velásquez, who sent out the expedition from Cuba. Gomara,
+who for a time was chaplain of Cortés in Spain, never visited the New
+World, but had access to the various reports sent to Spain regarding
+the conquest.
+
+Unfortunately in the writings of the eye-witnesses no detailed
+descriptive lists are to be found relating just what pieces of
+mosaic-work were obtained by Grijalva from the Mayan Indians of Tabasco
+and the people of the coast of the present State of Vera Cruz. The
+extended account given by Oviedo recites the voyage from day to day and
+the character of various objects received from the Tabasco Indians,
+followed by the list of specimens obtained from the Mexican Indians
+near the Isla de Sacrificios, Vera Cruz. We will quote from these
+lists later. Gomara’s list is quite extended. In the first part of
+his _Historia de las Indias_ he describes various articles procured
+by Grijalva from the Indians at the mouth of the river in Tabasco,
+to which his name was applied, followed in turn by the inventory of
+objects obtained at San Juan de Ulua, Vera Cruz. In the second part of
+his history, the _Conquista de Mexico_, he gives only a single long
+inventory of the barter obtained, as he says, “from the Indians of
+Potonchan [Tabasco], San Juan de Ulua, and other places of that coast.”
+It seems highly probable, however, that such interesting and valuable
+loot must have been accompanied with an inventory when it was sent
+to Spain late in 1518 or early in 1519 by Governor Velásquez. Oviedo
+mentions seeing the things, apparently in Barcelona, in May 1519. It
+is possible that both Oviedo and Gomara may have had access to such an
+inventory, or if not, they wrote their own descriptions of the objects
+after seeing them.
+
+Bernal Díaz, who accompanied both Grijalva and Cortés to Mexico,
+wrote his history nearly fifty years after the stirring events of the
+discovery and conquest. He was a prejudiced writer, and seems to have
+been largely animated in his old age to tell the story of the conquest
+primarily to refute many of the statements of Gomara. Bernal Díaz
+writes bluntly at the very outset of his invaluable history, which he
+calls the “True History,” that he speaks “here in reply to all that
+has been said and written by persons who themselves knowing nothing,
+have received no true account from others of what really took place,
+but who nevertheless now put forward any statements that happen to suit
+their fancy.” While not describing the treasure obtained by Grijalva,
+he mentions “some gold jewels some (of which) were diadems and others
+were in the shape of ducks like those of Castile, and other jewels like
+lizards, and three necklaces of hollow beads, and other articles of
+gold not of much value, for they were not worth more than two hundred
+pesos.”[4] These he states were obtained from the Indians of Potonchan.
+For some reason he apparently was not greatly impressed either by the
+technical excellence or by the esthetic beauty of the objects procured
+by barter from the vicinity of the present city of Vera Cruz; he simply
+writes that the Spaniards were engaged for six days in trading with the
+Indians and got more than sixteen thousand dollars’ worth of jewelry of
+low-grade gold worked into various forms. He then says: “This must be
+the gold which the historians Gomara, Yllescas, and Jovio say was given
+by the natives of Tabasco, and they have written it down as though it
+were true, although it is well known to eye-witnesses that there is no
+gold in the province of the Rio de Grijalva or anywhere near it, and
+very few jewels.”[5] Torquemada wrote in later years to the same effect.
+
+In none of the accounts by the participants of this expedition are
+mosaic pieces specifically mentioned. The chaplain of Grijalva’s
+fleet, Juan Díaz, states merely that they were given “a mask of gold
+beautifully wrought, and a little figure of a man with a little mask of
+gold, and a crown of gold beads with other jewels and stone of various
+colors.” This report was first printed in Venice, March 3, 1520,
+appearing in Italian as an appendix to the _Itinerario_ of Ludovico de
+Varthema.
+
+An anonymous independent relation in Italian of this voyage seems to
+have been printed at Venice in the same year under the title _Littera
+Mãdata della Insula de Cuba_, etc., the copy in the Marciana Library,
+Venice, being the only one known. From a photostat copy of the Italian
+we are able to present a translation of the mention of these objects,
+somewhat similar to that given by Juan Díaz. The _Littera Mãdata_
+states that the Spaniards obtained “a mask of gold, and the figure of a
+man all of gold, seemingly of the age of twelve, and a fan of gold, and
+other jewels of divers colors.”[6]
+
+Another anonymous early printed report, in Latin, without date or place
+of printing, affords practically the same information as that contained
+in the _Itinerario_ of Juan Díaz and in the _Littera Mãdata_.[7]
+
+The earliest printed information regarding the Grijalva voyage in which
+mosaic objects are specifically noted is in Peter Martyr’s _De Nvper
+Sub D. Carolo Repertis Insulis_, printed in Basle in 1521. In speaking
+of the valuable objects obtained by Grijalva in Coluacan (Vera Cruz),
+and sent to Spain, he mentions that “the cacique brought a small golden
+statue of a man, also a gold fan, and a mask beautifully wrought and
+decorated with stones.”[8] It will be observed that these objects
+correspond with those mentioned in the reports noted above, only that
+Peter Martyr speaks of the decoration of the mask with stones. With the
+exception of this note by Peter Martyr, who saw the objects in Spain,
+there is, as we have said, no special statement regarding mosaic-work
+to be found in the earliest known printed accounts of the Grijalva
+voyage. In 1535 the great work of Oviedo was first published, and here
+we find the following itemized description of pieces of mosaic-work,
+said to have been obtained from the Indians of Potonchan, Tabasco.[9]
+
+ Another mask covered from the nostrils upward with well set
+ mosaic-work of stones resembling turquoises, and from the nostrils
+ downward with a thin plate of hammered gold.
+
+ Another mask resembling the first, but the stones were placed from the
+ eyes upward, and below them there were thin plates of beaten gold over
+ wood, the ears being of turquois mosaic-work.
+
+ Another mask made with bands or rods of wood, two of the strips being
+ covered with mosaic-work, and the remaining other three with thin
+ beaten gold.
+
+ A thin disc with a figure of a cemi or devil, covered above with
+ beaten gold-leaf, and in other parts were scattered some stones.
+
+ A tablet of wood like the headstall of a horse in armor, covered over
+ with thin gold-leaf, with some strips of black stones well set between
+ the gold.
+
+ The head of a dog covered with stones, and very well made.
+
+From Ulua in Vera Cruz these mosaic pieces are noted:
+
+ Two masks of small stones like turquois set over wood like mosaic,
+ with some spangles of gold in the ears.
+
+ Two guariques of blue stones set in gold, each having eight pendants
+ of the same.
+
+ A mask of stone mosaic-work.
+
+In the work of Gomara, printed in 1553, appears also an extended
+account of this barter.[10]
+
+Seler[11] and Lehmann[12] believe that most of the mosaic objects
+“apparently came from the eastern provinces, i.e., Tabasco.”
+Relying on the authority of both Oviedo and Gomara, Lehmann further
+uses in his discussion the original Nahuatl text of Sahagun in
+the Florentine manuscript copied and translated by Seler. In this
+section of Sahagun’s work relating to the attributes of the Mexican
+deities occurs the paragraph, “_In jtlatquj Quetzalcoatl coa-xaiacatl
+xiuhticatl achivalli, quetzalapanecaiotl_,” which Lehmann renders, “The
+Quetzalcoatl dress, the snake-mask with turquois work, the feather
+ornament of the people of Quetzalapan (Tabasco).”[13] But there
+is no mention in early chronicles or on early maps of any town _in
+this region_ bearing the name Quetzalapan, and Torquemada in giving
+an account of some of the wars of Montezuma writes that “during the
+twelfth year of his reign (which was in 1514), his armies set out for
+the land of the Chichimecas, and entered the Huaxteca, subduing those
+of Quetzalapan.”[14] Other places bearing the name Quetzalapan were in
+the present states of Morelos, Guerrero, and Colima.[15] In recounting
+the episode of the conquest of this town, Clavijero writes explicitly
+that “Montezuma sent out an army in 1512 to the north against the
+Quetzalapanecas and conquered them with but little loss.”[16] Hence
+the place mentioned by Sahagun would seem to have been in Vera Cruz,
+and probably the region of Huaxteca or Cuexteca, for the Aztecs had
+considerable communication with this territory.
+
+
+LOOT OBTAINED BY CORTÉS, 1519-1525
+
+But the treasures of native art secured by the Grijalva expedition were
+insignificant by comparison with the enormously valuable loot obtained
+the next year (1519) by Cortés. It is not necessary in this study of
+Mexican mosaics to enter into the details of the expedition which set
+out from Cuba to follow the discoveries of Grijalva and which resulted
+in the conquest of Mexico. This has been done many times, but in the
+main most weight is given to the writings of the Spanish participants
+and to the early chroniclers. We have already studied in considerable
+detail the accounts of the art objects sent to Spain by Cortés, as
+contained in these early writings, and especially the inventories which
+accompanied the shipments of objects sent to Europe by the conqueror.
+Let us quote here merely what we wrote in presenting a summary of the
+events that occurred when Cortés first landed on the coast of Vera Cruz.
+
+ After the arrival of the Spaniards on the coast of Vera Cruz, the
+ Indians were not long in ignorance of the consuming thirst of the
+ conquerors for gold. In order to placate the formidable strangers
+ with childlike confidence that by giving them their wish the invasion
+ of his dominions would be averted, Montezuma sent rich presents to
+ Cortés through Tendile (Teuhtlile), governor of Cuetlaxtla (the
+ modern Cotastla), which was then subject to the Aztecs. When all this
+ treasure thus brought together was ready to be sent to Spain, with the
+ report of the voyage, an inventory or list of the objects was drawn
+ up and despatched with two special messengers, Alonso Portocarrero
+ and Francisco de Montejo, who were charged to deliver the treasure to
+ the King. These valuable gifts have been briefly described by several
+ members of the expedition who saw them before they left Mexico,
+ and on their receipt in Spain they were described by various other
+ chroniclers.
+
+From the inventory, which we translated, we select the items relating
+to objects ornamented with stone mosaic.
+
+ Item: two collars of gold and stone mosaic-work (precious stones)....
+
+ Another item: a box of a large piece of feather-work lined with
+ leather, the colors seeming like martens, and fastened and placed in
+ the said piece, and in the center (is) a large disc of gold, which
+ weighed sixty ounces of gold, and a piece of blue stone mosaic-work a
+ little reddish, and at the end of the piece another piece of colored
+ feather-work that hangs from it.
+
+ Item: a miter of blue stone mosaic-work with the figure of monsters in
+ the center of it, and lined with leather which seems in its colors to
+ be that of martens, with a small (piece) of feather-work which is, as
+ the one mentioned above, of this said miter.
+
+ Item: ... a scepter of stone mosaic-work with two rings of gold, and
+ the rest of feather-work.
+
+ Item: an armlet of stone mosaic-work....
+
+ Item: a mirror placed in a piece of blue and red stone mosaic-work,
+ with feather-work stuck to it, and two strips of leather stuck to
+ it....
+
+ Item: some leggings of blue stone mosaic-work, lined with leather, of
+ which the colors seem like martens; on each one of them (there are)
+ fifteen gold bells.
+
+ Item: two colored (pieces of) feather-work which are for two (pieces
+ of) head armor of stone mosaic-work....
+
+ More: two guariques (ear ornaments) of blue stone mosaic-work, which
+ are to be put in the head of the big crocodile.
+
+ More: another head armor of blue stone mosaic-work with twenty gold
+ bells which hang pendent at the border, with two strings of beads
+ which are above each bell, and two guariques of wood with two plates
+ of gold.
+
+ Item: another head armor of blue stone mosaic-work with twenty-five
+ gold bells, and two beads of gold above each bell, that hang around it
+ with some guariques of wood with plates of gold, and a bird of green
+ plumage with the feet, beak, and eyes of gold.
+
+ Moreover: sixteen shields of stone mosaic-work with their colored
+ feather-work hanging from the edge of them, and wide-angled slab with
+ stone mosaic-work with its colored feather-work, and in the center of
+ the said slab, made of stone mosaic-work, a cross of a wheel which is
+ lined with leather, which has the color of martens.
+
+ Again: a scepter of red stone mosaic-work, made like a snake, with its
+ head, teeth, and eyes (made) from what appears to be mother-of-pearl,
+ and the hilt is adorned with the skin of a spotted animal, and below
+ the said hilt hang six pieces of small feather-work.
+
+ Item: a piece of colored feather-work which the lords of this land
+ are wont to put on their heads, and from it hang two ear-ornaments of
+ stone mosaic-work with two bells and two beads of gold, and above a
+ feather-work of wide green feathers, and below hang some white, long
+ hairs.[17]
+
+Peter Martyr, who saw the specimens in Spain shortly after they
+arrived, speaks of “certain miters beset with precious stones of divers
+colors, among which some are blue, like unto sapphires.” Also “two
+helmets garnished with precious stones of a whitish blue color: one of
+these is edged with bells and plates of gold, and under every bell two
+knobs of gold. The other, beside the stones wherewith it is covered, is
+likewise edged with XXV golden bells and knobs: and hath on the crest,
+a green bird with the feet, bill, and eyes of gold.”[18]
+
+Las Casas describes “a helmet of plates of gold, and little bells
+hanging (from it), and on it stones like emeralds.” Also “many shields
+made of certain thin and very white rods, intermingled with feathers
+and discs of gold and silver, and some very small pearls, like
+misshapen pearls.”[19]
+
+These are some of the statements of early Spaniards. Let us now
+consider what the Indians have said about the treasure given by
+Montezuma to Cortés at that time. Our best source of information is
+the great _Historia_ composed by Fray Bernardino de Sahagun, who spent
+many years in the valley of Mexico gathering information at first-hand
+from intelligent Indians. This was shortly after the conquest when
+the natives still retained vivid recollections of the fall of their
+country. Without this work the history of ancient Mexico, and of the
+customs and traditions of the Indians, could not be written.
+
+We must not lose sight of the fact that Montezuma, for a number of
+reasons which we need not relate here, expected the “second coming” of
+the culture-hero Quetzalcoatl, the great beneficent god of the Aztecs.
+This myth was one of the several causes that led to the comparatively
+easy conquest of a numerous and warlike people by the Spaniards. We
+have translated several chapters of Sahagun’s _Historia_ relating
+to the first coming of the Christians to the coast of Mexico, which
+contain a description of some of the gifts sent by Montezuma to Cortés,
+while he still believed the Spanish conqueror to be the great god
+Quetzalcoatl. It is really a report transmitted to us from the Aztecs,
+and is a most fascinating chapter of the history of the conquest of
+Mexico.[20]
+
+ CHAPTER II. _Of the first (Spanish) ships which arrived at this land
+ said to have been those of Juan de Grijalva._
+
+ The first time that ships appeared on the coast of New Spain, the
+ captains of Montezuma, who were called calpixques, who were near the
+ coast, at once went to see what it was that had come, never having
+ seen ships; one of whom was the calpixque of Cuextecatl, named Pinotl:
+ other calpixques went with him, one of whom, named Yaotzin, lived in
+ the town of Mictlanquauhtla, another named Teozinzocatl resided in the
+ town of Teociniocan, another named Cuitlalpitoc was not a calpixque
+ but the servant of one of these calpixques, and principalejos, and
+ another principalejo named Tentlil. These went to see what the thing
+ was, and carried some things to sell under pretence, so as to see what
+ the thing was: they carried some rich mantles which only Montezuma,
+ and no other (person), wore, nor had permission to wear: they entered
+ canoes and went to the ships, saying amongst themselves, “We are here
+ to guard this coast; it is right that we should know for a certainty
+ what this is, in order to carry accurate news to Montezuma.” They
+ entered at once the canoes and commenced to paddle to the ships,
+ and when they arrived near the vessels and saw the Spaniards, all
+ kissed the prows of the ships, in sign of adoration, thinking that
+ it was the god Quetzalcoatl that had returned, which god, as appears
+ in the history, was already expected. Then the Spaniards spoke and
+ said: “Who are you? Whence have you come? From where are you?” Those
+ who came in the canoes responded, “We have come from Mexico.” The
+ Spaniards said, “If it is true that you are Mexicans, tell us what
+ is the name of the Lord of Mexico.” They replied, “Our Lord, he is
+ called Montezuma,” and then they presented all of those rich mantles
+ which they had brought to him who went as general of those ships,
+ who was, as is said, Grijalva, and the Spaniards gave to the Indians
+ some glass beads, some green and others yellow, and the Indians when
+ they saw them were very much astonished and esteemed them greatly,
+ and then they (the Spaniards) dismissed the Indians, saying, “Now we
+ return to Castile, and will soon return and will (then) go to Mexico.”
+ The Indians returned to land and soon departed for Mexico, where they
+ arrived in a day and a night, to give the news of what they had seen
+ to Montezuma, and they brought to him the beads which had been given
+ them by the Spaniards, and spoke to him (Montezuma) as follows: “Our
+ Lord, we are deserving of death; hear what we have seen, and what we
+ have done. Thou hast placed us on guard at the seashore; we have seen
+ some gods on the sea, and went to receive them, and give them various
+ rich mantles; look at these beads that they gave us, saying to us,
+ ‘Is it true that you are Mexicans? Look at these beads, give them to
+ Montezuma, that he may know of us.’” And they told him all that had
+ happened when they were with those (people) on the sea in the ships.
+ Montezuma responded: “You have come tired and worn out; go and rest.
+ I have received this (news) in secret, and command you not to say
+ anything whatever about what has happened.”
+
+ CHAPTER III. _Of what Montezuma disposed after he heard the news from
+ those who saw the first (Spanish) ships._
+
+ As soon as he (Montezuma) heard the news from those who had come from
+ the seashore, he ordered to be called at once the highest chief of
+ those who were called Cuextecatl, and the others who had come with
+ the message, and ordered them to place guards and lookouts in all the
+ farms along the shores of the sea, the one called Naulitlantoztlan,
+ and the other Mictlanquactla, so that they might see when those ships
+ returned, and at once give a report. The calpixques and captains then
+ left, and at once ordered the placing of lookouts on the said farms,
+ and Montezuma then summoned the most confidential of his chieftains
+ and communicated to them the news which had arrived, and showed them
+ the glass beads which the messengers had brought, and said, “It seems
+ to me that they are precious stones; take great care of them in the
+ wardrobe that none of them be lost, and if any are lost, those who
+ have charge of the wardrobe will have to pay.” One year hence, in the
+ year thirteen rabbit, those who were on guard saw ships on the sea,
+ and at once came with great speed to give notice to Montezuma. As soon
+ as he had heard the news, Montezuma despatched men for the reception
+ of Quetzalcoatl, because he thought that it was him who came, because
+ they expected him daily, and as he had received news that Quetzalcoatl
+ had gone by sea toward the east, and the ships came from the eastward,
+ for this (reason) they thought that it was he: he sent five of his
+ chief lords to receive him and to present to him a great present,
+ which he sent. Of those who went the most prominent one was called
+ Yallizchan, the second in rank Tepuztecatl, the third Tizaoa, the
+ fourth Vevtecatl, and the fifth Veicaznecatlheca.
+
+ CHAPTER IV. _What Montezuma ordered when he learned the second time
+ that the Spaniards had returned, this was D. Hernando Cortés._
+
+ To the above mentioned (messengers) Montezuma spoke, and said, “Look,
+ it has been said that our Lord Quetzalcoatl has arrived; go and
+ receive him and listen to what he may say to you with great attention;
+ see to it that you do not forget anything of what he may say; see
+ here these jewels which you are to present to him in my behalf, and
+ which are all the priestly ornaments that belong to him.” First a
+ mask wrought in a _mosaic of turquois_; this mask had wrought in
+ the same stones a doubled and twisted snake, the fold of which was
+ the beak of the nose; then the tail was parted from the head, and
+ the head with part of the body came over one eye so that it formed
+ an eyebrow, and the tail with a part of the body went over the other
+ eye, to form the other eyebrow. This mask was inserted on a high and
+ big crown full of rich feathers, long and very beautiful, so that on
+ placing the crown on the head, the mask was placed over the face: it
+ had for a (central) jewel a medallion of gold, round and wide: it
+ was tied with nine strings of precious stones, which, placed around
+ the neck, covered the shoulders and the whole breast: they carried
+ also a large shield bordered with precious stones with bands of gold
+ which went from the top to the bottom of it, and other bands of pearls
+ crossing over the gold bands from the top to bottom of it, and in
+ the spaces left by these bands, which were like the meshes of a net,
+ were placed zapitos (little toads) of gold. This shield had edgings
+ in the lower part; there was attached on the same shield a banner
+ which came out from the handle of the shield, made of rich feathers:
+ it also had a big medallion made of _mosaic-work_ which was fastened
+ and girded around the loins: they carried also strings of precious
+ stones with gold bells placed in between the stones to be tied to
+ the ankles: they carried also a bishop’s staff all decorated with
+ _turquois mosaic-work_, and the crook of it was like the head of a
+ snake turned around or coiled. They also carried sandals (cotaras)
+ such as great lords were accustomed to wear. They also carried the
+ ornaments or finery with which Tezcatlipoca was adorned, which was a
+ head-piece made of rich feathers which hung down on the back almost to
+ the waist, and was strewn all over with stars of gold. They carried
+ also ear-ornaments of gold: they had hanging from them little gold
+ bells and strings of little white and beautiful sea-shells. From
+ these strings hung a piece of leather like a plastron (peto), and it
+ was carried tied in such a manner that it covered the breast down to
+ the waist: this plastron had strewn on it and hanging from it many
+ little shells. They carried also a corselet of painted white cloth;
+ the lower border of this corselet was edged with white feathers in
+ three strips all around the border: they also carried a rich mantle
+ the cloth of which was a light blue, and embroidered all over with
+ many designs of a very fine blue: this mantle was worn around the
+ waist, the (four) corners tied to the body: over this mantle was
+ worn a medallion of _turquois [work]_ attached to the body over the
+ loins: they also carried strings of gold bells to tie around the
+ ankles, and also white sandals (cotaras) like those the lords are
+ wont to wear. They also carried the ornaments and decorations of the
+ god Tlalocantecutli, which were, a mask with its feather-work, and
+ a banner like the one above mentioned: also wide ear-ornaments of
+ chalchivitl with snakes of chalchivites inside: and also a corselet
+ painted with green designs, and strings or collar of precious stones,
+ and also a medallion with which they girded the loins, like the one
+ above described, with a rich mantle, with which they girded themselves
+ like the one described above, and golden bells to place on the feet,
+ and the staff like the one above described. Other ornaments which they
+ carried were also of the same Quetzalcoatl, a miter of tiger-skin, and
+ hanging from the miter a hood of raven’s feathers: the miter also had
+ a large chalchivitl rounded at the end, and also round ear-ornaments
+ of _turquois mosaic_ with a hook of gold called ecacozcatl, and a
+ rich mantle with which he girded himself, and some gold bells for the
+ feet, and a shield which had in the center a round plate of gold,
+ which shield was bordered with rich feathers. From the lower part of
+ the shield came out a sash of rich feathers in the shape of the one
+ above described: it had a staff wrought in _turquois mosaic_, and
+ its crook was set with rich stones or conspicuous pearls. They also
+ had on top of it all some sandals (cotaras), such as the lords were
+ accustomed to wear. All these things were brought by the messengers
+ and presented, as they say, to D. Hernando Cortés. Many other things
+ they presented to him which are not written about, such as a miter of
+ gold made like a periwinkle with edging of rich feathers which hung
+ over the shoulders, and another plain miter of gold and other jewels
+ of gold which are not written about. All these things were placed in
+ hampers (petacas), and upon taking leave from Montezuma he said to
+ them, “Go and worship in my name the god who comes, and say to him we
+ have been sent here by your servant Montezuma: these things which we
+ bring have been sent by him, for you have come to your dwelling, which
+ is Mexico.” These messengers set out on the road at once, and arrived
+ at the seaside, and there took canoes [_cañas_, undoubtedly _canoas_
+ was written], and arrived at a place called Xicalanco: from there they
+ took other canoes with all their clothes, and reached the ships, and
+ then those of the ships asked them, “Who are you, and whence have you
+ come?” And those of the canoes answered, “We come from Mexico.” And
+ those of the ships said to them, “Perchance you are not from Mexico,
+ but falsely say you are from Mexico and deceive us.” And upon this
+ they took and gave (bartered?), until they were satisfied on both
+ sides, and they tied the canoe to the ship, and a ladder was let down,
+ by which they climbed up to the ship and came to where D. Hernando
+ Cortés was.
+
+ CHAPTER V. _Of what happened when the messengers of Montezuma entered
+ the ship of D. Hernando Cortés._
+
+ They commenced to climb up to the ship on the ladders, and brought
+ the presents that Montezuma had commanded them to carry. When they
+ were in front of the captain D. Hernando Cortés, all kissed the ground
+ [deck] in his presence, and spoke in this wise: “May the god whom we
+ come to adore in the name of his servant Montezuma, who for him rules
+ and governs the city of Mexico, know, and who says that the god has
+ come after much hardship.” And at once they took out the ornaments
+ they had brought, and placed them in front of the captain D. Hernando
+ Cortés, adorning him with them, placing first the crown and mask
+ which has been described above, and all the other things: they put
+ around his neck the collars of (precious) stones with the jewels of
+ gold which they had brought, and put on his left arm the shield above
+ described, and all the other things were placed in front of him in the
+ order they were accustomed to put their presents. The captain said,
+ “Is there something more?” And they said to him, “We have not brought
+ anything else than these things that are here.” The captain at once
+ ordered them to be tied, and ordered shots of artillery fired, and the
+ messengers who were tied hand and foot, when they heard the thunder of
+ the bombardment, fell on the floor like dead, and the Spaniards lifted
+ them from the floor, and gave them wine to drink, with which they
+ strengthened them and revived them. After this captain D. Hernando
+ Cortés said to them, through the interpreter: “Listen to what I say
+ to you. I have been told that the Mexicans are valiant men, that they
+ are great conquerors and great warriors, and are very skillful at
+ arms: they tell me that one Mexican alone is enough to conquer from
+ ten to twenty of his enemies. I wish to prove whether this is true,
+ and whether you are so strong as I have been told.” Then he ordered
+ swords and shields to be given them that they might fight with as many
+ Spaniards, so that he might see who might win, and the Mexicans then
+ said to captain Cortés, “May it please your grace to listen to our
+ excuse, for we are not able to do what you command, and it is because
+ our Lord Montezuma has sent us to do nothing else than to salute you
+ and give you this present, we cannot do anything else, nor are we
+ able to do what you order us, for if we did we should offend our Lord
+ Montezuma, and he would order us killed.” And the captain responded:
+ “You will have to do by all means what I say. I have to see what kind
+ of men you are, for over yonder in our country we have been told that
+ you are very courageous men: arm yourselves with these arms and be
+ ready that we encounter one another tomorrow on the (battle) field.
