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diff --git a/old/66716-0.txt b/old/66716-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index ea629e6..0000000 --- a/old/66716-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5231 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The supernatural in early Spanish literature -: studied in the works of the court of Alfonso X, el Sabio, by Frank -Callcott, Ph. D. - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The supernatural in early Spanish literature : studied in the - works of the court of Alfonso X, el Sabio - -Author: Frank Callcott, Ph. D. - -Release Date: November 12, 2021 [eBook #66716] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The Internet - Archive/American Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SUPERNATURAL IN EARLY SPANISH -LITERATURE : STUDIED IN THE WORKS OF THE COURT OF ALFONSO X, EL SABIO *** - - - - - THE SUPERNATURAL - IN - EARLY SPANISH - LITERATURE - - STUDIED IN THE WORKS OF THE COURT - OF ALFONSO X, EL SABIO - - By - - FRANK CALLCOTT, Ph. D. - - Department of Romance Languages - Columbia University - - [Illustration] - - INSTITUTO DE LAS ESPAÑAS - en los ESTADOS UNIDOS - - NEW YORK - 1923 - - - Es propiedad. - Derechos reservados - para todos los países. - - Copyright, 1923, - by the Instituto de las Españas. - - - - _To - MY PARENTS_ - - - - -PREFACE - - -It has been the aim of the author in the following study to collect, -classify, and analyze the various references made in the works of -Alfonso X, el Sabio, to the beliefs and superstitions, of the Spaniard -of that day, with reference to the supernatural. It is hoped that it -will be possible in this way to reach a better understanding of the -attitude of the Spanish people toward the supernatural in general and -thus to acquire a more complete appreciation of that early period of the -nation’s life. - -No attempt has been made here to trace the origins of these early -Spanish traditions (many of which were common thruout Europe during the -Middle Ages), and the comparison of what has been found with the -supernatural in the early literature of other European countries has -been left for a later study. - -The works of Alfonso el Sabio have been chosen because, to a large -extent, they represent not only their own period but all that had gone -before them, as recorded not only in Castillian but in Latin and to a -greater or less degree in Arabic and Hebrew also. Alfonso gathered to -his court a select group of scholars versed in these languages; and -under his direction they produced or collected a representative library -of works dealing with their respective subjects. It is the accessible -books of this collection that have furnished the material for the -present study. - -The author wishes to express sincere thanks to Professor Federico de -Onís of Columbia University for sympathetic encouragement and valuable -suggestions thruout the entire period of study; to Professor Antonio G. -Solalinde, of the _Centro de Estudios Históricos_, Madrid, for helpful -suggestions and criticism of the manuscript as well as for the privilege -of consulting the proof-sheets of the _Antología de Alfonso X, el -Sabio_, which has recently issued from the press; to Professor Raymond -Weeks, of Columbia University, for his sympathetic interpretation of the -Middle Ages and for actually introducing the writer to the true spirit -of that period; to his wife, thru whose timely assistance solely it has -been possible to complete the study without undue delay; and especially -to Professor Henry Alfred Todd, of Columbia, for his painstaking aid and -expert criticism while this work was taking form and being put thru the -press. - - _F. C._ - -_Columbia University_, January, 1923. - - - - -INTRODUCTORY - - -The human mind is always interested in those things that it can not -understand; as soon, however, as the problem has been solved it is no -longer an absorbing subject of attention. When a sleight-of-hand feat -has been explained we turn with renewed zest to something else and -revive our former interest only to mystify or amuse some friend. The -unsolved problem, on the other hand, will grip our undivided interest -for an indefinite length of time; our minds will revert continually to -the unelucidated trick of legerdemain until we learn how it was -accomplished. And so we might continue our illustrations thru the whole -range of human knowledge. - -Furthermore, we are not content to limit our curiosity to the -comprehension of what others have understood before us, but push our way -in quest of the answer to the eternal and ever haunting _how?_ and -_why?_ We climb the mountains, we crouch beneath a shelter while the -storm beats, we gaze into space on a starlight night, and these -compelling queries become ever more insistent. This element of -inexhaustible curiosity is, and has been as far back as the existence of -society can be traced, present in all human nature; the leaders of -mankind have not been slow to utilize it for the attainment of their -own lofty or ignoble aims. The warrior has employed it to inspire his -soldiers; the priest to exalt his followers; the minstrel to entrance -his auditors. - -In the introduction to her Columbia doctorial dissertation, _The -Supernatural in Modern English Fiction_,[1] Dr. Dorothy Scarborough has -discussed in a very engaging manner the inherent need of the -supernatural in fiction. In real life as well it plays a highly -important part. It is a demonstrated fact that when a man faces a -supreme crisis--when face to face with death--not only will he turn -instinctively to the supernatural powers in that moment but all that is -extraneous to his real self will disappear and the true man will stand -forth revealed. What is true of the individual in this respect applies -also to the race. It is in recognition of this universal truth that the -following study has been undertaken, in the hope that a careful -examination of the supernatural aspect of the beliefs and practices of -Spain as reflected in the literature of a given period will contribute -to a better understanding of the questions involved. - -Naturally there is a wide difference between the method of thinking of -the average person in the Middle Ages and that of the average person of -to-day. In the 20th century every peculiar or remarkable phenomenon of -nature is subjected to the scrutiny of scientific study, while with the -medieval man it was accepted at its face value as being the -manifestation of unseen powers, of gods or of devils. It would seem -that consciously or otherwise they attempted to make everything appear -supernatural whether they could explain it or not. We of today demand -that the God of the universe should work thru well defined natural laws; -they, on the other hand, expected that “el milagro sea contra -natura”.[2] It is true nevertheless that the “call” of the supernatural -in one form or another has continued to exert a powerful influence even -down to our own time. Some of its forms of manifestation may have -changed, but the belief is almost everywhere present. Instead of -forecasting the future by Astrology many today seek aid in the _séance_; -miraculous cures are still being sought for as of old not only in many -cases abroad but also in communities nearer home--even in the city of -New York, during the Novena of St. Ann; while only recently it was -reported in the daily press that a young girl in a convent on the banks -of the Hudson showed the marks of the _stigmata_ so prominently -associated with the history of St. Francis of Assisi. - -Before entering upon the study proper of the early Spanish period it -will be well to review rapidly some of the important facts in the -“supernatural” history of the Iberians since the time when the Goths -invaded Spain.[3] - -When they came they brought with them their songs and legends, which -were peculiarly Germanic. The writer Jordanes, about the middle of the -6th century, states that stories of sunken cities, subterranean voices, -etc., were common in the region of the Vistula, the river which -separated Scythia from Germany.[4] But we find no trace of this in the -early Spanish literature owing to the fact that when the Goths conquered -the Iberians they did not blend readily with the people of the newly -acquired territory. Nor did they, as the Romans had done, encourage the -vanquished to continue their established customs and religion giving to -their own traditions an opportunity, thru friendly intercourse, to -become adopted by their new subjects. On the other hand, in their effort -to make assimilation still more impossible they forbade intermarriage. -The result of this was, to use the words of Amador de los Ríos, that - - “La Iglesia, que durante el Imperio visigodo procuró desterrar del - pueblo católico las reprobadas prácticas del gentilismo, - limpiándole al propio tiempo de las torpes é inmundas aberraciones - á que le arrastraban los magos, encantadores, sortílegos y adivinos - que plagaban la nación española, vióse forzada á condenar una y - otra vez tamaños abusos, trasmitidos de edad en edad, con el - auxilio de los cantos populares.”[5] - -It seems, however, that in this struggle the Church was not always -successful. Often the result was a compromise in which the pagan customs -were remodeled and made to conform to the requirements of the Church -instead of being completely abolished. For instance, according to J. A. -MacCulloch, the ancient Celtic warriors used to advance dancing and -singing to the fray;[6] and É. Philipon says: - -“Lorsqu’ ils marchaient au combat, les guerriers ibères entonnaient à -pleine voix leur chants nationaux, leur _péans_, comme disaient les -Romains.”[7] - -In the early Middle Ages this custom of the ancient inhabitants of Spain -still continued under the Christian domination; and into these war cries -and songs had slowly crept the names of the Christian Deity and of the -Christian saints. - -This habit of consciously directing the minds of the soldiers to things -spiritual in such a moment may have been an important factor in the -development of the numerous legends of visions seen by soldiers during -battle.[8] - -One would naturally expect to encounter a marked Arabic influence in the -early monuments of the language, considering the fact that the Moslems -with all their wealth of magic and other arts peculiar to the East, -entered Spain in the early years of the 8th century, but this is not the -case. When the Moslems entered Spain those who were able retreated -before them, but a large part of the population, unable to do this, -remained under Mohammedan rule. These _mozárabes_, as the conquered -Christians were called, struggled bravely to keep themselves and their -children free from the heresies of their conquerors and for some time -were successful, but by the 9th century the Mohammedans were rapidly -instilling their teachings into their captives.[9] - -A reaction against this began under Abderrahman II. The Christians, -becoming obsessed with a desire to be martyrs, began rashly to expose -themselves everywhere. So serious did this movement become that in 852 -Abderrahman constrained the bishops to call a council, presided over by -Recafredo, instructing them to condemn this zeal for martyrdom, which -they did, but only in a half-hearted manner. This movement was the last -serious attempt on the part of the _mozárabes_ to rebel against the -teachings of the Moors. From this time on they were rapidly merged into -the nation of the conquerors and it is a question whether any of them -remained true to the Catholic Church at the time Spain was reclaimed by -the Christians, all of which explains the lack of a very noticeable -Arabic influence in the early Castillian writings. - -We have therefore (at the time the early Castillian literature began to -appear) a nation from which the clergy had attempted to remove -everything that could not be remodeled to conform to their -interpretation of Christian Scriptures--an endeavor in which they had -been signally successful. At this time, so far as the vernacular was -concerned, there had been little influence from the outside world -(since the time of the Gothic invasion) other than that which had been -imported from Rome. But this isolation was not to last long. When the -Christians reconquered the cities from the Moors they made a practice of -killing the men but of enslaving the women and children.[10] These women -as nurses naturally told the children in their care the stories of their -people. In addition to this, Paschal II, Pope from 1099-1118, issued a -bull declaring sacred the war in Spain against the Moors as well as that -in the Holy Land. This gradually brought into Spain Christian knights -from all Europe with their traditions. Likewise, in the earlier part of -the 12th century a school of clerical writers appeared in Spain who -sought to win the favor of the people thru making their versions of the -traditions of the Church more attractive by mixing freely sacred history -and profane. They sought inspiration in the Moorish and the Classic -traditions; they confused the legends of the past by transferring to -them the customs of their own day.[11] It was they who sought out the -mysterious legends of the East common among the Moors who lived in the -South, incorporating them into their sermons and poems and mingling them -with the Christian mythology. All this prepared the way for the great -efflorescence of the supernatural which began with Alfonso X and -continued in full sway until the 17th century. - - - - -CHAPTER I - -ALFONSO EL SABIO AS KING AND SCHOLAR - - -Alfonso X is one of those unfortunate men who have been--sometimes -unconsciously but in many cases purposely--maligned in history. The -_Libro de las Querellas_, (a 17th century work until recently attributed -to Alfonso); the dictum of Mariana, “Dumque coelum considerat -observatque astra, terram amisit”; and the popular verse from the -romances “De tanto mirar al cielo se le cayó la corona” which inspired -Marquina’s poem on that theme, all express the exaggerated and perverted -idea which was generally prevalent concerning this monarch. Those who -knew his works of science, especially of astronomy, were amazed at the -wealth of knowledge displayed therein, and this, together with the fact -that his last years were taken up with rebellions on the part not only -of his vassals but even of his own sons, seem to have been enough to -create the impression just mentioned. - -Recent criticism has also brought to light the fact that the almost -blasphemous quotation so long attributed to this king, “Si Dios me -hubiera consultado, habría hecho el mundo de otra manera,” is not his at -all, but rather was invented later in Catalonia by a certain king Pedro -IV, or perhaps by his chronicler Bernat Descoll. Some have attributed it -to Fernando IV.[12] - -Altho these conceptions may contain some modicum of truth, they are only -a part of the truth. Alfonso took an active part in the politics of his -day and the surprising thing is that amid all the strife and trouble -that surrounded him he found any time at all to give to literary -production. - -Alfonso was born on November 23, 1221, according to the findings of his -biographer, the Marqués de Mondéjar[13] (whose deductions have been -confirmed by documents discovered later) and was named for his -grandfather Alfonso IX of Leon and his great-grandfather Alfonso VIII of -Castile. Practically nothing is known of his early childhood except that -he was associated with certain of the nobility, viz., García Fernández -and Doña Mayor Arias of the province of Burgos. Of his early training -nothing is known. He was probably reared in Toledo, his father’s -capital, and as Sr. Solalinde suggests, much might be inferred from the -rules for the training of princes given in the _Siete Partidas_, a -collection of the laws of the time, provided the reader does not take -these too literally. At the age of sixteen he began his career as a -soldier under his father, Fernando III, el Santo, in the conquest of -Andalucía. He himself added to his father’s crown the kingdom of Murcia -and took an active part in the conquest of Sevilla in 1248. The next -year he married Doña Violante of Aragón, daughter of Jaime el -Conquistador, hoping in this way to effect an alliance between the two -kingdoms, but it seems as tho Fate had decreed that from the very first -his should be a life of disappointments and trouble. The frontier -warfare between these two nations continued, growing even more sharp -later when Alfonso aspired to the crown of Navarra. It was not until -much later that the friendship of Alfonso and Don Jaime became firmly -established. - -Aside from his legal wife, whom he married by way of securing a -political asset--a mode of procedure not unknown even in later times--he -really loved a certain beautiful lady, Doña Mayor Guillén de Guzmán, who -bore to him his daughter Doña Beatriz, later married by her father to -Alfonso III of Portugal. The sepulcher and also the body of Doña Mayor -in a remarkable state of preservation are still to be seen in Alcocer. -One of the hands still wears the glove with which it was clothed at the -time of the burial. - -In May, 1252, Alfonso ascended the throne, after receiving his father’s -solemn charge: “Fijo, ricas fincas et tierra et de muchos buenos -vasallos más que rey que en la cristianidad sea; pugna en facer bien e -ser bueno, ca bien has con qué.” - -Alfonso, the king, was undoubtedly an indefatigable worker and a man of -the highest intentions. He knew what ought to be done but apparently did -not have the power of will or the personality to insure the execution -of his purpose. When he ascended the throne the war with the Moors had -been reduced to operations of minor importance and they recognized the -Castillian monarch as their master. But here as elsewhere history -repeats itself. Each Christian king on the peninsula was dominated by -the desire to extend his territories; and, since there was no longer the -necessity of standing together against the common foe, a series of petty -quarrels soon arose followed by attempted conquests. As time went on, -not only Alfonso’s own nobles, but his brothers and even his own son -became involved against their king. It was precisely here that Alfonso -was unable to hold the reins of power in as firm a hand as his father -before him had done. It was because of internal troubles that he failed, -at the critical moment, to bring the wars in Italy to a decisive -conclusion, and to terminate successfully with the popes and others, the -diplomatic controversies in which the throne of the Holy Roman Empire -was at stake. To this throne he had been legally elected at the death of -William of Holland in 1256, when he received four of the seven votes. He -was opposed by Richard of Cornwall. The long contest which followed was -in reality a political battle with the popes, from Alexander IV to -Gregory X, in which Richard usually had the upper hand. At Richard’s -death Rudolph of Hapsburg under the pontifical protection was elected to -take his place, and it was only after nineteen years that Alfonso -finally succeeded, in 1275, in obtaining an audience with Gregory in -France. The unfortunate outcome of this interview was that Alfonso was -persuaded to give up all pretentions to the imperial crown and to forego -his custom of signing international papers with the title of “rey de -romanos.” In this manner ended Alfonso’s vain attempt at external -territorial expansion. - -At home, in contests with his own nobles, he had been hardly more -successful. Indeed, with all the accumulated expenses of his -long-continued attempts to obtain the imperial crown it would have -required a man of almost superhuman force to keep his powerful vassals -under control and at the same time subject them to the excessive -taxation necessarily involved. This, as we have seen, Alfonso did not -possess. The Infante Don Enrique was the first to rebel. His outbreak -was followed by a more serious uprising of the nobles under the -ostensible leadership of the king’s brother, the Infante Don Felipe, but -was really fostered and maintained by Nuño de Lara, the boldest and most -favored noble of the court. To restore harmony the king surrendered many -of his own prescriptive rights, but even then the nobles were not -satisfied and Nuño de Lara, inspired by this recently acquired power, -objected to the royal decision to require no further payments of tribute -from the king of Portugal. Alfonso, in anger, demanded that Nuño -withdraw from the council; this he did but in open rebellion, -successfully drawing with him a large number of the nobles. Many of -these, apparently faithful to Alfonso, followed an intimation given them -by Nuño and outwardly supported their sovereign while privately plotting -with some of his powerful enemies, the king of Navarre and even the -emir of Granada. - -In an endeavor to adjust matters Alfonso summoned a general convocation, -which the aggrieved nobles, in an attitude of open affront, attended -fully armed while their sovereign wore only civilian dress. At this -meeting the monarch ceded still further privileges; but, pursuing their -advantage, they finally came out in open rebellion and, gathering their -army, marched away from Castile to the kingdom of Granada, burning and -plundering as they went. Meanwhile Alfonso, by means of his eldest son -and heir, Fernando de la Cerda, still endeavored to negotiate with them. - -In spite of all these internal troubles the crown of the Holy Roman -Empire still held the uppermost place in the mind of the monarch and it -was just at this juncture that he succeeded in arranging for his above -mentioned visit to France and left his oldest son, Fernando de la Cerda, -to govern in his stead. The latter altho only a boy of twenty years was -already showing great ability as his father’s representative, when -suddenly he died. Fate seemed determined that not one bright lingering -hope should be permitted to relieve Alfonso’s long, unhappy reign. - -This unfortunate death was the cause of additional troubles. Don Sancho, -Alfonso’s second son, immediately took up the reins of government where -his brother had let them fall. War having been declared on the Moors, no -time was to be lost. Alfonso returned to find his son and heir dead, his -father-in-law, Don Jaime,--that valiant warrior who had now become his -devoted friend--just killed by the unbelievers, and his second son, -Sancho, self-established as heir-apparent. Altho this was contrary to -what the king himself had ordered in _Las Siete Partidas_,[14] he -confirmed Sancho as his successor, whereas the crown should have gone to -Fernando’s eldest son. This brought more trouble. Queen Violante left -him and sought refuge with her brother, Pedro III of Aragon, in order to -defend the rights of her grandsons. The wife of the deceased prince -hastened to her father, king of France, and war was about to be declared -between the two kingdoms, when Rome interfered. Violante returned to her -lord upon receiving his promise to cede the kingdom of Jaén to his -grandson; but this angered Don Sancho, who rebelled against his father. -Alfonso publicly disinherited his son, and incontinently set out to -crush him. The other Infantes who had previously supported their brother -now forsook him and came to the aid of their father. Sancho himself, -with a kind of religious respect for his royal father, avoided battle -and finally implored pardon. Such was the condition of affairs when, -after an exceedingly turbulent reign of thirty-two years, Alfonso X died -in Seville on the 4th of April, 1284. - -During all these years Alfonso had cherished the fond hope of carrying -on an ever broadening war against the Moors and finally of extending it -into Africa and there dealing a death blow to the power of the -Crescent. This purpose of his, like a will-o’-the-wisp, fluttered -constantly just beyond his power of execution. He did succeed in -carrying out minor conquests, but the ruler of Granada was always quick -to take advantage of the civil strife in the kingdom to the north of him -to recover his lost territory. The final net result was that Alfonso -succeeded in adding to his crown the cities of Jerez de la Frontera, -Medina-Sidonia, Lebrija, Niebla, Cádiz, and a few other towns of little -importance. - -From the foregoing it is easy to see that Alfonso was not a mere -theorizing star-gazer. It is surprising that a man with his hands so -full of terrestrial affairs could ever have found time to turn his eyes -heavenward or could ever find the leisure and the quiet necessary for -the careful editing of the lengthy works produced at his command. - -In speaking of these works and discussing their chronological order Sr. -Ramón Menendez Pidal says: - - “La actividad literaria de la corte de Alfonso X--que se había - iniciado con las _Tablas Alfonsíes y el Septenario_--había - producido ya las obras legales, coronadas por las _Partidas_; había - dado a luz la primera edición de las Cantigas y gran parte de los - _Libros Astronómicos_. Posteriormente a esa actividad desarrollada - en las materias astronómicas, jurídicas y poéticas, sólo a partir - del año 1270, debemos colocar el comienzo de la actividad histórica - antes no representada. Primero se trabaja en la _Crónica General_, - y, después, se interrumpe la obra para impulsar la _Grande - Estoria_; los redactores de esta, como luego indicaremos, - conocieron noticias referentes a la historia de España que la - _Crónica General_ no aprovechó. En fin, después de la iniciación - de las obras históricas se siguió trabajando en los _Libros - Astronómicos_ y en las _Cantigas_, y se empezaron las últimas obras - del reinado, como el _Lapidario_ y el _Ajedrez_.”[15] - -Of the above I have been able to consult only those printed or -reproduced in facsimile, which are the following: - -_Las Siete Partidas_, (the best edition of which is the large three -volume work published in 1807 by the Real Academia) is the result of -Alfonso’s successful attempt to complete the work begun by his father in -collecting, codifying and standardizing the various laws of the numerous -regions of the kingdom, and it has been used as the basis of Spanish -jurisprudence ever since. This work has proved of very great value -because of the ample comments (made, it seems, either by the compilers -or by Alfonso himself) on the laws contained and the customs referred -to. - -_Las Cantigas_ is a collection of 422 lyric or narrative poems in the -Gallego-portugués dialect, many of which were probably written by the -monarch. Of these 353 are narrations of miracles attributed to the -Blessed Virgin. The edition used in this study is that of the Real -Academia, 1889, 2 Vols., 33 cm. edited with a critical introduction by -Leopoldo Augusto de Cueto, Marqués de Valmar. A third volume of this -work by J. Ribera treating of the music of _Las Cantigas_ has just -appeared. - -_Los Libros del Saber de Astronomía_, contain a large number of drawings -of the heavens, various astronomical instruments, etc., as well as a -compendium of what was then known relating to this science. In the -introduction to the edition which consists of five 45 × 33 cm. volumes -by Manuel Rico y Sinobas, Madrid, 1868, the editor states that among the -compilers were 8 Christians and 6 Jews; while the works of more than 17 -Arabs were consulted (p. XCII). - -_La Primera Crónica General_ (edition of Ramón Menéndez Pidal in Nueva -Biblioteca de Autores Españoles, vol. 5, 1906) is an account of the -history of Spain from the time of Moses to the death of Fernando III, el -Santo. This, says Sr. Pidal in his _Estudios Literarios_ (p. 208 ff.), -is the first chronicle written in Spain which considers the Spaniards as -a Roman instead of a Gothic people. Being guided by the results of his -research, the latest and most authoritative on the subject, I have -included in this study only the first part of the _Crónica_, i. e., -chapters 1-566, as the remaining part is probably the work of Alfonso’s -successor. - -_La General Estoria_ is still unedited. It is a work of five parts, each -of which is in size equal to the _Primera Crónica General_. It purports -to be a history of the world from the creation to the time of Alfonso -and is based primarily on the Bible, altho other authorities, both -sacred and profane, are freely drawn upon. For this study I have been -able to consult only those extracts that appear in the _Antología_ of -Sr. Antonio G. Solalinde. - -_El Lapidario_ treats of 360 stones, dividing them into twelve groups -describes their appearance and the country or locality in which they are -found, bringing in in this way interesting comments on manners and -customs, scraps of folk-lore, etc., as well as discussing the medicinal -and supernatural properties of the various stones introduced. The -edition used was that of José T. Montaña, Antonio Selfa, and Hippólito -Rodrigáñez, Madrid, 1881. - -_El Libro de Ajedrez._ A two volume photographic edition of this work -was brought out in Leipzig in 1913 by J. G. White under the title of _A -Spanish Treatise of Chess written by the order of King Alfonso, the -Sage, in 1283_. It is a careful discussion of the game and description -of the various moves. As well as chess, the games of dice and backgammon -are included. - -In this study have been included only those works which may, without -reasonable doubt, be considered to be the productions of Alfonso el -Sabio or works in whose composition he took part in the manner indicated -below. Those which may have been more or less plausibly attributed to -him but whose authorship still remains in doubt, have been purposely -omitted. Of these latter the most important is _Calila y Dimna_, which -many still maintain was translated by the order of Alfonso.