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diff --git a/old/66640-0.txt b/old/66640-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index ab45c13..0000000 --- a/old/66640-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5304 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Illustrations of the Croton Aqueduct, -by F. B. Tower - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Illustrations of the Croton Aqueduct - -Author: F. B. Tower - -Release Date: October 31, 2021 [eBook #66640] - -Language: English - -Produced by: deaurider, Charlie Howard, and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE CROTON -AQUEDUCT *** - - - - - -Transcriber’s Note - - -Italic text is indicated by _underscores_, boldface by =equals signs=. -Other Notes will be found at the end of this eBook. - - - - - ILLUSTRATIONS - - OF THE - - CROTON AQUEDUCT, - - _BY_ - - _F. B. TOWER_ - - OF THE - - ENGINEER DEPARTMENT. - - [Illustration] - - New-York and London: - Wiley and Putnam, - 1843. - - - - - ENTERED according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1843, by F. B. - TOWER, in the Clerk’s office of the District Court of the Southern - District of New-York. - - - - - - TO - - THE INHABITANTS - - OF THE - - CITY OF NEW-YORK, - - WHOSE ENTERPRISE IS STRIKINGLY EXEMPLIFIED - - BY THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE - - CROTON AQUEDUCT, - - THIS BOOK - - IS MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED, - - BY - - THE AUTHOR. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The _views_ which I have given of the important points on the line of -the Croton Aqueduct, are from sketches taken for my own satisfaction; -but the interest so generally taken in the work, has suggested to me -the propriety of presenting them to the public in this form. Having -been engaged in the Engineer Department during the whole of the -construction of the Aqueduct, my acquaintance with it would enable -me to present more of its details; but I have given those of the -construction of the Aqueduct, and a general _outline_ of the structures -connected with it, trusting that a more detailed description may -emanate from JOHN B. JERVIS, Esquire, who, as Chief Engineer, gave -_Plans_ and _Specifications_ for the work during its construction. - -A description from such source, accompanied with detailed plans of all -the appurtenances of the Aqueduct, with the results of experiments -on the flow of water in the Aqueduct, would be a useful contribution -to the cause of science, a valuable work to Engineers generally, and -particularly so to younger members of the profession. - -The history which I have given of the preliminary measures leading -to the accomplishment of this work, has been obtained, mainly, from -printed documents of the Common Council. I have also had conversations -with persons who were intimately concerned in some of those measures, -and trust that I have made the history sufficiently full to embrace the -leading steps which were taken. - -The accounts of the Aqueducts of ancient Rome, and those built by the -ancient Romans in other parts of Europe, also that of the Aqueducts of -modern Rome, of Italy, France, &c., have been mostly obtained from the -French work of J. RONDOLET, in which the account of the Aqueducts of -ancient Rome is translated from the Latin of Frontinus. - -For the account of the Aqueducts of Mexico and South America, I am -indebted, in a great degree, to “_Bradford’s Antiquities of America_,” -and “_Ewbank’s Hydraulics_.” - - F. B. TOWER. - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - - PAGE. - Aqueducts of Ancient Rome, 13 - - Principal Aqueducts constructed by the Ancient Romans in other - parts of Europe, 18 - - Aqueducts of Modern Rome, 28 - - Principal Modern Aqueducts of Italy, France, etc., 30 - - Aqueducts of Mexico and the adjacent States, 37 - - Aqueducts of South America, 40 - - Fountains, 47 - - * * * * * - - History of the Progressive Measures for Supplying the City of - New-York with Water, 57 - - Of Plans Proposed for furnishing the City with Water and of the - Plan adopted, 69 - - Sources of the Croton River, 75 - - Flow of Water in the Croton River, Capacity of the Fountain - Reservoir, &c., 76 - - General Design of the Channel-way and Reservoirs, 78 - - General Construction of the Aqueduct, 81 - - Description of the Line of Aqueduct, 95 - - Appendix, 125 - - * * * * * - -PLATES. - - Aqueduct of Spoleto, Italy, 32 - - Sections of the Croton Aqueduct, 84 & 86 - - Entrance Ventilator, 88 - - Isometrical View of Culvert, 90 - - Tunnel and Gate Chamber at the head of the Aqueduct, 92 - - View above the Croton Dam, 95 - - Entablature over the entrance to the Aqueduct, 96 - - View below the Croton Dam, 98 - - Croton Aqueduct at Sing-Sing, 101 - - Aqueduct Bridge at Sing-Sing, 102 - - Aqueduct Bridge for Road-way, 103 - - Croton Aqueduct at Mill-River, 104 - - Croton Aqueduct at Jewell’s Brook, 105 - - Croton Aqueduct at Hastings, 106 - - Croton Aqueduct at Yonkers, 108 - - Croton Aqueduct at Harlem River, 110 - - View of the Jet at Harlem River, 112 - - Croton Aqueduct at Clendinning Valley, 113 - - Aqueduct Bridge at Clendinning Valley, 114 - - Plan of the Receiving Reservoir, 116 - - Isometrical View of the Distributing Reservoir, 119 - - - - - “The radiant aqueducts - Turn their innumerable arches o’er - The spacious desert, brightening in the sun, - Proud and more proud in the august approach: - High oe’r irriguous vales, and woods, and towns, - Glide the soft whispering waters in the wind, - And here united pour their silver streams, - Among the figured rocks, in murmuring falls, - Musical ever.” - - _The Ruins of Rome._ - - - - -INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. - -AQUEDUCTS, FOUNTAINS, ETC. - - -A supply of pure and wholesome water is an object so essential to the -health and prosperity of a city, that it should form one of the leading -features of the public improvements which characterize its growth. The -advantages arising from it are so numerous, and the comforts so great, -that every effort should be made to accomplish it. - -The means which have been resorted to for such purposes in almost -every city of importance in the Old World, are examples for us of the -_New_, and should induce us early to avail ourselves of that important -element of health. We contemplate with mingled emotions of wonder and -admiration, those works of art which were achieved by ancient Rome in -her palmy days of wealth and power, and among them we find that her -_Aqueducts_ hold a prominent place. - -Among the ruins of cities whose history is shrouded in mystery on this -continent, we find provisions for bringing water from distant sources. -In the wilds of Central America, the persevering traveller finds -ruined cities buried in the depths of the forest, where nature is at -work covering and concealing them: among those ruins he tells us of -the _Aqueduct_. We find them also among the ruins of cities along the -western coast of South America. With such examples before us, we may -consider that by the construction of the Croton Aqueduct for supplying -the City of New-York with water has been secured an important measure -for the promotion of its growth. - -Many cities of the United States have directed their attention to this -object, and some have been fortunate in finding a supply of water near -at hand, but others will look towards distant sources for a supply, and -will, ere long, resort to the construction of _Aqueducts_. - -In the history of cities built in remote periods of antiquity, we -find mention made of plans for supplying water, and among remains of -those cities which are found at this day, are traces of Aqueducts. We -have accounts of Aqueducts constructed under the reign of Solomon, -and the remains of them still existing in Palestine, give evidence -of an extensive acquaintance with the principles of hydraulics among -the Hebrew architects. The Pools of Solomon, which are mentioned by -travellers who combine in their researches a regard for the arts -as well as the religion of Judea, are connected with a scheme for -supplying Jerusalem with water. - -The vast expense incurred in the construction of Aqueducts by the -Ancient Romans, as well in Italy as in other countries of Europe, -proves the value that was attached by that people to a plentiful -supply of pure water, and the details of the plan of construction of -the different works, evince an acquaintance with the principles of -hydraulics which, at this day, is not generally accorded to them. -That they understood the principle that water seeks the level of its -source after encountering depressions in its conduit, is sufficiently -proved by instances, in works constructed by them, where the inverted -syphon of pipes was used in crossing valleys. That this plan was not -_generally_ adopted by them in cases where great expense has been -incurred to maintain the uniform declivity of the conduit over valleys, -may be accounted for perhaps by the want of proper material for the -construction of pipes. In cases where this plan has been adopted -leaden pipes were used, and since it is only within the last century -that iron pipes have been invented, we may reasonably conclude that -considerations of such a nature would have induced them to adopt the -more expensive plan of maintaining the general inclination of the -conduit by vast structures of masonry. - -By substituting inverted syphons instead of maintaining a uniform -declivity in the conduit, would not give the requisite discharge of -water at the elevation of the _terminus_ of the Aqueduct, and perhaps -they preferred, rather than diminish this elevation of the supply -of water, to incur the expense of high structures across valleys. -The Roman Emperors, with all their power and the wealth which was at -their command, knew how to perpetuate the glory of their reign by the -erection of Temples, Palaces and other public buildings, and what -is more natural than to suppose that in the construction of these -Aqueducts, which were considered so essential to the public welfare, -they should encourage works of such architectural magnificence? -Whatever the reasons might have been for maintaining the elevation of -their Aqueducts over valleys by such expensive structures, we have no -right to charge them with the want of that knowledge which the plan of -_some_ of their Aqueducts clearly proves them to have possessed. - -Trusting that it will be interesting to the reader, I shall present -an account of some of the principal Aqueducts built by the Ancient -Romans,--some of the modern Aqueducts of Italy and France; also of -Aqueducts in other parts of the world. This account might be enlarged, -to embrace a description of more of the modern Aqueducts of Europe; -but sufficient will be presented, it is thought, to interest without -detaining the reader too long in arriving at the principal object of -this work,--_a description of the Croton Aqueduct_. - -A view is given of the Aqueduct of Spoleto, in Italy. The bridge -supporting this Aqueduct is remarkable for the slender form of the -piers and their great height; being only ten and a half feet thick -and two hundred and fifty feet high to the base of the arches. This -Aqueduct was built by the Goths, a people who gave a model for Church -Architecture which is much admired at the present day. It is said that -they borrowed the idea of the form of their arch from the opening -beneath an arbor of trees. - -The plan of the bridge for the Croton Aqueduct at Harlem River has been -criticised on account of the small thickness of the piers as compared -with their height, and because they were not made piers of equilibrium; -that is to say, having their bases broader, so as to include the line -of thrust of the arches, so that if a portion of the bridge were -removed, the remainder of the arches and piers would maintain their -position. By the present plan the permanency of any one individual arch -may be considered to depend upon that of the whole structure.[1] - -The Aqueduct of Spoleto, has been standing about eleven hundred years -and is still in a perfect state of preservation. - -With proper care in preparing the foundations of the bridge at Harlem -River, there is no good reason to fear that it will be less durable -than that of Spoleto. - - -AQUEDUCTS OF ANCIENT ROME. - -The largest and most magnificent Aqueducts of which we have any -account, were the work of the Romans; and the ruins of several of them, -both in Italy, and other countries of Europe, remain to the present -time monuments of the power and industry of that enterprising people. - -For 440 years from the foundation of Rome the inhabitants contented -themselves with the waters of the Tiber, and of the wells and fountains -in the city and its neighborhood. But at that period the number of -houses and inhabitants had so augmented, that they were obliged -to bring water from distant sources by means of Aqueducts. Appius -commenced this scheme of improvement. About 39 years after him, M. -Curius Dentatus, who was censor with Papirius Cursor, brought water -from the neighborhood of the city of Tibur; and applied towards -defraying the expense, part of the sums taken in the spoils of Pyrrhus. -After them Lucius Papirius, Caius Servillius Cepion, Lucius Longinus -Crassus, Quintus Marcius, (who brought water to Rome from a spring at -the distance of nearly sixty miles,) Marcus Agrippa, Augustus, and -others, signalized themselves by their noble Aqueducts. Even Tiberius, -Claudius, Caligula, and Carracalla, though in other respects not of the -best character, took care of the city in this useful article. - -In the remains of these ancient Aqueducts, some are elevated above the -ground upon a solid mass of stone work, or upon arches continued and -raised one above the other; other portions are subterraneous, passing -through deep excavations, and in many instances piercing through -mountains of rock; such is that seen at Vicovaro beyond Tivoli, where a -_tunnel_ of about five feet deep and four broad, pierces a rock for a -distance of more than a mile. - -These Aqueducts were generally built of stone and covered by arches -or large flat stones. At certain distances vents were provided to -discharge the water from the channel-way; and cavities were formed, -into which the water was precipitated, and where it remained till its -mud was deposited, and ponds in which it might purify itself. - -One of these Aqueducts was formed with two channels, one above the -other: they were, however, constructed at different periods; the most -elevated was supplied by the waters of the Tiverone, _Anio novus_, and -the lower one by the _Claudian_ water. It is represented by Pliny, as -the most beautiful of all that had been built for the use of Rome. -It was begun by Caligula, and finished by Claudius, who brought its -waters from two springs called Cœruleus and Curtius. Vespian, Titus, -Marcus-Aurelius, and Antonius Pius, repaired and extended it; it is now -called _Aqua Felice_. - -The Aqueduct that conveyed the Aqua Neroniana to Rome, was built of -brick; this, as well as the former, was in some instances 70 Roman feet -high. - -The Aqueduct that brought the _Aqua Marcia_ into the city was repaired -by Agrippa, who laid pipes from it to several parts of the city. - -The _Aqua Marcia_, _Aqua Julia_, _Aqua Tepula_, entered Rome in one -and the same Aqueduct, divided into three ranges or stories; in the -uppermost of which flowed the _Aqua Julia_, in the second the _Aqua -Tepula_, and in the lowest the _Aqua Marcia_. This accounts for the -extraordinary height of this Aqueduct, which far surpassed that of any -other in Rome. From the ruins of this fabric, which are still seen, and -are called “_Il castel del Acqua Marcia_,” it appears to have been a -very superb structure. - -The Aqueducts were under the care and direction, first of the censors -and œdiles, and afterwards, of particular magistrates called “Curatores -Aquarum,” instituted by Agrippa, to whom the Aqueducts of Rome were -objects of particular attention. Messala was one of these curatores in -the reign of Augustus, and Frontinus held the same office in that of -Nerva. Augustus caused all of them to be repaired. - -Procopius reckons only fourteen Aqueducts in ancient Rome; but Victor -has enlarged the number to twenty. - -Frontinus, a man of consular dignity, and who had the direction of the -Aqueducts under the Emperor Nerva, mentions nine. From other accounts -we are informed that nine great Aqueducts existed at Rome at the -commencement of the reign of Nerva. Five others were constructed by -that Emperor, under the superintendence of Julius Frontinus; and it -appears that at a later period the number amounted to twenty. - -Frontinus, who had the superintendence of the Roman Aqueducts under the -Emperor Nerva, died A. D. 101. He gave an account of the Aqueducts, -which has since been translated into French by Rondolet. The following -table is made up of data from that work. - -The table is arranged to show, _First_, the name of the water or -Aqueduct; _Second_, the era of its construction; _Third_, the length -of each Aqueduct in miles and decimals; _Fourth_, the cubic feet -discharged in 24 hours, and _Fifth_, the gallons in wine measure. - - +--------------------+-----------+---------+------------+------------+ - | | | | | | - | NAME. | ERA. | LENGTH. | CUBIC FEET.| GALLONS. | - | | | | | | - +--------------------+-----------+---------+------------+------------+ - |1. Appian Aqueduct, | B.C. 312 | 10,3250| 3,706,575| 27,724,181| - |2. Old Anio „ | „ 273 | 36,6775| 8,932,338| 66,813,887| - |3. Marcian „ | „ 146 | 56,9417| 9,525,390| 71,249,917| - |4. Tepulan „ | „ 127 }| 14,2341| { 903,795| 6,760,386| - |5. Julian „ | „ 35 }| | { 2,449,386| 18,321,407| - |6. Virgin „ | „ 22 | 14,3116| 5,085,624| 38,040,467| - |7. Alsietina „ | A.D. 14 | 20,4526| 796,152| 5,656,016| - |8. Claudian „ | „ 49 | 42,1989| 9,356,817| 96,988,991| - |9. New Anio „ | „ 90 | 54,1644| 9,622,878| 71,979,127| - | | |---------+------------+------------+ - | | | 249,3058| 50,378,955 | 376,834,379| - +--------------------+-----------+---------+------------+------------+ - -Some auxiliary supplies or feeders make the total length of the Roman -Aqueducts, at that period, exceed 255 miles. - -The names of the Roman Aqueducts are taken from those of the River or -Lake which supplies them, or from the emperors who caused them to be -constructed. Frontinus gives the following as the origin of the name -_Virgin Aqueduct_: “It is called the Virgin (Virgo), because it was a -young girl who showed some veins to a few soldiers who were in search -of spring water. Those who dug followed these veins and found a great -quantity, and there is a painting in a little temple erected close by -the source representing this event.” - - - - -SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL AQUEDUCTS CONSTRUCTED BY THE ANCIENT ROMANS IN -OTHER PARTS OF EUROPE. - - -_Aqueduct of Nismes._ - -This is probably one of the most ancient Aqueducts constructed, out -of Rome, by the Romans. It is attributed to Agrippa, son-in-law of -Augustus, to whom that emperor gave the government of the country -becoming a Roman Colony. - -Agrippa, flattered by the honors which he received from the inhabitants -of Nismes, made his residence there: he enclosed the town with new -walls, built baths, and probably the Aqueduct of the bridge of Gard -(“_pont du Gard_”) for bringing water to them. - -This Aqueduct is nearly thirty miles in length, forming, in its course, -the figure of a horse-shoe. It brought water from the fountains of Eura -and Airan, situated in the neighborhood of the town of _Uzès_. The -bridge of Gard was about the middle part of the work, and the Aqueduct -terminated at Nismes. - -This Aqueduct traversed a very mountainous country, piercing through -mountains and crossing valleys by means of arches upon arches, -forming magnificent structures entirely of cut stone. The Aqueduct or -channel-way is formed of stone throughout the whole length. The bottom -of the interior has a curved form, being an arc of a circle; the sides -are vertical, and the top covered with a flagging of cut stone, except -where it is under ground, in which situation the top is covered by -an arch of stone. The interior face of the walls and the bottom were -covered with a coat of plastering two inches in thickness, composed of -quick-lime, fine sand, and brick nearly pulverized. This coating has -now a tenacity and consistence equal to the hardest stone. - -The size of the channel-way is the following: 4 feet wide and 5⅓ feet -high, except where the top is covered with an arch, in which case it is -7½ feet high in the interior. - -The descent of the Aqueduct is 1 foot in 2500 feet, or 2-11/100 feet -per mile. - -The water which flowed in this Aqueduct formed a deposit upon the -sides, of lime, until nearly half the channel was closed; this deposit -amounting to a thickness of 11 inches on each side. By the height of -this deposit it has been ascertained that the water flowed generally -with a depth of 3¼ feet. - -The _pont du Gard_ is that part of the Aqueduct of Nismes which crosses -the deep valley in which runs the _Gardon_ or _Gard_. This part, -considered alone, is one of the noblest monuments built by the Romans -among the Gauls. It is composed of three ranges of arches one above -another. The first range, under which the Gardon flows, is formed by -6 arches; the second by 11, and the third by 35, all of which are -semicircular; supported upon piers of greater or less height. - -The channel in which the water flows is upon the top of the third range -of arches, and is 160 feet above the water of the river. The whole -length of this bridge is about 900 feet. - -The bridge of Gard having been broken down at the two extremities, -at a period very remote and uncertain, it is thought that this -destruction may be attributed to the Barbarians who invaded the country -of Nismes a short time after their first invasion, which is fixed at -the commencement of the fifth century, about the year 406, and it -is supposed that by this means they would deprive the inhabitants -of Nismes of the water furnished by the Aqueduct, and force them to -yield. But by this supposition, which is very probable, the water had -been running in this Aqueduct for more than four centuries; and this -structure which has been out of use during fourteen hundred years, is -still in such a state of preservation that it could be restored without -a very great expenditure of money. - - -THE ANCIENT AQUEDUCTS OF LYONS. - -Nothing gives a better idea of the splendour of the city of Lyons under -the reign of the first Roman Emperors, than the remains of the ancient -monuments. We see there at the present day, remains of temples, of -palaces, of amphitheatres, of basins for mock sea fights, of baths and -of many Aqueducts, of which three were constructed under the reigns of -Augustus, of Tiberius and of Claudius, for conducting water to that -part of the ancient city situated upon the mountain. - -The first and the most ancient of these Aqueducts, constructed by Mark -Anthony, brought the waters from _Mount-d’Or_, by means of two branches -which embraced that group of mountains. - -The