+
+ CHAPTER VI. _Of how the messengers of Montezuma returned to Mexico
+ with the report of what they had seen._
+
+ After what has been related was done, they took leave of the
+ captain, and entered their canoes, and commenced to go toward the
+ land, paddling with great speed, and saying to one another, “There
+ are valiant men; let us exert ourselves to paddle before anything
+ happens.” They arrived very quickly at the town of Xicalanco, and
+ there they ate and rested a little, and then they got into their
+ canoes again, and paddling with great speed they arrived at the town
+ called Tecpantlayacac, and from there began to journey by land,
+ running with great speed, and they reached the town called Cuetlaxtla:
+ there they ate and rested a little, and those of the town begged them
+ that they should rest at least a day, but they responded that they
+ could not, because they had to go with great speed to make known to
+ Montezuma what they had seen, very new things, and never before seen
+ nor heard of, of which no one else could speak about: and so traveling
+ with great speed by night and day, they arrived in Mexico by night.”
+
+In the accounts of the vast treasure secured by Cortés from Montezuma
+before his untimely death, there is to be found no specific mention
+or description of objects decorated with stone mosaic. Much of the
+treasure secured in the final sack of Tenochtitlan (Mexico) was lost.
+The “empire” of the Aztecs was completely subjugated in 1521. From
+that time, and up to 1525, Cortés sent to Europe at various intervals
+great quantities of loot, gathered as tribute from the stores of the
+Indians, accompanied with inventories, a number of which have been
+published. From these inventories we select the following items which
+clearly relate to stone mosaic objects.
+
+ _Report of the Feather-work and Jewels sent to Spain to be distributed
+ to the following Churches and Monasteries and Special Persons._
+ [Without date.]
+
+ For the Lord Bishop of Burgos
+
+ Item: something like a staff (crosier) of stone mosaic-work of many
+ colors, for him (the Bishop).
+
+ _Copy of the Register of the Gold, Jewels, and other Things which
+ are to go to Spain in the Ship Santa María de la Rábida, its Master
+ (being) Juan Baptista. (The year 1522.)_
+
+This report contains a register of much treasure sent in one of the
+several ships which left Mexico in June, 1522, in charge of the
+treasurer Julian Alderete, and Alonso Dávila and Antonio de Quiñones,
+proctors. The register contains statements of the monetary value of
+certain treasure registered by various persons, among whom we find one
+Juan de Rivera, who carried treasure for himself, Cortés, and other
+persons named in the inventory; but none of the articles is described.
+In the margin of the report are notes stating that a considerable
+portion remained in the Azores. In another inventory, from which we
+shall quote later, are descriptions of certain pieces, jewels, and
+feather-work that remained in the Azores in charge of the above-named
+proctors. According to Peter Martyr the greater part of this treasure
+was destined for the King of Spain, but it never reached him, for the
+vessel, which with the others had put into the Azores to escape French
+pirates, was captured later by these corsairs and the rich spoils of
+the Aztecs went to augment the treasure of Francis I.
+
+The ship _Santa María de la Rábida_ seems to have arrived in Sevilla
+in November, 1522, and Peter Martyr saw the treasure that it brought
+and interviewed Juan de Rivera at length concerning the people and
+country of New Spain. The account which he wrote, based on a view of
+the wonderful objects and what Rivera had told him, comprises an entire
+book in the Fifth Decade of his _De Orbe Novo_, first printed in 1530.
+It contains a mass of valuable and generally trustworthy information,
+gleaned not only at first hand from Rivera, but also from a young
+native Mexican whom Rivera had brought to Spain as a slave and servant.
+This account supplies certain information describing the treasure,
+which is missing in the inventory. The report is so interesting that
+we quote what Peter Martyr writes about some of the objects of stone
+mosaic-work which Rivera displayed.[21]
+
+ We have been particularly delighted with two mirrors of exceptional
+ beauty: the first was bordered with a circle of gold, one palm in
+ circumference, and set in green wood; the other was similar. Ribera
+ states that there is stone found in these countries, which makes
+ excellent mirrors when polished; and we admit that none of our mirrors
+ more faithfully reflect the human face.
+
+ We also admire the artistically made masks. The _superstructure_ is of
+ wood, covered over with stones, so artistically and perfectly joined
+ together that it is impossible to detect their lines of junction, with
+ the fingernail. They seem to the naked eye to be one single stone,
+ of the kind used in making their mirrors. The ears of the mask are
+ of gold, and from one temple to another extend two green lines of
+ emeralds; two other saffron colored lines start from the half-opened
+ mouth, in which bone teeth are visible; in each jaw two natural teeth
+ protrude between the lips. These masks are placed upon the faces of
+ the gods, whenever the sovereign is ill, not to be removed until he
+ either recovers or dies.
+
+Peter Martyr gives us details regarding the King’s share of the loot
+brought by the _Santa María de la Rábida_, writing as follows:
+
+ Without mentioning the royal fifth, that ship brings the treasure
+ which is composed of a part of what Cortés amassed, at the cost
+ of risks and dangers, and the share belonging to his principal
+ lieutenant: they offer it all in homage to their King. Ribera has been
+ instructed to present to the Emperor in his master’s [Cortés’] name
+ the gifts he sends, while the others will be presented in the name of
+ their colleagues by the officers who, as I have said, remained behind
+ at the Azores.... The treasure destined for the Emperor is on board
+ the vessel which has not yet arrived: but it is said that it amounts
+ to 32,000 ducats of smelted gold in the form of bars. Were all the
+ rings, jewels, shields, helmets, and other ornaments now smelted, the
+ total would amount to 150,000 ducats. The report has spread, I know
+ not how, that French pirates are on the watch for these ships: may
+ they come safely in.
+
+As we have stated, the ships were captured and the treasure was
+irretrievably lost to the Spaniards. An inventory of the treasure,
+preserved in Spain, reads:
+
+ _Statement of Pieces, Jewels, and Feather-work sent from New Spain for
+ His Majesty, and that Remained in the Azores in the Charge of Alonso
+ Dávila and Antonio Quiñones._ [Without date.]
+
+ Statement of the pieces, jewels, and feather-work that are sent to
+ Their Majesties in the following boxes:
+
+ A shield with blue stone mosaic-work with its rim of gold.
+
+ A shield of stone mosaic-work, with a rim of blue and red feathers.
+
+ A shield of stone mosaic-work, the casco (crown) of feathers and the
+ clasps of gold, and on the rim some long green feathers.
+
+ A shield of stone mosaic-work and confas (shells) with some pendants
+ on the rim, of large and small gold bells.
+
+ _Report of the Objects of Gold that are Packed in a Box for His
+ Majesty which are Sent in Care of Diego de Soto._ [Without date.]
+
+ A face of gold with the features of stone mosaic-work.
+
+ A face of tiger-skin [_sic_] with two ear-ornaments of gold and stone
+ mosaic-work.
+
+ _Report of the Things Carried by Diego de Soto from the Governor in
+ Addition to what he Carries Listed in a Notebook of Certain Sheets of
+ Paper for His Majesty_. [Without date.]
+
+ A large shield with some moons of stone mosaic-work and with much gold.
+
+ Two stone mosaic-work shields.
+
+The final inventory from which we extract items relating to stone
+mosaic-work objects is dated 1525. It is:
+
+ _Report of the Gold, Silver, Jewels, and Other Things that the
+ Proctors of New Spain Carry to His Majesty._ (_Year of 1525_.)
+
+ A large head of a duck of blue stone mosaic-work.
+
+ Two pieces of gold, such as the natives of these parts wear in their
+ ears with some red and blue stones, weighing altogether ten pesos.
+
+ A bracelet with four greenstones set in gold like the hoof of a stag.
+ Not weighed.
+
+ Another bracelet of gold with ten pieces like azicates, and two claws
+ of greenstone set in gold.
+
+ An armlet of tiger-skin with four greenstones and four small bars of
+ gold of little weight.
+
+ A shell like a venerica set in gold with a greenstone in the center.
+
+ A large shell set in gold with a face of greenstone, with some blue
+ and yellow little stones around the neck.
+
+ A butterfly of gold with the wings of venera, and the body and head of
+ greenstone.
+
+ Two veneras, one purple and the other yellow, each one respectively
+ with greenstones in the center and other blue ones around it, set in
+ gold.
+
+ Another white venera, set in gold, having some blue and red eyes, the
+ one inserted in the other.
+
+ A monster of gold with some greenstone mosaic-work in the belly,
+ weighing altogether eleven pesos.
+
+ A poniard (or jewel broncha) of white shell set in gold, weighing
+ altogether thirty-seven pesos, five tomins.
+
+ A butterfly of shell, of fancy work, set in gold, weighing altogether
+ eleven pesos, six tomins.[22]
+
+
+
+
+TRIBUTE OF MOSAIC PAID TO THE AZTEC RULERS
+
+
+Mosaic objects, and especially the raw material for their manufacture,
+formed a part of the annual tribute paid by some of the coast provinces
+of ancient Mexico to the Aztec kings of Tenochtitlan. We have the
+pictorial representation of some of the objects of such tribute in
+an important native book or codex, painted in colors on maguey fiber
+paper, known as the Tribute Roll of Montezuma. This original codex was
+at one time in the famous Boturini collection, and is now one of the
+treasured possessions of the Museo Nacional in the City of Mexico. It
+lacks, however, several leaves which were abstracted about a century
+ago, and which came into possession of Joel R. Poinsett, who had been
+American Minister to Mexico, and who presented them to the American
+Philosophical Society of Philadelphia in 1830, where they now are. On
+the pages have been written explanations of the pictures and figures
+in both Nahuatl and Spanish. “The Nahuatl words look as if made by
+a pencil, style, or short brush similar to that used in delineating
+the figures, and with a sepia-like preparation; while the Spanish
+ones have evidently been made with an ink containing iron, and an
+instrument which disturbed the gloss of the paper, as is shown by its
+penetration to fibres adjacent, giving the lines a sort of hazy margin
+occasionally.”[23]
+
+Some time between the years 1534 and 1550, Don Antonio de Mendoza, the
+first Viceroy of Mexico, during this period, had the Indians prepare
+for the Emperor Charles V, a book on European paper, containing a
+pictorial account, in colors, of some things relating to the history
+and life of the natives of the Mexican plateau. It was painted in three
+sections, the first being a chronological record of the Aztec kings and
+their conquests, the third relating to the habits and customs of the
+natives and especially of the education of Mexican youth.
+
+[Illustration: PL. II
+
+STONE IDOL: THE GODDESS COATLICUE, WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+NATIONAL MUSEUM, MEXICO]
+
+[Illustration: PL. III
+
+STAFF AND RATTLE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+PEABODY MUSEUM, CAMBRIDGE]
+
+The _second_ part was a copy of the Tribute Roll above referred to.
+These pictures were given to other Indians for the interpretation of
+their import, which was written down in the Nahuatl language, and
+another person, well versed in both the Indian and Spanish languages,
+made a translation into Spanish, which was incorporated in the book.
+It was then despatched to Spain, probably about the year 1549, but the
+vessel was captured by French pirates, and the book came into the hands
+of the French geographer, André Thevet, in 1553. After Thevet’s death
+it was purchased, about the year 1584, by Richard Hakluyt, at that time
+chaplain to the English Ambassador to France. Hakluyt bequeathed the
+volume to Samuel Purchas, who published it, without colors, with an
+English translation of the text, in _Purchas His Pilgrimes_, London,
+1625. The English text was translated into French and accompanied with
+the plates was published by Melchisedec Thevenot in his _Relations des
+Divers Voyages_, in 1663. The codex ultimately became the property
+of Selden, and with some other original Mexican codices later became
+a part of the Bodleian Library at Oxford, where it is now preserved.
+In 1831, Lord Kingsborough issued it for the first time in colors,
+together with a new and more accurate English rendering of the Spanish
+text, in his monumental work on the _Antiquities of Mexico_.
+
+The Tribute Roll was published by Archbishop Lorenzana in Mexico in
+1770, in his edition of the _Cartas de Cortés_, the drawing, uncolored,
+being traced in a very inferior manner from the original in Mexico.
+Finally, Dr. Antonio Peñafiel included a beautiful colored facsimile of
+the Tribute Roll in his work, _Monumentos del Arte Mexicano Antiguo_,
+published in Berlin in 1890, the missing leaves, in Philadelphia,
+being reproduced from a very poor drawing of the codex on European
+paper, probably executed for Boturini. These leaves were published in
+exact facsimile in 1892, with an article entitled, The Tribute Roll of
+Montezuma, edited by Dr. D. G. Brinton and Henry Phillips, in vol. XVII
+of the _Transactions of the American Philosophical Society_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+On plate XVIII (we refer to the Peñafiel edition), in the second
+section of the plate, among other objects of tribute is a small bowl
+containing pieces of cut turquois (see fig. 1). In the explanation
+given by Purchas, this item is described as “a little panne full of
+Turkes stones,” and in the Kingsborough text it has been translated
+“a little vessel of small turquois stones.” On the plate published
+by Lorenzana is the caption, “Matlauac Rosilla con q. se tiñe
+azul.” The word _matlauac_ is probably a corruption of the Nahuatl
+word _matlaltic_, meaning ‘blue,’ but the rest of the sentence in
+Spanish is confused, for _rosilla_ means ‘reddish,’ and _con q. se
+tiñe azul_, ‘with which they dyed blue,’ seems to indicate that the
+phrase is incomplete. Accompanying the objects depicted as tributes
+are the hieroglyphs of the towns which paid them. These glyphs have
+been interpreted in the same manner in all of the reproductions
+of the codex, but we use the spelling adopted by Peñafiel, in
+preference to that given by Purchas or by Kingsborough. They are:
+(1) _Quiyauhtecpan_, “temple of rain or of its deities” _Tlaloc_
+or _Chalchiuhtlicue_; (2) _Olinalan_, “place of earthquakes;” (3)
+_Cuauhtecomatlan_, “place of tecomates;” (4) _Cualac_, “place of good
+drinkable water;” (5) _Ichcatlan_, “cotton-plantation;” (6) _Xala_,
+“sandy ground.” These places are given in the explanation as being
+“cities of warm provinces.”
+
+In the third section of the same plate (XVIII) are the objects shown in
+figs. 2 and 3. Peñafiel writes of fig. 2 as “ten little figures worked
+in turquois.” Only one object painted blue is depicted, the number
+ten being indicated by the ten dots. That masks form this tribute is
+clearly evident; in Purchas the description is “tenne halfe faces of
+rich blew Turkey stones,” and in Kingsborough, “likewise 10 middling
+sized masks of rich blue stones like turquois.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2]
+
+[Illustration: PL. IV
+
+HELMET OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3]
+
+The second item in this section (fig. 3) is described by Peñafiel as “a
+small bag of the same stones.” Kingsborough’s statement is, “a large
+bag of the said blue stones,” while in Purchas the translation reads,
+“a great trusse full of the said Turkey stones.” On the bag which is
+painted blue, with two red vertical bands, is the Aztecan hieroglyph
+for stone, _tetl_. The towns whence this tribute was exacted are:
+(1) _Yoaltepec_, “place consecrated to the deity of the night;” (2)
+_Ehaucalco_, “in the place of tanning;” (3) _Tzilacapan_, “river of
+chilacayotes;” (4) _Patlanalan_, “place where parrots abound;” (5)
+_Ixicayan_, “where the water comes down;” (6) _Ichcaatoyac_, “river of
+cotton.” These cities are of the warm provinces.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4]
+
+The only finished objects of mosaic-work in the Tribute Roll are
+on plate XXXII. This is one of the leaves of the original codex in
+Philadelphia, and we have traced fig. 4 from this original. They are
+described by Purchas as “two pieces like platters decked or garnished
+with rich Turkey stones.” Kingsborough mentions them as “two pieces
+like salvers ornamented or set with rich turquoise stones.” Lorenzana
+has correctly printed the legend which we find reproduced in the
+Philadelphia publication of this leaf; it is “_Ontetl xiuhtetl_,”
+followed by the Spanish, “turquesas o piedras finas.” _Ontetl_ is
+Nahuatl for “two,” and _xiuhtetl_, or _xiuitl tetl_, “turquois stone.”
+The mosaic character of these two pieces is graphically represented by
+the ancient artist. The towns paying the tribute illustrated on this
+sheet are as follows: (1) _Tochpan_, or _Tuchpan_, “over the rabbit;”
+(2) _Tlaltizapan_, “place situated over chalk;” (3) _Cihuateopan_, “in
+the temple of Cihuacoatl;” (4) _Papantla_, “place of the priests;” (5)
+_Ocelotepec_, “place of the ocelot;” (6) _Mihuapan_, “river of the ears
+of corn;” (7) _Mictlan_, “place of rest.”
+
+In the _Crónica_ of Tezozomoc is an account of the campaign of the
+Aztecan king Ahuitzotl into southern Mexico in 1497. The towns of
+Xuchtlan, Amaxtlan, Izhuatlan, Miahuatla, Tecuantepec, and Xolotlan,
+in the region of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, had revolted against him.
+After the complete rout of the rebellious Indians, it was related
+by Tezozomoc that “the kind of arms carried by the coast people
+was very rich, so much so that the undisciplined soldiers began to
+strip the bodies of the dead of the very rich feather-work pieces
+called _quetzalmanalli_, and from their military ornaments remove a
+round emerald like a mirror which sparkled in its perfection, called
+_xiuhtezcatl_. Others of the dead carried on the back of their arms
+that which was called _yacazcuil_, outside of fine gold, and in the
+nose they wore stones; others (wore) gold, and the shield which they
+carried had a very rich greenstone in the center, and around it a
+decoration of very fine stones set in (mosaic-work), said shield being
+called _xiuhchimal_.” Those who remained after the slaughter came to
+Ahuitzotl, saying: “Our Lords, let us speak. We will give our tribute
+of all that is produced and yielded on these coasts, which will be
+chalchihuitl of all kinds and colors, and other small stones called
+_teoxihuitl_ (turquois) for setting in very rich objects [mosaic],
+and feathers of the richest sort brought forth in the whole world,
+very handsome birds, the feathers of which are called _xiuhtototl_,
+_tlaquechol_, _tzinitzcan_, and _zacuan_; tanned skins of the tiger
+(ocelot), lions (puma), and great wolves, and other stones veined with
+many divers colors.”[24]
+
+In the same _Crónica_ we read that Montezuma, who succeeded Ahuitzotl
+after his death in 1502, received a royal tribute from his vassals in
+Xaltepec, a coast town of Tehuantepec, among which were “broad collars
+[_sic_] for the ankles, strewn with gold grains and very rich stone
+mosaic-work.”[25]
+
+[Illustration: PL. V
+
+MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON]
+
+
+
+
+SOURCE OF TURQUOIS
+
+
+The source of the considerable quantity of turquois used in Mexico
+in pre-Spanish times for personal ornaments and mosaic incrustation
+is still an unsolved problem. Thus far no prehistoric workings have
+been found in Mexico. Only recently turquois has been discovered at
+the silver mines at Bonanza, Zacatecas, but Dr. Kunz, who has called
+our attention to this, writes that he has no information regarding
+prehistoric workings there.[26] In the extensive bibliography on the
+geology of Mexico by Aguilar y Santillan[27] we find only a single
+entry for turquois, that being the study of Mexican mosaics in Rome by
+Pigorini.[28] Pogue[29] writes that there are no important turquois
+deposits that do not show signs of prehistoric exploitation, and he
+is also of the opinion that it is very difficult to trace the source
+of the turquois used by the Indians of ancient Mexico and Central
+America. Pogue’s conclusion is that “as no occurrence at all adequate
+as an important source has been discovered south of the present Mexican
+boundary, it therefore seems probable that the Aztecs and allied
+peoples, through trade with tribes to the north, obtained supplies
+of turquois from the Cerrillos hills [New Mexico] and perhaps other
+localities of the Southwest.”
+
+Sahagun is the only early chronicler who affords information concerning
+this point. He writes explicitly that “the Toltecs had discovered
+the mine of precious stones in Mexico, called _xiuitl_, which are
+turquoises, which mine, according to the ancients, was in a hill called
+Xiuhtzone, close to the town of Tepotzotlan [State of Hidalgo].” We
+will quote other statements by Sahagun concerning turquois:
+
+ The turquois occurs in mines. There are some mines whence more or less
+ fine stones are obtained. Some are bright, clear, and transparent;
+ while others are not.... _Teoxiuitl_ is called turquois of the gods.
+ No one has a right to possess or use it, but always it must be
+ offered or devoted to a deity. It is a fine stone without any blemish
+ and quite brilliant. It is rare and comes from a distance. There are
+ some that are round and resemble a hazelnut cut in two. These are
+ called _xiuhtomolli_.... There is another stone, used medicinally,
+ called _xiuhtomoltetl_, which is green and white, and very beautiful.
+ Its moistened scrapings are good for feebleness and nausea. It is
+ brought from Guatemala and Soconusco [State of Chiapas]. They make
+ beads strung in necklaces for hanging around the neck.... There are
+ other stones, called _xixitl_; these are low-grade turquoises, flawed
+ and spotted, and are not hard. Some of them are square, and others are
+ of various shapes, and they work with them the mosaic, making crosses,
+ images, and other pieces.[30]
+
+If we are to credit Sahagun, turquois was worked not only in the
+immediate region of the central Mexican plateau, but they received
+supplies from distant points, and specifically from Chiapas and
+Guatemala. The raw material mentioned in the Tribute Roll of Montezuma
+as coming from coast towns and from the south, must also be taken into
+consideration. Hence, notwithstanding the present lack of information
+respecting the localities where turquois is to be found _in situ_
+in central and southern Mexico, we cannot reject the opinion that
+ultimately ancient workings will be found at more than one site in
+Mexico. We do not believe it necessary to assume that the source
+of supply of both the Toltecs and the Aztecs, as well as of other
+tribes, such as the Tarasco, and the Mixtec and Zapotec, which also
+made use of this material, was the far-distant region of New Mexico.
+It was formerly asserted by some students that the jadeite of Middle
+America must have come by trade from China,[31] because no deposits
+have as yet been found in the former region; but it is now known by
+chemical analysis that the Middle American jadeite is distinct from
+that of Asia. In fact, the writer has long held that not alone in one,
+but in at least five, different localities, jadeite will in time be
+discovered.[32]
+
+[Illustration: PL. VI
+
+MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON]
+
+
+
+
+THE AZTEC LAPIDARIES AND THEIR WORKS
+
+
+The development of the art of the lapidaries and mosaic-workers, like
+that of the goldsmiths, is attributed by Sahagun to the Toltecs, under
+the beneficent influence of Quetzalcoatl, the culture hero god. In
+treating of the pre-Aztec people called Tultecas, or people of Tollan
+or Tula, by Sahagun, he states that they were very skilful in all that
+pertained to the fine arts. He writes:
+
+ The Tultecas were careful and thorough artificers, like those of
+ Flanders at the present time, because they were skilful and neat in
+ whatsoever they put their hands to; everything (they did) was very
+ good, elaborate, and graceful, as for example, the houses that they
+ erected, which were very beautiful, and richly ornamented inside with
+ certain kinds of precious stones of a green color as a coating (to the
+ walls), and the others which were not so adorned were very smooth,
+ and worth seeing, and the stone of which they were fashioned appeared
+ like a thing of mosaic.... They also knew and worked pearls, amber,
+ and amethyst, and all manner of precious stones, which they made into
+ jewelry.[33]
+
+We find another statement to the effect that--
+
+ The lapidary is very well taught, and painstaking in his craft, a
+ judge of good stones, which, for working, they take off the rough part
+ and bring together or cement with others very delicately with bitumen
+ or wax, in order to make mosaic-work.[34]
+
+In the pictorial section of the Florentine manuscript of Sahagun,[35]
+in the Codex Mendoza,[36] and in the Mappe Tlotzin,[37] are pictures
+delineating artisans engaged in various crafts, such as weavers,
+painters, carpenters (wood-carvers), stone carvers, lapidaries,
+goldsmiths, and feather-mosaic workers, yet we find no actual
+representation of turquois-mosaic workers. In the third section of
+the Codex Mendoza appears a picture of a father teaching his son the
+secrets of the lapidary’s art. The interpreter of the codex writes:
+
+ The trades of a carpenter, jeweler (lapidary), painter, goldsmith,
+ and embroiderer of feathers, accordingly as they are represented and
+ declared, signify that the masters of such arts taught these trades
+ to their sons from their earliest boyhood, in order that, when grown
+ up to be men, they might attend to their trades and spend their time
+ virtuously, counseling them that idleness is the root and mother of
+ vices, as well as of evil-speaking and tale-bearing, whence followed
+ drunkenness and robberies, and other dangerous vices, and setting
+ before their imaginations many other grounds of alarm, that hence they
+ might submit to be diligent in everything.
+
+The elaborate series of pictures of the various crafts in the
+Florentine manuscript of Sahagun (laminas liv to lxiv) includes those
+that show in detail the work of the goldsmiths and the feather-workers;
+but the illustrations devoted to the lapidaries we are unable to
+correlate, in the absence of the text, with the Nahuatl text of the
+Sahagun manuscript in the Real Academia de la Historia in Madrid, which
+we will give later from the study by Dr. Seler containing a translation
+of the native text into French. This description of the work of the
+lapidaries informs us only concerning the working and polishing of the
+stones. Unlike the other accounts by Sahagun regarding the goldsmiths
+and the feather-workers, which enlighten us with respect to the details
+of these two fine arts, he does not here enter into any description
+concerning the delicate work of the artists who fashioned the beautiful
+pieces of stone mosaic. Although such work was turned out by the
+Aztecan workmen, as we have already demonstrated, it seems highly
+probable that in times immediately preceding the Spanish conquest, the
+Aztecan kings Ahuitzotl and Montezuma obtained a considerable number of
+such objects through tribute and by barter with the tribes living in
+what are now the states of Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, and western Chiapas. As
+our knowledge of Mexican archeology, now all too meager, is extended,
+it is very probable that we will find vestiges of this art in the
+Pacific state of Guerrero, where great numbers of jadeite and other
+greenstone objects have been discovered, with a respectable number
+of specimens indicating the high artistic skill of the indigenes of
+that section. We may also hope to find relics of this art in the area
+of Matlaltzincan culture to the north of the valley of Mexico, and
+also in the field of Tarascan culture in the states of Michoacan and
+Jalisco, for, as will be related, mosaic specimens have been recovered
+from ancient ruins as far north as the State of Zacatecas.
+
+[Illustration: PL. VII
+
+MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+PREHISTORIC AND ETHNOGRAPHIC MUSEUM, ROME]
+
+Sahagun’s account (chap. II) of the work of the lapidaries we herewith
+append, with the Nahuatl text and a translation of the French rendering
+by Seler.[38]
+
+ 1. _In tlateque tulteca ynic quitequi yn yztac tehuilotl yoan
+ tlapaltehuilotl yoan chalchiuitl yoan quetzalitztli ynica teoxalli
+ yoan tlaquauac tepuztli._
+
+ 1. The lapidary artisans cut rock-crystal, amethyst, emerald, both
+ common and precious, by means of emery and with an instrument of
+ tempered copper:
+
+ 2. _Auh ynic quichiqui tecpatl tlatetzotzontli._
+
+ 2. And they scraped it by means of cutting flint.