[16] But even -if this be correct the book is a purely allegorical one, entirely -foreign to the spirit and manner of Spain, and can in no way aid us in -understanding the superstitions and religious beliefs of the Spanish -nation. - -While it is true that Alfonso did not with his own hands write out the -works included in our study, nevertheless the compilers themselves bear -witness to the fact that he did carefully edit them, scrutinizing the -contents, eliminating the non-essential and perfecting the language. In -the _General Estoria_ is found this significant statement: - - “Assi como dixiemos nos muchas uezes: el rey face un libro, non por - quel el escriua con sus manos, mas porque compone las razones del, - e las enmienda et yegua e enderesça, e muestra la manera de cómo se - deuen fazer, e desi escriue las qui él manda, pero dezimos por esta - razon que el rey faze el libro”.[17] - -Small wonder then that the king realized the value of quietude and -specified as one of the essentials for the making of good laws that - - “Otrosi deben guardar que quando las fecieren no haya ni ruido nin - otra cosa que les estorbe, et que lo fagan con consejo de homes - entendidos et sabidores, et leales et sin codicia.”[18] - - - - -CHAPTER II - -MIRACLES PERFORMED BY THE VIRGIN IN RESPONSE TO PRAYER - - -When it is considered that in _Las Cantigas_ alone there are narrated -353 separate miracles, it is obvious that it will be impossible to give -here even a brief résumé of all the instances in which the supernatural -appears. What I have attempted to do is to give a synopsis of the most -representative legends and stories, hoping in this way to present a -correct, if succinct, idea of the beliefs, superstitions and religious -practices of medieval Spain. The various occurrences of the supernatural -found in the writings of Alfonso X, have been grouped, as far as -possible, under the headings commonly employed in classifications of -this kind. - -Since all the extant works of this period, with the exception of _Las -Cantigas_ and a few _cantigas de amor et de maldecir_, were written for -the erudite and were in no sense popular in their origins, it is -apparent that the popular beliefs in regard to the supernatural will be -found mentioned in them only incidentally. Occasionally, as in the -_Crónica General_ for example, the traditions of the common people had -firmly established themselves in the _Cantares de Gesta_ and other -sources which were drawn upon by the compilers. In such scientific works -as _El Lapidario_ and _Los Libros del Saber de Astronomía_, the effect -of the various heavenly bodies upon things terrestrial is mentioned, but -these reflect the beliefs of the learned, not of the ignorant. While -these beliefs of the intellectual classes are interesting and useful in -themselves, they are by no means as important for our study as the -superstitions of the man of the street. _Las Siete Partidas_ has -furnished much pertinent information because of the laws concerning -practices involving the supernatural which were forbidden, or which, as -in the case of conjuring, were permitted only under certain -circumstances. But from such sources we can get only a very small -proportion of the great mass of popular conceptions and traditions which -must have existed, as is forcibly illustrated by the fact that in all -the other works excepting _Las Cantigas_ only nine miracles are -narrated. On the other hand the term “milagro” was considered important -enough to merit a lengthy definition in the laws of the times.[19] -According to this definition a “milagro” is a divine intervention in the -regular course of nature the purpose of which is, among other things, to -reward the faithful and to bear witness to the veracity of the Christian -faith. - -But when we consider _Las Cantigas_, a work whose avowed purpose is to -gather together all the current stories of miracles attributed to the -Virgin either directly or indirectly, we have a collection of 353 -accounts drawn both from the writings of the saints and from popular -tradition. It is to be noticed too that all of these are performed -either directly or indirectly _by the Virgin_ and do not include any of -those attributed to the various other saints, to the Child nor to the -Man Jesus, etc. If such a host of legends and stories could be gathered -with the facilities of that time dealing with only _one_ phase of -supernatural lore and with only _one_ saint how great must have been the -entire store! - -Another interesting fact in connection with this collection is that, -altho according to the Church authorities, the Virgin could perform -miracles only when especially empowered to do so, she is represented -here as performing them of her own accord. Only seldom does she go to -her Son or to God the Father for aid or permission. - -Such a procedure can not be attributed to ignorance on the part of one -so well versed in ecclesiastical law and customs as Alfonso. It is -probably a conscious reflection of the general belief of the common -people who knew little of Theology. - -In a period of such absolute and naive faith it is not at all surprising -that the same miracle, with a few minor alterations perhaps, should be -attributed at one time to the Virgin and at another to God,[20] or at -one time to the crucifix and at another to the image of the Virgin, -etc.[21] The result of this customary promiscuous attribution of -benevolent deeds to various divine forces and personages was that the -counterpart of every miracle mentioned in any of the writings of king -Alfonso X is found in _Las Cantigas_. Therefore our study of this topic -will be based on this collection with appropriate notes of any -variations of interest in the legends as found in his other works. - -A large number of the miracles in the beginning of the collection of -_Las Cantigas_ are taken, as usually stated in the poem itself, from -some other accessible book.[22] But as legends from these sources grew -scarce the store of oral tradition was drawn upon, and occasionally, as -in apprehension that the veracity of the story might be challenged, some -such strengthening line as “mui bien sey que foi e é gran uerdade”[23] -was added. So personal is the tone of the whole collection that there is -no hesitation whatever in recounting the miraculous experience of some -member of the royal family or of the king himself.[24] Constant search -in the manuscripts at hand was apparently continued however during the -entire time of composition and as late as No. 362 occurs the expression -“achei escrito.”[25] - -The cult of the Virgin became very popular during the 13th century and -when we consider the influence it had all thru the period we are -studying it is natural to expect, that in a group of miracles dedicated -expressly to her, that Jesus, the Son of Mary, and even God the Father -would be but seldom mentioned.[26] But when they are they are recognized -as being supreme. The Virgin herself often has to ask a favor of the -Son, as in Nos. 14, 45, etc. At times we are privileged to catch a -glimpse of the court of heaven resembling greatly a medieval court with -God the Father and His Son as the supreme rulers and below them the -saints in the order of their various ranks. - -On one occasion, No. 14 for instance, Saint Peter pleads without success -for the soul of a licentious monk who during life was especially devoted -to him. After invoking the aid of the other saints to no avail he -finally appeals to the Virgin and in answer to her God permits the -return of the soul to the body for the benefit of another chance. The -details here are such that one might easily imagine the scene to be that -of any court of 13th century Europe. - -Naturally in so large a collection[27] any classification has to be -arbitrary, and however the division is made there will be a number which -may be placed under two or more headings. The present classification, -tabulated in detail on page 135 has been made to suit the needs of this -study exclusively. In what here follows I shall summarize only the -typical examples of each class. - - * * * * * - -The group of miracles studied especially in this chapter, those -performed by the Virgin in response to prayer, includes almost every -conceivable form of aid, all the way from restoring life to the dead -down to helping a man find his lost falcon. They suffice to give us a -rare conception of the beliefs and faith, often almost childlike in -their simplicity, of that time. - -The greatest of all miracles, the restoration of life, is performed in -all over 30 times in answer to prayer and for a great variety of -reasons. In one instance (No. 182) a certain robber who had the -redeeming quality of always giving to those in need when asked in the -name of Santa María, died suddenly. In answer to a mother’s prayer and -to afford an opportunity for repentance his soul was restored and from -that moment he observed faithfully all the commandments “da Uírgen.” In -another, to aid a faithful follower in his work on earth the Holy Mother -sends to Santo Domingo as a helper a well-educated, zealous young man -who kills himself by overwork. In answer to the supplication of the -saint she descends from heaven with a chorus of virgins and together -they read from their books and anoint the corpse, head, body and feet, -thus restoring the life of the young man that he might continue in the -service of his worthy master (No. 204).[28] In No. 84 a wife becomes -ignorantly jealous of the Holy Mother because her husband slips away -mysteriously every night and when asked the reason for his absence he -answers that he loves his wife as much as ever but admits to her, almost -in jest, that he loves another woman more. This proved too much and in a -fit of anger she stabbed herself, but in answer to her husband’s prayers -her life was restored. No. 241 is particularly interesting because of -its details and of its really lifelike setting. Two mothers, one having -a son and the other a daughter, decided that a marriage of the young -couple would be advantageous. All went well until the day of the -wedding, when the boy, being in a very happy and buoyant mood, leaned -too far out of the window as he wiped out a glass, lost his balance, -fell and was killed. All were overcome with grief except his mother who -confidently took him to the altar of the Virgin, where his life was -restored. As life returned his first words were “What a beautiful -mansion you took me from.” The two young people were so impressed they -decided to devote themselves to religion. At another time Alfonso’s -immediate family were concerned for the daughter of “o bon rei Don -Fernando”, who after being carefully reared for the convent at Las -Huelgas died. Her mother took her to the foot of the image and putting -everyone out of the church, determined to remain until her daughter -revived. Her faith was rewarded, and later in life the princess held an -important place in the convent (No. 122).[29] - -When we come to consider the various kinds of _bodily ailments_ cured by -the Holy Mother we are presented with a formidable list. An arrow -striking a man in the face stuck in the bone in such a manner that none -could remove it. He requested to be taken to the altar of the Virgin and -there confessed, implored aid, and the arrow came out of its own accord -(No. 126). Seven separate times do lepers appeal to her and are -healed.[30] The blind have their sight restored; but one clerk, -apparently thru lack of faith, asked only that his sight be given him -while Mass was being said. She took him at his word and allowed him the -privilege of seeing every day _only during the time of Mass_ (No. 92). -Swellings disappear (No. 346); while often Alfonso sings of the cures he -himself has experienced. After leprosy the most common ailment to incite -the pity of the Blessed Mother is rabies, which is mentioned in no less -than five separate cantigas;[31] reason is also restored to those who -have been deprived of it (No. 331). No. 69 is the legend of a deaf mute -who presented himself before the altar of the Virgin in Toledo. While -there he saw Saint Mary in the form of a beautiful girl approach him as -in a vision, put her finger in his ear and take out a worm which had - - “ ... a semella - d’estes de sirgo, mais come ouella - era ueloss’ e coberto de lãa.” - -Later Santa María ordered a monk well versed in the art to aid the man -recover his voice. Another pretty story is that of a little girl with -deformed feet who was taken to the altar of Santa María del Puerto, -where, falling asleep, she suddenly cried out with a sharp pain. In -answer to the questions of her father and those near her she said the -Virgin came down from the altar, broke her feet, and then returned. They -hastily examined them only to find them in perfect condition. - -As well as curing the ordinary ills of nature to which the human body is -subject, the Blessed Mother may also cure those due to acts of man if -they are unjustly inflicted, as in the case of the servant whose master -put out his eyes because of false accusation. The servant, knowing he -was innocent, procured his eye-balls, had a surgeon put them back in -their sockets, and then went to Santa María de Salas, where his sight -was restored (No. 177). A miracle showing a strong trace of -mysticism--another instance of the relief of suffering due to no -conscious fault of the victim--is No. 315. A laboring woman went into -the field to work and left her child--with a prayer for its safety--tied -to a sheaf of wheat. While she was gone the child swallowed a head of -the grain and became very ill. The mother, thinking it had swallowed -some insect or had been bitten hastened with it to Madrid where after -many days of unsuccessful treatment she was advised to take it to the -Church of Atocha. On arriving she undressed the child before the altar -for examination and to the astonishment of all present the head of -wheat, intact, came out thru the _left_ side of the child, who recovered -immediately. No. 146 shows the influence of a well-known legend of the -Middle Ages of a father who cut off the hands of his daughter because -she insisted on being true to her new faith, Christianity. Later in -life, when, because of misfortunes and persecutions, her hands were -necessary for the care of her child, they were miraculously restored, -growing out of the old stumps.[32] In the cantiga the object of the -miracle is a boy who wished to go on a pilgrimage to the shrine of the -Virgin of Albeza. His mother hesitated because of his enemies but at -last he was permitted to go. He did, indeed, fall into their power and -they put out his eyes as well as cut off his hands. He was found, -however, by some fellow-pilgrims, taken to the shrine, and there, upon -his praying the - - “Madre de Deus Emanüel, - fez-ll’ ollos come de perdiz - pequennos a aquel donzel - muy fremosos, et de raiz - crecéron-ll’ as mãos enton.” - -Altho the Virgin did alleviate bodily ills for good cause she was not -alway a saint of mercy. At times she was a saint of vengeance. Even -more, her devotees were sometimes given the privilege of seeing this -vengeance brought down at their own request upon the enemies of the -faith because of some impious act. One Christian while kneeling at -prayer before her shrine was bitten by a large dog that happened to pass -that way. As he arose to pick up a stone to drive the animal away he was -greatly incensed at seeing two Jews laughing at him. Not being able to -restrain his anger he called upon the Virgin to avenge herself of such -an affront with the result that the wall by which they were standing -fell upon the unbelievers (No. 286). - -Such vengeance as this is usually only meted out to infidels and, even -tho Saint Mary loves vengeance and desires to please her followers, more -than once has she to temper this very human desire on their part. One -woman asked that the one who had stolen her husband’s affections be -stricken with some serious illness, but the Virgin, considering the -punishment too severe, by a vision caused the unlawful rival to repent -and ask forgiveness of the wife, which the latter finally granted (No. -68). - -In many respects more important, tho perhaps making a less lasting -impression, are those miracles of prevention from harm. These are almost -as numerous as the above, tho they offer less variety and less -opportunity for dramatic effect. Among the most common are rescues from -the sea, and in No. 236 there is the added element of walking on the -water. A pious woman and her child are in a boat that sinks. She cries -out to the Virgin who appears, takes her by the hand, and together they -walk on the water as tho it were land until they arrive at Marseilles. - -Those engaged in making objects for the glory of the Virgin, together -with the products of their art, receive special protection. A stone -mason working at a great height in the church of Santa María de -Castrogeriz felt his legs weaken and began to fall. Calling on the local -saint he miraculously caught on an edge of one of the stones and altho a -very large man his fingers were strengthened, enabling him to hold on a -greater part of the day until aid came (No. 242). At another time a -painter who habitually drew the Devil as ugly as possible and the Virgin -as beautifully as he was able received a visit from his satanic majesty -in person complaining of the treatment, but the artist refused to change -his pictures. The Devil, greatly offended, set loose a terrible -hurricane, which entered the church; but, appealing to the Virgin, both -the painter and his work escaped unharmed (No. 74). Ten instances, most -of which bear a striking resemblance to similar stories in the New -Testament, are told of miraculous release from prison.[33] In one of -these (No. 227) Saint Mary appeared surrounded by a bright light and led -the captive, invisible to his captors, from the dungeon. In nearly all -such releases the victim had been unjustly imprisoned. - -Those who are especially devout are saved even tho at times it is -necessary to bring down the heavenly hosts. One good knight (No. 233) -fleeing on a swift horse before his enemies arrives at the church of the -Virgin of Pena Cova. His pursuers, unbelievers, on arriving at the -church, see a battalion of heavenly soldiers drawn up in front of it -and, thus admonished, they repent and naturally no longer desire his -life.[34] When Bondoudar, the Sultan of Egypt, laid siege to Tortosa de -Ultramar there were but few defenders within its walls, but when the -Sultan arrived he saw a great host in the city. One of his advisers told -him: - - “ ... Per mandado - da Uirgen Madre d’ Icá - uéeron, que un eigreia - dentro en a uila á, - que está preto dos muros - da parte do aréal”. - -On hearing this the Sultan withdrew, saying he would not fight against -the Virgin and later even sent much money to those in the city (No. -165). No. 49 reads almost like a fairy tale. A band of pilgrims -journeying to Santa María de Soissons lose their way in the mountains -and in answer to their prayers she appears to them _with a shining wand_ -in her hand and leads them safely to their destination. - -The idea of _bargaining_, one of the fundamental elements of all -primitive religions,[35] and one which even yet has by no means -disappeared, was present in a very striking manner. In this respect, -indeed, the people were so naïve at times that they made the Blessed -Mother human in the extreme and sometimes they seemed almost to lose -sight entirely of her divinity. In no less than nineteen[36] cantigas is -the record of wax being offered in exchange for divine favors and in ten -of these the wax was promised in the prayer of supplication; and altho -this may not at all times have been consciously offered as a bribe or as -a kind of barter yet there is no doubt that unconsciously the feeling -was there. Wax was by far the most popular of all offerings. It was -offered in bulk, or in the form of an image of the Virgin or of the -object desired, or often in candles. One account which is very -interesting because of the well-known historical personages involved is -No. 376. During a conversation with the Infante Don Manuel, Alfonso -showed him a beautiful ring and offered it to him as a gift. The king -sent a servant to deliver it to the house of the Infante, but on the way -he lost it. He immediately appealed to Santa María del Puerto; offering -her six pounds of wax for her church if she would help him recover the -ring. A little later a man voluntarily handed it to the messenger saying -he had found it on the street. - -Altho we might consider wax a suitable offering for a miracle of the -type just mentioned, it does cause some surprise to find it accepted in -return for even such an important act as the restoration of life. But -there was a woman of Zaragoza whose children were always stillborn, so -after the third sad experience she offered a child of wax to the -Virgin. The fourth child was also born dead but, confident now, she -implored Santa María de Salas, and even while the prayer continued the -child came to life. In addition to wax many other kinds of gifts were -acceptable such as a garland of roses; or when roses were unavailable an -“Ave María” might be substituted for each rose in the bouquet (No. 121); -or nails were offered for a temple (No. 106); or a promise was made of -the most beautiful thing captured from the enemy during a battle, which -in No. 374 was a beautiful cloth of gold and scarlet. - -More curious than these, and a miracle in which the moral lesson is not -to be considered, is No. 214, in which two men, one very rich while the -other possessed only a church building, were rolling dice. The wealthy -man played high stakes, the poor man, having only the church, played it. -The rich one rolled and three sixes fell. His companion, trembling, in -his turn rolled. As he did so he offered the church to the Virgin should -he win. To his astonishment, and to the wonder of the bystanders, one of -the dice fell in two, three sixes and one ace appearing. - -Aside from material gifts such as the above, offers of service such as -the promise to go on a pilgrimage to some shrine are also very -effective.[37] - -The naïve elements become almost startling at times in their -childishness. For instance in No. 8 a singer, after singing a “lais” to -Santa María, asked that one of the candles of her shrine light him -while he ate. The candle was miraculously placed on his instrument, but -a monk seeing it out of place became angry, thinking it bewitched, and -put it back where it belonged. This was repeated three times until the -people witnessing this repetition intervened, while the monk, convinced -he had witnessed a miracle, repented.[38] Again, at Rocamador, nine -pilgrims ordered nine pieces of meat prepared for their meal. When they -drew near the table only eight pieces were brought in, the servant -having stolen one. They prayed Santa María to show them where the ninth -piece was and at once heard a noise in a chest. It was the piece of meat -jumping around to attract their attention (No. 159). Even more peculiar -were the actions of a paralyzed mule which was ordered killed and -skinned by its master. The servant boy before beginning the task stopped -to eat and upon finishing his meal was astonished to find the mule -healed and going toward the shrine of the Virgin of Torena. On reaching -the church it ran around it three times rapidly, entered and kneeled -before the altar, then returned home with the servant (No. 228). - -It is to be remarked also that while the miracles usually do contain a -moral lesson--in fact some have no other purpose than to teach a moral, -No. 155,--occasionally they are much less concerned with the moral than -with the really important fact, the miracle, which shows the goodness, -power and mercy of Santa María. Bent on emphasizing this they become at -times realistic in the extreme. We must remember also that the -conception of what is moral and what is immoral changes constantly and -that therefore it is imposible to measure the 13th century by the -standards of the 20th. But even so, we can say this for Alfonso el -Sabio; whenever he does include such accounts in his collection he -handles them with his accustomed brevity and never dwells upon the -immoral act nor enlarges upon it. With a few strokes he paints the -picture and then comes to what, for him, is the all important part, the -miracle. One such, very popular thruout all Europe in the Middle Ages, -is the legend of an abbess, accused by those under her of being with -child, who was called to account before the authorities. She prayed -earnestly to the Virgin, who during her sleep brought the child and -spirited him away to Saussonna. She was then examined and found -innocent. - -No. 201 is even more interesting, being the story of a beautiful young -woman who vowed eternal chastity and then, falling in love with a young -gallant, became the mother of three of his children and killed each one -soon after its birth. Later in life she repented and tried to kill -herself with a knife but did not die; she then swallowed two poisonous -spiders[39] and still she could not die. Finally she prayed the Holy -Mother, who appeared to her and with her own divine hand cured her. The -sinner obtained forgiveness by a long life of penance. In this case the -immoral element of protecting the sinner from just punishment has -entirely disappeared, for while the Virgin shows mercy toward her and -cures her ills--the result of a self-imposed penance--yet she does not -forgive her terrible sin. All she can do is to change the form of the -penance. - -One of the phases of the belief of the time which at first glance seems -to us today to be sacrilegious, or to say the least quite startling, is -the part that the breasts of the Virgin and her sacred milk played in -the religion of Medieval Spain. In this belief can be seen how very real -and how very human the Mother of Christ was to the people. This race, -which has produced some of the greatest mystics of the world, to whom -everything had a mystical meaning, saw in the sacred milk of the Virgin -the symbol of healing and of life, and the breasts which had nourished -the Christ-child were to them the symbol of the fountain of life. - -In No. 138 Alfonso tells how San Juan Boca de Oro, exiled by the -Gentiles, was first blinded and then put out on the highway and told to -leave the country. Wandering, he soon fell into brambles, when, calling -on “á Rëynna esperital” for aid, she came, restored his sight and led -him out into the road again. In the conversation which ensued he asked -her what was the thing that Jesus loved most when He came into the -world. She left without answering, but appeared to him again that night -with the child Jesus playing with her breasts. Turning to the him she -said, - - “ ... D’ esto se pagou - meu Fillo máis d’ál, et con mui gran razón. - Ca estas tetas lo criaron tan ben - como a sa carne mui nobre conuen; - et porende as amou máis d’ outra ren, - porque d’ estas tetas ouu’ él criaçon.” - -The milk poured by the Blessed Virgin herself from her sacred breasts -cured an infirmity of the face and neck which had caused long years of -suffering to one of her faithful monks (No. 54). Similar to this is No. -93, an account of how God chastened a man of Burgos with leprosy for -three years because of his sins. After he had recited a good thousand -“Ave Marías” Saint Mary at last took pity on him, and bathed him in her -own milk, which cured him immediately. - -And after all, when considered reverently, and in the light of the fact -that the Virgin was the most important and most beloved personage in the -religion of the period, what more beautiful and sublime symbol could -there be than this! - -Possessions are constantly being restored thru the agency of the Holy -Mother, who is never unmindful of the needs of her children, and who is -just as quick to respond to the needs of the rich, if they are real -needs, as to those of the poor. Altho such service is quite often -performed in return for some gift, as indicated in the discussion of -Bargaining,[40] it is by no means limited to this. Often the simple -faith and earnest prayer are sufficient. - -A certain Don Domingo of Santa María del Puerto lost thirty sheep in the -mountains. His devout wife appealed to the local Saint to save them from -the wolves. Three days later they were found surrounded by wolves, which -instead of harming them were _guarding_ them from harm (No. 398). In the -incident of a woman of Toledo (No. 212) we catch a glimpse of some of -the customs of the times as well as find an entertaining story. This -woman had the habit of loaning a lovely string of pearls to the poor -girls of her acquaintance for their wedding ceremony, because - - “En Toled’ á un costume - que foi de longa sazon, - que quando y casar queren - as donas que pobres son, - peden aas ricas donas - de suas dõas enton, - que possan en suas uodas - máis ricas apparecer.” - -But her husband for some reason forbade her to do so any longer. Soon -after this another poor woman came begging for the pearls, and because -she asked “in the name of the Virgin” the lady could not withstand the -plea and loaned them surreptitiously. While the girl was bathing, a -servant stole them, but note-- - - “Ela deu-o a sa filla - el leuou-a a bannar, - _com’ é costum’ en Toledo_ - _de quantas queren casar_.”