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If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Origin and Ideals of the Modern School - -Author: Francisco Ferrer - -Translator: Joseph McCabe - -Release Date: November 1, 2021 [eBook #66644] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net/ for Project Gutenberg (This file - was produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ORIGIN AND IDEALS OF THE -MODERN SCHOOL *** - - - - THE - ORIGIN AND IDEALS - OF THE - MODERN SCHOOL - - - BY - FRANCISCO FERRER - - TRANSLATED BY JOSEPH McCABE - - - [ISSUED FOR THE RATIONALIST PRESS ASSOCIATION, LIMITED] - - London: - WATTS & CO., - 17 JOHNSON’S COURT, FLEET STREET, E.C. - 1913 - - - - - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - Introduction vii - - Chap. - I. The Birth of My Ideals 1 - II. Mlle. Meunier 7 - III. I Accept the Responsibility 12 - IV. The Early Programme 18 - V. The Co-Education of the Sexes 24 - VI. Co-Education of the Social Classes 32 - VII. School Hygiene 38 - VIII. The Teachers 40 - IX. The Reform of the School 43 - X. No Reward or Punishment 55 - XI. The General Public and the Library 60 - XII. Sunday Lectures 71 - XIII. The Results 75 - XIV. A Defensive Chapter 80 - XV. The Ingenuousness of the Child 88 - XVI. The “Bulletin” 96 - XVII. The Closing of the Modern School 102 - - Epilogue 109 - - - - - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -On October 12, 1909, Francisco Ferrer y Guardia was shot in the -trenches of the Montjuich Fortress at Barcelona. A Military Council had -found him guilty of being “head of the insurrection” which had, a few -months before, lit the flame of civil war in the city and province. The -clergy had openly petitioned the Spanish Premier, when Ferrer was -arrested, to look to the Modern School and its founder for the source -of the revolutionary feeling; and the Premier had, instead of rebuking -them, promised to do so. When Ferrer was arrested the prosecution spent -many weeks in collecting evidence against him, and granted a free -pardon to several men who were implicated in the riot, for testifying -against him. These three or four men were the only witnesses out of -fifty who would have been heard patiently in a civil court of justice, -and even their testimony would at once have crumbled under -cross-examination. But there was no cross-examination, and no witnesses -were brought before the court. Five weeks were occupied in compiling an -enormously lengthy indictment of Ferrer; then twenty-four hours were -given to an inexperienced officer, chosen at random, to analyse it and -prepare a defense. Evidence sent in Ferrer’s favour was confiscated by -the police; the witnesses who could have disproved the case against him -were kept in custody miles away from Barcelona; and documents which -would have tended to show his innocence were refused to the defending -officer. And after the mere hearing of the long and hopelessly -bewildering indictment (in which the evidence was even falsified), and -in spite of the impassioned protest of the defending officer against -the brutal injustice of the proceedings, the military judges found -Ferrer guilty, and he was shot. - -Within a month of the judicial murder of Ferrer I put the whole -abominable story before the British public. I showed the deep -corruption of Church and politics in Spain, and proved that clergy and -politicians had conspired to use the gross and pliable machinery of -“military justice” to remove a man whose sole aim was to open the eyes -of the Spanish people. A prolonged and passionate controversy followed. -That controversy has not altered a line of my book. Mr. William Archer, -in a cold and impartial study of the matter, has fully supported my -indictment of the prosecution of Ferrer; and Professor Simarro, of -Madrid University, has, in a voluminous study of the trial (El Proceso -Ferrer—two large volumes), quoted whole chapters of my little work. -When, in 1912, the Supreme Military Council of Spain was forced to -declare that no single act of violence could be directly or indirectly -traced to Ferrer (whereas the chief witness for the prosecution had -sworn that he saw Ferrer leading a troop of rioters), and ordered the -restoration of his property, the case for his innocence was closed. It -remains only for Spain to wipe the foul stain from its annals by -removing the bones of the martyred teacher from the trenches of -Montjuich, and to declare, with real Spanish pride, that a grave -injustice had been done. - -Meantime, the restoration of Ferrer’s property has enabled his trustees -to resume his work. Among his papers they found a manuscript account, -from his own pen, of the origin and ideals of the Modern School, and -their first act is to give it to the world. In 1906 Ferrer had been -arrested on the charge of complicity in the attempt of Morral to -assassinate the King. He was kept in jail for a year, and the most -scandalous efforts were made, in the court and the country, to secure a -judicial murder; but it was a civil (or civilised) trial, and the -charge was contemptuously rejected. Going to the Pyrenees in the early -summer of 1908 to recuperate, Ferrer determined to write the simple -story of his school, and it is this I now offer to English readers. - -In this work Ferrer depicts himself more truly and vividly than any -friend of his has ever done. For my part, I had never seen Ferrer, and -never seen Spain; but I was acquainted with Spanish life and letters, -and knew that there had been committed in the twentieth century one of -those old-world crimes by which the children of darkness seek to arrest -the advance of man. I interpreted Ferrer from his work, his letters, a -few journalistic articles he had written—he had never published a book, -and the impressions of his friends and pupils. In this book the man -portrays himself, and describes his aims with a candour that all will -appreciate. The less foolish of his enemies have ceased to assert that -he organised or led the riot at Barcelona in 1909. It was, they say, -the tendency, the subtle aim, of his work which made him responsible. -It may be remembered that the Saturday Review and other journals -published the most unblushingly mendacious letters, from anonymous -correspondents, saying that they had seen posters on the walls of -Ferrer’s schools inciting children to violence. As the very zealous -police did not at the trial even mention Ferrer’s schools, or the -text-books used in them, these lies need no further exposure. But many -persist in thinking, since there is now nothing further to think to the -disadvantage of Ferrer, that his schools were really hot-beds of -rebellion and were very naturally suppressed. - -Here is the full story of the Modern School, told in transparently -simple language. Here is the whole man, with all his ideals, aims, and -resentments. It shows, as we well knew, and could have proved with -overwhelming force at his trial had we been permitted, that he was -absolutely opposed to violence ever since, in his youth, he had taken -part in an abortive revolution. It tells how he came to distrust -violence and those who used it; how he concluded that the moral and -intellectual training of children was to be the sole work of his -career; how, when he obtained the funds, he turned completely from -politics, and devoted himself to educating children in knowledge of -science and in sentiments of peace and brotherhood. - -It tells also, with the same transparent plainness, why his -noble-minded work incurred such violent enmity. He naively boasts that -the education in the Modern School was free from dogmas. It was not, -and cannot be in any school, free from dogmas, for dogma means -“teaching,” and he gave teaching of a very definite character. Mr. -Belloc’s indictment of his schools is, like Mr. Belloc’s indictment of -his character and guilt, evidently based on complete ignorance of the -facts and a very extensive knowledge of the recklessly mendacious -literature of his opponents. Even Mr. Archer’s account of his school is -grossly misleading. The Modern School was “avowedly a nursery of -rebellious citizens” only in the same sense as is any Socialist -Sunday-school in England or Germany; and the Spanish Government has -never claimed, and could not claim, for a moment the right to close it, -except in so far as it falsely charged the founder with crime and -confiscated his property. - -Ferrer’s school was thoroughly rationalistic, and this embittered the -clergy—for his system was spreading rapidly through Spain—without in -the least infringing Spanish law. Further, Ferrer’s school explicitly -taught children that militarism was a crime, that the unequal -distribution of wealth was a thing to be abhorred, that the capitalist -system was bad for the workers, and that political government is an -evil. He had a perfect right under Spanish law to found a school to -teach his ideas; as any man has under English or German law. The -prohibited and damnable thing would be even to hint to children that, -when they grew up, they might look forward to altering the industrial -and political system by violence. This Ferrer not only did not teach, -but strenuously opposed. We have overwhelming proof of this at every -step of his later career. But he was a child of the workers, and he had -a passionate and noble resentment of the ignorance, poverty, and -squalor of the lives of so large a proportion of the workers. He was -also an Anarchist, in the sense of Tolstoi; he believed that liberty -was essential to the development of man, and central government an -evil. But, as rigorously as Tolstoi, he relied on persuasion and -abhorred violence. I would call attention to Chapter VI of this book, -in which he pleads for “the co-education of the rich and poor”; and -there were children of middle-class parents, even of -university-professors, in his school. Most decidedly he preached no -class-hatred or violence. I do not share his academic and innocent -Anarchist ideal—which is far nearer to Conservatism than to -Socialism—but I share to the full that intense and passionate longing -for the uplifting and brightening of the poor, and for the destruction -of superstition, which was the supreme ideal of his life and of his -work. For that he was shot. - -Finally, the reader must strictly bear in mind the Spanish atmosphere -of this tragedy. When Ferrer describes “existing schools” he means the -schools of Spain, which are, for the most part, a mockery and a shame. -When he talks of “ruling powers” he has in mind the politicians of -Spain, my indictment of whom, in their own language, has never been -questioned. When he talks of “superstition” he means primarily Spanish -superstition; he refers to a priesthood that still makes millions every -year by the sale of indulgences. If you remember these things, you -will, however you dissent from his teaching in parts, appreciate the -burning and unselfish idealism of the man, and understand why some of -us see the brand of Cain on the fair brow of Spain for extinguishing -that idealism in blood. - - - J. M. - - February, 1913. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE BIRTH OF MY IDEALS - - -The share which I had in the political struggles of the last part of -the nineteenth century put my early convictions to a severe test. I was -a revolutionary in the cause of justice; I was convinced that liberty, -equality, and fraternity were the legitimate fruit to be expected of a -republic. Seeing, therefore, no other way to attain this ideal but a -political agitation for a change of the form of government, I devoted -myself entirely to the republican propaganda. [1] - -My relations with D. Manuel Ruiz Zorrilla, who was one of the leading -figures in the revolutionary movement, brought me into contact with a -number of the Spanish revolutionaries and some prominent French -agitators, and my intercourse with them led to a sharp disillusion. I -detected in many of them an egoism which they sought hypocritically to -conceal, while the ideals of others, who were more sincere, seemed to -me inadequate. In none of them did I perceive a design to bring about a -radical improvement—a reform which should go to the roots of disorder -and afford some security of a perfect social regeneration. - -The experience I acquired during my fifteen years’ residence at Paris, -in which I witnessed the crises of Boulangism, Dreyfusism, and -Nationalism, and the menace they offered to the Republic, convinced me -that the problem of popular education was not solved; and, if it were -not solved in France, there was little hope of Spanish republicanism -settling it, especially as the party had always betrayed a lamentable -inappreciation of the need of a system of general education. - -Consider what the condition of the present generation would be if the -Spanish republican party had, after the banishment of Ruiz Zorrilla -[1885], devoted itself to the establishment of Rationalist schools in -connection with each committee, each group of Freethinkers, or each -Masonic lodge; if, instead of the presidents, secretaries, and members -of the committees thinking only of the office they were to hold in the -future republic, they had entered upon a vigorous campaign for the -instruction of the people. In the thirty years that have elapsed -considerable progress would have been made in founding day-schools for -children and night-schools for adults. - -Would the general public, educated in this way, be content to send -members to Parliament who would accept an Associations Law presented by -the monarchists? Would the people confine itself to holding meetings to -demand a reduction of the price of bread, instead of resenting the -privations imposed on the worker by the superfluous luxuries of the -wealthy? Would they waste their time in futile indignation meetings, -instead of organising their forces for the removal of all unjust -privileges? - -My position as professor of Spanish at the Philotechnic Association and -in the Grand Orient of France brought me into touch with people of -every class, both in regard to character and social position; and, when -I considered them from the point of view of their possible influence on -the race, I found that they were all bent upon making the best they -could of life in a purely individualist sense. Some studied Spanish -with a view to advancing in their profession, others in order to master -Spanish literature and promote their careers, and others for the -purpose of obtaining further pleasure by travelling in countries where -Spanish was spoken. - -No one felt the absurdity of the contradictions between belief and -knowledge; hardly one cared to give a just and rational form to human -society, in order that all the members of each generation might have a -proportionate share in the advantages created by earlier generations. -Progress was conceived as a kind of fatalism, independent of the -knowledge and the goodwill of men, subject to vacillations and -accidents in which the conscience and energy of man had no part. The -individual, reared in a family circle, with its inveterate atavism and -its traditional illusions maintained by ignorant mothers, and in the -school with something worse than error—the sacramental untruth imposed -by men who spoke in the name of a divine revelation—was deformed and -degenerate at his entrance into society; and, if there is any logical -relation between cause and effect, nothing could be expected of him but -irrational and pernicious results. - -I spoke constantly to those whom I met with a view to proselytism, -seeking to ascertain the use of each of them for the purpose of my -ideal, and soon realised that nothing was to be expected of the -politicians who surrounded Ruiz Zorrilla; they were, in my opinion, -with a few honourable exceptions, impenitent adventurers. This gave -rise to a certain expression which the judicial authorities sought to -use to my disadvantage in circumstances of great gravity and peril. -Zorrilla, a man of lofty views and not sufficiently on his guard -against human malice, used to call me an “anarchist” when he heard me -put forward a logical solution of a problem; at all times he regarded -me as a deep radical, opposed to the opportunist views and the showy -radicalism of the Spanish revolutionaries who surrounded and even -exploited him, as well as the French republicans, who held a policy of -middle-class government and avoided what might benefit the disinherited -proletariate, on the pretext of distrusting Utopias. - -In a word, during the early years of the restoration there were men -conspiring with Ruiz Zorrilla who have since declared themselves -convinced monarchists and conservatives; and that worthy man, who -protested earnestly against the coup d’État of January 3, 1874, -confided in his false friends, with the result, not uncommon in the -political world, that most of them abandoned the republican party for -the sake of some office. In the end he could count only on the support -of those who were too honourable to sell themselves, though they lacked -the logic to develop his ideas and the energy to carry out his work. - -In consequence of this I restricted myself to my pupils, and selected -for my purposes those whom I thought more appropriate and better -disposed. Having now a clear idea of the aim which I proposed to myself -and a certain prestige from my position as teacher and my expansive -character, I discussed various subjects with my pupils when the lessons -were over; sometimes we spoke of Spanish customs, sometimes of -politics, religion, art, or philosophy. I sought always to correct the -exaggerations of their judgments, and to show clearly how mischievous -it is to subordinate one’s own judgment to the dogma of a sect, school, -or party, as is so frequently done. In this way I succeeded in bringing -about a certain agreement among men who differed in their creeds and -views, and induced them to master the beliefs which they had hitherto -held unquestioningly by faith, obedience, or sheer indolence. My -friends and pupils found themselves happy in thus abandoning some -ancient error and opening their minds to truths which uplifted and -ennobled them. - -A rigorous logic, applied with discretion, removed fanatical -bitterness, established intellectual harmony, and gave, to some extent -at least, a progressive disposition to their wills. Freethinkers who -opposed the Church and rejected the legends of Genesis, the imperfect -morality of the gospels, and the ecclesiastical ceremonies; more or -less opportunist republicans or radicals who were content with the -futile equality conferred by the title of citizen, without in the least -affecting class distinctions; philosophers who fancied they had -discovered the first cause of things in their metaphysical labyrinths -and established truth in their empty phrases—all were enabled to see -the errors of others as well as their own, and they leaned more and -more to the side of common sense. - -When the further course of my life separated me from these friends and -brought on me an unmerited imprisonment, I received many expressions of -confidence and friendship from them. From all of them I anticipate -useful work in the cause of progress, and I congratulate myself that I -had some share in the direction of their thoughts and endeavours. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -MLLE. MEUNIER - - -Among my pupils was a certain Mlle. Meunier, a wealthy old lady with no -dependents, who was fond of travel, and studied Spanish with the object -of visiting my country. She was a convinced Catholic and a very -scrupulous observer of the rules of her Church. To her, religion and -morality were the same thing, and unbelief—or “impiety,” as the -faithful say—was an evident sign of vice and crime. - -She detested revolutionaries, and she regarded with impulsive and -undiscriminating aversion every display of popular ignorance. This was -due, not only to her education and social position, but to the -circumstance that during the period of the Commune she had been -insulted by children in the streets of Paris as she went to church with -her mother. Ingenuous and sympathetic, without regard to antecedents, -accessories, or consequences, she always expressed her dogmatic -convictions without reserve, and I had many opportunities to open her -eyes to the inaccuracy of her opinions. - -In our many conversations I refrained from taking any definite side; so -that she did not recognise me as a partisan of any particular belief, -but as a careful reasoner with whom it was a pleasure to confer. She -formed so flattering an opinion of me, and was so solitary, that she -gave me her full confidence and friendship, and invited me to accompany -her on her travels. I accepted the offer, and we travelled in various -countries. My conduct and our constant conversation compelled her to -recognise the error of thinking that every unbeliever was perverse and -every atheist a hardened criminal, since I, a convinced atheist, -manifested symptoms very different from those which her religious -prejudice had led her to expect. - -She thought, however, that my conduct was exceptional, and reminded me -that the exception proves the rule. In the end the persistency and -logic of my arguments forced her to yield to the evidence, and, when -her prejudice was removed, she was convinced that a rational and -scientific education would preserve children from error, inspire men -with a love of good conduct, and reorganise society in accord with the -demands of justice. She was deeply impressed by the reflection that she -might have been on a level with the children who had insulted her if, -at their age, she had been reared in the same conditions as they. When -she had given up her belief in innate ideas, she was greatly -preoccupied with the following problem: If a child were educated -without hearing anything about religion, what idea of the Deity would -it have on reaching the age of reason? - -After a while, it seemed to me that we were wasting time if we were not -prepared to go on from words to deeds. To be in possession of an -important privilege through the imperfect organisation of society and -by the accident of birth, to conceive ideas of reform, and to remain -inactive or indifferent amid a life of pleasure, seemed to me to incur -a responsibility similar to that of a man who refused to lend a hand to -a person whom he could save from danger. One day, therefore, I said to -Mlle. Meunier:— - -“Mlle., we have reached a point at which it is necessary to reconsider -our position. The world appeals to us for our assistance, and we cannot -honestly refuse it. It seems to me that to expend entirely on comforts -and pleasures resources which form part of the general patrimony, and -which would suffice to establish a useful institution, is to commit a -fraud; and that would be sanctioned neither by a believer nor an -unbeliever. I must warn you, therefore, that you must not count on my -company in your further travels. I owe myself to my ideas and to -humanity, and I think that you ought to have the same feeling now that -you have exchanged your former faith for rational principles.” - -She was surprised, but recognised the justice of my decision, and, -without other stimulus than her own good nature and fine feeling, she -gave me the funds for the establishment of an institute of rational -education. The Modern School, which already existed in my mind, was -thus ensured of realisation by this generous act. - -All the malicious statements that have been made in regard to this -matter—for instance, that I had to submit to a judicial -interrogation—are sheer calumnies. It has been said that I used a power -of suggestion over Mlle. Meunier for my own purposes. This statement, -which is as offensive to me as it is insulting to the memory of that -worthy and excellent lady, is absolutely false. I do not need to -justify myself; I leave my vindication to my acts, my life, and the -impartial judgment of my contemporaries. But Mlle. Meunier is entitled -to the respect of all men of right feeling, of all those who have been -delivered from the despotism of sect and dogma, who have broken all -connection with error, who no longer submit the light of reason to the -darkness of faith nor the dignity of freedom to the yoke of obedience. - -She believed with honest faith. She had been taught that between the -Creator and the creature there is a hierarchy of intermediaries whom -one must obey, and that one must bow to a series of mysteries contained -in the dogmas imposed by a divinely instituted Church. In that belief -she remained perfectly tranquil. The remarks I made and advice I -offered her were not spontaneous commentaries on her belief, but -natural replies to her efforts to convert me; and, from her want of -logic, her feeble reasoning broke down under the strength of my -arguments, instead of her persuading me to put faith before reason. She -could not regard me as a tempting spirit, since it was always she who -attacked my convictions; and she was in the end vanquished by the -struggle of her faith and her own reason, which was aroused by her -indiscretion in assailing the faith of one who opposed her beliefs. - -She now ingenuously sought to exonerate the Communist boys as poor and -uneducated wretches, the offspring of crime, disturbers of the social -order on account of the injustice which, in face of such a disgrace, -permits others, equal disturbers of the social order, to live -unproductive lives, enjoy great wealth, exploit ignorance and misery, -and trust that they will continue throughout eternity to enjoy their -pleasures on account of their compliance with the rites of the Church -and their works of charity. The idea of a reward of easy virtue and -punishment of unavoidable sin shocked her conscience and moderated her -religious feeling, and, seeking to break the atavistic chain which so -much hampers any attempt at reform, she decided to contribute to the -founding of a useful work which would educate the young in a natural -way and in conditions which would help them to use to the full the -treasures of knowledge which humanity has acquired by labour, study, -observation, and the methodical arrangement of its general conclusions. - -In this way, she thought, with the aid of a supreme intelligence which -veils itself in mystery from the mind of man, or by the knowledge which -humanity has gained by suffering, contradiction, and doubt, the future -will be realised; and she found an inner contentment and vindication of -her conscience in the idea of contributing, by the bestowal of her -property, to a work of transcendent importance. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -I ACCEPT THE RESPONSIBILITY - - -Once I was in possession of the means of attaining my object, I -determined to put my hand to the task without delay. [2] It was now -time to give a precise shape to the vague aspiration that had long -haunted my imagination; and to that end, conscious of my imperfect -knowledge of the art of pædagogy, I sought the counsel of others. I had -not a great confidence in the official pædagogists, as they seemed to -me to be largely hampered by prejudices in regard to their subject or -other matters, and I looked out for some competent person whose views -and conduct would accord with my ideals. With his assistance I would -formulate the programme of the Modern School which I had already -conceived. In my opinion it was to be, not the perfect type of the -future school of a rational state of society, but a precursor of it, -the best possible adaptation of our means; that is to say, an emphatic -rejection of the ancient type of school which still survives, and a -careful experiment in the direction of imbuing the children of the -future with the substantial truths of science. - -I was convinced that the child comes into the world without innate -ideas, and that during the course of his life he gathers the ideas of -those nearest to him, modifying them according to his own observation -and reading. If this is so, it is clear that the child should receive -positive and truthful ideas of all things, and be taught that, to avoid -error, it is essential to admit nothing on faith, but only after -experience or rational demonstration. With such a training the child -will become a careful observer, and will be prepared for all kinds of -studies. - -When I had found a competent person, and while the first lines were -being traced of the plan we were to follow, the necessary steps were -taken in Barcelona for the founding of the establishment; the building -was chosen and prepared, and the furniture, staff, advertisements, -prospectuses, leaflets, etc., were secured. In less than a year all was -ready, though I was put to great loss through the betrayal of my -confidence by a certain person. It was clear that we should at once -have to contend with many difficulties, not only on the part of those -who were hostile to rational education, but partly on account of a -certain class of theorists, who urged on me, as the outcome of their -knowledge and experience, advice which I could only regard as the fruit -of their prejudices. One man, for instance, who was afflicted with a -zeal for local patriotism, insisted that the lessons should be given in -Catalan [the dialect of the province of Barcelona], and would thus -confine humanity and the world within the narrow limits of the region -between the Ebro and the Pyrenees. I would not, I told the enthusiast, -even adopt Spanish as the language of the school if a universal -language had already advanced sufficiently to be of practical use. I -would a hundred times rather use Esperanto than Catalan. - -The incident confirmed me in my resolution not to submit the settlement -of my plan to the authority of distinguished men who, with all their -repute, do not take a single voluntary step in the direction of reform. -I felt the burden of the responsibility I had accepted, and I -endeavoured to discharge it as my conscience directed. Resenting the -marked social inequalities of the existing order as I did, I could not -be content to deplore their effects; I must attack them in their -causes, and appeal to the principle of justice—to that ideal equality -which inspires all sound revolutionary feeling. - -If matter is one, uncreated, and eternal—if we live on a relatively -small body in space, a mere speck in comparison with the innumerable -globes about us, as is taught in the universities, and may be learned -by the privileged few who share the monopoly of science—we have no -right to teach, and no excuse for teaching, in the primary schools to -which the people go when they have the opportunity, that God made the -world out of nothing in six days, and all the other absurdities of the -ancient legends. Truth is universal, and we owe it to everybody. To put -a price on it, to make it the monopoly of a privileged few, to detain -the lowly in systematic ignorance, and—what is worse—impose on them a -dogmatic and official doctrine in contradiction with the teaching of -science, in order that they may accept with docility their low and -deplorable condition, is to me an intolerable indignity. For my part, I -consider that the most effective protest and the most promising form of -revolutionary action consist in giving the oppressed, the disinherited, -and all who are conscious of a demand for justice, as much truth as -they can receive, trusting that it will direct their energies in the -great work of the regeneration of society. - -Hence the terms of the first announcement of the Modern School that was -issued to the public. It ran as follows:— - - - PROGRAMME. - - The mission of the Modern School is to secure that the boys and - girls who are entrusted to it shall become well-instructed, - truthful, just, and free from all prejudice. - - To that end the rational method of the natural sciences will be - substituted for the old dogmatic teaching. It will stimulate, - develop, and direct the natural ability of each pupil, so that he - or she will not only become a useful member of society, with his - individual value fully developed, but will contribute, as a - necessary consequence, to the uplifting of the whole community. - - It will instruct the young in sound social duties, in conformity - with the just principle that “there are no duties without rights, - and no rights without duties.” - - In view of the good results that have been obtained abroad by mixed - education, and especially in order to realise the great aim of the - Modern School—the formation of an entirely fraternal body of men - and women, without distinction of sex or class—children of both - sexes, from the age of five upward, will be received. - - For the further development of its work, the Modern School will be - opened on Sunday mornings, when there will be classes on the - sufferings of mankind throughout the course of history, and on the - men and women who have distinguished themselves in science, art, or - the fight for progress. The parents of the children may attend - these classes. - - In the hope that the intellectual work of the Modern School will be - fruitful, we have, besides securing hygienic conditions in the - institution and its dependencies, arranged to have a medical - inspection of children at their entrance into the school. The - result of this will be communicated to the parents if it is deemed - necessary; and others will be held periodically, in order to - prevent the spread of contagious diseases during the school hours. - - -During the week which preceded the opening of the Modern School I -invited the representatives of the press to visit the institution and -make it known, and some of the journals inserted appreciative notices -of the work. It may be of historical interest to quote a few paragraphs -from El Diluvio:— - - - The future is budding in the school. To build on any other - foundation is to build on sand. Unhappily, the school may serve - either the purposes of tyranny or the cause of liberty, and may - thus serve either barbarism or civilisation. - - We are therefore pleased to see certain patriots and humanitarians, - who grasp the transcendent importance of this social function, - which our Government systematically overlooks, hasten to meet this - pressing need by founding a Modern School; a school which will not - seek to promote the interests of sect and to move in the old ruts, - as has been done hitherto, but will create an intellectual - environment in which the new generation will absorb the ideas and - the impulses which the stream of progress unceasingly brings. - - This end can only be attained by private enterprise. Our existing - institutions, tainted with all the vices of the past and weakened - by all the trivialities of the present, cannot discharge this - useful function. It is reserved for men of noble mind and unselfish - feeling to open up the new path by which succeeding generations - will rise to higher destinies. - - This has been done, or will be done, by the founders of the modest - Modern School which we have visited at the courteous invitation of - its directors and those who are interested in its development. This - school is not a commercial enterprise, like most scholastic - institutions, but a pædagogical experiment, of which only one other - specimen exists in Spain (the Free Institution of Education at - Madrid). - - Sr. Salas Antón brilliantly expounded the programme of the school - to the small audience of journalists and others who attended the - modest opening-festival, and descanted on the design of educating - children in the whole truth and nothing but the truth, or what is - proved to be such. His chief theme was that the founders do not - propose to add one more to the number of what are known as “Lay - Schools,” with their impassioned dogmatism, but a serene - observatory, open to the four winds of heaven, with no cloud - darkening the horizon and interposing between the light and the - mind of man. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE EARLY PROGRAMME - - -The time had come to think of the inauguration of the Modern School. -Some time previously I had invited a number of gentlemen of great -distinction and of progressive sentiments to assist me with their -advice and form a kind of Committee of Consultation. My intercourse -with them at Barcelona was of great value to me, and many of them -remained in permanent relation with me, for which I may express my -gratitude. They were of opinion that the Modern School should be opened -with some display—invitation-cards, a circular to the press, a large -hall, music, and oratorical addresses by distinguished Liberal -politicians. It would have been easy to do this, and we would have -attracted an audience of hundreds of people who would have applauded -with that momentary enthusiasm which characterises our public -functions. But I was not seduced by the idea. As a Positivist and an -idealist I was convinced that a simple modesty best befitted the -inauguration of a work of reform. Any other method seemed to me -disingenuous, a concession to enervating conventions and to the very -evil which I was setting out to reform. The proposal of the Committee -was, therefore, repugnant to my conscience and my sentiments, and I -was, in that and all other things relating to the Modern School, the -executive power. - -In the first number of the Bulletin of the Modern School, issued on -October 30, 1901, I gave a general exposition of the fundamental -principles of the School, which I may repeat here:— - - - Those imaginary products of the mind, a priori ideas, and all the - absurd and fantastical fictions hitherto regarded as truth and - imposed as directive principles of human conduct, have for some - time past incurred the condemnation of reason and the resentment of - conscience. The sun no longer merely touches the tips of the - mountains; it floods the valleys, and we enjoy the light of noon. - Science is no longer the patrimony of a small group of privileged - individuals; its beneficent rays more or less consciously penetrate - every rank of society. On all sides traditional errors are being - dispelled by it; by the confident procedure of experience and - observation it enables us to attain accurate knowledge and criteria - in regard to natural objects and the laws which govern them. With - indisputable authority it bids men lay aside for ever their - exclusivisms and privileges, and it offers itself as the - controlling principle of human life, seeking to imbue all with a - common sentiment of humanity. - - Relying on modest resources, but with a robust and rational faith - and a spirit that will not easily be intimidated, whatever - obstacles arise in our path, we have founded the Modern School. Its - aim is to convey, without concession to traditional methods, an - education based on the natural sciences. This new method, though - the only sound and positive method, has spread throughout the - civilised world, and has innumerable supporters of intellectual - distinction and lofty principles. - - We are aware how many enemies there are about us. We are conscious - of the innumerable prejudices which oppress the social conscience - of our country. This is the outcome of a medieval, subjective, - dogmatic education, which makes ridiculous pretensions to the - possession of an infallible criterion. We are further aware that, - in virtue of the law of heredity, strengthened by the influences of - the environment, the tendencies which are connatural and - spontaneous in the young child are still more pronounced in - adolescence. The struggle will be severe, the work difficult; but - with a constant and unwavering will, the sole providence of the - moral world, we are confident that we will win the victory to which - we aspire. We will develop living brains, capable of reacting on - our instruction. We will take care that the minds of our pupils - will sustain, when they leave the control of their teachers, a - stern hostility to prejudice; that they will be solid minds, - capable of forming their own rational convictions on every subject. - - This does not mean that we will leave the child, at the very outset - of its education, to form its own ideas. The Socratic procedure is - wrong, if it is taken too literally. The very constitution of the - mind, at the commencement of its development, demands that at this - stage the child shall be receptive. The teacher must implant the - germs of ideas. These will, when age and strength invigorate the - brain, bring forth corresponding flowers and fruit, in accordance - with the degree of initiative and the characteristic features of - the pupil’s mind. - - On the other hand, we may say that we regard as absurd the - widespread notion that an education based on natural science stunts - the organ of the idealist faculty. We are convinced that the - contrary is true. What science does is to correct and direct it, - and give it a wholesome sense of reality. The work of man’s - cerebral energy is to create the ideal, with the aid of art and - philosophy. But in order that the ideal shall not degenerate into - fables, or mystic and unsubstantial dreams, and the structure be - not built on sand, it is absolutely necessary to give it a secure - and unshakable foundation in the exact and positive teaching of the - natural sciences. - - Moreover, the education of a man does not consist merely in the - training of his intelligence, without having regard to the heart - and the will. Man is a complete and unified whole, in spite of the - variety of his functions. He presents various facets, but is at the - bottom a single energy, which sees, loves, and applies a will to - the prosecution of what he has conceived or affected. It is a - morbid condition, an infringement of the laws of the human - organism, to establish an abyss where there ought to be a sane and - harmonious continuity. The divorce between thought and will is an - unhappy feature of our time. To what fatal consequences it has led! - We need only refer to our political leaders and to the various - orders of social life; they are deeply infected with this - pernicious dualism. Many of them are assuredly powerful enough in - respect of their mental faculties, and have an abundance of ideas; - but they lack a sound orientation and the fine thoughts which - science applies to the life of individuals and of peoples. Their - restless egoism and the wish to accommodate their relatives, - together with their leaven of traditional sentiments, form an - impermeable barrier round their hearts and prevent the infiltration - of progressive ideas and the formation of that sap of sentiment - which is the impelling and determining power in the conduct of man. - Hence the attempt to obstruct progress and put obstacles in the way - of new ideas; hence, as a result of these attempts, the scepticism - of multitudes, the death of nations, and the inevitable despair of - the oppressed. - - We regard it as one of the first principles of our pædagogical - mission that there is no such duality of character in any - individual—one which sees and appreciates truth and goodness, and - one which follows evil. And, since we take natural science as our - guide in education, a further consequence will be recognised; we - shall endeavour to secure that the intellectual impressions which - science conveys to the pupil shall be converted into the sap of - sentiment and shall be intensely loved. When sentiment is strong it - penetrates and diffuses itself through the deepest recesses of a - man’s being, pervading and giving a special colour to his - character. - - And as a man’s conduct must revolve within the circle of his - character, it follows that a youth educated in the manner we have - indicated will, when he comes to rule himself, recognise science as - the one helpful master of his life. - - -The school was opened on September 8, 1901, with thirty pupils—twelve -girls and eighteen boys. These sufficed for the purpose of our -experiment, and we had no intention of increasing the number for a -time, so that we might keep a more effective watch on the pupils. The -enemies of the new school would take the first opportunity to criticise -our work in co-educating boys and girls. - -The people present at the opening were partly attracted by the notices -of our work published in the press, and partly consisted of the parents -of the pupils and delegates of various working-class societies who had -been invited on account of their assistance to me. I was supported in -the chair by the teachers and the Committee of Consultation, two of -whom expounded the system and aim of the school. In this quiet fashion -we inaugurated a work that was destined to last. We created the Modern, -Scientific, and Rational School, the fame of which soon spread in -Europe and America. Time may witness a change of its name—the “Modern” -School—but the description “scientific and rational” will be more and -more fully vindicated. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE CO-EDUCATION OF THE SEXES - - -The most important point in our programme of rational education, in -view of the intellectual condition of the country, and the feature -which was most likely to shock current prejudices and habits, was the -co-education of boys and girls. - -The idea was not absolutely new in Spain. As a result of necessity and -of primitive conditions, there were villages in remote valleys and on -the mountains where some good-natured neighbour, or the priest or -sacristan, used to teach the catechism, and sometimes elementary -letters, to boys and girls in common. In fact, it is sometimes legally -authorised, or at least tolerated, by the State among small populations -which have not the means to pay both a master and mistress. In such -cases, either a master or mistress gives common lessons to boys and -girls, as I had myself seen in a village not far from Barcelona. In -towns and cities, however, mixed education was not recognised. One read -sometimes of the occurrence of it in foreign countries, but no one -proposed to adopt it in Spain, where such a proposal would have been -deemed an innovation of the most utopian character. - -Knowing this, I refrained from making any public propaganda on the -subject, and confined myself to private discussion with individuals. We -asked every parent who wished to send a boy to the school if there were -girls in the family, and it was necessary to explain to each the -reasons for co-education. Wherever we did this, the result was -satisfactory. If we had announced our intention publicly, it would have -raised a storm of prejudice. There would have been a discussion in the -press, conventional feeling would have been aroused, and the fear of -“what people would say”—that paralysing obstacle to good -intentions—would have been stronger than reason. Our project would have -proved exceedingly difficult, if not impossible. Whereas, proceeding as -we did, we were able to open with a sufficient number of boys and -girls, and the number steadily increased, as the Bulletin of the school -shows. - -In my own mind, co-education was of vital importance. It was not merely -an indispensable condition of realising what I regard as the ideal -result of rational education; it was the ideal itself, initiating its -life in the Modern School, developing progressively without any form of -exclusion, inspiring a confidence of attaining our end. Natural -science, philosophy, and history unite in teaching, in face of all -prejudice to the contrary, that man and woman are two complementary -aspects of human nature, and the failure to recognise this essential -and important truth has had the most disastrous consequences. - -In the second number of the Bulletin, therefore, I published a careful -vindication of my ideas:— - - - Mixed education (I said) is spreading among civilised nations. In - many places it has already had excellent results. The principle of - this new scheme of education is that children of both sexes shall - receive the same lessons; that their minds shall be developed, - their hearts purified, and their wills strengthened in precisely - the same manner; that the sexes shall be in touch with each other - from infancy, so that woman shall be, not in name only, but in - reality and truth, the companion of man. - - A venerable institution which dominates the thoughts of our people - declares, at one of the most solemn moments of life, when, with - ceremonious pomp, man and woman are united in matrimony, that woman - is the companion of man. These are hollow words, void of sense, - without vital and rational significance in life, since what we - witness in the Christian Church, in Catholicism particularly, is - the exact opposite of this idea. Not long ago a Christian woman of - fine feeling and great sincerity complained bitterly of the moral - debasement which is put upon her sex in the bosom of the Church: - “It would be impious audacity for a woman to aspire in the Church - even to the position of the lowest sacristan.” - - A man must suffer from ophthalmia of the mind not to see that, - under the inspiration of Christianity, the position of woman is no - better than it was under the ancient civilisations; it is, indeed, - worse, and has aggravating circumstances. It is a conspicuous fact - in our modern Christian society that, as a result and culmination - of our patriarchal development, the woman does not belong to - herself; she is neither more nor less than an adjunct of man, - subject constantly to his absolute dominion, bound to him—it may - be—by chains of gold. Man has made her a perpetual minor. Once this - was done, she was bound to experience one of two alternatives: man - either oppresses and silences her, or treats her as a child to be - coaxed—according to the mood of the master. If at length we note in - her some sign of the new spirit, if she begins to assert her will - and claim some share of independence, if she is passing, with - irritating slowness, from the state of slave to the condition of a - respected ward, she owes it to the redeeming spirit of science, - which is dominating the customs of races and the designs of our - social rulers. - - -The work of man for the greater happiness of the race has hitherto been -defective; in future it must be a joint action of the sexes; it is -incumbent on both man and woman, according to the point of view of -each. It is important to realise that, in face of the purposes of life, -man is neither inferior nor (as we affect to think) superior to woman. -They have different qualities, and no comparison is possible between -diverse things. - -As many psychologists and sociologists observe, the human race displays -two fundamental aspects. Man typifies the dominion of thought and of -the progressive spirit; woman bears in her moral nature the -characteristic note of intense sentiment and of the conservative -spirit. But this view of the sexes gives no encouragement whatever to -the ideas of reactionaries. If the predominance of the conservative -element and of the emotions is ensured in woman by natural law, this -does not make her the less fitted to be the companion of man. She is -not prevented by the constitution of her nature from reflecting on -things of importance, nor is it necessary that she should use her mind -in contradiction to the teaching of science and absorb all kinds of -superstitions and fables. The possession of a conservative disposition -does not imply that one is bound to crystallise in a certain stage of -thought, or that one must be obsessed with prejudice in all that -relates to reality. - -“To conserve” merely means “to retain,” to keep what has been given us, -or what we have ourselves produced. The author of The Religion of the -Future says, referring to woman in this respect: “The conservative -spirit may be applied to truth as well as to error; it all depends what -it is you conserve. If woman is instructed in philosophical and -scientific matters, her conservative power will be to the advantage, -not to the disadvantage, of progressive thought.” - -On the other hand, it is pointed out that woman is emotional. She does -not selfishly keep to herself what she receives; she spreads abroad her -beliefs, her ideas, and all the good and evil that form her moral -treasures. She insists on sharing them with all those who are, by the -mysterious power of emotion, identified with her. With exquisite art, -with invariable unconsciousness, her whole moral physiognomy, her whole -soul, so to say, impresses itself on the soul of those she loves. - -If the first ideas implanted in the mind of the child by the teacher -are germs of truth and of positive knowledge; if the teacher himself is -in touch with the scientific spirit of the time, the result will be -good from every point of view. But if a man be fed in the first stage -of his mental development with fables, errors, and all that is contrary -to the spirit of science, what can be expected of his future? When the -boy becomes a man he will be an obstacle to progress. The human -conscience is in infancy of the same natural texture as the bodily -organism; it is tender and pliant. It readily accepts what comes to it -from without. In the course of time this plasticity gives place to -rigidity; it loses its pliancy and becomes relatively fixed. From that -time the ideas communicated to it by the mother will be encrusted and -identified with the youth’s conscience. - -The acid of the more rational ideas which the youth acquires by social -intercourse or private study may in cases relieve the mind of the -erroneous ideas implanted in childhood. But what is likely to be the -practical outcome of this transformation of the mind in the sphere of -conduct? We must not forget that in most cases the emotions associated -with the early ideas remain in the deeper folds of the heart. Hence it -is that we find in so many men such a flagrant and lamentable -antithesis between the thought and the deed, the intelligence and the -will; and this often leads to an eclipse of good conduct and a -paralysis of progress. - -This primary sediment which we owe to our mothers is so tenacious and -enduring—it passes so intimately into the very marrow of our being—that -even energetic characters, which have effected a sincere reform of mind -and will, have the mortification of discovering this Jesuitical -element, derived from their mothers, when they turn to make an -inventory of their ideas. - -Woman must not be restricted to the home. The sphere of her activity -must go out far beyond her home: it must extend to the very confines of -society. But in order to ensure a helpful result from her activity we -must not restrict the amount of knowledge we communicate to her; she -must learn, both in regard to quantity and quality, the same things as -man. When science enters the mind of woman it will direct her rich vein -of emotion, the characteristic element of her nature, the glad -harbinger of peace and happiness among men. - -It has been said that woman represents continuity, and man represents -change: man is the individual, woman is the species. Change, however, -would be useless, fugitive, and inconstant, with no solid foundation of -reality, if the work of woman did not strengthen and consolidate the -achievements of man. The individual, as such, is the flower of a day, a -thing of ephemeral significance in life. Woman, who represents the -species, has the function of retaining within the species the elements -which improve its life, and to discharge this function adequately she -needs scientific instruction. - -Humanity will advance more rapidly and confidently in the path of -progress and increase its resources a hundredfold if it combines the -ideas acquired by science with the emotional strength of woman. Ribot -observes that an idea is merely an idea, an act of intelligence, -incapable of producing or doing anything, unless it is accompanied by -an emotional state, a motive element. Hence it is conceived as a -scientific truth that, to the advantage of progress, an idea does not -long remain in a purely contemplative condition when it appears. This -is obviated by associating the idea with emotion and love, which do not -fail to convert it into vital action. - -When will all this be accomplished? When shall we see the marriage of -ideas with the impassioned heart of woman? From that date we shall have -a moral matriarchate among civilised nations. Then, on the one hand, -humanity, considered in the home circle, will have the proper teacher -to direct the new generations in the sense of the ideal; and, on the -other hand, it will have an apostle and enthusiastic propagandist who -will impress the value of liberty on the minds of men and the need of -co-operation upon the peoples of the world. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -CO-EDUCATION OF THE SOCIAL CLASSES - - -There must be a co-education of the different social classes as well as -of the two sexes. I might have founded a school giving lessons -gratuitously; but a school for poor children only would not be a -rational school, since, if they were not taught submission and -credulity as in the old type of school, they would have been strongly -disposed to rebel, and would instinctively cherish sentiments of -hatred. - -There is no escape from the dilemma. There is no middle term in the -school for the disinherited class alone; you have either a systematic -insistence, by means of false teaching, on error and ignorance, or -hatred of those who domineer and exploit. It is a delicate point, and -needs stating clearly. Rebellion against oppression is merely a -question of statics, of equilibrium. Between one man and another who -are perfectly equal, as is said in the immortal first clause of the -famous Declaration of the French Revolution (“Men are born and remain -free and equal in rights”), there can be no social inequality. If there -is such inequality, some will tyrannise, the others protest and hate. -Rebellion is a levelling tendency, and to that extent natural and -rational, however much it may be discredited by justice and its evil -companions, law and religion. - -I venture to say quite plainly: the oppressed and the exploited have a -right to rebel, because they have to reclaim their rights until they -enjoy their full share in the common patrimony. The Modern School, -however, has to deal with children, whom it prepares by instruction for -the state of manhood, and it must not anticipate the cravings and -hatreds, the adhesions and rebellions, which may be fitting sentiments -in the adult. In other words, it must not seek to gather fruit until it -has been produced by cultivation, nor must it attempt to implant a -sense of responsibility until it has equipped the conscience with the -fundamental conditions of such responsibility. Let it teach the -children to be men; when they are men, they may declare themselves -rebels against injustice. - -It needs very little reflection to see that a school for rich children -only cannot be a rational school. From the very nature of things it -will tend to insist on the maintenance of privilege and the securing of -their advantages. The only sound and enlightened form of school is that -which co-educates the poor and the rich, which brings the one class -into touch with the other in the innocent equality of childhood, by -means of the systematic equality of the rational school. - -With this end in view I decided to secure pupils of every social rank -and include them in a common class, adopting a system accommodated to -the circumstances of the parents or guardians of the children; I would -not have a fixed and invariable fee, but a kind of sliding scale, with -free lessons for some and different charges for others. I later -published the following article on the subject in the Bulletin (May 10, -1905):— - - - Our friend D. R. C. gave a lecture last Sunday at the Republican - Club on the subject of “Modern Pædagogy,” explaining to his - audience what we mean by modern education and what advantages - society may derive from it. As I think that the subject is one of - very great interest and most proper to receive public attention, I - offer the following reflections and considerations on it. It seems - to me that the lecturer was happy in his exposition of the ideal, - but not in the suggestions he made with a view to realising it, nor - in bringing forward the schools of France and Belgium as models to - be imitated. - - Señor C., in fact, relies upon the State, upon Parliament or - municipalities, for the building, equipment, and management of - scholastic institutions. This seems to me a great mistake. If - modern pædagogy means an effort towards the realisation of a new - and more just form of society; if it means that we propose to - instruct the rising generation in the causes which have brought - about and maintain the lack of social equilibrium; if it means that - we are anxious to prepare the race for better days, freeing it from - religious fiction and from all idea of submission to an inevitable - socio-economic inequality; we cannot entrust it to the State nor to - other official organisms which necessarily maintain existing - privileges and support the laws which at present consecrate the - exploitation of one man by another, the pernicious source of the - worst abuses. - - Evidence of the truth of this is so abundant that any person can - obtain it by visiting the factories and workshops and other centres - of paid workers, by inquiring what is the manner of life of those - in the higher and those in the lower social rank, by frequenting - what are called courts of justice, and by asking the prisoners in - our penal institutions what were the motives for their misconduct. - If all this does not suffice to prove that the State favours those - who are in possession of wealth and frowns on those who rebel - against injustice, it may be useful to notice what has happened in - Belgium. Here, according to Señor C., the government is so - attentive to education and conducts it so excellently that private - schools are impossible. In the official schools, he says, the - children of the rich mingle with the children of the poor, and one - may at times see the child of wealthy parents arm in arm with a - poor and lowly companion. It is true, I admit, that children of all - classes may attend the Belgian schools; but the instruction that is - given in them is based on the supposed eternal necessity for a - division of rich and poor, and on the principle that social harmony - consists in the fulfilment of the laws. - - It is natural enough that the masters should like to see this kind - of education given on every side. It is a means of bringing to - reason those who might one day be tempted to rebel. Not long ago, - in Brussels and other Belgian towns, the sons of the rich, armed - and organised in national troops, shot down the sons of the poor - who were claiming universal suffrage. On the other hand, my - acquaintance with the quality of Belgian education differs - considerably from that of the lecturer. I have before me various - issues of a Belgian journal (L’Exprèss de Liège) which devotes an - article to the subject, entitled “The Destruction of our National - System of Education.” The facts given are, unfortunately, very - similar to the facts about education in Spain, though in this - country there has been a great development of education by - religious orders, which is, as everybody knows, the systematisation - of ignorance. In fine, it is not for nothing that a violently - clerical government rules in Belgium. - - As to the modern education which is given in French schools, we may - say that not a single one of the books used in them serves the - purpose of a really secular education. On the very day on which - Señor C. was lecturing in Gracia the Parisian journal L’Action - published an article, with the title “How Secular Morality is - Taught,” in regard to the book Recueil de maximes et pensées - morales, and quoted from it certain ridiculously anachronistic - ideas which offend the most elementary common sense. - - We shall be asked, What are we to do if we cannot rely on the aid - of the State, of Parliament, or municipalities? We must appeal to - those whose interest it is to bring about a reform; to the workers, - in the first place, then to the cultivated and privileged people - who cherish sentiments of justice. They may not be numerous, but - there are such. I am personally acquainted with several. The - lecturer complained that the civic authorities were so dilatory in - granting the reforms that are needed. I feel sure that he would do - better not to waste his time on them, but appeal directly to the - working class. - - The field has been well prepared. Let him visit the various working - men’s societies, the Republican Fraternities, the Centres of - Instruction, the Workers’ Athenæums, and all the bodies which are - working for reform, [3] and let him give ear to the language of - truth, the exhortations to union and courage. Let him observe the - attention given to the problem of rational and scientific - instruction, a kind of instruction which shows the injustice of - privilege and the possibility of reforms. If individuals and - societies continue thus to combine their endeavours to secure the - emancipation of those who suffer—for it is not the workers only who - suffer—Señor C. may rest assured of a positive, sound, and speedy - result, while whatever may be obtained of the government will be - dilatory, and will tend only to stupefy, to confuse ideas, and to - perpetuate the domination of one class over another. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -SCHOOL HYGIENE - - -In regard to hygiene we are, in Spain, dominated by the abominable -ideas of the Catholic Church. Saint Aloysius and Saint Benedict J. -Labré are not the only, or the most characteristic, saints in the list -of the supposed citizens of the kingdom of heaven, but they are the -most popular with the masters of uncleanliness. With such types of -perfection, [4] in an atmosphere of ignorance, cleverly and maliciously -sustained by the clergy and the middle-class Liberals, it was to be -expected that the children who would come to our school would be -wanting in cleanliness; dirt is traditional in their world. - -We began a discreet and systematic campaign against it, showing the -children how a dirty person or object inspires repugnance, and how -cleanliness attracts esteem and sympathy; how one instinctively moves -towards the cleanly person and away from the dirty and malodorous; and -how we should be pleased to win the regard of those who see us and -ashamed to excite their disgust. - -We then explained cleanliness as an aspect of beauty, and uncleanliness -as a part of ugliness; and we at length entered expressly into the -province of hygiene, pointing out that dirt was a cause of disease and -a constant possible source of infection and epidemic, while cleanliness -was one of the chief conditions of health. We thus soon succeeded in -disposing the children in favour of cleanliness, and making them -understand the scientific principles of hygiene. - -The influence of these lessons spread to their families, as the new -demands of the children disturbed traditional habits. One child would -ask urgently for its feet to be washed, another would ask to be bathed, -another wanted a brush and powder for its teeth, another new clothes or -boots, and so on. The poor mothers, burdened with their daily tasks, -sometimes crushed by the hardness of the circumstances in which their -life was passed, and probably under the influence of religious -teaching, endeavoured to stop their petitions; but in the end the new -life introduced into the home by the child triumphed, a welcome presage -of the regeneration which rational education will one day accomplish. - -I entrusted the expounding of the principles of scholastic hygiene to -competent men, and Dr. Martínez Vargas and others wrote able and -detailed articles on the subject in the Bulletin. Other articles were -written on the subject of games and play, on the lines of modern -pædagogy. [5] - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE TEACHERS - - -The choice of teachers was another point of great difficulty. The -tracing of a programme of rational instruction once accomplished, it -remained to choose teachers who were competent to carry it out, and I -found that in fact no such persons existed. We were to illustrate once -more that a need creates its own organs. - -Certainly there were plenty of teachers. Teaching, though not very -lucrative, is a profession by which a man can support himself. There is -not a universal truth in the popular proverb which says of an -unfortunate man: “He is hungrier than a schoolmaster.” [6] The truth is -that in many parts of Spain the schoolmaster forms part of the local -governing clique, with the priest, the doctor, the shopkeeper, and the -money-lender (who is often one of the richest men in the place, though -he contributes least to its welfare). The master receives a municipal -salary, and has a certain influence which may at times secure material -advantages. In larger towns the master, if he is not content with his -salary, may give lessons in private schools, where, in accord with the -provincial institute, he prepares young men for the University. Even if -he does not obtain a position of distinction, he lives as well as the -generality of his fellow townsmen. - -There are, moreover, teachers in what are called “secular schools”—a -name imported from France, where it arose because the schooling was -formerly exclusively clerical and conducted by religious bodies. This -is not the case in Spain; however Christian the teaching is, it is -always given by lay masters. However, the Spanish lay teachers, -inspired by sentiments of freethought and political radicalism, were -rather anti-Catholic and anti-clerical than Rationalist, in the best -sense of the word. - -Professional teachers have to undergo a special preparation for the -task of imparting scientific and rational instruction. This is -difficult in all cases, and is sometimes rendered impossible by the -difficulties caused by habits of routine. On the other hand, those who -had had no pædagogical experience, and offered themselves for the work -out of pure enthusiasm for the idea, stood in even greater need of -preparatory study. The solution of the problem was very difficult, -because there was no other place but the rational school itself for -making this preparation. - -The excellence of the system saved us. Once the Modern School had been -established by private initiative, with a firm determination to be -guided by the ideal, the difficulties began to disappear. Every -dogmatic imposition was detected and rejected, every excursion or -deviation in the direction of metaphysics was at once abandoned, and -experience gradually formed a new and salutary pædagogical science. -This was due, not merely to my zeal and vigilance, but to my earliest -teachers, and to some extent to the naive expressions of the pupils -themselves. We may certainly say that if a need creates an organ, the -organ speedily meets the need. - -Nevertheless, in order to complete my work, I established a Rationalist -Normal School for the education of teachers, under the direction of an -experienced master and with the co-operation of the teachers in the -Modern School. In this a number of young people of both sexes were -trained, and they worked excellently until the despotic authorities, -yielding to our obscure and powerful enemies, put a stop to our work, -and flattered themselves that they had destroyed it for ever. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE REFORM OF THE SCHOOL - - -There are two ways open to those who seek to reform the education of -children. They may seek to transform the school by studying the child -and proving scientifically that the actual scheme of instruction is -defective, and must be modified; or they may found new schools in which -principles may be directly applied in the service of that ideal which -is formed by all who reject the conventions, the cruelty, the trickery, -and the untruth which enter into the bases of modern society. - -The first method offers great advantages, and is in harmony with the -evolutionary conception which men of science regard as the only -effective way of attaining the end. They are right in theory, as we -fully admit. It is evident that the progress of psychology and -physiology must lead to important changes in educational methods; that -the teachers, being now in a better position to understand the child, -will make their teaching more in conformity with natural laws. I -further grant that this evolution will proceed in the direction of -greater liberty, as I am convinced that violence is the method of -ignorance, and that the educator who is really worthy of the name will -gain everything by spontaneity; he will know the child’s needs, and -will be able to promote its development by giving it the greatest -possible satisfaction. - -In point of fact, however, I do not think that those who are working -for the regeneration of humanity have much to hope from this side. -Rulers have always taken care to control the education of the people; -they know better than any that their power is based entirely on the -school, and they therefore insist on retaining their monopoly of it. -The time has gone by when rulers could oppose the spread of instruction -and put limits to the education of the masses. Such a policy was -possible formerly because economic life was consistent with general -ignorance, and this ignorance facilitated despotism. The circumstances -have changed, however. The progress of science and our repeated -discoveries have revolutionised the conditions of labour and -production. It is no longer possible for the people to remain ignorant; -education is absolutely necessary for a nation to maintain itself and -make headway against its economic competitors. Recognising this, the -rulers have sought to give a more and more complete organisation to the -school, not because they look to education to regenerate society, but -because they need more competent workers to sustain industrial -enterprises and enrich their cities. Even the most reactionary rulers -have learned this lesson; they clearly understand that the old policy -was dangerous to the economic life of nations, and that it was -necessary to adapt popular education to the new conditions. - -It would be a serious mistake to think that the ruling classes have not -foreseen the danger to themselves of the intellectual development of -the people, and have not understood that it was necessary to change -their methods. In fact, their methods have been adapted to the new -conditions of life; they have sought to gain control of the ideas which -are in course of evolution. They have endeavoured to preserve the -beliefs on which social discipline had been grounded, and to give to -the results of scientific research and the ideas involved in them a -meaning which will not be to the disadvantage of existing institutions; -and it is this that has induced them to assume control of the school. -In every country the governing classes, which formerly left the -education of the people to the clergy, as these were quite willing to -educate in a sense of obedience to authority, have now themselves -undertaken the direction of the schools. - -The danger to them consists in the stimulation of the human mind by the -new spectacle of life and the possible rise of thoughts of emancipation -in the depths of their hearts. It would have been folly to struggle -against the evolving forces; the effect would be only to inflame them, -and, instead of adhering to earlier methods of government, they would -adopt new and more effective methods. It did not require any -extraordinary genius to discover the solution. The course of events -itself suggested to those who were in power the way in which they were -to meet the difficulties which threatened; they built schools, they -sought generously to extend the sphere of education, and if there were -at one point a few who resisted this impulse—as certain tendencies -favoured one or other of the political parties—all soon understood that -it was better to yield, and that the best policy was to find some new -way of defending their interests and principles. There were then sharp -struggles for the control of the schools, and these struggles continue -to-day in every civilised country; sometimes the republican -middle-class triumphs, sometimes the clergy. All parties appreciate the -importance of the issue, and they shrink from no sacrifice to win the -victory. “The school” is the cry of every party. The public good must -be recognised in this zeal. Everybody seeks to raise himself and -improve his condition by education. In former times it might have been -said: “Those people want to keep thee in ignorance in order the better -to exploit thee: we want to see thee educated and free.” That is no -longer possible; schools of all kinds rise on every side. - -In regard to this general change of ideas among the governing classes -as to the need of schools, I may state certain reasons for distrusting -their intentions and doubting the efficacy of the means of reform which -are advocated by certain writers. As a rule, these reformers care -little about the social significance of education; they are men who -eagerly embrace scientific truth, but eliminate all that is foreign to -the object of their studies. They are patiently endeavouring to -understand the child, and are eager to know—though their science is -young, it must be remembered—what are the best methods to promote its -intellectual development. - -This kind of professional indifference is, in my opinion, very -prejudicial to the cause they seek to serve. I do not in the least -think them insensible of the realities of the social world, and I know -that they believe that the public welfare will be greatly furthered by -their labours. “Seeking to penetrate the secrets of the life of man,” -they reflect, “and unravelling the normal process of his physical and -psychic development, we shall direct education into a channel which -will be favourable to the liberation of energy. We are not immediately -concerned with the reform of the school, and indeed we are unable to -say exactly what lines it should follow. We will proceed slowly, -knowing that, from the very nature of things, the reform of the school -will result from our research. If you ask us what are our hopes, we -will grant that, like you, we foresee a revolution in the sense of a -placing of the child and humanity under the direction of science; yet -even in this case we are persuaded that our work makes for that object, -and will be the speediest and surest means of promoting it.” - -This reasoning is evidently logical. No one could deny this, yet there -is a considerable degree of fallacy in it, and we must make this clear. -If the ruling classes have the same ideas as the reformers, if they are -really impelled by a zeal for the continuous reorganisation of society -until poverty is at last eliminated, we might recognise that the power -of science is enough to improve the lot of peoples. Instead of this, -however, we see clearly that the sole aim of those who strive to attain -power is the defence of their own interests, their own advantage, and -the satisfaction of their personal desires. For some time now we have -ceased to accept the phrases with which they disguise their ambitions. -It is true that there are some in whom we may find a certain amount of -sincerity, and who imagine at times that they are impelled by a zeal -for the good of their fellows. But these become rarer and rarer, and -the positivism of the age is very severe in raising doubts as to the -real intentions of those who govern us. - -And just as they contrived to adapt themselves when the necessity -arose, and prevented education from becoming a danger, they also -succeeded in organising the school in accord with the new scientific -ideas in such a way that nothing should endanger their supremacy. These -ideas are difficult to accept, and one needs to keep a sharp look-out -for successful methods and see how things are arranged so as to avoid -verbal traps. How much has been, and is, expected of education! Most -progressive people expect everything of it, and, until recent years, -many did not understand that instruction alone leads to illusions. Much -of the knowledge actually imparted in schools is useless; and the hope -of reformers has been void because the organisation of the school, -instead of serving an ideal purpose, has become one of the most -powerful instruments of servitude in the hands of the ruling class. The -teachers are merely conscious or unconscious organs of their will, and -have been trained on their principles. From their tenderest years, and -more drastically than anybody, they have endured the discipline of -authority. Very few have escaped this despotic domination; they are -generally powerless against it, because they are oppressed by the -scholastic organisation to such an extent that they have nothing to do -but obey. It is unnecessary here to describe that organisation. One -word will suffice to characterise it—Violence. The school dominates the -children physically, morally, and intellectually, in order to control -the development of their faculties in the way desired, and deprives -them of contact with nature in order to modify them as required. This -is the explanation of the failure; the eagerness of the ruling class to -control education and the bankruptcy of the hopes of reformers. -“Education” means in practice domination or domestication. I do not -imagine that these systems have been put together with the deliberate -aim of securing the desired results. That would be a work of genius. -But things have happened just as if the actual scheme of education -corresponded to some vast and deliberate conception; it could not have -been done better. To attain it teachers have inspired themselves solely -with the principles of discipline and authority, which always appeal to -social organisers; such men have only one clear idea and one will—the -children must learn to obey, to believe, and to think according to the -prevailing social dogmas. If this were the aim, education could not be -other than we find it to-day. There is no question of promoting the -spontaneous development of the child’s faculties, or encouraging it to -seek freely the satisfaction of its physical, intellectual, and moral -needs. There is question only of imposing ready-made ideas on it, of -preventing it from ever thinking otherwise than is required for the -maintenance of existing social institutions—of making it, in a word, an -individual rigorously adapted to the social mechanism. - -It cannot be expected that this kind of education will have any -influence on the progress of humanity. I repeat that it is merely an -instrument of domination in the hands of the ruling classes, who have -never sought to uplift the individual, and it is quite useless to -expect any good from the schools of the present day. What they have -done up to the present they will continue to do in the future. There is -no reason whatever why they should adopt a different system; they have -resolved to use education for their purposes, and they will take -advantage of every improvement of it. If only they preserve the spirit -of the school and the authoritative discipline which rules it, every -innovation will tend to their advantage. For this they will keep a -constant watch, and take care that their interests are secured. - -I would fix the attention of my readers on this point: the whole value -of education consists in respect for the physical, intellectual, and -moral faculties of the child. As in science, the only possible -demonstration is demonstration by facts; education is not worthy of the -name unless it be stripped of all dogmatism, and unless it leaves to -the child the direction of its powers and is content to support them in -their manifestations. But nothing is easier than to alter this meaning -of education, and nothing more difficult than to respect it. The -teacher is always imposing, compelling, and using violence; the true -educator is the man who does not impose his own ideas and will on the -child, but appeals to its own energies. - -From this we can understand how easily education is conducted, and how -light is the task of those who seek to dominate the individual. The -best conceivable methods become in their hands so many new and more -effective means of despotism. Our ideal is that of science; we appeal -to it in demanding the power to educate the child by fostering its -development and procuring a satisfaction of its needs as they manifest -themselves. - -We are convinced that the education of the future will be entirely -spontaneous. It is plain that we cannot wholly realise this, but the -evolution of methods in the direction of a broader comprehension of -life and the fact that all improvement involves the suppression of -violence indicate that we are on solid ground when we look to science -for the liberation of the child. - -Is this the ideal of those who actually control the scholastic system? -Is this what they propose to bring about? Are they eager to abandon -violence? Only in the sense that they employ new and more effective -methods to attain the same end—that is to say, the formation of -individuals who will accept all the conventions, all the prejudices, -and all the untruths on which society is based. - -We