+
+ 3. _Auh ynic quicoyonia ynic quimamali teputztlacopintli._
+
+ 3. And they dug it out (hollowed) and drilled it by means of a little
+ tube of copper.
+
+ 4. _Niman yhuian quixteca quipetlaua quitemetzhuia, auh yn yc
+ quicencaua._
+
+ 4. And then they faceted it very carefully; they burnished (polished)
+ it and gave it the final luster.
+
+ 5. _Ytech quahuitl yn quipetlaua ynic pepetlaca, ynic motonameyotia
+ ynic tlanextia._
+
+ 5. They polished it set in wood, so that it comes to be very
+ brilliant, shining, glossy.
+
+ 6. _Anoço quetzalotlatl ynitech quilau ynic quicencaua ynic
+ quiyecchiua yn intultecayo tlatecque._
+
+ 6. Or they polish it mounted in bamboo, and the lapidaries finish it
+ thus, and conclude their work.
+
+ 7. _Auh çannoiuhqui yn tlapaltehuilotl ynic mochiua ynic mocencaua._
+
+ 7. And in the same manner they work and smooth amethyst.
+
+ 8. _Achtopa quimoleua quihuipeua teputztica yn tlatecque yn tulteca
+ ynic yyoca quitlatlalia yn qualli motquitica tlapaltic yn itaqui._
+
+ 8. In the first place the lapidary artisans break into pieces the
+ amethyst and crush it with an instrument of copper, for they work only
+ the beautiful pieces which are entirely reddish.
+
+ 9. _Çan niman yuhqui tlatlalia yn campa monequiz quimoleua tepuztica._
+
+ 9. They do not set up the precious stones named in this manner, except
+ in the parts where it is necessary, when they break them with the
+ copper instrument.
+
+ 10. _Auh niman quichiqui quixteca yoan quitemetzhuia yoan quipetlaua
+ ytech quahuitl yn tlapetlaualoni ynic quiyectilia ynic quicencaua._
+
+ 10. Then they scrape it, and they facet it, and they smooth it, and
+ they polish it, mounted in wood, set on the instrument called polisher
+ or burnisher, and they manufacture and finish it.
+
+ 11. _Auh yn yehoatl yn moteneua eztecpatl ca cenca tlaquauac chicauac
+ camo ma vel motequi ynica teoxalli._
+
+ 11. The stone called blood silex (heliotrope) is very hard and very
+ strong, and they do not cut it well with emery.
+
+ 12. _Çaçan motlatlapana motehuia._
+
+ 12. They break it and they cut it up in any kind of way.
+
+ 13. _Yoan motepehuilia yn itepetlayo yn amo qualli, yn amo uel no
+ mopetlaua._
+
+ 13. And they throw away the vein-stone, the useless stone, that which
+ does not lend itself readily to polishing.
+
+ 14. _Çan yehoatl mocui motemolia yn qualli, yn vel mopetlaua yn eztic,
+ yn uel cuicuiltic._
+
+ 14. They do not take or seek except the beautiful pieces that lend
+ themselves to good polishing, the red-banded, that permit themselves
+ to be well cut.
+
+ 15. _Michiqui atica yoan ytech tetl cenca tlaquauac vnpa uallauh yn
+ matlatzinco._
+
+ 15. They rub them with water and mounted in a very hard stone that
+ comes from the country of Matlatzinca [district of Toluca].
+
+ 16. _Ypampa ca uel monoma namiqui, yniuh chicauac tecpatl noyuh
+ chicauac yn tetl, ynic monepanmictia._
+
+ 16. And because these two stones are companions, the one to the other,
+ as the silex is very hard, so the stone is hard, they kill one another
+ (the one kills the other).
+
+ 17. _Çatepan mixteca yca teoxalli yoan motemetzhuia yca ezmellil._
+
+ 17. Then they facet and polish them by means of emery.
+
+ 18. _Auh çatepan yc mocencaua yc mopetlaua, yn quetzalotlatl._
+
+ 18. And they finish and polish them with bamboo.
+
+ 19. _Ynic quicuecueyotza quitonameyomaca._
+
+ 19. In this way they make them scintillate and give to them a luster
+ like the rays of the sun.
+
+ 20. _Auh yn yehoatl motocayotia vitzitziltecpatl niman yuh yolli
+ tlacati._
+
+ 20. And that which they call hummingbird silex (stone of a thousand
+ colors) is (in color like) an animal of that nature.
+
+ 21. _Miyec tlamantli ynic mocuicuiloua, iztac yoan xoxoctic yoan
+ yuhquin tletl, anoço yuhqui citlali yoan yuhquin ayauhcoçamalotl._
+
+ 21. It is tinted (painted) in a thousand colors, white, blue, clear
+ brilliant red, black with white spots, and the color of the rainbow.
+
+ 22. _Çan tepiton xalli ynic michiqui ynic mopetlaua._
+
+ 22. They scrape it and simply polish it with fine sand.
+
+ 23. _Auh yn yehoatl motocayotia xiuhtomolli camo tlaquauac camo
+ ezmellil ytech monequi ynic michiqui ynic mixteca yoan ynic
+ motemetzhuia yoan ynic mopetlaua ynic moquetzalotlahuiaya ynic
+ motonameyotia motlanexyotia._
+
+ 23. The stone that they call round turquois is not very hard, so
+ they have no need of emery to scrape, facet, smooth, or polish, for
+ they apply to it the bamboo, then it receives its radiant luster and
+ brilliancy.
+
+ 24. _Auh yn yehoatl teoxihuitl ca amo cenca tlaquauac._
+
+ 24. The fine turquois is not very hard either.
+
+ 25. _Çanno tepiton xalli ynic mopetlaua ynic moyectilia auh yn
+ uel no yc motlanextilmaca motonameyomaca occentlamantli ytoca
+ xiuhpetlaualoni._
+
+ 25. They polish it likewise with fine sand and they give to it a very
+ brilliant luster and radiance by the method of another polisher,
+ called the polisher of turquois.
+
+[Illustration: PL. VIII
+
+MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+PREHISTORIC AND ETHNOGRAPHIC MUSEUM, ROME]
+
+Regarding the patron deities of the lapidaries, Sahagun has given us a
+detailed account which is so interesting that we translate _in extenso_.
+
+ The lapidaries who worked precious stones in the time of their
+ pagandom adored four gods, or better said devils: the first was
+ called _Chicunavitzcuintli_, the second _Naoalpilli_, the third
+ _Macuilcalli_, and the fourth _Cintcutl_: to all these last three
+ gods they made a festival when there reigned the sign or character
+ called _Chicunavitzcuintli_, which is a woman, and for this (reason)
+ they painted it so: to this (one) they attributed the cosmetics of the
+ women, and in order to signify this they painted it with a crosier
+ in the right hand, and in the left they put a shield, in the which
+ (shield) there was represented a foot. They also put ear-ornaments of
+ gold on it, and from the cartilage of the nose hung a butterfly of the
+ same metal, and they dressed it (the idol) with a _uipil_ and woman’s
+ shirt that was woven white and red, and also the skirts: they put on
+ some sandals, also colored, having some paintings that appeared like
+ almonds. To all these four (gods) they gave their images or their
+ titles, so that they might die in their service on the day of their
+ festival. That one called _Naoalpilli_ they decked out, and they cut
+ the strands of hair in unequal lengths, very badly cut, disheveled or
+ standing on ends, and divided in two parts. They put on the forehead
+ a delicate plate of gold (thin) like paper, some earrings of gold in
+ the ears, and in the hand a crosier decorated with rich feathers, and
+ in the other (hand) a shield made like a net, and in four parts it had
+ rich feathers badly placed. They also dressed it with a jacket woven
+ white and red, with edging in the lower end: they also put on it some
+ colored sandals. And the other god, called _Macuilcalli_, they also
+ composed like a man, the hair cut in the middle of the head like a
+ ridge, that is called _quachichiquille_, and this ridge was not of
+ hair but made of the richest feathers. They placed in the temples some
+ plates of delicate gold, and a jewel hung from the neck also, made
+ of a round and wide marine shell. In the hand a crosier made of rich
+ feathers was placed, and in the other hand was a shield with some
+ circles of red, some inside the others; they had the body painted
+ vermilion color, and they also put on it some sandals of the same
+ color. The other god, called _Cinteutl_, was fashioned in the likeness
+ of a man, with a mask wrought like mosaic-work, with some rays of the
+ same (mosaic-work), coming out of the same mask. They put on it a
+ jacket of cloth dyed light-blue; a jewel of gold hung from the neck.
+ They place it (the idol) on a high platform from which it looked out,
+ which platform, called _cincalli_, was composed of cornstalks after
+ the manner of a _xacal_. They adorned it with some white sandals,
+ the fastenings of which were made of loose cotton; they say that to
+ these gods they attribute the artifice of working precious stones, of
+ the making of barbotes (the tops of helmets), and ear-ornaments of
+ black stone, of crystal, and of amber, and of other white (stones).
+ They also attribute to these gods the working of beads, anklets,
+ strings of pearls which they carried on their wrists, and all kinds of
+ work in stones and chalchihuites, and the hollowing-out and polishing
+ of all the stones; they said that these gods had invented it, and for
+ this reason they were honored as gods, and to them the elder artisans
+ of this craft and all the other lapidaries made a festival. By night
+ they intoned their hymns and set the captives who were to die, on
+ watch in their honor, and they did not work during the festival. This
+ (festival) was celebrated in Xochimilco, because they said that the
+ forefathers and ancestors of the lapidaries had come from that town,
+ and there was the place of origin of these artisans.[39]
+
+[Illustration: PL. IX
+
+MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION. NEW YORK]
+
+The ruler of the eighteenth week of the astrological calendar, or
+_tonalamatl_, was a goddess named _Chantico_ or _Quaxolotl_, also
+nicknamed _Chiconaui-itzcuintli_,[40] from the ninth day of the
+thirteen-day period or week. Seler writes:
+
+ She was the goddess of Xochimilco, and consequently also the chief
+ deity of the guild of the tlatecque, of the stone cutters, the
+ stone polishers, the jewelers, who were also supposed to come from
+ Xochimilco. (Duran calls her wrongly Ciuacoatl and identifies her
+ with the goddess of Colhuacan, which place stood opposite the city
+ of Xochimilco).... Besides _Chiconaui-itzcuintli_ the stone-cutters
+ had still a few other titles for the goddess. Such were Papaloxaual
+ and Tlappepalo, i.e., “she of the red butterfly painting,” and
+ “she with the red butterfly,” and these have reference to fire....
+ The stone-cutters also gave their goddess a butterfly as her nasal
+ ornament, which, red and white, are the colors of her robe.[41]
+
+In some of the different versions or paintings of the _tonalamatl_
+contained in old Mexican codices, opposite the delineation of the
+goddess Chantico there is placed a fasting man in an enclosure. In both
+Codex Borbonicus[42] and Codex Telleriano Remensis,[43] this figure is
+found. Seler describes it as--
+
+ an enclosure inlaid with gold discs or rings. The interpreter
+ designates it as “house of gold.” Beyond doubt this name has
+ reference to one of the four little fasting houses (_necaualcalli_)
+ which the hero of Tollan, Quetzalcoatl, built for himself, and
+ naturally corresponded to the four quarters of the heavens, the
+ first of which was said to be made of gold or embellished with gold
+ (_coztic teocuitlacalli_), the second decorated with red musselshells
+ (_tapachcalli_), the third with turquoises (_xiuihcalli_), the fourth
+ with white musselshells (_teccizcalli_).[44]
+
+Seler draws this inference from the legend given by Sahagun, which we
+have translated in full below.
+
+As often is the case, there is some confusion in the description
+of Chantico in the early writings. This deity is also asserted to
+be a male. In the explanation of the Codex Telleriano Remensis the
+attributes of Chantico or Cuaxolotle are recited. It is said that--
+
+ Chantico presided over these thirteen signs (a division of the
+ tonalamatl, or divinatory calendar), and was the lord of chile or of
+ the yellow woman. He was the first who offered sacrifice after having
+ eaten fried fish; the smoke of which (sacrifice) ascended to heaven;
+ at which Tonacotli (Tonacatecutli, the father of all the gods) became
+ incensed, and pronounced a curse against him that he should be changed
+ into a dog, which accordingly happened, and he named him Chantico on
+ this account, which is another name for Miquitlatecotle. From this
+ transgression the destruction of the world ensued. He was called Nine
+ Dogs, from the sign on which he was born. Chantico or Cuaxolotle
+ is the symbol which the country people of Xolotle wear on their
+ heads.[45] (The symbol of the city of Xolotlan in the Codex Mendoza is
+ the head of a Dog.)
+
+In the Sahagun manuscript of the Real Palacio in Madrid[46] the deity
+is painted with the shirt and skirt of a woman, and also in the Codex
+Borbonicus[47] and the Tonalamatl Aubin.[48] In his explanation
+of the last codex Seler has treated exhaustively of the various
+representations and attributes of this goddess.[49]
+
+Among the laws of the Mexicans was the following:
+
+ They hung and very severely punished those sons who squandered the
+ property left them by their fathers, or destroyed the arms, jewels, or
+ remarkable things that their fathers had left.[50]
+
+[Illustration: PL. X
+
+MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
+
+In another study[51] we have called attention, as follows, to the daily
+traffic of gold and precious stones in the great market of Tenochtitlan.
+
+ Cortés describes the great market of Tenochtitlan, and the great
+ quantity of things daily exposed for sale included jewels of gold,
+ silver, and stones. The Anonymous Conqueror, in describing the great
+ market, states that “on one side of the plaza are those who sell
+ gold, and adjoining are those who sell precious stones of various
+ classes set in gold, in the shapes of various birds and animals.”[52]
+ This refers to mosaic jewels with stone and gold inlays. Cortés
+ further informs us that Montezuma had in his house representations
+ in gold, silver, stones, or feathers, of every object of his domain,
+ beautifully executed; and there is also a statement (by Ixtlilxochitl)
+ that in the collection of Nezahualcoyotl, king of Texcoco, were the
+ representations in stone mosaic-work and gold of every bird, fish, or
+ animal which could not be obtained alive.[53]
+
+A most interesting description is given by Sahagun of one of the
+edifices erected by the Toltecs in Tula. If true, it clearly shows
+that in pre-Aztec times much more elaborately decorated buildings were
+erected than in the more recent period, for there are no accounts in
+the writings of the Spaniards of such lavishly ornamented buildings
+existing in the numerous cities conquered by them during the beginning
+of the sixteenth century. This is corroborated by the excavations now
+being conducted in the ruins of Teotihuacan, the greatest city known
+to us from Toltec times, where some marvelous structures have been
+unearthed.[54] The temple in question is said by Sahagun to have been
+built in honor of Quetzalcoatl, and included in its embellishment some
+of the most precious work of which they were capable.
+
+ It had four halls. The eastern one (had the walls) covered with plates
+ of gold, and it was called the golden hall or house. The western
+ hall was called the hall of emeralds, or turquoises, because inside
+ they had (the walls) covered with fine stonework, with all manner of
+ stones, all placed and joined (together) as a coating or covering,
+ like work of mosaic. The southern hall had the walls of divers marine
+ shells, and in place of any other covering, they had silver, which
+ was put together so nicely with the shells that the joints were not
+ visible. The fourth hall, the northern one, had the walls made of
+ colored jasper and shell, put on in a very ornamental manner.[55]
+
+The fame of this temple or palace seems to have been firmly
+established, as Sahagun recurs to it in another part of his history,
+but in less detail. Sahagun follows the fortunes of the culture
+hero while he was in the ascendency in Tula, and states that
+later, owing to circumstances which it is needless to relate in
+this place, Quetzalcoatl determining to abandon Tula, ordered the
+burning of “all the houses that he had made of silver and shell, and
+furthermore commanded that other precious things should be buried
+in the neighboring hills and ravines.”[56] This indicates that the
+mosaic-decorated building was laid in ruins, and part of the treasure,
+at least, was buried before the inhabitants left the region and
+commenced the migration southward.
+
+In presenting the tradition of this migration of Quetzalcoatl, Sahagun
+states that he (Quetzalcoatl) is reputed to have made and erected some
+houses underground which are called _Mientlancalco_. This of course
+refers to the famous ruins of Mitla, and seems to be an authentic
+tradition of the Nahuan origin of this important city of southern
+Mexico. It is doubly significant, when considered in connection with
+the description of the mosaic-decorated buildings in Tula, for, as is
+well known, the dominant architectural feature of the Mitla group of
+structures is the mosaic treatment of many of their outer and inner
+walls.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XI
+
+MASK OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
+
+It is not necessary to give more than brief attention to this
+application of mosaic-work in architecture. The traditional
+mosaic-decorated buildings of Tula have disappeared, but the structures
+of Mitla are still standing in an excellent state of preservation, and
+moreover are easily accessible to travelers by rail and automobile;
+therefore they have been visited and admired by more people than
+perhaps any ruins in ancient America. In the embellishment of the walls
+a true mosaic decoration was employed, differing in kind only from
+the turquois mosaic on small objects. Geometric patterns were produced
+by fitting together small stones of different shapes and sizes, some
+of which were more deeply imbedded than others, so that the designs
+were traced out by the stones which projected more than others; in
+single panels, several planes were necessary to bring out the desired
+patterns. In many cases the stones are so neatly fitted that the joints
+can hardly be traced. We have written elsewhere that--
+
+ the massiveness of the construction and simple and chaste
+ ornamentation place the Mitla structures in a class unapproached by
+ any other existing ruined edifices in ancient America. The workmanship
+ revealed in the stonework, the elegant precision with which the
+ stones are laid and carved, is not equaled in any of the Mayan
+ ruins. However, as noted by Holmes, the geometric fretwork mosaics
+ differ from the great façades of the Mayan buildings “in subject
+ matter rather than in kind, for the decorated surfaces there, though
+ depicting animal forms, are mosaics in the sense that they are made
+ up of separate hewn or carved stones set in mortar to form ornamental
+ designs.”[57]
+
+
+
+
+OBJECTS DECORATED WITH MOSAIC
+
+
+In the ancient chronicles are found many descriptions of the employment
+of mosaic-work decoration in the central Mexican region. From the
+writings of Sahagun and others it is clearly evident that many
+such decorated objects were made for and were used as parts of the
+paraphernalia with which great idols of wood or of stone representing
+various deities were adorned for the frequent religious festivals which
+occurred at stated intervals. The rulers and the priests and members of
+the so-called nobility used such objects on these occasions. The major
+employment of the mosaic art seems to have been for the adornment of
+objects or ornaments used ceremonially, such as crowns or head-bands,
+helmets, masks, shields, scepters, ear-ornaments, nose-ornaments,
+breast-plates, bracelets, and anklets. The material on which the mosaic
+incrustation was placed was chiefly wood, but gold, shell, bone, and
+stone were also used. Small figures of the gods, either in human or in
+animal form, as well as musical instruments, were thus adorned. There
+are also indications that pottery vessels were sometimes decorated by
+embedding turquois in the clay.
+
+Unfortunately we still possess only scant knowledge of the various
+objects ornamented in this manner. In the data obtained from the early
+chronicles there is abundant evidence that, in the central plateau of
+Mexico during the period immediately preceding the Spanish conquest,
+the art was highly developed. Visual evidence is at hand in the few
+beautiful examples now in European museums, specimens which were sent
+across the water by Cortés during the earliest period of the conquest,
+between the years 1518 and 1525.
+
+A few references from some of the early writers regarding the use of
+turquois mosaic by the Aztecs will be presented.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XII
+
+MASK OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
+
+Stone idols were often decorated with mosaic incrustations. Andrés
+de Tapia describes an idol probably representing Huitzilopochtli,
+showing this type of embellishment, in the great temple at
+Tenochtitlan. Tapia’s account is worthy of attention, for he was one of
+the captains of Cortés, and took a prominent part in the capture of the
+capital of Montezuma. He writes:
+
+ There were two idols on two pedestals, each one of the bulk of an ox;
+ the pedestals measured a yard in height, and above these (were) two
+ idols, each one almost three yards in height, of polished grain: and
+ the stone was covered over with nacre, which is the shell in which
+ pearls are created, and over this (mother-of-pearl), fastened with
+ bitumen after the manner of paste, were (set in) many jewels of gold,
+ and men, snakes, birds, and histories (hieroglyphs), made of small
+ and large turquoises, of emeralds and amethysts, so that all the
+ mother-of-pearl was covered, except in some places where they left it
+ (uncovered) so as to make work with the stones. These idols had plump
+ snakes of gold (as) girdles, and for collars each (one had) ten or
+ twelve hearts made of gold, and for the face a mask of gold and eyes
+ of mirror (obsidian or iron pyrites), and they had another face in the
+ back of the head like the head of a man without flesh.[58]
+
+Pomar describes the idol of Huitzilopochtli as of wood, “having on
+the breast a jewel of turquoises set in gold, with some gold bells
+(hanging), and on the face (were) two stripes of gold and two of
+turquoises, very beautifully wrought and placed.”[59]
+
+In describing this idol, Bernal Díaz writes that “the whole body was
+covered with precious stones, and gold and pearls, and with seed pearls
+stuck on with a paste that they make in this country out of a sort of
+root, and all the body and head was covered with it, and the body was
+girdled by great snakes made of gold and precious stones.” He goes on
+to mention another idol close to it, which held “a short lance and a
+shield richly decorated with gold and stones.”[60]
+
+Concerning the ancestral treasure of the Aztecan kings which Montezuma
+inherited from his father Axayacatl, finally exacted by Cortés from the
+unfortunate ruler, Bernal Díaz describes “three blowguns with their
+pellet molds and their coverings of jewels and pearls, and pictures in
+feathers of little birds covered with pearl shell, and other birds, all
+of great value.[61]
+
+Tezozomoc, in describing the great sacrifices offered to the god
+Huitzilopochtli in honor of the coronation of Montezuma, and the
+presents brought by neighboring chiefs and lords as tributes from the
+various towns under their jurisdiction, writes:
+
+ In the center of the great square there was a building (_xacal_) where
+ was the _teponaztli_, and the great _tlapanhuehuetl_ with which they
+ made music. On the _xacal_ was the device of the Mexican arms with a
+ small _peñula_ (rock?) of painted paper, like a natural rock, with a
+ great cactus (_tuna_) on it, and on the cactus a royal eagle having
+ in its claws a great mangled snake, and the eagle had a crown of
+ doubled or twisted paper very well (made) and gilded, and (with) very
+ rich stone mosaic-work round about it, in the Mexican custom called
+ _teocuitla amayxcuatzolli_.[62]
+
+At this festival Montezuma had the king of Aculhuacan attired in
+special raiment, which Tezozomoc describes as “a netted mantle with
+much rich stonework in the knots of the mantle, and with little gold
+bells hanging from the fringe.[63]
+
+According to Sahagun, Xiuhtecutli, god of fire, wore “earrings in the
+holes of the ears worked with mosaics of turquois.... In his left hand
+he carried a shield with five greenstones called _chalchihuite_, placed
+like a cross on a round gold plate, which nearly covered the whole of
+the shield.”[64]
+
+[Illustration: PL. XIII
+
+MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
+
+Chalchihuitlicue, goddess of water, fountains, and rivers, wore
+earrings of turquois fashioned in mosaic-work. In describing the
+idol of Quetzalcoatl, Sahagun says that, for ceremonial occasions,
+ear-ornaments of turquois mosaic were placed on it, and “in the
+right hand was placed a scepter like a bishop’s crosier or staff,
+the upper part crooked like a bishop’s staff, and wrought with stone
+mosaic-work.” In treating of the presents sent to Cortés by Montezuma
+we have already given the description of the paraphernalia pertaining
+to this deity. This scepter is there described as having “the crook
+like the head of a snake turned around or coiled.” In the codices the
+god or his priest is represented with this staff with a crook, but the
+serpent-headed scepter is shown by Sahagun (manuscript of the Real
+Palacio, Madrid, estampa VII, fig. 1) as part of the ceremonial outfit
+of Huitzilopochtli (fig. 5). The body of the serpent is painted blue,
+representing the scales done in turquois mosaic.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5]
+
+In describing the god Tezcatlipoca, Pomar states that he was
+represented with “a mask with three stripes (_vetas_) of _espejuelo_
+(either transparent lamellated gypsum [selenite], or more probably
+obsidian), and two of gold, which crossed over the face.”[65] The idol
+was fashioned from wood in the figure of a man. _Espejuelo_, he states,
+was a kind of shining metal called _tezcapoctli_.
+
+In the invocation to the god Paynal, which has been preserved to us in
+the original Mexican tongue by Sahagun, is the strophe, “_yxiuh chimal,
+xiuhtica tlatzaqualli chimalli imax mani_,” which has been translated
+by Seler, “the blue shield, covered with the turquois mosaic, hangs
+from his arm ... he carries the (blue mosaic) shield.”[66] This chapter
+was copied by Seler from the manuscript in the Real Palacio, Madrid.
+In the reproduction of the pictorial part of the manuscript published
+in colors by Troncoso, we find the representation of this deity, in
+which the mosaic shield is graphically drawn and painted blue (see our
+fig. 70, p. 17). Sahagun (book 1, chap. 2) briefly describes “this god
+called Paynal, who was a kind of under-captain of Huitzilopochtli.” He
+is said to have been a man adored as a god.
+
+The Anonymous Conqueror affords valuable information regarding the use
+of shields. He says:
+
+ They use shields of various kinds, made of thick reeds which grow in
+ that country, interwoven with cotton of double thickness, and they
+ cover them with precious stones (turquois mosaic-work) and round
+ plates of gold, which make them so strong that nothing can go through
+ them, unless from a good crossbow. Some arrows, it is true, pierced
+ them, but could do no harm. And because some of these shields have
+ been seen in Spain, I say that they are not of the kind borne in
+ war, but only those used in the festivals and dances which they are
+ accustomed to have.[67]
+
+In his chapter devoted to a consideration of “the finery that the lords
+used in their dances,” Sahagun mentions “bracelets of mosaic-work made
+of turquoises,” and also “masks worked in mosaic, and (having) false
+hair such as they now use, and some plumes of gold which came out of
+the masks.” He further describes the costumes, as follows:
+
+ They also wear attached to the wrists thick bands of black leather
+ made soft with balsam, and decorated with a large bead of chalchihuitl
+ or other precious stone. They also wore labrets of chalchihuitl set in
+ gold, placed through the flesh, although they do not have this custom
+ now. They also have these ornaments made of large rock-crystals,
+ with blue feathers set in them, which give them the appearance of
+ sapphires. They wear also many other precious stones protruding
+ through openings made in the lower lip. The noses of the great lords
+ are also pierced, and they wear in the openings fine turquoises and
+ other precious stones, one on each side. They wear also some strings
+ of precious stones around the neck; they wear a disc of gold hanging
+ from a collar, and in the middle of it a plain precious stone, and
+ around the circumference some pendants of pearls. They use bracelets
+ of mosaic-work made of turquois, with some rich feathers which come
+ out from them higher than the head, and bordered with rich plumes and
+ gold, and some bands of gold which rise with the feathers.[68]
+
+[Illustration: PL. XIV
+
+MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION. NEW YORK]
+
+The distinctive head-band or crown worn by the Mexican rulers is
+mentioned by numerous early writers and illustrated in many codices.