water furnished by the first Aqueduct having been found -insufficient, they constructed a second one to bring the water of the -Loire. - -The third Aqueduct was built by the Emperor Claudius to furnish water -to the palace of the emperors situated upon an elevated mountain. The -Aqueducts built at this era are all of the same construction; that is -to say, from the plan and construction adopted by the Romans. A fourth -Aqueduct was also constructed for this city, but there is some doubt -whether it was built by the Romans. - - -AQUEDUCT OF MOUNT PILA. - -This Aqueduct was built by Claudius, who was born at Lyons, to conduct -water to the emperor’s palace, situated on the highest part of the -city. The sources which supplied it, were in the neighbourhood of Mount -Pila, and they were brought into the main Aqueduct by branch aqueducts. -The main Aqueduct was forty miles in length; and adding the branches, -the length of the Aqueduct was forty-five miles. - -There were 13 bridges of stone to support the Aqueduct across valleys -or over rivers, two of which were not built up to the plane of the -Aqueduct, but were crossed by leaden pipes which descended on one -side of the valley and, crossing the bridge, ascended on the opposite -side. In another instance the pipes descended and crossed upon a wall -of masonry and reached the opposite side of the valley. One instance, -where pipes were used, will give an idea of their general form: the -bridge was about 40 feet high and the perpendicular height of the -Aqueduct above it was 140 feet. Nine leaden pipes of about 8 inches -interior diameter and one inch thick were laid upon the inclined planes -and across the level part of the bridge; thus communicating with the -opposite crests of the valley. - -These bridges which were constructed for the support of pipes, were -wider in the bottom of the valley and also half way up the inclined -plane, than they were for the remainder of the distance; and this -form has suggested the idea that the pipes of 8 inches diameter, when -they reached half way down the plane, separated, each one into two of -6 inches diameter which crossed the bridge, and converged into one -again half way up the opposite plane. But it may be supposed that they -continued of the same interior form throughout their length, and that -this extra width was made for the purpose of giving an opportunity to -fortify the pipes at the place where the pressure to which they were -subjected was the greatest. - - -_Construction._ - -They commenced the construction by making a trench in the ground of -sufficient dimensions for the masonry of the Aqueduct: upon the -bottom of this trench was laid a mass of masonry 1 foot thick, upon -which two walls were built, each 1½ foot thick and 5⅓ feet high, these -walls standing 2 feet apart, and surmounted by a semicircular arch of -a thickness of 1 foot and generally covered with earth 2 feet deep. -The interior had a coat of cement plastering, 6 inches thick on the -bottom and 1½ inch thick on the sides. The walls were constructed with -small stones from 3 to 6 inches in thickness, bedded in mortar so -that no spaces could be found between them. They avoided the use of -stones of greater thickness than 6 inches, because the walls built of -small stones, well filled with mortar, formed a mass more solid and -impervious than with larger stones, on account of the great quantity of -mortar used. - -No bricks were used in the construction of the channel-way of the -Aqueduct. - -Ventilators were constructed along the course of the Aqueduct 2 feet -square, and rising above the ground 2 or 3 feet. The Aqueduct when it -was above the ground, was supported upon a wall of masonry, and the -side walls of the channel-way had an increased thickness. When it was -elevated 6 or 7 feet above the ground, the foundation wall was six -feet thick; but when it had a greater elevation it was supported upon -arches and piers, and upon the elevation depended the span of the arch, -the thickness and height of the piers. The general declivity in the -channel-way, was 1 foot in 640, or about 8¼ feet per mile. - -This Aqueduct supplied about 1,200,000 gallons of water in 24 hours. -The velocity of the water was about five times that of the water in the -Aqueducts of Rome. - -This work was constructed at an immense expense, and in substituting -the “_inverted syphon_,” for high structures across valleys, there is -evidence of the intelligence and skill of those who had charge of the -construction. - -A fragment of a pipe forming part of this reversed syphon, is -still preserved in the museum at Lyons, and an instance of the -Romans having laid pipes across the beds of rivers, is given by M. -Gautier, Architect, Engineer, &c., in his work called “_Traité de la -Construction des Chemins_,” published in 1778. - -About 70 or 80 years ago, he was directed by Mr. Pontchartrain, -Minister of State, to repair to Rochefort, to conduct spring water to -the port from the fountains of the city, which were supplied from a -source, though quite insufficient for the city, in the neighborhood. In -his researches he discovered a good and copious source, at less than -half a league, but on the other side of the river, the Charente. Many -difficulties were presented, because at low water vessels might ground -upon the pipes and injure them. - -However, Mr. Gautier proposed to lay down two leaden pipes, to preserve -a supply in case of accident to one, and to protect them by wooden -frames in an effectual way against injury, should vessels lay upon the -defence frames during low water. Mr. Begon, intendant of the Marine, -approved the plan, but it was finally rejected. - -“Some years after,” says Mr. Gautier, “when I had charge of the roads -on the Rhone, and of many other works in the Province of Languedoc, and -while at Arles, I heard that a vessel had cast anchor in the Rhone, -opposite the city, to take some loading; but when the commander wanted -to sail again he could not raise the anchor. This fact attracted much -attention, and many people went to witness the singular circumstance. -The Captain, unwilling to lose his anchor, sent down a man, to find -what was the matter. The diver reported that the anchor was hooked -under something round, but he could not tell what it was. A capstan was -applied to raise it, which succeeded. - -It brought up a leaden conduit pipe from the bottom of the Rhone, -which crossed it from the City of Arles, towards Trinquetaillade, over -a breadth of about 90 toises (576 feet) in a depth of 6 or 7 toises -(about 40 feet,) the deepest part of the Rhone. I saw some pieces of -this conduit of lead, 5 or 6 inches in diameter, about 4 lines (one -third of an inch) thick, in joints of 1 toise each soldered lengthwise, -and covered by a strip or sheet of lead of the same thickness covering -the first solder about 2 inches. The conduit was soldered at the -joints, 6 feet apart, by the same material, which made a swell at -that distance. On each joint were these words in relief =C. CANTIUS -POIHINUS. F.= which was apparently the name of the maker or architect, -who laid down the conduit pipe in the time of the Romans. I delayed -not to inform Mr. Begon, at Rochefort, of this discovery, because he -had always favoured my project of conducting water along the bottom and -across the Charente, which would not have been half so difficult as it -had no doubt been, to lay one across the Rhone where this was found. - -Hence it may be believed, as I think now myself, that many things -supposed now-a-days to be new and never to have been previously -invented, may have been thought of long before, even in remote ages.” -Pp. 129, 130. - - -_Ancient Aqueduct of Metz._ - -This Aqueduct was built by the Romans when that city was under their -dominion; but it is difficult to fix upon the precise era of its -construction. It is said in the history of the city of Metz that the -Roman legions built roads in the year 70; but there is reason to -suppose that the construction of this Aqueduct, as well as that of -other important structures built by the Romans at Metz, belongs to a -time more remote, and that the date of the reign of the first emperors -may be the era when the legions of Cæsar occupied the country of the -Gauls. - -The total length of the Aqueduct was 14 miles, and the fall for this -distance was about 73 feet. - -The channel-way was 6⅓ feet high, by 3 feet wide, constructed with -stone masonry and having an arch over the top: the interior face of -the walls and the bottom was covered with a coat of plastering; 3 -inches thick in the bottom, and 2 inches on the sides. From remains of -this Aqueduct which are now found at various points along its course, -it appears to have required many expensive structures for crossing -valleys; in one instance the Aqueduct bridge was 3,600 feet long, and -the greatest height was 100 feet. In constructing the Aqueduct over -these bridges, they formed it in two channels separated by a wall, and -each covered with an arch; thus they insured a supply of water across -the bridge by one channel in case the other required repairs. - - -_Aqueduct of Bourgas, near Constantinople._ - -Three Aqueducts exist in the valley of Bourgas, 8 miles from -Constantinople, for conducting water into the city. One of them -is remarkable for the beautiful architectural arrangement and the -solidity of its construction. It is 115 feet high, and was built under -the Emperor Justinian, A. D. 527. It has two ranges of arches, one -above the other, and the Aqueduct supported upon the second. These -Aqueducts are in some parts unlike those of Rome, which were formed on -a continuous line for many miles, with a regular inclination from the -source to the city, but are interrupted by reversed syphons. Instead of -crossing deep and wide valleys in the usual manner of stone structures, -the Aqueduct terminates on one bank in a reservoir or cistern, and a -pipe is laid from it down the sloping side of the hill to a stone pier -erected at a suitable distance; the pipe rises up the pier to the top -where the water is discharged into a small cistern nearly as high as -that in the reservoir. From the cistern, another conduit pipe descends -to the bottom of the pier, passes along the ground to a second pier at -a proper distance and rises to another cistern on the top of it, and -so on till it rises on the crest of the opposite bank, where the water -resumes its regular motion along the Aqueduct. - -This plan was probably adopted with a view to avoid the expense of -constructing a bridge which should preserve the general inclination of -the channel-way; but it is difficult to imagine any advantage arising -from the construction of the piers, instead of laying the pipe along -the bottom of the valley. - - -_Modern Rome._ - -Rome is now supplied with water by three Aqueducts, being three of the -ancient works restored in modern times. - -First, _Aqua Virgini_, called by Frontinus, Aqua Virgo, or _Virgin -Aqueduct_. - -The trunk of the Aqueduct having been injured, the reparation was began -under the Pontificate of Nicholas V. and Sextus IV., and completed -under that of Pius IV. in 1568. This water supplies the beautiful -fountain Trevi, thus named from the three discharges issuing from it, -or from its being placed at the junction of three streets. The water -this Aqueduct furnishes is 2,322,762 cubic feet (14,168,848 gallons) -daily, discharging through 7 principal conduits, at 13 public and 37 -other fountains. - -Second, _Aqua Felice_. This is a part of the ancient water of the -Claudian and Marcian Aqueducts united with many others, and collected -under Sextus V. The daily quantity it furnishes is 727,161 cubic feet, -(4,435,682 gallons,) and supplies 16 public and 11 other fountains. The -Moses fountain discharges from this source. - -The Pauline Aqueduct, called _Aqua Paola_, is the third of the ancient -works restored. The water is collected within the territories of Arcolo -and Bassano, and conducted along the ancient Aqueduct of Alsietina. -This was effected under Pope Pius V., and directed by Charles Fontana, -an eminent Hydraulic Architect, who constructed the great fountain -of S. Pietro-in-Montorio. Additional water was also taken from Lake -Bracciano by Fontana in 1694, under Clement X. The whole quantity in 24 -hours is 3,325,531 cubic feet, (20,285,739 gallons,) about one third -of which goes to feed the fountains of St. Peters, and those of the -Pontifical Palace on the Vatican Hill; the rest is distributed among 8 -public and 23 other fountains, as well as to 21 work-shops, (_usines_) -in St. Pancras-street. - -An evidence of the durability of these old Roman structures is -furnished in this junction of water from Lake Bracciano by Cardinal -Orsini, under authority of Clement X., upon condition that a part of -the water should be used to feed a second fountain about to be built -in St. Peter’s Square at Rome, and the rest to be divided between the -Apostolic Chamber and the House of Orsini. From the lake the conduit -leads to the old Alsietina Aqueduct, in which it flows 20 miles to -the city, and it was found to be in so perfect a state when the trial -was first made after the restoration, October 13th, 1693, that all the -water which entered the old Aqueduct was discharged at Rome without any -loss, after its use had been suspended nearly 1000 years. - - - - -THE PRINCIPAL MODERN AQUEDUCTS OF ITALY, FRANCE, ETC. - - -_Aqueduct of Caserta._ - -This Aqueduct was built by the order of the King of Naples, Charles -III., for conducting water to his residence which he had at Caserta, a -town situated about fifteen miles north of Naples. - -This Aqueduct was commenced in 1753. It is twenty-seven miles long, -from the sources which supply it to the gardens of Caserta. The sources -are at the base of the mountain called _Taburno_; the principal one is -called _Sorgente de la Sfizzo_; it is afterwards joined by streams from -many other sources, which are in the country called _Airola_. - -These waters are all joined in one Aqueduct, crossing the river -_Faënza_, upon a bridge of three arches, built in 1753. Again, in -the valley of _Durazzano_, there is another bridge of three arches, -upon which the Aqueduct crosses the valley, passing over the river, -and extending from the mountain called _Santa Agata de’Goti_, to the -mountain of _Durazzano_. - -This Aqueduct afterwards crosses a deep valley, which it meets between -_Monte-Longano_ and the hills _Tifata_, where ancient Caserta is -situated, about the place called _Monte di Gazzano_. The crossing -of this valley required the most important of all the constructions -connected with the work. It was accomplished by an Aqueduct bridge, -1724 feet long and 190 feet in height, composed of three tiers of -arches, one above another. The lower range has nineteen arches, the -middle twenty-seven, and the upper one forty-three; making in all -eighty-nine arches. - -The labor of constructions under ground for this Aqueduct was more -than that above; it pierced through five hills or mountains, making an -aggregate length of tunnel of about four miles, and most of this was -through rock. - -To give air and light to the channel, they made pits or wells; some of -which were 250 feet deep, 10 feet diameter at the bottom, and 4 at the -top. - - -_Aqueduct Bridge of Castellana._ - -This Aqueduct was built in connection with an ancient _Causeway_, which -led to _Civita-Castellana_. - -This _Causeway_ was about 820 feet long and 32 feet wide; the greatest -height was about 130 feet. It was pierced in the middle of this extent, -by nine large arches; three of which were 86 feet span, and the others -were each 64 feet span. Above these arches of the bridge the Aqueduct -is built, the height of which is about 57 feet, and it is sustained -upon a series of arches of about 19 feet span each. - - -_Aqueduct of Montpelier._ - -This Aqueduct is one of the most beautiful works of the kind, which -exist in France. The length is about 3,200 feet; it conducts to -Montpelier the waters of _Saint Clement_ and _du Boulidou_. It was -built by M. Pitot, engineer and member of the Academy of Sciences. He -was thirteen years constructing it. This Aqueduct is formed by two -ranges of arches; those in the lower tier are seventy in number, and -each 28 feet span; the piers of these arches are each 12 feet thick. -The arches of the second or upper tier are much smaller, and are -arranged so that three of them come within the space occupied by one of -the lower arches. They are 9 feet diameter; their piers are 4 feet and -a quarter thick. - -The greatest height of this Aqueduct is 90 feet. - -It is constructed entirely of cut stone. The quantity of water -furnished by it is about 300,000 gallons in twenty-four hours. - - -_Aqueduct of Spoleto._ - -This Aqueduct was constructed in the year 741, by Theodoric, King of -the Goths, to communicate with the town of Spoleto, situated upon the -summit of a mountain. It is composed of ten grand Gothic arches -each 71 feet diameter, supported upon piers of 10½ feet thickness. The -middle arches which are over the river _de la Morgia_, are about 328 -feet high. - -[Illustration: - - _Napoleon Gimbrede. sc._ - -AQUEDUCT OF SPOLETTO, ITALY.] - -On the top of this bridge is the Aqueduct which carries the water to -Spoleto. - -This structure was difficult to execute, and being built of a very hard -stone, remains entire at the present day. - -The total length is 800 feet, and the breadth is 44 feet. - -The greatest height of this bridge is 420 feet. - - -_Aqueduct of the Prince of Biscari._ - -This Aqueduct was constructed by the Prince of Biscari, in Sicily, at -his own expense, across the river Saint-Paul, the ancient _Symète_. It -conducts a pure stream of water to the estate of the prince, and at the -same time serves as a public bridge over the valley. This bridge is -composed of thirty-one arches, the largest of which, over the river, -is 90 feet span. This arch is of Gothic form, while all the others -are semi-circular. The bridge has two tiers or ranges of arches; the -roadway is upon the first range, and the channel for the water, upon -the second or upper range. The length of the bridge is 269 feet. -The height to the top is 120 feet. It is said that this magnificent -structure was accomplished in two years. - - -_Aqueduct of Arcueil._ - -The Emperor Julian built this Aqueduct to bring water to Paris, A. D. -360; it supplied the palace and hot baths, but was destroyed by the -Normans. It was above nine miles and a half long, and was entirely -under ground, except the stone arcade over a deep valley at Arcueil. -After its use had been suspended 800 years, a new and beautiful arched -Aqueduct was built by the side of the ruins of the old one, and its -final restoration to public use was completed in 1634. - -Part of this ancient construction, consisting of two arches -substantially built, still exists, near the modern Aqueduct. - -The Aqueduct bridge over the valley of Arcueil has twenty-five arches, -is 72 feet high and 1,200 feet in length. - -In the interior of the Aqueduct on each side is a parapet which forms a -walk. On the outside along the whole line are various openings, called -_regards_. - -This Aqueduct was thoroughly repaired in 1777; and fresh sums of money -have lately been devoted to the same purpose by the city of Paris. It -supplies 36,000 hogsheads daily. - - -_Aqueduct of Maintenon._ - -This work, had it been completed, would have been one of the most -remarkable of modern times. The project was one of the noblest -examples of the enterprise which characterized the reign of Louis -XIV., and had it been carried out would have presented a work equal in -grandeur to any of the kind constructed by the Romans. It was projected -by Vauban, and the work was commenced in 1684, but was abandoned in -1688. - -It was intended to conduct water from the river Eura to Versailles; -a distance of over seventy miles; and it was also contemplated to -continue the work to St. Cloud and to Paris; had this been done it -would have been over ninety miles in length. It was intended to be -of a mixed construction; partly by a canal formed by excavations and -embankments, and partly by a channel of masonry. - -One of the most remarkable structures connected with it, was the -Aqueduct bridge across the valley of Maintenon. This was designed to be -entirely of masonry, having three ranges of arches, one above another. -The length of this Aqueduct bridge would have been three and a quarter -miles, and the height from the lowest part of the valley would have -been 234 feet. - -The whole number of arches designed for this bridge was 685. - -Some of the piers and arches of the lower tier were constructed, but -have since been suffered to crumble and fall. Many deep valleys were -filled with embankments, and the canal was completed for a portion of -the distance, but the course of the work is now but faintly marked by -the remains of these structures. - - -_Aqueduct of Lisbon._ - -The site of Lisbon, as well as the ground in its vicinity, consists -chiefly of limestone and basalt, which render it necessary to obtain -good water, at about three leagues distance, for the beverage, and -other uses of the inhabitants. The source consists of several springs -that are near to the village of Bellas, and their produce is conveyed -to Lisbon by an Aqueduct, constructed of a kind of white marble, and -finished in 1738. In some parts its course has been excavated through -hills; but near to Lisbon it is carried over a deep valley, for a -length of 2400 feet, by means of several bold arches, of which the -largest has a height of about 250 feet, by a breadth of 115. The arches -being pointed have an interesting aspect, particularly when viewed from -below, the interior of the spacious vaults being not only majestic in -appearance, but reverberating every sound. The water flows through a -stone tunnel, or covered arch-way, about 8 feet wide, formed in the -middle of the structure; and on each side there is a foot-path, with a -parapet wall, having a sufficient width for two persons to walk. The -Aqueduct enters the town on its northern side, at a place called da -Amoreira, where it branches into several others, in order to supply the -different fountains, from which the inhabitants are supplied. Persons, -denominated _gallegos_, obtain a subsistence by selling the water, -which they procure at the fountains in small barrels, and afterwards -cry it through the streets. - - -_Aqueducts of Mexico and the adjacent States._ - -The people who, in remote times, inhabited the region of Mexico, were -advanced in civilization and in the arts; they had regularly organized -states and established forms of government, and their immense cities, -their roads, Aqueducts and other public works, give evidence of the -advanced state of the arts among them and their knowledge of the -sciences. - -The location and great population of some of their cities required a -familiar knowledge of hydraulic operations to supply them with water; -and hence it would seem as if they had cultivated this department of -the arts equally with others, for some of their Aqueducts were of a -character that would have done honor to Greece or Rome. Nearly all the -ancient cities of Mexico were supplied by them. - -“The city of _Mexico_, which was built on several islands near the -shore of the lake, was connected to the main land by four great -causeways or dikes, the remains of which still exist. One of these to -the south, the same by which Cortez entered, was nearly two leagues -long--another to the north about one league, and the third at the -west somewhat less. The fourth supported the celebrated Aqueduct -of Chapoltepec, by which water was conducted from springs, upon an -insulated hill of that name, at the distance of from two to three -miles.” - -The Aqueduct of Chapoltepec was the work of Montezuma, and also the -vast stone reservoir connected with it. - -This Aqueduct consisted of two conduits formed of solid mason -work--each five feet high and two paces broad--by which the water was -introduced into the city for the supply of various fountains. - -Olid and Alvarado commenced the siege of Mexico by attempting to cut -off this supply of water, an enterprise which the Mexicans endeavored -to prevent. “There appeared on that side,” says De Solis, “two or three -rows of pipes, made of trees hollowed, supported by an Aqueduct of -lime and stone, and the enemy had cast up some trenches to cover the -avenue to it. But the two captains marched out of Tacuba with most of -their troops, and though they met with a very obstinate resistance, -they drove the enemy from their post, and broke the pipes and Aqueduct -in two or three places, and the water took its natural course into the -lake.” - -Humboldt says, there are still to be perceived the remains of another -Aqueduct, which conducted to the city the waters of the spring of -Amilco, near Churubusco. This Aqueduct, as described by Cortez, -consisted of two conduits composed of clay tempered with mortar, about -two paces in breadth, and raised about six feet. In one of them was -conveyed a stream of excellent water, as large as the body of a man, -into the centre of the city. The other was empty, so that when it -became necessary to clean or repair the former, the water might be -turned into it; which was the case also with those of Chapoltepec, “of -which one was always in use, whenever the other required cleaning.” - -The gardens of Montezuma were also adorned and nourished with streams -and _fountains_, and appear to have rivalled those of Asiatic monarchs -in splendour. - -The ruins of the city of _Tezcuco_, which with its suburbs was even -larger than Mexico, and according to Torquemada, contained one hundred -and forty thousand houses, still betoken an ancient place of great -importance and magnificence. Without the walls, tumuli, the sepulchres -of the former inhabitants, may yet be observed, and also the remains of -a _fine Aqueduct_ in a sufficient state of preservation for present use. - -Two miles from _Tezcuco_, the village of _Huexotla_, situated on the -site of the ancient city of that name, which was considered as one -of the suburbs of _Tezcuco_, exhibits signs of ancient civilization, -in the foundations of large edifices, in _massive Aqueducts_, one of -which, covered with rose-colored cement, still exists in a perfect -state, and in an extensive wall of great height and thickness. A -covered way flanked by parallel walls proceeds from the ancient city, -to the bed of a stream now dry, over which there is a remarkable -bridge, with a pointed arch 40 feet high, and supported on one side by -a pyramidal mass of masonry. - -_Tlascala_ was furnished with abundance of baths and fountains, and -_Zempoala_, like the city of _Tezcuco_, had every house supplied with -water _by a pipe_. - -_Iztaclapa_, which contained about ten thousand houses, had its -Aqueduct that conveyed water from the neighboring mountains, and led it -through a great number of well cultivated gardens. - -Among the ruins of the city of _Zacatecas_, are found the remains of an -Aqueduct; and at _Palenque_ is found an Aqueduct of stone, constructed -with the greatest solidity. - -Among the hieroglyphical ornaments of the pyramid of _Xochicalco_ are -heads of crocodiles _spouting water_, and much proof may be found that -the ancient Americans were acquainted with that property of liquids by -which they find their level; and applied it not merely to fountains and -_jets d’eau_, but to convey water through _pipes_ to their dwellings. - - -_Aqueducts of South America._ - -The ancient inhabitants of Peru, Chili, and other parts of South -America were undoubtedly a refined, civilized and agricultural people; -they constructed extensive cities, roads, _Aqueducts_, &c. Though they -constructed many and extensive Aqueducts for the supply of towns and -cities with water, yet the object of the greater part of the public -works of this kind was for the encouragement of agriculture. - -“The Peruvians and some of the neighboring nations carried the -cultivation of the soil to a higher stage of perfection than any of -the American nations. In consequence of the narrow extent of land -intervening between the mountains and the sea, the rivers in this -region are usually of small size, and the soil, being arid and sandy, -needs the aid of artificial irrigation. To such an extent did they -carry their ingenious efforts, that the sides of the steepest mountains -were converted into productive fields, by being encircled with -terraces, supported by stone walls, and watered by _canals_.” - -“Upon the sides of some of the mountains,” observes Mr. Temple, “were -the remains of walls built in regular stages round them, from their -base to their summits, forming terraces on which, or between which, the -Indians, in days of yore, cultivated their crops.” - -“Frezier says the Indians were very industrious in conveying the waters -of the rivers through their fields and to their dwellings, and that -there were still to be seen in many places Aqueducts formed of earth -and stone, and carried along the sides of hills with great labor and -ingenuity.” - -“I have had various opportunities,” says a recent traveller, “of -closely examining one of these canals, which is formed at the source -of the river Sana, on the right bank, and extends along a distance of -fifteen leagues, without reckoning sinuosities, and which consequently -supplied a vast population; particularly one city, whose ruins still -remain in the vicinity of a farm now called Cojal.” - -“These Aqueducts were often of great magnitude, executed with much -skill, patience and ingenuity, and were boldly carried along the most -precipitous mountains, frequently to the distance of fifteen or twenty -leagues. Many of them consisted of two conduits, a short distance -apart; the larger of these was for general use; the other and smaller, -to supply the inhabitants and water the fields, while the first was -cleansing; a circumstance in which they bear a striking resemblance to -those of Mexico.” - -Molina, in his “Natural and Civil History of Chili,” observes, that -previous to the invasion of the Spaniards, the natives practised -artificial irrigation, by conveying water from the higher grounds -in canals to their fields. Herrera says, many of the vales were -exceedingly populous and well cultivated, “having trenches of water.” - -The Peruvians carried the system to a great extent. “How must we -admire, (says Humboldt,) the industry and activity displayed by the -ancient Mexicans and Peruvians in the irrigation of arid lands! - -“In the maritime parts of Peru, I have seen the remains of walls, -along which water was conducted for a space of from 5 to 6000 metres, -from the foot of the Codilleras to the coast. The conquerors of the -16th century destroyed these Aqueducts, and that part of Peru has -become, like Persia, a desert, destitute of vegetation. Such is the -civilization carried by the Europeans among a people, whom they are -pleased to call barbarous.” These people had laws for the protection of -water, very similar to those of Greece, Rome, Egypt, and all the older -nations; for those who conveyed water from the canals to their own land -before their turn, were liable to arbitrary punishment. - -Several of the ancient American customs respecting water, were -identical with those of the oldest nations. - -They buried vessels of water with the dead. The Mexicans worshipped -it. The Peruvians sacrificed to rivers and fountains. The Mexicans had -_Tlaloc_, their god of water. Holy water was kept in their temples. -They practised divinations by water. The Peruvians drew their drinking -water from _Deep Wells_, and for irrigation in times of drought, they -drew it from pools, and lakes, and rivers. - -There is reason to believe that Peru, Chili, and other parts of the -southern continent, were inhabited by a refined, or partially refined -people, centuries before the time of Manco Capac, the first Inca; and -that a long period of barbarism had intervened, induced, perhaps, -by revolutions similar to those which, in the old world, swept all -the once celebrated nations of antiquity into oblivion. The ancient -Peruvians had a tradition respecting the arrival of giants, who located -themselves on the coast, and who _dug_ wells of immense depth _through -the solid rock_; which wells, as well as cisterns, still remain. - -There is much uncertainty respecting Manco Capac. Who he was, and -from what country he came, are equally unknown. According to their -_Quippus_, or historical cords, and the opinion of the Inca, who -was uncle to Garcilasso, and who communicated to the latter all the -knowledge of their ancestors then extant, he made his appearance in -Peru about 400 years before the invasion of the Spaniards. It is said -he was whiter than the natives, and was clothed in flowing garments. -Awed by his presence, they received him as a divinity, became subject -to his laws, and practised the arts he introduced. He founded Cusco, -and extended his influence to all the nations around. He taught them -agriculture and many useful arts, especially that of irrigating land. -His son succeeded him, and without violence greatly extended the limits -of the kingdom; prevailing with the natives, it is said, by a peaceable -and gentle manner, “to plough, and manure, and cultivate the soil.” -His successors pursued the same mode, and with the same success. The -fifth Inca, we are informed, constructed Aqueducts, bridges and roads -in all the countries he subdued. When the sixth Inca acquired a new -province, he ordered the lands to be “dressed and manured;” the fens -to be drained, “for in that art (draining) they were excellent, as is -apparent by their works, which remain to this day; and also they were -(then) very ingenious in making _Aqueducts_ for carrying water into dry -and scorched lands, such as the greatest part of that country is; they -always made contrivances and _inventions_ to bring their water. These -Aqueducts, though they were ruined after the Spaniards came in, yet -several reliques and monuments of them remain unto this day.” - -The seventh Inca, _Viracocha_, constructed some water works, which, in -their beneficial effects, perhaps equalled any similar undertakings in -any other part of the world. “He made an Aqueduct 12 feet in depth, and -120 leagues in length; the source or head of it arose from certain -springs on the top of a high mountain between Parcu and Picuy, which -was so plentiful that at the very head of the fountains they seemed to -be rivers. This current of water had its course through all the country -of the Rucanas, and served to water the pasturage of those uninhabited -lands, which are about 18 leagues in breadth, _watering almost the -whole country of Peru_.” - -There is _another_ Aqueduct much like this, which traverses the whole -province of _Cuntisuyu_, running above 150 leagues from south to north. -Its head or original is from the top of high mountains, the which -waters falling into the plains of the Quechuas, greatly refresh their -pasturage, when the heats of the summer and autumn have dried up the -moisture of the earth. - -“There are many streams of like nature, which run through divers -parts of the empire, which being conveyed by Aqueducts, at the charge -and expense of the Incas, are works of grandeur and ostentation, and -which recommend the magnificence of the Incas to all posterity; for -these Aqueducts may well be compared to the miraculous fabrics which -have been the works of mighty princes, who have left their prodigious -monuments of ostentation to be admired by future ages; for, indeed, -we ought to consider that these waters had their source and beginning -from vast, high mountains, and were carried over craggy rocks and -inaccessible passages; and to make these ways plain, they had no help -of instruments forged of steel or iron, such as pickaxes or sledges, -but served themselves only with one stone to break another. Nor were -they acquainted with the invention of arches, to convey the water -on the level from one precipice to the other, but traced round the -mountain until they found ways and passages at the same height and -level with the head of the springs.” - -“The cisterns or conservatories which they made for these waters, at -the top of the mountain, were about 12 feet deep; the passage was -broken through the rocks, and channels made of hewn stone, of about -two yards long and about a yard high; which were cemented together, -and rammed in with earth so hard, that no water would pass between, to -weaken or vent itself by the holes of the channel. - -“The current of water which passes through all the division of -Cuntisuyu I have seen in the province of Quechua, which is part of -that division, and considered it an extraordinary work, and indeed -surpassing the description and report which hath been made of it. -But the Spaniards who were aliens and strangers, little regarded the -convenience of these works, either to serve themselves in the use of -them, or to keep them in repair, nor yet to take so much notice of them -as to mention them in their histories, but rather out of a scornful -and disdaining humor, have suffered them to run into ruin, beyond all -recovery. The same fate hath befallen the _Aqueducts_ which the Indians -made for watering their corn lands, of which two thirds at least are -wholly destroyed, and none kept in repair, unless some few which -are so useful that without them they cannot sustain themselves with -bread, nor with the necessary provisions of life. All which works are -not so totally destroyed but that there still remain some ruins and -appearances of them.” - -In describing the temple and gardens at Cusco. Garcilasso observes, -“there were five fountains of water, which ran from divers places -through pipes of gold. The cisterns were some of stone, and others of -gold and silver in which they washed their sacrifices, as the solemnity -of the festival required.” - - - - -FOUNTAINS. - - -Artificial fountains and _jets d’eau_ are of extreme antiquity; they -have been used for beautifying public grounds of cities, and have -served the purpose of moderating the temperature of the air; in these -cases the water has been in some instances perfumed. - -“From excavations made at Pompeii it appears that in almost every -street there was a fountain, and that bronze statues, through which -the water issued were common,--several have been found,--four or five -are boys of beautiful workmanship; the fluid issued from vases resting -on their shoulders, or held under their arms, and in some cases from -masks. Paintings of elegant fountains, from which the water issued in -perpendicular jets, have also been discovered both at Herculaneum and -Pompeii.” - -“In the middle of the square of the Coliseum, is a pretty remarkable -piece of antiquity, (says Blainville,) though very little minded by -most people. Here stood anciently, a beautiful fountain, adorned with -the finest marbles and columns; and on the top was a bronze statue of -Jupiter, from which issued great plenty of water, as may be seen on the -reverse of one of Titus’ medals. This fountain was of great use both -to the spectators and the gladiators in the amphitheatre to refresh -themselves. Pope Alexander VII. caused it to be repaired, but since his -time it has been entirely neglected.” - -“During hot weather, Augustus the Roman Emperor slept (observes -Sentonius) with his chamber doors open, ‘and frequently in a portico -with waters playing around him.’” - -The garden water-works of the Duke of Devonshire at Chatsworth are -probably the finest in England; being ornamented by many fanciful -devices and from a jet of six inches diameter the water rises -perpendicularly to the height of 90 feet. - -The most remarkable fountain or _jet d’eau_ in the world, is at -Cassal in Germany, where the water rises from an orifice of 12 inches -diameter to a perpendicular height of 250 feet. The source from which -it is supplied is at the top of a mountain near by, being about 500 -feet above the level of the town. The surplus water not used for the -supply of the fountain flows down the mountain-side forming a beautiful -cascade. - -The cities of Europe abound in fountains which in their arrangement -furnish beautiful designs and are ornamented with specimens of -workmanship displaying much skill and refinement of taste: a minute -description of them would, however, occupy too much space, and since -we have had our attention drawn (on the subject of Aqueducts) more -particularly to the works of the Romans, we will revert to the - - -_Fountains of Rome._ - -“If during the most distinguished eras of the Roman state, the -Aqueducts conduced to the luxurious enjoyments of the wealthy and -powerful, yet in modern times, the residents of Rome have also found -them particularly advantageous, by their furnishing occasions for the -cultivation of those elegant arts, which, in a peculiar manner, call -forth the energies of genius, and the exercise of refined taste, in -realizing and decorating her productions. Qualities of this kind appear -conspicuous in several of the numerous fountains which adorn that -celebrated city; and the most intellectual and accomplished professors -of sculpture and architecture, have happily united beauty and grandeur -in the construction of many such admirable edifices. These structures -are also characterized by great diversity of design, as well as skilful -execution; hence, a concise description of several of them may be -interesting.” - -“The largest structure of this kind in Rome, is that denominated the -_Pauline_ Fountain, which was built by order of Pope Paul V., with -the materials of Nerva’s Forum. This spacious edifice is situate on -the highest part of the Janiculum hill, and Dominica Fontana, and -Carlo Mederno, furnished the designs for its construction. The front -is adorned with six Ionic columns of red granite, on which an attic -has a tablet containing an inscription with the pontiff’s arms placed -above it. Between the columns the spaces are open, and from these -arcades the currents of water flow with a loud noise, and in great -abundance. The apertures on the sides are smaller than the others, and -in each of those is placed a dragon spouting water into the spacious -magnificent marble basin below. This fountain is furnished with water -by the Aqueduct called _Aqua Paolo_; and it runs from the basin, in a -very large stream into several canals, whence it is employed to work -various corn, paper, and other mills, as well as to supply fountains -and fish-ponds in the gardens and palaces of the opulent.” - -“Near to the baths of Dioclesian, and in the square of the _Termini_, -stands the fountain of the _Aqua Felice_. The edifice is not only -elegant but fanciful, and it has three arcades ornamented with four -Ionic columns of granite. The middle arcade has a colossal statue of -Moses, causing the water to issue from the rock; and at the sides are -two basso relievos, one representing Aaron leading the Israelites to -the miraculous spring, and the other Gideon selecting the soldiers -to enlarge the passage for the water, which flows in great abundance -through three apertures into marble basins. The sides are adorned -by four marble lions, with the water issuing from their mouths: two -of these are formed of white Grecian marble, and the other two of -black granite. The latter are Egyptian workmanship, and covered with -hieroglyphics. This noble fountain was erected from a design of Cav. -Fontana; by the order of Pope Sixtus V., and its supply of water is -obtained twenty-two miles from the city.” - -“Another of these fine structures is that called the _Fountain of -Trevi_, in which boldness of design, and elegance of architecture -are admirably united. The erection of this very magnificent edifice -commenced during the pontificate of Clement XII., who repaired the -Aqueducts. Niccolo Salvi designed the grand front, but the work was -completed under Clement XIII., who decorated it with statues, basso -relievos in marble, and different columns of the Corinthian, Ionic, -and Composite orders. In the centre is a statue representing Oceanus, -standing in a car, drawn by two large sea-horses, guided by Tritons. -One of the horses appears furious and impatient, whilst, on the -contrary, the other is exhibited as calm and placid, so that both are -symbolical of the tempestuous or tranquil state of the sea. - - ‘Bounding to light, as if from ocean’s cave, - The struggling sea-horse paws the lucid wave, - While health and plenty smile, and Neptune’s form - Majestic sways the trident of the storm.’ - -“A statue, designating Abundance, is placed at the right of Oceanus, -and on the left another emblematical of Health. The basso relievo, -which adorns the right side, portrays the Emperor Trajan, contemplating -a plan of the fountain; and that on the left exhibits a girl showing -to some soldiers, the spring that supplies it with water. Various -other sculptures decorate this superb edifice; and at the top of -the principal front are two figures of Fame, supporting the arms -of the Pope. Its supply of water is furnished by the Aqua Virgini, -and it flows in very large streams from three arcades. The cost of -constructing this splendid and useful fountain was great; but it ranks -among the most interesting objects conspicuously embellishing the city -of Rome.” - -“The _Piazza Novana_ has a very noble fountain standing in its centre. -It is composed of a large circular marble basin 79 feet in diameter, -in the middle of which is placed a rock of square form with apertures -at the sides. The figure of a lion adorns one side, and that of a -sea-horse another. From the base to the top of the rock, the height is -about 14 feet; and on its summit stands an Egyptian obelisk formed of -red granite, 55 feet in height, and covered with hieroglyphics. At the -four sides of the rock are colossal marble statues, which designate the -four great rivers in different quarters of the world: viz. the Danube, -the Nile, the Ganges, and the Plata: and from these statues the water -flows in copious streams to the spacious basin below. - - ‘The Nile and Ganges from the silver tide: - La Plata too, and Danube’s streams unite - Their liquid treasures, copious, clear and bright.’ - -“During the summer, it is the custom occasionally to permit the water -to overflow the whole square, for the entertainment of the people; -and on midsummer’s eve persons amuse themselves by wading and driving -through the flood. This practice has sometimes been attended with fatal -accidents, and not only men but horses have actually been drowned in -the attempts to pass it in carriages. - -“In the month of August the area of the square is likewise filled with -water for the purpose of amusement. - -“The same square likewise contains two other fountains, one of which -consists of a capacious marble basin, having at its centre a Triton -holding a dolphin by the tail; and on the margin of the basin are four -heads with the same number of Tritons that spout the water from their -mouths. The other fountain has not any remarkable characteristics to -entitle it to peculiar attention.” - -“Where formerly stood the circus of Flora is now the site of the Piazza -Barberinni, which has two fountains to embellish it:--one of them being -composed of four dolphins supporting a large open shell, with a Triton -in the middle ejecting water to a great height. The other is fanciful, -being also formed of an open shell, from which three bees throw out the -water.” - -“In the vicinity of the Temple of Vesta stands a handsome fountain, -having a capacious basin, in which some Tritons support a large -marble shell. From the centre of the latter, the water spouts to a -considerable height, and then descending flows over its margin into -the basin beneath. Some fine fountains adorn the magnificent colonnade -in front of the Cathedral of St. Peter. The _Piazza di Spagna_ has -likewise for its embellishment, a fountain in the form of an antique -boat. Besides the structures described above, there is a great number -of other fountains which evince much diversity of taste and ingenuity -in their contrivance. But at the different villas of the opulent, the -abundance of water is rendered subservient to amusing as well as useful -purposes, and several of them are rather singular. The description of -one will convey some notion of what is common to many of them. - -“The delightful promenades, groves, and gardens belonging to the Doria -family, are interspersed with fountains of various forms; besides -having a beautiful lake with waterfalls. Statues, antique basso -relievos, and small fountains, adorn a kind of amphitheatre, where -a circular edifice contains the marble figure of a fawn holding a -flute, on which it seems to play different airs: the music, however, -is produced by a machine resembling an organ in its construction, and -motion being given to it by the flowing of the water from a cascade.” - -“Perhaps the few instances recited above will suffice to demonstrate -the different modes employed at Rome, for calling into exercise -genius, fancy, and taste, to diversify the public edifices concerned -with its abundant supply of water; thus rendering them subservient to -magnificence, entertainment, and utility. Whilst John Dyer resided -there, he viewed these celebrated fountains with the mingled feelings -of the painter and the poet; hence, associating them with other -interesting circumstances, they furnished the materials for one of his -most striking and pathetic delineations. - - ‘The pilgrim oft, - At dead of night, ’mid his oraison hears - Aghast the voice of Time, disparting towers, - Tumbling all precipitate, down-dashed, - Rattling around, loud thundering to the moon; - While murmurs sooth each awful interval - Of ever-falling waters; shrouded Nile, - Eridanus, and Tiber with his twins, - And palmy Euphrates; they with dropping locks - Hang o’er their urns, and mournfully among - The plantive echoing ruins, pour their streams.’” - - _Ruins of Rome._ - - - - -HISTORY - -OF THE - -PROGRESSIVE MEASURES FOR SUPPLYING - -THE - -CITY OF NEW-YORK WITH WATER. - - -As early as 1774, when the population of the city of New-York was only -_twenty-two thousand_, the Corporation commenced the construction of -a reservoir and other works for supplying water; and for the purpose -of defraying the expense of the undertaking, issued a paper money, -amounting to _two thousand five hundred pounds_, under the denomination -of “_Water Works Money_,” and bonds were executed in favor of certain -individuals for land and materials to the amount of _eight thousand -eight hundred and fifty pounds_ more. - -A spacious reservoir was constructed on the east line of Broadway, -between, what is now known as Pearl and White streets, and a well of -large dimensions was sunk in the vicinity of the Collect. The war of -the revolution, which commenced in 1775, and the consequent occupation -of the city of New-York by the British troops, was the cause of the -abandonment of the work in its unfinished state. - -In the year 1798, Doctor Joseph Brown addressed a communication -to the Common Council, strongly recommending the Bronx River as a -source from which to obtain a supply of good water for the use of the -citizens. This recommendation induced the Common Council to employ -William Weston, Esquire, a Civil Engineer, to examine the subject, and -he reported on the 16th of March, 1799, in favor of the practicability -of introducing the water of the Bronx into the city. Neither of these -gentlemen had used levels or made any survey of the country over which -the water should be brought, nor was there any measurement obtained of -the flow of the stream; consequently, their opinion was only founded on -personal view, gained by walking over the ground. - -In April, 1799, the _Manhattan Company_ was incorporated by an act -of the Legislature, and the object of this Company was declared to -be, to supply the city with pure and wholesome water; but instead -of looking for a supply from foreign sources, they resorted to the -plan of furnishing the water from wells which they sunk within the -city limits. Besides these wells of the Manhattan Company there were -others subsequently sunk by the Corporation of the city, as well as -by individual enterprise. Some of these wells were of great depth -and capacity, having, in some instances, horizontal excavations at -a considerable depth below the surface, branching off from the main -shaft. Efforts of this kind, however, proved unsatisfactory, and much -solicitude was felt by the citizens on account of the scarcity of -_pure_ water. - -On the 17th of March, 1822, the Mayor among other measures suggested -by him to the Common Council, brought to their consideration, the -important question of supplying the city with pure and wholesome water, -and requested its reference to a Committee, which was accordingly done. -The Committee, of which the Mayor was one, proceeded to the principal -source of the Bronx River, in the county of Westchester, known as the -Rye Pond. They spent two days, the 20th and 21st of March, in exploring -the country adjacent to the River and Sound, and at a meeting of the -Common Council, on the first of April, the Mayor, as Chairman of the -Committee, made a report of their observations, and recommended an -appropriation, with authority to employ a competent engineer to survey -and profile the whole line between the city and the main source of the -river Bronx, and to ascertain the quantity of water it would afford, -and an estimate of the probable cost of completing the project of -supplying the city with good and wholesome water from the aforesaid -source. The recommendation was concurred in, and the Mayor employed -Canvas White, Esquire, a Civil Engineer, to make the said survey and -estimate. - -The yellow fever prevailed in the city during the summer of 1822, -and shortly after the termination of the epidemic, on the 25th of -November, the Mayor, in a communication to the Common Council, on -subjects relative to the preservation of the public health, stated that -a very important subject connected with the health of the city, was a -sufficient supply of good water; and that on this subject all had been -done that it was practicable, under existing circumstances, to perform; -that arrangements had been made with Mr. White, a Civil Engineer of -repute, to examine the several sources from which a supply was likely -to be obtained, and to furnish correct surveys and profiles of the -heights and depressions of the country through which the water must be -conveyed, and that he had been requested to report as soon as it was -practicable. - -In 1823, the Sharon Canal Company was chartered by the State, and among -its duties was that of supplying the city of New-York with pure and -wholesome water. The work was not, however, undertaken. - -In January, 1824, Mr. White made his report, which he prefaced -as follows:--“That he had the honor of receiving a request from -Stephen Allen, late Mayor, to make an examination and estimate of -the expense of furnishing the city with a copious supply of good and -wholesome water. Agreeably to that request, I have made the necessary -surveys, levels and examinations to ascertain the practicability -of the project,” &c. &c. At the same date, Benjamin Wright, Esq., -reported to the Common Council on the same subject, which he prefaces -as follows:--“In obedience to a request of your honorable body, -communicated to me by Stephen Allen, Esq., late Mayor, in November -last, desiring me to assist Canvas White, Esq., with my advice and -counsel, as to the best method of supplying the city of New-York with -plenty of good water, I beg leave to make the following report,” &c. - -Mr. White reported in favor of bringing the water of the Bronx to -the city; taking it from the River at the Westchester Cotton Factory -pond. The natural flow of the River at this place, he stated to be -3,000,000 of gallons per day, in the driest season, and he proposed by -artificial works at the upper Rye pond, and by lowering the outlet of -this pond, to obtain 3,600,000 gallons more per day; thus furnishing -a daily supply of 6,600,000 gallons. The cost of bringing the water -to a reservoir near the Park, was estimated at $1,949,542. Mr. Wright -concurred with him in this opinion. - -In 1825 a company was incorporated by the Legislature, and called the -“_New-York Water Works Company_,” with authority to supply the city -with pure water. Canvas White, Esq., was appointed Engineer to this -Company, and in his report to the Directors, he recommended taking the -waters of the Bronx at Underhill’s bridge; estimated that 9,100,000 -gallons of water could be delivered in the city daily, and that the -expense would not exceed $1,450,000. - -The charter of this company proved so defective in practice, that they -were unable to proceed under it, and they accordingly applied to the -Legislature in 1826 for an amendment, authorizing the company to take -such of the waters, land and materials, by appraisement of indifferent -persons, as might be required for the work. In this application, -however, they were defeated, by the opposition of the Sharon Canal -Company, who claimed, under their charter, all the water on the route -of their canal. The Water Works Company was accordingly dissolved in -1827. - -In 1831, the Common Council of the city, impelled by a sense of the -importance of a supply of pure and wholesome water, began to take more -decided steps towards the accomplishment of the object: a Committee -of the Board of Aldermen on Fire and Water, consisting of James -Palmer, Samuel Stevens and William Scott, to whom were referred -various communications and resolutions on the subject of supplying -the city with water, presented a report adducing facts and arguments -sufficient to prove the practicability of the project and the ability -of the Corporation to meet the expense; and prefaced that report as -follows:--“That they approach the subject as one of vast magnitude and -importance to an already numerous and dense population, requiring our -municipal authorities no longer to satisfy themselves with speeches, -reports and surveys, but actually to raise the _means_ and strike -the spade into the ground, as a commencement of this all important -undertaking.”[2] - -Their attention was drawn, at that time, to the Bronx River, with the -ponds at its head, as the source for supply; but appended to their -report is a letter directed to the Corporation and signed Cyrus Swan, -“who is President of the New-York and Sharon Canal Company,” in which -it is asserted, “it has been ascertained that _that_ River (the Croton) -can be carried into the city of New-York, and that without it, a supply -which shall be adequate to the present and future wants of the city -cannot be obtained. - -This Committee drafted an _Act_ for the Legislature to pass, which was -approved by the Common Council, and presented to the Legislature in -the session of 1832, but failed in becoming a law. That _Act_ provided -for the appointment of a Board of Commissioners of three persons, by -the Common Council, to superintend the execution of the plan and make -contracts for introducing water into the city of New-York. - -In November, 1832, a report was made by Timothy Dewey and William -Serrell to Benjamin Wright, Esq. They had examined the sources of the -Bronx River and other streams, and the practicability of introducing -the water of the Croton by connecting it with the Sawmill and Bronx -Rivers;--they did not consider it possible to bring the Croton water to -mingle with those of the aforesaid rivers without the aid of expensive -machinery, from the great height it would be necessary to elevate the -water. They finally recommended the Bronx as a sufficient source, with -some artificial reservoirs, to answer all the city purposes. - -The frightful ravages of the cholera, during the summer of 1832, gave -to the subject of _a supply of pure water_ a deeper interest, and the -minds of the citizens were again aroused to the importance of it. The -Committee of the Board of Aldermen, on “Fire and Water,” James Palmer, -chairman, pursued the subject with energy; exhibiting on all occasions -perseverance and industry in their researches. - -Myndert Van Schaick, Esq., being a member of the Board of Aldermen -at that time, was familiar with the question of a supply of pure and -wholesome water, and holding the situation of Treasurer of the Board -of Health, became deeply interested in the measure, and urged it as -a matter of the deepest importance to the permanence, welfare and -financial interests of the city, that every method should be taken -to investigate and probe the subject which cautious men could adopt, -and his efforts in the subsequent measures and provisions of law in -relation to it are of the same character. - -In December, 1832, De Witt Clinton, Esq., of the United States Corps -of Engineers, made a report pursuant to a request of the Committee on -Fire and Water, in which, after stating the substance of the several -reports in favor of the Bronx as the source of supply, he arrives at -the conclusion, that an adequate supply can only be obtained from the -Croton River. - -He proposed to take the waters of the Croton at Pine’s bridge, which -he stated to be 183 feet above the level of the Hudson; to conduct the -water in an open Aqueduct, following the line of the Croton and Hudson -Rivers, and cross Harlem River on an arch of 138 feet in height, and -1,000 feet in length. The whole cost he estimated at $2,500,000. - -It does not appear, however, that any levels were run, or survey made -by Mr. Clinton, of the route he recommended; but, that he depended on -the information of others, together with his personal observation, for -the subject matter of his report. - -In a report made to the Board of Aldermen in January, 1833, it was -suggested that the failure of the law asked for the year previous, -was in consequence of a want of sufficient information to warrant the -opinion of the feasibility of the project, and it recommended that -immediate application should be made to the Legislature, asking for the -appointment of a Board of Commissioners, with full powers to examine -all the plans proposed, to cause surveys, and to estimate the probable -expense of supplying the city of New-York with water. - -The Committee recommended that the Commissioners should be appointed by -the Governor and Senate, and that their number should consist of five, -“inasmuch as the object of their appointment is to settle conclusively -the plan to be adopted, and the amount requisite for its performance.” -This report was concurred in by the Board of Assistants, and approved -of by the Mayor, January 17th, 1833. - -In compliance with the request of the Common Council the Legislature of -the State, on the 26th of February, 1833, passed an Act,[3] providing -for the appointment by the Governor and Senate, of five persons, as -Water Commissioners, whose duty it was by said Act declared to be “to -examine and consider all matters relative to supplying the city of -New-York with a sufficient quantity of pure and wholesome water for the -use of its inhabitants, and the amount of money necessary to effect -that object.” - -In pursuance of this law, the Governor and Senate appointed the -Board of Water Commissioners, consisting of the following named -gentlemen:--Stephen Allen, William W. Fox, Saul Alley, Charles -Dusenberry and Benjamin M. Brown. They were directed to make their -report to the Legislature, by the second Monday of January, 1834, -and to present a _copy_ thereof to the Common Council of the City of -New-York on or before the first day of November, 1833. - -The Commissioners proceeded in the discharge of their duties, employed -as Engineers Canvas White, Esquire, and Major D. B. Douglass, of the -United States Corps of Engineers, and made all necessary examinations -so as to determine, whether a sufficient quantity of pure and wholesome -water could be obtained for present and future purposes, whether -its introduction into the city would be practicable at an elevation -precluding the use of machinery, and also what would be the probable -cost of completing the projected work. Their report satisfied the -Legislature that a supply of pure and wholesome water was of great -importance to the city--that its introduction was feasible, and -that the expense was within the financial ability of the citizens. -Accordingly an Act[4] was passed by the Legislature, on the 2d of May, -1834, which provided for the appointment of five Water Commissioners -by the Governor and Senate, and they were required “to examine and -consider all matters relative to supplying the city of New-York with a -sufficient quantity of pure and wholesome water; to adopt such plan as -in their opinion will be most advantageous for securing such supply, -and to report a full statement and description of the plan adopted -by them; to ascertain, as near as may be, what amount of money may -be necessary to carry the same into effect; to report an estimate of -the probable amount of revenue that will accrue to the city, upon the -completion of the work, and the reasons and calculations upon which -their opinion and estimates may be founded; such report to be made and -presented to the Common Council of the city on or before the first day -of January, 1836.” - -It was further provided, that “in case the plan adopted by the -Commissioners shall be approved by the Common Council, they shall -submit it to the electors to express their assent or refusal to allow -the Common Council, to instruct the Commissioners to proceed in the -work.” - -The Commissioners who were appointed in 1833, were re-appointed under -the Act of the 2d of May, 1834. They immediately entered upon the -duties of their office, thoroughly re-examined their former work, and -decided that the Croton River was the only source that would furnish -an adequate supply of water for present and future purposes. In making -these examinations they employed, as Engineers, David B. Douglass, -John Martineau and George W. Cartwright, Esquires. Various plans were -proposed for conveying the water to the city, and estimates made of -the cost of the work constructed by either of these plans, but the -one recommended by the Commissioners, and that for which a preference -was expressed by the Engineers, Messrs. Martineau and Douglass, was -a closed Aqueduct of masonry. These gentlemen each made an estimate -of the cost of bringing the water of the Croton River to the city of -New-York by a closed Aqueduct of masonry, and the Water Commissioners -offered, as the true cost of the work, an average of the two estimates. -The cost of the work, as estimated for this plan and presented by -the Water Commissioners, (including the cost of the city mains and -conduits,) was $5,412,336.72. - -The report of the Water Commissioners was referred to a Committee, -who reported to the Common Council, on the 4th of March, 1835, two -resolutions, the first approving the plan adopted by the Commissioners -as described in their report; and the second referring the subject to -the electors at the ensuing annual election, as required by the Act of -May 2d, 1834. These resolutions were adopted by the Common Council, and -at the election in April, 1835, the subject having been duly submitted -to the electors of the city and county of New-York, a majority of the -voters were found to be in favor of the measure. On the 7th of May -following, the Common Council “instructed the Commissioners to proceed -with the work.” - -Thus authorized, the Commissioners immediately commenced the -preparatory measures for the construction of the work. David B. -Douglass was employed as Chief Engineer; he proceeded in the location -of the line for the Aqueduct and in preparing plans, until October, -1836, when he was succeeded by John B. Jervis, who continued at the -head of that department during the construction of the Aqueduct. - -The construction of the work was commenced in May 1837; and on the -22d June, 1842, the Aqueduct received the water from the Fountain -Reservoir on the Croton:--on the 27th of June, the water having been -permitted to traverse the entire length of the Aqueduct, entered the -Receiving Reservoir at the city of New-York, and was admitted into the -Distributing Reservoir on the 4th of July. - -The Commissioners who were appointed in 1833, and re-appointed in 1834, -continued in the performance of their duties until 1837--in March, of -which year Thomas T. Woodruff was appointed in the place of Benjamin -M. Brown, who resigned his office, and the Board of Commissioners thus -constituted, continued until March, 1840, when they were succeeded by -Samuel Stevens, John D. Ward, Zebedee Ring, Benjamin Birdsall and -Samuel R. Childs. This Board of Commissioners remained in office until -February, 1843, when they were succeeded by the gentlemen who composed -the former Board. - - - - -OF PLANS PROPOSED FOR FURNISHING THE CITY WITH WATER, AND OF THE PLAN -ADOPTED. - - -In the course of examinations which were made to determine sources -whence water could be obtained, questions of deep importance presented -themselves in regard to the source to be relied upon for a supply, also -in reference to the plan which should be adopted for conducting the -water to the city. - -It was of so much importance to the city that the supply should be -such as not only to answer the present purposes, but be adequate to -the future increased demands, and that the quality of the water should -be unquestionable, that