do not hesitate to say that we want men who will continue -unceasingly to develop; men who are capable of constantly destroying -and renewing their surroundings and renewing themselves; men whose -intellectual independence is their supreme power, which they will yield -to none; men always disposed for things that are better, eager for the -triumph of new ideas, anxious to crowd many lives into the one life -they have. Society fears such men; you cannot expect it to set up a -system of education which will produce them. - -What, then, is our mission? What is the policy we must adopt in order -to contribute to the reform of the school? - -Let us follow closely the work of the experts who are engaged in the -study of the child, and let us endeavour to find a way of applying -their principles to the education we seek to establish, aiming at an -increasingly complete emancipation of the individual. But how are we to -do this? By putting our hand energetically to the work, by promoting -the establishment of new schools in which, as far as possible, there -shall rule this spirit of freedom which, we feel, will colour the whole -education of the future. - -We have already had proof that it leads to excellent results. We can -destroy whatever there is in the actual school that savours of -violence, all the artificial devices by which the children are -estranged from nature and life, the intellectual and moral discipline -which has been used to impose ready-made thoughts, all beliefs which -deprave and enervate the will. Without fear of injury we may place the -child in a proper and natural environment, in which it will find itself -in contact with all that it loves, and where vital impressions will be -substituted for the wearisome reading of books. If we do no more than -this, we shall have done much towards the emancipation of the child. - -In such an environment we may freely make use of the data of science -and work with profit. It is true that we could not realise all our -hopes; that often we shall find ourselves compelled, from lack of -knowledge, to use the wrong means. But we shall be sustained by the -confident feeling that, without having achieved our entire aim, we -shall have done a great deal more than is being done by the actual -school. I would rather have the free spontaneity of a child who knows -nothing than the verbal knowledge and intellectual deformation of one -that has experienced the existing system of education. - -What we have sought to do in Barcelona is being done by others in -various places. All of us saw that the work was possible. Dedicate -yourself to it at once. We do not hope that the studies of children -will be suspended that we may regenerate the school. Let us apply what -we know, and go on learning and applying. A scheme of rational -education is already possible, and in such schools as we advocate the -children may develop freely according to their aspirations. Let us -endeavour to improve and extend the work. - -Those are our aims. We know well the difficulties we have to face; but -we have made a beginning in the conviction that we shall be assisted in -our task by those who work in their various spheres to deliver men from -the dogmas and conventions which secure the prolongation of the present -unjust arrangement of society. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -NO REWARD OR PUNISHMENT - - -Rational education is, above all things, a means of defence against -error and ignorance. To ignore truth and accept absurdities is, -unhappily, a common feature in our social order; to that we owe the -distinction of classes and the persistent antagonism of interests. -Having admitted and practised the co-education of boys and girls, of -rich and poor—having, that is to say, started from the principle of -solidarity and equality—we are not prepared to create a new inequality. -Hence in the Modern School there will be no rewards and no punishments; -there will be no examinations to puff up some children with the -flattering title of “excellent,” to give others the vulgar title of -“good,” and make others unhappy with a consciousness of incapacity and -failure. - -These features of the existing official and religious schools, which -are quite in accord with their reactionary environment and aim, cannot, -for the reasons I have given, be admitted into the Modern School. Since -we are not educating for a specific purpose, we cannot determine the -capacity or incapacity of the child. When we teach a science, or art, -or trade, or some subject requiring special conditions, an examination -may be useful, and there may be reason to give a diploma or refuse one; -I neither affirm nor deny it. But there is no such specialism in the -Modern School. The characteristic note of the school, distinguishing it -even from some which pass as progressive models, is that in it the -faculties of the children shall develop freely without subjection to -any dogmatic patron, not even to what it may consider the body of -convictions of the founder and teachers; every pupil shall go forth -from it into social life with the ability to be his own master and -guide his own life in all things. - -Hence, if we were rationally prevented from giving prizes, we could not -impose penalties, and no one would have dreamed of doing so in our -school if the idea had not been suggested from without. Sometimes -parents came to me with the rank proverb, “Letters go in with blood,” -on their lips, and begged me to punish their children. Others who were -charmed with the precocious talent of their children wanted to see them -shine in examinations and exhibit medals. We refused to admit either -prizes or punishments, and sent the parents away. If any child were -conspicuous for merit, application, laziness, or bad conduct, we -pointed out to it the need of accord, or the unhappiness of lack of -accord, with its own welfare and that of others, and the teacher might -give a lecture on the subject. Nothing more was done, and the parents -were gradually reconciled to the system, though they often had to be -corrected in their errors and prejudices by their own children. - -Nevertheless, the old prejudice was constantly recurring, and I saw -that I had to repeat my arguments with the parents of new pupils. I -therefore wrote the following article in the Bulletin:— - - - The conventional examinations which we usually find held at the end - of a scholastic year, to which our fathers attached so much - importance, have had no result at all; or, if any result, a bad - one. These functions and their accompanying solemnities seem to - have been instituted for the sole purpose of satisfying the vanity - of parents and the selfish interests of many teachers, and in order - to put the children to torture before the examination and make them - ill afterwards. Each father wants his child to be presented in - public as one of the prodigies of the college, and regards him with - pride as a learned man in miniature. He does not notice that for a - fortnight or so the child suffers exquisite torture. As things are - judged by external appearances, it is not thought that there is any - real torture, as there is not the least scratch visible on the - skin.... - - The parent’s lack of acquaintance with the natural disposition of - the child, and the iniquity of putting it in false conditions so - that its intellectual powers, especially in the sphere of memory, - are artificially stimulated, prevent the parent from seeing that - this measure of personal gratification may, as has happened in many - cases, lead to illness and to the moral, if not the physical, death - of the child. - - On the other hand, the majority of teachers, being mere - stereotypers of ready-made phrases and mechanical inoculators, - rather than moral fathers of their pupils, are concerned in these - examinations with their own personality and their economic - interests. Their object is to let the parents and the others who - are present at the public display see that, under their guidance, - the child has learned a good deal, that its knowledge is greater in - quantity and quality than could have been expected of its tender - years and in view of the short time that it has been under the - charge of this very skilful teacher. - - In addition to this wretched vanity, which is satisfied at the cost - of the moral and physical life of the child, the teachers are - anxious to elicit compliments from the parents and the rest of the - audience, who know nothing of the real state of things, as a kind - of advertisement of the prestige of their particular school. - - Briefly, we are inexorably opposed to holding public examinations. - In our school everything must be done for the advantage of the - pupil. Everything that does not conduce to this end must be - recognised as opposed to the natural spirit of positive education. - Examinations do no good, and they do much harm to the child. - Besides the illness of which we have already spoken, the nervous - system of the child suffers, and a kind of temporary paralysis is - inflicted on its conscience by the immoral features of the - examination; the vanity provoked in those who are placed highest, - envy and humiliation, grave obstacles to sound growth, in those who - have failed, and in all of them the germs of most of the sentiments - which go to the making of egoism. - - -In a later number of the Bulletin I found it necessary to return to the -subject:— - - - We frequently receive letters from Workers’ Educational Societies - and Republican Fraternities asking that the teachers shall chastise - the children in our schools. We ourselves have been disgusted, - during our brief excursions, to find material proofs of the fact - which is at the base of this request; we have seen children on - their knees, or in other attitudes of punishment. - - These irrational and atavistic practices must disappear. Modern - pædagogy entirely discredits them. The teachers who offer their - services to the Modern School, or ask our recommendation to teach - in similar schools, must refrain from any moral or material - punishment, under penalty of being disqualified permanently. - Scolding, impatience, and anger ought to disappear with the ancient - title of “master.” In free schools all should be peace, gladness, - and fraternity. We trust that this will suffice to put an end to - these practices, which are most improper in people whose sole ideal - is the training of a generation fitted to establish a really - fraternal, harmonious, and just state of society. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -THE GENERAL PUBLIC AND THE LIBRARY - - -In setting out to establish a rational school for the purpose of -preparing children for their entry into the free solidarity of -humanity, the first problem that confronted us was the selection of -books. The whole educational luggage of the ancient system was an -incoherent mixture of science and faith, reason and unreason, good and -evil, human experience and revelation, truth and error; in a word, -totally unsuited to meet the new needs that arose with the formation of -a new school. - -If the school has been from remote antiquity equipped not for teaching -in the broad sense of communicating to the rising generation the gist -of the knowledge of previous generations, but for teaching on the basis -of authority and the convenience of the ruling classes, for the purpose -of making children humble and submissive, it is clear that none of the -books hitherto used would suit us. But the severe logic of this -position did not at once convince me. I refused to believe that the -French democracy, which worked so zealously for the separation of -Church and State, incurred the anger of the clericals, and adopted -obligatory secular instruction, would resign itself to a semi-education -or a sophisticated education. I had, however, to yield to the evidence, -against my prejudice. I first read a large number of works in the -French code of secular instruction, and found that God was replaced by -the State, Christian virtue by civic duty, religion by patriotism, -submission to the king, the aristocracy, and the clergy by subservience -to the official, the proprietor, and the employer. Then I consulted an -eminent Freethinker who held high office in the Ministry of Public -Instruction, and, when I had told him my desire to see the books they -used, which I understood to be purged of traditional errors, and -explained my design and ideal to him, he told me frankly that they had -nothing of the sort; all their books were, more or less cleverly and -insidiously, tainted with untruth, which is the indispensable cement of -social inequality. When I further asked if, seeing that they had -replaced the decaying idol of deity by the idol of oligarchic -despotism, they had not at least some book dealing with the origin of -religion, he said that there was none; but he knew one which would suit -me—Malvert’s Science and Religion. In point of fact, this was already -translated into Spanish, and was used as a reading-book in the Modern -School, with the title Origin of Christianity. - -In Spanish literature I found several works written by a distinguished -author, of some eminence in science, who had produced them rather in -the interest of the publishers than with a view to the education of -children. Some of these were at first used in the Modern School, but, -though one could not accuse them of error, they lacked the inspiration -of an ideal and were poor in method. I communicated with this author -with a view to interesting him in my plans and inducing him to write -books for me, but his publishers held him to a certain contract and he -could not oblige me. - -In brief, the Modern School was opened before a single work had been -chosen for its library, but it was not long before the first appeared—a -brilliant book by Jean Grave, which has had a considerable influence on -our schools. His work, The Adventures of Nono, is a kind of poem in -which a certain phase of the happier future is ingeniously and -dramatically contrasted with the sordid realities of the present social -order; the delights of the land of Autonomy are contrasted with the -horrors of the kingdom of Argirocracy. The genius of Grave has raised -the work to a height at which it escapes the strictures of the -sceptical and conservative; he has depicted the social evils of the -present truthfully and without exaggeration. The reading of the book -enchanted the children, and the profundity of his thought suggested -many opportune comments to the teachers. In their play the children -used to act scenes from Autonomy, and their parents detected the causes -of their hardships in the constitution of the kingdom of Argirocracy. - -It was announced in the Bulletin and other journals that prizes were -offered for the best manuals of rational instruction, but no writers -came forward. I confine myself to recording the fact without going into -the causes of it. Two books were afterwards adopted for reading in -school. They were not written for school, but they were translated for -the Modern School and were very useful. One was called The Note Book, -the other Colonisation and Patriotism. Both were collections of -passages from writers of every country on the injustices connected with -patriotism, the horrors of war, and the iniquity of conquest. The -choice of these works was vindicated by the excellent influence they -had on the minds of the children, as we shall see from the little -essays of the children which appeared in the Bulletin, and the fury -with which they were denounced by the reactionary press and -politicians. - -Many think that there is not much difference between secular and -rationalist education, and in various articles and propagandist -speeches the two were taken to be synonymous. In order to correct this -error I published the following article in the Bulletin:— - - - The word education should not be accompanied by any qualification. - It means simply the need and duty of the generation which is in the - full development of its powers to prepare the rising generation and - admit it to the patrimony of human knowledge. This is an entirely - rational ideal, and it will be fully realised in some future age, - when men are wholly freed from their prejudices and superstitions. - - In our efforts to realise this ideal we find ourselves confronted - with religious education and political education: to these we must - oppose rational and scientific instruction. The type of religious - education is that given in the clerical and convent schools of all - countries; it consists of the smallest possible quantity of useful - knowledge and a good deal of Christian doctrine and sacred history. - Political education is the kind established some time ago in - France, after the fall of the Empire, the object of which is to - exalt patriotism and represent the actual public administration as - the instrument of the common welfare. - - Sometimes the qualification free or secular is applied abusively - and maliciously to education, in order to distract or alienate - public opinion. Orthodox people, for instance, call free schools - certain schools which they establish in opposition to the really - free tendency of modern pædagogy; and many are called secular - schools which are really political, patriotic, and - anti-humanitarian. - - Rational education is lifted above these illiberal forms. It has, - in the first place, no regard to religious education, because - science has shown that the story of creation is a myth and the gods - legendary; and therefore religious education takes advantage of the - credulity of the parents and the ignorance of the children, - maintaining the belief in a supernatural being to whom people may - address all kinds of prayers. This ancient belief, still - unfortunately widespread, has done a great deal of harm, and will - continue to do so as long as it persists. The mission of education - is to show the child, by purely scientific methods, that the more - knowledge we have of natural products, their qualities, and the way - to use them, the more industrial, scientific, and artistic - commodities we shall have for the support and comfort of life, and - men and women will issue in larger numbers from our schools with a - determination to cultivate every branch of knowledge and action, - under the guidance of reason and the inspiration of science and - art, which will adorn life and reform society. - - We will not, therefore, lose our time praying to an imaginary God - for things which our own exertions alone can procure. - - On the other hand, our teaching has nothing to do with politics. It - is our work to form individuals in the full possession of all their - faculties, while politics would subject their faculties to other - men. While religion has, with its divine power, created a - positively abusive power and retarded the development of humanity, - political systems also retard it by encouraging men to depend for - everything on the will of others, on what are supposed to be men of - a superior character—on those, in a word, who, from tradition or - choice, exercise the profession of politics. It must be the aim of - the rational schools to show the children that there will be - tyranny and slavery as long as one man depends upon another, to - study the causes of the prevailing ignorance, to learn the origin - of all the traditional practices which give life to the existing - social system, and to direct the attention of the pupils to these - matters. - - We will not, therefore, lose our time seeking from others what we - can get for ourselves. - - In a word, our business is to imprint on the minds of the children - the idea that their condition in the social order will improve in - proportion to their knowledge and to the strength they are able to - develop; and that the era of general happiness will be the more - sure to dawn when they have discarded all religious and other - superstitions, which have up to the present done so much harm. On - that account there are no rewards or punishments in our schools; no - alms, no medals or badges in imitation of the religious and - patriotic schools, which might encourage the children to believe in - talismans instead of in the individual and collective power of - beings who are conscious of their ability and knowledge. - - Rational and scientific knowledge must persuade the men and women - of the future that they have to expect nothing from any privileged - being (fictitious or real); and that they may expect all that is - reasonable from themselves and from a freely organised and accepted - social order. - - -I then appealed in the Bulletin and the local press to scientific -writers who were eager for the progress of the race to supply us with -text-books on these lines. They were, I said, “to deliver the minds of -the pupils from all the errors of our ancestors, encourage them in the -love of truth and beauty, and keep from them the authoritarian dogmas, -venerable sophisms, and ridiculous conventionalities which at present -disgrace our social life.” A special note was added in regard to the -teaching of arithmetic:— - - - The way in which arithmetic has hitherto been generally taught has - made it a powerful instrument for impressing the pupils with the - false ideals of the capitalist règime which at present presses so - heavily on society. The Modern School, therefore, invites essays