+It was known as the _xiuhtzolli_ or _xiuhuitzontli_, and was called
+also _copilli_. We have selected for illustration (fig. 6) two examples
+from the codices. The first (_a_) is taken from the Sahagun manuscript
+of the Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid (estampa XVII). This page
+contains pictures of a number of Aztecan rulers, all represented with
+the turquois-mosaic crown painted blue. Moreover, the hieroglyphic
+name of Montezuma, here placed above his head, is a mosaic crown. The
+crown itself was of gold, on which the turquois mosaic was placed. The
+other example (_b_) is from the Tribute Roll of Montezuma (Peñafiel
+edition, pl. XIX). It is part of the hieroglyph for the place-name
+Tecmilco, signifying “the lands of the royal crown,” the combination
+being the crown painted blue resting on the sign for cultivated land.
+Our figure shows a plain gold crown, but it is painted blue in the
+codex.
+
+[Illustration: _a_ FIG. 6 _b_]
+
+A copper crown from Tenango, State of Mexico, has been figured by
+Peñafiel. It is properly a head-band with a triangular projection
+with rounded top which rose from the forehead, and was probably worn
+by a warrior or sub-chief.[69] In this work Peñafiel illustrates the
+mask in Rome (see our pl. VII), and states that the upper part is a
+_xiuhhuitzolli_, or turquois-mosaic crown. We will discuss this point
+later. Many years ago, in Mexico, the writer heard of a gold _copilli_
+as having been found in the Matlaltzincan region near Toluca, but was
+never able to verify the story. A few extracts from the chroniclers,
+relating to these golden crowns with turquois mosaic, follow.
+
+In the Codex Cozcatzin the Aztec king Axayacatl is represented with the
+_xiuhuitzontli_, the turquois mosaic-work head-band.[70]
+
+In the selection of Ahuitzotl as king, Tezozomoc writes:
+
+ They put on him the crown which was blue, of rich stone mosaic-work,
+ (in shape) like a half miter called _xiuhtzolli_ (or _xihuitzolli_),
+ and also placed on him, among other things, a netted mantle strewn
+ with small stonework. This formed part of his costume when he went to
+ the temple of Huitzilopochtli to worship. When adored by neighboring
+ subjugated tribes he wore a crown of gold (adorned) with much stone
+ mosaic-work of a half miter shape, and on the left shoulder was put a
+ sash called _matemacatl_ which was all gilded and enameled with fine
+ stone mosaic-work, which was also called _teocuitla cozehuatl_, as
+ we now speak of a shoe-ribbon, and on the foot was placed something
+ like an anklet of _acero_ [_sic_] strewn with emerald stones, all
+ gilded.[71]
+
+Duran states that among the offerings buried with the Aztec king
+Ahuitzotl were “crowns of the fashion that they used, of gold and of
+stone mosaic-work.”[72]
+
+It is related by Tezozomoc that after the death of Netzahualpilli, king
+of Texcoco, Montezuma assembled the senate of Aculhuacan in order to
+select a new king. The choice fell on the fifth son, Quetzalacxoyatl.
+In the ceremony of investiture they placed on him “the blue crown or
+forehead-band decorated with stone mosaic-work.”[73]
+
+The Anonymous Conqueror writes:
+
+ To guard the head, they carry things like the heads of serpents,
+ tigers, lions, or wolves with open jaws, and the head of the man is
+ inside the head of the creature as if it was being devoured. They
+ are of wood covered over with feathers and with jewels of gold and
+ precious stones, which is a wonderful sight.[74]
+
+From Alonso de Molina’s _Vocabulario Mexicano_ (Mexico, 1555, reprinted
+1571) we are able to interpret the Nahuan words which occur in the
+chronicles in connection with the use of turquois in the decoration
+of various objects. The following are some of the more common:
+_nacochtli_, ear-plugs; _tentetl_, labret; _yacaxuitl_, nose-ornament;
+_copilli_, crown; _xiuhxayacatl_, mask of turquois mosaic; _xayacatl_,
+mask; _cactli_, sandal; _tilmatl_, mantle; _amaneahapantli_,
+mantle for lords richly wrought; _teopixcatla-quemitl_, vestment
+of priests; _ecaceuaztli_, fan; _chimalli_, shield; _teteotl_,
+stone idol; _tequacuilli_, large stone idol or statue; _xiuitl_,
+turquois; _tlaquauac xiuitl_, hard turquois; _xiuhtomolli_, turquois;
+_omichicauaztli_, bone musical instrument; _ayacachtli_, rattle.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XV
+
+MASK OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
+
+
+
+
+EXISTING SPECIMENS OF MOSAIC
+
+
+We will now consider the existing specimens of mosaic-work. It has been
+demonstrated, by the extended quotations from the old chronicles and
+codices, that this art was considerably employed in adorning objects
+of a special nature in connection with the dress of kings, nobles,
+warriors, and priests, and the paraphernalia of the gods. We have at
+present no actual examples of many of the objects which we have learned
+were thus ornamented, consequently whatever conception we may gain by
+a study of existing specimens will give us an inadequate idea of the
+art. It is evident that the most elaborate works in stone mosaic sent
+to Europe, as noted in the inventories, have not been preserved, a fact
+borne out by the descriptions in the early accounts of the discovery
+and “things” of Mexico. Moreover, many of the pieces now in European
+museums are either in a poor state of preservation or are incomplete.
+
+Until recently only twenty-four major examples of mosaic-work had
+come to light and been placed on record by printed description and
+illustration. Of these twenty-three are in Europe. The other specimen
+was found a few years ago in a cave in Honduras, and for some time was
+exhibited in the National Museum at Washington, but later came into the
+possession of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. The
+twenty-three known specimens in Europe were probably all sent to the
+Old World by Cortés or his companions.
+
+Some years ago an Indian found a deposit of ceremonial objects of
+wood, incrusted with mosaic-work, in a cave in the mountains of the
+Mixteca region of the State of Puebla. These specimens, seventeen in
+number, are now exhibited in the Museum of the American Indian, Heye
+Foundation. The chief object of this monograph is to describe and
+illustrate this unique collection.
+
+We are also now enabled to record and illustrate, through the courtesy
+of the officials of the Peabody Museum, Harvard University, four other
+objects decorated with mosaic-work. These were found in the sacred
+_cenote_ at the ruins of Chichen Itza, Yucatan, and are now exhibited
+in the Central American hall of the Museum mentioned. This brings the
+number of known specimens to forty-five, of which twenty-two are in
+the United States, and twenty-three in Europe. These specimens are now
+preserved in the following museums:
+
+ British Museum, London, nine specimens.
+
+ Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum, Rome, five specimens.
+
+ Ethnographical Museum, Berlin, three specimens.
+
+ State Natural History Museum, Vienna, three specimens.
+
+ National Museum, Copenhagen, two specimens.
+
+ Museum, Gotha, one specimen.
+
+ Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, New York, eighteen
+ specimens.
+
+ Peabody Museum, Cambridge, four specimens.
+
+In this census are not included the minor objects with mosaic
+decoration, which we will also describe. Of the forty-five pieces
+enumerated, all but three are of wood; two are human skulls, and one a
+human femur. As the European specimens have hitherto been described,
+and in some instances their history traced to the middle of the
+sixteenth century, it will be necessary only to refer the student
+to these studies, note of which will be found in the bibliography
+at the close of this volume. In the present study we have assembled
+photographs or drawings of all of these major specimens, as well as of
+nearly all the minor pieces, and drawings of some of the mosaic objects
+represented in color in the codices. Our pictorial record is therefore
+practically complete.
+
+
+MINOR EXAMPLES
+
+The use of mosaic incrustation in the decoration of stone idols is
+illustrated in pl. II. This stone figure, 3 feet 10 inches high, came
+from Cozcatlan, district of Tehuacan, Puebla, and is now preserved in
+the National Museum of Mexico. It represents the goddess Coatlicue,
+mother of Huitzilopochtli, the Aztecan war god. The Sahagun manuscript
+in the Real Palacio, Madrid, represents this deity with a rattlesnake
+girdle around the waist; held in the right hand is a staff in the
+form of a rattlesnake with the head downward, and having depending
+feathers projecting from the rattles, which are opposite the face of
+the figure. Above the deity is the caption “_Yztac ciuatl coatlicue_.”
+This statue, together with another, of colossal size, also in the
+Museo Nacional of Mexico, has often been denominated _Teoyamiqui_,
+and again at times it has been called _Mictecacihuatl_. The turquois
+decoration is still preserved in the statue illustrated, in the
+incrustation of the circular ear-ornaments and in the discs of mosaic
+in each cheek. The teeth are made of white shell; the inner part of
+the mouth is of red shell; the nose is inlaid with white shell. There
+are traces of incrustation around the eyes, but this mosaic feature is
+practically destroyed. In the breast is set a circular mirror of iron
+pyrites. Around the upper part of the forehead are small holes which
+probably at one time contained stone or shell inlays. A poorly colored
+representation of this idol has been published by Brocklehurst, with
+the title “Teoyamiqui, goddess of death.”[75]
+
+[Illustration: PL. XVI
+
+MASK OF WOOD, MOSAIC DECORATION MISSING
+
+MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
+
+One of the most interesting uses of turquois-mosaic decoration was in
+the embellishment of wooden covers for the ancient books or codices. We
+are fortunate in still having preserved even a single example bearing
+traces of this art. In 1896 the Due de Loubat had reproduced the first
+of his series of Mexican codices, being the first to appear in exact
+facsimile, even to the ancient binding. This work was Codex Vaticanus
+No. 3773, a pre-Columbian Nahua picture-writing preserved in the
+Vatican Library. In a pamphlet by Francisco del Paso y Troncoso which
+accompanies the reproduction is an interesting description of the book,
+from which we quote with respect to the covers:
+
+ It is of fine and thin wood. Each cover measures six by five
+ inches.... The wood of the covers is whitish, and traces of the
+ brilliant lacquer which covered it may still be seen.... (One) cover
+ bears a character which shows us that this is the point at which to
+ begin the reading of the book. As in modern binding the first cover
+ bears a lettering or coat-of-arms; so too, as a rule, the Indians
+ indicated the beginning of their books, and placed on the first cover
+ the decorative incrustations which indicate that here is the first
+ page.... On the center of the cover, placed two in a line, are four
+ reliefs. At first these appeared to have been made by impression on
+ the lacquer, but Monseigneur Francisco Plancarte, who examined them
+ with a microscope, has discovered that they are composed of a paste
+ with which the Indians fasten precious stones in their settings, and
+ in these incrustations we have the impress left by the inequalities of
+ the materials once fixed on the surface. One round greenstone is left,
+ of the kind used by the Mexicans in their mosaics; it is on the upper
+ right-hand corner of the volume, when held ready to be opened. Below
+ it, in the lower right-hand corner may be observed a corresponding
+ conical shaped depression, and the remains of the lacquer in which a
+ stone was fixed. In the other angles there is no trace of anything,
+ proving that nothing existed there of the same kind as that which
+ remains.
+
+In the Loubat reproduction all these features are faithfully
+represented, even to the single greenstone remaining in place.
+
+The existence of mosaic objects in the Zapotecan region of Oaxaca was
+one of the important discoveries made by the Loubat Expedition of the
+American Museum of Natural History, under the direction of the writer,
+during the winters of 1898 and 1902. In mounds locally called _mogotes_
+were discovered stone burial chambers in which skeletons interred with
+numerous offerings were uncovered.
+
+In the burial vaults at Xoxo, excavated in 1898, practically no
+personal ornaments were found, but fragments of mosaic objects were
+discovered in the form of bits of shell, obsidian, jadeite, turquois,
+and hematite, on fragmentary stucco matrices.[76]
+
+[Illustration: PL. XVII
+
+MASK OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION FROM HONDURAS
+
+MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
+
+In the graves and tombs at Cuilapa were discovered many personal
+ornaments made of jadeite, amazon stone, and turquois. In an excavation
+made during January, 1902, in the great temple mound, or teocalli,
+dominating the group of mogotes at Cuilapa, a grave was discovered on
+the summit at a depth of six feet from the surface. It contained the
+skeleton of a child, whose bones, together with the accompanying
+artifacts, were stained bright-red by hematite paint which had been
+thrown into the grave. Surrounding the skeleton were seventeen
+greenstone idols in the form of human figures; more than four hundred
+beads of greenstone and jadeite of varying sizes; thirty-five shells
+of various kinds, perforated for suspension; bits of mother-of-pearl,
+obsidian, and hematite, which evidently were fragments of disintegrated
+mosaic objects; but the most interesting objects recovered were a pair
+of small discs of pottery, upon the flat upper surfaces of which were
+cemented small pieces of very thin, highly-polished hematite, placed in
+mosaic. These last were undoubtedly mirrors, although from the small
+perforation in the center of each we are inclined to regard the pair as
+having been used also as ear-ornaments. One of these specimens should
+be in the Museo Nacional of Mexico, where it belongs; the other is in
+the American Museum of Natural History. The latter, now illustrated for
+the first time (fig. 7), is an inch and three-quarters in diameter, and
+an eighth of an inch in thickness. Our reproduction of this interesting
+object has been made possible by the courtesy of Dr. Clark Wissler,
+Curator of Anthropology.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7]
+
+An interesting specimen of the combination of gold with turquois
+mosaic in jewelry has been recently figured in colors, and described
+by the writer (see fig. 8).[77] It is in the form of a shield, with
+four arrows or darts and pendent bells, and has an extreme length of
+three and one-eighth inches from the top of the shield to the bottom
+of the central bells. We have described in detail the meaning of the
+hieroglyph formed by the mosaic-work, and shown that the brooch-like
+jewel was the insignia of one of the four principal chiefs of the
+Aztecan army, who governed one of the four wards, or _calpullis_, into
+which Tenochtitlan, the capital of Montezuma, was divided. As a matter
+of fact, the jewel was found in a grave in Yanhuitlan, in the Mixteca
+region of Oaxaca. It is the only known specimen that shows turquois
+set on gold, a combination to which we have called attention, in
+quoting from Sahagun and others, regarding turquois mosaic on crowns,
+bracelets, and other gold objects for personal adornment.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8]
+
+In the collections of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye
+Foundation, are three mirrors faced with highly-polished marcasite
+on their original matrices, apparently slate--the only specimens of
+this character that we have seen. Two of these mirrors, which were
+collected by William Niven from ancient graves near Iguala, Guerrero,
+are perforated for suspension, and all three average five inches in
+diameter and a quarter of an inch in thickness. With these mirrors
+were found numerous little unpolished cubes of iron pyrites, which
+may have been intended for use in mosaic-work. There are, however, a
+number of rather thin, flat, irregularly shaped pieces, with very thin
+matrix of stone, and with beveled edges, which unquestionably have been
+parts of mirrors made in mosaic fashion similar to those found in the
+Cuilapa grave, the only difference being that the inlays from Iguala
+are larger and thicker than those on the Cuilapa specimens, which are
+simply thin sheets of hematite. The region where the Iguala specimens
+were discovered was probably the seat of a people of Nahuan culture.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XVIII
+
+MASK OF HUMAN SKULL WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+ETHNOGRAPHICAL MUSEUM, BERLIN]
+
+In 1908 Dr. Manuel Gamio conducted an important excavation of an
+ancient building at the site known as the monuments of Alta Vista, near
+Chalchihuites, Zacatecas, in northern Mexico. In a large chamber called
+the Hall of the Columns, Gamio found two mosaics in a small circular
+compartment in the concrete floor. One of these was a disc of yellow
+pottery encircled by a ring of wood, the entire object being about two
+and three-quarters inches in diameter and three-eighths of an inch
+thick. The wooden ring bore traces of a coating of resin, and many tiny
+bits which formed the mosaic incrustation were found with it, although
+not in place. The bits that had formed the mosaic were thin plates
+of worked turquois, beryl, and steatite. From the fact that the disc
+contained perforations, evidently for suspension, Gamio described it as
+a breast ornament.
+
+The other mosaic piece Gamio believes to have been a labret. He writes
+that “at first glance its shape may be described as resembling the
+bridge of a violin.... Its nucleus is wood, carved to represent two
+symmetrical figures of an alligator (_caiman_), united at the belly.
+Crowning the head are two head plumes, each having two branches. Above
+the point of union of the two reptiles there is a square projection
+with a perforation.”[78] The surface of the ornament had been covered
+with small spherical plates of turquois, beryl, and steatite.
+
+Near these two mosaic ornaments were found numerous small pieces of
+turquois and beryl of different shapes.
+
+In October, 1921, the Spanish newspaper _La Prensa_, New York,
+published a short account, received by letter from the City of Mexico,
+describing what purported to be an extraordinary discovery made early
+in the autumn. It related to the finding of a stone mask decorated in
+mosaic, discovered by one of the assistants of the Museo Nacional in
+a sepulchral chamber in Guerrero. This mask was described as being
+about eight inches high, the human face being partly covered with an
+incrustation of small pieces of turquois, with small bits of coral
+shell above the eyebrows and below the nose. Each eye was formed by an
+oval piece of pearl shell, with pupils of hematite. The mosaic covering
+was missing from the upper part of the forehead and the chin.
+
+The newspaper _Excelsior_ of Mexico City, under date of October 20,
+1921, published a photograph of the specimen and a detailed study of
+the object in a statement signed by José María Arreola, a member of
+the staff of the Department of Anthropology in the City of Mexico.
+In this statement Arreola casts doubt on the authenticity of the
+specimen, pointing out that none of the known pieces of mosaic-work
+in European collections are of stone; that the surface of the mask is
+polished, which would make it difficult for the incrustation to have
+adhered during centuries of burial; that there are no traces of dirt
+in the cracks between the pieces of turquois, and finally he calls
+attention to a strong odor of glue which pervades the object. These
+arguments seemed sufficient to cast serious doubt as to the genuineness
+of the mosaic decoration of the mask. No such question was raised in
+regard to the mask itself. In a brief article entitled “Una Mascara de
+Mosaico Falsificada,” published in _Ethnos_ (nos. 8-12, dated Mexico,
+Nov. 1920-Mar. 1921), the same writer categorically asserts that the
+specimen is fraudulent, and calls on the reputed finder, Sr. Don
+Porfirio Aguirre, to present the evidence regarding the exact place
+where the specimen was discovered in order that further excavation may
+be made with a view of establishing beyond question the history of such
+an important and unique discovery.[79]
+
+[Illustration: PL. XIX
+
+MASK OF HUMAN SKULL WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON]
+
+Precious and semi-precious stones were occasionally inserted singly for
+decorative purposes. In this respect we may simply refer, in passing,
+to the custom in ancient Mexico and Central America of decorating the
+teeth by inserting inlays in the upper incisors, turquois, jadeite,
+hematite, obsidian, and rock-crystal having been used in such manner.
+Rarely two, and in one instance three, insets have been found in a
+single tooth; but this form of decoration can in no sense be considered
+as mosaic.[80]
+
+Another example of the use of turquois as an inlay is supposed to
+be unique. Many years ago we obtained from Don Francisco Belmar a
+beautiful tripod vessel supporting against the side a polychrome human
+figure in the round, representing the god Macuilxochitl, god of dance
+and sport--the deity represented with the painted design around the
+mouth. It is not necessary here to discuss the question raised by Seler
+regarding the attributes and representations of the two analogous
+gods Macuilxochitl and Xochipilli. The vessel here seems clearly to
+be Macuilxochitl, corresponding with that given by Sahagun in the
+manuscript of the Real Palacio, Madrid. What is of interest is the
+disc of turquois inserted in the clay on the upper left-hand part of
+the chest, unquestionably there placed to denote some attribute of the
+deity.
+
+
+CHICHEN ITZA SPECIMENS
+
+We will now consider some interesting examples from the Mayan ruins
+of Chichen Itza, Yucatan, which were found in the sacred well, or
+_cenote_, at that site. This sacred well is described by Casares in
+1905[81] as arousing the admiration and awe of the Indians even to
+this day. It is about 450 feet north of the great pyramid known as the
+Castillo, and a paved way, several inches high, leads to it. At the
+brink is a small temple. The cenote is about 150 feet in diameter; the
+level of the water is 70 feet below the surface, and it is 40 feet
+deep, with a deposit of mud estimated to be about 30 feet in thickness.
+Landa writes: “They [the Maya] held Cozumel and the well of Chichen
+Itza in the same veneration as do pilgrims now Jerusalem and Rome,
+and so they used to visit them, carrying their offerings chiefly to
+Cozumel, as holy places, and when they could not go, they sent them.”
+In another place this author states that “they had the habit then of
+throwing into this well living men as sacrifices to their gods in
+time of drought, and they thought that these would not die, though
+they never saw them again. They used also to throw precious stones
+and the things they most prized. Just on the brink of the well is a
+small building where I found all kinds of idols in honor of all the
+gods of the land.”[82] Casares adds: “What Landa, Cogolludo, and all
+other writers had narrated from mere hearsay, one of the distinguished
+members of the [American Antiquarian] Society, Mr. E. H. Thompson,
+has had the satisfaction to realize, bringing to light the truth of
+these statements, by diligent and intelligent work, the results of
+which I will not mention, as that grateful and honorable task belongs
+exclusively to him.”[83]
+
+Holmes wrote in 1895 of the sacred cenote as follows:
+
+ The Sacred Cenote is larger, and more symmetrical than the other, and,
+ occurring in the midst of the somber forest, is a most impressive and
+ awe-inspiring spectacle. Its charm is enhanced by the weird stories
+ of human sacrifice associated correctly or incorrectly with its
+ history. The walls are nearly circular and approach the perpendicular
+ closely all around. They are diversified only by the encircling ribs
+ and pitted grooves produced by the uneven weathering of the massive,
+ horizontally-bedded limestones. The water has a light coffee color
+ and looks very impure. It is shallow on one side and of unknown depth
+ on the other. A small tomb-like ruin is perched upon the brink. It
+ is conjectured that this structure had something to do with the
+ ceremonies attending the casting of victims and treasure into the
+ terrible pool. There has been some talk of exploring the accumulations
+ from the bottom of this cenote with the expectation of securing works
+ of art or other treasures, but the task is a most formidable one and
+ will require the erection of strong windlasses and efficient dredging
+ apparatus. It is doubtful if promised results warrant the outlay
+ necessary for carrying out the work in a thorough manner.[84]
+
+[Illustration: PL. XX
+
+SHIELD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON]
+
+Nevertheless, a few years later, as hinted by Casares, Mr. Edward H.
+Thompson secured the complete confirmation of the traditions concerning
+the character of the cenote. He brought out of the mud a most amazing
+archeological treasure. Through the kindness of Prof. A. M. Tozzer we
+are enabled to include here drawings of four pieces of mosaic-work
+which were among the many interesting things discovered. As Professor
+Tozzer and Dr. Spinden are engaged in an exhaustive study of the cenote
+material for publication, we will not further anticipate the results of
+their investigations.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10]
+
+In figs. 9 and 10 are illustrated two small fragments of wooden
+objects from the cenote which still retain portions of turquois-mosaic
+decoration. In fig. 9 the irregularly shaped piece in the center is
+a thin plate of gold. Both fragments are evidently from objects of
+considerable size. Several wooden teeth covered with the same kind of
+mosaic incrustation were probably from a jaguar mask or head.
+
+Pl. III represents two fairly complete specimens from the cenote. Of
+these, _a_ is a small staff or scepter, the face of which is covered
+with turquois mosaic, and it is possible that the headdress was once
+similarly incrusted. In _b_ is shown a rattle of wood, within which
+is a copper bell. Only two bits of turquois of the mosaic decoration
+remain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11]
+
+In this object we find in the Mexican pictures an instrument analogous
+to the one last mentioned. In both of the Sahagun manuscripts, that of
+the Real Palacio in Madrid and the one in Florence, are representations
+of the deity Xipe Totec. In the former manuscript is found the name
+of the god written above the figure, _Xippe anavatlitec_, translated
+by Seler as “Xipe, lord of the coastland.” He is an earth deity, “our
+lord the flayed,” for he is represented wearing loosely about him a
+human skin. He was the patron deity of the goldsmiths of the valley of
+Mexico, and is said to have been paid special homage by the people of
+the Teotitlan district, the beginning of the highway to Tabasco. In
+the pictures given by Sahagun, and in other codices, this god carried
+a long staff which terminates in a kind of rattle (fig. 11), similar
+in shape to that found in the cenote of Chichen Itza. It was called
+_chicauaztli_ by the Nahua, and Seler asserts that the rattlestick of
+the god Xipe was carried, besides him, only by the goddesses of the
+earth.[85] Sahagun describes it as a scepter made after the manner
+of the calyx of the poppy where the seed is, with something like the
+point of a dart fastened in and rising from the upper part.[86] The
+resemblance of the cenote specimen to the one shown in the Sahagun
+manuscript suggests that it was brought from the Nahuan region.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12]
+
+In the sculptured wall of the Temple of the Jaguars at Chichen Itza
+are represented a considerable number of warriors and priests dressed
+in elaborate costumes and paraphernalia. Several of these persons wear
+the typical triangular head-band or crown of the Nahuas, on which
+may be distinguished turquois-mosaic decoration (fig. 12). Two of
+these priests or warriors have their faces covered with unmistakable
+turquois-mosaic masks (figs. 13, 14).[87] This points to Nahuan
+influence, and we have other instances of this influence both at
+Chichen Itza and at Uxmal. We are thus led to the belief that the
+mosaics recovered from the cenote were brought to Chichen Itza from
+Nahuan territory.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXI
+
+SHIELD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+STATE MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, VIENNA]
+
+Another example of a turquois mosaic mask in stone sculpture is
+found at the back of the profile face, in front of the ear, of
+the human figure carved on the front of stela 11 at Seibal, in the
+region of the upper Usumacinta, Department of Peten, Guatemala. It was
+photographed by Maler in 1895, and illustrated and described by him
+in his monograph, Explorations of the Upper Usumatsintla and Adjacent
+Region (_Memoirs of the Peabody Museum, Harvard University_, vol. IV,
+no. 1, Cambridge, 1908). Morley has deciphered the date on this stela
+as 10.1.0.0.0, corresponding approximately, according to his method of
+correlation, to 590 A.D. It appears to have been a hotun-marker, or
+stone erected every five years, and is placed in the Great Period of
+Mayan civilization.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14]
+
+
+MAJOR EXAMPLES
+
+The more important major specimens now remain to be considered. As all
+these objects are of wood, with the exception of numbers 3 and 9, we
+will not repeat this in our descriptions. They are:
+
+1. Helmet or head-piece
+
+2. Wooden masks
+
+3. Skull masks
+
+4. Shields
+
+5. Ear-plug
+
+6. Animal figures
+
+7. God figure
+
+8. Knife handles
+
+9. Human femur musical instrument.