it became necessary to extend the examinations -over every watered district in the vicinity, in order to judge of -the comparative merits of different sources. The Engineers who were -employed, traversed the country, gauged the streams, reported their -supply, the quality of the water, and plans which might be adopted -for conveying it to the city. It was a field for the exercise of the -talent and research of the Engineer: in resorting to a distant stream -for a supply, any plan which he might propose for conveying the water, -would encounter obstacles requiring skill and ingenuity to overcome. -He would find it necessary to build up the valleys, pierce through the -hills, and span the waters of the arms of the sea which embrace the -city and make it an island. Structures would be required, which, in -their design, would find no parallel among the public works of this -country, and in forming plans for them he might study with advantage, -the works constructed for similar purposes by the Ancient Romans. - -The examinations embraced all the sources from which a supply of water -might be obtained in the neighboring counties of Westchester and -Putnam; giving a comparison of the different streams in regard to their -elevation, their capacity, and the quality of the water. It was decided -that the Croton River would supply a sufficient quantity of water at -all seasons of the year; at an elevation precluding the use of steam -or any other extraneous power, and that the quality of the water was -unexceptionable. Other streams were found which would furnish water -equally pure, but too limited in quantity at certain seasons of the -year, and not at a sufficient elevation. - -In addition to the information furnished by the Engineers employed, -the Water Commissioners received communications from other sources -suggesting plans for supplying the city with water. - -It was suggested that water might be obtained from the Passaic Falls, -at a distance of about eighteen miles from the city, in New-Jersey. The -objections to this project were, that it would be going into another -state, that an Aqueduct bridge over the Hudson River would obstruct its -navigation, and iron pipes laid across the bed of the river would be -exposed to injury from the anchors of the shipping. Another plan was -proposed which contemplated a permanent dam across the Hudson River -extending from the city to the Jersey shore. This dam was proposed to -be built about 2 feet above the level of high tide, thereby keeping all -the salt water below; and above the dam would be the fresh water for -supplying the city, which must be pumped up into a reservoir by means -of water-wheels, which would be operated by the overfall of water when -the tide was low, but when the tide was up within 2 feet of the top of -the dam there would not be sufficient fall to propel the wheels. Locks -were to be inserted in the dam, of a sufficient number to accommodate -the vessels on the river. The river, at the place where it was proposed -to locate the dam, is over a mile in width, and in the channel the -depth below the surface to proper foundation for such a structure, -would probably be 50 feet. The difference of tides is about 5 feet, -which added to the height of dam above high tides, would give 7 feet -of the top of the dam exposed to the pressure of the water on the up -stream side when the tide is low. - -It was suggested that the hydraulic power here obtained, could be used -for manufacturing purposes, except that portion of it which would -be required for elevating the water to the reservoir. This plan of -supplying the city with water was objected to, because it could not -be accomplished except by an Act of the Legislature of New-Jersey as -well as that of New-York, and it was also questionable whether such -obstructions could be placed in navigable rivers without interfering -with the powers of Congress to regulate the commerce of the nation. -It was feared that in locking vessels through, the salt water would -become mingled with the fresh above the dam where a supply would be -taken for the city, to such a degree, that it would render it unfit -for domestic use. The quantity of land that would be overflowed by the -water set back by the dam, presented another objection. The space of -time that the tide would be sufficiently low to allow the wheels to -work in pumping water into the reservoir, would be entirely too short -to insure a supply. This objection was offered by Frederick Graff, -Esq., the superintendent of the Philadelphia Water Works, who stated -that although the dam on the Schuylkill River is raised 6 feet 6 inches -above the highest tides, the delay in pumping, occasioned by the tides, -averages seven hours out of the twenty-four; and in full moon tides, -from eight to nine hours. - -The projector of this plan set forth many advantages which he thought -would arise from the construction of the dam, but the obstruction to -the navigation of the river, the destruction of the shad fishery, and -various objections besides those already mentioned, induced the Water -Commissioners to reject the idea of building a dam across the Hudson. - -We have now gone over most of the preliminary steps which were taken -before deciding upon the source for a supply of water.--Having fixed -upon the Croton River as a stream possessing the requisite advantages -for a supply, questions naturally arose as to the manner in which it -should be conveyed to the city. The distance being about forty miles, -over a country extremely broken and uneven, and following a direction, -for a portion of this distance, parallel with the Hudson River, -encountering the streams which empty into it and form deep valleys in -their courses. It will be interesting to notice the different plans -which were suggested for forming a channel-way to conduct the water. -The following modes were presented:--a plain channel formed of earth, -like the ordinary construction of a canal feeder:--an open channel, -protected against the action of the current by masonry:--an arched -culvert or conduit, composed essentially of masonry; and iron pipes. -In deciding which of these modes should be adopted, it was necessary -to make a comparison among them as to their efficiency for conducting -the water in purity, and in the quantity required, their permanency as -structures, and their cost. - -The disadvantages attendant upon an open canal were, that by filtration -through the banks there would be a heavy loss of water;--the difficulty -of preserving the water from receiving the wash of the country, and -preventing injurious matter from being thrown into it and rendering -it impure, and the impurities which might be contracted by passing -through different earths. Evaporation would also occasion a serious -loss of water. The banks would be liable to failure in seasons of -long-continued rains, and the city depending upon this for a supply, -would be cut off, except there should be sufficient in the reservoirs -to furnish a supply during the period of repairs. The canal could -never be subjected to a _thorough_ repair, because of the necessity -of keeping it in a condition for furnishing water constantly during -the whole year, so that all repairs would be done under great -disadvantages, and the channel would be yearly growing worse until its -failure might become a public calamity. In regard to the open channel -having the sides protected by masonry, the objections were found to be -such as would apply equally to every species of open channel; namely, -that it would be exposed in many situations to receive the wash of -the country; that it would be unprotected from the frost, and liable -to be interrupted thereby, and lastly, that there would be a loss by -evaporation. It was supposed that these objections might be obviated by -certain precautions; for example, the wash could be avoided by making -sufficient side drains; and the interruption liable to occur from frost -and snow, and the evaporation, to a certain extent, could be prevented -by closing the channel entirely with a roof over the top. The close -channel or culvert, composed essentially of masonry seemed to possess -all the requisite advantages for conducting the water in a pure state -and keeping it beyond the influence of frost or any interruption which -would be liable to occur to an open channel. In point of stability this -plan had a decided preference over either of the other plans proposed, -and the only objection offered was the cost of the work constructed in -this way. To avoid too great expense it was proposed to make use of a -mixed construction, using the close channel or culvert in situations -where deep excavations occurred and it would be desirable to fill in -the earth again to the natural form, also where the line of Aqueduct -intersected villages, and using the open channel with slope walls for -the residue of the distance. - -In regard to iron pipes for conducting the water, it was found that -a sufficient number of them to give the same sectional area as would -be adopted by either of the other plans would be more expensive, and -considering the great distance and the undulating surface over which -they would extend, other disadvantages were presented which added -to the objections, and the plan was considered inexpedient. Could a -line be graded so as to give a regular inclination from the Fountain -Reservoir to one at the city, then the expense of laying iron pipes -for conducting the proposed quantity of water, would be greater than -for constructing a channel-way of masonry; and when laid, the pipes -were thought to be less durable. Should the pipes follow the natural -undulations of the ground, there would be so much resistance offered -to the flow of water that the discharge would be diminished in a very -great degree. - -The close channel or conduit of masonry was adopted as the plan best -calculated to answer all the purposes of conducting the water to the -city. - - -_Sources of the Croton River._ - -The sources of the Croton River are principally in the county of -Putnam, at a distance of fifty miles from the city of New-York; they -are mostly springs which in that elevated and uneven country have -formed many ponds and lakes never-failing in their supply. There are -about twenty of these lakes which constitute the sources of the Croton -River, and the aggregate of their surface areas is about three thousand -eight hundred acres. - -From these sources to the mouth of the Croton at the head of Tappan -Bay in the Hudson, the distance is about twenty-five miles. The -country bordering upon the Croton is generally elevated and uneven, -not sustaining a dense population and cleared sufficiently to prevent -injury to the water from decayed vegetable matter. The river has a -rapid descent and flows over a bed of gravel and masses of broken rock. -From these advantages there is good reason to suppose that the water -will receive very little impurity from the wash of the country through -which it flows, and there is no doubt that the sources furnish that -which is peculiarly adapted to all the purposes of a large city. - -The water is of such uncommon purity that in earlier days the native -Indian gave a name to the river which signified “_clear water_.”[5] - - -_Flow of Water in the Croton River, Capacity of the Fountain Reservoir, -&c._ - -The medium flow of water in the Croton, where the fountain reservoir -is formed, exceeds fifty millions of gallons in twenty-four hours, and -the minimum flow, after a long-continued drought, is about twenty-seven -millions of gallons in twenty-four hours. - -The dam on the Croton River is about 38 feet above the level which was -the surface of the natural flow of water at that place, and sets the -water back about six miles, forming the Fountain Reservoir which covers -an area of about four hundred acres. The country forming the valley of -the River was such as to give bold shores to this reservoir generally, -and in cases where there was a gentle slope or a level of the ground -near the surface of water, excavations were made so that the water -should not be of less depth than four and a half feet. - -The great length of this Reservoir is favourable for the purity of the -water which enters the Aqueduct: spread over this large surface, it -will have an opportunity to settle and part with some of the impurities -which it receives, during rainy seasons, from the wash of the country -through which it flows. - -The available capacity of this Reservoir, down to the level where the -water would cease to flow off in the Aqueduct, has been estimated at -six hundred millions of gallons. - -Could we suppose that the Croton River will ever in any season of -drought, fail to furnish a supply greater than would be carried off -from this Reservoir and the Reservoirs at the city by evaporation, -we have still a supply of water which would be sufficient for one -million of inhabitants during the space of thirty days (estimating the -amount necessary for each inhabitant to be twenty gallons for every -twenty-four hours.) - -But we may assume the number of inhabitants at present to be one third -of a million, and therefore we have a sufficient store of water in -this Fountain Reservoir to supply them for the space of ninety days, -in the emergency before supposed. In addition to the quantity in the -Fountain Reservoir, we have sufficient in the Reservoirs at the city -to supply one third of a million of inhabitants for about twenty-five -days, at the rate of supply before mentioned. Thus we find, should such -a limit as we have supposed ever happen to the supply from the River, -the season of drought cannot certainly be supposed to continue during -the length of time (about four months) that would be required for the -present population of the city to exhaust the quantity in store when -all the Reservoirs are full. - -The minimum flow of water in the river where the dam is constructed, -has been stated to be twenty-seven millions of gallons for every -twenty-four hours. This would be a sufficient supply for one million -of inhabitants, and should the population of the city increase to one -million and a half, this supply, together with the quantity in store, -will probably be sufficient during any season of drought. There is, -therefore, no fear in regard to the supply for the present, and should -the time arrive when the city will require more than the present -facilities afford during low stages of the river, other streams may -be found which can be turned into the upper branches of the Croton, -or into the Aqueduct along its course. Other Reservoirs may also be -constructed farther up the Croton to draw from in seasons of drought. -These suggestions would only be useful to provide a supply during the -low stages of the river, for at other seasons the flow of water in the -Croton would be equal to the full capacity of the Aqueduct.[6] - - -_General Design of the Channel-way and Reservoirs._ - -A description of the general design and purpose of the channel-way in -connection with the Reservoirs will serve to give a clear understanding -of the operation of the work. Having ascertained the elevation in -the city at which it would be desirable to use the water, it was -only necessary then, to find a point on the Croton River where a dam -could be constructed that would turn the water into a channel having -a gradual descent to the required elevation at the city. So that it -may easily be conceived, it is only diverting the water into another -channel where it will flow on unobstructed. The manner in which water -is conducted from its natural channel, for the purpose of propelling -the machinery of manufacturing establishments, by a race-way or other -channel, is a simple illustration of the operation of this great work. - -At the place where it was determined to build the dam across the -Croton River, the surface of the natural flow of water was about 38 -feet below the elevation required as a head for the water to flow into -the Aqueduct leading to the city. By going farther up the river the -dam would have been of less height, and a point might have been found -where it would be only necessary to build a dam to turn the water, and -not form a pond of much extent above it, but for such purpose it would -have been necessary to go above where some important tributaries enter -the river, and would have required a considerable extension of the -Aqueduct. It was perhaps desirable to form this Fountain Reservoir, so -that it would afford a supply of water to draw from, should there at -any future time, in a season of drought, be more required for the use -of the city than would be flowing in the river. - -No essential change occurs in the form of the channel-way from the -Fountain Reservoir on the Croton, to the Receiving Reservoir on the -island of New-York; a distance of thirty-eight miles, except in -crossing Harlem River to reach the island, and in passing a deep valley -on the island, where iron pipes are used instead of the channel-way of -masonry to provide for the pressure consequent upon a depression from -the regular plane. - -At these points the iron pipes descend and rise again, so that when -the water is flowing in the channel-way they will be constantly full. -Thus it will be perceived that the channel-way of masonry will never -be filled entirely, so as to occasion a pressure on all its interior -surface. - -The surface of the Fountain Reservoir is 166⅙ feet above the level -of mean tide at the city of New-York; and the difference of level -between that and the surface of the Receiving Reservoir on the island -of New-York, (a distance of thirty-eight miles) is 47⅙ feet, leaving -the surface of this reservoir 119 feet above the level of mean tide. -From the Receiving Reservoir the water is conducted (a distance of two -miles) in iron pipes to the Distributing Reservoir, where the surface -of the water is 115 feet above the level of mean tide. This last is the -height to which the water may generally be made available in the city. - - - - -GENERAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE AQUEDUCT. - - -Plate I. is a section of the Aqueduct showing the form of the masonry -used in earth excavations. The foundation is formed with concrete; the -side walls of stone; the bottom and sides of the interior being faced -with brick, and the top covered with an arch of brick. - -In forming the concrete a mortar is made by mixing three parts of -sand with one of hydraulic lime, and then mixing about three parts of -stone, broken to a size allowing them to pass through a ring an inch -and a half in diameter. Having thoroughly mingled the broken stone -and mortar, the concrete is placed in its proper position and form, -and brought into a compact state by using a _pounder_; and is then -suffered to remain until it set, or become indurated, before any work -is commenced upon it. The object should be to mix as many stones or -pebbles as will thoroughly bed in the mortar, allowing none of them to -come in contact, but all to be enveloped in mortar. This forms a body -which becomes indurated and makes a foundation under the whole length -of the Aqueduct like one continuous stone. It attains a degree of -hardness which gives it the appearance of the conglomerate bearing the -name of _Pudding-stone_, and is an article of the greatest importance -in forming foundations for walls of great weight; superseding in many -instances, where the soil is soft, the use of piles or other timber -foundation. - -Though we have evidence that concrete was used by the Ancient Romans in -the foundations of some of their structures and even in the formation -of their roads--such as the Appian-Way, and though we find it used -in the foundations of the feudal castles of the Norman Barons of -England, still it has not been introduced into the general practice of -architecture until quite a modern date, and even at the present time -is not widely appreciated in this country as a material of so much -importance in foundations. - -The side walls are laid up in a character of workmanship styled -“_rough-hammered work_;” the stone required to be of sound and durable -quality and laid in a manner to render the work water-tight. Though -attention is given in some degree to insure a proper bond to the wall, -yet the point more particularly attended to, is to make it compact -and impervious to water. The bonding of the wall is not by any means -disregarded, in all situations where it is required, yet the position -of the work generally, where it is in excavation below the natural -surface of the ground, renders such precaution of less importance -than that of making it compact. The mortar used in these side walls -is formed by mixing clean sharp sand with hydraulic lime, using the -proportions of three parts of the sand to one of the lime; and these -are thoroughly mixed and incorporated before they are wet; when this -mixture is wet and thoroughly worked, it is used immediately and always -kept properly tempered so as to render it plastic, and to prevent any -disposition to become hardened before it is in the wall. After the -side walls are finished and the concrete between them has received its -proper form, a coating of plastering, about three eighths of an inch -in thickness, is put on over the surface of the concrete and on the -face of the walls before the interior facing of brick is commenced. -The proportions of this plastering are two parts of sand to one of the -hydraulic lime. - -The bricks used in this work are generally of quite a different -character from those used in ordinary house-building; being harder -burnt and of a superior quality of material. They are required to be -burnt to such a degree of hardness that they present a cherry red, or -brownish color, and give a clear ringing sound when struck; and when -broken, must present a compact and uniform texture. All bricks brought -upon the work which are soft and of a pale color, such as are usually -denominated _salmon brick_, are rejected. Those which are used, possess -nearly the hardness and durability of ordinary building stone, and are -calculated to resist the action of the water, to which they will be -exposed. - -The advantage of using brick is, that a smooth channel offering little -resistance to the flow of water can be formed with less expense than -with stone, and greater security can be obtained against any leakage; -for besides the coat of plastering which covers the face of the walls -and the top of the concrete, there is also a mortar joint between -this plastering and the brick work. The bricks being of good form and -easily handled, can be more expeditiously and closely laid than the -face of a wall of stone, and afford a smooth and uniform face to the -wall with less expense. They are required to be bedded full and flush -with mortar, so that on lifting one from its position in the work, -no imperfections be discovered, but the impress of the brick be found -distinct throughout. - -The proportions of the mortar for the brick work, are two parts of sand -to one of hydraulic lime. - -The inverted arch of brick, as well as the brick facing on the sides, -is four inches thick, and the roofing arch of brick is eight inches -thick. - -After the masonry