[41] - -The bride was heartbroken and the lady, very much grieved but still more -frightened, went to the church of the Virgin, where from sheer weakness -caused by her anxiety she fell asleep before the altar. While there -still asleep, the woman who had stolen the jewels passed thru the church -with them hidden in her bosom. The sleeping woman awoke at that moment -and, miraculously given to know that this one had her pearls, forcibly -recovered them. - -Legends of necessities being miraculously supplied are not lacking. -There is one concerning a church in Jerusalem built under the guidance -of the Virgin that reminds us of the widow’s cruse of oil. The community -was about to have to leave owing to a severe famine. As a last resort -they met and prayed all night, and when morning came they found all the -bread boxes full. Later a similar famine occurred and again they prayed -all night, and this time they found a large sum of pure gold on the -altar. (No. 187). Miracles similar to the one performed by Jesus at the -wedding feast in Canaan of Galilee (John 2: 1-11) are Nos. 23 and 351. -The first is the simple story of a woman who was out of wine when the -King came to visit her, so she asked the Virgin to help her in her -perplexity, and immediately the wine casks in the cellar were filled. -The second, on a larger scale and with an element of humor, maintains -that at the great annual feast in honor of the Virgen de Agosto one year -a great hogshead of wine was supplied for the public, but, sad to -relate, it did not last long. After it became exhausted the crowd was -slow to go away and someone suggested that they look again to see -whether it was entirely empty. To their surprise they found it was full -of miraculous wine supplied by the Saint, and it had the quality not -only of delighting those who partook of it but also of curing ills. - -Altho such benefits and protection are usually bestowed only upon -Christians, and more especially upon those who are particularly devoted -to the Mother of Christ, occasionally she will hear the requests of -those who belong to another faith provided they are ready to accept -Christianity. A vagrant Jewess was cast from a high rock in punishment -for her misconduct, but, on appealing to the Virgin, she fell harmlessly -beside a fig tree. In gratitude she was baptised and remained constant -to the faith thru life (No. 107). The Virgin’s mercy was also great -enough to restore life to the child of a Moorish woman who, because she -had heard of the miraculous power of Santa María de Salas, took the dead -body of her little one to the shrine. After the mother had remained -there all night in prayer the child was brought back to life altho it -had been dead three days (No. 167). - -There is another small group of miracles recorded in which the response -is not to prayers but to threats--cases in which the believer loses -control of himself and defies both God and man. No reason is given why -the threats are effective after prayers and requests have been of no -avail. Does it imply that the Holy Mother was to them such a human -personality that, like an earthly lord, she might be susceptible to -fear? - -One case in point (No. 76) is that of a devout woman, the mother of a -criminal, who became desperate when her son was hanged. Snatching the -form of the child Jesus from the arms of the image in the church she -threatened to keep it as a hostage. The Virgin became merciful--(or -fearful)--and brought from the other world to the distracted mother her -criminal son, who, now truly penitent, reprimands his mother for her -sacrilegious act. So greatly was she impressed by the experience that -she became a nun. - -The most surprising miracle of the entire collection so far as the -behavior of Saint Mary is concerned and her show of fear is the -following, from which I shall quote freely. The young son of a baron -fell with his horse from a high bridge. The father saw the accident and -cried out aloud to the Virgin: - - “Dizend’ a mui grandes uozes: - ‘Ual-me, Rëynna Sennor.’ - Enton a Vírgen bêeita - que seu fillo Saluador - tijnna ontre seus braços, - _ouue da uoz tal pauor_ - como quando Rei Herodes - lle quis seu fillo matar. - - E mandou a esses santos - que o fossen acorrer, - que y estauan, _et ela_ - _foi o seu Fill’ asconder_, - _con medo d’aquel braado_, - que o non podes’ auer - Rei Herodes; _et porende_ - _foi logo passar o mar_. - - _D’esta guisa con seu Fillo_ - _fugiú a Jerussalem_[42] - a Uírgen Santa María, - et guariú acá mui ben - o menynn’ e o caualo - que se non feríron ren: - et o padr’, a bouc’ aberta, - fillou-see Deus a loar.” (No. 337). - -This is the first and only reference I have found to this peculiar fear -on the part of the Virgin. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -MIRACLES PERFORMED VOLUNTARILY BY THE VIRGIN - - -Altho at times this study of Miracles may have the appearance of an -examination of the character of the Virgin, which indeed it is in a -certain sense, nevertheless it is such only in order that we may, by -studying her acts as recorded in these miracles, come to a better -understanding of what was considered supernatural in that period and -what was not. Perhaps it will help in arriving at this result if, before -beginning the study of the next group, we stop at this point to see what -was Alfonso’s own judicial definition of “miraglo”, as the term is used -in his _Siete Partidas_.[43] It reads as follows: - - “Miraglo tanto quiere decir como obra de Dios maravillosa que es - sobre la natura usada de cada dia: et por ende acaesce pocas veces. - Et para ser tenido por verdadero ha menester que haya en él quatro - cosas: la primera que venga por poder de Dios et non por arte: la - segunda que el miraglo sea contra natura, ca de otra guisa non se - maravillarien los homes dél: la tercera que venga por merescimiento - de santidad et de bondat que haya en sí aquel por quien Dios lo - face: la quarta que aquel miraglo acaesca sobre cosa que sea á - confirmamiento de la fe.”[44] - -Next in extent after the group of miracles performed in answer to -_direct appeal_ is that in which Santa María comes to the aid of her -followers _voluntarily_, owing, perhaps indirectly, to their prayers, -but if so this is not so stated and the dominating thought is not that -the act was in answer to prayer but rather it is to emphasize the -kindness, care and eternal vigilance she ever has for those who have -commended themselves to her keeping. - -In our study of this division we shall follow the same classification as -we did in the last, but shall cite examples only in cases where they -differ materially in one particular or another from those mentioned -above. Altho the actual number of miracles is less, here divine aid is -manifested in an even greater variety of ways. These new elements will -be considered under additional appropriate headings beginning on page -65. On the whole the general tone of the miracles is the same, and -sometimes it seems as tho the poet merely forgot, or perhaps it was not -convenient for him, to work into his verse the statement that a given -case was one of direct answer to prayer. At other times, however, it -seems that the prayer was answered in a manner entirely unlooked for, or -again that the miracle was performed without supplication whatever on -the part of the recipient. - -Beginning again with the group composed of the greatest of all miracles, -the restoration of life, it is noticed that here instead of being in -response to a direct appeal on the part of some faithful servant, the -miracle seems to be performed as a reward, without the bereaved person -having thought such a thing possible. The fact that the soul of the -person whose life is thus restored may be brought back from the regions -of eternal happiness seems of minor importance. One of the most -beautiful of these miracles is said to have taken place in “Inglaterra.” -A widow had a young son who sang, as no one else could, the “Gaude Virgo -María”. A jealous Jew killed him and put his body in a cellar, thinking -that would be the end of it. The mother, not knowing what had become of -her son, went thru the street calling “Where are you?” As she passed the -house of the Jew she was answered by her resurrected child singing more -beautifully than ever “Gaude María”. The Jew was put to death for his -crime (No. 6). - -The new element of temporary restoration is found in No. 311. A pious -man and his friend set out on a pilgrimage to Nuestra Señora de -Monserrat. His friend does not seem to be very well confirmed in the -faith, and when, as they are passing thru Barcelona, a flash of -lightning kills his devout companion, he curses the Virgin and taunts -his dead fellow pilgrim with the worthlessness of his devotion. The next -day at the burial the dead man rises in his coffin and vindicates his -faith by saying that all is well now. - -The Virgin plays an even more important part in the miracle (No. 323) -which happened when Aben Yussef crossed the straits of Algeciras and -made damaging raids into the territory of Seville. A poor man’s only son -died, and, as the Moors were already in sight, all the father could do -was to commend the body and his worldly possessions to the Blessed -Mother as he hastily fled before the enemy. When the land was recaptured -the old man, to his great astonishment, found his son alive and all his -possessions safe. The boy told him that a lady had come to accompany -him and for some reason the Moors had respected her. - -Very close akin to these are those of life miraculously sustained when -according to all laws of nature death was inevitable, as was the case -(No. 131) when Emperor Alexius of Constantinople, while on a tour of -inspection, was imprisoned in a caving mine along with many workers. All -were killed except the emperor who was saved by a large rock which -formed a protection for him. The empress and all at court gave him up -for lost and spent much time in Masses for his soul. At the end of one -year the Patriarch of the city dreamed the emperor was still alive and -immediately took workmen and had the mine opened. Thereupon they found -the emperor unharmed and learned that he had been fed and solaced by -angels during the entire interval. - -Even more dramatic is the experience of a German and his son on a -pilgrimage to the shrine of Santiago, who while lodging in the house of -a heretic fall victims unawares to the old trick of having silver put in -the boy’s bag in order to accuse him of theft. The boy is hanged, and -the heart-broken father, still faithful, continues on his way and -fulfills his vow. On his return he is impelled to pass by the gallows. -To his surprise he finds his son still alive, having been sustained by -the Virgin for three months. Hastening to the bailiff, the father -secures the release of his boy and has the heretic duly burned (No. -175). - -There are no new elements presented in the various miracles in this -group dealing with the curing of bodily ailments, beyond those already -indicted on page 35. No 206 however describes the interesting spectacle -of Pope Leo, very devout and austere, who became so much perturbed at -being kissed on the hand by a beautiful woman at Mass that he could not -forget the sensation nor concentrate on his work until he had his hand -cut off. This did not give him peace because he was no longer qualified -to say Mass. The Virgin, seeing his grief and having mercy on him, -descended from heaven and applied a marvelous ointment to the stump with -the result that the hand was restored. - -In the methods by which the Blessed Mother prevents harm from befalling -her devotees there is nothing new. The only difference being that here -the act is performed more as tho it were the reward for faithful service -while previously it was in answer to prayer. - -As is to be expected the idea of bargaining is almost entirely absent -from this group. The bargain idea found its birth on the part of man and -not of the Deity. One legend only in the entire collection represents -the Virgin as taking the initiative in a bargain (No. 307). This is when -she appears to a virtuous man after an eruption of Mount Etna which had -caused great damage and had lasted forty days. She told him if he wanted -the eruption to cease to compose a hymn to her. This he did with the -desired effect. - -The number of the unmoral, in fact in some cases distinctly immoral, -miracles here is greater than before. We must not forget, however, that, -as mentioned above, often there was no very close connection between -religious observances and morals in Medieval Europe. - -On one occasion (No. 24) we are told that a very wicked man, a robber -and a gambler, died and was refused a Christian burial, but during his -life he had been devoted to the Virgin, so she appeared to the priest -and demanded that his body be taken up and buried in sacred ground. When -they opened the grave they found a rose in the mouth of the corpse[45]. -No. 11 is the story of a licentious monk who was drowned one night while -crossing a river on the way to visit his amour. The Devil appeared for -his soul but two angels contested his claim. He convinced them of his -right and they were about to retire when the Virgin arrived, routed the -Devil, and ordered the soul to return to the body in order that the monk -might repent and do penance. In this instance, it will be noted, the -soul is simply restored to the body and given another chance, while in -No. 24 above, the indication is that the soul of the evil doer is saved. - -Then there are five quite similar, Nos. 55, 58, 59, 94 and 285, tho the -moral lesson differs somewhat. In the first a young nun elopes with a -monk to Lisbon where when she finds herself about to become a mother she -is cruelly deserted. Not knowing what else to do she returns penitent to -the convent. Angels attend her at the birth of the son during the night -and no one suspects her. None had missed her during the absence because -the Virgin had taken her place and it is not until one day in her old -age when her son, now a handsome young man, appears in the choir singing -“Salve Regina” that all is discovered because the worthy nun recognizes -him publicly. No. 94 is apparently the same legend more fully developed. -The nun, the treasurer of the convent, falls in love with a knight and -on leaving the convent gives the keys into the keeping of the Virgin. -She and her husband live together happily for years, being blessed with -many children, and it is only in later years that she repents and -returns to the convent, confessing all. To her astonishment, she found -that the Virgin had taken her place during her absence and no one had -ever known the difference. When it is learned that the Blessed Mother -had performed such an act of kindness, all burst into a hymn of praise -to her. In No. 285 we have the same setting of a young nun falling in -love, this time with the nephew of the abbess, but the actions of the -Virgin are quite different. On the first attempt to leave the convent -Saint Mary stopped her. The next day she sent word to her lover that she -had failed to keep her appointment because she had been ill but promised -to meet him the next night, which she did, and the two made their escape -successfully. They married and had children but even then she was not -able to get away from the Holy Mother, who appeared to her in a dream -and severely reprimanded her. This was too much. She at last told her -husband and in repentance they both decided to enter the monastic life. -In this legend the immoral element has disappeared, the Virgin no longer -protecting the guilty. No. 59 is still another story with the same -theme, but the punishment is still more severe. As the young girl was -about to depart she went to take leave of the Saint. At the parting her -image began to shed tears. The girl then drew near the crucifix, which, -loosing one of its hands from the cross, struck her in the face, leaving -the mark of the nail as a stigma. In No. 58 the girl concerned was about -to elope, but two dreams of Hell and of eternal punishment were -sufficient to make the heroine send for her lover and tell him that -their union would be impossible. - -Of the three instances in which the sacred breast or milk of the Virgin -play a part, all involve an answer to direct appeals. See page 45. - -While there is only one account of possessions being restored without -request (No. 228, which contains no new elements) there are several -which tell of rare materials, or of materials delayed by storms at sea, -etc., being miraculously supplied; or perhaps, as in the case of Emperor -Constantine (No. 231), Santa María would help in the erection of -buildings. The emperor had brought huge blocks of marble from Roumania -for the altar and columns of a church to be dedicated to her. When they -arrived they were so large no means could be found to hoist them into -position. At last she appeared to the architect and told him to do away -with all apparatus and use only three small boys to do the work. He did -as he was bidden and they placed the blocks in position with ease. - -These, however, do not give us as intimate a picture of the life of the -common people as do other accounts, such as No. 273. In it we get a -glimpse of the privations of the home life of the peasants and at the -same time an idea of their innate pride in their local church. At -Ayamonte there was a small and poor church erected to Santa María but in -spite of the poverty of its communicants the altar decorations were -rich. So great were their privations that even the Host was scarce. At -the feast of the Virgen de Agosto some of the altar cloths needed -mending and one of the devout men of the congregation offered to do it. -He had a needle but no thread, and no one could provide him with it. -While before the altar considering what he should do, he glanced up and -saw two threads on his shoulder obviously supplied by the Saint. It is -in such apparently incidental allusions as this--and the one, No. 211, -where bees come into the church of their own accord and supply the wax -for the candles because the congregation could not furnish any--that we -can, from time to time, form an idea of how “the other half,” which did -not consist of knights and nobles, really lived. - -Following the same order as in the first group we now come to those -accounts in which the Virgin comes to the aid of the enemies of the -faith. Quite modern in tone is the story (No. 335) of a poor man who, -altho entirely ignorant of Christianity and its teachings, gave even the -little he had to the poor. The Holy Mother, knowing of his goodness, -appeared to him as a poor woman with her child in her arms and asked him -for a morsel of bread. Fearing he had none he went, nevertheless, to see -if he could not scrape out just a little more flour from the barrel. -When he returned with the last of his flour made into bread for her, she -had gone. He made inquiry thruout the neighborhood describing her, and -was finally advised to go and inquire of the Christians. There he -recognized the Virgin and Child from her image and became a Christian. -From the day she appeared to him the flour never failed in the bin. - -Not only was mercy extended to those good at heart and living model -lives and to those who did not believe simply because of ignorance, but -opportunities for proselyting were quickly taken advantage of. A certain -Jewess, (No. 89) dangerously ill at childbirth, was about to despair. -Naturally she did not believe in the Virgin but she heard a mysterious -voice bidding her call on Santa María, which she did. When those -attending her heard this awful name they fled, calling her a heretic and -a renegade, but she was cured. The mother and child both became -Christians. - -The Blessed Mother, however, knew mankind and did not use the same -method with every one. With some, more persuasion was necessary than -with others, and so when dealing with one hardened Jew, who had been -robbed and beaten by Christians and was still being kept on a diet of -bread and water in the hope of extorting even more from him, it was not -enough that she should merely appear to him and bid him forsake his -religion; she tells him that altho he is of the evil race she will show -him what his people have missed. With that she takes him from prison to -a high mountain where she shows him how the Jews are being tortured and -then to another from where he can see the Christians surrounded with -angels, and thence to a monastery, where, taking the hint, he gladly -becomes a Christian (No. 85).[46] - -The Christians themselves used rather persuasive methods of proselyting -at times if we may trust the account of a Christian of Consuegra who -disputed much with a Moorish captive of his concerning the Virgin. When -he could not make the man believe by arguing he put him in prison, where -his efforts were supplemented by the intervention of supernatural -beings. The Devil tormented him for two nights and on the third the -Virgin appeared to him and told him if he wished to be free from the -Devil he would have to forsake the “dog” Mohammed. He told this vision -to his master, was baptised, and from that time on was a faithful -believer (No. 192). - -In another (No. 205) we again find both human and divine persons -interested in the unbeliever, but this time it is physical safety they -are concerned about. The miracle was witnessed by two nobles mentioned -by name, Don Alfonso Tellez and Don Gonzalo Eanes, Maestre de Cala, and -their followers. They were attacking a Moorish castle and had set fire -to it. On one of the towers they saw a Moorish woman with her child who -by her pose reminded them of the Virgin and Child. The sight filled them -with pity and inspired them to pray for the safety of the two. In answer -the flames respected them, while the tower fell gently to the ground, -allowing them alone of all those in the castle to escape unharmed. The -mother out of gratitude asked for baptism for herself and her child. - -After examining these classes, which coincide more or less with similar -ones of the first group, there still remain a number of other miracles -which present entirely new elements. First we shall examine those in -which Saint Mary aids her devotees in acts of worship or in restraining -evil passions which prevent their undivided service. - -A person sincerely trying to do his religious duty could always count -upon aid from heaven when his temptations were becoming too great for -him or when worldly cares caused him temporarily to neglect his regular -worship. A very devout woman (No. 246) used to pray every Saturday -evening at the shrine of Santa María de Mártires. Once she forgot, owing -to household duties, until very late. On her arrival, altho the church -doors were already closed they opened of their own accord, after she had -begun her devotions before the portal. She entered and deposited her -gift, and as she left the doors closed of themselves. Astonished, she -returned to the city where the closed gates of the wall opened without -the touch of a human hand. Just then a beautiful woman appeared and when -the peasant asked her who she was she acknowledged herself to be the -Virgin. The poor wretch tried to kiss her feet, but as she did so the -Holy One disappeared. - -Again, we learn (No. 156) of a clerk who persisted in chanting Mass in -honor of the Virgin, thereby angering some heretics who cut out his -tongue. Some time later the good man entered the church of Santa María -de Cunnegro while the congregation were singing vespers. As he attempted -to join in the song a new tongue was given him.[47] - -Of the numerous legends having as the dominant theme the inability of -the person concerned to restrain his animal passions the best developed -is the story of the clerk who was much given to women. One night while -in the room with one he suddenly saw thru the window the lights of a -church of the Virgin. Never having seen them there before he left to -investigate, but finding nothing returned. This time the woman herself -closed the window fast but almost immediately a strong gust of wind blew -it open, and again the church was seen. With this he recognized his -error, repented, and became a monk. A little later, when his former -conduct was criticized and he was brought to account for it before the -church council, the Virgin cleared him of all charges (No. 151). - -It will be noted that often in the foregoing miracles, and often in -those that are to follow, the Virgin appears in dreams or visions, but -the feature of the vision has usually been only incidental. In all we -have only two examples (Nos. 261 and 288) of a true mystical vision -granted for the sake of the experience alone. One of these (No. 261) -recounts how a very devout woman was desirous of seeing a perfectly -virtuous man and woman. Communicating her desire to the priest, he told -her to return home and to remain alone in fasting and prayer. This she -did and after nine days she saw a bright light followed by those who -said they were saints. These in turn were followed by the Virgin and her -Son. Upon seeing them she had no further desire to live and prayed to be -taken with them, which request was granted. When the priest was told of -her death, and undertook to prepare her body for burial, he found it -giving off an odor more delicate and pleasing to the senses than the -perfumes of the Orient. - -The usual purpose of the vision is to give commands, or to strengthen -the weakhearted or discouraged.