+
+
+_Helmet_
+
+The helmet or head-piece on pl. IV is in the British Museum, and was
+first described and illustrated in colors in 1895 by Sir Charles
+Hercules Read. From his study we take the following notes:[88] The
+helmet is hollowed out inside to fit the head and is painted green; the
+exterior is carved with two projections, perhaps intended to represent
+the upper mandibles of eagles. The space between the inner upper part
+of the two beaks and the two outer faces of the beaks bears traces of
+red paint. With this exception, the outer surface has been covered with
+a mosaic of turquois, malachite, pearl shell, and pink shell, inlaid or
+incrusted on a bed of dark-brown gum. A great number of the pieces of
+mosaic have fallen out. It contains, fashioned in dark-green malachite
+pieces, two involved animal figures, which Read conjectures are
+rattlesnakes with crested heads. Judging from the plate accompanying
+Read’s study (no measurements are given), the specimen has an extreme
+height of 7½ inches and a diameter of 7¼ inches. The illustration which
+we reproduce, as well as of the other specimens in London, we owe to
+the kindness of T. A. Joyce, Esq., of the British Museum.
+
+
+_Masks_
+
+The mask on pl. V is in the British Museum, and is one of the best
+preserved specimens of mosaic-work from Mexico. It is of cedar, the
+outer surface being covered with a mosaic of minute pieces of turquois,
+of a brilliant color beneath the eyes and on the forehead, while on
+the other parts the color is a poor grayish-green. The face is studded
+with irregularly shaped cabochon turquoises. The eyes, nostrils, and
+mouth are all pierced; the first are filled with oval pieces of pearl
+shell, each with a circular hole for the pupil. The gum surrounding the
+shell and keeping it in position is gilded. In the half-open mouth is a
+row of seven teeth of white shell set in the upper jaw. On each temple
+is set a pierced square of pearl shell. The inside of the mask is
+painted red. Its height is 6½ inches, the width 6 inches.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXII
+
+BACK OF SHIELD SHOWN ON PLATE I
+
+MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
+
+On pl. VI is shown another mosaic mask in the British Museum. We follow
+Read’s description. It is of cedar, and the lower left-hand part
+of the face is missing. Over the face are represented two entwined
+serpents curving around the eyes and mouth, and the rattle-tipped
+tails rest over the right and left of the forehead. The whole of the
+surface of the mask is covered with a mosaic of turquois, bright-blue
+and dull-green in color, arranged in such manner that the two snakes
+are distinct in color. The rattle of each snake upon the temples are
+modeled of the same gum as that in which the stones are embedded, and
+it seems possible that they were formerly gilded. The mouth of the
+mask is slightly open and contains teeth of white shell in the upper
+jaw. There is a slit over each eye and a hole in each temple. The
+inside of the mask is painted red. Height 6.9 inches, width 6.6 inches.
+Read believes that the heads of the two snakes were on the lower
+checks, which are incomplete. Maudslay identifies this mask with that
+described by Sahagun in the chapter which we have translated (see p.
+14), relating to the objects pertaining to the god Quetzalcoatl which
+were presented by Montezuma to Cortés.[89] In this description only
+one serpent is mentioned, and Sahagun states that “the head with part
+of the body came over one eye so that it formed an eyebrow, and the
+tail with a part of the body went over the other eye to form the other
+eyebrow.” In the plate the two rattles are clearly seen, and Holmes
+has published a diagrammatic drawing differentiating the bodies of the
+serpents. If Sahagun’s description is accurate, this specimen cannot be
+the one mentioned by him. It is, however, one of the most interesting
+pieces of mosaic that has survived.
+
+The very interesting mask of wood shown on pl. VII is in the
+Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum in Rome. It is one of the best
+preserved pieces in Europe, and its history is known as far back as
+1553. It was purchased for the Museum by Giglioli from Cosimo de Medici
+for two and a half francs. It was first illustrated in colors by
+Pigorini,[90] and our illustration is from a photograph just received
+from Rome through the kindness of Dr. S. K. Lothrop. The specimen is
+11 inches high and 5⅜ inches broad, being the tallest mosaic mask that
+has thus far come to light. It represents a human face placed in what
+appears to be the flat open jaws of a snake or an animal, a common
+motive in Middle American art. The back of the mask is flat, and there
+are ovate openings for the eyes. From the nose hangs an ornament of a
+type familiar in central Mexico. Over the forehead appear what seem to
+be raised twined bodies of serpents, and from the left of the upper
+part of the face projects the plumed head of a serpent. We are unable
+to say if the head of the other snake once projected from the opposite
+side of the mask, but it seems impossible that the artist would have
+made this elaborate piece so symmetrical. From Dr. Lothrop’s notes
+it appears that the turquois around the sides is of a slightly faded
+color, but the major portion is brilliant and glistening. The materials
+used are turquois, pink shell, white shell, mother-of-pearl, jadeite
+(for the facial lumps), and a dull-black stone. This remarkable piece
+is a veritable work of art, and from the serpent motive we would class
+it as a Quetzalcoatl mask.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXIII
+
+SHIELD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
+
+The other mask in Rome (pl. VIII) was illustrated as early as 1648.
+This illustration, and the one published by Pigorini (fig. 15), are
+front views. Our plate, from a photograph taken for Dr. Lothrop, is a
+sideview presenting interesting features which are not revealed in the
+illustrations hitherto published. The materials employed are turquois,
+malachite, pink shell, white shell, mother-of-pearl, an unidentifiable
+black stone, and garnet. The edges of the orbits and the protruding
+tongue are painted red, while the fangs are painted white. On the side
+of the face, below the right eye, is the head of an alligator, in the
+neck of which is set a garnet. Attention is called also to the peculiar
+nose and the curling tongue. A considerable portion of the mosaic is
+lost. This mask is larger than the masks in London and New York, being
+8⅝ inches high, with an extreme length, including the protruding
+tongue, of 11 inches. Dr. Lothrop writes that in his description
+Pigorini has done scant justice to this remarkable piece.
+
+On pls. IX to XVI are illustrated the series of masks from the cave
+recently discovered in Mexico, which are in the Museum of the American
+Indian, Heye Foundation. They fall into two classes, those on pls. IX
+to XII being ornamented with turquois mosaic, and so nearly alike in
+workmanship that they might well be the product of one artist, while
+the masks on pls. XIII to XV are different in character, the mosaic
+pieces being larger and coarser, and considerable stone other than
+turquois was employed in the decoration. They are all in a damaged
+condition and lack the chin. All the mosaic incrustations are set in a
+bed of gum.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15]
+
+The best-preserved specimen is illustrated in colors on pl. IX; it is
+7½ inches high, and 6¾ inches wide. Bands of light and dark turquois
+will be observed on the forehead and temples. Around the lower margin
+of the face is a band of blackish to dark-brown stones. On the sides of
+the mask are two large black discs made of a composition resembling
+charcoal and sticky clay. This substance is present in a number of the
+other masks, and we venture the conjecture that it may be the material
+used by the goldsmiths in modeling figures to be cast in gold. Sahagun
+describes it as follows:
+
+ The master gives them the charcoal, which they grind very fine.
+ And when it is ground they add a little clay, the glutinous earth
+ which they use in their pottery. They mix the charcoal with the clay
+ and stir it, and knead it in such manner that the two substances
+ constitute one solid mass. And when they have the mass prepared, they
+ shape it into thin discs which they expose to the sun.... For two
+ days these objects dry, and become very hard. When the charcoal is
+ well dried and very hard, it is cut, then carved by means of a little
+ scraper of copper.[91]
+
+The tip of the nose, as well as the chin, is gone. There are traces
+of red paint over the mouth and in the circular spaces on each side
+of the nose. When the specimen was received, the missing section of
+the lower part of the face was covered with a band of tin, as in
+the mask (pl. XVI) from which the mosaic has disappeared. From this
+circumstance we believe that the objects in this cave deposit were used
+by the Indians after the Spanish conquest, possibly until comparatively
+recent times. Our reasons for this belief will be found in the chapter
+translated from Motolinia in our conclusion. If we assume that at
+certain intervals during centuries the Indians resorted to the cave to
+worship in secret their ancient gods, we can explain the worn condition
+of nearly all of these specimens. Undoubtedly they were preserved and
+treasured for many generations, revered as precious relics of a lost
+but not entirely forgotten civilization. There is not the slightest
+reason for doubting their origin in pre-Spanish times.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXIV
+
+SHIELD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
+
+The mask on pl. X is 6½ inches high and 6¼ inches wide. It is quite
+similar to the one last described, but lacks the encircling lower
+marginal band. The outer zone is of light turquois, with zones of a
+darker shade toward the center. There are traces of red paint above the
+mouth and in the spaces on each side of the nose. On the left temple
+are the remains of a black disc of the same material as on the other
+mask.
+
+The right section of the mask on pl. XI is 7¼ inches in height. The
+turquois incrustation is light-blue in color. There are traces of red
+paint above the mouth. The black composition inlay on the temple is
+square, and contains a biconical depression which does not pass through
+the wood. Around the eye is a raised design, possibly a serpent’s body.
+The entire lower zone is at present without decoration, and possibly
+was never covered with mosaic.
+
+The mask fragment on pl. XII is 7⅜ inches high. The small section of
+mosaic remaining on the forehead is dark-blue, while that on the rest
+of the face is light-blue. There is a black composition disc on the
+temple, and traces of red paint above the mouth. The marking on the
+plain surface on the forehead appears to be ancient.
+
+We now come to the other group. On pl. XIII is a mask 6⅜ inches high
+and 5¾ inches wide. A portion of the chin still remains, with mosaic
+decoration, indicating that the missing chins in the other masks were
+probably thus embellished. In general appearance this specimen differs
+widely from those just described. The pieces used in the mosaic are
+rougher in shape and larger. A few bits of bright-green turquois are
+found on the forehead, but the rest of the incrustation is a stone of a
+brownish- or grayish-green color. The distinctive feature is the band
+which encircles the forehead, running downward and ending at the sides
+of the nose. It is of black composition, but is highly polished, and
+there are pieces of light-brown color. Traces of red paint appear above
+the mouth.
+
+The mask on pl. XIV is 6¾ inches high and 5¼ inches wide. It lacks the
+chin, but still retains a goodly part of the mosaic. This specimen is
+somewhat different in treatment from the others, closely resembling
+in technique the mask fragment which follows on pl. XV. The mass of
+incrustation is outlined by a band of single light brownish-gray
+stones. The forehead has a mosaic of blackish and dark-green stones,
+the same effect being seen on each side of the plain space at the
+sides of the nose, merging into lighter zones on the cheeks. Red paint
+is above the mouth and on the spaces at the side of and below the nose.
+This mask had a tin band or plate over the missing chin. The space
+above the eyes is coated black, the material being probably obtained by
+thinning the black composition into a coarse paint by the addition of
+melted gum or wax. Two black composition discs are on the temples.
+
+The fragment of mask on pl. XV is 5⅝ inches high. As before stated, it
+resembles the mask just described. The mosaic, of large bits of stone,
+is outlined by a line of single lighter stones. The forehead contains
+a mosaic of greenish stones, and the space above the ridge of the nose
+has a patch of light-red shell bits. The space on each side of the nose
+and in the mouth is painted red, while that above the eyes is painted
+jet black. A black composition disc is on the temple.
+
+The mask without mosaic on pl. XVI is 6⅞ inches high and 5¼ inches
+wide. The wood is of a light color, and rather soft. We have left on
+this specimen the tin plate which replaces the missing chin. That
+this mask was once covered with mosaic decoration may be seen in the
+fragment remaining at the right side of the mouth. The eyes in this
+specimen are semi-lenticular in shape, differing from the others which
+are either ovate or lenticular in outline.
+
+This closes our description of the specimens found in the deposit in
+the cave in the Mixteca. With them were found some fragments of native
+paper made of _amate_ fiber, two of which enclosed regularly shaped
+small masses of gum incense. In one of these several pieces of the
+gum were held together by an interlaced string of flexible bark. They
+provide further proof that the cave was resorted to for religious
+ceremonies or sacrifices.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXV
+
+SHIELD OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
+
+The next mask to be considered, on pl. XVII, is the only specimen known
+from Central America, and with the pieces found recently in the Mexican
+cave are the only major specimens found under archeological conditions.
+This mask is 8½ inches high, and the three facial projections extend
+4 inches from the face. It is in the Museum of the American Indian,
+Heye Foundation. This interesting object was found some years ago in
+a cave in the mountainous region of Honduras, in an arroyo on the
+headwaters of a small stream flowing into the Rio Chamelecon, about 25
+miles from the ruins of the ancient city of Naco. Hundreds of copper
+bells of varying sizes and shapes were found at the same time. The mask
+has been figured and described by A. H. Blackiston, whose description
+follows:
+
+ First in interest in the writer’s collection is a large life-sized
+ mask of white cedar which was covered with mosaics of turquois and
+ other stones set in a thick gum or pitch with which it was coated.
+ Three greatly elongated straight projections answer for the nose and
+ the two lips. Holes were cut for the eyes and two small ones on the
+ sides for the thongs which bound it to the head. A large cavity in
+ the forehead was evidently the setting of the crowning stone of the
+ collection, though of what nature this was we unfortunately are unable
+ to surmise, as it evidently became loosened and dropped out years
+ before its discovery. Along the sides of the face are depressions in
+ the coating of gum for regularly shaped stones about half an inch long
+ by three-eighths of an inch in width, arranged in parallel rows--none
+ of which remain at present. The rest of the surface, as noted, was
+ covered with small turquois mosaics, a number of which are in place
+ today.[92]
+
+
+_Skull Masks_
+
+The two final masks to be described are the skull masks in the
+Ethnographical Museum in Berlin, and in the British Museum, London. On
+pl. XVIII is represented the Berlin example, which has been described
+by Uhle and illustrated in colors, three-fourths natural size.[93]
+Only the front of the skull has been used, and it was incrusted with
+sky-blue to pale slabs of turquois. The mask is 6⅝ inches in height.
+Our illustration is a photograph of the lithograph published by Uhle.
+
+The skull mask in the British Museum (pl. XIX) has been illustrated
+many times, and is one of the best-known pieces of Mexican mosaic.
+It has also been repeatedly described, so that it is not necessary to
+present a detailed description at this time. Suffice it to say that
+the back of the skull has been cut away, and the front covered with
+five broad transverse mosaic bands, alternating from the top downward,
+of lignite (not obsidian, as all writers have described it, we are
+informed by Joyce) and turquois. The inside is lined with leather, on
+which traces of red paint still remain.
+
+
+_Shields_
+
+Richly decorated shields or chimallis played a prominent part in
+certain phases of the life of the ancient Mexicans. Mrs. Nuttall, in
+her interesting and instructive study, “On Old Mexican Shields,”[94]
+has pointed out that “all authorities agree that the shields were
+of two kinds. The first consisted of the military shields used
+for protection in warfare by all grades of warriors; the second
+comprised the shields carried, for display only, in religious dances
+and festivals.” In this study Mrs. Nuttall has made the following
+classification of shields, based on an extended examination of the
+chronicles of early writers:
+
+ 1. Plain, unadorned war-shields (_yaochimalli_) of several kinds, used
+ by the common soldiers.
+
+ 2. Gala shields (_totopchimalli_), indicating the military rank and
+ achievement of chiefs. These seem to have been indiscriminately used
+ in warfare or feasts and dances. Their general structure seems to have
+ been alike in either case, though it is obvious that they may have
+ been more or less light and strong. Shields of this category sometimes
+ reproduced one or more features of the military costume, body-painting
+ and adornments pertaining to each grade. The shield in Museo Nacional
+ is an example of this kind. Others exhibited the emblematic device of
+ a militant god, Huitzilopochtli, Xipe, Yiacatecuhtli, etc., marking an
+ order of chivalry--and to this division the Stuttgart specimens belong.
+
+ 3. Shields, presumably of the supreme war-chief, exhibiting in
+ picture-writing the name of his people or his personal appellation.
+ Nothing certain is known about this group, but its existence seems
+ vouched for by a series of indications.
+
+ 4. Shields pictured in the codices with deities only exhibiting
+ their emblematic devices or reproducing features of their symbolic
+ attire. Such shields seem to have been carried, in religious dances
+ and festivals, by the living images of the deities in whose honor they
+ were held.
+
+ 5. Shields of most precious materials, with strange and elaborate
+ designs, described in the Inventories. As they are not mentioned
+ elsewhere, it is not possible to state anything definite about them,
+ but it is obvious that they were intended for the use of individuals
+ of supreme rank. The beautiful shield at Castle Ambras belongs to
+ this group. It is, consequently, the sole forthcoming specimen with a
+ valid, though shadowy, right to the title of “Montezuma’s shield.”
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXVI
+
+SHIELD OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
+
+In the inventories of the Cortés loot, 150 shields are enumerated,
+mostly decorated with feathers, but 25 are specified as being
+ornamented with turquois mosaic, while others were garnished with
+gold. Of the feather-mosaic shields, one example is in Vienna (the
+shield formerly in Castle Ambras), two are in Stuttgart, and one is in
+the Museo Nacional, Mexico. Of the turquois mosaic shields, one is in
+London, and one in Vienna; none exists in Mexico. To this number we
+are now able to add eight specimens in New York, namely, one perfect
+shield, two nearly complete ones, and five fragments, all from the cave
+in the Mixteca.
+
+We have already given numerous extracts from the early writers
+concerning the use of mosaic shields as part of the paraphernalia
+of the deities. In figs. 16-17 are two representations of the god
+Paynal, holding in his right hand a mosaic shield. Fig. 16 is from the
+Florentine manuscript of Sahagun (lamina 8), while fig. 17 is from the
+Real Palacio manuscript of the same author. In the original the shield
+is painted blue. These are the only examples we have been able to find
+in the Mexican codices where the mosaic character of the shield is
+unquestionably delineated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17]
+
+We will now consider the two mosaic shields in Europe. On pl. XX is the
+shield in the British Museum. Its early history is unknown, other than
+that it was purchased in 1866 from a dealer who stated that it came
+from Turin. Quite a little of the mosaic is missing, but not enough to
+destroy the intricate and interesting designs. It has been described by
+Read, accompanied with a drawing of the figures.[95] The shield is of
+cedar, with a diameter of 12¼ inches. The material used for the mosaic
+is turquois and shell. The center of the design consists of a circle in
+relief, the edge of which is divided into four equal parts by angular
+points in pink shell, and each quarter of the circumference has three
+large but irregular pieces of shell at intervals. It is a _tonatiuh_,
+or sun disc, and a figure of a serpent is disposed meander-fashion
+vertically over the entire central portion. One edge of the snake is
+bordered with imitation studs formed of brown gum, of which a few still
+preserve a covering of very thin gold-leaf. The head is placed at the
+upper left side, the tail ending in three feathers at the lower right
+edge of the circle. On each side are two human figures, and at the
+center, near the top, projecting from the body of the snake, is a
+bifurcated design, probably a tree, upon which rests, in a pear-shaped
+enclosure, a human figure on its back. Through the shield are many
+irregular perforations, and twenty-five small holes are regularly
+disposed around the edge, possibly for the suspension of feathers, or
+bits of stone, gold, or gold-leaf, over gum, may have been inserted.
+Two larger holes are near the upper margin.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXVII
+
+SHIELD OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
+
+On pl. XXI we reproduce the Vienna shield.[96] It is larger than the
+London specimen, being 16½ inches in diameter, and the designs are not
+so involved as in the London shield. Unfortunately the greater part
+of the mosaic has fallen out, but the figures in most cases may be
+traced by the impressions in the gum matrix. The designs consist of
+two _tonatiuh_, or sun discs, placed one above the other. In the upper
+_tonatiuh_ is a human figure. There are many examples of this motive
+in Mexican sculptures and codices. Across the center of the shield,
+between the two sun discs, is a procession of human figures, four each
+on the right and the left, all facing the center. Between them is a
+human figure, head-downward, in the act of falling or plunging from the
+upper sun disc. Above this line of figures are four others, two on each
+side of the sun disc, which they face. Below, facing the lower disc,
+are three other figures on each side, and lower still are two more on
+each side. The total number of human figures, so far as we are able
+to determine, is twenty-four. This shield was formerly in the Castle
+Ambras, near Innsbruck, and its history is traceable to 1596, it being
+mentioned in an inventory of that date.
+
+We cannot identify these two shields with those described in the Cortés
+inventories, but there is no reason to doubt that they formed part of
+that treasure. As examples of mosaic art, they are priceless, even in
+their damaged condition.
+
+The circumstances attending the discovery of the shields now in New
+York have already been alluded to. Pl. I is an exact reproduction in
+colors of one of these, the most important example of aboriginal
+American mosaic art known. It is in an almost perfect state of
+preservation, and is practically of the same size as the London
+specimen, being 12¾ inches in diameter, with an average thickness of
+three-eighths of an inch. The wood is probably cedar. In a highly
+esthetic manner the mosaic incrustation has been set in a bed of gum,
+with alternating massing of light and dark turquoises to produce bands
+or zones of shading in light or dark bluish-green. It is estimated
+that nearly 14,000 individual pieces enter into the composition of
+this mosaic, the greater number being tiny circular bits. The design
+represents a sun disc, with eight pointers in the outer rim. Inside of
+the innermost of the two raised narrow encircling bands is a picture of
+ceremonial or mythological character. We hesitate at an interpretation,
+but the main features may quite certainly be recognized. We are of
+the opinion that the scene portrayed perhaps relates to the worship
+of the planet Venus. It is in the region where this shield was found
+that Seler, after making exhaustive comparative studies of several
+pre-Columbian codices, concludes:
+
+ We have to look for the home of the Codex Borgia group of
+ manuscripts.... It was a land inhabited by Aztec-speaking peoples;
+ it was conterminous with the Zapotec territory, and it lay on the
+ trade-route which led to the coast, and to the Maya-peopled district
+ of Tabasco.... Indeed we also know that in this very region astronomic
+ observation was highly developed, and the Morning Star (Venus) held in
+ special veneration.[97]
+
+The upper horizontal band of the shield represents the celestial
+region. It recalls, with its feather fringe at the top and dots hanging
+from the lower section, the design around the so-called calendar
+stone collected by Humboldt, now in the Berlin Museum, and the upper
+encircling rim above the procession of figures of the so-called stone
+of Tizoc, as well as some of the upper bands in the murals of Mitla.
+If this is the celestial band, as we believe, it is quite appropriate
+to find on it the _tonatiuh_, or sun, represented in the rosette in
+the center. We find here two sets of four pointers each, radiating
+from the central disc of feathers, which surrounds a lozenge-shaped
+piece on which is a tiny pit below two horizontal lines. In the Real
+Palacio manuscript of Sahagun (estampa XII) are pictures of various
+symbols for heavenly bodies, one being a small disc with tiny dots,
+explained by Sahagun as being the sign for Venus. We have endeavored to
+identify this glyph with that of the symbol for turquois or jewel, or
+the sign for chalchihuitl. There is a slight resemblance, but we hold
+the opinion, as before stated, that it is the sign for the sun. We have
+been unable to find the exact counterpart of this combination either in
+the codices or in sculptures.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXVIII
+
+SHIELD OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
+
+We now come to a feature which is also found in the Vienna shield,
+namely, a person falling or descending from the sun or celestial
+regions. The injured condition of the Vienna specimen renders it
+impossible to distinguish the sex of the figure, but in the New York
+specimen a woman is represented, probably a goddess. On several pages
+of the Codex Nuttall Zouche[98] (pp. 4, 19, 21) are representations
+of human figures hanging from or plunging from the heavenly band.
+Seler has connected these scenes with the Venus period of the Mexican
+calendar. Attached to the band on our shield are five dots. Taken in
+connection with the eight dots below, respectively four on each side of
+the hieroglyph at the bottom, one recalls the suggestive fact that the
+Mexicans were acquainted with the correspondence of eight solar years
+to five Venus periods, and reckonings connected with the correction of
+these two periods have been established by both Seler and Bowditch.[99]
+In the Codex Selden is found an analogous picture, the band of the sky,
+with a central _tonatiuh_, and a descending human figure attached,
+below which are two figures. This scene has been interpreted by
+Beyer[100] as representing the solar god accepting human sacrifice. In
+our shield, the feature which follows in Codex Selden, depicting this
+sacrifice, is absent.
+
+In our shield, facing the plunging figure, are two human figures, one
+on each side, holding something like a staff in each hand, similar
+to those held in the hands of the goddess. From the mouth of each
+of these figures protrudes an unknown object, perhaps a conch-shell
+trumpet, but it is not supported by the hands.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18]
+
+Above a horizontal band just over the bottom of the inner encircling
+rim is a hieroglyph. It is the well-known glyph for Culhuacan, or
+Colhuacan, the name of an important town in the valley of Mexico in
+ancient times. The form of the glyph, a mountain with a curved peak,
+is derived from the tradition that the Nahuan people originated where
+there was a mountain with a curved peak, called in the Nahuan language
+_Culhuacan_. The sign is interwoven with the legendary history of the
+ancient tribes in central Mexico, Teuculhuacan being the province far
+to the north where were situated the Seven Caves of Chicomostoc, the
+primeval home whence sallied the Seven Tribes. In the Codex Boturini I,
+this legend is pictured. In fig. 18 are two forms of the glyph taken
+from the Codex Telleriano Remensis. On each side of this glyph on the
+shield are four dots, not to be confounded with the representations
+of shells attached to the glyph. These eight dots should have a
+calendric meaning, and we might stretch our imagination and consider
+the glyph to be _Calli_, a day-sign and also year-bearer, represented
+by the conventional figure of a house, which would give us the date
+8 _Calli_, capable of being coordinated with either the year 1461 or
+1513. The general character of the glyph, however, seems to be too well
+established as Culhuacan to admit of such hypothesis.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXIX
+
+SHIELD OF WOOD (FRAGMENT) WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
+
+In a letter to the writer Dr. H. J. Spinden advances an explanation
+of the combination of the figures in this sun-disc shield. With his
+permission we quote him verbatim:
+
+ I am inclined to believe that the design as a whole represents a sun
+ shield, the eight radiating bars being the rays, while the celestial
+ band, the three human figures, and the Colhuacan glyph replace the
+ parts of the sun’s face, namely, the head-band, the two eyes and nose
+ (the plunging figure in lieu of the nose), and the mouth. This may
+ seem pretty far-fetched at first glance, but it is quite in the spirit
+ of Aztec art. On the Calendar Stone, around the face of the sun god
+ and the _ollin_ symbol with the enclosed glyphs of the four ages,
+ is, first, a circle of the day signs, second, a circle of quincunx
+ figures, supposed to be the classical hieroglyphs or rather symbols
+ of turquoises, third, a frieze of eagles’ feathers. Multiple rays of
+ different sizes complete the picture. In the actual shield before us
+ we have the turquois mosaic, and the holes around the rim suggest that
+ eagles’ feathers may once have been attached. Compare the sun shield
+ or sun basket of the Pueblo Indians, and the various sun shields on
+ Mayan monuments. Now, the sun and turquois seem to be pretty closely
+ connected symbolically--both mean divine. The hieroglyph of the sun
+ is used for the _teo_, god, in place names, while the prefix _xiuh_
+ means divine in connection with various objects. Jade, on the other
+ hand, means precious. The sun in Aztec ritual is pretty closely
+ connected with riches and jewels, and the sun disc may easily have
+ been conceived of as a gem-studded object. I think it quite possible,
+ therefore, that the design on this shield was intended to symbolize
+ the face of the sun, and the fact that complete figures engaged in
+ some ritualistic function replaces the parts of a realistic face does
+ not detract from the theory.