is finished the excavation which was done to receive -it, is filled up around it, and over the top of the roofing arch -generally to the height of 3 to 4 feet, and in some instances of deep -excavation, up to the natural surface. If the natural surface be not -of sufficient height for the top of the earth covering, the earth is -raised to the requisite height with proper width on the top and slopes -on the sides for protection to the Aqueduct masonry. - -[Illustration: I - - _F. B. Tower._ _Gimber._ -] - -[Illustration: II - - _F. B. Tower._ _Gimber._ -] - -[Illustration: III - - _F. B. Tower._ _Gimber._ -] - -[Illustration: IV - - _F. B. Tower._ _Gimber._ -] - -Plate II. is a section of the Aqueduct in open cutting in rock. - -After the rock has been excavated to the required depth and width, -the bottom is levelled up with concrete to the proper height and form -for the inverted arch of brick, which is laid in the manner before -described for earth excavation. The side walls of stone and brick are -bonded together by headers of brick entering the stone walls as shown -in the drawing, and the walls of stone are built closely against the -sides of the rock and forming a junction with it. On the exterior -of the roofing arch a heavy spandrel of stone masonry (of the same -character as the stone walls beneath it) is built, filling the space -between the arch and the rock. After the masonry is finished, the rock -cut above it is filled with earth to the same height above the -roofing arch as mentioned for earth excavation. - -Plate III. is a section of the Aqueduct in tunnel cutting in rock. - -The width of the tunnel excavation in rock is the same as that of open -excavation in rock; and the manner of building the masonry to form -the channel-way is the same, with the exception that the rock roof of -the tunnel serves as the roof of the channel-way, where it is sound, -but in cases where the rock is soft and liable to fall, a brick arch -is built over the channel-way, and the space between its extrados, or -outer surface, and the rock roof is filled with earth closely rammed -in. In some instances where the tunnel perforated rock which was at -first quite hard, the roofing has by exposure to the air, become soft -and insecure, so as to render it necessary to turn an arch for its -support. This is attended with inconvenience and some difficulty after -the channel-way has been completed and closed through the tunnel. - -Plate IV. is a section of the Aqueduct in tunnel cutting in earth. - -When the earth is dry and compact, the excavation for the bottom and -sides is made of a proper form to receive the masonry, which is built -closely against it: the top is excavated sufficiently high to give room -to turn the arch, and the space above is afterwards filled with earth -closely rammed in. Where the earth is wet and there is difficulty in -making it stand, the excavation is made larger, and props of timber -and plank are used to support the top and sides until the masonry -be completed; and the whole space exterior to the masonry is then -compactly filled with earth. - -Plate V. is a section of the Aqueduct showing the manner of -constructing it across valleys, or where the natural surface of the -ground falls below the plane of grade. - -In such cases the Aqueduct is supported upon a foundation wall of -stone laid dry, and formed by using large stones laid in positions -to give proper bond, and to allow small broken stone to be closely -packed in, filling up all the interstices so as to form a compact and -uniform mass. The wall is generally allowed to stand some months after -it is completed, before the masonry of the Aqueduct is commenced upon -it, lest by this weight being placed upon it before it has found its -bearing, it should settle and cause cracks in the masonry. That such -settlement should in some instances occur, even after the Aqueduct -is completed, is not surprising, for passing over so many different -elevations, and encountering such numerous transitions from a hard -soil, or from rock, to valleys of alluvial deposit, it would be beyond -human powers of foresight and vigilance to prevent it. - -[Illustration: V - - _F. B. Tower._ _Gimber._ -] - -To render the Aqueduct more secure in such positions, the concrete -foundation has an increased thickness, and in preparing it a greater -proportion of hydraulic lime is used; the proportion being two and -a half parts of sand to one of lime. The dimensions of the stone -side walls and the spandrel backing of the roofing arch, are also -increased; and the proportion of hydraulic lime to the sand in the -mortar for these is increased. Another precaution has been taken to -render the work secure, by plastering the interior of the Aqueduct over -these foundation walls. The embankment adjacent to foundation walls -has various slopes according to circumstances, and is generally -protected with a dry stone wall on the face, and is carried up of -sufficient width to insure the requisite covering over the Aqueduct -masonry. - -Along side hills an excavation is made for the Aqueduct into the hill, -and a protection wall of stone built on the lower side so as to support -a covering of earth over the masonry; great care being taken to obtain -a deep and firm footing for this wall in order to render the work -secure. In such a position the Aqueduct is perhaps less secure than -in those before described. Where the soil is wet from springs, and -the formation clay, there is danger of slides; and in rainy seasons -there is danger from the torrents which gather on the hill sides and -come down with destructive force: the earth covering is liable to be -carried away, and the Aqueduct itself to be undermined. Great care has, -however, been used in such cases to form strong paved channels for the -passage of the water over the top of the Aqueduct, or by culverts to -pass it underneath. - - -WASTE-WEIRS. - -At suitable places on the line of the Aqueduct, waste-weirs are -constructed to discharge surplus water. They are constructed in one -side of the channel-way, in such manner as to allow the water to flow -off when it rises above a given level, and arrangements are also made -at these places to close the channel-way entirely, by means of stop -planks, and to discharge the whole of the water through waste-gates; -so that the water might be running from the Fountain Reservoir through -a portion of the Aqueduct and discharging from these waste-weirs -while the remainder of the channel-way, or portions of it, would be -drained so as to admit of inspection or repairs. There are six of these -waste-weirs constructed for the Aqueduct. - - -VENTILATORS. - -For the purpose of ventilation hollow cylinders of stone are erected -over the top of the Aqueduct and rising about 14 feet above the surface -of the ground, or earth covering. These occur every mile, and every -third one is constructed with a door to afford an entrance to the -Aqueduct. - -Those allowing an entrance have an interior diameter of 4 feet, and the -others have an interior diameter of 2 feet; each, however, slightly -diminishing towards the top. An iron grating covers the top to prevent -any thing being thrown in. - -Plate VI. is a view of an entrance ventilator; this stands on one side -of the Aqueduct, where the masonry of the side wall is enlarged for -its base; we can descend from the door and gain an entrance to the -channel-way by an opening in the side of the roofing arch. The sill of -the door is about 12 feet above the bottom of the channel-way. - -[Illustration: VI - - _F. B. Tower._ _Gimber._ - -ENTRANCE VENTILATOR] - -Those not intended for an entrance stand directly over the top of the -Aqueduct and are groined into the roofing arch. - -Besides these Ventilators, there are openings 2 feet square in the top -of the roofing arch, every quarter of a mile: they are covered with a -flag stone and the place is marked by a small stone monument projecting -above the surface of the ground. These may be useful to obtain entrance -to the Aqueduct, or to afford increased ventilation should it ever -become necessary. - - -CULVERTS. - -Where streams intersect the line of Aqueduct, culverts are built to -allow them to pass under it. They are simply a stone channel-way built -under the Aqueduct of such form and dimensions as will allow the stream -to pursue its natural direction without causing injury to the work. The -foundation of these culverts is formed by laying down concrete, upon -which an inverted arch of cut stone is laid forming the bottom of the -water-way: side walls of stone are built and surmounted by an arch of -stone. The span, or width of water way, of the culverts built, varies -from 1½ foot to 25 feet. Those of 1½ foot span have a square form for -the water-way, and are constructed by making a foundation of concrete, -upon which a flooring of well dressed stone is laid forming the bottom -of the water-way, and from this, side walls are built and covered by a -course of thick stone flagging well dressed and closely fitted. At each -end of the culvert a deep wall is built underneath so as to prevent -the water from doing injury by undermining it. Buttresses and wing -walls are built at each end of the culvert to guide the water to and -from the channel-way, and a parapet wall is built over the top of the -channel-way at each end to sustain the embankment of earth over the -culvert. These wing walls and parapets have various forms; sometimes -the parapet is built across the top of the culvert, and the wing walls -built at right angles to it, and sloping down to the buttresses, and -sometimes the wing walls and parapet form one continuous wall of a -semi-circular form, the top sloping up from the buttresses in a plane -parallel with the slope of the embankment covering the Aqueduct above. -These culverts are permanently constructed, and in preparing the plans -for them much skill has been displayed in adapting the form and size -which the circumstances required, and much taste displayed in the -design for their construction. - -Plate VII. is an isometrical drawing of one of the culverts with -rectangular wings and parapets; the body of the culvert is cut in two -in the drawing, showing that it may be of any length, according to the -width of the embankment through which it is constructed. The length is -generally arranged so that the slope of the embankment may intersect -the rear of the top of the parapet and pursue a direction down, -parallel with the slope of the top of the wing walls. - -[Illustration: VII - - Scale of 4 feet to one inch - - _F. B. Tower._ _Gimber._ -] - - -_Gate Chamber at the Head of the Aqueduct and Grade of the Water-way of -the Aqueduct._ - -Plate VIII. is a longitudinal section through the _tunnel_ and _gate -chamber_ at the head of the Aqueduct showing its connection with the -_Fountain Reservoir_. This gate chamber is not in any way connected -with the dam itself, but stands some distance from it, and the water -reaches it by means of the tunnel which leaves the Reservoir above the -dam and passes through the solid rock of the hill against which the -masonry of the dam is built, a distance of over 200 feet. This tunnel -descends into the Reservoir, so that the centre of it at the mouth is -about 12 feet below the surface of the water; any floating substance -cannot enter it, and during the winter season when the water is frozen -over no obstruction can take place to the flow into the Aqueduct, and -during the summer season the water will be drawn from a level where it -is cooler than at the surface. - -The gate chamber has two ranges, or sets of gates; one called -_regulating gates_, and the other _guard gates_: the regulating gates -are made of gun metal, and work in frames of the same material which -are fitted to stone jambs and lintels: the guard gates are made of -cast iron, and work in cast iron frames also attached to stone jambs -and lintels. The gates are all managed by means of wrought iron rods -attached to them, having a screw formed on the upper part on which a -brass nut works, being set in a cast iron socket-cap. - -The bottom of the water way, of the Aqueduct, where it leaves the gate -chamber is 11.40 feet below the surface of the Fountain Reservoir, and -154.77 feet above the level of mean tide at the city of New-York. The -following table shows the length of the Aqueduct as it is divided into -different planes of descent, from the gate chamber at the Croton dam to -the gate chamber at the Receiving Reservoir on the Island of New-York. -Commencing at the south side of the gate chamber at the Croton dam, - - and the - ft. miles, descent - The 1st plane of Aqueduct extends 26099.72 = 4.943, 2.94 ft. - The 2d plane of Aqueduct extends 148121.25 = 28.053, 30.69 ft. - Length of pipes across Har. River, 1377.33 = 0.261. - Diff. of level betw’n extremes of pipes 2.29 ft. - The 3d plane of Aqueduct extends 10733.14 = 2.033, 2.25 ft. - Length of pipes across Manhat. valley, 4105.09 = 0.777. - Diff. of level betw’n extremes of pipes 3.86 ft. - The 4th plane of Aqueduct extends 10680.89 = 2.023 1.60 ft. - --------- ------ --------- - 201117.42 = 38.090 43.63 ft. - -Making the whole distance from the gate chamber at the Croton dam to -the gate chamber at the Receiving Reservoir 201117.42 feet, or 38.09 -miles, and the whole descent 43.63 feet. - -The descent on the first plane is about 7⅛ inches per mile. - -The descent on the second and third plane is about 13¼ inches per mile. - -The descent on the fourth plane is about 9½ inches per mile. - -In crossing Harlem River there is a fall of 2 feet more than there -would have been had the Aqueduct continued across with its regular -inclination: this _extra_ fall will afford an opportunity to adjust the -number and capacity of the pipes (which descend below the level of the -Aqueduct and rise again) to discharge the full quantity of water as -freely as the Aqueduct, or channel-way of masonry, would have done had -it continued its regular inclination across the valley. - -In crossing Manhattan Valley there is an _extra_ fall of 3 feet for the -same reasons as before stated for that at Harlem River. In both cases, -by using the pipes, there is a loss of the head of water for the City -Reservoirs, equal to the amount of this _extra_ fall; but this small -loss of head was not considered of such importance as to induce the -building of structures across these valleys up to the plane of Aqueduct -grade. - -[Illustration: VIII - - _F. B. Tower._ _Gimber._ -] - -The bottom of the water-way of the Aqueduct at the gate chamber where -it enters the Receiving Reservoir, is 7.86 feet below the level of -top water line in the Reservoir, thus when the Reservoir is full the -water will rise to within 7¼ inches of the top of the interior of -the Aqueduct at that place, and the height from top water to the -top of the interior will increase, going northward according to the -inclination of the plane of Aqueduct grade, until it reach the surface -level of the flow of water in the Aqueduct. - -The height of the interior of the Aqueduct is 8 feet 5½ inches, and the -greatest width is 7 feet 5 inches. The sectional area of the interior -is 53.34 square feet. On the _first plane_, the Aqueduct is larger; -being 2.05 feet higher at the gate chamber, 2.31 feet higher at 2244. -feet from the chamber, and then diminishing, to the head of the second -plane, where it assumes the size above mentioned and continues of that -size throughout the remainder except in tunnels, where it assumes the -forms before described. Where the Aqueduct on the _first plane_ is -larger, the width across the interior at the spring line of the roofing -arch is the same as the general width, but the increase takes place -only in the height of the side walls, and the slope of the inner face -of the walls being the same, the width across at the spring line of the -inverted arch will be less according to the increased height of walls. -The original design was to continue the inclination which the _second -plane_ has, up to the _Fountain Reservoir_; but it was considered -desirable to draw from this Reservoir at a lower level, and the head -of the Aqueduct was depressed for that purpose, and a less inclination -adopted for the length of the _first plane_. The roofing arch was left -on the same inclination as was originally designed, except for the -distance of 2244. feet from the gate chamber, where it was built on a -level. - -The curves which are used to change the direction of the line of the -Aqueduct are generally formed with a radius of 500 feet; some have a -radius of 1000 feet, and in a few instances larger ones are adopted, -but the majority of them are of 500 feet radius. - -The velocity of the water in the Aqueduct has been ascertained to be -about one mile and a half an hour when it is 2 feet deep; this was -determined by floating _billets_ of wood from the Croton Dam to Harlem -River and noting the time of their passage. Such an experiment would -express the surface velocity and would give a greater velocity than -it would be proper to attribute to the _whole body_ of water in the -Aqueduct; but the depth of water in the Aqueduct will be probably 4 -feet as soon as it is brought into general use, and then there will be -a corresponding increase in the velocity of the _body_ of water. This -velocity of a _mile and a half an hour_ may be taken in general terms -as the _velocity of the water in the Aqueduct_. - -[Illustration: IX - - _F. B. Tower._ _W. Bennett._ - -VIEW ABOVE THE CROTON DAM.] - - - - -DESCRIPTION OF THE LINE OF AQUEDUCT. - - -The dam, built to form the Fountain Reservoir, is about six miles above -the mouth of the Croton River. The reservoir forms a beautiful sheet of -water in the lap of the hills in the wild region of the Croton, and has -received the name of the “Croton Lake.” - -Pine’s Bridge over the Croton River, which is mentioned in the early -history of the country, occupied a position which is now about the -middle of this Reservoir, and there is at that place a bridge over the -Reservoir resting upon piers and abutments. - -The hills which bound the Croton Valley where the Reservoir is formed -are so bold as to confine it within narrow limits: for about two miles -above the dam the average width is about one eighth of a mile; at this -distance from the dam the valley opens so that for the length of two -miles more the width is about a quarter of a mile; here the valley -contracts again and diminishes the width until the flow line reaches -the natural width of the River at the head of the lake. The country -immediately contiguous to the shore has been cleared up, and all that -would be liable to impart any impurity to the water has been removed. -This gives a pleasing aspect to the lake, showing where the hand of -art has swept along the shores leaving a clean margin. Retiring from -the water are the richly cultivated slopes with the neat farm houses -overlooking the lake, or the hills crowned with forest trees, while at -intervals a valley or ravine opens and empties in its tributary stream. - -Plate IX. is a view taken above the dam showing the position of the -entrance to the tunnel which leads from the Reservoir to the gate -chamber at the head of the Aqueduct. The entablature which is seen on -the left against the rock, is built directly over the mouth of the -tunnel, and from this the tunnel extends through the rock to the gate -house, which is seen on the right of the picture and some distance from -the dam. The structure which is seen in the centre of the picture and -on the ridge of the dam is a gate house over a culvert which extends -through the body of the dam; this culvert is 30 feet below the surface -of water when the Reservoir is full, and has gates which are operated -by means of rods which rise to the interior of the house. During low -stages of the River the water which is not drawn off by the Aqueduct -may pass through this culvert and allow none to pass over the dam. - -The entrance to the tunnel is protected by a screen of timber work. - -Plate X. is a representation of the entablature over the mouth of the -tunnel, showing the inscriptions upon it, relating to the date of -the commencement of the dam and its completion, the persons who had -contracts for building it, and those having charge of the work during -the time. - -[Illustration: X - - ENTRANCE TO THE CROTON AQUEDUCT - - COMMENCED 1837 - - COMPLETED 1842 -] - -Plate XI. is a view taken from a point below the dam and shows the -relative positions of the dam and the gate chamber at the head of the -Aqueduct. - -The original channel of the River where the dam is built, was about -120 feet wide; the average depth of water at this place was about 4 -feet; and the greatest depth 10 feet. - -The left bank of the river arose abruptly with rock, the channel was -gravelly, and on the right bank a sandy table land about 3 feet above -the ordinary surface of water extended about 80 feet; then a sandy hill -arose on a slope of about forty-five degrees. - -In making the plan for a dam at this place it was determined to -fill the main channel and the table land on the right bank with an -embankment of earth; and on the left bank where rock was found, to -build a body of masonry against the slope to the requisite height for -the surface of the Reservoir and connect it with the embankment in -the channel; this masonry formed the overfall for the water, and the -rock in the side of the hill adjacent to it was excavated down to the -level of the overfall, thereby extending it into the hill, making the -space for the water to pass over partly of masonry and partly of rock. -The embankment extended with a slope on the upstream side giving it a -broad base, and the lower or downstream side was faced with a heavy -wall of stone. There was a timber pier constructed in the embankment -extending across the channel and faced with plank on the upstream side. -The overfall was made of such length as was thought sufficient to pass -all the water of the river during its highest stages, and with the view -of adapting it to such purpose, examinations were made to find the -highest marks of floods on the banks of the river; and those who were -engaged in determining these marks were guided also by the observations -of the inhabitants of the vicinity who had long known the river in its -various stages. High freshets were witnessed during the construction -of the work, for in the course of two years that the work was going up, -all the various changes and freshets of rainy seasons were experienced, -and those in charge of it did not neglect to note the quantity of water -flowing on such occasions. - -[Illustration: XI - - _F. B. Tower._ _Gimbrede. sc._ - -VIEW BELOW THE CROTON DAM.] - -With such opportunities to become acquainted with the changes of the -stream they could not fail to know the quantity of water flowing at -periods of the highest freshets, and knowing it, to adapt an overfall -of sufficient capacity for its discharge. For this purpose it was -thought ample provision was made; yet at the time when the work -was nearly completed such a flood occurred as could not have been -anticipated from previous knowledge of the River; the water filling the -entire passage at the overfall, flowed over the