[48] There are one or two accounts, -however, in which the vision itself is enlarged upon and the cure or -command or lesson, as the case may be, sinks into minor importance. The -scene is that of a deeply grieved mother sitting beside the bed of her -very religious son, a deaf mute, who was dying of a serious illness. His -mother saw him suddenly rise up in his bed and begin to talk to some -person unseen and unheard by her. It was the Blessed Mother who had -visited him in a vision and healed him (No. 269). - -At other times the vision seems to be a kind of clairvoyance thru which -the recipient sees what is happening at a distant place at that very -moment. In relating one of his own experiences Alfonso declares (No. -345) that when D. Nuño de Lara abandoned Jérez, in spite of the fact -that reenforcements had been sent him, the Moors entered, destroyed the -chapel, and tried to burn the image of the Virgin but could not. At that -particular time both the king and the queen were taking their siesta at -Seville and each dreamed of the Virgin and her Child fleeing from the -burning chapel of Jérez. On awaking they learned of the disaster and -hastened to retake the city, after which the royal couple, together with -their children, restored the church. - -Similar to this in so far as the character of the vision is concerned -tho in an entirely different setting is No 15 in which Emperor Julian -was the victim. In this particular case we are presented with two -versions of the legend--one in _Las Cantigas_, originally told -supposedly by an eye witness of the events as they happened at the tomb -of the saint, and the other in the _Primera Crónica General_. In brief -they are as follow: - - (Version according to _Las Cantigas_, No. 15) - - Emperor Julian had to pass thru Caesarea, where, angered by San - Basilio, he promised to return and destroy the city after the - conquest of Persia. After much prayer and fasting by the entire - city San Basilio had a vision in which he saw the Virgin appear and - order San Mercurio, whose tomb and armor were in that church, to - avenge her and her son of the evil emperor. Upon awaking an excited - fellow priest hastened to report that the arms of San Mercurio had - disappeared. San Basilio then called together the people to tell - them the news and together they went to examine the tomb. To their - surprise the arms were again in their place red with blood. While - they were still gazing, astonished, at the bloody weapons, Libano - de Sur rushed in and confirmed the news of the emperor’s death. - - (Version in the _Primera Crónica General_, p. 201) - - Emperor Julian, on setting out to conquer Persia, promised to - sacrifice to his gods if they would give him victory all the - Christians, especially all the bishops, he should find. As he was - returning victoriously from the East he was about to lose many of - his host thru lack of water. Against the advice of his counselors - he took as a guide one of the men of the country and, - unaccompanied, went with him in search of water. Suddenly a strange - knight appeared before the two, killed the emperor and instantly - disappeared. As he expired the emperor took some of his blood in - his hand and throwing it heavenward as tho throwing it in the face - of someone cried out “Ya uenciste, Galileo, ya uenciste.” (He - always referred to Jesus as Galileo). The compilers add that some - histories say the emperor was killed by one of the enemy knights - but in reality it was San Mercurio, for in the church where his - body lay it was noticed that his shield and sword disappeared that - very day and hour and that they were back in place the next day - stained with blood. Because of this it was known that the strange - knight was none other than San Mercurio who had killed the great - enemy of the faith. - -In this last version the vision motif is entirely lacking. - -At other times the vision takes on a kind of symbolic or mystic feature, -its purpose being to strengthen the faith of the one concerned. One in -which the acts of Saint Mary astonish us is that experienced by some -nuns commissioned by a religious and devout king (probably Alfonso -himself altho he was too modest to say so) to pray for him. They saw the -Virgin calling for the king on Easter morning, saying she would grant -anything he asked if he would come. He entered the church and as he did -so the image kneeled before him and kissed his hand. He immediately fell -on his face in humility. She, thru her image, bade him rise for, she -said, “You have always honored me and my Son and when you die you will -come to us.” After witnessing such magnanimous acts the vision passed -and the nuns hastened to tell the king what they had seen. He was devout -before, but this greatly increased his devotion (No. 295). - -The line between experiences having the mystical element usually -considered essential in visions proper, or in dream-visions, and those -experiences which some few persons undergo while in full control of all -their faculties is so fine as to be at times almost undistinguishable. -The following (No. 365) has, indeed, all the marks of a vision but on -the other hand the friar manifests none of those emotions usually -supposed to accompany such cases. This clerk, contaminated with the -Albigensien heresy, did not believe in the immortality of the soul and -therefore was about to flee from the convent to a life of pleasure, when -he saw the Virgin descend from heaven with a host of angels and return -with the soul of a poor, humble, but believing man. This convinced him -of his error and he passed the rest of his life in the convent full of -holy hope. - -The rôle of a saint who admonishes and warns is quite common for the -Blessed Mother. She is indeed in many respects like a mother who -carefully watches over her children, ready to offer a word of comfort -here or one of criticism there. Just like a school boy who tires of his -task and is ready to flee before its completion was a friar of Burgos -who began a garment of prayers for the Virgin, but was persuaded by the -Devil to leave the monastic life with his task half finished. She, -however, appeared to him holding in her hand a dress far too short, and -told him to return and finish the work, adding that she wanted him, too, -for he was going to die within one year, but that she would come again -before the final day. 364 days later she did return and he died on the -day following (No. 274)[49]. - -Another picture, so very human and so child-like, is that of a doctor -who became a friar, but, not liking the poor food, complained -considerably. To cure him of this the Virgin appeared with a dish of -delicious food and, treating the whole community as so many children, -gave some to each one except the complaining clerk. He acknowledged and -accepted the lesson (No. 88). - -Various methods besides that of the vision are employed to warn the -delinquent. These can be best illustrated by giving a brief résumé of -three miracles which need no comment. - -A gambler, losing heavily (No. 154) curses God and the Virgin and in -defiance of their power picks up a bow and shoots an arrow into the -sky, shouting “D’aquesta uegada ou a Deus ou a sa Madre darei mui gran -saetada”. Having thus given vent to his feelings he returns to play. A -few moments later the arrow, wet with blood, falls on the table around -which they are seated. Thinking someone has been wounded, each hastily -examines himself. When each is found whole the true significance dawns -on them and they become terrified indeed. So great is the effect that -the blasphemer repents and enters an austere order--and, it is said, -gained heaven. - -In No. 196 a gentile[50] priest who hated everything connected with -Christianity prepared a mold for an image which he expected would answer -all his questions. When it came out it had a form quite different from -what he had anticipated, so he asked his fellows what it was. They could -not help him. Finally some of his Christian acquaintances told him that -it was the form of the Virgin, and to prove their assertion took him to -the church where he could see for himself. This experience convinced him -of his error and he was converted. - -The Bishop of Siena (No. 219) had several images made for the church, -all in white. Among them was one of the Devil and one of Santa María. As -this color did not make Satan look as vile as he really was the Virgin -turned the figure black. The prelate, hearing of the change, thought it -was some trick and ordered the image washed and scraped, but without -result. It was black thru and thru. He then recognized his sin and -prayed for forgiveness. - -The hope of reward has ever been one of the strongest arguments offered -by any religion. The Mohammedans, the greatest rivals of the Christians -at that time, offered thru their faith attractive rewards in the next -life, as did Christianity also. But for the peasant and also for the man -of the middle class as well as occasionally even for the noble, the -future life was something afar off; reward in the present life was much -more attractive and it was this that the Virgin granted from time to -time to a chosen few. The first miracle recorded in the collection (No. -2) is the old and even then well-known legend of the mantle the Virgin -gave to San Ildefonso for his service and which at his death his -successor in office, Don Siagrio, dared to appropriate, dying as the -result of his sacrilege[51]. - -Usually the favor was in return for some special service. In No. 141 it -is an answer to the eternal desire to grow young and is bestowed upon a -certain very devout friar who always fell on his knees when he heard the -name of the Virgin. When very old the abbot assigned two monks to -accompany and care for him, but one day when left alone for a few -moments he fell and could not rise. He called on the Saint, who appeared -and led him by the hand before her altar, where she told him to kiss it -and become young. To his great surprise he found himself again a young -man of about twenty years. - -No. 63 is especially interesting, not only because of its contents but -also of its similarity to the story found in the second part of _La -Primera Crónica General_ (p. 426). A knight, the constant companion of -the Count D. García in his campaigns against the Moors, was extremely -conscientious in his devotions and always stayed until Mass was entirely -over before leaving. One day, due to this, he was late in arriving on -the field of battle, tho no one had missed him. As he rode up the Count -met and embraced him and bade him have his wounds dressed, -congratulating him at the same time, saying that it had been his skill -and valor that had saved the day. Shamefacedly the knight glanced at his -armor and was surprised beyond words to see it full of holes and bloody. -He then realized that some divine messenger had taken his place; and all -rejoiced in the miracle.[52] - -In another instance (No. 105) the reward is the gift of healing, tho -this time it is not, as is so often the case, by means of a mantle. The -Blessed Virgin appeared to a young girl early in life and told her if -she wished to gain heaven she must remain a virgin. The child promised, -but her parents married her against her will. She repelled her husband -for over a year until, beside himself, he wounded her with a knife. -About this time the people of the community began to fall ill with -leprosy. She too took the disease and, still suffering from her wound, -went to the altar of Santa María. While there, asleep from exhaustion, -she was visited in a dream by the Holy Mother who appeared in her dream, -cured her, and gave her the power of healing all lepers with her kiss. - -There are also a few accounts of the faithful being taken to heaven when -life has become intolerable (Nos. 384, 56, etc.). - -Just as Santa María, when answering prayer, is not limited in her power -to curing bodily ills but may also protect from harm, so in bestowing -rewards she does not confine her mercies to those who are suffering. In -fact she much more frequently protects them from such harm. Naturally, -miracles of this type, all in return for faithful service, cover a large -variety of cases such as: the congregation miraculously saved from harm -when a heavy beam fell during a sermon (No. 266), a pilgrim saved on -falling into the sea (No. 33), a wife saved from an angry husband -because she spent too much time at devotions (No. 314), a boy freed -after capture by the Moors (No. 359), a clerk who lost his position -because he could say only one Mass ordered reenstated (No. 32), and one -that reminds us of Coleridge’s “Ancient Mariner,” the story of a hermit -captured by pirates after they had sacked the surrounding country and -were ready to sail away. They started with him on board but each night -some mysterious power brought their ships back to where they had been -the day before. At last the admiral decided to release the hermit, Count -Abran of Germany, and in addition offered him great riches of which he -selected only one glass to keep as a reminder of the favor he had -received at divine hands (No. 95). - -Quite often Saint Mary protects her own from unjust punishment. A -confidential adviser of a certain lord was falsely accused by his -enemies. Because of his devotion to Santa María she caused the truth to -be brought out at the trial so that he was freed while his maligner was -burned. She proves equal to the occasion when her followers are -submitted to the ordeal of trial by fire[53]. A married woman’s -mother-in-law accused her before her husband of unfaithfulness. The wife -and the Moor with whom she was accused and who had agreed to act as an -accomplice of the mother-in-law were taken to the public square to be -burned. The Moor perished immediately but the woman was unharmed, and -furthermore the Virgin was seen beside her in the fire (No. 186). - -The motherly characteristic of Santa María again comes to the front in -No. 47 when she rewards a good priest who has always been punctual in -his duties but gives way once and, yielding to temptation, becomes -thoroly drunk. This she does by caring for him on his way home, when the -Devil in the form of a bull, a frightful black man, and a lion torments -him. She protects him even to the point of striking the lion with a -stick, then she tells him to go and sin no more.[54] At another time she -rewards a faithful servant by keeping his wife from harm while he is -away in the wars. During his absence a gallant courts her and sends her -a pair of shoes. She puts one on to try it and to her dismay is unable -to remove it. In fact no one could do so until her husband returned, -when he took it off with ease (No. 64). - -Santa María is particular about vows that have been made to her and is -careful to see that they are conscientiously fulfilled. A woman (No. -117) promised never to work on Saturday, that day being dedicated to the -Mother of Christ. When she forgot her vow she was stricken with -paralysis. Another mother who forgot her vow made while praying that she -might have a child, was punished by having it die before reaching -maturity (No. 347). - -The conception of “The Bride of Christ” on taking the vows of a nun -remains even to the present time. In the Middle Ages, when the cult of -the Virgin was at its zenith, the vow of celibacy on the part of men -seems to have had a similar appeal with respect to consecration to the -worship and love of the Virgin while she is constantly represented as -being extremely jealous of those who have thus dedicated themselves to -her. One young man made the vow either under the inspiration of the -moment or perhaps even partly in jest, but this did not make it any the -less binding. As he was about to begin to play ball he removed the ring -of his fiancée from his finger for fear of damaging it, and as he -happened to be standing near an image of the Virgin he slipped it on its -finger saying as he did so that he would never love another woman. To -his surprise and great fear the image bent its finger so the ring could -not be removed. His friends advised a monastic life but he did not heed -them, shortly afterwards forgetting all about the incident and preparing -to marry. But the Virgin appeared to him in two successive dreams and in -her anger so disturbed the youth that he wandered aimlessly for a month -and then entered a monastery (No. 42). She was a little more lenient at -times with young nuns who violated their promise. In fact nearly all -those miracles termed unmoral are cases where the Blessed Mother out of -pity shielded these same girls from what was considered their just -punishment. - -As well as being jealous of those who have consecrated themselves to -her, the Virgin guards with the greatest care her shrines, her own -images and those of her Son, her feast days, and the special customs, -etc., that grew up around her individual sanctuaries. She protected her -church of Monsarás (Portugal) from an avalanche (No. 113), and the one -in Murcia from the political wiles of man by making it impossible to -remove as much as one nail (No. 169). Later she saved this same church -when even Alfonso X himself consented to its destruction, and still -later against the ravages of the Moors. During this period of constant -war she frequently had occasion to guard her images against the -Mohammedans (Nos. 99, 183, etc.), or against sacrilegious acts of -supposed Christians (Nos. 136, 293, etc.). This might be accomplished by -causing the images to remain intact amid general destruction of all -other objects (No. 99), or to pass thru a severe fire unharmed (No. 39). -The occupation of the offenders might be brought to a standstill (No. -183), the offender himself might be physically harmed (No. 293), or the -image might put up its arm to protect itself (No. 136). Santa María de -Ribila would allow nothing but olive oil to be burned before her shrine -(No. 304). - -Neither will she tolerate the making and maltreatment of effigies of her -Son.[55] A heavenly voice at Mass warns the congregation, “The Jews who -are killing my Son do not desire to be at peace with Him”. The -Christians rush to the Jewish quarter and find the Jews engaged in -beating and spitting upon an effigy of Jesus which they are preparing to -crucify. All the Jews perish on the rack for the deed (No. 12). In No. -215 in a little town near Martos a Moor attempts to stab an image but -wounds himself instead; stones it but it remains unharmed; puts it in -the fire for two days but it is not affected; ties a stone around its -neck and then throws it in the river but it does not sink. The King of -Granada then sends it to the king of Castile, who is at Segovia; he -receives it with great joy and orders it put in his chapel.[56] - -It is necessary to approach the church of the Virgin with due humility -and in a penitent state of mind. Wilful sinners can not force an entry -until they have duly and earnestly repented (Nos. 98, 217, etc.), -neither are Moors allowed to enter for unholy purposes, but are struck -blind and paralyzed, etc. (No. 229). Acts of violence committed in the -church are always fittingly punished with disease, paralysis, or death. -Sometimes such punishment is accompanied by significant acts by the -image of María, sometimes not. In No. 164, because of the affront -offered by the Infante D. Fernando in arresting a prior before the altar -on the charge of counterfeiting money, the image of the Virgin separated -itself from that of the Son and lost its color. After the repentance of -the Infante the form of the mother went back to that of the Son but -never regained its color. - -No. 38 has the added element, by no means uncommon, of the Devil or of -demons acting as the agents of God in killing the offenders. This time -it was the Conde de Poitiers who with his men entered and desecrated the -sanctuary, one going so far as to maltreat the image of the Virgin with -the Child in her arms by striking it, thereby breaking one of the arms. -To his surprise and horror, blood flowed freely from the wound. Demons -killed the guilty person, and hearing of it the Count vindicated himself -by punishing all those implicated. So particular is the Virgin about the -sacredness of her shrines that some pilgrims at Santa María de Terena -after becoming engaged in a terrible fight among themselves during the -night, were awe-struck, on going out to collect the dead and wounded, to -find them all well and reconciled, altho their armor was battered and -broken. The Blessed Mother would not tolerate Christian blood shed by -Christians in front of her church (No. 198). - -Those legends which have to do with the earthly life of the Mother of -Jesus are very rare, and when we do find them it almost startles us to -think she was ever considered as a person, human in all respects as they -were and living on this earth. We learn, however (No. 27), that in the -time of the apostles, the Christians had bought a synagogue intending to -convert it into a church. When the Jews hear of their intention they -reclaim it and carry the matter before Caesar. The Christians go to -Mary, who is then living at Mount Sion and ask her advice. She tells -them not to fear, for she will help them at the trial. When the day -arrives the case is called in the church building. As Peter takes his -place beside the altar an image of Mary appears on the altar cloth. This -is too much for the Jews, who refuse to carry the trial further. -Tradition has it that this was the first church dedicated to Santa -María. Some time later Emperor Julian ordered the Jews to take away the -image of the Virgin, but it frowned on them in such a manner that they -feared to touch it.[57] - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -MIRACLES PERFORMED BY IMAGES - - -Since the image of the Virgin was intended to be a representation of the -Divine Mother, it often, especially in the mind of the peasant, -attracted to itself all her attributes. The result was that in a number -of cases it was the image and not the Virgin that performed the deed. -Often, also when the miracle was attributed to Santa María it was not -simply to the saint, Mary the mother of Jesus, who lived in the distant -past, far away in the Holy Land, nor to Mary, the most powerful of all -the saints in heaven, but it was to the very present, and very local -saint, Santa María de Salas, or Santa María del Puerto, as the case -might be. There is little doubt that in the mind of the common folk -there were as many different Saints Mary as there were shrines, and yet, -at the same time, these all had a definite connection with the Mother of -Christ in some mysterious way which the plain people did not trouble -themselves to explain. Just as the mystery of the Trinity did not -perturb them nearly as much as it did the Anglo-Saxons of the North, so -this particular problem caused them little concern. - -As might be expected, most of the miracles attributed to the image of -the Virgin are of the same nature as those performed by the saint -herself. The image cures the diseased (No. 349), it bows over a man and -thanks him for a hymn of praise he has composed (No. 202), saves a -naughty child from punishment (No. 303), protects a man’s property from -threatened storm (No. 161), restores to health queen Beatriz, mother of -Alfonso el Sabio, when the doctors had pronounced her illness incurable -(No. 256), restrains a rich libertine knight of Catalonia from -committing an immoral act in its presence (No. 312), protects a city -from capture by the Moors even after the latter had learned from a -prisoner that there were but fifteen men remaining to defend it (No. -185), protects its altar from fire by removing a veil from its head and -spreading it over the fire, thereby instantly extinguishing the flames -(No. 332), and lastly even pours milk from its sacred breasts as a final -argument to convince and convert a Moor (No. 44). The story of No. 321 -differs somewhat from this, reminding us of a similar cure attributed to -the Child Jesus while on the flight into Egypt.[58] A child was -suffering from a swelling in the neck and was pronounced incurable. A -friend advised that the patient be taken to the king, adding that all -Christian kings had the power of healing. This was done, but the king -told them to take it before the image of the Virgin, wash the image in -pure water, and then give the child this water to drink for as many days -as there are letters in the name _M-a-r-í-a_. On the fourth day the -child was healed. In two instances the power is extended a little -farther and in No. 123 a young friar on dying turned black and ugly. His -brethren took a candle from the altar and put it in his hand, which -caused his natural color to be restored. Later he returned and appearing -to the two friars told them that the reason he became black at death was -that he saw Devils, but that the light of the Virgin drove them promptly -away. In No. 209 Alfonso was very ill and when the doctors could not -give him relief he called for the unfinished manuscript[59] of _Las -Cantigas_ and by applying it to the affected part of his body he was -healed. - -Because of the very high esteem in which the Virgin was held it is -common to find instances in which a person swears by her or by her name -or image, while she on her part is rightly conscientious in seeing that -such oaths are not taken lightly. One young shepherd developed the habit -of stealing and was finally caught, but cleared himself by swearing by -God _and the Virgin_ that he was innocent. A little later he was caught -again, and convicted. This time the Virgin allowed him to be hanged, -because he had sworn by her falsely (No. 392). Another man (No. 239) -perjured himself before her image by adjuring that he had never received -a certain article in trust. Even before leaving the church he was -overtaken by a severe illness which caused his death within three days. -So high and so sacred was this oath before the image of the Virgin held -to be, that in one instance a wife, being accused of unfaithfulness by -her jealous husband, offered to submit to the ordeal by fire to prove -her innocence, but her husband demanded instead that she swear before -the altar of Nuestra Señora. Then he added that she could further clear -herself by jumping from a high rock. She passed both tests safely and -her husband, penitent, begged forgiveness on his knees (No. 341). In -other cases the image of the Virgin _speaks_, as, for example, when -called upon to bear witness in a difference between a Jew and a -Christian over the payment of a debt (No. 25). - -The very name of María was one to conjure with.[60] Two miracles (Nos. -194 and 254) are attributed to the power of the mere sound of the name; -and once (No. 195) a girl is saved because her name is María. In No. 194 -a villainous host sends in pursuit of his departing guests some thugs to -rob them, but the bandits, on hearing their intended victims call on the -name of Santa María for help, become powerless and speechless. In No. -254, the image of the Virgin saves some monks who, while recuperating on -the banks of a river from the rigors of convent life, transgress the -bounds of what is proper for men of their order. Seeing some devils in -the form of men, coming down the river in a boat, the monks, terrified, -call on the Virgin for aid. “She alone has saved you,” shout the devils -as they continue on their way. A girl (No. 195) who had been sold by her -father to a knight on his way to a tournament was saved from harm when -she told him her name was Mary and that that particular day was one -especially consecrated to the Saint’s worship. On learning that, the -knight sent her for safekeeping to an abbey, while he continued on his -journey. At the tournament he was killed and buried in the open -prairie.