+
+The back of the shield is shown in pl. XXII. Through the two vertical
+ridges are pairs of holes, evidently for the leather thongs for holding
+the shield. The twenty-eight small holes around the edge of the shield
+were probably for the insertion of feathers or other ornaments, as in
+the British Museum shield.
+
+In technique our shield is similar in all respects to the two mosaic
+shields in Europe. In all three the incrustation is in a bed of gum
+that has been spread over the wood.
+
+We now come to the series of seven mosaic shields in New York, shown in
+pls. XXIII-XXIX. In these we are dealing with a different technique,
+and one which is new to us. For the matrix a kind of cement like fine
+gritty brown sand was used in place of gum. They are unfortunately in a
+considerably damaged state, but two are more or less complete. In these
+examples the wood has been roughly shaped, and in all of them the marks
+of the copper or stone adzes are clearly visible, for there was no
+final smoothing of the wood as in the three specimens before described.
+The probable reason for this is seen in the shield on pl. XXIII. On the
+face of this specimen, on portions of the lower edge, especially at the
+left, are traces of a coarse native paper made from the _amate_ tree,
+which occurs as a band that had been glued to the wood. Traces of paper
+also are found in the same place on the shield fragment illustrated
+on pl. XXIV. It is impossible to state definitely if this paper once
+extended from the edge to the raised body of the mosaic decoration.
+On the fragmentary shield just referred to may be seen a faint black
+line, made with some substance like graphite, running partly around the
+circumference 1 to 1⅞ inches from the edge. It is probably the artist’s
+line in arranging for some class of decoration, perhaps delimiting the
+section to be covered with paper. On the first shield no such line is
+found, but it seems certain that the rough wood between the narrow band
+of paper and the mosaic must have been covered either with paper or
+with some other material. There is no trace of cement, and we are led
+to believe that the paper once extended over the entire plain surface
+of the wood. Parchment or soft leather may also have been stretched
+tightly over the outer zones of shields which show no traces of paper.
+On this surface some type of decoration was undoubtedly placed. We
+recall the quotation given above concerning the use of turquois
+mosaic decoration on paper, in connection with the worship of the god
+Huitzilopochtli. Feather-mosaics, so far as we know, were generally
+made either on parchment or on paper. The codices were made either of
+leather, parchment, or paper, often sized with stucco. In rare cases
+the painting was applied directly on the paper. It is undoubtedly true
+that one or the other of these processes of decoration completed the
+ensemble of the shields we are now considering.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXX
+
+EAR PLUG OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN HEYE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK]
+
+Another point of difference in this series of shields is the material
+spread over the wood to receive the incrusted stones. It must have
+solidified slowly to have allowed for the careful and laborious work
+of fixing the pieces in the plastic matrix. In the case of the matrix
+of gum, material could have been applied and would have hardened
+immediately, for by tests, even after the lapse of centuries, we have
+found it possible to loosen the bits by the application of heat to the
+stone; but in the case of the cement matrix this is not possible. We do
+not know what liquid was used to harden the cement, which is now quite
+friable.
+
+Relatively speaking, comparatively little turquois was used in this
+class of mosaics. Different shades of a soft light-gray stone was
+employed in the outer zones, while darker stones interspersed with
+turquois of varying shades, some almost white, and bits of lignite and
+obsidian, are found.
+
+A final unique feature may be noted in the shields on pls. XXVII and
+XXVIII. In the outer band will be observed the irregular inner edges of
+the two lines of stones which form the border. In pl. XXVII the space
+is filled in with a sprinkling of gritty, almost sand-like, bits of
+faded whitish-blue bastard turquois. It appears to have been spattered
+or sprinkled on while the matrix was very soft. In the case of the
+shield on pl. XXVIII, the material is somewhat coarser, and consists of
+rough bits of the same stone used in the broad light band within the
+outer border.
+
+These shields, so far as we are able to judge from the fragmentary
+sections, contained no pictures or figures as in the other type. In
+general execution they are inferior in workmanship, and less refined
+and finished in appearance. In fact, they constitute a quite distinct
+and, up to the present, unknown type of stone mosaic from Mexico.
+
+The first shield of this series (pl. XXIII) is in two fragments, a
+portion of one edge being missing. It has an average diameter of 15
+inches, and a thickness of one-half to three-quarters of an inch, the
+mosaic disc rising one-eighth of an inch above the wood. The mosaic
+portion has a diameter of 10¼ inches. It appears to be a sun shield,
+judging by the eight pointers which radiate from the band surrounding
+the circular design in the center, which suggest a conventional
+representation of the sun. In the center the darker bits are obsidian.
+A portion of the matrix and of the mosaic incrustation has fallen off,
+and on the matrix near the upper left is a greasy patch which may be
+candle grease.
+
+The shield on pl. XXIV is the same size as the preceding one, 15 inches
+in diameter. It is also in two sections, and a larger section of the
+side is missing. This likewise is probably a sun shield, but it has no
+pointers. Where the outer band has fallen off toward the lower part
+can be seen a faint incised line which the artist placed there as a
+guide-line in following out the circular mosaic decoration. In the
+center the black bits are lignite.
+
+The next shield shown (pl. XXV) consists of a half section only. It
+was slightly larger than any other shield in the collection, having a
+diameter of 15¼ inches and a thickness of 1 inch. It was a sun shield,
+and had four pointers identical with those on the famous calendar stone
+of the Aztecs. There are traces of a paper band glued around the outer
+edge; the black line has already been referred to. The central disc,
+with the white lines made of very tiny bits, is similar to the central
+part of the shield on pl. XXIII.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXXI
+
+HEAD WITH HEAD-PIECE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+NATIONAL MUSEUM, COPENHAGEN]
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXXII
+
+A
+
+JAGUAR HEAD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+ETHNOGRAPHICAL MUSEUM, BERLIN
+
+B
+
+ANIMAL HEAD OF WOOD WITH HUMAN FACE IN OPEN JAW
+
+WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+NATIONAL MUSEUM, COPENHAGEN]
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXXIII
+
+A
+
+ANIMAL HEAD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+STATE NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM, VIENNA
+
+B
+
+MONKEY HEAD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON]
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXXIV
+
+A
+
+TWO-HEADED JAGUAR FIGURE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+ETHNOGRAPHICAL MUSEUM, BERLIN
+
+B
+
+BIRD HEAD OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+MUSEUM, GOTHA]
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXXV
+
+ANIMAL FIGURE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON]
+
+
+One of the most interesting specimens is reproduced in pl. XXVI, which
+is 14⅞ inches in diameter. This is the only shield of the series
+bearing a figure. It had four pointers, which suggest a sun disc,
+but the symbol seems clearly to be a conventional cross-section of a
+conch-shell, the well-known and often delineated symbol of Ehecatl,
+god of the air, one of the various attributes of the god Quetzalcoatl.
+In this example the light pieces of stone are larger than
+in any other piece, but they are cut exceedingly thin. Around the
+outer edge of the mosaic is a faint incised line, and three lines may
+be seen projecting from the pointers, showing that the artist carried
+his guide-lines beyond the zone finally used. The circular line is so
+regular that there is no doubt that the workman used our methods, tying
+a piece of cord to an awl and working from the exact center of the
+shield.
+
+The two fragments on pl. XXVII and XXVIII are the same size--15 inches
+in diameter. They are similar in workmanship; the special feature,
+the sprinkled outer band, has already been alluded to. In the first
+specimen an irregular cavity on the upper face was apparently filled in
+with cement, traces of which remain. The two holes in each shield are
+modern, but the two specimens came to us joined with leather strings.
+They are, however, sections of separate shields.
+
+The last shield of the series (pl. XXIX) has a height of 14⅝ inches. It
+comprises little more than a third of the original object, hence the
+diameter must have been fully 15 inches or more. As in the others, we
+find the encircling bands, but as no part of the center remains, we do
+not know if it had a figure or was like the others of the series.
+
+
+_Ear-plug_
+
+With the deposit of masks and shields in the cave in the Mixteca,
+now in the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, was the
+unique wooden object shown on pl. XXX. It is spool-shaped, the bottom
+flat, the upper part concave and covered with a mosaic of dark-green
+turquois, with a central disc of dark rose-colored shell. It is 1½
+inch high, with a diameter of 1¾ inch at the upper and lower rims.
+There is no doubt that this specimen was an ear-plug. The sides of the
+spool show the small gouges of the cutting instrument with which it was
+fashioned, and the entire surface not covered with mosaic was painted
+rose-red.
+
+
+_Animal Figures_
+
+The specimen in the National Museum in Copenhagen, shown on pl. XXXI,
+has been described in detail by Lehmann,[101] and our illustration is
+taken from his photograph. It is considerably damaged, much of the
+mosaic incrustation having disappeared. The materials are turquois,
+malachite, shell, and mother-of-pearl. In its original state it was one
+of the imposing pieces of this art. The upper projecting part rising
+from the top of the head probably simulated a plumed head-dress. Its
+extreme height is about 10½ inches, and the diameter only 3¾ inches.
+
+On pl. XXXII are illustrated two animal heads. The first (_a_), a
+jaguar head, in the Ethnographical Museum in Berlin, has been described
+in detail by Lehmann in his paper published in the _Proceedings of
+the Fifteenth Congress of Americanists_, held at Quebec in 1906. It
+is 5¾ inches high, and the mosaic is composed of turquois, malachite,
+and shell. The other specimen (_b_) is in the National Museum at
+Copenhagen.[102] It seems to represent a serpent’s head with a human
+face in the open jaws. The mosaic is turquois, malachite, and reddish
+shell. It has an extreme length of 13½ inches and is 8¼ inches high.
+Much of the incrustation has fallen off.
+
+The animal head shown on pl. XXXIII, _a_, is in the Vienna Museum, and
+has been illustrated by Heger in three views.[103] Our drawing is the
+side-view, after Heger. This object is 4⅝ inches long from front to
+back. Much of the mosaic has fallen away, and the pieces of jadeite,
+obsidian, and shell are larger and the work is generally coarser than
+in any of the other examples in Europe. Heger’s photographs depict a
+leather thong issuing from a hole at the back of the head.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXXVI
+
+DOUBLE-HEADED SERPENT OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON]
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXXVII
+
+FIGURE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION, GOD XOLOTL
+
+STATE MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, VIENNA]
+
+The other mosaic on this plate (_b_) is in the British Museum. It
+represents a monkey-like head of white wood, with open mouth. The
+mosaic coating is of turquois, malachite, and other stones. The back
+has a hemispherical depression coated round the sides with a thick
+layer of brown gum, smoothly finished, containing some woolen threads.
+The turquoises are  chiefly of the pale-greenish variety, but
+above the sides of the mouth are two patches of bright-blue stones.
+Each eye is set in the lower edge of a protuberance coated with
+malachite, the eyes themselves being convex discs of highly polished
+iron pyrites set in a ring of shell. Height 4 inches, width 2.7 inches.
+
+An interesting piece is the two-headed jaguar figure in the
+Ethnographical Museum in Berlin (pl. XXXIV, _a_).[104] It is covered
+with bits of turquois and malachite, together with some obsidian,
+shell, and mother-of-pearl. The eyes are of malachite. This specimen
+measures 12⅝ inches in length, and the workmanship seems to be very
+artistic.
+
+An important and unique example of mosaic art is shown on pl. XXXIV,
+_b_, which represents a bird’s head embellished with an incrustation of
+turquois, malachite, obsidian, mother-of-pearl, red coral, and white
+shell, but much of the mosaic has fallen out. This specimen is in the
+Museum in Gotha.[105]
+
+A much injured specimen in the British Museum is illustrated on pl.
+XXXV, which represents an animal on his haunches, with open mouth and
+protruding tongue. On its back is a circular, cup-like receptacle.
+It is cut from a hard, pale-brown wood. Almost the entire surface
+was originally covered with mosaic laid in a bed of black gum, the
+component pieces being turquois, malachite, pink shell, pearl shell,
+and fragments of iron pyrites. The cup-shaped receptacle on the back
+of the animal is now covered with a transparent varnish, except in one
+place where the black gum and bits of mosaic are still in place. The
+varnish shows here and there fragments of gold-leaf, perhaps indicating
+that the cup was once entirely gilded. The height is 6.8 inches.[106]
+
+The gracefully modeled breast-ornament representing a two-headed
+serpent (pl. XXXVI) is in the British Museum. The base is of
+light-colored wood, hollowed at the back and painted red. The front of
+the snake is covered with turquois mosaic; the teeth and fangs in each
+open jaw of the snake are made of white shell, while the edges of the
+gums are indicated with pink shell. Across each nose is a raised band
+of turquois and red shell. The heads have mosaic-work on both sides,
+and it is probable that the eye-sockets formerly contained discs of
+iron pyrites. On the upper edges of the two loops of the bodies are
+holes for suspension. Length 17⅛ inches, height 8 inches.
+
+
+_God Figure_
+
+The figure of the deity shown in pl. XXXVII is in the Vienna Museum.
+It has been described by Dr. Heger, who has kindly sent me a number
+of photographs of the object, and some details regarding it. This has
+been identified by Dr. Seler as representing the god Xolotl, one of
+the deities or guardians of the Tonalamatl.[107] The specimen does not
+contain much mosaic decoration, being of highly polished wood. It is 3½
+inches high and 2¾ inches broad. Dr. Heger has courteously sent me the
+following notes concerning the specimen:
+
+ The posterior circular cavity (see side view) is partly filled with a
+ resin-like mass, by means of which the piece must have been fastened
+ to some other object. Vestiges of this resin-like substance are found
+ in all the hollowed places where today some of the inlay is missing,
+ as in each of the three rounded oval incurvations, of both lateral
+ walls, in which probably small heads [of mosaic?] were also incrusted.
+
+ The eyes and the six small teeth consist of milk-white shells; the
+ two hook-like canines consist of white mother-of-pearl-like shells.
+ The two large ear-lobes, as well as the inferior part of the nasal
+ septum, are perforated transversely. The pretty little human head at
+ the navel of the figure probably consists of pitch-black obsidian.
+ The ear-pendants are missing on the left side. The pupils of the eye
+ (right one missing) are enclosed in small rings of mother-of-pearl.
+ Projecting from the opened mouth, there is above the red tongue
+ another small white shell-plate with three sharp downward points
+ (teeth). The little head shows injury in several places.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXXVIII
+
+STONE KNIFE WITH HANDLE OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON]
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXXIX
+
+A
+
+B
+
+KNIFE HANDLES OF WOOD WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+PREHISTORIC AND ETHNOGRAPHIC MUSEUM, ROME]
+
+_Knife Handles_
+
+The next group of objects to be noted consists of knife handles. The
+beautiful specimen on pl. XXXVIII is in the British Museum. It
+is a chipped leaf-shape bladed knife of honey-colored chalcedony.
+The handle is of a soft, light-colored wood, carved in the form of a
+crouching human figure. The actual socket in which the blade is fixed
+proceeds from the chest of the figure, which grasps it with a hand on
+each side, and rests his chin on the top. The socket is firmly bound
+with cord. The figure and the socket up to the binding have been
+covered with a mosaic, chiefly of turquois, varied with malachite and
+white, pink, purple, and orange shell, as well as a few pieces of pearl
+shell. Much of the mosaic has disappeared. The figure wears an eagle
+mask, the face appearing in the open jaws. This knife, which measures
+12½ inches in length, is one of the most artistic of mosaic specimens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19]
+
+Belonging to this class are the two handles on pl. XXXIX, which
+are in the Museum in Rome. They have been illustrated in colors by
+Pigorini. Through the interest of Dr. Lothrop we are enabled to present
+photographs of these two very interesting objects, together with some
+additional observations concerning them. The first piece (pl. XXXIX,
+_a_, and fig. 19 after Pigorini), is in the form of a crouching figure
+with an animal head and wide-open mouth. It has been described as a
+knife handle, like the other specimen (_b_), which is unquestionably
+of that character, but Dr. Lothrop writes that the front of this piece
+(_a_), where the knife blade should be inserted, is smoothly covered
+with a kind of cement, while in the belly of the figure is a large
+hole. From Dr. Lothrop’s examination of the specimen he was unable to
+satisfy himself whether it was a knife handle or was intended to be
+placed on the head of a staff. The materials used for the incrustation
+are turquois, reddish shell, dull white shell, mother-of-pearl, and
+small flakes of gold. In the Pigorini illustration, which represents
+the side opposite that shown here, two flakes of gold are shown, one in
+the eye, the other on the arm between elbow and shoulder.
+
+The other piece (pl. XXXIX, _b_), unquestionably a knife handle, as
+stated, of the same technique as the specimens in the British Museum,
+represents a crouching human figure. The materials are turquois,
+dark-green malachite, white shell, mother-of-pearl, and red shell.
+Lothrop calls our attention to the tiny pieces of turquois set in shell
+on the shoulder and in other places. He also states that a portion of a
+broken chert (?) blade is still imbedded in the socket in front of the
+figure.
+
+
+_Human Femur Musical Instrument_
+
+The last of the specimens of mosaic to be described is the musical
+instrument (_omichicauaztli_) made from a left human femur, illustrated
+on pl. XL. This unique example, which is in the Museum in Rome, has
+been reproduced in colors by Pigorini. The mosaic seems to have been
+confined to the head and neck, although the trochanter major may also
+have been covered at one time. The incrustation at present consists
+of gum in which are pinkish-orange bits of colored shell. A modern
+copper chain is attached to the bone, from which hangs an oliva shell,
+undoubtedly ancient.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XL
+
+HUMAN FEMUR MUSICAL INSTRUMENT WITH MOSAIC DECORATION
+
+PREHISTORIC AND ETHNOGRAPHIC MUSEUM, ROME]
+
+According to Dr. Lothrop, the oliva shell shows signs of wear, and was
+probably the instrument used for rasping the bone, as the bone is
+sound and produces a rather musical tone when scraped with the shell,
+as if the bone were of china.
+
+Notched human bones are not uncommon in ancient Mexico, and some have
+been found elaborately engraved. In the course of excavations made in
+1900 in the street back of the Cathedral in the City of Mexico, were
+uncovered many small pottery models of musical instruments which had
+been placed there undoubtedly when the foundations of the great Aztecan
+_teocalli_ were laid. The writer secured for the American Museum of
+Natural History examples of these interesting models. Among them was a
+notched bone having attached to it a model of the handled instrument
+with which it was rubbed or rasped.[108]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Finally, attention is called to three objects of wood, of Mexican
+origin, in the Museo Borgiano, Rome. They have been described by
+Colini, and two of the pieces illustrated, in the _Bollettino della
+Società Geografica Italiana_.[109] The first is an idol representing
+a human figure, 17¾ inches in height; the other two specimens, those
+figured by Colini, are masks, and it is highly probable that all of
+these pieces were once decorated, at least in part, with mosaic. One of
+the masks is 6⅞ inches, and the other 7⅛ inches, in height.
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+In view of the considerable number of objects of stone mosaic that
+were sent to Europe during the first years of the Spanish conquest
+of Mexico, part of the loot obtained by Hernán Cortés, it is quite
+possible that other examples are still hidden away either in Spain or
+in Italy, which some day will be brought to light. Only twenty years
+ago two wonderfully preserved carved ceremonial spear-throwers, or
+atlatls, of wood, covered with delicate gold-leaf, were found in an
+old leather-covered case in a house in Florence, and are now exhibited
+in the Ethnological Museum of that city. It is not to be doubted that
+they were sent from Mexico by Cortés himself, and remained stored away,
+unknown to the world, until recent times. Bushnell, who figured and
+described these atlatls, believes that they were formerly in the famous
+collection of the Medicis, and that other objects of Mexican origin
+may be hidden away in Italy, to be revealed from time to time.[110]
+Again, in 1891, Mrs. Zelia Nuttall was the first to bring to our
+notice the important mosaic shield, and the still more interesting
+feather-mosaic shield in the Castle Ambras near Innsbruck, which were
+shortly afterward transferred to the ethnographical section of the
+State Natural History Museum in Vienna.[111]
+
+We should call attention here to the possibilities of finding mosaics
+in Mexico, emphasizing the fact that the collection in the Museum of
+the American Indian, Heye Foundation, was found under archeological
+conditions. Until now we have been somewhat sceptical in regard to the
+possibility of wooden objects of such a fragile and perishable nature
+being discovered either in tombs or in ruined buildings in Middle
+America. As we have already written, the few traces of this mosaic art
+found heretofore in excavations have been of a fragmentary character.
+No specimens of wood covered with mosaic have been found previously
+in Mexico, with the exception of the small rim of wood excavated by
+Gamio in Zacatecas, and the four pieces from Chichen Itza. In the
+tropical and temperate zones, where the most important ancient sites
+are situated, artifacts of wood of any sort have rarely been unearthed.
+It is true that in some of the remote villages carved wooden drums
+(_teponaztli_) have been religiously guarded from the time of the
+conquest, and are brought out and played at certain festivals during
+the year. But these drums are kept in the cabildos, and are preserved
+with zealous care.
+
+We would again call attention to the statement of Sahagun regarding
+the tradition of the abandonment of Tula, that Quetzalcoatl ordered
+certain precious things to be buried in the neighboring hills and
+ravines. This, of course, refers to times long anterior to the coming
+of white men. After this unfortunate event, fatal indeed to the
+Indian, the natives undoubtedly secreted a vast amount of material.
+The circumstances concerning this have been told by Father Motolinia.
+As this account is but little known, we have translated literally the
+entire chapter, for it reveals to us the miserable state into which the
+aborigines had fallen within twenty years after their subjugation.
+
+ _Of how there was an end of idols and of the feasts which the Indians
+ were wont to prepare, and of the vanity and the endeavor which the
+ Spaniards displayed in (their) search for idols._
+
+ The feasts which the Indians made, as is told in the first part
+ (of this book), with their ceremonies and pomp, all ended from the
+ beginning (of the time) that the Spaniards were making war (on them),
+ because the Indians had so much to think about in their tribulations
+ that they did not think of their gods, not even of themselves,
+ because they had so much sorrow that in order to remedy that, all the
+ principal (things in their lives) were stopped.
+
+ In every town they had an idol or demon whom they considered chiefly
+ as their mediator, and called him such, and they honored and adorned
+ him with jewels and garments, and the best they could find they
+ offered him, each town as it was (able to), and more so in the
+ capitals of provinces. These principal idols I mention, as soon as
+ the city of Mexico was taken by the Spaniards, with their jewels and
+ wealth the Indians hid in the most secret place they could find; a
+ large part of the gold that was on (or with) the idols and in the
+ temples they gave as tribute to the Spaniards under whose patronage
+ they belonged; for they could not do otherwise because in the
+ beginning the tributes were so excessive that all the Indians could
+ scrape together or search for, nor what the lords and chiefs had,
+ would suffice; besides, they were forced (to pay tributes) with such
+ iniquity that they also gave the gold they had in the temples of the
+ demons (idols), and even when this was exhausted they paid tribute in
+ slaves, and many times not having slaves in order to comply (with the
+ taxes), they gave free (Indians) as slaves.
+
+ These principal idols, with the insignia and ornaments or garments
+ belonging to the demons, the Indians hid, some in the earth, others in
+ caves, and still others in the woods. Later, when the Indians became
+ converted and were baptized, they unearthed many (of them), and they
+ brought them to the courtyards of the churches to burn them publicly.
+ Others rotted in the earth, because after the Indians had received
+ (or accepted) the Faith, they were ashamed to take out those they
+ had hidden, and would rather let them rot than that anyone should
+ know that they hid them. And when they were importuned to tell (talk)
+ about their principal idols and their vestments, they took them out,
+ all decayed, of which I am a witness, for I have seen it (done) many
+ times. The excuse they gave was good, for they said, “When we hid it,
+ we did not know God, and we thought the Spaniards would soon return to
+ their (own) country, and after we came to understand (about) God, we
+ left it to rot, because we were afraid and ashamed to take it out.”
+ In other towns these principal idols with their vestments were in the
+ care of the lords or of the principal priests of the demons, and those
+ kept them so secretly that hardly anyone knew about them except two or
+ three people who guarded them, and of these (idols) they also brought
+ a very large number to the monasteries to burn them. In many other
+ remote villages, far away from Mexico, when the monks went there to
+ preach, they told them in their sermons and before christening them
+ that the first thing they had to do was to bring all the idols they
+ had and all the insignias of the demons to burn (them): and in this
+ manner they also gave and brought a large quantity which was publicly
+ done in many parts (of the country): because wherever the doctrine
+ and the word of God has reached, not a thing has remained that they
+ knew or could tell about, for if from now on for a hundred years they
+ should dig in the courts of the temples of the ancient idols, they
+ would always find idols, because there were so many that they had
+ made: for it happened that when a child was born they made an idol,
+ and the following year (they made) one a little larger, and after
+ four years they made another one, and as the child grew up they went
+ on making idols, and of these (idols) the foundations and walls are
+ filled, and in the courts there are many of them. In the year (15)39
+ and in the year (15)40 several Spaniards, some with authority and
+ some without it, to show their zeal of the Faith, and thinking that
+ they were accomplishing something (worth while), began to dig and to
+ unearth the dead and to urge the Indians that they should give them
+ idols: and in some parts (of the country) this reached such a stage
+ that the Indians went to look for the idols that were decayed and
+ forgotten in the earth, and some of the Indians were even so sorely
+ tormented that, to tell the truth, they made new idols and gave them
+ (to the Spaniards) that they should cease maltreating them.