on - the subject of the reform of the teaching of arithmetic, and - requests those friends of rational and scientific instruction who - are especially occupied with mathematics to draw up a series of - easy and practical problems, in which there shall be no reference - to wages, economy, and profit. These exercises must deal with - agricultural and industrial production, the just distribution of - the raw material and the manufactured articles, the means of - communication, the transport of merchandise, the comparison of - human labour with mechanical, the benefits of machinery, public - works, etc. In a word, the Modern School wants a number of problems - showing what arithmetic really ought to be—the science of the - social economy (taking the word “economy” in its etymological sense - of “good distribution”). - - The exercises will deal with the four fundamental operations - (integrals, decimals, and fractions), the metrical system, - proportion, compounds and alloys, the squares and cubes of numbers, - and the extraction of square and cube roots. As those who respond - to this appeal are, it is hoped, inspired rather with the ideal of - a right education of children than with the desire of profit, and - as we wish to avoid the common practice in such circumstances, we - shall not appoint judges or offer any prizes. The Modern School - will publish the Arithmetic which best serves its purpose, and will - come to an amicable agreement with the author as to his fee. - - -A later note in the Bulletin was addressed to teachers:— - - - We would call the attention of all who dedicate themselves to the - noble ideal of the rational teaching of children and the - preparation of the young to take a fitting share in life to the - announcements of a Compendium of Universal History by Clémence - Jacquinet, and The Adventures of Nono by Jean Grave, which will be - found on the cover. [7] The works which the Modern School has - published or proposes to publish are intended for all free and - rational teaching institutions, centres of social study, and - parents, who resent the intellectual restrictions which dogma of - all kinds—religious, political, and social—imposes in order to - maintain privilege at the expense of the ignorant. All who are - opposed to Jesuitism and to conventional lies, and to the errors - transmitted by tradition and routine, will find in our publications - truth based upon evidence. As we have no desire of profit, the - price of the works represents almost their intrinsic value or - material cost; if there is any profit from the sale of them, it - will be spent upon subsequent publications. - - -In a later number of the Bulletin (No. 6, second year) the -distinguished geographer Elisée Reclus wrote, at my request, a lengthy -article on the teaching of geography. In a letter which Reclus -afterwards wrote me from the Geographical Institute at Brussels, -replying to my request that he should recommend a text-book, he said -that there was “no text-book for the teaching of geography in -elementary schools”; he “did not know one that was not tainted with -religious or patriotic poison, or, what is worse, administrative -routine.” He recommended that the teachers should use no manual in the -Modern School, which he cordially commended (February 26, 1903). - -In the following number (7) of the Bulletin I published the following -note on the origin of Christianity:— - - - The older pædagogy, the real, if unavowed, aim of which was to - impress children with the uselessness of knowledge, in order that - they might be reconciled to their hard conditions and seek - consolation in a supposed future life, used reading-books in the - elementary school which swarmed with stories, anecdotes, accounts - of travels, gems of classical literature, etc. There was a good - deal of error mixed with what was sound and useful in this, and the - aim was not just. The mystical idea predominated, representing that - a relation could be established between a Supreme Being and men by - means of priests, and this priesthood was the chief foundation of - the existence of both the privileged and the disinherited, and the - cause of much of the evil that they endured. - - Among other books of this class, all tainted with the same evil, we - remember one which inserted an academic discourse, a marvel of - Spanish eloquence, in praise of the Bible. The gist of it is - expressed in the barbarous declaration of Omar when he condemned - the Library of Alexandria to the flames: “The whole truth is - contained in the sacred book. If those other books are true, they - are superfluous; if they are not true, they should be burned.” - - The Modern School, which seeks to form free minds, with a sense of - responsibility, fitted to experience a complete development of - their powers, which is the one aim of life, must necessarily adopt - a very different kind of reading-book, in harmony with its method - of teaching. For this reason, as it teaches established truth and - is interested in the struggle between light and darkness, it has - deemed it necessary to produce a critical work which will enlighten - the mind of the child with positive facts. These may not be - appreciated in childhood, but will later, in manhood, when the - child takes its place in social life and in the struggle against - the errors, conventions, hypocrisies, and infamies which conceal - themselves under the cloak of mysticism. This work reminds us that - our books are not merely intended for children; they are destined - also for the use of the Adult Schools which are being founded on - every side by associations of workers, Freethinkers, Co-operators, - social students, and other progressive bodies who are eager to - correct the illiteracy of our nation, and remove that great - obstacle to progress. - - We believe that the section of Malvert’s work (Science and - Religion) which we have entitled “The Origin of Christianity” will - be useful for this purpose. It shows the myths, dogmas, and - ceremonies of the Christian religion in their original form; - sometimes as exoteric symbols concealing a truth known to the - initiated, sometimes as adaptations of earlier beliefs, imposed by - sheer routine and preserved by malice. As we are convinced and have - ample evidence of the usefulness of our work, we offer it to the - public with the hope that it will bear the fruit which we - anticipate. We have only to add that certain passages which are - unsuitable for children have been omitted; the omissions are - indicated, and adults may consult the passages in the complete - edition. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -SUNDAY LECTURES - - -The Modern School did not confine itself to the instruction of -children. Without for a moment sacrificing its predominant character -and its chief object, it also undertook the instruction of the people. -We arranged a series of public lectures on Sundays, and they were -attended by the pupils and other members of their families, and a large -number of workers who were anxious to learn. - -The earlier lectures were wanting in method and continuity, as we had -to employ lecturers who were quite competent in regard to their own -subjects, but gave each lecture without regard to what preceded or -followed. On other occasions, when we had no lecturer, we substituted -useful readings. The general public attended assiduously, and our -advertisements in the Liberal press of the district were eagerly -scanned. - -In view of these results, and in order to encourage the disposition of -the general public, I held a consultation with Dr. Andrés Martínez -Vargas and Dr. Odón de Buen, Professors at the Barcelona University, on -the subject of creating a popular university in the Modern School. In -this the science which is given—or, rather, sold—by the State to a -privileged few in the universities should be given gratuitously to the -general public, by way of restitution, as every human being has a right -to know, and science, which is produced by observers and workers of all -ages and countries, ought not to be restricted to a class. - -From that time the lectures became continuous and regular, having -regard to the different branches of knowledge of the two lecturers. Dr. -Martínez Vargas expounded physiology and hygiene, and Dr. Odón de Buen -geography and natural science, on alternate Sundays, until we began to -be persecuted. Their teaching was eagerly welcomed by the pupils of the -Modern School, and the large audiences of mixed children and adults. -One of the Liberal journals of Barcelona, in giving an account of the -work, spoke of the function as “the scientific Mass.” - -The eternal light-haters, who maintain their privileges on the -ignorance of the people, were greatly exasperated to see this centre of -enlightenment shining so vigorously, and did not delay long to urge the -authorities, who were at their disposal, to extinguish it brutally. For -my part, I resolved to put the work on the firmest foundation I could -conceive. - -I recall with the greatest pleasure that hour we devoted once a week to -the confraternity of culture. I inaugurated the lectures on December -15, 1901, when Don Ernesto Vendrell spoke of Hypatia as a martyr to the -ideals of science and beauty, the victim of the fanatical Bishop Cyril -of Alexandria. Other lectures were given on subsequent Sundays, as I -said, until, on October 5, 1902, the lectures were organised in regular -courses of science. On that day Dr. Andrés Martínez Vargas, Professor -of the Faculty of Medicine (child diseases) at Barcelona University, -gave his first lecture. He dealt with the hygiene of the school, and -expounded its principles in plain terms adapted to the minds of his -hearers. Dr. Odón de Buen, Professor of the Faculty of Science, dealt -with the usefulness of the study of natural history. - -The press was generally in sympathy with the Modern School, but when -the programme of the third scholastic year appeared some of the local -journals, the Noticiero Universal and the Diario de Barcelona, broke -out. Here is a passage that deserves recording as an illustration of -the way in which conservative journals dealt with progressive -subjects:— - - - We have seen the prospectus of an educational centre established in - this city, which professes to have nothing to do with “dogmas and - systems.” It proposes to liberate everybody from “authoritarian - dogmas, venerable sophisms, and ridiculous conventions.” It seems - to us that this means that the first thing to do is to tell the - boys and girls—it is a mixed school—that there is no God, an - admirable way of forming good children, especially young women who - are destined to be wives and mothers. - - -The writer continues in this ironical manner for some time, and ends as -follows:— - - - This school has the support of a professor of Natural Science (Dr. - Odón de Buen) and another of the Faculty of Medicine. We do not - name the latter, as there may be some mistake in including him - among the men who lend their support to such a work. - - -These insidious clerical attacks were answered by the anti-clerical -journals of Barcelona at the time. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -THE RESULTS - - -At the beginning of the second scholastic year I once more drew up a -programme. Let us, I said, confirm our earlier programme; vindicated by -results, approved in theory and practice, the principle which from the -first informed our work and governs the Modern School is now -unshakable. - -Science is the sole mistress of our life. Inspired with this thought, -the Modern School proposes to give the children entrusted to it a -mental vitality of their own, so that when they leave our control they -will continue to be the mortal enemies of all kinds of prejudices and -will form their own ideas, individually and seriously, on all subjects. - -Further, as education does not consist merely in the training of the -mind, but must include the emotions and the will, we shall take the -utmost care in the training of the child that its intellectual -impressions are converted into the sap of sentiment. When this attains -a certain degree of intensity, it spreads through the whole being, -colouring and refining the individual character. And as the conduct of -the youth revolves entirely in the sphere of character, he must learn -to adopt science as the sole mistress of his life. - -To complete our principle we must state that we are enthusiastically in -favour of mixed education, so that, having the same education, the -woman may become the real companion of man, and work with him for the -regeneration of society. This task has hitherto been confined to man; -it is time that the moral influence of woman was enlisted in it. -Science will illumine and guide her rich vein of sentiment, and utilise -her character for the welfare of the race. Knowing that the chief need -in this country is a knowledge of natural science and hygiene, the -Modern School intends to help to supply it. In this it has the support -of Dr. de Buen and Dr. Vargas, who lecture, alternately, on their -respective subjects. - -On June 30, 1903, I published in the Bulletin the following -declaration:— - - - We have now passed two years in expounding our principles, - justifying them by our practice, and enjoying the esteem of all who - have co-operated in our work. We do not see in this any other - triumph than that we are able to confirm confidently all that we - have proclaimed. We have overcome the obstacles which were put in - our way by interest and prejudice, and we intend to persevere in - it, counting always on that progressive comradeship which dispels - the darkness of ignorance with its strong light. We resume work - next September, after the autumn vacation. We are delighted to be - able to repeat what we said last year. The Modern School and its - Bulletin renew their life, for they have filled, with some measure - of satisfaction, a deeply-felt need. Without making promises or - programmes, we will persevere to the limit of our powers. - - -In the same number of the Bulletin was published the following list of -the pupils who had attended the school during the first two years:— - - - ------------+------------------+----------------+----------------- - | GIRLS. | BOYS. | TOTAL. - MONTHS. | | | - | 1901-2. 1902-3. | 1901-2. 1902-3.| 1st Yr. 2nd Yr. - ------------+------------------+----------------+----------------- - Opening day | 12 — | 18 — | 30 — - September | 16 23 | 23 40 | 39 63 - October | 18 28 | 25 40 | 43 68 - November | 21 31 | 29 40 | 50 71 - December | 22 31 | 30 40 | 52 71 - January | 22 31 | 32 44 | 54 75 - February | 23 31 | 32 48 | 55 79 - March | 25 33 | 34 47 | 59 80 - April | 26 32 | 37 48 | 63 80 - May | 30 33 | 38 48 | 68 81 - June | 32 34 | 38 48 | 70 82 - ------------+------------------+----------------+----------------- - - -At the beginning of the third year I published with special pleasure -the following article in the Bulletin on the progress of the School:— - - - On the eighth of the present month we opened the new scholastic - year. A large number of pupils, their relatives, and members of the - general public who were in sympathy with our work and lectures, - filled the recently enlarged rooms, and, before the commencement of - the function, inspected the collections which give the school the - appearance of a museum of science. The function began with a short - address from the director, who formally declared the opening of the - third year of school life, and said that, as they now had more - experience and were encouraged by success, they would carry out - energetically the ideal of the Modern School. - - Dr. de Buen congratulated us on the enlargement of the School, and - supported its aims. Education should, he said, reflect nature, as - knowledge can only consist in our perception of what actually - exists. On the part of his children, who study at the School and - live in the neighbourhood, he paid a tribute to the - good-comradeship among the pupils, with whom they played and - studied in a perfectly natural way. He said that even in orthodox - education, or rather on the part of the professors engaged in it, - there were, for all its archaic features, certain tendencies - similar to those embodied in the Modern School. This might be - gathered from his own presence, and that of Dr. Vargas and other - professors. He announced that there was already a similar school at - Guadalajara, or that one would shortly be opened there, built by - means of a legacy left for the purpose by a humanitarian. He wished - to contribute to the redemption of children and their liberation - from ignorance and superstition; and he expressed a hope and very - strong wish that wealthy people would, at their death, restore - their goods in this way to the social body, instead of leaving them - to secure an imaginary happiness beyond the grave. - - Dr. Martínez Vargas maintained, against all who thought otherwise, - that the purely scientific and rational education given in the - Modern School is the proper basis of instruction; no better can be - conceived for maintaining the relations of the children with their - families and society, and it is the only way to form, morally and - intellectually, the men of the future. He was glad to hear that the - scholastic hygiene which had been practised in the Modern School - during the previous two years, involving a periodical examination - of the children, and expounded in the public lectures, had received - the solemn sanction of the Hygienic Congress lately held at - Brussels. - - Going on to resume his lectures, and as a means of enforcing oral - instruction by visual perception, he exhibited a series of - lantern-slides illustrating various hygienic exercises, certain - types of disease, unhealthy organs, etc., which the speaker - explained in detail. An accident to the lantern interrupted the - pictures; but the professor continued his explanations, speaking of - the mischievous effects of corsets, the danger of microbic - infection by trailing dresses or by children playing with soil, - insanitary houses and workshops, etc., and promised to continue his - medical explanations during the coming year. - - The audience expressed its pleasure at the close of the meeting, - and the sight of the great joy of the pupils was some consolation - amid the hardships of the present, and a good augury for the - future. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -A DEFENSIVE CHAPTER - - -Our programme for the third scholastic year (1903–4) was as follows:— - - - To promote the progressive evolution of childhood by avoiding all - anachronistic practices, which are merely obstacles placed by the - past to any real advance towards the future, is, in sum, the - predominant aim of the Modern School. Neither dogmas nor systems, - moulds which confine vitality to the narrow exigencies of a - transitory form of society, will be taught. Only solutions approved - by the facts, theories accepted by reason, and truths confirmed by - evidence, shall be included in our lessons, so that each mind shall - be trained to control a will, and truths shall irradiate the - intelligence, and, when applied in practice, benefit the whole of - humanity without any unworthy and disgraceful exclusiveness. - - Two years of success are a sufficient guarantee to us. They prove, - in the first place, the excellence of mixed education, the - brilliant result—the triumph, we would almost say—of an elementary - common sense over prejudice and tradition. As we think it - advisable, especially that the child may know what is happening - about it, that physical and natural science and hygiene should be - taught, the Modern School will continue to have the services of Dr. - de Buen and Dr. Vargas. They will lecture on alternate Sundays, - from eleven to twelve, on their respective subjects in the - school-room. These lectures will complete and further explain the - classes in science held during the week. - - It remains only to say that, always solicitous for the success of - our work of reform, we have enriched our scholastic material by the - acquisition of new collections which will at once assist the - understanding and give an attractiveness to scientific knowledge; - and that, as our rooms are now not large enough for the pupils, we - have acquired other premises in order to have more room and give a - favourable reply to the petitions for admission which we have - received. - - -The publication of this programme attracted the attention of the -reactionary press, as I said. In order to give them a proof of the -logical strength of the position of the Modern School, I inserted the -following article in the Bulletin:— - - - Modern pædagogy, relieved of traditions and conventions, must raise - itself to the height of the rational conception of man, the actual - state of knowledge, and the consequent ideal of mankind. If from - any cause whatever a different tendency is given to education, and - the master does not do his duty, it would be just to describe him - as an impostor; education must not be a means of dominating men for - the advantage of their rulers. Unhappily, this is exactly what - happens. Society is organised, not in response to a general need - and for the realisation of an ideal, but as an institution with a - strong determination to maintain its primitive forms, defending - them vigorously against every reform, however reasonable it may be. - - This element of immobility gives the ancient errors the character - of sacred beliefs, invests them with great prestige and a dogmatic - authority, and arouses conflicts and disturbances which deprive - scientific truths of their due efficacy or keep them in suspense. - Instead of being enabled to illumine the minds of all and realise - themselves in institutions and customs of general utility, they are - unhappily restricted to the sphere of a privileged few. The effect - is that, as in the days of the Egyptian theocracy, there is an - esoteric doctrine for the cultivated and an exoteric doctrine for - the lower classes—the classes destined to labour, defence, and - misery. - - On this account we set aside the mystic and mythical doctrine, the - domination and spread of which only befits the earlier ages of - human history, and embrace scientific teaching, according to its - evidence. This is at present restricted to the narrow sphere of the - intellectuals, or is at the most accepted in secret by certain - hypocrites who, so that their position may not be endangered, make - a public profession of the contrary. Nothing could make this absurd - antagonism clearer than the following parallel, in which we see the - contrast between the imaginative dreams of the ignorant believer - and the rational simplicity of the scientist:— - - -THE BIBLE. ANTHROPISM. - -The Bible contains the annals of One of the main supports of the -the heavens, the earth, and the reactionary system is what we may -human race; like the Deity call “anthropism.” I designate by -himself, it contains all that was, this term that powerful and -is, and will be. On its first page world-wide group of erroneous -we read of the beginning of time opinions which opposes the human -and of things, and on its last organism to the whole of the rest -page the end of time and of of nature, and represents it as -things. It begins with Genesis, the preordained end of organic -which is an idyll, and ends with creation, an entity essentially -Revelation, which is a funeral distinct from it, a god-like -chant. Genesis is as beautiful as being. Closer examination of this -the fresh breeze which sweeps over group of ideas shows it to be made -the world; as the first dawn of up of three different dogmas, -light in the heavens; as the first which we may distinguish as the -flower that opens in the meadows; anthropocentric, the -as the first word of love spoken anthropomorphic, and the -by men; as the first appearance of anthropolatrous. -the sun in the east. Revelation is -as sad as the last palpitation of 1. The anthropocentric dogma -nature; as the last ray of the culminates in the idea that man is -sun; as the last breath of a dying the preordained centre and aim of -man. And between the funeral chant all terrestrial life—or, in a -and the idyll there pass in wider sense, of the whole -succession before the eyes of God universe. As this error is -all generations and all peoples. extremely conducive to man’s -The tribes and the patriarchs go interest, and as it is intimately -by; the republics and the connected with the creation-myth -magistrates; the monarchies and of the three great Mediterranean -their kings; the empires and their religions, and with the dogmas of -emperors. Babylon and all its the Mosaic, Christian, and -abominations go by; Nineveh and Mohammedan theologies, it still -all its pomps; Memphis and its dominates the greater part of the -priests; Jerusalem and its civilised world. -prophets and temple; Athens and -its arts and heroes; Rome and its 2. The anthropomorphic dogma, -diadem of conqueror of the world. also, is connected with the -Nothing lasts but God; all else creation-myth of the three -passes and dies, like the froth aforesaid religions and of many -that tips the wave. others. It likens the creation and - control of the world by God to the - artificial creation of an able - engineer or mechanic, and to the -A prodigious book, which mankind administration of a wise ruler. -began to read three and thirty God, as creator, sustainer, and -centuries ago, and of which, if it ruler of the world, is thus -read all day and night, it would represented after a purely human -not exhaust the wealth. A fashion in his thought and work. -prodigious book in which all was Hence it follows that man in turn -calculated before the science of is god-like. “God made man to his -arithmetic was invented; in which own image and likeness.” The -the origin of language is told older, naive theology is pure -without any knowledge of “homotheism,” attributing human -philology; in which the shape, flesh, and blood to the -revolutions of the stars are gods. It is more intelligible than -described without any knowledge of the modern mystic theosophy which -astronomy; in which history is adores a personal God as an -recorded without any documents of invisible—properly speaking, -history; in which the laws of gaseous—being, yet makes him -nature are unveiled without any think, speak, and act in human -knowledge of physics. A prodigious fashion; it offers us the -book, that sees everything and paradoxical picture of a gaseous -knows everything; that knows the vertebrate. -thoughts hidden in the hearts of -men and those in the mind of God; 3. The anthropolatric dogma -that sees what is happening in the naturally results from this -abysses of the sea and in the comparison of the activity of God -bowels of the earth; that records and man; it ends in the apotheosis -or foretells all the catastrophes of human nature. A further result -of nations, and in which are is the belief in the personal -accumulated all the treasures of immortality of the soul, and the -mercy, of justice, and of dualistic dogma of the twofold -vengeance. A book, in fine, which, nature of man, whose “immortal” -when the heavens are folded like a soul is conceived as the temporary -gigantic fan, and the earth sinks, inhabitant of a mortal frame. Thus -and the sun withdraws its light, these three anthropistic dogmas, -and the stars are extinguished, variously adapted to the -will remain with God, because it respective professions of the -is his eternal word, echoing for different religions, came at -ever in the heights. [8] length to be vested with - extraordinary importance, and - proved to be the source of the - most dangerous errors. [9] - - - In face of this antagonism, maintained by ignorance and - self-interest, positive education, which proposes to teach truths - that issue in practical justice, must arrange and systematise the - established results of natural research, communicate them to - children, and thus prepare the way for a more equitable state of - society, in which, as an exact expression of sociology, it must - work for the benefit of all as well as of the individual. Moses, or - whoever was the author of Genesis, and all the dogmatisers, with - their six days of creation out of nothing after the Creator has - passed an eternity in doing nothing, must give place to Copernicus, - who showed the revolution of the planets round the sun; to Galileo, - who proclaimed that the sun, not the earth, is the centre of the - planetary universe; to Columbus and others who, believing the earth - to be a sphere, set out in search of other peoples, and gave a - practical basis to the doctrine of human brotherhood; to Linnæus - and Cuvier, the founders of natural history; to Laplace, the - inventor of the established cosmogony; to Darwin, the author of the - evolutionary doctrine, which explains the formation of species by - natural selection; and to all who, by means of observation and - experiment, have discredited the supposed revelation, and tell us - the real nature of the universe, the earth, and life. - - Against the evils engendered by generations sunk in ignorance and - superstition, from which so many are now delivered, only to fall - into an anti-social scepticism, the best remedy, without excluding - others, is to instruct the rising generation in purely humanist - principles and in the positive and rational knowledge provided by - science. Women educated thus will be mothers in the true sense of - the word, not transmitters of traditional superstitions; they will - teach their children integrity of life, the dignity of life, social - solidarity, instead of a medley of outworn and sterile dogmas and - submission to illegitimate hierarchies. Men thus emancipated from - mystery, miracle, and distrust of themselves and their fellows, and - convinced that they were born, not to die, as the wretched teaching - of the mystics says, but to live, will hasten to bring about such - social conditions as will give to life its greatest possible - development. In this way, preserving the memory of former - generations and other frames of mind as a lesson and a warning, we - will once for all close the religious period, and enter definitely - into that of reason and nature. - - -In June, 1904, the Bulletin published the following figures in regard -to the attendance at school. At that time the publications of the -Modern School were in use in thirty-two other schools throughout the -country, and its influence was thus felt in Seville and Malaga, -Tarragona and Cordova, and other towns, as well as Barcelona and the -vicinity. The number of scholars in our schools was also steadily -rising, as the following table shows:— - - - -LIST OF THE PUPILS IN THE MODERN SCHOOL DURING THE FIRST THREE YEARS. - -------------+---------------------------+-------------------------+------------------- - | GIRLS. | BOYS. | TOTAL. - MONTHS. | | | - | 1901-2. 1902-3. 1903-4. | 1901-2. 1902-3. 1903-4.| 1st 2nd 3rd - | | | year. year. year. -------------+---------------------------+-------------------------+------------------- -Opening day | 12 – – | 18 – – | 30 – – -September | 16 23 24 | 23 40 40 | 39 63 64 -October | 18 28 43 | 25 40 59 | 43 68 102 -November | 21 31 44 | 29 40 59 | 50 71 103 -December | 22 31 45 | 30 40 59 | 52 71 104 -January | 22 31 47 | 32 44 60 | 54 75 107 -February | 23 31 47 | 32 48 61 | 55 79 108 -March | 25 33 49 | 34 47 61 | 59 80 110 -April | 26 32 50 | 37 48 61 | 63 80 111 -May | 30 33 51 | 38 48 62 | 68 81 113 -June | 32 34 51 | 38 48 63 | 70 82 114 -------------+---------------------------+-------------------------+------------------- - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -THE INGENUOUSNESS OF THE CHILD - - -In the Bulletin of September 30, 1903, we published the work of the -pupils in the various classes of the Modern School, which had been read -on the closing day of the second scholastic year. In these writings, in -which the children are requested to apply their dawning judgment to -some particular subject, the influence of mind over the inexpert, -ingenuous reasoning power, inspired by the sentiment of justice, is -more apparent than the observance of rules. The judgments are not -perfect from the logical point of view, only because the child has not -the knowledge necessary for the formation of a perfectly sound opinion. -This is the opposite of what we usually find, as opinions are generally -founded only on prejudice arising from traditions, interests, and -dogmas. - -A boy of twelve, for instance, gave the following principle for judging -the value of nations:— - - - To be called civilised, a nation or State must be free from the - following— - - -Let me interrupt for a moment to point out that the young author -identifies “civilised” with “just,” and especially that, putting aside -prejudice, he describes certain evils as curable, and regards the -healing of them as an essential condition of justice. These evils are:— - - - 1º. The co-existence of poor and rich, and the resultant - exploitation. - 2º. Militarism, a means of destruction employed by one nation - against another, due to the bad organisation of society. - 3º. Inequality, which allows some to rule and command, and obliges - others to humble themselves and obey. - - -This principle is fundamental and simple, as we should expect to find -in an imperfectly informed mind, and it would not enable one to solve a -complete sociological problem; but it has the advantage of keeping the -mind open to fresh knowledge. It is as if one asked: What does a sick -man need to recover health? And the reply is: His suffering must -disappear. This is a naive and natural reply, and would certainly not -be given by a child brought up in the ordinary way; such a child would -be taught first to consider the will of supposed supernatural beings. -It is clear that this simple way of putting the problem of life does -not shut out the hope of a reasonable solution; indeed, the one -logically demands the other, as the same child’s essay shows:— - - - I do not mean that, if there were no rich, or soldiers, or rulers, - or wages, people would abuse their liberty and welfare, but that, - with everybody enjoying a high degree of civilisation, there would - be universal cordiality and friendship, and science would make much - greater progress, not being interrupted by wars and political - stagnation. - - -A girl of nine made the following sensible observation, which we leave -in her own incorrect language:— - - - A criminal is condemned to death; if the murderer deserves this - punishment, the man who condemns him and the man who kills him are - also murderers; logically, they ought to die as well, and so - humanity would come to an end. It would be better, instead of - punishing a criminal by committing another crime, to give him good - advice, so that he will not do it again. Besides, if we are all - equal, there would be no thieves, or assassins, or rich people, or - poor, but all would be equal and love work and liberty. - - -The simplicity, clearness, and soundness of this observation need no -commentary. One can understand our astonishment to hear it from the -lips of a tender and very pretty little girl, who looked more like a -symbolical representation of truth and justice than a living reality. - -A boy of twelve deals with sincerity, and says:— - - - The man who is not sincere does not live peacefully; he is always - afraid of being discovered: when one is sincere, if one has done - wrong, the sincere declaration relieves the conscience. If a man - begins to tell lies in childhood, he will tell bigger lies when he - grows up, and may do much harm. There are cases in which one need - not be sincere. For instance, if a man comes to our house, flying - from the police, and we are asked afterwards if we have seen him, - we must deny it; the contrary would be treachery and cowardice. - - -It is sad that the mind of a child who regards truth as an incomparable -good, “without which it is impossible to live,” is induced by certain -grave abuses to consider lying a virtue in some cases. - -A girl of thirteen writes of fanaticism, and, regarding it as a -characteristic of backward countries, she goes on to seek the cause:— - - - Fanaticism is the outcome of the state of ignorance and - backwardness of women; on that account Catholics do not want to see - women educated, as they are the chief support of their system. - - -A profound observation on the causes of fanaticism, and the cause of -the causes. Another girl of thirteen indicates the best remedy of the -evil in the following lines:— - - - The mixed school, for both sexes, is supremely necessary. The boy - who studies, works, and plays in the society of girls learns - gradually to respect and help her, and the girl reciprocally; - whereas, if they are educated separately, and the boy is told that - the girl is not a good companion and she is worse than he, the boy - will not respect women when he is a man, and will regard her as a - subject or a slave, and that is the position in which we find - women. So we must all work for the foundation of mixed schools, - wherever it is possible, and where it is not possible we must try - to remove the difficulties. - - -A boy of twelve regards the school as worthy of all respect, because we -learn in it to read, write, and think, and it is the basis of morality -and science; he adds:— - - - If it were not for the school we should live like savages, walk - naked, eat herbs and raw flesh, and dwell in caves and trees; that - is to say, we should live a brutal life. In time, as a result of - the school, everybody will be more intelligent, and there will be - no wars or inflamed populations, and people will look back on war - with horror as a work of death and destruction. It is a great - disgrace that there are children who wander in the streets and do - not go to school, and when they become men it is more disgraceful. - So let us be grateful to our teachers for the patience they show in - instructing us, and let us regard the school with respect. - - -If that child preserves and develops the faculties it exhibits, it will -know how to harmonise egoism and altruism for its own good and that of -society. A girl of eleven deplores that nations destroy each other in -war, and laments the difference of social classes and that the rich -live on the work and privation of the poor. She ends:— - - - Why do not men, instead of killing each other in wars and hating - each other for class-differences, devote themselves cheerfully to - work and the discovery of things for the good of mankind? Men ought - to unite to love each other and live fraternally. [10] - - -A child of ten, in an essay which is so good that I would insert it -whole if space permitted, and if it were not for the identity in -sentiment with the previous passages, says of the school and the -pupil:— - - - Reunited under one roof, eager to learn what we do not know, - without distinction of classes [there were children of university - professors among them, it will be remembered], we are children of - one family guided to the same end.... The ignorant man is a - nullity; little or nothing can be expected of him. He is a warning - to us not to waste time; on the contrary, let us profit by it, and - in due course we will be rewarded. Let us not miss the fruits of a - good school, and, honouring our teachers, our family, and society, - we shall live happily. - - -A child of ten philosophises on the faults of mankind, which, in her -opinion, can be avoided by instruction and goodwill:— - - - Among the faults of mankind are lying, hypocrisy, and egoism. If - men, and especially women, were better instructed, and women were - entirely equal to men, these faults would disappear. Parents would - not send their children to religious schools, which inculcate false - ideas, but to rational schools, where there is no teaching of the - supernatural, which does not exist; nor to make war; but to live in - solidarity and work in common. - - -We will close with the following essay, written by a young lady of -sixteen, which is correct enough in form and substance to quote in -entirety:— - - - What inequality there is in the present social order! Some working - from morning to night without more profit than enough to buy their - insufficient food; others receiving the products of the workers in - order to enjoy themselves with the superfluous. Why is this so? Are - we not all equal? Undoubtedly we are; but society does not - recognise it, while some are destined to work and suffering, and - others to idleness and enjoyment. If a worker shows that he - realises the exploitation to which he is subject, he is blamed and - cruelly punished, while others suffer the inequality with patience. - The worker must educate himself; and in order to do this it is - necessary to found free schools, maintained by the wages which the - rich give. In this way the worker will advance more and more, until - he is regarded as he deserves, since the most useful mission of - society depends on him. - - -Whatever be the logical value of these ideas, this collection shows the -chief aim of the Modern School—namely, that the mind of the child, -influenced by what it sees and informed by the positive knowledge it -acquires, shall work freely, without prejudice or submission to any -kind of sect, with perfect autonomy and no other guide but reason, -equal in all, and sanctioned by the cogency of evidence, before which -the darkness of sophistry and dogmatic imposition is dispelled. - -In December, 1903, the Congress of Railway Workers, which was then held -at Barcelona, informed us that, as a part of its programme, the -delegates would visit the Modern School. The pupils were delighted, and -we invited them to write essays to be read on the occasion of the -visit. The visit was prevented by unforeseen circumstances; but we -published in the Bulletin the children’s essays, which exhaled a -delicate perfume of sincerity and unbiassed judgment, graced by the -naive ingenuousness of the writers. No suggestion was made to them, and -they did not compare notes, yet there was a remarkable agreement in -their sentiments. At another time the pupils of the Workers’ School at -Badalona sent a greeting to our pupils, and they again wrote essays, -from which we compiled a return letter of greeting. [11] - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -THE BULLETIN - - -The Modern School needed and found its organ in the Press. The -political and ordinary press, which at one time favoured us and at -another time denounced us as dangerous, cannot maintain an impartial -attitude. It either gives exaggerated or unmerited praise, or -calumnious censures. The only remedy for this was the sincerity and -clearness of our own indications. To