[61] The Virgin appeared to the girl and told her of his fate -demanding that she and the abbess go and give the man a worthy burial, -telling them they would be able easily to identify the body, for it -would have a rose in its mouth. - - * * * * * - -There now remains a group of fifteen poems that do not seem to have any -particular purpose other than to produce an atmosphere of mystery; but -this very sentiment of the mystical played an important part in the -religious worship of the time. The very architecture of the churches -tended to produce it, the processions, the ritual, all inspired the same -feeling. Herewith are summarized only four poems of this group, which -will give a sufficient idea of the emotions aroused by them. - -A young girl, a religious fanatic, died very early in life as the -result of self-imposed hardships. Her parents, suspecting poison, -ordered an autopsy, and on the heart of the dead girl was found an image -of the Virgin (No. 188). In No. 361, Alfonso is said to have given a -beautiful image of the Virgin to the monastery of Las Huelgas de Burgos. -On Christmas night the strange idea of putting the image to bed occurred -to the pious nuns. Almost immediately they saw it change color and turn -from side to side. No. 79, of the codex of Toledo (a poem which does not -appear in the codex of the Escorial), relates an incident that took -place weekly in the church at Constantinople. In this church was a -beautiful image of the Holy Mother, covered with a veil. Every Friday an -angel descended from heaven to lift the veil, which remained suspended -in the air until Saturday evening, (the day on which the faithful came -to worship), when the angel would return and lower the veil again. -Cantiga No. 226 narrates a legend entirely foreign to Spanish thought -and one which must have caused some surprise in its unwonted -environment. The incident is said to have happened in “Gran Britaña”. -The account runs briefly as follows: A company of friars were in their -convent saying Mass on Easter morning, when the entire monastery was -swallowed up by the earth--the ground closing above it and leaving no -trace whatever. For just a year the monks continued in this enforced -seclusion, without lack of anything needful; they were even lighted by a -marvellous sun. On the next Easter morning all was restored to its -former natural state. It can be seen at a glance that this legend is -entirely different from anything that has been mentioned in this -collection; and I have found no parallel to it in anything else of the -period. - -In closing this chapter attention should be called to two miracles which -emphasize the great importance attached to confession.[62] No. 124 is -the story of a man condemned to be stoned because he had broken a law of -the Moors in whose land he was living. While undergoing this punishment, -he begged permission of the Virgin to make his confession; from that -moment his executioners could not harm him. Astonished that their -missiles suddenly ceased to have any effect they allowed him to confess, -after which he died praising the Blessed Mother. In No. 96 a sinner was -unwilling to do penance, altho devoted to Santa María. He was beheaded -by robbers, without opportunity for confession. Four days later two -friars, on arriving at the spot, were surprised to hear the head plead -for the privilege of confession. They summoned a crowd; the head -attached itself to the body, confessed, and then became separated again -from the body.[63] - - - - -CHAPTER V - -“THE DEVIL AND ALL HIS WORKS” - - -His Satanic Majesty is and always has been one of the most interesting -of personages. The tracing of his development from the beginning of -religion in the dim mythical past to his latest rôle as the prince of -evil spirits and “controls” as depicted by Sir Conan Doyle, Sir Oliver -Lodge, and others of similar faith, is fascinating work. Satan as we -find him in the period with which we are concerned is far from being a -dull and lifeless character. He is referred to as one who had been as -holy and perfect as any, but who, because of his sin and treason, became -the lowest of all.[64] As such, having become the arch-enemy of God, it -is his aim to drag down to Hell as many as possible. At the same time, -the nearer he comes to localities especially dedicated to his Enemy, -God, the more difficult it is for him to exercise his powers. In _Las -Siete Partidas_ it is stated as a fact that the Devil cannot harm the -souls of those interred in holy ground as easily as of those buried -elsewhere.[65] He is subject to conjuring[66] and can never face the -Virgin. In fact, the mere sound of her name is often sufficient to drive -him away (No. 254). To our surprise he takes on one hellish attribute -which we do not customarily connect with Spain of this period, but -rather with the Orient. This is illustrated in _Las Cantigas_ No. 82, -where it is related that a monk on his bed saw some devils in the form -of swine approach, but they dared not touch him because of his holiness. -Shortly afterwards a black man appeared who said he was going to destroy -the monk, whereupon the latter, in desperation, appealed to the Virgin. -As she hastened to him the devils disappeared _in a cloud of smoke_. - -Demoniac possession is quite common and has only the well-known New -Testament characteristics. The incidents as recorded could easily have -taken place in the time of Jesus in the Holy Land. But the humorous -element manifests itself at rare intervals even here, as we see in No. -343 of _Las Cantigas_ where we find that a girl, possessed, is able, on -seeing a person, to tell what his secret sin is and has a mania for -divulging this in public. Needless to say, she is soon shunned by all. -Even the priest to whom she was first taken was mocked by her, the holy -water did not protect him, and he was not able to face her. However she -was finally cured before the altar at Rocamador. - -The compilers of the _Primera Crónica General_[67] saw nothing in the -visions of Mohammed but demoniac possession. - -Not infrequently Satan resorts to taking on other forms than his own to -attain his ends. One story (well known long before Alfonso’s time) which -found its way into _Las Cantigas_ is that the Devil, taking on the form -of an apostle, ordered a pilgrim to so mutilate himself, as penance for -his sin, that he died, after which Satan prepared to carry away his soul -but was prevented by Santiago (St. James) who rescued it.[68] At another -time, when he wished to take vengeance on a philanthropic Christian who -had established a hospital, he entered the corpse of a handsome young -man, becoming the good man’s servant, hoping thus to have an opportunity -to assassinate him, but was prevented from doing so because his master -prayed every day. At last, the bishop made a visit to the hospital and -the Devil, fearing to appear before him, pleaded illness. The kind -prelate, solicitous for his welfare, requests to be allowed to see him. -Immediately upon coming into his presence he notes his actions and, -suspecting something, conjures him in the name of God. The Devil -confesses and flees leaving the dead body of the young man at the feet -of the bishop and philanthropist (No. 67). While thus taking on other -forms he is at times distinctly mischievous, and we can see almost the -sparkle of his eyes when, finding that the Virgin has made a certain -innocent man invisible in order that he may escape his foes who accuse -him falsely, Satan himself takes the form of this man and plays -practical jokes with his pursuers (No. 213). - -The familiar “Devil Pact” is to be found in its simplicity when a Jew -sells his soul to the Devil, and later on repenting and praying most -earnestly to the Virgin, finds that she hears his prayer and impels the -Devil to return the contract.[69] - -This simple, and even then conventional, plot does not seem to have -satisfied the demands of the time, since we find it occasionally -introduced with variations. One man (in No. 281) to gain his lost wealth -promises the Devil he will deny God and the Church, but refuses to deny -a certain one of the saints, and that is the Virgin. Diabolus hesitates, -but remarks - - “ ... Pois negaste - Deus, non mi á ren que fazer - de esa Madre non negares.” - -Time passes and he prospers, until one day he is called upon to attend -the king on a public function during which, accidentally, the monarch -enters a church. The knight refuses to accompany him, saying it is -forbidden him to do so. With that the image of the Virgin beckons to -him, and upon being thus reassured he enters and confesses all. This act -has such an effect on the king that he adds a fortune to the visible -protection of Santa María (No. 281). Another illustration is that of the -man who barters his wife to the Devil, but the Blessed Mother does not -allow the bargain to be carried out.[70] - -Aside from the above-mentioned traits, that are to be found almost -wherever the Devil himself is present, we notice a few others that are -rare. - -There is the threat of bottling the imps later mentioned on page 116. - -The _Primera Crónica General_ contains a legend in which the devils -appear almost like human beings holding a general conference. Antidio, -archbishop of Vesentine, on crossing the bridge of the river of Duero, -sees a group of devils in the field. Apparently without fear, the -archbishop approaches to see what it is all about. As he draws near his -attention is attracted by the report of one of the imps to the effect -that after seven years he has been successful in making the Pope sin. -The clergyman immediately demands as proof that the devil take him to -the Vatican on his back that he may verify the statement. This is done -and the report found to be correct. After making the Pope do penance, -the archbishop, by conjuring in the name of God and Santa Cruz, now -requires the diminutive devil, whom he has kept waiting all this time, -to carry him back to his diocese.[71] - -Very often the Devil appears as a servant of God--as a sort of scavenger -whose business it is to do the disagreeable work. The Vandal king, -Gunderico, after sacking Seville, attempts to enter the church by force -to plunder it also. As he approaches the door he is met by the Devil and -is killed for his sacrilege.[72] In _Las Cantigas_ No. 34 the Devil -kills a Jew for robbing an image of the Virgin, while in No. 192 he so -torments an imprisoned Moor for two nights in succession that the Moor -is glad to become a Christian.[73] - -Hell, the abode of the Devil, is miserably slighted by the pen of -Alfonso el Sabio. Numerous references are made to “el fuego dell -inferno”; a little more graphic is - - “D’ esto direy un miragre - que fezo a Uírgen santa, - Madre de Deus grorïosa, - que nos faz mercée tanta, - que nos dá saud’ e siso - et äo demo quebranta - _que nos quer äo inferno_ - _leuar, en que nos afume_.” (No. 338.) - -But no attempts are made to describe the familiar place.[74] - -Altho there can be no doubt that enchantment was known and practiced, as -evidenced by the laws against it,[75] it is strange that there is but -one instance of it in the _Primera Crónica General_, and that, the -story of Simon Magus, the enchanter, is in the narration of the history -of events in the time of Christ. In _Las Cantigas_, where we would -naturally look to find records of this nature, there are only such cases -as the threat of the clerk to bottle the devils (No. 125), occasional -accusations of the practice of enchantment (No. 8), or a reference to -the fact that medicine, enchantment, and prayers were all of no avail in -the attempt to cure a case of rabies until at last Santa María de Terena -was approached (No. 319). The motif furnished by this practice was not -developed, nor did it become popular in literature, until the Books of -Chivalry.[76] - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -DIVINATIONS--OMENS--AUGURIES - - -The love of the mysterious found its greatest development in Spain in -the study of divination, in omens and in auguries. In the practice of -this art Spain excelled all other countries of Europe in the Middle -Ages. Gaston Paris makes the following significant statement in speaking -of the episode of the journey of the seven sons of Lara going to visit -their uncle Ruy Velázquez, the quarrel and reconciliation: - - “Tout cet épisode est fort beau et d’un caractère bien original; il - n’y a rien de pareil dans notre épopée; on sait au contraire le - grand rôle que jouait, dans le haut moyen âge espagnol, et surtout - dans la vie des aventuriers qui faisaient la force et la terreur de - la Castille, l’ inspection du vol des oiseaux; le Cid lui-même - “vivait à augure.”[77] - -The Spanish at this time, in spite of the intermixtures of other races, -were essentially a Roman people and this was one of the characteristics -of the old Roman civilization that had not been materially changed by -time or religion. It is true that such practices in all cases except by -means of astrology, were forbidden by law,[78] but the fact that the law -was so full and explicit implies that divination and the study of omens -and auguries not only existed but must have been quite common. Such -customs are usually mentioned merely in passing, as in the miracle of -the Host mentioned on page 118 or in such statements as the one to the -effect that king Herod died according to the prognostications of a Greek -augur,[79] or the simple statement that a certain person foretold that -certain events would come to pass without giving any clue as to how this -information was received[80]. Another indication that divining was quite -common is that when Tiberius expelled from Rome all who practiced black -magic the chronicler considered the event of such minor importance that -he gives it only two lines: - - “ ... Echo de la - cibdat de Roma todos los adeuinos et los encantadores;”[81] - -Under the law in _Las Siete Partidas_ treating of actions for which a -person might be legally dishonored, is the following entry: - - “_Como maguer el astrologo diga alguna cosa de otro por - razón de su arte, non le puede ser desmandado - por deshonra._ - -Pierden los homes á las vegadas algunas de sus cosas, et van á los -astrólogos a rogar que caten por su arte quales son aquellos que las -tienen, et los astrólogos usando de su sabiduria dicen ó señalan á -algunos que las han: et en tal caso como este decimos que los que asi -señalaren non pueden demandar que les fagan emienda desto asi como en -manera de deshonra: et esto es porque lo que ellos dicen, fácenlo segunt -su arte, et non con entención de los deshonrar. Pero como quier que non -puedan demandar emienda dello como en manera de deshonra, con todo eso -si el adevino fuese baratador que faga muestra de saber lo que non sabe, -bien lo pueden acusar que reciba la pena que mandan las leyes del título -de los adevinos et de los encantadores.”[82] - -Very closely associated with the foregoing accounts, altho differing -somewhat in nature, are a large number of legends mentioning wonderful -signs that appear in the heavens or on the earth at certain significant -moments in the life of an individual or nation. These differ from omens -and auguries because they are out-of-the-ordinary happenings, while with -auguries and omens proper there is nothing whatever unusual in the event -itself and all depends upon the interpretation. The wonderful signs -usually require interpretation, but the person seeing them, even the -uninitiated, knows immediately that they _have_ a meaning. When Octavius -Caesar ascended the throne there appeared a rainbow around a clear sun, -and again, three suns appeared that merged into one, signifying first, -that the Roman Empire, divided into three at the death of Caesar, would -become one, and second, that Christ would show the world the mystery of -the Trinity[83]. More portentous still were the phenomena which appeared -during the consulship of Sextus Julius Caesar and Lucius Marcus, when -many signs, fire and noises occurred in the sky, blood flowed from bread -as if it were meat when it was cut, real stones and earth were hailed -upon the land, the earth opened and flames shot to the sky, a mountain -of the color of gold descended from heaven and ascended again until it -covered the sun, tame animals became wild, etc.[84] Then, as we leave -Roman history and come on down to the 7th century, a sign in the form of -a sword appeared in the sky and remained for 30 days, which “demostraua -el sennorio que los moros auien de auer.”[85] - -While usually quite distinct, the line between these marvelous signs, -and omens and auguries proper, may at times become almost -imperceptible; as, for instance, when queen Dido arrived in Africa she -immediately prepared to build a city, and as the workmen set about -digging the foundation for the walls they found the skull of a cow. This -was taken to the augurs and they declared it signified that any city -built there would always be one of toil and always under the power of -others. They moved to another place and again began to dig, this time -finding the skull of a horse, which, said the augurs, signified that a -city built in that place would always be one of pride and of -warriors.[86] - -Incidents of this kind might conveniently be placed in either class, -because, altho the event itself does not startle one, it does not take a -soothsayer to tell a person of an imaginative turn of mind that a skull -found under such circumstances probably has a significance. - -The foregoing have been but signs which _indicated_ the future, and no -matter how striking the _form_ an interpretation was necessary. But -there are a few cases recorded where a person is apparently given to see -into the future and somehow is permitted to know what is going to occur, -without any medium whatsoever, and furthermore is impelled to speak out -what he knows. We find that a Roman senator and his wife enter the -temple of Jupiter and as they do so a priest who has all the symptoms of -demoniac possession, cries out, “Aquest mugier trae en el uientre cosa -que destruya de rayz aqueste grand templo et menuzara todos los dios que -en el estan.”[87] The event foretold did come to pass when the child -referred to became a friend of the emperor and thereby succeeded in -having the temple destroyed. Then is added the significant statement -that this happened just 1000 years after Rome was founded. - -The agent used to convey the message is usually a person, but it may be -an animal. An ox tells his master of the future;[88] or even an idol in -a heathen temple imparts the knowledge that the temple will stand only -“fasta que parriesse uirgen”[89].--The temple fell when Christ was -born. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -VISIONS - - -The two terms _dream_ and _vision_ seem to have been only vaguely -differentiated in the period we are studying, just as even at the -present time they are often used almost synonymously. In _las Cantigas_ -we find: - - “ ... et log’ o meninno - se fillou ben a _dormir_ - et uiú en _uijon á Madre_” (No. 53), - -and - - “et _dormindo_, uiù en _uijon_ - Santa María con grand’az” (No. 68), - -but in No. 336 the person certainly was not asleep, for: - - “El aquest assí fazendo - e con o demo luitando, - _non estand’ en un estado,_ - _mais caend’e leuantando_, - uiú en _uijon_ a Reynna - dos cëos, et él chorando - lle disse....” - -A similar confusion of the two words is characteristic of the other -works of Alfonso X. - -Because they are thus synonymously employed it has not seemed desirable -to treat the two separately. Also it must be remembered that in many -instances, especially in _Las Cantigas_, some simple statement is made -such as “The Virgin appeared to him,” with no indication whether it was -in a dream or a vision, or whether, in the form of an ordinary human -being she appeared to the person concerned while he was in full -possession of his faculties. It is to be regretted that there is no -definition of either “dream” or “vision” in _Las Siete Partidas_. The -only reference to dreams is one to the effect that in themselves they -are not sufficient authority for the establishment of a church or an -altar[90]. - -Visions and significant dreams[91] may conveniently be divided into -three classes: (a) those which deal with what is to us the unknown fate -of persons in whom we are interested; (b) those concerned with -contemporary events at which we ourselves are not present; and (c) those -associated with the future. - -In the literature of Alfonso X, those pertaining to the first group deal -exclusively with the fate of the soul in the other world. For instance, -shortly after the death of king Dagobert of France a holy man had a -vision in which he saw the devils contending for and almost successfully -carrying off to Hell the soul of the deceased king[92]. Many good men -desired this consummation, but Saint Denis, bishop of Paris, pleaded to -God for Dagobert’s soul and the bishop’s prayer was granted.[93] - -In reading other passages we can almost imagine ourselves in the -presence of a clairvoyant medium. Alfonso X dreams of the destruction of -the church of Jerez (No. 343), and in a similar manner the Emperor -Justinian has a vision of the evil that Gilemer the Vandal is doing in -Africa[94]: while the Emperor Heraclius dreams of the misfortunes of his -troops in Africa.[95] All of these visions are contemporary with the -events involved. - -By far the greater part of the visions and dreams have to do with the -future of the individual to whom they are manifested; and of these -visions by far the greater number are symbolic. Occasionally the -messenger appears and gives a direct command, as San Fernando when he -appeared to Maestro Jorge and bade him take a fine ring from the finger -of a statue recently erected to the saint’s memory by his son Alfonso X, -and put it on the finger of the image of the Virgin[96]; or as when the -saints appeared to Taion who had gone on a seemingly hopeless task to -Rome to find the famous book _Moralia in Job_ and told him where it was -to be found, even mentioning the exact position in the chest;[97] or -again, as when Aeneas, upon his landing on the shores of Africa, dreamed -of his future meeting and love affair with Dido[98]. But it is the -symbolic vision that was the most popular. - -Usually this type of vision is quite simple in its elements, as when Our -Lord appeared to Emperor Marcian and showed him the broken bow of -Attila. The emperor was at a loss to understand the real import of this, -but interpreted it as a favorable omen. Later he discovered that on the -very night of the vision Attila had married, and had died as a result of -the debauch that had accompanied the wedding.[99] This is an example of -the usual type, but at times such a vision is considerably elaborated, -involving much symbolism and mysticism. One of the best introduces the -Emperor Constantine. It is given here in the writer’s words: - - “Et (el emperador) morando y en una cibdat que auie nombre - Bizancio, auinol assi una noche, que el yaziendo durmiendo en su - lecho, uinol en uision quel parauan delante una muger uegezuela muy - fea et much enatia et muerta; et diziel sant Siluestre: - “Costantino, faz oracion et ressuscitara esta muger”. Et el oraua - luego, et ressuscitaua la muger, et tornauasse sana et muy fermosa; - et pagauasse Constantino della de buen amor et casto, et cubriela - de su manto, et poniel su corona en la cabeça, et todo quanto bien - ell auie. E Elina su madre diziel: “Fijo, tuya sera aquesta, et - numqua morra fasta la fin del mundo.” - -On awaking, the Emperor fails to recognize the meaning of the dream, -until after seven days of fasting on his part, the Pope Sylvester. - - “apareciol otra uez et dizol: “la uieia que tu uiste es Bizancio, - esta cipdat en que estas, que uees que a ya los muros todos caydos - de uegedat. Et por ende sube en el cauallo en que andeste en Roma - en las aluas el dia que fuste bateado, quando andeste por todas las - yglesias de los apostoles et de los martires pintandolas et - afeytandolas con oro et con plata et con piedras preciosas; et - leuaras en tu mano la tu senna que a nombre _labaro_, et soltaras - las riendas al cauallo, et iras por o quier que te ell angel guiar, - et leuaras por tierra rastrando la punta del labaro, de guisa que - fagas sennal que parezca. Et por o aquella sennal fuere, mandaras - fazer muros muy altos et muy fuertes; et esta cibdat que es uieia, - tornar la as nueua, et poner las nombre del tuyo, et sera en ella - muy loado el nombre del Nuestro Sennor Ihesu Cristo, et aura y - muchas yglesias a onra de todos los santos, et regnaran en ella tus - fijos et tus nietos et todos los que de ti uinieren”.[100] - -There is also quite a long account of the visions beheld by Mohammed -while he was at Jerusalem, from which city he was permitted to ascend -thru the seven heavens. The compilers preface the history of this -arch-enemy of the Christian faith with the statement that Mohammed -suffered from epilepsy, because of which he saw visions that he thought -were of God but in reality they were of the Devil.[101] The account ends -also with a reminder to the same effect[102]. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -VARIOUS MANIFESTATIONS - - -We now come to a group of miscellaneous elements which, altho some of -them were doubtless quite common in the daily life of the people, have -for one reason or another received comparatively slight attention at the -hands of Alfonso. Some of these, as conjuring for instance, are usually -now considered as a part of black magic, but it will be noted in the -following paragraphs that it was freely practiced by the Church and in -fact formed a part of the most sacred religious rites. In the discussion -that follows, these various subjects are taken up in alphabetical order. - - -I.--CONJURING - -Conjuring, says Alfonso in effect, is the art of using potent words in -the right manner. Then he illustrates the point with naïve -quaintness--as he does so often: “These words, just like a carpenter’s -tool, may serve for many different purposes, but it is necessary, if -they are to have the effect desired, that they be said by a person who -knows how. The fact that they do have effect is seen from the results of -everyday life.”[103] The fourth rank of the clergy was held by the -Exorcist, and this title - - “quier tanto decir en griego como conjurador, ca estos han poder a - conjurar en el nombre de Dios á los demonios que salgan de los - homes et que non tornen á ellos jamas: et por ende deben saber - estas conjuraciones de cuer porque las sepan decir quando menester - fuere: et esta órden fizo primeramente el rey Soloman.”[104] - -How much this short passage taken from a law book tells us of the -current beliefs, and of the place held by conjuring! Note, however, that -conjuring was limited, according to law, to dispossessing the Devil. -This practice, like baptism, was in the hands of the clergy and could -only be resorted to by the layman in cases of dire necessity. -Enchantment and wizardry were strictly forbidden, and for the practice -of such criminality a father was given the right to disinherit his -son[105]. In thus combatting the Devil the sacred oil, or _crisma_, was -one of the most powerful instruments. In setting forth its power and -significance, the law reads: - - “et por ende la crisma es asi como posadero de Ieso Cristo, que - toma aquella posada para él, poniendo hi la su señal de la cruz et - la entrega de quanto hi falla, echando de hi al diablo et todo lo - que hi tiene.”[106] - -The method by which the oil was to be prepared is expounded as follows: - - “ ... halo él (obispo) de tomar, et exôrcizarlo et bendecirlo desta - guisa, deciendo que conjura á Satanás, et á todos sus malos - espíritus, et a toda manera de fantasma en el nombre del Padre, et - del Fijo et del Espíritu santo que si está en aquel olio que se - parta dél ... etc.” - -After having been thus carefully prepared, - - “Grande es la virtud que ha en este olio ... Esta virtud es en tres - maneras: La primera en la natura del olio, la segunda en las - palabras que se dicen sobre él, la tercera en las obras que se - facen con él.”[107] - -Not only the _crisma_, but certain words (among them the following) -possessed special virtue: “Avemaría”, because from the contents of that -prayer one comes to understand the mystery of Jesus, moreover it -contains the words of salutation used by the angel to María and these -words still greatly please her; “Paternoster”, because it reveals the -Father and contains the seven petitions which Jesus taught His -disciples; and “Credo in Deum”, because it reveals the Holy Spirit and -contains all the faith and science of Christianity.[108] - -From these and similar regulations pertaining to the various sacraments, -especially baptism, perhaps we might not err seriously in supposing that -the practitioners of black magic received not a little of their -inspiration from the Church itself, altho much against the will of the -latter. With such a number of laws, regulations, etc., it might at -first seem a little surprising to find so few legends in which conjuring -plays an important part, but probably this can be accounted for by the -fact that it was so common a practice that it was scarcely esteemed -worthy of mention. The most interesting story for our present -purpose--and one which is illustrative of the group in general--is that -of the great debate conducted in Rome in the year 320 between the -Christians and the Jews. The latter, to prove the superiority of their -God, whispered His name in the ear of an angry bull, which promptly fell -dead. The Christians went even further; they whispered the name of their -God in the ear of the _dead_ animal, which immediately returned to life -and, quite gentle and meek, was led from the assembly.