top of the embankment -where it was not supposed it could ever reach. The lower slope of this -embankment was covered with a wall not calculated to resist the action -of the water and it gave way; the water broke through the embankment -and rushed along the valley with most disastrous consequences. The -breach occurred at an early hour in the morning; and many persons were -suddenly aroused from their sleep to escape before the approaching -waters. Dwelling-houses and mills were carried away and three lives -were lost. Two of those who were drowned had taken refuge in the tops -of trees, but these being swept away they were drowned; while others -who were not able to reach the main land, but had also taken refuge in -trees, were saved. The change wrought by the flood, in the appearance -of the country, was truly wonderful and the destruction was complete. -Night had closed over that valley where all was happiness and quiet, -but day opened upon a scene of desolation. The fertile fields were torn -up and covered with masses of stone and gravel, and the flood left -marks of its fury far up on the hill sides. - -At the commencement of the rain which caused this flood, the ground was -covered with snow to the depth of eighteen inches: the weather became -warm and the powerful rain storm continued incessantly for forty-eight -hours. Notwithstanding the immense volume discharged at the overfall -of the dam, the water was rising, during the night previous to this -disaster, at the rate of fourteen inches per hour over the Reservoir, -covering an area of four hundred acres. - -It occurred on the 8th of January, 1841. - -In repairing the breach it was decided to build an extension of solid -hydraulic masonry in the place of the portion of embankment which was -carried away. - -The gate house and wing wall, which is seen on the ridge of the dam, -shows where the masonry of the original structure connected with the -embankment which extended across the river. The whole length of the -overfall is 251 feet. Access to the house over the culvert, is gained -by a foot bridge which is seen in the picture. The masonry of the -original structure has a rock foundation, and the extension of the -overfall which is seen on the left of the house extending across to the -embankment has an artificial foundation of concrete. - -The masonry of the dam is about 8 feet thick at the top and 65 feet at -the base; it is built in a vertical form on the upstream side, with -occasional offsets, and the lower face has a curved form such as to -pass the water over without giving it a direct fall upon the apron at -the foot; this apron is formed of timber, stone, and concrete; and -extends some distance from the toe of the masonry, giving security at -the point where the water has the greatest action. A secondary dam has -been built at a distance of 300 feet from the masonry in order to form -a basin of water setting back over the apron at the toe of the main dam -so as to break the force of the water falling upon it. This secondary -dam is formed of round timber, brush wood, and gravel; it may be seen -in the picture directly under the bridge which extends across below the -main structure. - -On the upstream side of the masonry of the dam, an embankment of earth -is filled in, extending 275 feet from the masonry at the base, and -extending from the masonry with a slope of 1 foot in 5 on the top. - -[Illustration: XII - - _F. B. Tower._ _W. Bennett._ - -CROTON AQUEDUCT AT SING SING.] - -The whole work about the dam possesses great interest, and though it -be distant from the city and somewhat difficult of access, will not -fail to please those who may take time to visit it. Just above the -place where the dam is constructed the River had a bold turn and flowed -along at the foot of a steep and rugged bank. A road passed along at -the base of this hill leading to a mill which was situated at the turn -of the River, before mentioned; a substitute for this road, which was -submerged, has been made along the hill side passing on the right of -the gate house. Enough of the forest has been cleared away to admit of -the construction of the work, but the place still possesses much of its -original wildness, and to see such beautiful mechanical work standing -against the rude rocks,--to observe what changes have been wrought -in the form of this rock to render it subservient to the purposes of -the work, makes us feel that there has been a strife there; but it all -shows that _art_ has gained the ascendency. - -The form which has been adopted for the face of the extension of the -overfall is a reversed or double curve which would be easily recognized -as _Hogarth’s line of beauty_: the overfall for the original dam has a -plane face with a curve at the base. - -Walks are formed about the work bordered with grass, giving a neatness -and finished appearance to the whole; and every thing in connection -seems to indicate that the vicinity of the _Croton Dam_ will be one of -the resorts in summer seasons for the citizens of New-York. From the -Croton Dam the Aqueduct passes along the left side of the valley of the -Croton River until at the mouth of this river it reaches the left bank -of the Hudson, which it pursues, keeping at a distance of nearly half -a mile from the River, until it arrives at the village of Sing-Sing, -which is eight miles from the dam. In the course of this distance the -Aqueduct passes through four tunnels and encounters many valleys and -ravines where high foundation walls were required, and culverts for the -passage of the streams. - -At the village of Sing-Sing there are two Aqueduct bridges; one over a -public road-way, and the other over the Sing-Sing Kill. These bridges -and the adjacent work form a very interesting point on the line of -Aqueduct. - -Plate XII. is a view of the Aqueduct at this place: at the left of the -picture may be seen the bridge over the road, and on the right that -over the Kill. The bridge over the road has a span of 20 feet, and the -direction of the road-way being not at right angles with the line of -Aqueduct required the arch to be built askew; the arch lies in the -direction of the road-way, having the ends in planes parallel with the -direction of the Aqueduct. This bridge is worthy of notice, but public -attention is more generally directed to the larger one: _that_ has an -arch of 88 feet span and a rise of 33 feet; the form of the arch is -elliptical, being a compound curve drawn from five different centres, -or radius points. The Kill, or valley over which this arch stands, is a -deep narrow gorge worn by a small stream which empties into the Hudson -River. - -The bottom of the ravine is about 70 feet below the soffit or under -side of the arch. Plate XIII. is another view of the large arch taken -from the bottom of the valley near it, and shows the bridge which has -been constructed for a public road passing under it, and the mill near -by. - -[Illustration: XIII - - F. B. Tower. Napoleon Gimbrede. sc. - -AQUEDUCT BRIDGE AT SING SING.] - -This arch presents a singularly bold appearance, vaulting over the -roadway and rising high up above the old mill, and what adds much to -this boldness, is the narrowness of the arch, or small distance from -one end of it to the other; being only 23⅓ feet long at the springing -line while the span is nearly four times this length. The length of -the arch diminishes towards the crown, the ends being in planes not -vertical, but inclining towards each other at the top. Each end has -a batter or inclination of one twenty fourth of its height, or half -an inch to the foot. The arch is built of granite, is 3 feet thick -at the crown and 4 feet at the spring or base. The abutments have a -foundation of solid rock which was excavated in proper form to give -them firm footing. The whole structure presents a degree of stability -which seems to defy the effects of time. The Aqueduct has a cast -iron lining over this bridge (as it has over all of this character): it -is formed of plates five eighths of an inch thick, put together with -screw-bolts and nuts and the joints closely filled with iron cement. -This lining is within the brick work of the bottom and sides of the -channel-way, having four inches of brick outside of it and four inside. -The object of it is to prevent any water dripping through the work, -lest by any means it should fill the exterior masonry of the bridge -with moisture and thus render it liable to injury from frost. Other -precautions are taken in forming the masonry about the channel-way, to -prevent this exuding, and the whole plan of the work shows foresight -and precaution worthy of the highest praise. - -From the Sing-Sing Kill the Aqueduct pursues a course along the east -bank of the Hudson and the first work of peculiar interest is the -Aqueduct bridge over the road from Tarrytown to Sing-Sing; before -it reaches this place it passes through three tunnels, over high -foundation walls, and encounters deep excavations. - -[Illustration: XIV - - _F. B. Tower._ _W. Bennett. sc._ - -AQUEDUCT BRIDGE FOR ROAD WAY.] - -Plate XIV. is a view of this bridge: it is eleven and a quarter miles -from the dam. The arch is 20 feet span and has a versed sine or rise of -5 feet. From this the Aqueduct passes on, encounters one tunnel, and -reaches the valley of Mill River, twelve miles and three quarters from -the dam. This River runs through Sleepy Hollow and enters the Hudson -about a mile and a half above Tarrytown. The stream is 72 feet below -the bottom of the Aqueduct, and the valley being of considerable width -required a very heavy foundation wall. - -Plate XV. is a view of the _Mill River Culvert_: it is 25 feet span and -172 feet long. It is about half a mile east of the road leading from -Tarrytown to Sing-Sing, and to follow the course of the stream which -passes through it, it is three quarters of a mile to the _Old Dutch -Church_, near Tarrytown, which is well known, and familiar to every one -who has read Irving’s “Legend of Sleepy Hollow.” - -There is much of the wildness and beauty of nature about this place; -the woods are standing close upon the work,--the stream which passes -through the culvert displays its whitened crests as it tears along -over the rocky bed, and utters its music until it is lost in the depth -of the forest. The wild vines will soon climb the walls and cover -them; vegetation will gather over the work until _nature_ and _art_ be -harmoniously _wedded_. - -[Illustration: XV - - _F. B. Tower._ _W. Bennett. sc._ - -CROTON AQUEDUCT AT MILL RIVER.] - -From Mill River the Aqueduct passes the village of Tarrytown and -through one tunnel and over several depressions and streams, reaching -Jewell’s Brook which is seventeen and a half miles from the dam. This -stream enters the Hudson River about two miles below Tarrytown. The -distance from the mouth of the stream to the line of Aqueduct is only a -quarter of a mile. - -Plate XVI. is a view of the work at Jewell’s Brook. The culvert for -the stream is 6 feet span and 148 feet long. The larger culvert for a -private road is 14 feet span and 141 feet long. The wall which supports -the Aqueduct at this valley is 50 feet high. - -In this case, as in many others, the slope wall which covers the -face of the embankment has an arch turned in it over the top of the -culverts: the object of this is to prevent the direct pressure of -the wall upon the top of the parapet wall, as it would tend to displace -the coping or injure the parapet itself. - -[Illustration: XVI - - _F. B. Tower._ _J. W. Hill._ - -CROTON AQUEDUCT AT JEWELLS BROOK.] - -After crossing Jewell’s Brook the Aqueduct passes along the bank of the -Hudson through the village of Dobb’s Ferry, where there is a tunnel -and a valley requiring a culvert, and continues from this place to the -village of Hastings, where there is an Aqueduct bridge over a rail-road -which is used for transporting marble from the quarry near by, to the -landing on the Hudson River. - -Plate XVII. is a view of this bridge and the view under the arch shows -the face of the quarry which is near the work; the landing at the river -is near by, giving a very rapid descent from the quarry. The arch has a -span of 16 feet and a rise of 1½ foot. This bridge is twenty-one miles -from the dam. - -From Hastings the Aqueduct continues along the bank of the Hudson until -it reaches the village of Yonkers where it leaves the valley of the -Hudson, and passing through a tunnel of considerable length reaches the -valley of Saw-Mill River. At the crossing of this valley there is a -culvert of 20 feet span for a public road to pass under the Aqueduct, -and one having two arches each 25 feet span for the river. - -Plate XVIII. is a view of the work at Saw Mill River. - -The water is set back at this place by a dam for a mill a short -distance below, giving the stream an appearance of more magnitude than -it really possesses. This point is 25 miles from the dam. The wall -which supports the Aqueduct over this valley is 40 feet high. - -From Saw-Mill River the Aqueduct passing through one tunnel soon -reaches Tibbit’s Brook, which it crosses by means of a foundation -wall about 30 feet high and a culvert of 6 feet span, and continues -along the south side of the valley of this brook, thence to the Harlem -River which it crosses at one mile from McComb’s Dam. This crossing is -thirty-three miles from the Croton Dam, and about ten miles from the -City-Hall. - -The distance across this valley is about a quarter of a mile, and the -surface of the River is 120 feet below the bottom of the Aqueduct. - -In all the examinations which were made with a view of bringing -water from Westchester County, the crossing of this River, or _arm -of the sea_, was regarded as the most formidable work that would be -encountered; various plans were proposed, and in presenting these plans -the project was such as to call into requisition much talent and skill. - -An Aqueduct Bridge built of stone, having arches resting upon piers and -abutments, was proposed so as to continue the Aqueduct across with its -regular inclination. - -An Inverted Syphon of iron pipes was proposed; the pipes to descend to -a level near the surface of the River, and passing along upon a stone -embankment rise again and connect with the Aqueduct: in this stone -embankment an arch was to be built of sufficient dimensions to allow -free passage of the water of the River. - -[Illustration: XVII - - _F. B. Tower._ _J. W. Hill._ - -CROTON AQUEDUCT AT HASTINGS.] - -Another plan was proposed which, though novel in its application -to such purpose, was worthy of consideration: this was to build a -Suspension Bridge of wire cables reaching across the valley, supported -at intervals upon suitable stone piers. This, maintaining the regular -inclination of the Aqueduct, would support iron pipes. The design -was a bold one, yet instances where such bridges have been constructed -for road-ways afford examples of the feasibility and permanency of the -structures, and prove that the application of that principle for this -purpose was not a visionary project. - -The plan which was adopted as the most suitable under all the -considerations of economy and security to the work, was a _Low Bridge_ -to support an inverted syphon of iron pipes; and the design of it was -as follows: adjacent to the southern shore of the river there was to -be constructed an arch for the channel of the river, of 80 feet span -and springing from abutments 10 feet above high water level; this would -form a passage of 80 feet wide, and the height from high water level -to the under side of the arch at the crown would be 50 feet: south of -this arch followed three other arches on the slope of the rocky hill, -of 35, 30, and 25 feet span: south of these arches a foundation wall -was designed to continue the plane of inclination to the level of the -Aqueduct. From the large arch to the northern shore of the river an -embankment of stone was designed for the support of the pipes, and from -this wall the table land on the northern shore and the slope of the -northern side of the valley, would be excavated to a form to give the -proper position to the pipes descending from the Aqueduct. The lowest -level of the top of this stone embankment was designed to be 4 feet -above flood tide. Suitable parapet walls were designed to be built -along the sides of the embankment to sustain a covering of earth over -the pipes. With the form which was given to this _inverted syphon_, -four pipes, each of 3 feet interior diameter, were found to give a -discharge of water equal to that of the Aqueduct of masonry on the -established inclination. - -In accordance with this plan of the _Low Bridge_ the work for -crossing the River was put under contract and some progress made in -its execution, when a law was passed by the Legislature of the State -requiring, instead of this, a structure, the arches of which should -be (over the channel of the river) at least 80 feet span and having a -distance of 100 feet from the level of high water to the under side of -the crown; or to go under the channel of the river by a structure which -should not rise above the bed, and that would leave the present channel -unobstructed. At this time when the work was going on vigorously, -they were compelled to abandon the plan which had been adopted, and -devise one which would comply with the requirements of the law of the -Legislature. A comparison was instituted between the plan of a tunnel -under the bed of the river and that of a bridge of masonry at the -required height above the river. - -The tunnel would be at least 300 feet long and the top of the masonry -forming it, would be 18 feet below high water level. In this tunnel the -iron pipes would pass under the River and would be protected from the -salt water. - -[Illustration: XVIII - - _F. B. Tower._ _W. Bennett. sc._ - -CROTON AQUEDUCT AT YONKERS.] - -An estimate of the cost of crossing by means of each plan was made, -and the result was in favor of the tunnel under the bed of the River; -but from the imperfect knowledge which could at best be obtained of -the formation of the bed, there was great uncertainty in the estimate -of the cost of the tunnel and the time that would be required for its -completion. The history of the progress of work in the tunnel under the -Thames at London warned them of the difficulties of such a work and -the uncertainty of arriving at a proper estimate of the cost. - -In the alternative to which they were driven by the Act of the -Legislature, the plan of an Aqueduct bridge of masonry was adopted as -the proper one for crossing the River; but in establishing its altitude -they complied _only_ with the requisitions of the law, and made the -soffit or under side of the arches at the crown, 100 feet above common -high water level. This would not carry the work up to the level of the -Aqueduct, and would render it necessary to connect the Aqueduct on -each side of the valley by iron pipes which would descend to the level -of the bridge and crossing it rise again to the masonry channel-way. -The plans which were before spoken of for a bridge of masonry across -this valley, contemplated a structure which would maintain the regular -inclination of the Aqueduct; and the channel-way would have been formed -of masonry having a cast iron lining; but a more full consideration -of the subject suggested the propriety of using iron pipes over -the bridge, even if it had been carried up to the grade plane of -the Aqueduct: when the use of iron pipes was determined upon, then -considerations of economy induced them to build the work _only_ high -enough to comply with the requirements of the law. - -The plan which has been adopted for building an Aqueduct bridge across -this valley is as follows: on the south shore of the river there is one -arch of 50 feet span, across the river there are eight arches, each of -80 feet span, and on the north shore there are six arches each of 50 -feet span; making a range of fifteen arches. From the extremes of this -range of arches, a foundation wall of dry stone work connects with the -Aqueduct. - -Two of the piers in the river have a rock foundation and the -foundations for those where rock is not obtained is formed by driving -piles which are placed 2½ feet from centre to centre, and the spaces -between filled with concrete to a depth of 3 feet below the top of them. - -Plate XIX. is a view of this bridge, which, when completed, will be -the most interesting work on the whole line of Aqueduct, and in its -appearance will rival the grandeur of similar works of the Ancient -Romans. The height from the foundations in the river, to the top of the -work is 150 feet; the width across the top is 21 feet. The pipes when -laid upon the bridge will be covered with earth to protect them from -frost. The distance between the extremes of the pipes when laid across -the bridge will be 1377⅓ feet. For a distance of 18 feet at each end -of the pipes there is an inclination and the remainder of the distance -across, which is 1341⅓ feet, they are level. - -The bottom of the interior of the pipes on the level part, is 12-8/10 -feet below the bottom of water way of the Aqueduct on the north side, -and 10-5/10 below that on the south side of the valley. - -In the progress of excavating in one of the coffer dams in the -channel of the river a portion of a sunken vessel was found within -the enclosure; it had the appearance of great age. Tradition among -the inhabitants of the vicinity says that at an early period of the -Revolutionary war a vessel was scuttled and sunk in that part of the -river. - -[Illustration: XIX - - F. B. Tower. Napoleon Gimbrede. sc. - -CROTON AQUEDUCT AT HARLEM RIVER.] - -To a mind fond of antiquarian researches and accustomed to invest -objects of such a nature with associations of the past, this ancient -wreck would furnish a fruitful theme. We are now laying the foundation -of a magnificent work: at the day when this vessel was sunk the -American people were laying the foundation of a new form of government -composed of principles which should support a fabric of enduring -strength and beauty. We are now building a work which will stand as -a monument of the genius and enterprise of the age, but it may be -regarded among the fruits of that civil and religious liberty which has -been reared upon the foundations formed by the people of that day. - -The water is now conveyed across this valley by an iron pipe of 3 feet -interior diameter. In the progress of preparing foundations for the -piers of the bridge, an embankment has been formed across the River and -the pipe leaving the Aqueduct on the north side of the valley follows -down the slope of the hill, and crossing over the River upon this -embankment, ascends on the south side again to the Aqueduct. At the -bottom or lowest point in this pipe, a branch pipe of 1 foot diameter -has been connected, extending a distance of 80 feet from it at right -angles and horizontally: the end of this pipe is turned upwards to form -a jet, and iron plates are fastened upon it giving any form that may be -desired to the water issuing. The level of this branch pipe is about -120 feet below the bottom of the Aqueduct on the north side of the -valley; affording an opportunity