allow these libels to pass without -correction would have done us considerable harm, and the Bulletin -enabled us to meet them. - -The directors published in it the programme of the school, interesting -notes about it, statistical details, original pædagogical articles by -the teachers, accounts of the progress of rational education in our own -and other countries, translations of important articles from foreign -reviews and periodicals which were in harmony with the main character -of our work, reports of the Sunday lectures, and announcements of the -public competitions for the engagement of teachers and of our library. - -One of the most successful sections of the Bulletin was that devoted to -the publication of the ideas of the pupils. Besides showing their -individual ideas it revealed the spontaneous manifestation of common -sense. Girls and boys, with no appreciable difference in intellect -according to sex, in contact with the realities of life as indicated by -the teachers, expressed themselves in simple essays which, though -sometimes immature in judgment, more often showed the clear logic with -which they conceived philosophical, political, or social questions of -some importance. The journal was at first distributed without charge -among the pupils, and was exchanged with other periodicals; but there -was soon a demand for it, and a public subscription had to be opened. -When this was done, the Bulletin became a philosophical review, as well -as organ of the Modern School; and it retained this character until the -persecution began and the school was closed. An instance of the -important mission of the Bulletin will be found in the following -article, which I wrote in No. 5 of the fourth year, in order to correct -certain secular teachers who had gone astray:— - - - A certain Workers’ School has introduced the novelty of - establishing a savings-bank, administered by the pupils. This piece - of information, reproduced in terms of great praise by the press as - a thing to be imitated, induces us to express our opinion on the - subject. While others have their own right to decide and act, we - have the same right to criticise, and thus to create a rational - public opinion. - - In the first place we would observe that the word economy is very - different from, if not the opposite of, the idea of saving. One may - teach children the knowledge and practice of economy without - necessarily teaching them to save. Economy means a prudent and - methodical use of one’s goods: saving means a restriction of one’s - use of one’s goods. By economising, we avoid waste; by saving, the - man who has nothing superfluous deprives himself of what is - necessary. - - Have the children who are taught to save any superfluous property? - The very name of the society in question assures us that they have - not. The workers who send their children to this school live on - their wages, the minimum sum, determined by the laws of supply and - demand, which is paid for their work by the employers; and as this - wage gives them nothing superfluous, and the social wealth is - monopolised by the privileged classes, the workers are far from - obtaining enough to live a life in harmony with the progress of - civilisation. Hence, when these children of workers, and future - workers themselves, are taught to save—which is a voluntary - privation under the appearance of interest—they are taught to - prepare themselves to submit to privilege. While the intention is - to initiate them to the practice of economy, what is really done is - to convert them into victims and accomplices of the present unjust - order. - - The working-class child is a human child, and, as such, it has a - right to the development of all its faculties, the satisfaction of - all its needs, moral and physical. For that purpose society was - instituted. It is not its function to repress or subject the - individual, as is selfishly pretended by the privileged and - reactionary class, and all who enjoy what others produce; it has to - hold the balance justly between the rights and duties of all - members of the commonwealth. - - As it is, the individual is asked to sacrifice his rights, needs, - and pleasures to society; and, as this disorder demands patience, - suffering, and sophistical reasoning, let us commend economy and - blame saving. We do not think it right to teach children to look - forward to being workers in a social order in which the average - mortality of the poor, who live without freedom, instruction, or - joy, reaches an appalling figure in comparison with that of the - class which lives in triumph on their labour. Those who, from - sociolatry, would derogate in the least from the rights of man, - should read the fine and vigorous words of Pi y Margall: “Who art - thou to prevent my use of my human rights? Perfidious and - tyrannical society, thou wert created to defend, not to coerce us. - Go back to the abyss whence thou came.” - - Starting from these principles, and applying them to pædagogy, we - think it necessary to teach children that to waste any class of - objects is contrary to the general welfare; that if a child spoils - paper, loses pens, or destroys books, it does an injustice to its - parents and the school. Assuredly one may impress on the child the - need of prudence in order to avoid getting imperfect things, and - remind it of lack of employment, illness, or age; but it is not - right to insist that a provision be made out of a salary which does - not suffice to meet the needs of life. That is bad arithmetic. - - The workers have no university training; they do not go to the - theatre or to concerts; they never go into ecstasies before the - marvels of art, industry, or nature; they have no holiday in which - to fill their lungs with life-giving oxygen; they are never - uplifted by reading books or reviews. On the contrary, they suffer - all kinds of privations, and may have to endure crises due to - excessive production. It is not the place of teachers to hide these - sad truths from the children, and to tell them that a smaller - quantity is equal to, if not better than, a larger. In order that - the power of science and industry be shared by all, and all be - invited to partake of the banquet of life, we must not teach in the - school, in the interest of privilege, that the poor should organise - the advantages of crumbs and leavings. We must not prostitute - education. - - -On another occasion I had to censure a different departure from our -principles:— - - - We were distressed and indignant on reading the list of - contributions voted by the Council of Barcelona for certain popular - societies which are interested in education. We read of sums - offered to Republican Fraternities and similar societies; and we - find that, instead of rejecting them, they forwarded votes of - thanks to the Council. - - The meaning of these things in a Catholic and ultra-conservative - nation is clear. The Church and the capitalist system only maintain - their ascendency by a judicious system of charity and protection. - With this they gratify the disinherited class, and continue to - enjoy its respect. But we cannot see republicans acting as if they - were humble Christians without raising a cry of alarm. - - Beware, we repeat, beware! You are educating your children badly, - and taking the wrong path towards reform, in accepting alms. You - will neither emancipate yourselves nor your children if you trust - in the strength of others, and rely on official or private support. - Let the Catholics, ignorant of the realities of life, expect - everything of God, or St. Joseph, or some similar being, and, as - they have no security that their prayers will be heard in this - life, trust to receive a reward after death. Let gamblers in the - lottery fail to see that they are morally and materially victimised - by their rulers, and trust to receive by chance what they do not - earn by energy. But it is sad to see men hold out the hand of a - beggar who are united in a revolutionary protest against the - present system; to see them admitting and giving thanks for - humiliating gifts, instead of trusting their own energy, intellect, - and ability. - - Beware, then, all men of good faith! That is not the way to set up - a true education of children, but the way to enslave them. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -THE CLOSING OF THE MODERN SCHOOL - - -I have reached the culmination of my life and my work. My enemies, who -are all the reactionaries in the world, represented by the -reactionaries of Barcelona and of Spain, believed that they had -triumphed by involving me in a charge of attempted assassination. But -their triumph proved to be only an episode in the struggle of practical -Rationalism against reaction. The shameful audacity with which they -claimed sentence of death against me (a claim that was refused on -account of my transparent innocence rather than on account of the -justice of the court) drew on me the sympathy of all liberal men—all -true progressives—in all parts of the world, and fixed attention on the -meaning and ideal of the Rational School. There was a universal and -uninterrupted movement of protest and admiration for a whole year—from -May, 1906, to May and June, 1907—echoed in the Press of every civilised -country, and in meetings and other popular manifestations. - -It proved in the end that the mortal enemies of our work were its most -effective supporters, as they led to the establishment of international -Rationalism. - -I felt my own littleness in face of this mighty manifestation. Led -always by the light of the ideal, I conceived and carried out the -International League for the Rational Education of Children, in the -various branches of which, scattered over the world, are found men in -the front ranks of culture [Anatole France, Ernst Haeckel, etc.]. It -has three organs, L’École Renovée in France, the Bulletin in Barcelona, -and La Scuola Laica at Rome, which expound, discuss, and spread all the -latest efforts of pædagogy to purify science from all defilement of -error, to dispel all credulity, to bring about a perfect harmony -between belief and knowledge, and to destroy that privileged esoteric -system which has always left an exoteric doctrine to the masses. - -This great concentration of knowledge and research must lead to a -vigorous action which will give to the future revolution the character -of practical manifestation of applied sociology, without passion or -demand of revenge, with no terrible tragedies or heroic sacrifices, no -sterile movements, no disillusion of zealots, no treacherous returns to -reaction. For scientific and rational education will have pervaded the -masses, making each man and woman a self-conscious, active, and -responsible being, guiding his will according to his judgment, free for -ever from the passions inspired by those who exploit respect for -tradition and for the charlatanry of the modern framers of political -programmes. - -If progress thus loses this dramatic character of revolution, it will -gain in firmness, stability, and continuity, as evolution. The vision -of a rational society, which revolutionaries foresaw in all ages, and -which sociologists confidently promise, will rise before the eyes of -our successors, not as the mirage of dreamy utopians, but as the -positive and merited triumph won by the revolutionary power of reason -and science. - -The new repute of the educational work of the Modern School attracted -the attention of all who appreciated the value of sound instruction. -There was a general demand for knowledge of the system. There were -numbers of private secular schools, or similar institutions supported -by societies, and their directors made inquiry concerning the -difference of our methods from theirs. There were constant requests to -visit the school and consult me. I gladly satisfied them, removed their -doubts, and pressed them to enter on the new way; and at once efforts -were made to reform the existing schools, and to create others on the -model of the Modern School. - -There was great enthusiasm and the promise of mighty things; but one -serious difficulty stood in the way: we were short of teachers, and had -no means of creating them. Professional teachers had two -disadvantages—traditional habits and dread of the contingencies of the -future. There were very few who, in an unselfish love of the ideal, -would devote themselves to the progressive cause. Instructed young men -and women might be found to fill the gap; but how were we to train them -? Where could they pass their apprenticeship? Now and again I heard -from workers’ or political societies that they had decided to open a -school; they would find rooms and appliances, and we could count upon -their using our school manuals. But whenever I asked if they had -teachers, they replied in the negative, and thought it would be easy to -supply the want. I had to give in. - -Circumstances had made me the director of rationalist education, and I -had constant consultations and demands on the part of aspirants for the -position of teacher. This made me realise the defect, and I endeavoured -to meet it by private advice and by admitting young assistants in the -Modern School. The result was naturally mixed. There are now worthy -teachers who will carry on the work of rational education elsewhere; -others failed from moral or intellectual incapacity. - -Not feeling that the pupils of the Modern School who devoted themselves -to teaching would find time for their work, I established a Normal -School, of which I have already spoken. I was convinced that, if the -key of the social problem is in the scientific and rational school, it -is essential, to make a proper use of the key, that fitting teachers be -trained for so great a destiny. - -As the practical and positive result of my work, I may say that the -Modern School of Barcelona was a most successful experiment, and that -it was distinguished for two characters:— - - 1º. While open to successive improvements, it set up a standard of - what education should be in a reformed state of society. - - 2º. It gave an impulse to the spread of this kind of education. - -There was up to that time no education in the true sense of the word. -There were, for the privileged few in the universities, traditional -errors and prejudices, authoritarian dogmas, mixed up with the truths -which modern research has brought to light. For the people there was -primary instruction, which was, and is, a method of taming children. -The school was a sort of riding-school, where natural energies were -subdued in order that the poor might suffer their hard lot in silence. -Real education, separated from faith—education that illumines the mind -with the light of evidence—is the creation of the Modern School. - -During its ephemeral existence [12] it did a marvellous amount of good. -The child admitted to the school and kept in contact with its -companions rapidly changed its habits, as I have observed. It -cultivated cleanliness, avoided quarrels, ceased to be cruel to -animals, took no notice in its games of the barbarous spectacle which -we call the national entertainment [bull-fight], and, as its mind was -uplifted and its sentiments purified, it deplored the social injustices -which abound on the very face of life. It detested war, and would not -admit that national glory, instead of consisting in the highest -possible moral development and happiness of a people, should be placed -in conquest and violence. - -The influence of the Modern School, extended to other schools which had -been founded on its model and were maintained by various working-men -societies, penetrated the families by means of the children. Once they -were touched by the influence of reason and science they were -unconsciously converted into teachers of their own parents, and these -in turn diffused the better standards among their friends and -relatives. - -This spread of our influence drew on us the hatred of Jesuitism of all -kinds and in all places, and this hatred inspired the design which -ended in the closing of the Modern School. It is closed; but in reality -it is concentrating its forces, defining and improving its plan, and -gathering the strength for a fresh attempt to promote the true cause of -progress. - -That is the story of what the Modern School was, is, and ought to be. - - - - - - - - -EPILOGUE - -By J. M. - - -“That is the story of what the Modern School was, is, and ought to be.” -When Ferrer wrote this, in the summer of 1908, he was full of plans for -the continuation of his work in various ways. He was fostering such -free schools as the Government still permitted. He was promoting his -“popular university,” and multiplying works of science and sociology -for the million. His influence was growing, and he saw with glad eyes -the light breaking on the ignorant masses of his fellows. In the summer -of 1909 he came to England to study the system of moral instruction -which, under the inspiration of the Moral Instruction League, is used -in thousands of English schools. A friend in London begged him never to -return to Spain, as his life was sought. He knew it, but nothing would -divert him from his ideal. And three months later he was shot, among -the graves of criminals, in the trenches of Montjuich. - -Form your own opinion of him from his words. He conceals nothing. He -was a rebel against religious traditions and social inequalities; he -wished children to become as resentful of poverty and superstition as -he. There is no law of Spain, or of any other country, that forbids -such enterprise as his. He might be shot in Russia, of course; for the -law has been suspended there for more than a decade. In Spain men had -to lie in order to take his life. - -With the particular value of his scheme of education I am not -concerned. He was well acquainted with pædagogical literature, and -there were few elementary schools in Spain to equal his. Writers who -have spoken slightingly of his school, apart from its social dogmas, -know little or nothing about it. Ferrer was in close and constant -association with two of the ablest professors in the university of -Barcelona, one of whom sent his children to the school, and with -distinguished scholars in other lands. There was more stimulating work -done in the Modern School than, probably, in any other elementary -school in Spain, if not elsewhere. All that can be questioned is the -teaching of an explicit social creed to the children. Ferrer would have -rejoined that there was not a school in Europe that does not teach an -explicit social creed. But, however we may differ from his creed, we -cannot fail to recognise the elevated and unselfish idealism of the -man, and deplore the brutality and illegality with which his genial -life was prematurely brought to a close. - - - - - - - - -NOTES - - -[1] This was in the early eighties, when Ferrer, then in his early -twenties, was secretary to the republican leader Ruiz Zorrilla. To this -phase of his career, which he rapidly outgrew, belongs the -revolutionary document which was malignantly and dishonestly used -against him twenty-five years afterwards.—J. M. - -[2] Mlle. Meunier died, leaving about £30,000 unconditionally to -Ferrer, before he returned to Spain in 1900.—J. M. - -[3] These societies are particularly numerous in Spain, where the -government system of education is deplorable, and schools are often -established in connection with them.—J. M. - -[4] It is especially commended in the life of Benedict J. Labré and -others that they deliberately cultivated filthiness of person.—J. M. - -[5] These articles are reproduced in the Spanish edition. As they are -not from Ferrer’s pen, I omit them.—J. M. - -[6] £20 a year is a not uncommon salary of masters and mistresses in -Spain, and many cannot obtain even that.—J. M. - -[7] It should be stated that both the writers are Anarchists, in the -sense I have indicated in the Preface. Except on special subjects—the -famous geographer Odón de Buen, for instance, co-operated with Ferrer -in regard to geography—no other writers were likely to embody Ferrer’s -ideals. All, however, were as opposed to violence as Ferrer himself, -and Mr. W. Archer has shown in his life of Ferrer that the charges -brought against Mme. Jacquinet by Ferrer’s persecutors at his trial are -officially denied by our Egyptian authorities.—J. M. - -[8] Extract from a speech delivered by Donoso Cortés at his admission -into the Academy. - -[9] Haeckel’s Riddle of the Universe, Chap. I. - -[10] I omit some of Ferrer’s short comments on these specimens of -reasoning and sentiment, as he regards them. One can recognise the echo -of the teacher’s words. The children were repeating their catechism. -But (1) this is no catechism of violence and class-hatred, and (2) -there is a distinct appreciation of the ideas and sentiments on the -part of the children. I translate the passages as literally as -possible.—J. M. - -[11] This letter and the preceding essays are given in the Spanish -edition. As they are a repetition of the sentiments expressed in the -extracts already given, it is unnecessary to reproduce them here. -Except that I have omitted papers incorporated by Ferrer, but not -written by him, this is the only modification I have allowed myself.—J. -M. - -[12] The Modern School was closed after Ferrer’s arrest in 1906.—J. 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