+
+ Mixed with the great zeal they (the Spaniards) showed in searching
+ for idols, (there was) not a little covetousness, and it was because
+ the Spaniards (would say), in such a village, or in such a parish,
+ there are (were) idols of gold, or of chalchihuitl which is a stone
+ of great value, and they imagined that there was an idol weighing ten
+ or fifteen arrobas: but in truth they came (too) late, because all
+ the gold and precious stones were spent and cashed in and safely in
+ the power (hands) of the Spaniards who first held those Indians under
+ their jurisdiction. They also thought of finding an idol of stone
+ which would be worth as much as a city, and certainly, although I
+ have seen many idols which were adored and held highly by the Indians
+ and (were) very (greatly) revered as chief gods, and some were of
+ chalchihuitl, the one which seemed to me to be worth most, I do not
+ think that in Spain they would give ten pesos of gold for it: for
+ this they upset and stir and scandalize the towns with their truly
+ indiscrete zeal, because if there really is still an idol in some
+ village, it is either rotten or so (completely) forgotten or (held or
+ kept) so secretly that in a town of ten thousand inhabitants there
+ are not even five who know it, and they hold them for what they are,
+ either for stones or for wood. Those who thus upset these Indians who
+ go their straight way, are like Laban who went to meet Jacob to look
+ for his property, and to upset his house in search of his idols,
+ because of this that I am telling here I have great experience and I
+ (can) see the deceit in which they go about and the way they have to
+ disturb and disfavor (hurt) these poor Indians who have forgotten so
+ absolutely their idols, as if it were a hundred years ago (that they
+ had had them).[112]
+
+Hernándo Ruiz de Alarcon, in his treatise on the superstitions of the
+natives of New Spain, relates that when they went to the hills or
+other remote places where their idols were hidden away, or to certain
+piles of stones where they often made offerings and sacrifices, they
+carried there offerings which were sometimes copal incense wrapped in
+_quauhamatl_, a kind of white paper made from the bark of a soft tree.
+This work, written in 1620, is entitled, _Tratado de las Supersticiones
+y Costumbres Gentilicas que oy viuen entre los Indios Naturales desta
+Nueva España_, and was published for the first time in 1892 by the
+Museo Nacional of Mexico. The present writer has noted such stone
+piles, particularly in Yucatan.
+
+It is probable that we have here an explanation of the existence of our
+deposit of mosaic-incrusted wooden shields and masks, which leads us
+to hope that still further discoveries of this character may be made.
+The climatic conditions in certain parts of the highlands of Middle
+America, where this deposit was found in a cave, favor this assumption.
+There are great sections of comparatively dry, wind-swept, almost
+desert plains, treeless hill-slopes, and ravines, where the chief
+vegetation is cacti in the lower altitudes, while higher up pines and
+oaks abound. Here wooden objects should be indefinitely preserved in
+ancient tombs or in caves, protected by a covering of loose, dry earth,
+the condition under which our collection was found.
+
+The discovery of this remarkable collection of mosaics emphasizes the
+fact that the investigation of the archeology of Mexico is hardly
+commenced, in view of the vast amount of material hidden under the
+ruins of thousands of ancient settlements and burial places, and
+probably in countless caves, which still remain untouched by the
+archeologist.
+
+As revealed by the surprising results of Thompson’s dredging in the
+sacred cenote in Yucatan, a wealth of archeological material also lies
+buried in the mud under the waters of sacred wells and lakes. This is
+notably so in the case of Lake Chapala, on the borders of Michoacan
+and Jalisco in Mexico,[113] and of Lake Amatitlan in Guatemala, where
+thousands of pottery vessels and other objects have been recovered from
+the bottoms of the lakes by divers, and from the mud when the waters
+have receded from the shores during times of extreme drought. These
+objects had been thrown into the waters as offerings to the gods.
+
+The recent results of the systematic exploration of the great mounds
+at Teotihuacan have been quite surprising, and have shed new light on
+the archeology of the central plateau of Mexico. Even more important is
+the discovery of culture sequences in stratified deposits in the valley
+of Mexico, the investigations showing three distinct culture layers
+distinguished by the character of the pottery. Of great significance
+are the discoveries recently made under the great lava flow called the
+Pedregal, at the very edge of the City of Mexico, where the artifacts
+correspond _in toto_ with those found in the bottom layer of the
+stratified deposits.[114] These discoveries mark a great advance in
+our knowledge of the history of ancient Mexico, but, as we have before
+stated, they are only a beginning. Buried underground are the “books”
+the student must study, if ever the tangled history of Middle America
+is to become known and the story of the development of this exceedingly
+interesting division of the human race is to be recorded.
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+
+[1] See Saville, The Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico, _Museum of the
+American Indian, Heye Foundation, Indian Notes and Monographs_, 1920.
+
+[2] Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, Historia General y Natural
+de las Indias, edition of the Real Academia de la Historia, tomo I,
+primera parte, lib. XVII, caps, VIII-XVIII, pp. 502-537, Madrid, 1851.
+
+[3] The Itinerary of Grijalva, written by chaplain Juan Díaz, was
+undoubtedly recorded in Spanish, but we know it only from the Italian
+translation of 1520. It was translated into Spanish by Joaquin Garcia
+Icazbalceta and published by him in his _Documentos para la Historia
+de México_, tomo I, Mexico, 1858. A translation into English, with
+translations of other accounts, relating to this voyage, will appear in
+the _Publications of the Cortes Society_ under the title, The Voyage of
+Juan de Grijalva to Yucatan and the Mexican Coast in 1518.
+
+[4] We quote here from the edition of Bernal Díaz published by the
+Hakluyt Society, bearing the title, The True Conquest of New Spain,
+translated into English by Alfred Percival Maudslay. The citation is
+from vol. I, pp. 48-49, London, 1908.
+
+[5] Bernal Díaz, op. cit., vol. I, p. 53. In the work of Torquemada,
+Monarchia Indiana, is an important statement bearing on this matter, of
+which we give the following translation _in extenso_:
+
+“And this present it was that Gomara and Antonio de Herrera make
+confused mention as having been brought to Ferdinand Cortés by the
+governors of Montezuma on his first landing, which they notice in
+the following words: ‘Which present it is said was sent for Juan de
+Grijalva, when he touched on those shores; but that, notwithstanding
+the haste of those who carried it, they found that he was gone.’ The
+fact was as they state; but I do not understand how those who drew
+up the account of which Herrera availed himself, could have omitted
+that which I say in this chapter, and many other particulars which
+shall be observed in the sequel; since the circumstances which they
+mention, and those which I relate, are intimately connected with each
+other, and those who could have given an account of the former, could
+likewise have done so of the latter; although I think that the error
+lay in their seeking information only from the Spaniards, who at that
+period returned from the Indies, without verifying facts by applying
+to the Indians, who were mainly concerned in most of them, or I may
+say in all, since they were the mark which all who have written on
+the affairs of the conquest strove to hit, and were those who were
+very well acquainted with them, and in the beginning recorded them
+by means of figures and characters, and afterward, when some of the
+most curious amongst them had learned how to write, wrote them down;
+which histories are in my possession: and so high is the estimation
+in which I hold them, on account of their language and the style of
+their composition, that I should be glad to feel myself competent to
+the task of translating them into Spanish with the same elegance and
+grace as the Mexicans penned them in their own language; and since
+these histories are true and authentic, I follow them to the letter;
+but lest the accounts which they contain should appear strange to
+those who read them, I affirm that they are merely a true relation of
+what actually happened, but that other authors have not noticed them
+before me, because the few that have written on the affairs of the
+Indies were ignorant of the events which then occurred, nor had they
+any one to give them the requisite information; neither should I have
+mentioned these facts had I not found that they were verified by Father
+Bernardino de Sahagun, a grave and pious ecclesiastic, who was of the
+second number of those who undertook the conversion of the natives of
+New Spain, but was the first of the investigators of the most secret
+things of this land, of which he knew all the secrets, and employed
+himself for more than sixty years in composing works in the Mexican
+language and in incorporating into it all the information which he was
+able to acquire.” Lib. IV, cap. XIII.
+
+[6] This important work will be reprinted in facsimile, with a
+translation into English, in the author’s proposed work on the voyage
+of Grijalva, as mentioned in Note 3.
+
+[7] This account will also be reprinted in facsimile, with a
+translation into English, in the author’s account of the voyage of
+Grijalva. The title is, Provinciæ Sive Regiones in India Occidentali
+Noviter Repertæ in Vltima Navigatione. The known copies are in the John
+Carter Brown Library, Providence, and the New York Public Library.
+
+[8] I quote here from the translation made and edited by Francis A.
+MacNutt, De Orbe Novo, vol. II, pp. 19-20, New York, 1912.
+
+[9] The chapters relating to the voyage of Grijalva have been
+translated into English by the writer and will appear in the proposed
+work mentioned in Note 3.
+
+[10] Francisco López de Gomara, edition of Don Enrique de Vedia,
+Historiadores Primitivos de Indias, in _Biblioteca de Autores
+Españoles_, tomo I, Madrid, 1877.
+
+[11] Eduard Seler, Ein Kapitel aus dem Geschichtswerk des P. Sahagun,
+p. 124, Berlin, 1890.
+
+[12] Lehmann, in his Methods and Results in Mexican Research, Paris,
+1909, writes: “Hardly less remarkable are the mosaics made of more or
+less precious stones, shells, etc. No less than twenty-three pieces are
+known in various museums, the finest being in London, Rome, and Berlin.
+The stones when cut to shape are embedded in a peculiar substance
+(_tzinacanquauhcuitlatl_) covering the whole surface of the object
+to be decorated; the latter were chiefly of wood, rarely of bone or
+stone. Two masks are skilfully prepared human skulls. The usual shapes
+are shields, helmets, knife handles and trinkets. The small cup-shaped
+heads and the double-jaguar in the Berlin Museum are of doubtful
+meaning. Most of these objects apparently come from the Eastern
+provinces, i. e., Tabasco. We know from other sources that it was only
+under king Ahuizotl, with the conquest of the Tzapotec district, that
+the Mexicans became acquainted with turkois-mosaics, shields, earrings,
+etc.” This is a translation of his Ergebnisse und Aufgaben der
+mexikanistischen Forschung, published in _Archiv für Anthropologie_,
+Neue Folge, band VI, heft 2 u 3, Braunschweig, 1907.
+
+[13] See Lehmann in our List of Works Describing Mexican Mosaics, under
+1906.
+
+[14] Juan de Torquemada, Monarchia Indiana, Barcia edition, Madrid,
+1732, lib. II, cap. LXXIX, p. 215.
+
+[15] See Antonio Peñafiel, Nomenclatura Geográfica y Etimológica de
+México, Mexico, 1897.
+
+[16] Clavigero, The History of Mexico, Cullen transl., vol. II, p. 232,
+London, 1787.
+
+[17] Saville, The Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico, op. cit.
+
+[18] Peter Martyr, op. cit., vol. II, p. 46.
+
+[19] Las Casas, Historia de las Indias, tomo IV, cap. CXXI, pp.
+284-286, Madrid ed., 1876.
+
+[20] Fr. Bernardino de Sahagun, Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva
+España, Bustamante ed., lib. 12, caps, II-VI, pp. 5-12, Mexico, 1829.
+
+Notes to Chapter III. The two places mentioned here, Naulitlantoztlan
+and Mictlanquactle, are given by Torquemada (op. cit., lib. IV, cap.
+XIII, p. 379) as four different towns. Nauhtla and Toztla, the first
+two, are recognizable as being combined into one place-name by Sahagun.
+This is also the case with Mictla and Quauhtla, the third and fourth
+towns of Torquemada, the Mictlanquactle of Sahagun. Brasseur de
+Bourbourg transforms them to Nauhtlan, Tochtlan, and Mictlan-Quauhtla,
+in which he is followed by Orozco y Berra.
+
+Vigil, the editor of Tezozomoc, states that the town of Mictlancuauhtla
+has disappeared, but in a map or plan of Vera Cruz in the collection of
+Icazbalceta, sent in 1580 to Philip II by the alcalde Alvaro Patiño,
+the place is still mentioned, under a corrupted form of the name, as
+Metlangutla.
+
+The name of the five lords sent by Montezuma to receive Cortés,
+conceived to be Quetzalcoatl, are spelled differently by Torquemada
+(op. cit., P-379), and they more closely approach the orthography of
+Molina’s dictionary. They are, Yohualychan, Tepuztecatl, Tizahua,
+Huehuetecatl, and Hueycamecateca.
+
+Notes to Chapter VI. This Xicalanco is not to be confused with the
+Mexican colonial town of the same name near the Laguna de Términos,
+Tabasco. A branch of the Nahuan Mexican people called Xicalancas from
+the name of their first ruler, Xicalancatl, settled on the coast of
+Vera Cruz in the region between the present city of Vera Cruz and the
+Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
+
+Torquemada relates that the messengers, on leaving the ship of Cortés,
+“paddled rapidly away, and came to a little island called Xicalanco,
+where they ate, and rested a little, and they left there and came to
+a town on the seashore called Tecpantlayacac; from there they went to
+Cuetlaxtla, which is some leagues in the interior, where they spent
+the night; the lords and chief of the town begged them to remain there
+that day and rest, but they replied that the need for speed for their
+journey was great.”--Op. cit., lib. IV, cap. XIV, p. 384.
+
+[21] Peter Martyr, op. cit., vol. II, pp. 196-197.
+
+[22] Saville, Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico. The inventories of the
+loot obtained by Cortés are given in English translation on pp. 56-102.
+
+[23] This is quoted from the study of Dr. J. Cheston Morris on the
+“Physical and Technographical Characteristics” of the leaves, in the
+article, “The Tribute Roll of Montezuma,” edited by Dr. Daniel G.
+Brinton, Henry Phillips, Jr., and Dr. J. Cheston Morris, published in
+_Transactions of the American Philosophical Society_, vol. XVII, N. S.,
+pt. II, art. IV, p. 61, Philadelphia, 1892.
+
+[24] The very important Crónica Mexicana, written by Hernando Alvarado
+Tezozomoc, was published by José M. Vigil in his _Biblioteca Mexicana,
+Colección Metódica de Obras y Documentos Relativos a la Historia,
+Geografía, Literatura, Estadística y Legislación de México_, 1881. The
+quotation is from cap. LXXVI, pp. 543-544.
+
+[25] Tezozomoc, op. cit., cap. LXXXIX, p. 600.
+
+[26] Dr. George F. Kunz has kindly placed in our hands his publications
+relating to precious stones. In this connection consult his Gems and
+Precious Stones, New York, 1892; his important paper, New Observations
+on the Occurrences of Precious Stones of Archæological Interest in
+America (extrait des _Mémoires et Déliberations du XVᵉ Congrès des
+Américanistes tenue à Québec du 10 au 15 Septembre 1906_, Quebec,
+1907); and Gems and Precious Stones of Mexico, Mexico, 1907.
+
+[27] The work of Rafael Aguilar y Santillan is entitled Bibliografía
+Geológica y Minera de la República Mexicana completada hasta el año de
+1904, _Boletín del Instituto Geológico de México_, núm. 17, Mexico,
+1908.
+
+[28] The interesting study of Luigi Pigorini describing the Mexican
+mosaics in Rome is entitled Gli Antichi Oggetti Messicani Incrostati di
+Mosaico esistenti nel Museo Preistorico ed Etnografico di Roma, _Reale
+Accademia dei Lincei_, Rome, Anno CCLXXXII, 1884-85, 3ª serie, vol.
+XII, pp. 1-9, I pl. with 5 colored illustrations.
+
+[29] The important study by Joseph E. Pogue, The Turquois. A Study of
+its History, Mineralogy, Geology, Ethnology, Archæology, Mythology,
+Folklore, and Technology, appears as the third memoir of Vol. XII,
+_Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences_, Washington, 1915.
+
+[30] Fray Bernardino de Sahagun, Historia General de las Cosas de
+Nueva España que en Doce Libros y Dos Volúmenes Escribió el R. P.
+Fr. Bernardino de Sahagun, published by Carlos María de Bustamante,
+4 vols., Mexico, 1829. Also published by Lord Kingsborough. The
+quotations are from the Bustamante edition, tomo III, lib. II, cap.
+VII, p. 284, and cap. VIII, pp. 296-297.
+
+[31] On this subject consult the paper by Dr. A. B. Meyer, Die
+Nephritfrage, ein ethnologisches Problem, Berlin, 1883, of which
+an abstract (“The Nephrite Question”) was published in _American
+Anthropologist_, O. S., vol. I, no. 3, Washington, July, 1888.
+
+[32] Saville, A Votive Adze of Jadeite from Mexico, _Monumental
+Records_, New York, May, 1900.
+
+[33] Sahagun, op. cit., tomo III, lib. 10, cap. XXIX, p. 107.
+
+[34] Ibid., cap. vii, p. 19.
+
+[35] The pictorial part of the section of the great work of Sahagun
+in Florence was reproduced in facsimile by the late Mexican scholar,
+Sr. D. Francisco del Paso y Troncoso, for the Mexican government. Only
+recently has the work been received in Mexico, and we are under the
+greatest obligations to Sr. D. Luis Castillo Ledon, Director of the
+Museo Nacional, Mexico, for a copy which we have recently received,
+and which has been of such great assistance in the preparation of
+this study of Mexican mosaics. It is an Atlas, denominated Vol. V, of
+158 estampas (plates). The plates relating to arts and crafts are to
+illustrate Libro IX, and include pl. lv to lxxvi.
+
+[36] We refer the student to the edition of Lord Kingsborough, vol. I.
+
+[37] The Mappe Tlotzin once formed a part of the Boturini collection;
+it was afterward acquired by Aubin, later by Goupil, and is now in the
+National Library in Paris. It has been published in colors (pl. i-iii)
+in Mémoires sur la Peinture Didactique et l’Écriture Figurative des
+Anciens Méxicains, par J. M. A. Aubin, with an introduction by E. T.
+Hamy, Paris, 1885. The pictures referred to are on pl. ii.
+
+[38] Eduard Seler, L’Orfèverie des Anciens Mexicains et leur Art de
+Travailler la Pierre et de Faire des Ornements en Plumes, _Compte rendu
+de la VIIIᵉᵐᵉ Session du Congrès International des Américanistes_,
+Paris, pp. 401-452. The chapter on the art of the lapidaries is on pp.
+418-425. The article, with slight changes in the French translation of
+the Nahuatl text, and some revision, is included in Seler’s Gesammelte
+Abhandlungen zur Amerikanischen Sprach- und Alterthumskunde, Zweiter
+Band, pp. 620-663, Berlin, 1904. The section on the lapidaries’ art is
+on pp. 635-640.
+
+[39] Sahagun, op. cit., tomo II, lib. 9, cap. XVII, pp. 389-391.
+
+[40] The goddess is figured in the numerous examples of the tonalamatl
+in the various codices, of which facsimiles are to be found in all
+important libraries.
+
+[41] The Tonalamatl of the Aubin Collection. An Old Mexican Picture
+Manuscript in the Paris National Library. Published at the Expense of
+his Excellency the Duke of Loubat. With Introduction and Explanatory
+Text by Dr. Eduard Seler. Berlin and London, 1900-1901, p. 115.
+
+[42] The Codex Borbonicus is in the National Library, Paris. It was
+published in exact facsimile, with an introduction by Dr. E. T.
+Hamy, Paris, 1899. The scene referred to is on p. 18 of the Paris
+reproduction.
+
+[43] The important Codex Telleriano Remensis was published in
+facsimile, with an introduction by E. T. Hamy, by the Duke of Loubat,
+Paris, 1899. The illustration referred to is on p. 22 verso, of the
+plates.
+
+[44] Seler, op. cit. (Note 41), p. 118.
+
+[45] Kingsborough, vol. VI, p. 129.
+
+[46] Sahagun, see reproduction of Troncoso, estampa x, fig. 34.
+
+[47] Codex Borbonicus, p. 18.
+
+[48] Tonalamatl Aubin, op. cit., pl. 18.
+
+[49] Seler, op. cit., pp. 114-118.
+
+[50] This quotation is from the Libro de Oro y Tesoro Indico, a
+precious manuscript in the library of the late Joaquín García
+Icazbalceta. Icazbalceta writes as follows about the author: “We do not
+know who was Fr. Andrés de Alcobiz, who in the year 1543 collected in
+Spain these laws of the Mexicans. It is published in _Nueva Colección
+de Documentos para la Historia de México_, tomo III, p. 313, Mexico,
+1891.
+
+[51] Saville, Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico, p. 119.
+
+[52] Anonymous Conqueror, translated by Marshall H. Saville,
+publication of the Cortes Society, no. I, pp. 65-67, New York, 1917.
+
+[53] Obras Históricas de Don Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, tomo I,
+Historia Chichimeca, cap. XXXVI, p. 180, published in Mexico in 1892
+under the editorship of Dr. Alfredo Chavero.
+
+[54] We refer here to the labors of Mexican archeologists begun by
+Leopoldo Batres, and continued by Dr. Manuel Gamio. An elaborate work,
+edited by Gamio, treating of the exploration of this region, has just
+been printed in Mexico.
+
+[55] Sahagun, op. cit., tomo III, lib. 10, cap. XXIX, p. 107.
+
+[56] Ibid., tomo I, lib. 3, cap. XII, p. 255.
+
+[57] Saville, The Cruciform Structures of Mitla and Vicinity, _Putnam
+Anniversary Volume_, p. 187, New York, 1909.
+
+[58] Relación de Andrés de Tapia, published for the first time by
+Icazbalceta in _Colección de Documentos para la Historia de México_,
+tomo II, pp. 582-583, Mexico, 1866.
+
+[59] The Relación de Texcoco was written by Juan Bautista Pomar, a
+mestizo, and a grandson of the Texcocan king Nezahualpitzintli on his
+mother’s side. It was composed for Philip II, and belongs to the class
+of Relations like those of Yucatan, etc. It was first published by
+Icazbalceta in his _Nueva Colección de Documentos para la Historia de
+México_, tomo II. The quotation is from p. 10.
+
+[60] Bernal Díaz, op. cit., vol. II, book VI, chap. xcii, p. 74.
+
+[61] Ibid., chap. CIV, p. 138.
+
+[62] Tezozomoc, op. cit., cap. LXXXVI, p. 592.
+
+[63] Ibid., cap. LXXXVII, p. 593.
+
+[64] Sahagun, op. cit., tomo I, lib. I, cap. XIII, p. 18.
+
+[65] Pomar, op. cit., pp. 8-9.
+
+[66] Seler, Altmexikanische Studien, Ein Kapitel aus dem Geschichtswerk
+des P. Sahagun. _Sonderabzug der Veröffentlichungen aus dem Königlichen
+Museum für Völkerkunde_, I, 4, p. 123, Berlin, 1890.
+
+[67] Anonymous Conqueror, op. cit., p. 22.
+
+[68] Sahagun, op. cit., tomo III, lib. 8, cap. IX, p. 289.
+
+[69] Antonio Peñafiel, Indumentaria Antigua Vestidos Guerreros y
+Civiles de los Mexicanos, pl. 149, Mexico, 1903.
+
+[70] The Codex Coxcatzin has been published in part by Eugène Boban
+in _Documents pour Servir à l’Histoire du Méxique_, Atlas, pl. 41-45,
+Paris, 1891.
+
+[71] Tezozomoc, op. cit., cap. LXI, p. 469; cap. LXIX, pp. 506-507.
+
+[72] Diego Duran, Historia de las Indias de Nueva-España y Islas de
+Tierra Firme, tomo I, cap. LI, p. 407, Mexico, 1867.
+
+[73] Tezozomoc, op. cit., cap. CI, p. 659.
+
+[74] Anonymous Conqueror, op. cit., p. 22.
+
+[75] Thomas Unett Brocklehurst, Mexico To-day, pl. XXXIV, London, 1883.
+
+[76] See Saville, Exploration of Zapotecan Tombs in Southern Mexico,
+_American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. I, pp. 350-362, April, 1899;
+and Funeral Urns from Oaxaca, _American Museum Journal_, vol. IV, pp.
+49-69, New York, 1904.
+
+[77] Saville, Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico, pp. 151-163, pl. i,
+viii.
+
+[78] Manuel Gamio, Los Monumentos Arqueológicos de las Inmediaciones
+de Chalchihuites, Zacatecas, sobretiro del tomo II de los _Anales del
+Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Historia y Etnología_, pp. 467-492,
+5 plans, 8 pl., Mexico, 1910. This is the first piece of work by
+Gamio, and presents the results of the first important archeological
+exploration undertaken in this part of Mexico.
+
+[79] We have just received the first number (Jan.-Feb., 1922) of
+tomo I, época 4ª, of the _Anales del Museo Nacional de Arqueología,
+Historia y Etnografía_ of Mexico, which have long been interrupted. In
+it is announced the forthcoming appearance of a paper relating to this
+subject, “Máscara con Mosaicos de Turquesas.--Dictámenes Periciales.”
+It is to be hoped that the authenticity of this object will be cleared
+of all suspicion by the proposed study.
+
+[80] On this subject consult Saville, Precolumbian Decoration of the
+Teeth in Ecuador, etc., _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. 15,
+1913; reprinted as _Contributions from the Heye Museum_, vol. I, no. 2,
+1913.
+
+[81] David Casares, A Notice of Yucatan with Some Remarks on its Water
+Supply, _Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society_, pp. 207-230,
+Oct., 1905.
+
+[82] Diego de Landa, Historia de las Cosas de Yucatan, edition of Juan
+de Dios de la Rada y Delgado, p. 84, Madrid, 1881.
+
+[83] Casares, op. cit., p. 226.
+
+[84] William H. Holmes, Archeological Studies among the Ancient Cities
+of Mexico, _Anthropological Series, Field Columbian Museum_, vol. I,
+no. 1, Chicago, 1895. Part I, Monuments of Yucatan, Section on Chichen
+Itza, p. 137.
+
+[85] Seler, Codex Vaticanus No. 3773. Elucidation published at the
+expense of the Duke of Loubat, Berlin and London, 1902-1903. In this
+study Seler treats at length of the God Xipe Totec.
+
+[86] Sahagun, op. cit., tomo I, lib. I, cap. XVIII, p. 28.
+
+[87] The two mosaic masks on the sculptured wall at Chichen Itza
+are taken from the drawings on pl. 46 and 47 of the great work of
+Alfred P. Maudslay published as part of _Biologia Centrali-Americana:
+or Contributions to the Knowledge of the Fauna and Flora of Mexico
+and Central America_, edited by F. Ducane Godman and Osbert Salvin.
+Archæology, vol. III (Plates). London, 1895-1902. The crowns are from
+pl. 38, 49-59. The crown with the feathers is from the doorway column
+of Temple A, of the Ball Court.
+
+[88] The first extended study of Mexican turquois mosaics, based
+especially on some of the specimens now in the British Museum, was made
+by E. T. Stevens and published in his Flint Chips, pp. 324-328, London,
+1870. Read’s paper did not appear until 1895.