[109] - -In _Las Cantigas_ conjuring is mentioned only in passing references, and -almost always it is the Devil who is conjured to leave a person (No. -67). But in one instance we have the well known story of a man, this -time a monk, who has at his command the services of the Devil and when -Satan cannot procure for him what he desires, because the person -concerned is under the special protection of Santa María, the monk -threatens him and his host of imps in these words: - - “Ide fazer - Com’ eu a donzela aia - log’ esta noit’ en meu poder; - se non, _eu hüa redoma_ - todos uos ensserraría.” (No. 125.) - - -II.--GHOSTS - -There is not a genuine clean-cut ghost in the entire period. In fact, -such apparitions as we know them seem never to have flourished very -vigorously in Spain. There are _fantasmas_, and _sombras_, etc., in -abundance in a later period, but the ghost that appeals to present day -observers was entirely lacking. In the time of Alfonso X, the function -of the ghost, which is usually that of issuing warnings from the other -world, was generally exercised by the saints or angels. In one case, it -is true, a friar returns after his decease to explain to his two -brethren why his corpse turned black at death and was restored to its -natural color when a candle from the altar of the Virgin was placed in -its hand (No. 123). But this is a very poor example; there is no element -of fear recorded. The shade does not pass thru closed doors, weapons do -not pierce its body without effect, etc. Emperor Julian has a rather -ghostly experience when he is killed by the phantom knight,[110] but -this is in reality a returned saint and not a ghost, and besides he -kills with a weapon--a most unorthodox piece of behavior for a ghost. - -There is only one good ghost story in the entire lot, and this claims to -be no more than a narrative from Roman history, apparently told solely -because it is in the old records. Emperor Caius Caligula was -assassinated and his enemies half burned his body, then in haste -partially buried it. Because of this his spirit could not rest in peace -but tormented the keepers of the garden where the body lay, and the -guardians of the place where he had been killed, until the cremation was -properly performed and the ashes suitably buried. This has indeed the -necessary elements of a ghost story, but as indicated above, it seems to -have found its way into the literature purely by chance and makes no -literary impression on the period.[111] - - -III.--THE HOST - -The sacrament of communion was intended especially to remove the -tendency to do evil rather than good. This sacrament being the most -frequently observed of all and in many ways closely associated with -Extreme Unction which may be described as the most potent, there grew up -around the Host a number of legends. The Host, on account of its extreme -sacredness, became one of the favorite points of attack for the -practitioners of black magic, who seemed to have considered it as a most -powerful charm. Four of the miracles[112] in _Las Cantigas_ were -performed to protect it from such an unholy use, altho in only one of -these, which is briefly as follows, does the black magician appear in -person:[113] a countryman wished to secure a large yield of honey with -little effort, so he consulted a _sorteira_, who told him that next -time he went to communion he should not swallow the Host nor touch it -with his teeth but should take it and put it in one of the hives. Having -done so, he found later upon opening the hive, an image of the Virgin -and Child. Frightened, he hastened to the priest, who ordered the marvel -taken in procession to the church. There, when it was blessed, it turned -back again into the simple Host. - -The Host is again transformed in No. 149. Here it is a devout priest who -cannot bring himself to believe in transubstantiation. One day at Mass -the Host disappeared and the priest saw before him the Virgin and Child. -He asked the Virgin if she had the Host. “Yes, it is here,” she said -showing him her Son. With that, upon explaining why it took the form of -bread and wine, she disappeared. As she vanished the priest again saw -the bread and wine as it was previously, but he no longer doubted. - -Aside from this type of story, illustrating the sacredness and -inviolability of the Host, there are a number of cures of various kinds -purporting to have been wrought in persons waiting before the altar at -the time of Mass.[114] The hours themselves at which Mass was celebrated -were symbolic. These were ordinarily the third hour, the hour in which -the Jews demanded the death of Jesus and in which He was scourged; the -sixth hour, that of the crucifixion and the ascension; or the ninth -hour. In cases of conflict with an hour of regular occupation, or other -reason of necessity, private Mass might be said earlier or later up to -the ninth hour.[115] At Christmas a clergyman might recite three Masses -(usually he was allowed to recite only one a day), and they were to be -at the following hours: (1) at cock-crowing before dawn, signifying the -time when the people were still in darkness, (2) at dawn, signifying the -semi-light of the prophets, and (3) at the third hour, representing the -full light of the present dispensation.[116] - -The ceremony of the Mass was one which the Devil could not venture to -look upon. In order to test whether a questionable peculiarity was of -the devil, the person affected by it was sometimes taken to Mass, as in -the case of a young girl who had been placed in a convent and -consecrated to the Church, but who developed a mania for fondling the -Child of the Virgin Mary, without opposition on the part of the Holy -Mother. At last the community discovered the situation, and, duly -shocked, appealed to the Pope. He did not know what to say, so he -decided to test the case at Mass. During the ceremony, at the girl’s -request, he had the image of the Virgin’s Child placed in the girl’s -arms. Upon receiving it she exclaimed, “This is my child and I want to -go with him.” Saying which, she took the Host and expired, going to be -with Him in paradise (No. 251).[117] - - -IV.--MYSTIC NUMBERS - -The Spanish--as before intimated--are a highly imaginative race and -incline to look for a mystical meaning or a symbol in everything. It was -probably due to this that the Catholic faith, with its elaborate -ceremonial, crowded with symbolism, was so fervently embraced by the -nation as a whole. For them every event was fraught with an hidden -meaning. The enigma of the future, for example, had been written by the -mysterious finger of God in the stars. There was a special mystery, -again, shrouding certain numbers, particularly three, seven, and nine. -Since there were three clases of sins, venial, criminal, and mortal, the -priest, in the ceremony of baptism, was to breathe three times in the -face of the candidate, conjuring the Devil to leave the body; three -times was he to conjure salt and put it in the mouth of the person; and -three times must he immerse the infant who was the recipient of the -rite. Again there were nine orders of angels, nine also of the -clergy--nine being the square of three.[118] But the greatest and most -significant of all numbers was seven. There were seven things needed -before a church was complete (_Partidas_, 1-10-14); seven privileges of -the prelates over the clergy (1-5-65); seven punishments for crime -(7-31-4); seven virtues a king should possess (2-5-7 and 8). Each -official must swear to seven things; there are twice seven, or -fourteen, joints in the hand, and therefore twice seven articles of -faith, as the articles of faith have the same function in the divine -hand as the joints in the human (1-3-3). There are seven notes in the -musical scale.[119] But to give a just idea of the true significance of -this number I can do no better than to quote from the Prólogo of _Las -Siete Partidas_, pages six and seven. - - POR QUALES RAZONES ESTE LIBRO ES DEPARTIDO EN SIETE PARTES - - Septenario es un cuento muy noble que loaron mucho los sabios - antiguos, porque se fallan en él muy muchas cosas et muy señaladas - que se departen por cuento de siete, asi como todas las criaturas - que son departidas en siete maneras. Ca segunt dixo Aristotiles et - los otros sabios, ó es criatura que non ha cuerpo ninguno, mas es - espiritual como angel et alma; ó es cuerpo simple que non se - engendra nin se corrompe por natura, et es celestial, asi como los - cielos et las estrellas; ó ha cuerpo simple que se corrompe et se - engendra por natura, como los elementos; ó ha cuerpo compuesto et - alma de crecer, et de sentir et de razonar como home; ó ha cuerpo - compuesto et alma de crecer et de sentir et non de razonar, asi - como las otras animalias que no son homes; ó ha cuerpo compuesto de - crecer, mas non de sentimiento nin de razon, asi como los árboles - et todas las otras plantas; ó ha cuerpo compuesto et non alma nin - sentimiento, asi como los metales, et las piedras et las cosas - minerales que se crian en la tierra. Otrosi todas las cosas - naturales ban movimiento que se departe en siete maneras; ca o es - asuso ó ayuso, ó delante ó atras, ó á diestro ó á siniestro, ó en - derredor. Et en este mesmo cuento fallaron los sabios antiguos las - siete estrellas mas nombradas, á que llaman planetas, et de que - tomaron cuento por los siete cielos en que estan por los sus - nombres; et ordenaron por ellos los siete dias de la semana. Et los - sabios departieron por este cuento de siete las partes de toda la - tierra á que llaman climas. Et por este mesmo cuento departieron - los metales; et otrosi algunos hi hobo que por este cuento de siete - partieron los saberes á que llaman artes: eso mesme fecieron de la - edad del home. Et aun por ese mesmo cuento demostró Dios á los que - eran sus amigos muchas de sus poridades por fecho et por semejanza, - asi como á Noe, á quien mandó facer el area en que se salvase del - deluvio, et que le mandó que de todas las cosas que fuesen buenas - et limpias metiese en ella siete. Otrosi Jacob, que fue patriarca - servió a su suegro siete años por Rachêl, et porque le dió a Lia - servió otros siete por ella mesma, et esto fué por muy grant - significanza. Et Josep, su fijo, que fue poderoso sobre toda la - tierra de Egipto por el sueño que soltó al rey Faraon de los siete - años de mengua et de los siete de abondo, segunt el sueño que el - Rey soñara de las siete espigas et de las siete vacas: esto fue - fecho de grant devocion. Otrosi á Moysen quando le mandó facer el - tabernáculo en que feciesen oracion los fijos de Israel, le mandó - que entre todas las otras cosas que señaladamente posiese dentro de - él un candelero de oro fecho en manera de árbol, en que habiese - siete ramos, que fuese fecho por grant significanza. Et David, que - fue otrosi rey de Israel, por gracia que le veno de nuestro señor - Ieso Cristo, fizo por Espíritu Santo el salterio, que es una de las - mejores escripturas de santa Eglesia, et mostró en él siete cosas, - asi como profecía, et oracion, et loor, et bendicion, et - reprehendimiento, et consejo et penitencia. Et despues de todo esto - quando nuestro Señor quiso facer tan grant mercer al mundo que - deñó prender came de la virgen santa María por nos salvar, et que - le podiésemos veer vesiblemente, et conoscer que era Dios et home, - por este cuento, segun dixo el profeta, hobo él en si siete dones - de Espiritu Santo. Et otrosi por este cuento, segunt dixieron los - santos, hobo santa María siete placeres muy grandes del su fijo, - que se cantan en santa eglesia. Et en este cuento mesmo nos dió - nuestro señor Ieso Cristo siete sacramentos, porque nos podiésemos - salvar. Et otrosi en este mesmo cuento nos mostró él mesmo la - oracion del pater noster en que ha siete cosas en que le debemos - pedir merced. Otrosi san Iohan evangelista, que fue pariente et - amigo de nuestro señor Iesu Cristo, fizo un libro, á que llaman - Apocalipse, de muy grandes poridades que le él demostró, et las - mayores cosas que en él escribió son todas partidas por este cuento - de siete. Onde por todas estas razones que muestran muchos bienes - que en este cuento son, partimos este nuestro libro en siete - partes, et mostramos en la primera dellas de todas las cosas que - pertenescen a la santa fe católica. - -While one of the greatest of all mysteries was that connected with -certain numbers the idea did not stop here. Jerusalem was destroyed in -the same month Jesus was crucified.[120] The well known biblical mystery -traditions connected with the earthly life of Jesus are all faithfully -narrated.[121] Attila is supplied with a sword from Vulcan in a -mysterious way.[122] Alejandro el Magno and his host, after traveling -for seven days in darkness in the Orient come to a river - - “que habia las aguas caldas, et fallaron alli allend ese rio - mugieres que moraban y muy fermosas, et vestian unas vestiduras muy - espantosas, et andaban en caballos et traien en las manos armas - doro, por que non habien fierro nin cobre de que las facer, nin - habie varon maslo entre todas ellas. - - “E Alexandre quisiera pasar el rio a ellas, mas non pudo por - ninguna guisa por que era ancho et lleno de dragones et de otras - bestias fieras muy grandes.”[123] - -After leaving this place and journeying a little farther amid various -adventures they again come upon another land of - - “mugieres muy grandes de cuerpos et las barbas tan luenguas que les - alcanzaban fasta en las tetas, et las cabezas planas; et vistien - pielles, et eran muy buenas cazadoras et corredoras de mont, et - pora correr mont en logares de canes, traien bestias fieras - enseñadas pora ello, et ensañaban se las ellas. E cuando entraron - Alexandre et su huest en aquellas selvas o estas mugieres eran, et - vieron ellos a ellas et ellas a ellos fuxieron ellas; et caballeros - de Macedonia cuando las vieron foir cogieron empos ellas en sus - caballos et alcanzaron den ya cuantas, et prisieron dellas et - aduxieron las a Alexandre. - - “Alexandre cuando las vió mandó las preguntar por el lenguaje de - India que dixiesen como vinien a morar a aquellas selvas o morada - de homne del mondo non habie. Fablaron ellas et dixieron que - vivieron de caza que facien con bestias fieras et non dal, et que - moraban por ende siempre en las selvas. Et salieron daquellas - selvas Alexandre et su huest a los campos grandes et anchos, et - fallaron alli de cabo otros varones et mugieres; et las mugieres - desnuyas todas; et habien todos los cuerpos vellosos de pelos como - bestias. Et era costumbre daquellos homes et daquellas mugieres de - morar en aquel rio et en la tierra et asi como fue viniendo la - huest et llegando les aquellas mugieres somurguieron se ellas luego - en el rio; et estudieron alli una pieza Alexandre et su huest por - veer si saldrien et probar ellos ende mas. Et movieron dalli et - fueron yendo adelant, et fallaron otras mugieres que habien dientes - como de puercos monteses et los cabellos de las cabezas tan luengos - que les daban por los tobiellos, et el otro cuerpo que lo habien - todo velloso de pelos como el estrucio et el camello, et en los - lomiellos que habien como vaca que las colgaban alli ayuso; et el - estado dellas de luengo era de doce pies.”[124] - - -V.--RELICS - -Relics, which played an exceedingly important part in the life of the -medieval Church, might consist of anything which formerly belonged to a -saint or to Jesus, or anything which might serve as evidence in -establishing a miracle. Every altar, upon being consecrated, should have -some relics placed within it,[125] and these usually were of -miracle-working power themselves. At Chartres there was a certain dress -that had belonged to the Virgin, on which it was the custom to place -cloth which was made up into garments for warriors, because it was -believed that after being thus treated garments made from it would be -invulnerable. In fact a knight wearing one of these was attacked while -unarmed, and altho his enemies thought they had pierced him thru and -thru he was in reality unharmed (No. 148). The bones of St. Thomas, -together with a letter purporting to have been written by Jesus, were so -powerful that when placed over the gate of Edessa no enemy could enter -without first making peace with the city.[126] Very interesting is the -case of the humble woman who went to confession and after doing penance -asked for a written certificate of pardon, which after some hesitation -was given. Misfortune overtook her and she was forced to beg. In one -city she came upon a moneychanger and asked the loan of a small sum but -he would not let her have it without security. The only security she -could offer was this certificate of pardon. The moneychanger laughed at -the idea, but finally promised to let her have the equivalent of its -weight in gold, and putting it on his scales was astonished to find that -all his gold would not balance it. This convinced him, and becoming -converted he told the woman to take whatever amount she needed. (No. -305). - -Such relics not only had the power to work miracles but were themselves -divinely protected. One man, a peasant, laughed at the idea that a -certain shoe on the altar in the church had ever belonged to the -Virgin, because, he said, a shoe as old as that would not be in so good -a state of preservation. To cure him of such flagrant unbelief she -afflicted him in the mouth in such a manner that he could be cured only -upon the application of the shoe in question (No. 61). At another time -some priests, by the exhibition of relics, were collecting money to -rebuild a church. In the course of their travels they entered a ship -with some merchantmen. After a short while they were attacked by -pirates, and in the face of danger the merchants, to secure immunity, -offered gifts of money for the building of the church. When the danger -was safely passed they repented of their extravagance and took back -their donations, buying wool for their own use with the money. Shortly -afterward a stroke of lightning set fire to their purchases, thus -avenging both God and the Virgin (No. 35). - -Naturally, some relics were more powerful and more sacred than others, -and they varied in these respects according to the importance of the -saint to whom they belonged; and seemingly were protected in a like -measure. When Alfonso el Sabio left Seville for Castile he ordered the -relics of the Virgin, along with those of the other saints, to be -carefully put away, but when he returned ten years later he found only -those of the Virgin in perfect condition; those of the other saints had -decayed (No. 257). - - - - -CONCLUSION - - -After the foregoing investigation the fact is impressed on us more -vividly than ever that the Spain of the Middle Ages was truly the mother -of the Spain of today. Hers were a people with a lively imagination, but -this was dominated by the two elements which have always been most -marked in her history--religion and realism. And wherever these two -elements enter into the development of the supernatural in the mind of -man, the Spanish contribution has to be taken seriously into the -account. - -It is impossible, as stated previously, to affirm which of the medieval -traditions are Spanish and which are not. The most that we can hope to -do is to note what type of legend appealed to this people; of all the -host of supernatural stories common through the Europe of the Middle -Ages, to determine what classes or types found their way into Spain and -there were welcomed, being repeated from generation to generation -(becoming thus a part of the national tradition); and what kind or kinds -were rejected because they did not have this appeal. - -In Spain the beliefs and superstitions we have been passing in review, -having as their starting point the actual observation of objective -nature and of human nature, were amazingly multifarious. The study in -particular of omens and of auguries, based on the real experiences of -life, made a peculiar appeal to the Spaniards, as is witnessed by the -abundance of material concerning such found at every turn in the early -literature. Contrasted with this is the notable lack of the fantastic -and purely imaginary, so popular among the nations of the north, as well -as among the Mohammedans. - -The effect of this realistic spirit on the religion of the people, the -other dominating element of their national life, must also be noted. The -unreal ghost has given place to the more naturalistic saint or angel, -for their religion permitted no denial of the existence of these two -orders of beings. Moreover, soothsayers, diviners, and other similar -characters were recognized by the Church as a real force, as is -evidenced by the Church’s constant warfare against them. And the Devil! -What good medieval Christian,--above all, what Spaniard,--could refuse -to believe in him? - -To summarize: We are impressed first by the commanding prominence -accorded to the personalities of the saints, especially Saint Mary, then -of Santiago (St. James) and the others; next, of the predominating -importance of the rôle of the Child Jesus, with the relegation to a -comparatively unimportant place of the adult Saviour; and finally of the -enemies of God, headed by Diabolus. The works and influences of all the -above are manifested in dreams and visions, miracles and portents, in -almost every conceivable form, conjuring, fortune-telling, etc. The -ritual of the church service, especially of the sacraments, becomes -intertwined and adorned with what many faithful churchmen of the present -time would doubtless be willing to class as downright superstitions. -Omens and the like, because of their realistic appeal, continue in spite -of the constant opposition of the Church. - -In contrast to this, however, we find no unquestionable ghosts. The -“magic ring”, moreover, is entirely lacking, as is nearly all that type -of Arabian magic. King Oberon, with his fairy band, has not yet made his -appearance, and the sage Merlin is only alluded to occasionally by the -learned. Subterranean cities still remain limited to their northern -abode. The well-known _mal de ojo_ is absent, and enchantment is little -heard of. The Werewolf, mentioned, it is said, by Pomponius Mela, -Herodotus, and Ovid, is entirely neglected and omitted either thru -simple ignorance of it or because it does not conform to their realistic -thought. The search for the elixir of life is only faintly hinted at in -the restoration of youth to the aged priest who seeks help from the -Virgin (No. 141). The myth of supernatural prolongation of life is to be -found only in its primitive stages, in such legends as that of María -Egipciaca and in some of the miracles contained in _Las Cantigas_, and -yet we are told that, - - “The first appearance of the Wandering Jew _in England_ is in the - chronicles of Roger of Wendover, who reports the legend as being - told at the monastery of St. Albans by an Armenian bishop, in 1228, - but to hearers _already familiar with it_.”[127] - -Arabian influence does appear, however, quite frequently, especially in -certain types of visions such as those in which a person is transported -from one point to another to witness various scenes; as well also as in -those in which the subject sleeps many years while experiencing the joys -of Paradise. French religious traditions dealing with various shrines -were common property. Many of the miracles related in _Las Cantigas_ are -said to have been performed in France, especially at Soissons. - -The general impression gained from the study is that we are standing at -the beginning of a new period; that soon there is going to unfold before -us a magnificent spectacle, so far as the supernatural is concerned, in -which these elements, whose beginnings we can even now discern, will -present themselves in all their fullness, but at the same time those -which have already reached their culmination will survive, and, being -the product of the real life and soul of the nation, will still be the -determining factors in shaping its beliefs and practices, as it -continues its course among the hosts of outside influences it is soon to -encounter. - -As we close the study we can not, if we would, resist the pervasive -charm cast over us by the simplicity of the primitive age with its -childlike faith. From time to time the canvas has been reversed, the -customary medieval picture has been changed, the sound of the bugle, the -glitter of burnished arms, the noise of battle, have now receded into -the background, and altho we are still faintly conscious of them we -become almost unaware of their presence. In the foreground have arisen, -we scarcely know how or whence, the common people, with their sheep and -their goats, their games of chance and their wine, their joys and their -sorrows, their loves and their hates, their marriages, births, -deaths--all these--along with their interesting superstitions and ardent -devotion to their local saints, as well as their fidelity to their lord, -who moves about among them as their guardian and protector. - - - - -CLASSIFICATION OF THE MIRACLES IN _LAS CANTIGAS_ - - -I - -A.--DIRECT ANSWER TO PRAYER BY THE VIRGIN - - _a._ Life restored or sustained. 14, 26, 43, 45, 76, 84, 111, 115, - 118, 122, 124, 133, 167, 168, 171, 178, 182, 197, 204, 224, 237, - 241, 334, 347, 378, 381, 389. (See p. 32-34 for discussion of - group.) - - _b._ Bodily ailments cured. 37, 47, 53, 69, 77, 81, 86, 89, 91, 92, - 93, 101, 105, 114, 117, 126, 127, 134, 141, 146, 157, 163, 166, - 173, 174, 177, 179, 189, 191, 199, 201, 206, 209, 218, 221, 223, - 224, 234, 235, 244, 256, 263, 265, 268, 269, 275, 278, 279, 282, - 283, 289, 293, 298, 308, 314, 315, 316, 319, 322, 327, 333, 337, - 338, 343, 346, 357, 362, 363, 364, 367, 368, 372, 375, 385, 389, - 391, 393. (See p. 35-38.) - - _c._ Physical harm prevented. 7, 13, 15, 17, 22, 25, 28, 35, 36, - 49, 51, 55, 57, 64, 74, 78, 82, 83, 86, 94, 97, 102, 106, 107, 121, - 125, 135, 138, 142, 144, 151, 158, 165, 172, 181, 184, 185, 186, - 193, 194, 195, 213, 227, 233, 235, 236, 242, 245, 249, 251, 252, - 254, 255, 264, 266, 271, 286, 287, 291, 301, 303, 313, 325, 339, - 341, 354, 371, 383. (See p. 38-40.) - - _d._ Miracles in which bargaining occurs. 31, 43, 44, 97, 106, 112, - 118, 121, 129, 166, 167, 172, 176, 178, 197, 268, 271, 291, 347, - 352, 366, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 382, 385, 389. (See p. 40-43.) - - _e._ Unmoral miracles. 3, 7, 13, 17, 55, 94, 111, 214, 255, 291. - (See p. 43-45.) - - _f._ Miracles in which sacred breasts or milk occur. 54, 93, 138. - (See p. 45-46.) - - _g._ Possessions restored or saved or things supplied. 23, 44, 48, - 62, 73, 112, 143, 147, 159, 172, 178, 187, 202, 212, 231, 232, 243, - 323, 326, 348, 352, 354, 366, 369, 376, 382, 386, 398. (See p. - 46-49.) - - _h._ Those of other faiths protected. 89, 107, 167, 181. (See p. - 49.) - - _i._ Threats or the appeal to reputation avail much. 23, 76, 233, - 247. (See p. 49-51.) - - -B.--MIRACLES VOLUNTARILY PERFORMED - - _a._ Life restored or sustained. 6, 11, 21, 96, 131, 175, 311, 323, - 355. (See p. 55-58.) - - _b._ Physical ailments cured. 33, 41, 156, 228, 259, 262, 276, 279, - 324, 331. (See p. 58.) - - _c._ Physical harm prevented. 4, 64, 67, 109, 113, 119, 161, 164, - 192, 198, 205, 216, 222, 225, 251, 266, 302, 305, 317, 344, 359, - 399. (See p. 58.) - - _d._ Miracles in which bargaining occurs. 307. (See p. 58.) - - _e._ Unmoral miracles. 11, 119, 281. (See p. 58.) - - _f._ Miracles in which sacred breasts or milk occur. (See p. 61.) - - _g._ Possessions restored or saved or things supplied. 2, 52, 116, - 145, 203, 211, 228, 258, 328, 351, 356, 358, 379. (See p. 61-62.) - - _h._ Those of other faiths protected. 85, 205, 379. (See p. 62-65.) - - _i._ Aid in worship or in restraining evil passions. 137, 151, 152, - 156, 207, 227, 246, 266, 273, 336. (See p. 65-66.) - - _j._ Miracles in which visions occur. 