+
+[89] See Maudslay’s edition of Bernal Díaz, op. cit., vol. I, app.,
+pp. 299-302. Maudslay gives photographs of the two wooden masks in the
+British Museum, which he calls “Masks of Quetzalcoatl,” and of the
+skull mask which he denominates “Mask of Tezcatlipoca.”
+
+[90] See List of Works following.
+
+[91] See translation in Saville, Goldsmith’s Art in Ancient Mexico, pp.
+126-127.
+
+[92] See List of Works following.
+
+[93] See List of Works following. Our illustration is a photograph of
+the colored lithographic plate of Uhle.
+
+[94] Zelia Nuttall, On Ancient Mexican Shields, _Separat-Abdruck aus
+Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, Bd. V, 21 pp., Leiden, 1892.
+
+[95] Read, in his study, gives only a drawing of this shield. Our
+illustration, a direct photograph, does not show the designs so clearly
+as the drawing.
+
+[96] Our illustration is a copy of the photograph published by Heger.
+See List of Works following.
+
+[97] Seler, Codex Fejérváry, An Old Mexican Picture Manuscript in
+the Liverpool Free Public Museum, published at the Expense of His
+Excellency the Duke of Loubat, p. 210, Berlin and London, 1901-1902.
+
+[98] The Codex Nuttall or Zouche was published by the Peabody Museum,
+Cambridge, in 1892. The original is now in the British Museum.
+
+[99] On this subject consult the elucidations of Mexican codices by
+Seler, published at the expense of the Duke of Loubat. Also, Mexican
+and Central American Antiquities, Calendar Systems, and History,
+being translations from the German of papers by Seler, Förstemann,
+and others, published as _Bulletin 28, Bureau of American Ethnology_,
+Washington, 1904. The studies of C. P. Bowditch will be found in his
+Numeration, Calendar Systems and Astronomical Knowledge of the Mayas,
+Cambridge, Mass., 1910.
+
+[100] Hermann Beyer, El llamado “Calendario Azteca,” Mexico, 1921, an
+important study of interpretation of the calendar stone of the Aztecs.
+
+[101] This specimen was first illustrated by Lehmann in his paper, Die
+altmexikanischen Mosaiken des Ethnographischen Museums in Kopenhagen,
+_Globus_, 1907. Our illustration is a drawing from the photograph
+reproduced in this study.
+
+[102] See Note 101.
+
+[103] See Heger, 1892, in List of Works.
+
+[104] Our drawing is from the photograph published by Lehmann in his
+paper in the _Proceedings of the Fifteenth International Congress of
+Americanists_, Quebec, 1907.
+
+[105] Our drawing of this specimen is made from the illustration
+published by Oppel. See List of Works, 1896.
+
+[106] Illustrations of this piece have just been published for the
+first time by Lehmann in his Altmexikanische Kunstgeschichte: Ein
+Entwurf in Umrissen, Berlin, 1922(?).
+
+[107] See Seler’s remarks to Heger’s paper, List of Works, 1890.
+
+[108] Consult Seler, Altmexikanische Knochenrasseln, _Gesammelte
+Abhandlungen_, Zweiter Band, pp. 672-694, Berlin, 1904; also Lumholtz,
+Unknown Mexico, vol. ii, pp. 428-430, New York, 1902.
+
+[109] As Colini’s paper is not easily consulted, we append his
+description of these three Mexican wooden objects:
+
+“L’idolo, a guisa di figura umana, è alto m.o. 45 [17¾ inches high].
+La testa è molto grande, senza alcuna proporzione con le altre
+parti del corpo ed è sormontana da un ornamento. La faccia conserva
+ancora traccie del rosso con cui era colorita, il naso è piccolo ma
+largo e schiacciato, gli occhi sono incavature ovali ed hanno sotto
+tre incisioni circolari, come se si fossero volute rappresentare
+le occhiaje di persona vecchia o malata. Anche vicino agli angoli
+della bocca, poco sopra, sono incise due linee oblique, riempite di
+bianco, quasi a guisa di rughe. Tiene le braccia sollevate con le
+mani sull’ornamento della testa, ma le altre parti del corpo non sono
+affatto distinte. Posa sopra una base decorata con incisioni colorite
+in bianco, di cui manca però una parte, cosicché non è possibile
+comprendere pienamente la sua forma primitiva, la quale sembra che
+fosse rettangolare. In ogni modo era troppo sottile per sostenere
+l’idolo, e perciò dobbiamo credere che facesse parte di un apparecchio
+più complicato.
+
+“Delle maschere l’una (V. Tav. in fine, fig. 2) nel tipo e
+nell’espressione somiglia a quella incrosta di mosaico, descritta da
+Ulisse Aldrovandi la quale oggi si conserva nel Museo Etnografico
+Nazionale di Roma [6⅞ inches high]. Il naso è lungo, sottile ed
+arcuato; ma non essendo incavato nell’interno, la maschera non potrebbe
+adattarsi faccia. Gli occhi consistono in rozze aperture ovali, sotto
+le quali, a breve distanza, sono incisi due profondi solchi, a guisa
+di semicerchi, come nell’idolo. Intorno la fronte, sopra la radice
+del naso, corre una larga fascia in rilievo. Fra le labbra inferiore
+allungate, esce la lingua, che si ripiega sul mento: della parte
+inferiore non è possibile formarsi un concetto perchè è stata tagliata.
+Conserva qua e là le traccie della tinta rossa, ma sono meno evidenti
+che nell’idoli. Sulla fascia della fronte, nella lingua e sul naso
+possono ancora notarsi delle linee incise, riempite di materia bianca.
+
+“L’altra maschera (tav., fig. I) è lavorata con maggiore cura
+[7⅛ inches high]: ha la faccia simmetrica nelle varie parti e
+proporzionata. Le labbra sono piccole, ma, quello inferiore essendo
+rotto, non è possibile indovinarne la forma. Ha il naso arcuato, e
+largo alla base, ed è internamente incavato in modo che la maschera
+potrebbe adattarsi alla faccia, e siccome la bocca, le narici e gli
+occhi sono forati, cosi il portatore potrebbe benissimo vedere,
+respirare e parlare. Nella parte inferiore delle occhiaje, agli
+angoli, si notano due piccole incavature ad arco, la cui forma
+farebbe supporre che vi fossero adattati pezzi di madreperla a guisa
+di occhi, come in quelle del Museo Christy. In generale i lineamente
+mostrano quella espressione placida e contemplativa, che, secondo il
+Tylor, e caratteristica dei lavori aztechi e degli egiziani, tanto
+se si riguardano le massiccie sculture in pietra, quanto le piccole
+teste di terracotta. Ambedue queste maschere, nella parte superiore
+corrispondente alla fronte, hanno fori nei quali forse s’immettevano
+cordoncini per sospenderle: la prima ne ha due grandi agli angoli,
+l’altra quattro più piccoli intorno.” (See note under List of Works,
+1885.)
+
+[110] D. I. Bushnell, Jr., Two Ancient Mexican Atlatls, _American
+Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. 7, no. 2, 1905; also North American
+Ethnographical Material in Italian Collections, _ibid._, vol. 8, 1906.
+
+[111] See Note 94.
+
+[112] Fr. Toribio Motolinia, Historia de los Indios de Nueva
+España, Tratado Tercero, cap. XX, pp. 247-249, edition published by
+Icazbalceta, _Colección de Documentos para la Historia de México_, tomo
+1, Mexico, 1858.
+
+[113] Consult Frederick Starr, The Little Pottery Objects of Lake
+Chapala, Mexico, _Bulletin II, Department of Anthropology, University
+of Chicago_, Chicago, 1897.
+
+[114] An important summary of these discoveries has recently been
+published by Gamio; see Las Excavaciones del Pedregal de San Angel y
+la Cultura Arcaica del Valle de Mexico, _American Anthropologist_,
+N. S., vol. 22, no. 2, 1920. Also the paper of Hermann Beyer, Sobre
+Antigüedades del Pedregal de San Angel, _Memorias de la Sociedad
+Científica “Antonio Alzate” de México_, tomo 37, núm. 8, Oct., 1917;
+and Ramon Mena, El Hombre de “El Pedregal” de San Angel, _Escuela
+Naciona, Preparatoria Curso de 1918_.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF WORKS DESCRIBING MEXICAN MOSAICS
+
+
+1648
+
+ALDROVANUS, ULYSSES. Musæum metallicum. Bologna.
+
+In this work are a brief description (p. 550) and illustrations of two
+of the specimens now in the Museum in Rome, namely, one of the knife
+handles (our pl. XXXIX), and the mask (our pl. VIII). This book is vol.
+XIII of the fourteen volumes of the _Opera Omnia_ of Aldrovanus, issued
+in 1602-1668.
+
+
+1861
+
+TYLOR, E. B. Anahuac: or Mexico and the Mexicans, ancient and modern.
+London.
+
+See pp. 110, 235, 337-339, I fig. Dr. Tylor illustrates the knife with
+handle in the figure on p. 101. In the appendix (pp. 337-339), article
+V is a “Description of three very rare specimens of ancient Mexican
+mosaic work (in the collection of Henry Christy, Esq.).” These objects
+are now in the British Museum.
+
+
+1866
+
+BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG, E., and WALDECK, F. Palenque et autres ruines de
+l’ancienne civilisation du Mexique. Collection de vues, bas-reliefs,
+morceaux d’architecture, coupes, vases, terre cuites, cartées et plans,
+dessinés d’après nature et relevés par M. de Waldeck. Texte rédigé par
+M. Brasseur de Bourbourg.... Ouvrage publié sous les auspices de S.
+E. M. le Ministre de l’instruction publique. Paris. Arthur Bertrand,
+Editeur. Plates. Monuments anciens du Mexique.
+
+Describes (p. VIII) and illustrates in color (pl. XLIII, XLIV) the
+mosaic-handled knife and mosaic skull mask formerly in the Hertz
+collection, now in the British Museum.
+
+
+1867
+
+LÉOUZON LE DUC, L. Rapport sur les antiquités mexicaines conservées à
+Copenhague. _Archives de la Commission Scientifique du Mexique_, Tome
+III. Paris.
+
+Two Mexican mosaics in the Copenhagen Museum are described (tome III,
+pp. 157-158), as follows:
+
+“Voici maintenant trois pièces qui, à mon avis, méritent une attention
+toute particulière.
+
+“D’abord, une tête d’alligator, de 19 centimètres de longueur. Cette
+tête est sculptée en bois et creusée par derrière. La gueule de
+l’alligator est largement ouverte et ses mâchoires encadrent une tête
+humaine fixée au fond du palais.
+
+“Ensuite, une tête d’idole, également sculptée en bois et évidée
+intérieurement, avec une coiffure très-élevée et évasée au sommet,
+d’une hauteur totale, y compris la tête, de 24 centimètres. La bouche
+de l’idole est vaste, ses lèvres fortement tendues découvrent une
+double rangée de longues dents; ses oreilles sont ornées de pendelogues.
+
+“Ces deux pièces offrent cette singularité remarquable qu’elles sont
+garnies en partie, et ont dû l’avoir été en entier, de petits fragments
+d’os la plupart quadrangulaires, blanc ou teints en vert, en rouge et
+en noir, fixés sur le bois à l’aide d’une espèce de résine, ce qui leur
+donne l’aspect d’une mosaïque. Fort endommagées, elles n’ont guère
+conservé d’intacts que les yeux, dont les prunelles sont formées d’os
+blancs, noirs et rouges, et entourées d’un cordon d’os verts. L’état
+du bois qui les compose suffrirait à lui seul pour établir leur haute
+antiquité, si déjà leur caractère symbolique ne la rendait évidente.
+L’une et l’autre out été achetées à Rome, où l’on suppose qu’elles
+avaient été apportées de Mexico par un missionnaire.”
+
+
+1869
+
+SQUIER, E. G. Observations on a collection of chalchihuitls from
+Central America. _Annals of the New York Lyceum of Natural History_,
+vol. IX, August, article XIV, pp. 252-253, fig. I.
+
+The mosaic skull in the British Museum is illustrated, after Waldeck.
+
+
+1870
+
+STEVENS, EDWARD T. Flint chips. A guide to prehistoric archæology,
+as illustrated by the collection in the Blackmore Museum, Salisbury.
+London.
+
+Aztec mosaic work, pp. 324-328. Describes specimens in the Christy
+collection.
+
+
+1880
+
+STEINHAUER, C. L. Das Königliche Ethnographische Museum zu Copenhagen.
+Hand-catalog für die Besuchenden. Copenhagen.
+
+Describes (p. 19) the two mosaics in the Copenhagen Museum. In the 1866
+edition the description is on p. 22.
+
+
+1883
+
+BROCKLEHURST, THOMAS UNETT. Mexico to-day: a country with a great
+future, and a glance at the prehistoric remains and antiquities of the
+Montezumas. London.
+
+Describes (p. 184) and reproduces in colors (pl. XXXIII) the
+human-skull mask in the British Museum. Pl. XXXIV illustrates the
+goddess Coatlicue, showing the turquois-mosaic in colors--the specimen
+to which Peñafiel refers, vide 1903. See our pl. II.
+
+
+1885
+
+COLINI, G. A. Collezioni etnografiche del Museo Borgiano. _Bollettino
+della Società Geografica Italiana_, Roma, Anno XIX, vol. XXII; serie
+II, vol. X, pp. 316-325, 914-932.
+
+In this article Colini (pp. 324-325) describes two masks and an idol
+in the Museo Borgiano in Rome. Regarding these specimens he quotes
+from Vitæ Synopsis Stephani Borgiæ, S. R. E. Cardinalis amplissimi,
+S. Congr. de Propaganda Fide Præfecti, Roma, 1805, p. 44, “Classis
+mexicana: multa lignea et testacea idolorum simulacra forma et figura
+singulari, ac gente mexicanæ propia.” He describes the idol as being
+made of wood in the form of a human figure, 45 cm. high. The two masks
+of wood are described, and figured on the plate containing drawings
+of other American antiquities. It is highly probable that these three
+objects were formerly decorated with mosaic.
+
+PIGORINI, LUIGI. Gli antichi oggetti Messicani incrostati di mosaico
+esistenti nel Museo Preistorico ed Ethnografico di Roma. _Reale
+Accademia dei Lincei_, Anno CCLXXXII, 1884-1885. 9 pp., I pl. with 5
+colored figs.
+
+BASTIAN, A. Zwei altmexikanische Mosaiken. _Verhandlungen der Berliner
+Gesellschaft für Anthropologie_, p. 201.
+
+
+1888
+
+BASTIAN, A., and UHLE, MAX. Schädelmaske von Mexico und Analogien
+aus der Südsee. _Veröffentlichungen aus dem Königlichen Museum für
+Völkerkunde, Herausgegeben von der Verwaltung_, Berlin, Oct.
+
+A description (pp. 2-3) and colored illustration (T. I., I) of the
+mosaic-skull mask in the Berlin Museum.
+
+ANDREE, RICHARD. Die altmexikanischen Mosaiken. _Beitrage zur
+Ethnographie von Amerika aus dem Internationalen Archiv für
+Ethnographie._ Leiden.
+
+Brief notice (p. 8) of the specimen in Gotha.
+
+
+1889
+
+ANDREE, RICHARD. Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche. Neue Folge.
+Leipzig.
+
+Description (pp. 127-130) of the mosaic specimen in Gotha.
+
+
+1890
+
+PEÑAFIEL, ANTONIO. Monumentos del arte Mexicano antiguo. Berlin.
+
+Description (Text, p. 23) and illustration in colors (Atlas, pl. 123)
+of the knife with mosaic handle in the British Museum.
+
+ANDREE, RICHARD. Sur une ancienne mosaique mexicaine. _Congrès
+International des Américanistes, Compte-rendu de la septième session_,
+Berlin, 1888. Berlin.
+
+Describes the Gotha specimen (pp. 146-148).
+
+HEGER, FRANZ. Sur quelques objets archéologiques du Mexique et
+de l’Amérique du Sud. _Congrès International des Américanistes,
+Compte-rendu de la septième session_, Berlin, 1888, pp. 93-97.
+
+The author describes (p. 94) one of the mosaic pieces in the Vienna
+Museum. In the discussion of this paper, Seler (p. 104) identifies the
+animal-like figure as representing the god Xolotl.
+
+
+1892
+
+PI Y MARGIL, FRANCISCO. Historia de la América antecolombiana. Tomo
+primero, segunda parte. Barcelona.
+
+Two colored illustrations (opposite p. 1214) of the mosaic-handled
+knife in the British Museum.
+
+HEGER, FRANZ. Altmexikanische Reliquien aus dem Schlosse Ambras in
+Tirol. _Annalen des K. K. Naturhistorischen Hofmuseums_, B. VII, Heft
+4, pp. 310-400, pl. XVIII, XXII. Vienna.
+
+In this paper Dr. Heger describes and illustrates the shield and animal
+head (three views) of turquois mosaic in the Vienna Museum.
+
+
+1895
+
+READ, CHARLES HERCULES. On an ancient Mexican head-piece coated with
+mosaic. _Archæologia_, vol. LIV, 16 pp., pl. XXVIII, fig. 1-6, London.
+
+Gives in colors and describes for the first time the mosaic head-piece,
+and illustrates all but one of the eight other pieces, in the British
+Museum.
+
+
+1896
+
+OPPEL, A. Die altmexikanischen Mosaiken. _Globus_, Bd. LXX, Nr. 1
+(June), pp. 4-12, 15 fig., Braunschweig.
+
+Figures seven mosaic pieces in the British Museum, five pieces in Rome,
+one piece in Berlin, a piece in Gotha, and a section of the shield in
+Vienna.
+
+
+1903
+
+PEÑAFIEL, ANTONIO. Indumentaria Antigua Mexicana. Vestidos Guerreros y
+Civiles de los Mexicanos. Mexico.
+
+Dr. Peñafiel, in chapter XXIII, under the heading “Incrustaciones
+de Mosaico,” describes some of the mosaic pieces in Europe which he
+states are the most important specimens. “Of this class of works the
+Museo Nacional (Mexico) can count as having only one, in the statue
+of Coatlicue coming from Tehuacan.” On pl. 26 are given the British
+Museum knife, and the two knife-handles in Rome; on pl. 117 one of the
+masks in Rome; on pl. 118(A) the skull mask in Berlin, and (B) the mask
+in Rome; pl. 123 is the femur musical instrument in Rome; and pl. 168
+restorations of the knife-handle specimens with blades, in Rome. These
+illustrations are all in colors, excepting the last.
+
+
+1906
+
+BUSHNELL, DAVID I., Jr. North American ethnographical material
+in Italian museums. _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. VIII,
+Lancaster, Pa.
+
+On pp. 245-246 the author briefly describes the five mosaic pieces in
+Rome, and regarding one of the masks (our pl. VII, _a_) quotes from the
+inventory of the Guardaroba Medicea, 1553, showing the specimen to have
+been in the Medici collection.
+
+LEHMANN, WALTER. Altmexikanische Mosaiken und die Geschenke König
+Motecuzomas und Cortés. _Globus_, Bd. XV, Nr. 20, pp. 318-322,
+Braunschweig, 29 Nov.
+
+In this study Lehmann enumerates the twenty-three Mexican mosaic pieces
+in European museums and gives considerable documentary material from
+the early chroniclers.
+
+
+1907
+
+KUNZ, GEORGE FREDERICK. Gems and precious stones of Mexico. Mexico.
+
+On pp. 7-10, Dr. Kunz discusses turquois and describes some of the
+turquois mosaic specimens in European museums. On p. 52 he concludes
+that “it must be considered as possible, at least, that other
+localities containing turquois were once known, and may be hereafter
+re-discovered.”
+
+LEHMANN, WALTER. Altmexikanische Mosaiken in Kgl. Museum für
+Völkerkunde zu Berlin. _Congrès International des Américanistes, XVᵉ
+Session, tenue à Quebec en 1906_, tome II, pp. 339-349, 4 fig., Quebec.
+
+Describes and illustrates two pieces of Mexican mosaics in the
+Ethnographical Museum of Berlin, a double-jaguar figure, and a jaguar
+head. The first came from the estate of Alexander von Humboldt, the
+second was transferred to the Berlin Museum from the Ducal Museum of
+Braunschweig.
+
+LEHMANN, WALTER. Die altmexikanischen Mosaiken des Ethnographischen
+Museums in Kopenhagen. _Globus_, Bd. XCI, Nr. 21, pp. 332-335, 6 June,
+1907. Abb. I-III.
+
+The author describes and figures the two pieces in Copenhagen, giving
+front and side views, and two different drawings of one of the masks in
+Rome.
+
+
+1908
+
+DÍAZ DEL CASTILLO, BERNAL. (Maudslay, A. P., translator and editor.)
+The true history of the conquest of New Spain. Edition of the Hakluyt
+Society, vol. I, London.
+
+Under the title “Montezuma’s Gifts to Cortés,” Maudslay describes
+(Appendix, pp. 299-302) and illustrates (pl. 13-16) the three mosaic
+masks in the British Museum. Pl. 16 is a rear view of the skull mask
+showing the leather strap by which it was attached to the head. This
+mask Maudslay identifies as probably that of Tezcatlipoca, and the
+other two as belonging to Quetzalcoatl.
+
+
+1910
+
+GAMIO, MANUEL. Los monumentos arqueológicos de las inmediaciones de
+Chalchihuites, Zacatecas. _Anales del Museo Nacional de Arqueología,
+Historia y Etnología_, tome II, pp. 469-492, pls. 1-8, Mexico.
+
+On pl. 8 are figured two pieces of mosaic-work found in the ruins near
+Chalchihuites.
+
+BLACKISTON, A. HOOTON. Recent discoveries in Honduras. _American
+Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. 12, Lancaster, Pa.
+
+Describes (p. 539) and illustrates (pl. XLVI) the mosaic wooden mask
+found in 1908 in a cave in an arroyo on the headwaters of a small
+stream flowing into the Rio Chamelecon, about 25 miles distant from the
+ruins of the ancient city of Naco. This specimen is now in the Museum
+of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. See our pl. XVII.
+
+
+1912
+
+JOYCE, T. A. A short guide to the American antiquities in the British
+Museum. London.
+
+Joyce describes (p. 14) and illustrates (figs. 12-17) six of the mosaic
+pieces in the British Museum.
+
+
+1914
+
+JOYCE, T. A. Mexican archæology. An introduction to the archæology of
+the Mexican and Mayan civilizations of pre-Spanish America. New York
+and London.
+
+In pl. I is reproduced in colors the skull mask, and in pl. XVIII, fig.
+1, the knife with handle. Reference to these is made on p. 141.
+
+HOLMES, W. H. Masterpieces of aboriginal American art. II. Mosaic
+work, minor examples. _Art and Archæology_, vol. I, no. 3, Washington,
+November.
+
+A description (pp. 91-102) of some of the more important specimens of
+mosaics, with colored frontispiece and 9 figures.
+
+
+1915
+
+POGUE, JOSEPH E. The turquoise. A study of its history, mineralogy,
+geology, ethnology, archæology, mythology, folklore, and technology.
+_Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences_, vol. XII, part II, third
+memoir, Washington.
+
+Mexican mosaics are described on pp. 93-97; fig. 4 illustrates the bird
+mask in Gotha; pl. 15-17, Mexican mosaics in the British Museum and in
+Rome (10 pieces). The Use of Turquois in Mexico and Central America:
+Use as Attested by Historical Evidence, pp. 90-92; Use as Attested by
+Objects, pp. 93-97.
+
+
+1921
+
+ARREOLA, JOSÉ MARÍA. Como legítima el Museo Nacional ha adquirido una
+pieza falsificada. _El Excelsior_, Mexico, Oct. 20.
+
+Illustrates in this signed newspaper article a stone mask with turquois
+mosaic decoration said to have been found in Guerrero. He concludes
+that it is fraudulent.
+
+LEHMANN, WALTER. Altmexikanische Kunstgeschichte ein Entwurf in
+Umrissen. Band 8 des Orbis Pictus. Weltkunst-Bücherei herausgegeben von
+Paul Westheim. Berlin.
+
+In this short study of old Mexican art history Dr. Lehmann illustrates
+a number of notable Mexican antiquities. The Xolotl figure in Vienna
+is illustrated, front and side views, pl. 7, and the crouching animal
+figure in the British Museum is given on pl. 8. He gives brief
+descriptions in the description of plates on pp. 22-23.
+
+
+1922
+
+GAMIO, MANUEL. Una máscara de mosaico falsificada. [A counterfeit
+mosaic mask.] _Ethnos_, tomo I, núms. 8-12, pp. 260-264, Mexico, Nov.
+1920-Mar. 1921.
+
+Gamio denounces as fraudulent the stone mosaic mask claimed to have
+been discovered in Guerrero by Porfirio Aguirre.
+
+MENA, RAMON. La arqueología debe de estar en manos de arqueológicos.
+_El Universal_, Mexico, April 2.
+
+In this signed newspaper article Mena defends the authenticity of the
+stone mask decorated with turquois mosaic, said to have been found in
+Guerrero.
+
+
+
+
+  Transcriber’s Notes:
+
+  Italics are shown thus: _sloping_.
+
+  Small capitals have been capitalised.
+
+  Variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained.
+
+  Punctuation has been retained as published.
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART IN ANCIENT
+MEXICO ***
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     </style>
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 <body>
-<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Turquois mosaic art in ancient Mexico, by Marshall H. Saville</p>
+<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Turquois mosaic art in ancient Mexico
+, by Marshall H. Saville
+</p>
 <div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
 This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
 most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
@@ -263,12 +263,12 @@ are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
 country where you are located before using this eBook.
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-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Turquois mosaic art in ancient Mexico</p>
-  <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Marshall H. Saville</p>
+<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Turquois mosaic art in ancient Mexico
+</p>
+  <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Marshall H. Saville
+</p>
 <p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: December 27, 2021 [eBook #67027]</p>
-<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p>
-  <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Alan Thompson, Charlene Taylor, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p>
-<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART IN ANCIENT MEXICO ***</div>
+<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English
+</p>
+  <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Alan Thompson and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)
+</p>
+<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART IN ANCIENT MEXICO
+ ***</div>
 
 <div class="figcenter">
 <img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" />
@@ -6521,7 +6521,7 @@ mask decorated with turquois mosaic, said to have been found in Guerrero.</p>
 
 </div>
 
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART IN ANCIENT MEXICO ***</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TURQUOIS MOSAIC ART IN ANCIENT MEXICO
+ ***</div>
 <div style='text-align:left'>
 
 <div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
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author	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-01-22 09:03:48 -0800
committer	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-01-22 09:03:48 -0800
commit	2d66eb5f5b8b95c7f27dea7dcf979d2e7e30c151 (patch)
tree	75774edf74264e2e9acff980ad646ab4f3f17713
parent	aa2a847bbb048ba1c91de23bff492af49a87efbf (diff)