2, 16, 24, 32, 53, 58, 65, - 66, 68, 69, 71, 75, 79, 85, 87, 88, 105, 119, 125, 131, 132, 135, - 138, 145, 149, 152, 158, 176, 192, 195, 261, 262, 263, 269, 274, - 284, 285, 288, 292, 295, 296, 299, 307, 309, 336, 345, 348, 359, - 365, 368, 372, 384, 399. (See p. 66-70.) - - _k._ Warnings and admonitions (not in visions). 47, 88, 154, 196, - 274. (See p. 70-73.) - - _l._ Rewards 2, 4, 5, 8, 18, 56, 63, 66, 87, 95, 124, 141, 155, - 251, 253, 281, 335, 353, 384. (See p. 73-77.) - - _m._ Violation of vows or acts of sacrilege punished. 42, 57, 59, - 108, 117, 132, 163, 285, 347, 392. (See p. 77-78.) - - _n._ Objects or places of worship protected. 2, 9, 12, 19, 27, 34, - 38, 46, 51, 59, 61, 123, 136, 139, 148, 161, 162, 164, 183, 183, - 198, 208, 215, 217, 229, 238, 239, 244, 248, 257, 262, 276, 277, - 283, 286, 289, 293, 294, 297, 302, 304, 314, 316, 317, 318, 327, - 329, 332, 345. (See p. 78-81.) - - _o._ Virgin acts as advocate. 14, 45. (See p. 81-82.) - - -II - - Miracles performed by image, name, or relics or Virgin. 9, 27, 34, - 38, 46, 51, 59, 61, 123, 139, 148, 161, 162, 164, 183, 185, 194, - 202, 209, 254, 256, 264, 272, 294, 303, 306, 321, 332, 353, 361. - (See p. 83-87.) - - -III - - Miracles of mystery. 8, 29, 56, 103, 153, 162, 184, 188, 219, 226, - 305, 313, 315, 342, 361. (See p. 87-89.) - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - - -PUBLISHED WORKS OF ALFONSO X, EL SABIO - -_Alfonso X, el Sabio, Antología de sus obras_, by ANTONIO G. SOLALINDE, -Madrid, 1922, 275 pp. (A second volume is in preparation.) - -_Cantigas de Santa María de Don Alfonso el Sabio_, ed. Real Academia -Española (Preface by the Marquis of Valmar), Madrid, 1889, 2 vols. - -_El libro de Ajedrez_, das Spanische Schachzabelbuch des königs Alfons -des weisen vorn jahre 1283; illustrierte handschrift im besitze der -königl. Bibliothek des Eskorial vollständige nachbildung der handschrift -in 194 lichtdrucktafeln, Leipzig, 1913. (Introduction by John G. White.) - -_Los libros del Saber de Astronomía_, ed. M. Rico y Sinobas, Madrid, -1863-1867, 5 vols. - -_El lapidario_, ed. J. Fernández Montaña, Madrid, 1881, XX pp., 76, 14 -numb. 1., 76 pp. - -_Opúsculos legales del Rey Don Alfonso el Sabio_, ed. Real Academia de -la Historia, Madrid, 1836, 2 vols. - -_Primera Crónica General_, ed. of R. Menéndez Pidal in _Nueva Biblioteca -de Autores Españoles_, vol. 5, Madrid, 1906, 4+1+ 776 pp. - -_Las Siete Partidas_, glosadas por Gregorio López. There are numerous -editions of this work. Some of the editions available in the United -States are: Salamanca, 1576, 3 vols. + 1 vol. index; Madrid, 1611; -Valencia, 1767; Madrid, 1829-1831, 3 vols. + 1 vol. index (The title -page of this edition reads, “Las Siete Partidas del sabio rey Don -Alfonso _XI_, etc.”) - -_Las Siete Partidas del Rey Don Alfonso el Sabio_, ed. Real Academia de -la Historia, Madrid, 1807, 3 vols. - -_Las Siete Partidas del Rey Don Alfonso el Sabio._ Pandectas -hispano-mejicanas, o sea, código general comprensivo de las leyes -generales, útiles y vivas de las Siete Partidas, ed. Juan Rodríguez de -San Miguel, Méjico, 1839-1840, 3 vols. - -_Las Siete Partidas del Rey Don Alfonso el Sabio_, la primera partida, -textkritische untersuchung einer unveröffentlichten handschrift des -vierzehnten jahrhundrets, by Whilhelm Friedmann, Leipzig, 1911. - -_Las Siete Partidas, and other writings, extracts from_, in _Warner’s -Library of the world’s best literature_, vol. 1, pp. 383-388. - -_Tabule Alfonsi hispaniarum regis_ & L. Gaurici artium doctoris egregij -theoremata ... In calce huius libri seorsum annexe sunt tabule Elisabeth -regine nuper castigate & in ordinem redacte per L. Gauricum ... -Venetiis, 1524, 123 f. + 1. - -_Tabulae Alphonsinae perpetuae motuum coelestium denuo restitutae et -illustr. a Franc. Garcia Ventanas._ Traduntur praecepta de fest. -mobilib. sec. correct. Gregorianam, et tabulae constr. ad meridian. -Toletanum con alg. grab. En 4. Matriti, 1641. Perg. 8 + 126 hh. - - -WORKS TREATING OF ALFONSO EL SABIO - -_Books_ - -_Alfonso el Sabio, como rey y conquistador de la provincia de Cádiz._ -Memoria inédita, Cádiz, 1892. - -PEDRO AGUADO BLEYE, _Santa Maria de Salas en el siglo XIII; estudio -sobre las Cantigas de Alfonso X, el Sabio_, Bilbao, 1916, 98 pp. - -THEOPHILO BRAGA, _Cancionero Portuguez da Vaticana_, Lisbon, 1878, 112 + -236 pp. - -ARNOLD BUSSON, _Die doppelwahl des Jahres 1257 ... etc._ Münster, 1866, -6 + 137 pp. - -EMILIO CASTELAR Y RIPOLLI, _Alfonso el Sabio, Rey de Castilla. Novela -histórica original_, Madrid, 1853, 16 + 407 + 3 pp. - -MANUEL COLMIERO, _Cortes de los antiguos reinos de León y de Castilla_, -Madrid, 1883-1884, 2 vols. - ---_Reyes cristianos desde Alonso VI hasta Alfonso XI_, Madrid, 1894, 4 -vols. - -EMILIO COTARELO Y MORI, _Estudios de la historia literaria de España_, -Madrid, 1901. See pp. 1-31. Also review in _Romania_, 1898, vol. 27, p. -525, by A. MOREL-FATIO. - ---_Documentos de la época de Alfonso el Sabio_, Madrid, 1851, 2 vols. - -PEDRO GÓMEZ DE LA SERNA, _Sobre el reinado de Don Alfonso el Sabio_. -(Speech read upon being received into the Real Academia de la Historia.) -Madrid, 1857, 72 pp. - -GASPAR IBÁÑEZ DE SEGOVIA PERALTA Y MENDOZA, marqués de Mondéjar, -_Memorias históricas del Rey Don Alfonso el Sabio i observaciones a su -Chrónica_, Madrid, 1777, 687 pp., Fol. - -A. G. F. KOLDITZ, _De Alphonso X., Castillae Legionisque rege, cognomine -sapientis indigno_, Serveste, 1757. - -R. MENÉNDEZ PIDAL, _L’Épopée Castillane à travers la littérature -espagnole_, Paris, 1910, 26-306 pp. - ---_Estudios Literarios_, Madrid, 1920, 345 pp. - ---_Crónicas generates de España_, 3rd. ed., Madrid, 9 + 1 + 238 pp. - -FRANCISCO MARTÍNEZ MARINA, _Ensayo histórico-critico sobre la antigua -legislación y principalis cuerpos legates de los reinos de León y -Castilla, especialmente sobre el código de don Alfonso el Sabio, -conocido por el nombre de Las Siete Partidas_. 1st. ed., Madrid, 1808, 2 -+ 450 pp.; 2nd. ed., Madrid, 1834, 2 vols.; 3rd. ed., Madrid, 1845, 21 + -23 + 574 pp. - -ANDRÉS MARTÍNEZ SALAZAR, _Fragmento de un nuevo códice gallego de las -Partidas_, La Coruña, 1910. - -GAYETANE PUCH Y PORTOLES, _Historia de las Siete Partidas de Alfonso X_, -Madrid, 1829, 32 pp. - -ANTONIO G. SOLALINDE, _Alfonso X el Sabio, antología de sus obras_, -Madrid, 1922, 275 pp. (Second volume is in preparation.) - -DIEGO SUÁREZ, _Don Alfonso X--sus ideas políticas y sociales_, (Speech -delivered upon receiving the degree of Doctor en Filosofía y Letras.) -Madrid, 1861, 28 pp. - -LEOPOLDO AUGUSTO DE CUETO, Marqués de Valmar, _Estudio histórico-critico -y filólogico sobre las Cantigas del rey Don Alfonso el Sabio_. 2nd. ed., -Madrid, 1897, 22 + 1 + 400 pp. (This is the _Introduction_ to the -Academy edition of 1889 of Las Cantiagas, published in a separate -volume.) - -JOSÉ DE VARGAS Y PONCE, _Elogio del Rey Alfonso el Sabio_, Madrid, 1782, -76 pp. - - -_Magazine Articles_ - -_Alfonso X of Spain and the code of 1256_, in _American Journal of -Education_, 1877, vol. 27, p. 157-164. - -PEDRO D’AZEREDO, _Duas traducões Portuguesas do sec. XIV; um fragmento -da versão das Partidas de Castilla_, in _Revista Lusitana_, 1913, vol. -16, p. 101-111. - -MICHAEL BARRINGTON, _The Lapidario_, etc., in _The Connoisseur_, London, -1906, vol. 14, p. 31-36. - -RODOLFO BEER, _Los cinco libros que compiló Bernardo de Brihuega por -orden del rey Don Alfonso el Sabio_, in _Boletín de la Real Academia de -la Historia_, 1887, vol. 2, p. 363-369. - -A. F. G. BELL, _The “Cantigas de Santa María” of Alfonso X_, in _Modern -Language Review_, 1915, vol. 10, p. 338-348. - -SAMUEL BERGER, _Les Bibles Castellanes_, in _Romania_, 1889, vol. 28, p. -360-408 and 508-542. - -MARY E. BLAKE, _Alfonso X and the Birth of Spanish Literature_, in -_Catholic World_, 1893, p. 518-530. - -ANTONIO BALLESTEROS Y BERETTA, _Un detalle curioso de la biografía de -Alfonso X el Sabio_, in _Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia_, -1918, vol. 73, p. 408-419. - ---_Alfonso X de Castilla y la corona de Alemania_, in _Revista de -Archivos, bibliotecas y museos_, 1916, vol. 34, p. 1-23 and 187-219; -1916, vol. 35, p. 223-242; 1918, vol. 39, p. 142-162; 1919, vol. 40, p. -467-490. - -HENRY COLLET and LUIS VILLALBA, _Contribution a l’étude des “Cantigas” -d’Alphonse le Savant_, in _Bulletin Hispanique_, 1911, vol. 13, p. -270-290. (A musical study of some of the Cantigas.) - -G. DAUMET, _Les testements d’Alphonse X le Savant, roi de Castille_, in -_Bibliotheque de l’École des Chartes_, 1906, vol. 67, p. 71-99. - -ADOLF FANTA, _Ein Bericht über die Ausprüche des Königs Alfons auf den -deutschen Thron_, in _Mitteilungen des Instituts fur Osterreichische -Geschichtsforschung_, 1885, vol. 6, p. 94-104. - -FIDEL FITA, _Biografías de San Fernando y de Alfonso el Sabio por Gil de -Zamora_, in _Boletin de la Real Academia de la Historia_, 1884, vol. 5, -p. 308-328. - ---_La Cantiga XLIX del rey Don Alfonso el Sabio--Fuentes históricas_, in -_Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia_, 1889, vol. 15, p. 179-191. - ---_Cincuenta leyendas por Gil de Zamora combinadas con “Las Cantigas” de -Alfonso el Sabio_, in _Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia_, -1885, vol. 7, p. 54-144. - ---_San Dunstán, Arzobispo de Cantorbery, en una cantiga del rey Don -Alfonso el Sabio_, in _Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia_, -1888, vol. 12, p. 244-248. - ---_El libro del Cerratense_, in _Boletín de la Real Academia de la -Historia_, 1888, vol. 13, p. 226-237. - -R. FOULCHÈ-DELBOSC, _Les “Castigos e Documentos”_, in _Revue -Hispanique_, 1906, vol. 15, p. 340-371. - -PAUL GROUSSAC, _Le Livre des “Castigos e Documentos”_, in _Revue -Hispanique_, 1906, vol. 15, p. 212-239. - -FRIEDRICH HANSSEN, _Estudios ortográficos sobre la Astronomia del rey -Don Alfonso X_, in _Anales de la Universidad de Chili_, 1895, vol. 91, -p. 281-312. - ---_Los endecasílabos de Alfonso X_, in _Bulletin Hispanique_, 1913, vol. -15, p. 248-299. - -C. DE LOLLIS, _Cantigas de amor e de maldizer di Alfonso el Sabio_, in -_Studi di filologia romanza_, 1887, vol. 2, p. 31-66. - -JOSÉ RAMÓN DE LUANCO Y RIEGO, _Clavis sapientae Alphonsi regis -Castillae_ (In _Homenaje a Menéndez y Pelayo_), Madrid, 1899, vol. 1, p. -61-67. - -PEDRO DE MADRAZO, _Sobre la edición fotocromolitográfica del códice del -Lapidario de Alfonso X_, in _Boletín de la Real Academia de la -Historia_, 1877, vol. I, p. 471-475. - -F. F. MANN, _Eine altfranzösiche prosaversion des Lapidarus Marbod’s_ in -_Romanische Forschungen_, 1886, vol. 2, p. 363-374. - -J. J. NUÑES, _A review of Fragmento de un nuevo código gallego de las -Partidas_, in _Revista Lusitana_, 1911, vol. 14, p. 312-316. - -JUAN RUÍZ DE OBREGÓN Y RETORTILLO, _Alfonso X el emplazado--una -leyenda_, in _Revista de archivos, bibliotecas y museos_, 1916, vol. 32, -p. 420-449. - -L. SERRANO, _El ayo de Alfonso “el sabio”_, in _Boletín de la Real -Academia Española_, 1920, vol. 7, p. 571-602. - -ANTONIO G. SOLALINDE, _Intervención de Alfonso X. en la redacción de sus -obras_, in _Revista de Filología Española_, 1915, vol. 2, p. 283-288. - ---_El códice florentino de las “Cantigas”_, in _Revista de Filología -Española_, 1918, vol. 5, p. 142-179. - -O. T. TALLGREN, _Observationes sur les manuscrits de l’Astronomie -d’Alphonse X, etc._, in _Neuphilologische Mitteilungen_, 1908, p. -110-114. - -F. VALLS Y TABERNIR, _Relations familiars i politiques entre Jaume el -conqueridor i Anfos el Savi_, in _Bulletin Hispanique_, 1919, vol. 21, -p. 9-52. - -MARY WARD, _Alfonso the Wise, King of Castille_, in _Macmillan’s -Magazine_, 1872, vol. 26, p. 126-136, and in _Living Age_, 1872, vol. -26, p. 51-59. - -PAUL SCHEFFER-BOICHORST, _Zur Geschichte Alfons’ X, von Castilien_, in -_Mitteilungen des Instituts fur Osterreichische Geschichtsforschung_, -1888, vol. 9, p. 226-248. - - -A FEW GENERAL STUDIES - -NILS ABERG, _La civilisation néolothique dans la péninsule ibèreque_, -Paris, 1921, 14 + 204 pp. - -MIGUEL ASIN-PALACIO, _Escatología Musulmana en la “Divina Comedia”_, -Madrid, 1919, 403 pp. - -PIERRE AUBRY, _Trouvères et Troubadours_, 2nd. ed., Paris, 1910, 2 p. -1., 223 (1) pp. - -V. BALAGUER, _Los Trovadores_, 2nd. ed., Madrid, 1882, 4 vol. in 2. - -ANTONIO BALLESTEROS Y BERETTA, _Sevilla en el siglo XIII_, Madrid, 1913, -338 + 255 pp. - -The Bible--King James’ Version. - -JOAQUÍN COSTA, _La Poesía popular española y mitología y literatura -celto-hispana_, Madrid, 1881, 8 + 489 pp. - -GEORGES DOTTIN, _La langue gauloise_, Paris, 1920, 17 + 364 pp. - -REINHART, P. DOZY, _Histoire des Musulmans d’Espagne jusqu’à la conquête -de l’Andalousie par les Almoravides_, Leyde, 1861, 4 vols. - ---_Recherches sur l’histoire et la littérature de l’Espagne pendant la -moyen âge_, 3rd. ed., Leyde, 1881, 2 vols. - -FRANCISCO GUILLÉN ROBLES, _Leyendas Moriscas_, Madrid, 1885-1886, 3 -vols. - -JAMES HASTINGS, _Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics_, Edinburgh and New -York, 1908-1922, 12 vols. - -C. JULIAN, _Histoire de la Gaule_, Paris, 1908-1920, 6 vols. - -E. H. KLOTSCHE, _The Supernatural in the Tragedies of Euripides_, -Lincoln, Neb., 1918, 106 pp. - -JOHN A. MACCULLOCH, _The Religion of the Ancient Celts_, Edinburg, 1911, -15 + 399 pp. - -FRANCISCO MARTÍNEZ-MARINA, _Teoría de las cortes o grandes juntas -nacionales de los reinos de León y Castilla_, Madrid, 1813, 3 vols. - -HUBERT MATTHEY, _Essai sur le merveilleux dans la littérature française -depuis 1800_, Paris, 1915, 318 pp. - -R. MENÉNDEZ PIDAL, _La leyenda de los Infantes de Lara_, Madrid, 1896, -16 + 448 pp. - ---_Discursos leídos ante la Real Academia_, Madrid, May 21, 1916. - -M. MENÉNDEZ Y PELAYO, _Historia de los heterodoxos españoles_, Madrid, -2nd. ed., 1911-1918, 3 vols. - -ALLEN MENZIE, _History of Religion_, New York, 1913, 17 + 440 pp. - -MANUEL MILA Y FONTANALS, _De los trovadores en España, estudio de poesía -y lingua provenzal_, Barcelona, 1889, 32 + 542 pp. - -ALONSO NÚÑEZ DE CASTRO, _Vida de San Fernando el tercero, rey de -Castilla y León_, Madrid, 1787, 8 + 513 + 9 pp. - -JUAN DE PINEDA, _Memorial de la Excelente Santidad del Sr. Rey San -Fernando III_, Sevilla, 1627, 20 + 196, pp. numbered irregularly. - -GASTON PARIS, _La Légende des Infants de Lara_, Paris, 1898, 28 pp. -(Extract from _Journal des savants_, mai et juin, 1898.) - -ÉDOUARD PHILIPON, _Les Ibères_, Paris, 1909, 24 + 344 pp. - -JOSÉ AMADOR DE LOS RÍOS, _Historia crítica de la literatura española_, -Madrid, 1861-1865, 7 vols. - -DOROTHY SCARBOROUGH, _The Supernatural in Modern English Fiction_, New -York, 1917, 7 + 329 pp. - -MARIANO SORIANO FUERTES Y PIQUERAS, _Historia de la música española -desde la venida de los fenicios hasta el año 1850_, Madrid, 1855-1859, 4 -vols. - -SAMUEL M. WAXMAN, _Chapters on Magic in Spanish literature_, New York, -and Paris, 1916, 139 pp. - -C. E. WHITMORE, _The Supernatural in Tragedy_, Cambridge, 1915, 8 + 370 -pp. - - - - -INDEX OF PROPER NAMES - - -Because of the preceding classified list of miracles including the -indication of the pages treating of each class, it has been deemed -necessary to include in the index only the proper names cited in the -work and the titles of those works from which examples of the -supernatural have been drawn. The reader is referred to the Bibliography -(page 139-146) for works of the authors cited. Whenever various names of -an individual, or different forms of the same name are used, only the -best known or the most popular form will be given in the index, but the -pages indicated are those on which any of the variations appear. For -example, all references to Saint Mary will be found under “Virgin, The.” - -Abderrahman II, 12 - -Aben Yussef, 56 - -Abran of Germany, Count, 75 - -Achela, 44n - -Adán, 91n - -Aeneas, 110 - -Africa, 21, 66n, 105, 109, 110 - -Agosto, 49, 62 - -Albans, St., 131 - -Albeza, 37 - -Alcocer, 17 - -Alejandro el Magno, 124, 125, 126 - -Alemany, José, 25n - -Alexius, Emperor, 57 - -Alexander IV, Pope, 18 - -Alfonso III, of Portugal, 17 - -Alfonso VIII, 16 - -Alfonso IX, 16 - -Alfonso X, el Sabio, 5, 13, _15-26_, - 27, 29, 30, 30n, 31n, 34, 35, 44, - 45, 53, 67, 79, 84, 85, 88, 93, 96, - 96n, 97n, 107, 109, 113, 117, 128 - -Algeciras, 56 - -Amadís de Gaula, 33n - -Andalucía, 17 - -Ann, Saint, Novena of, 9 - -Antidio, 95 - -Arcalaus, 33n - -_Arcipreste de Hita_, El, 95 - -Aristotle, 54, 122 - -Arras, 71n - -Asin Palacios, Miguel, 64n, 96n, 109n, 112n - -Assisi, St. Francis of, 9 - -Atocha, 36 - -Attila, 110, 124 - -Ayamonte, 62 - - -Barcelona, 56 - -Basilio, San, 68 - -Beatriz, Doña, 17 - -Beatrice, Queen, 84 - -Berceo, 59n, 77n, 93n, 97n - -Bernat Descoll, 16 - -Bizancio, 110, 111 - -Bondoudar, 40 - -Burgos, 16, 46, 71, 88 - - -Cádiz, 22 - -Caesar, 81 - -Caesar, Octavius, 103 - -Caesar, Sextus Julius, 104 - -Caesarea, 68 - -Caligula, Emperor Caius, 117 - -Canaan, 48 - -_Cantigas, Las_, 23, 27, 28, 30, 31n, 32, 68, - 85, 85n, 92, 93, 93n, 96, 97, 107, 108, 108n, - 116, 116n, 118, 131, 132 - -_Cantigas de amor et de maldecir_, 27 - -Castile, 16, 20, 79, 99, 128 - -Castrogériz, 39 - -Catalonia, 16, 84 - -Chartres, 126 - -Cid, the, 96, 126n - -Cirot, G., 25n - -Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 74 - -_Conquista del Ultramar, La Gran_, 40n - -Constantine, Emperor, 61, 110, 111 - -Constantinople, 57 - -Consuegra, 64 - -_Crónica General, La_, 22, _24_, 27, 40n, - 66n, 68, 74, 74n, 80, 93, - 95, 96n, 97, 100n, 104n, 105n, 106n, - 109n, 111n, 112n, 116n, 126n - -Cueto, Leopoldo Augusto de, Marqués de Valmar, 23 - -Cunnegro, 66 - - -Dagobert, 109 - -David, 123 - -Denis, Saint, 109 - -Devil, The, 39, 59, 64, 71, - 72, 77, 77n, 80, 85, 89n, - _91-97_, 112, 114, 116, 120, 121, 130 - -Dido, 105, 110 - -Domingo, Santo, 33 - -Domingo, Don, 47 - -Doyle, Sir Conan, 91 - -Duero, 95 - - -Eanes, D. Gonzalo, 64 - -Edessa, 126 - -Egypt, 40, 84, 123 - -Elina, 111 - -Enrique, Infante D., 19 - -Escorial, The, 88 - -Etna, Mount, 58 - -Europe, 5, 13, 32, 44, 58, 96n, 99, 129 - -Ezequias, 54n - - -Faraón, 123 - -Felipe, Infante Don, 19 - -Fernán Gonzales, 74n - -Fernando III, 16, 24, 34, 109 - -Fernando IV, 16 - -Fernando de la Cerda, 20 - -Fernando, Infante Don, 80 - -France, 18, 20, 109, 132 - - -Galileo, 69 - -García, Fernández, 16 - -García, Count Don, 74 - -Germany, 10 - -Gilemer, 109 - -God, 9, 29, 31, 31n, 32, 37, 50, 54n, 71, - 72, 80, 91, 93, 96, 102n, 109, 112, 114, - 115, 116, 121, 123, 124, 128, 130 - -Granada, 20, 22, 79 - -Granada, Emir of, 20 - -_Gran Estoria_, 22, _24_, 26 - -“Gran Britaña”, 56, 88 - -Gregory X, 18 - -Guillén Robles, Francisco, 37n, 109n, 112n - -Gunderico, 96 - -Guzmán, Doña Mayor Guillén de, 17 - - -Hastings, James, 76 - -Hell, 61, 64n, 91, 96, 109 - -Heraclius, Emperor, 109 - -Herodotus, 131 - -Herod, King, 51, 100 - -Holy Land, The, 83, 92 - -Holy Spirit, The, 115, 123, 124 - -Host, The, 62, 89n, _118-120_ - -Hudson River, The, 9 - -Huelgas, Las, 34 - - -Ica, 40 - -India, 125 - -Ildefonso, San, 73 - -Israel, 123 - -Italy, 18, 96n - - -Jacob, 123 - -Jaime, el Conquistador, 17, 20 - -Jaén, 21 - -Jérez, 68, 109 - -Jérez de la Frontera, 22 - -Jerusalem, 48, 51, 111, 124 - -Jesus, 29, 31, 31n, 32, 45, 48, 49, - 50, 51, 54n, 63, 64, 67, 79, 81, - 83, 84, 92, 97, 103, 106, 111, 112, - 114, 115, 119, 120, 123, 124, 127, 130 - -Jordanes, 10 - -Jorge, Maestro, 109 - -Josef, 123 - -Juan, San, 124 - -Julian, Emperor, 68, 69, 81, 117 - -Justinian, Emperor, 109 - -Jupiter, temple of, 105 - - -_Lapidario, El_, 23, _24_, 28 - -Lara, sons of, 99 - -Lebrija, 22 - -Leo, Pope, 58 - -Lia, 123 - -_Libro de Alejandro, El_, 96n, 97n, 126n - -_Libro de Ajedrez, El_, 23, _25_ - -_Libros del Saber de Astronomia, Los_, 22, _23_, 28 - -Lisbon, 59 - -Lodge, Sir Oliver, 91 - - -MacCulloch, J. A., 17 - -Macedonia, 125 - -Madrid, 36 - -Manuel, Infante Don, 41 - -Marcian, Emperor, 110 - -Marcus, Lucius, 104 - -_María Egipciaca_, 131 - -Mariana, 15 - -Marquina, 15 - -Marseilles, 38 - -Mártires, 65 - -Martos, 79 - -Mayor Arias, Doña, 16 - -Medina Sidonis, 22 - -Mela, Pomponius, 131 - -Menéndez Pidal, J., 104n - -Menéndez Pidal, R., 22, 24 - -Menéndez y Pelayo, 12n - -Menzie, Allan, 40n - -Mercurio, San, 68, 69 - -Merlin, 131 - -_Milagros de Nuestra Señora, Los_, 59n, 77n, 93n, 97n - -Mildmay, Mrs. S., 11n - -Mahommed, 64, 111 - -Mondéjar, Marqués de, 16 - -Monsaras, 78 - -Monserrat, 56 - -Montana, José T., 25 - -_Moralia in Job_, 110 - -Moses, 24, 123 - -Murcia, 17, 78 - -Mussafia, 30n - - -Navarre, 17 - -Navarre, King of, 20 - -Navas, Conde de las, 117n - -Niebla, 22 - -Nuño de Lara, 19, 68 - - -Oberon, King, 131 - -Onís, Federico de, 6 - -Oro, San Juan Boco de, 45 - -Ovid, 131 - - -Paris, 109 - -Paris, Gaston, 99 - -Pascual de Gayangos, 25n - -Paschal II, Pope, 13 - -Pedro III, of Aragón, 21 - -Pedro IV, 16 - -Pena Cova, 39 - -Persia, 68, 69 - -Peter, Saint, 32, 81 - -Philipon, É., 11 - -Poitiers, Conde de, 80 - -Portugal, King of, 19 - -Puerto, 41, 47, 83 - - -Rachel, 123 - -Recafredo, 12 - -_Reyes Magos, Los Tres_, 84n - -Ribera, J., 23 - -Ribila, 79 - -Richard of Cornwall, 18 - -Rico y Sinobas, Manuel, 24 - -Ríos, José Amador de los, 10 - -Rocamador, 43, 93 - -Rodrigáñez, Hippolito, 25 - -Rome, 21, 100, 106, 110, 111, 116 - -Roman Empire, The Holy, 18, 20, 103 - -Roumania, 61 - -Rudolph of Hapsburg, 18 - -Ruy Velázquez, 99 - - -Sancho, Infante Don, 20, 21 - -Santa Cruz, 95 - -Santiago, 57, 93, 130 - -Salas, 36, 42, 49, 83 - -Saussonna, 44 - -Scarborough, Dorothy, 8, 131n - -Scythia, 10 - -Selfa, Antonio, 25 - -_Septenario, El_, 22 - -Seville, 17, 21, 56, 96, 128 - -Segovia, 80 - -Siagro, Don, 73 - -Siena, Bishop of, 72 - -_Siete Partidas, Las_, 16, 21, 22, 23, - 28, 53, 76n, 79n, 87n, 89n, 91, 91n, - 92n, 100, 108, 108n, 114n, 115n, 120n, - 121, 121n, 122, 126n - -Sion, Mount, 81 - -Soissons, 40, 132 - -Solomon, 114 - -Solalinde, Antonio G., 6, 16, 24, 25n, 26n, 30n, 31n, 125n, 126n - -Spain, 9, 11, 12, 13, 22, 24, 25, 27, 45, 92, 96n, 99, 117, 129 - -Sur, Libano de, 69 - -Sylvester, Pope, 110, 111 - - -_Tablas, Alfonsíes ... Las_, 22 - -Taion, 110 - -Téllez, D. Alfonso, 64 - -Temperley, H., 11n - -Terena, 43, 81, 97 - -Thomas, Saint, 127 - -Tiberius, 100 - -Toledo, Codex of, 88 - -Toledo, 16, 35, 47 - -Todd, Henry Alfred, 6 - -Tortosa de Ultramar, 40 - - -Vatican, The, 95 - -Vesentina, 95 - -Virgin, The, 23, _27-89_, 92, - 94, 95, 96, 108, 110, 119, - 120, 124, 127, 128, 130, 131 - -Virgin, Cult of, 31 - -Violante of Aragón, Doña, 17 - -Violante, Queen, 21 - -Vistula, 10 - -Vulcan, 124 - - -Wandering Jew, The, 131 - -Waxman, S. W., 97n - -Wendover, Roger of, 131 - -Weeks, Raymond, 6 - -Werewolf, The, 131 - -White, J. G., 25 - -Whitmore, C. E., 118n - -William of Holland, 18 - - -Zaragoza, 41 - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - -PREFACE 5 - -INTRODUCTORY 7 - -CHAPTER I. ALFONSO EL SABIO AS KING AND -SCHOLAR 15 - -CHAPTER II. MIRACLES PERFORMED BY THE -VIRGIN IN RESPONSE TO PRAYER 27 - -CHAPTER III. MIRACLES PERFORMED VOLUNTARILY -BY THE VIRGIN 53 - -CHAPTER IV. MIRACLES PERFORMED BY IMAGES 83 - -CHAPTER V. “THE DEVIL AND ALL HIS WORKS” 91 - -CHAPTER VI. DIVINATIONS--OMENS--AUGURIES 99 - -CHAPTER VII. VISIONS 107 - -CHAPTER VIII. VARIOUS MANIFESTATIONS 113 - -CONCLUSION 129 - -CLASSIFICATION OF THE MIRACLES OF “LAS CANTIGAS” 135 - -BIBLIOGRAPHY 139 - -INDEX OF PROPER NAMES 147 - - - - -PUBLICACIONES DEL -INSTITUTO DE LAS ESPAÑAS - - - - -LIBROS DE ENSEÑANZA - - - La Enseñanza de Lenguas Modernas en los Estados Unidos. - - Por LAWRENCE A. WILKINS. 160 páginas. Rústica $1.25. - -En este libro aparece la serie de conferencias que el autor dió en el -Centro de Estudios Históricos de Madrid y en el Instituto de Idiomas de -Valencia en el año de 1921. A manera de prólogo van las palabras -pronunciadas por el sabio filólogo español don Ramón Menéndez Pidal al -inaugurar estas conferencias. El método general, los métodos especiales -detalladamente descritos, la preparación para el profesorado, el -movimiento hispanista en los Estados Unidos, las relaciones entre este -país y los pueblos hispanos, son los temas principales tratados en este -libro. Por su exposición clara y sistemática y por su sana doctrina -pedagógica, esta obra se hace indispensable a todos los maestros de -idiomas, de cualquier país. - - - Cervantes. Cartilla Escolar. - - Biografía y selección por M. ROMERA-NAVARRO. Vocabulario por J. - MERCADO. 16 páginas. Rústica $.05. - -Dedicado a los estudiantes de español de las escuelas de este país, fué -escrito este folleto a propósito de la Fiesta de la Lengua que celebra -el Instituto el 23 de abril de todos los años en honor de Cervantes. -Contiene una breve exposición de la vida y la obra de Cervantes y dos -trozos refundidos del Quijote, uno de ellos la celebrada aventura de los -molinos de viento. Al fin va un vocabulario español-inglés, compuesto -con el propósito de ayudar a los estudiantes de habla inglesa. - - - Nuestro Futuro Diputado - - Por SAMUEL A. WOFSY. 64 páginas. Rústica $0.50. - -Poquisimas son las piezas dramáticas en español que puedan ser -representadas por los Clubs de las escuelas y universidades de este -país. Las que existen o son muy largas o no son apropiadas. Este vacío -lo llena en parte la farsa en tres actos, con vocabulario -español-inglés, del Sr. Wofsy, profesor de español de la Universidad de -Wisconsin. Hay en ella bastante acción, ambiente netamente español y -situaciones cómicas. Estas cualidades solamente hacen de ella una pieza -interesante e instructiva para todos los dedicados al estudio de la -lengua española. - - -ESTUDIOS - - The Romantic Dramas of García Gutiérrez. - - By NICHOLSON B. ADAMS, PH. D. 149 pages. Paper $1.00. - -Garcia Gutierrez is one of the most important figures in the Spanish -Romantic movement, and in poetic power he surpassed his contemporaries. -This study gives an insight into the plays of this famous Spanish -dramatist. The sketch of his life, which opens the book, paves the way -for the reader to reach an understanding of the man who wrote _El -Trovador_. The book itself, as well as the chronological list of the -plays of García Gutiérrez appended to it and the list of works either -partially or exclusively devoted to him, will be of valuable assistance -to all persons interested in the literary history of Spain. - - - Martín Fierro: An Epic of the Argentine. - - By HENRY A. HOLMES, PH. D. 192 pages. Paper $1.00. - -Peculiar colonial conditions in Argentina created in the isolation of -the pampa a striking type of horsemen: cowboys, trackers, Indian -fighters, etc. These men, called _gauchos_, were in many respects like -our western cowboys, but their unique traits call for such a sympathetic -study as is made in this book. The work takes its title from that of the -most celebrated Argentine cowboy poem, whose hero, Martín Fierro, sings -of _gauchos_, Indians, and the pampa, in truly epic vein. - - - En Prensa: Jacinto Benavente. - - Estudio literario por FEDERICO DE ONÍS. - - -LITERATURA - - Desolación. Poemas. - - Por GABRIELA MISTRAL. 248 páginas. Rústica $1.50. Tela $2.25. - -La fama de poetisa de Gabriela Mistral está ya tan bien cimentada en -todos los países de habla española, que su nombre en un libro bastara -para despertar el interés de todos los amantes de las letras hispánicas -de nuestros días. 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Active members receive the -publications made during the term of their membership. They may also -purchase former publications at a discount of 25%. - -Inquiries or remittances should be addressed to the General Secretary, -Instituto de las Españas, 419 West 117th St., New York, N. Y., U. S. A. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Columbia University Press, 1917. - -[2] See p. 53. - -[3] It has not been deemed necessary (since this is not a study of the -sources but rather of the material itself) to begin with a more remote -period. The purposes of this résumé is to give the reader a general -idea of the people and their immediate environment. For studies on the -earlier invasion see the appended Bibliography. - -[4] R. Menéndez Pidal _L’Epopée Castillane à travers la littérature -espagnole_. Paris, Colin, 1910, p. 15. - -[5] Amador de los Ríos, _Historia Crítica de la literatura española_, -Madrid, 1865, Vol. 2, p. 193. - -[6] _The Religion of the Ancient Celts_, Edinburgh, 1911, p. 246. - -[7] _Les Ibères_, Paris, 1909, p. 202. - -[8] Among the many interesting magazine articles on a recent widely -discussed phase of this phenomenon in the World War are _Phantom Armies -Seen in France_ by Mrs. S. Mildmay, _North American_, 202: 207-12, -August, 1915, and _On the Supernatural Element in History with Two -Examples from the Present Day_, by Mr. H. Temperley, _Contemporary -Review_, 110: 188-98, August, 1916. - -[9] Menéndez y Pelayo, _Historia de los heterodoxos españoles_, Madrid, -1911-18, Vol. 2, Chap. 2. - -[10] _Chronicon_ of Sebastian, No. 27. - -[11] Amador de los Ríos, _Historia crítica de la literatura española_, -Vol. 3, p. 233. - -[12] Antonio G. Solalinde, _Antología de Alfonso X, el Sabio_, p. 21. - -[13] The following brief résumé of the life of Alfonso X is based for -the most part on the Marqués de Mondéjar’s _Memorias históricas del Rei -D. Alfonso, el Sabio, i observaciones a su chrónica_, Madrid, 1845, and -the introduction to Sr. Solalinde’s _Antología de Alfonso X, el Sabio_. - -[14] _Las Siete Partidas_--Partida II, Título XV, Ley II. Hereafter -references to this work will be expressed thus: _Partidas_ 2-15-2. - -[15] _Estudios Literarios_, Madrid, 1920, p. 184-185. - -[16] For a discussion of the date of the translation of this work -into Spanish see the following editions of _Calila y Dimna_; Pascual -de Gayangos, in _Biblioteca de Autores Españoles_, Vol. 51, Madrid, -1860; José Alemany, Madrid, 1915; and Antonio G. Solalinde, Madrid, -1917. In Bulletin Hispanique. Vol. 24, page 167-171 is to be found an -interesting review by G. Cirot of the last named work. - -[17] Antonio G. Solalinde, _Interventión de Alfonso X en la redacción -de sus obras, Revista de Filología Española_, 1915, Vol. 2, p. 286. - -[18] _Partidas_, 1-1-9. - -[19] _Partidas_ 1-4-123 and 124 which is given in full on p. 53-54. - -[20] See p. 66. The miracle of the restoration of the tongue, and notes. - -[21] See p. 80. The bleeding image, and notes. - -[22] Sr. Antonio G. Solalinde, in speaking of this, says: Según los -datos de Mussafia, existen 64 milagros, de los más difundidos en el -mundo cristiano, en las 100 primeras cantigas, 17 en las 100 cantigas -siguientes, 11 en el tercer centenar y 2 en el cuarto. Seguramente se -podría rectificar en detalle esta estadística, pero ello exigiría un -estudio minucioso de las fuentes de las cantigas y de la historicidad -de sus asuntos, tarea que sólo en parte se realizó en la edición -monumental. Creo que el pensamiento de Mussafia estaría mejor expresado -si dijera que aquellos asuntos universales abundan principalmente en la -primera edición de la obra, o sea en el ms. TOL (Ms. de la Biblioteca -Nacional de Madrid, Núm. 10069, procedente de la catedral de Toledo) -cuyas cantigas se reparten, como hemos visto, casi exclusivamente -en los dos primeros centenares de la edición definitiva, E (Ms. -escurialense j. b. 2). Los continuadores de la obra primitiva tuvieron -que recurrir a los milagros acaecidos en España, y aun a los que tienen -por protagonistas a Alfonso X y otros personajes de la corte, sin que -falten tampoco en las nuevas colecciones asuntos universales más o -menos difundidos en la literatura marial, ni milagros sin indicación de -lugar, y que tanto pueden ser españoles como extranjeros. _El códice -florentino de las “Cantigas”_, _Revista de Filología Española_, Vol. 5, -1918, p. 175-176. - -[23] _Las Cantigas_ No. 361. Hereafter the number, written thus (No. -361), will be inserted in the body of the text. As mentioned above, -_Las Cantigas_ are written in the Gallego-Portugués dialect, the -favorite of the lyric poets of the time, and not in Castillian as are -the prose works of Alfonso. - -[24] I have found 23 which relate miracles experienced by the king -himself or some of his kinsmen or friends: Nos. 122, 142, 209, 215, -221, 235, 243, 256, 257, 279, 292, 324, 328, 345, 348, 358, 366, 367, -376, 377, 379, 382, 386. Aside from these are a few others as Nos. 295, -349, 354, 375, etc., in which apparently the king is Alfonso himself -tho this is not specifically stated. - -[25] For a discussion of the probable method of composition of Las -Cantigas see Antonio G. Solalinde, _El códice florentino de las -“Cantigas” y su relación con los demás manuscritos, Revista de -Filología Española_, Vol. 5, 1918, p. 169 ff. - -[26] References to Deus, seu Fillo, are constantly recurring but only -in No. 75, 71, 309, and 353 have I found references to Deus Padre. - -[27] This collection consists of 402 _Cantigas_ under the heading of -“Las Cantigas de Santa María” every tenth one of which is a “cantiga -de loor” and does not narrate a miracle. No. 1 also is a “cantiga de -loor”. No. 279 does not narrate a miracle but is a song of thanks. -Nos. 373, 387, 388, 394, 395, 396, 397, are repetitions of previous -cantigas. Nos. 401 and 403 are not miracles. This leaves a total of -351 in this group. Neither are there any to be found in the two groups -entitled “Cantigas de las fiestas de Santa María” and “Cantigas de las -fiestas de Nuestro Señor Jesucristo.” The group of five miscellaneous -cantigas not found in the _códice escurialense_ contains two miracles -making a total of 353. - -[28] The mysterious ceremony performed here is quite similar to the -incantations used when Amadís was being brought out from under the -spell of the enchanter Arcalaus by the strange and almost fairy-like -damsels. Cf. _Amadís de Gaula_, in _Biblioteca de Autores Españoles_, -Vol. 40, p. 50, Madrid, 1880. - -[29] As is so often the case with the writers of the Middle Ages, we -cannot always take our poet too literally, for in this poem he says: -“D’esto direi un miragre _que ui_” and only a few stanzas later in -describing the acts of the mother he says: “_A todos da capela fez -sayr_”. But doubtless since he was so closely related to the mother -concerned he did not consider “_que uí_” too strong a statement -especially when it fitted the meter and the rhyme. - -[30] Nos. 37, 53, 81, 91, 93, 105, and 134. - -[31] Nos. 223, 275, 319, 372, 393. Note that the miracles narrating -cures of leprosy are all (with the exception of No. 259 not mentioned -in the above note because the cure was not in response to prayer to the -Virgin) in the first half of the collection, while the cures of rabies -are all in the latter half. - -[32] Francisco Guillén Robles, in _Leyendas Moriscas_, Madrid, 1885-6. -Vol. 1, p. 181 ff. cites this as a legend of eastern origin. - -[33] Nos. 83, 106, 158, 176, 227, 291, 301, 325, 359, 363. - -[34] This motif of the appearance of the heavenly host is well -developed in the second part of the _Primera Crónica General_ in the -account of the battle with Abenhut, in which Alfonso himself took part, -p. 727 and also in the later work, _La Gran Conquista del Ultramar_, p. -321, _Biblioteca de Autores Españoles_, Vol. 44, Madrid, 1880, which -belongs to the period of Alfonso’s successor. - -[35] See Allan Menzie, _History of Religion_, New York, 1913, p. 66 ff. - -[36] Nos. 43, 44, 118, 166, 167, 176, 177, 178, 232, 247, 298, 333, -352, 357, 366, 375, 376, 382, 385. - -[37] Nos. 171, 172, 197, 398, etc. - -[38] In Nos. 272 and 162 are found similar instances of the mysterious -movement of objects, only here it is an image of the Virgin that -changes its location. - -[39] This spider motif is the dominant feature in Nos. 222 and 225. In -the former the Capellán of La Señora de Achela was saying mass when -just as he raised the sacred cup to his lips he saw a big spider fall -into the wine. He hesitated for a moment not knowing what to do for -under no circumstances can the ceremony of Mass be interrupted. Only a -moment did he pause, then trusting in the Virgin he drank it, spider -and all. The prioress learning of it ordered him to be bled. As the -surgeon’s lance pierced the arm not blood but the spider, alive, came -out and the clergyman was unharmed. No. 225, probably simply a variant, -differs in that after drinking it the spider moved about between the -skin and the flesh while the poor man implored relief thru divine aid. -Finally, one day while in the sun the spider passed from the back and -breast to his arm and after much of scratching came out under the nail. - -[40] See p. 40. - -[41] The Italics are mine. - -[42] The Italics are mine. - -[43] 1-4-124. - -[44] A still fuller definition is as follows: 1-4-123. - -“Natura es fecho de Dios, et él es el señor et el facedor della: onde -todo lo que puede ser fecho por natura fácelo Dios, et demas otras -cosas á que non comple el poder della. Ca nature non puede dexar nin -desviarse de obrar segunt la órden cierta quel puso Dios porque obrase -asi como facer noche et dia, et frio et calentura: otrosi que los -tiempos non recudan á sus sazones segun el movemiento cierto del cielo -et de las estrellas en quien puso Dios poder de ordenar la natura, -nin puede facer otrosi que lo pesado non decenda, et lo liviano non -suba. Et desto dixo Aristótiles que la natura non se face a obrar en -contrario: et esto tanto quiera decir como que siempre guarda una -manera et una órden cierta por que obra. Otrosi non puede facer algo de -nada, mas todo lo que se face por ella conviene que se faga de alguna -cosa, asi como un elemento dotro ó de todos los quatro elementos, de -que se engendran todas las cosas naturales et compuestas; mas Dios face -todo esto, et puede facer demas contra este ordenamiento, asi como -facer que el sol que nace al oriente et va á occidente, que se torna -á oriente por aquella mesma carrera ante que se ponga, segunt fizo -por ruego de Ezequias quando tornó el sol quince grados atras. Et aun -puede facer eclipse estando el sol et la luna en oposición, así como -fue el dia de la pasion de Iesu Cristo: et puede facer del muerto vivo, -et del que nunca vió que vea, asi como quando resucitó a Lázaro et -fizo ver al que nació ciego. Otrosi puede facer las cosas de nimigaja -(_sic_) asi como fizo el mundo et los ángeles, et los cielos et las -estrellas, que non fueron fechos de elementos nin de otra materia, -et face cada día las almas de entendimiento que son en los homes. Et -este poder es apartadamiente de Dios; et quando obra por él á lo que -dícenle miraglo, porque quando acaesce es cosa maravillosa a las gentes -et esto es porque los homes caten todavía los fechos de natura. Et por -onde quando alguna cosa se face contra ella maravillanse onde viene, -mayormiente quando acaesce pocas veces; ca estonces han de maravillarse -como de cosa nueva et extraña. Et desto fabló el Sabio con razon et -dixo, miraglo es cosa que vemos, mas non sabemos onde viene: et esto se -entiende quanto al pueble comunalmiente: mas los sabios et entendudos -bien entienden que la cosa que non puede facer natura nin artificio de -home, del poder de Dios viene solamente et non de otri.” - -[45] This legend of flowers being found in the mouth of the dead was -quite common in the Middle Ages as was also that of the body of a dead -person giving off delightful odors. This miracle is quite similar to -that to be found en Berceo’s _Milagros de Nuestra Señora_ No. 3. - -[46] It is interesting to compare this journey with the discussion of -Sr. Asin of the various legends of journeys to Hell and also maritime -journeys of the early Middle Ages. _Escatología musulmana en la “Divina -Comedia”_, p. 229 ff. - -[47] This is very similar to the account in the _Primera Crónica -General_, p. 252 column b, line 42. (Hereafter such references will be -indicated in the usual manner thus: _Prim. Crón. Gral._, p. 252 b 42.) -Here, however, the scene is in Africa and, after losing his tongue, the -bishop could sing and preach louder and more clearly than ever before. -The heretics who ridiculed him were, in this instance, the ones who -lost the power of speech. - -[48] See table on p. 136 for numbers. - -[49] A candle with healing power is mentioned in No. 259. St. Mary -appeared to two men just before a duel and told them to go to her -church at Arras. There she appeared to them again and inspired them -with the spirit of forgiveness. She also gave them a taper that would -cure leprosy. A bishop hearing of this wonderful instrument, took it -and because of that contracted the disease; they, with the aid of the -candle cured him, discovering that only in their hands did it have any -effect. - -[50] This peculiar use of the term “gentile” meaning “non-Christian” is -quite common in the literature of the period. - -[51] There is some similarity between this one and No. 259 summarized -on p. 71, note 7. - -[52] In the _Crónica_ the knight is the son of Fernán González and the -Virgin sends “un ángel”. Otherwise the story is the same tho told in -greater detail. - -[53] According to the laws the only ordeal allowed was that of combat -and that was only encouraged between knights (_Partidas_ 7-6-1). In -speaking of ordeals in general the law reads: _Partidas_ 3-14-8. - -Et hay otra que se face por fama, ó por leyes ó por derechos que las -partes muestran en juicio para averiguar et veneer sus pleytos asi -como delante mostraremos: et aun acostumbraron antiguamente et _úsanlo -hoy en día_, otra manera de prueba, asi como por lid de caballeros ó -de peones que se face en razon de riepto ó de otra manera: et como -quier que en algunas tierras hayan (_sic_) esto por costumbre, pero -los sabios antiguos que ficieron las leyes non lo tuvieron por derecha -prueba: et esto por dos razones; la una porque muchas vegadas acaesce -que en tales lides pierde la verdat et vence la mentira: la otra porque -aquel que ha voluntad de se aventurar á esta prueba semeja que quiere -tentar a Dios Nuestro Señor, que es cosa que él defendió por su palabra -allí do dixo: ve a riedro satanas, non tentarás a Dios tu señor.--(The -Italics are mine). - -See also “Ordeal” in Hastings _Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics_, -Vol. IX, page 508. - -[54] In Berceo’s _Miraglos de Nuestra Señora_ No. 20, we find the same -legend, but here the Devil takes the form of a bull, _a dog_ and a -lion. The Virgin takes the priest home and puts him to bed and then -bids him go to confession next morning and do penance. - -[55] According to the law it was forbidden to make effigies while -trying to produce or break the spell of love. _Partidas_ 7-23-2. - -[56] The conception of wounding an image is developed further in the -_Prim. Crón. Gral_. p. 258 a 52, where a Jew for spite enters a church -and wounds the image with his knife and then, hiding it under his -mantle, makes his way home, where he further mutilates it. When he -reaches home he finds the mantle wet with blood but he does not notice -that it has dripped on the ground, thus leaving his traces. When the -Christians meet at the church they miss the image and trace it by its -blood. When the Jew is found, due punishment is meted out to him. - -[57] Compare this with the story of Jesus walking through the midst -of the crowd that had gathered to throw him over the precipice (Luke -4:28-30). - -[58] Los Tres Reyes Magos. - -[59] Probably that containing the first one hnndred _Cantigas_. See p. -30, note 4. - -[60] For a further study of conjuring, and the power of the names of -the Deity see p. 113 ff. - -[61] According to _Las Siete Partidas_, it was prohibited to bury in -holy ground those who died in tournaments, for the Church forbade such -pastimes. _Partidas_, 1-13-10. - -[62] Physicians were forbidden to give medicine until after confession -under penalty of excommunication, because illness, it was claimed, was -often due to sin. _Partidas_, 1-4-83. - -[63] In these three chapters, as stated above, I have summarized only -a sufficient number of the miracles of this collection to illustrate -the various types of supernatural phenomena presented. Some of the -incidents, altho closely connected with Saint Mary, better illustrate -some other phase of this study (such as the character of the Devil, the -power of the Host, conjuring, etc.), and when this is the case they -have been used in their appropriate place. - -[64] Et quanto en síse todas las criaturas fizo buenas, mas cayeron -algunas dellas en yerro; las unas por si mesmas, asi como el diablo se -perdió por su orgullo et por su soberbia, et los otros por consejo de -otri, asi como Adan, etc. _Partidas_, 1-3.--Introduction p. 38. - -[65] “Cerca de las eglesias tovieron por bien los santos padres que -fuesen las sepolturas de los cristianos, et esto por quatro razones: -... la quarta porque los diablos non han poder de se allegar tanto á -los cuarpos de los muertos que son soterrados en los cementerios como á -los que yacen de fuera:” _Partidas_ 1-13-2. - -[66] See conjuring, p. 113. - -[67] p. 266. For a further discussion see “Visions”, p. 107. - -[68] _Las Cantigas_ No. 26, See also Berceo’s _Miraglos de Nuestra -Señora_, VIII. - -[69] _Las Cantigas_, No. 3. Berceo: _Los Miraglos de Nuestra Señora_, -No. 24, varies from this slightly. - -[70] _Idem_ No. 216. Very interesting for its details is the devil-pact -story in _El Arcipreste de Hita_, 1454 ff. - -[71] p. 206. - -[72] _Prim. Crón. Gral._, p. 212. - -[73] See p. 63. - -[74] In _El Libro de Alejandro_ is a vivid description, 2180 ff. which -was doubtless known by Alfonso. See also Sr. Miguel Asín Palacios’ -_La Escatología Musulmana en La Divina Comedia_, Madrid, 1919, for a -discussion of the Mohammedan legends of Inferno and their influence on -Europe in general and Spain and Italy in particular. - -[75] See the laws cited under p. 101. - -[76] The best example of enchantment in Castillian prior to Alfonso is -Berceo’s _Miraglos de Nuestra Señora_, XXIV, _Biblioteca de Autores -Españoles_, Vol. 57. Madrid, 1883. In _El Libro de Alejandro_ are to -be found enchanted fountains, 1331 ff., enchanted armor, 615 ff., -enchanted persons, 678 ff., and the magic knot no one can untie, 787 -ff. See Samuel M. Waxman, _Chapters in Spanish Magic_, New York, 1916, -for a study of this subject in the period immediately following Alfonso. - -[77] La légende des infants de Lara, Paris, 1898, p. 5-6. (Extract from -_Journal des savants_, mai et juin, 1898.) - -[78] See note 6, p. 101. - -[79] _Prim. Crón. Gral._ 120 b 30. - -[80] _Prim. Crón. Gral._, p. 115 a 39 ff. - -[81] _Prim. Crón. Gral._, p. 111 a 51-53. - -[82] _Partidas_, 7-9-17. The very interesting Título _De los adevinos -et de los encantadores_ is as follows: - -TITULO XXIII - -_De los Agoreros, et de los Sorteros, et de los otros Adevinos, et de -los Hechiceros et de los Truhanes._ - -Adevinar las cosas que son por venir cobdician los homes naturalmente -et porque algunos dellos prueban esto en manera que yerran ellos et -meten á otros muchos en yerro, por ende pues que en el título ante -deste fablamos de los alcahuetes que facen errar á los homes et á las -mugeres en muchas maneras, queremos aqui decir otrosi destos que son -muy dañosos á la tierra: et mostraremos qué quiere decir adevinanza: et -quántas maneras son della: et quién puede acusar a los facedores della: -et ante quién: et qué pena merescen los que se trabajan a obrar della -como non deben. - -LEY I - -_Qué quiere decir Adevinanza, et quántas maneres son della._ - -Adevinanza tanto quiere decir como querer tomar poder de Dios para -saber las cosas que son por venir. Et son dos maneras de adevinanza: -la primera es la que se face por arte de astronomía, que es una de -las siete artes liberales: et esta segunt el fuero de las leyes non -es defendida de usar á los que son ende maestros et la entienden -verdaderamente, porque los juicios et los asmamientos que se dan por -esta arte, son catados por el curso natural de los planetas et de las -otras estrellas, et tomados de los libros de Tolomeo et de los otros -sabidores que se trabajaron desta esciencia: mas los otros [sic] que -non son ende sabidores, non deben obrar por ella, como quier que se -puedan trabajar de aprenderla estudiando en los libros de los sabios. -La segunda manera de adevinanza es de los agoreros, et de los sorteros -et de los fechiceros que catan en aguero de aves, ó de estornudos ó de -palabras, a que llaman proverbio, ó echan suertes, ó catan en agua, ó -en cristal, ó en espejo, ó en espada ó en otra cosa luciente, ó facen -fechizos de metal ó de otra cosa qualquier, o adevinan en cabeza de -home muerto, ó de bestia, ó de perro, ó en palma de niño ó de muger -vírgen. Et estos truhanes atales et todos los otros semejantes dellos -porque son homes dañosos et engañadores, et nacen de sus fechos muy -grandes daños et malos á la tierra, defendemos que ninguno dellos non -more en nuestro señorio nin use hi destas cosas: et otrosi que ninguno -non sea osado de acogerlos en sus casas nin de encobrirlos. - -LEY II - -_De los que escantan (encantan?) los Espíritus Malos ó facen imágines ó -otros fechizos, ó dan yerbas para enamoramiento de los homes et de las -mugeres._ - -Nigromancia dicen en Latin á un saber estraño que es para escantar -los espíritus malos. Et porque de los homes que se trabajan á facer -esto viene muy grant daño á la tierra et señaladamente á los que los -creen et les demandan alguna cosa en esa razón, acaesciéndoles muchas -ocasiones por el espanto que reciben andando de noche buscando estas -cosas atales en los lugares extraños, de manera que algunos dellos -mueren, ó fincan locos o demuniados; por ende defendemos que ninguno -non sea osado de trabajarse de usar tal nemiga como esta, porque es -cosa que pesa á Dios et viene ende muy grant daño a los homes. Otrosi -defendemos que ninguno non sea osado de facer imágines de cera, nin -de metal nin de otros fechizos malos para enamorar los homes con las -mugeres, nin para partir el amor que algunos hobiesen entre sí. Et aun -defendemos que ninguno non sea osado de dar yerbas nin brebage á home -ó á muger por razon de enamoramiento, porque acaesce a las vegadas que -destos brebages atales vienen a muerte los que los toman, ó han muy -grandes enfermedades de que fincan ocacionados para siempre. - -LEY III - -_Quién puede acusar á los Truhanes, et á los Baratadores sobredichos et -qué pena merescen._ - -Acusar pueda cada uno del pueblo delante del judgador á los agoreros, -et á los sorteros et á los otros baratadores de que fablamos en -las leyes deste título. Et si les fuere probado por testigos o -por conoscencia dellos mesmos que facen ó obran contra nuestro -defendimiento algunos de los yerros sobredichos, deben morir por ende: -et los que los encubieren en sus casas á sabiendas, deben seer echados -de la tierra para siempre. Pero los que ficiensen encantamientos ó -otras cosas con buena entención, asi como para sacas demonios de los -cuerpos de los homes o para deslegar a los que fuesen marido et muger -que non pudiesen convenir en uno, o para desatar nube que echase -granizo ó niebla porque non corrompiese los frutos de la tierra, ó para -langosta ó pulgon que daña el pan ó las viñas, ó por alguna otra cosa -provechosa semejante destas non debe haber pena, ante decimos que deben -rescebir gualardon por ello. - -[83] _Prim. Crón. Gral._, p. 97 b 26 ff. - -[84] _Idem_, p. 55 a 4 ff. - -[85] _Idem_, p. 274 b 22 ff. On page 307 b 4 is to be found Alfonso’s -version of the legend of the last king of the Goths which is as -follows: After opening the palace and finding the ark “el rey mando la -abrir, et non fallaron en ella sinon un panno en que estauan escriptas -letras ladinas que dizien assi: que quando aquellas cerraduras -fuessen crebantadas et ell arca et el palacio fuessen abiertos et -lo que y yazie fuesse uisto, que yentes de tal manera como en aquel -panno estauan pintadas que entrarien en Espanna et la conqueririen et -serien ende sennores. El rei quando aquello oyo, pesol mucho por que -el palacio fiziera abrir, e fizo cerrar ell arca et el palacio assi -como estauan de primero. En aquel palacio estauan pintados omnes de -caras et de parescer et de manera et de uestido assi como agora andan -los alaraues, e tenien sus cabecas cubiertas de tocas, et seyen en -cauallos, et los uestidos dellos eran de muchos colores, e tenian en -las manos espadas et ballestas et sennas alcadas. E el rey et los altos -omnes fueron mucho espandados por aquellas pinturas que uiran.” - -For a detailed study of this legend see Juan Menéndez Pidal, _Leyendas -del último rey godo_. - -[86] _Prim. Crón. Gral._, p. 35 b 49 ff. - -[87] _Prim. Crón. Gral._, p. 164 a 13 ff. - -[88] _Idem_, p. 98 a 8 ff. - -[89] _Idem_, p. 107 a 40. - -[90] _Partidas_, 1-10-10 and reads as follows: - -“_Que non deben facer eglesia nin altar por sueño nin por antoianza de -ninguno._ - -Descubren o facen algunos homes engañosamente altares por los campos -o por las villas, diciendo que ha en aquellos lugares reliquias de -algunos santos asacando que facen miraglos; et por esta razon mueven -las gentes de muchas partes que vengan alli como en romeria por llevar -algo dellos: otros hi ha que por sueños o por vanas antoianzas que les -aparescen facen altares et las descubren en los lugares sobredichos: -... el obispo debe amonestar las gentes que non vayan a aquellos -lugares en romeria, fueras ende si fallasen hi ciertamente cuerpo ó -reliquias de algunt santo que hobiese hi fecho su morada, o fuese hi -martrizado.” - -[91] Repetition will not be made here of what already has been said as -the characteristics of the visions in _Las Cantigas_, Cf. pages 66 ff. - -[92] Asín, in _La Escatalogia Musulmana_, p. 287 ff., and Guillén -Robles in _Leyendas Moriscas_, Prólogo, Vol. I, discuss this type of -legends and their origins. - -[93] _Prim. Crón. Gral._, p. 276. - -[94] _Prim. Crón. Gral._, p. 253 b 24. - -[95] _Idem_, p. 270 a 1. - -[96] _Las Cantigas_ No. 292. - -[97] _Prim. Crón. Gral._, p. 279 b 1. - -[98] _Idem_, p. 38 b 11. - -[99] _Prim. Crón. Gral._, p. 237 b 29. - -[100] _Idem_, p. 195 a 16. - -[101] _Prim. Crón. Gral._, p. 266-274. - -[102] Asín, in _Escatalogia Musulmana_, has made a careful study of -this and similar visions. See also the _Prólogo_ to Guillén Robles’, -_Leyendas Moriscas_, p. 66 ff. - -[103] A summary of _Partidas_, 1-4-16. - -[104] _Idem_, 1-6-11. - -[105] _Idem_, 6-7-4. - -[106] _Idem_, p. 1-4-49. - -[107] _Partidas_, 1-4-38 and 39. - -[108] _Idem_, 1-4-71. - -[109] _Prim. Crón. Gral._, 189 ff. In _Las Cantigas_ No. 144 the scene -of the miracle is a bull ring. For a history of the bullfight in Spain -see Conde de las Navas, _Historia de las corridas de toros_. - -[110] See p. 68. - -[111] For the study of the ghost in the drama see C. E. Whitmore, _The -Supernatural in Tragedy_, Cambridge. Harvard University Press, 1915. - -[112] Nos. 104, 128, 208, and 238. - -[113] That is in No. 128. - -[114] Nos. 12, 128, 133, 145, 149, 179, 211, 228, 234, 251, 293, 311, -322. - -[115] _Partidas_, 1-4-104. - -[116] _Partidas_, 1-4-105. - -[117] This same motif of wishing to join the Child Jesus in heaven is -beautifully enlarged upon in No. 139. A Flemish woman takes her child -with her to ask guidance of the Virgin. On arriving before the shrine -the little fellow, who has been eating bread on the way, offers his -bread to the Child Jesus, saying, “Do you want some?” In answer to the -invitation the Christ Child replies “Tomorrow you will eat with me in -heaven.” No. 353 has many points of resemblance. - -[118] _Partidas_, 1-6. Intro, p. 250. - -[119] Antonio G. Solalinde, _General Estoria_ in _Antologia de Alfonso -X, el Sabio_, p. 201-202. - -[120] _Prim. Crón. Gral._, p. 136-b-21. - -[121] _Idem_, p. 108 ff. - -[122] _Idem_, p. 235 a 3 ff. - -[123] Solalinde, _Antologia de Alfonso X, el Sabio_, p. 262. - -[124] Solalinde, _Antologia de Alfonso X, el Sabio_, p. 264-65. In -the _Libro de Alejandro_ we find the mysterious bird continually -being burned in its nest only to be revived again when half consumed, -line 2311, as well as the hen that ceases to lay the golden eggs when -Alejandro is born, because they would be no longer needed to pay -tribute, line 130. There are also the two “grifos” which carry him thru -the air all over Asia, Africa, and Europe (lines 2333 ff.). - -In the second part of the _Primera Crónica General_ the body of the -Cid, now _seven_ years dead, is said to draw its sword a palm’s breadth -when affronted by a Jew and never could the sword be forced back into -its scabbard (p. 642 b 26). - -[125] _Partidas_, 1-10-12, “Et non deben consagrar altar ninguno, -fueras ende el que fuere de piedra, _et quando lo consagren deben meter -en él algunas reliquias_”. (Italics are mine.) - -[126] _Prim. Crón. Gral._ 161 b 30 ff. - -[127] Dorothy Scarborough, _The Supernatural in Modern English -Fiction_, p. 175. The Italics in the quotation are mine. - - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SUPERNATURAL IN EARLY SPANISH -LITERATURE : STUDIED IN THE WORKS OF THE COURT OF ALFONSO X, EL SABIO *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. 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