for a beautiful _jet d’eau_;--such an -one as cannot be obtained at the fountains in the city. From an orifice -of seven inches diameter the column of water rises to a height of 115 -feet when there is only a depth of 2 feet of water in the Aqueduct. - -To those who had watched over the work during its construction and -looked for its successful operation, this was peculiarly gratifying. To -see the water leap from this opening and rise upwards with such force -and beauty, occasioned pleasing emotions and gave proof that the design -and construction of the work were alike faultless, and that all the -fondest hopes of its projectors would be realized. - -The scenery around this fountain added much to its beauty; there it -stood,--a whitened column rising from the river, erect, or shifting its -form, or waving like a forest tree as the winds swayed it, with the -rainbow tints resting upon its spray, while on either side the wooded -hills arose to rival its height: all around was of _nature_; no marble -basin,--no allegorical figures, wrought with exquisite touches of _art_ -to lure the eye, but a fountain where nature had adorned the place with -the grandeur and beauty of her rude hills and mountain scenery. - -Plate XX. is a distant view of the jet at Harlem River. - -From Harlem River the Aqueduct passes along the south bank of the River -for a short distance where it rests in the side of the rocky hill, and -continues over an uneven surface encountering two tunnels before it -reaches Manhattan Valley, which is about 35 miles from the Croton dam. -This valley is four fifths of a mile wide where the Aqueduct meets it, -and the depression is 102 feet below the plane of Aqueduct grade. - -[Illustration: XX - - _F. B. Tower._ _W. Bennett._ - -VIEW OF THE JET AT HARLEM RIVER.] - -Here was an opportunity for constructing a work of architectural beauty -and boldness by building up with arcades of arches, one line above -another, and thus maintain the regular inclination of the Aqueduct; -but considerations of economy forbade it. Where the Aqueduct reaches -the north side of the valley, a gate chamber is formed, and from -this, two pipes of 3 feet interior diameter descend to the bottom of -the valley and ascend on the south side to another gate chamber where -they connect with the Aqueduct again. Provision is made for four pipes -of 3 feet diameter, but at present only two are laid which answer the -demands of the city at this time. At the bottom of the valley waste -cocks are provided which discharge into a sewer leading to the Hudson -River, a distance of half a mile. - -The lowest point in the pipes is 102 feet below the bottom of the water -way of the Aqueduct on the north side of the valley. - -From Manhattan Valley the Aqueduct passes through a tunnel, and -following its course the next work of interest is at Clendinning -Valley, which is thirty-seven miles from the Croton Dam. This valley is -1900 feet across, and the Aqueduct is supported upon a foundation wall -of dry stone work having the face laid in mortar, except over three -streets where bridges are built, having an arch of 30 feet span for the -carriage-way and one on each side of 10½ feet span for the side walks. -These bridges are over 98th, 99th, and 100th streets. - -[Illustration: XXI - - _F. B. Tower._ _W. Bennett. sc._ - -CROTON AQUEDUCT AT CLENDINNING VALLEY.] - -Plate XXI. is a view of a portion of the work at Clendinning Valley -showing the three bridges; and comprises a length of about 700 feet. - -The greatest height from the foundation to the top of the work is 50 -feet, and the width at the bottom of the Aqueduct is 30 feet. Parapet -walls are built on the sides of the wall above the bottom of the -Aqueduct to support a covering of earth over it. - -Plate XXII. is an enlarged view of one of the bridges and a portion of -the foundation wall and Aqueduct adjacent to it. The Aqueduct has a -cast iron lining over the bridges like that described at the Sing Sing -Kill. - -These bridges are beautiful specimens of mechanical work; indeed the -whole structure across this valley has a degree of neatness, finish, -and taste, not surpassed by any on the line of Aqueduct. - -To visit this structure and follow along its whole extent, gives one -an idea of the magnitude of the work which the City of New-York has -accomplished; particularly when it is considered that this is only one -of the _parts_ which make up the _whole_. - -From Clendinning Valley the Aqueduct soon reaches the Receiving -Reservoir which is thirty-eight miles from the Croton Dam. - -This Reservoir occupies an elevated part of the island between 79th -and 86th streets and between the 6th and 7th Avenues. It covers seven -of the city blocks; is divided into two divisions, one covering three -and the other four of these blocks. It is 1826 feet long and 836 feet -wide from outside to outside of the top of the exterior walls of the -embankment, making an area of thirty-five acres. - -[Illustration: XXII - - _F. B. Tower._ _Gimber._ - -AQUEDUCT BRIDGE AT CLENDINNING VALLEY.] - -The situation was chosen as one affording the proper elevation: but its -formation was such as to present difficulties in the way of making the -Reservoir perfectly water-tight; the surface, in tracing it from 79th -to 86th street, was quite undulating, a portion of it in the southern -division of the Reservoir falling below the proposed bottom, and that -portion of the surface which was earth, forming only a covering to -the rock, which over the whole island, presents a singularly broken and -uneven formation. In almost every instance of excavation, the rock was -found above the proposed bottom of the Reservoir, and the difficulty -of preventing leakage along the surface of this rock may easily be -conceived; but considering that measures are taken to prevent such an -occurrence, another difficulty is still presented in the formation of -the rock: the veins and fissures which are frequent in this gneiss -formation would possibly afford courses for the water to escape; the -rock being unsound in many instances, would render such an occurrence -still more liable. A Reservoir has however, been constructed here which -proved, when it was filled with water, that sufficient precaution was -used to prevent leakage, and that the difficulties which presented -themselves before the commencement of the work were no longer to be -feared. - -The embankments forming the Reservoir are made of good assorted earth, -and a portion of the bank is puddled, or made compact and impervious by -wetting the earth and using a spade to force it into a compact state. -They are about 20 feet wide on the top, and increase in thickness -towards the base by a slope on both sides: the outside face of the -Reservoir bank has a slope of 1 foot horizontal to 3 feet vertical: -the inside has a slope of 1½ foot horizontal to 1 foot vertical. The -outside face is protected by a stone wall 4 feet thick having the face -laid in mortar: the inside face is protected by a slope wall of stone -laid without mortar, 1¼ foot thick. The top of the bank is 4 feet above -top water line, and the inside slope wall terminates at 2 feet above -top water line, leaving the remainder of the face to be covered with -grass, so as to present a belt of green above the water on the bank -entirely around the Reservoir. - -A neat fence bounds the outside and the inside of the top bank, forming -a walk of a mile in length around the entire Reservoir. - -The greatest depth of water in the northern division is 20 feet: it was -originally intended to excavate so as to give the water a depth of 20 -feet over the whole, but a quantity of rock was left, as the capacity -was thought to be sufficient without taking it out. - -The southern division has 30 feet of water where the bottom was filled -in with embankment, and 25 where excavation was made. A portion of rock -was left in this division for the same reason as that in the northern -division; the greater part of it being in the south-west corner, where -it rises above top water line. - -The capacity of the Reservoir when both divisions are full, is -150,000,000 Imperial gallons. - -The surface of water in the northern division covers 18.13 acres, and -in the southern division, 12.75 acres; making in both nearly 31 acres. - -Plate XXIII. is a plan of the Receiving Reservoir. - -The Aqueduct enters a gate chamber at A. where there are regulating -gates by which the water can be discharged into the northern division; -or into the southern division by a continuation of the Aqueduct within -the Reservoir bank to the angle B. of that division. - -[Illustration: XXIII - - Scale 200 feet to one inch - - _F. B. Tower._ _Gimber._ - -RECEIVING RESERVOIR] - -A connection pipe of cast iron is placed in the division bank at C. to -allow the water to flow from one division into the other in order to -equalize the level; it is placed 10 feet below top water line and has a -stop-cock to close or open it. - -At D. is a waste weir, where surplus water may pass off: it is so -arranged that the water, when it rises to a proper level, will flow -into a well, and from this a brick sewer conducts it off into low -grounds, where it finds its way to the East River. - -At each place where it is designed to discharge water from the -Reservoir, a gate house is built far enough into it to reach the -greatest depth of water beyond the slope of the embankment. These -houses have a wall upon three sides, and the front which faces the -centre of the Reservoir has a suitable screen of wood work and wooden -gates which regulate the level below the surface for the current -of discharge, and the iron pipes leading from these houses have a -stop-cock by which the discharge is controlled; this stop-cock is in a -vault within the Reservoir bank. - -The position of these effluent gate houses is marked on the plan by the -letters E, F, G, H, there being two in each division. A foot bridge -affords convenient access from the bank to the house. - -Those houses on the east side denoted by E, F, are the ones from which -pipes lead to the lower or Distributing Reservoir, and those on the -west side denoted by G, H, are intended for supplying the western part -of the city north of the Distributing Reservoir. - -There is a vault within the eastern bank to accommodate the pipes -which leave the house E, and passing along, connect with those from -the house F, and thence the pipes continue along 80th street and the -5th Avenue to the Distributing Reservoir. A vault within the west bank -accommodates the pipe which leads from the house H, and intersects -the one from G, passing out at 81st street; thus in this street a pipe -draws from the southern division at G, and a branch of it passing along -within the vault draws from the northern division at H. - -Provision has been made on the east side of the Reservoir for supplying -that part of the city when it becomes necessary. - -At present there are two pipes leading from this to the Distributing -Reservoir, each 3 feet interior diameter, and they are arranged that -both may draw from the southern division, or one from that, and one -from the northern division. The pipes are placed at a level below the -bottom of the division from which they draw: the bottom of the interior -of those from the southern division being 2 feet below, and that of -those from the northern 5 feet below. - -The exterior walls of this Reservoir present a face of _rough-hammered_ -masonry, finished in a manner to give them neatness and durability. - -As a specimen of mechanical work, this Reservoir will not bear a -comparison with the lower, or Distributing Reservoir, yet the sheet of -water it presents, renders it an object of perhaps greater interest. -This beautiful lake of pure water resting upon the summit of the Island -is truly a pleasing object, and considering its size, is what no other -city can boast of having within its limits. - -The Distributing Reservoir is situated on the west side of the 5th -Avenue between 40th and 42nd streets; it is two miles from the -Receiving Reservoir, and about three miles from the City-Hall. - -[Illustration: XXIV - - _F. B. Tower._ _Napoleon Gimbrede. sc._ - -DISTRIBUTING RESERVOIR.] - -The question may naturally be asked, why this Reservoir was built, -when the receiving one, of such great capacity, is so near at hand? The -reason for building it, was to obtain an efficient head of water near -to the densely populated parts of the city, and had the formation of -the island been favorable, the Receiving Reservoir would undoubtedly -have been located farther down, bringing the store of water more nearly -in the centre of the city. - -Plate XXIV. is an isometrical view of the Distributing Reservoir -showing the front on the 5th Avenue and on 42nd street. - -The pipes which leave the Receiving Reservoir follow along the 5th -Avenue until they reach 42nd street, where they turn and enter the -Distributing Reservoir at the base of the central pilaster in that -street, which in the drawing is shown on the right hand side. The -pipes enter at the bottom of the Reservoir and the flow of water is -regulated by _stop-cocks_: the door in the pilaster affords an entrance -to the vault where these _stop-cocks_ are situated. The Reservoir is -divided into two separate divisions by a wall. It is designed to have -three pipes, each 3 feet diameter, to lead from the Receiving to the -Distributing Reservoir and arrangements are made to discharge water -from two of them into one division of the Distributing Reservoir at -a time, or the water may be divided into an equal supply for both -divisions. - -On the south side of the Reservoir a pipe of 3 feet diameter leaves -each division and they are arranged with branches so as to draw from -one or both divisions. The house standing across the division wall -is directly over the mouth of the effluent pipes, and is constructed -like those at the Receiving Reservoir, with a gate and screen frame -of timber. The central pilaster on 40th street has an entrance (like -that on 42nd street) to the vault where the _stop-cocks_ are situated -which regulate the discharge from the Reservoir. The pipes leave the -Reservoir at the base of this pilaster and from 40th street, curve into -the 5th Avenue, which they pursue until they reach a convenient point -for diverging to the densely populated parts of the city. - -This Reservoir is 420 feet square on the top, measuring on the cornice -of the main wall; it is 425 feet square at the top of the cornice of -the pilasters, and 436 feet square at the base, measuring from outside -to outside of the corner pilasters, covering a little over four acres. -The height of the walls is 45 feet above the streets around, and about -50 feet above the foundations. - -The water is 36 feet deep when it reaches the level designed for its -surface (which is 4 feet below the top of the walls) and the surplus, -when the Reservoir is full, passes into a well in the division wall and -is conducted by a sewer in 42nd street to the Hudson River, which is -one mile distant. - -The Reservoir is calculated to hold 20,000,000 gallons. - -The outside walls are constructed with openings in them so that by -entering the door on 42nd street one may walk entirely around the -Reservoir within the walls. One object of this arrangement is to obtain -the greatest breadth with a given quantity of material; another is -to afford an opportunity to examine the work so as to guard against -leakage; and another, to prevent any moisture finding its way through -to the exterior so as to cause injury to the wall by the action of -frost. This kind of open work of the wall rises to within about 8 feet -of top water line. Inside of these walls an embankment of puddled -earth is formed with suitable breadth of base to give security to the -work, and the face of this earth next to the water is covered with a -wall of hydraulic masonry 1¼ foot thick. The top of the embankment -is covered with stone flagging, forming a walk around the top of the -Reservoir. The bottom of the Reservoir has a covering of concrete 1 -foot thick; thus when it is empty there will be seen two basins having -the sides and bottom formed of masonry. - -A section of the wall of one side of the Reservoir, including the -embankment, is 17 feet wide at the top, 35 feet wide 16 feet below -the top, and 76 feet wide at the bottom: the cornice projects on the -outside and the coping on the inside so as to make the width of the -top 21 feet. An iron railing bounds the outside and inside of the walk -around the top. - -The outside of the Reservoir is built on a slope of one sixth its -height, or two inches to the foot, and an Egyptian cornice projects at -the top of the main walls and the pilasters. - -At the entrance on the 5th Avenue a stairway leads up to the top of the -Reservoir. - -Terraces are built around at the foot of the walls and covered with -grass, giving a rich finish to the work. - -This Reservoir may be considered the termination of the Croton -Aqueduct, and is distant from the _Fountain Reservoir_ on the Croton, -forty and a half miles. - -The whole cost of the work, exclusive of the pipes in the city below -the Distributing Reservoir, is about 9,000,000 dollars. Adding to this -the cost of pipes and arrangements for distributing the water in the -city, will make the _total cost of supplying the city of New-York with -water about 12,000,000 dollars_.[7] - -The water was introduced into the Distributing Reservoir on the 4th of -July, 1842, and the event was hailed by the citizens of New-York with -an interest scarcely less than that pervading the whole American people -at the remembrance of the event, the anniversary of which, was on that -day celebrated. - -At an hour when the firing of guns and the ringing of bells had -aroused but few from their slumbers, and ere the rays of the morning -sun had gilded the city domes, the waters of the Croton gushed up -into the Reservoir and wandered about its bottom as if to examine the -magnificent structure; or to find a resting place in the _temple_ -towards which they had made a pilgrimage. - -The national flag floated out from each corner of the Reservoir, -and during the day thousands of the citizens visited it giving -demonstrations of joy and satisfaction at the accomplishment of this -great work. - -The 14th of October following was set apart as a day for the -celebration of the introduction of the water into the city: and it was -an occasion of unrestrained enthusiasm and joy. Multitudes came in from -the country around, and from sister cities:--all business was laid -aside for the pleasing ceremonies of the day, and the Croton water, -with the beauty and grandeur of its fountains, met with a welcome which -showed that its value was appreciated. - -The advantages, the comforts and blessings of this supply of pure water -will be appreciated as the city extends the means for its use, and -the time is not distant when she will regard it as a treasure which -was cheaply purchased, and will proudly point to the noble work which -she has achieved not only as an example of her munificence, but as an -illustration of what _art_ and _science_ can accomplish. - -With cleanly streets, and the public parks beautified with the -fountains which send forth cooling and refreshing vapours upon the -air, the citizens will forget to leave the city during the warm -months of summer, and the _sea-shore_, the _mountain-tops_, and -_watering-places_, will fancy their beauty has faded, since they cease -to be visited. - -The foreigner who visits this country will find the Croton Aqueduct an -interesting specimen of our _public works_, and will be pleased with a -pedestrian tour along the line of work to the Fountain Reservoir among -the hills of the Croton. Besides becoming acquainted with the important -features of the work, he may enjoy much that is beautiful in American -scenery. In his course along the Aqueduct he may see the majestic -palisades which for a distance _wall_ the right bank of the Hudson; -he may view the Tappan and Haverstraw bays with their ever-varying -scenery, and the dark gorge where the Hudson emerges from the Highlands -with its white bosom. - -Along the Aqueduct there are also many picturesque scenes where the -mountain stream leaps among the rocks in the deep ravine which guides -its course to the Hudson. - -The country is interesting also from the associations with which it has -been invested by the pen of our novelists. The region of the Croton -where the Fountain Reservoir is formed, is a part of the district where -the scene of the “Tale of the Neutral Ground” is laid; and one may -fancy there the figure of Harvey Birch, beneath his _pondrous pack_, -casting a shadow at night along the moon-lit slopes. - -Leaving the valley of the Croton we come out upon the Hudson at the -head of the “_great waters of the Tappan Zee_,” beyond which the early -inhabitants of _New-Amsterdam_ dared not to voyage without first -“settling their family affairs, and making their wills.” - -As we approach Tarrytown we find the localities which were pictured -in the “Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” and easily recognize the Old Dutch -Church near which the affrighted Ichabod Crane was so sadly unhorsed by -the headless Hessian. We find in this vicinity also, the place noted as -the “_spot where the unfortunate ‘Andre’ was captured_.” - -Besides the romantic and diversified scenery of the Hudson which is in -view from the line of Aqueduct, the visitor may find highly cultivated -grounds and delightful country seats, and among them that of our -distinguished countryman, Washington Irving, where he sought a rural -retirement for his literary pursuits. But it is unnecessary to speak -further of the objects which are calculated to interest the visitor -to this part of the country: we would only invite the stranger who -visits the city of New-York to go forth and visit her noble Aqueduct: -when he has become acquainted with the magnitude and grandeur of its -construction, then he may turn aside for prospects to admire and -incidents to interest. - - - - -APPENDIX. - -BY CHARLES A. LEE, M. D. - - -WATER. - -(_Chiefly compiled from the works of Thomson, Pereira, Whewell and -others._) - -Water was regarded by the ancients as an elementary substance, and as -a constituent of most other bodies. This opinion was somewhat modified -by the experiments of Van Helmont and Mr. Boyle, who maintained that it -could be changed into all vegetable substances, as well as into earth; -but it was substantially held until the middle of the last century, -(1781,) when Mr. Cavendish proved that this liquid was a compound of -oxygen and hydrogen. - - -NATURAL HISTORY. _In the inorganized kingdom._ - -Water is very generally diffused over the surface of the globe, forming -seas, lakes, and rivers; it is mechanically disseminated among rocks, -constitutes an essential part of some minerals, and always exists to -a greater or less extent, in the atmosphere. In the air, water is -formed in two states; as a _vapor_ (which makes about one-seventieth -by volume, or one one-hundredth by weight of the atmosphere) it is -supposed to be the cause of the blue color to the sky; and in a -_vesicular form_, in which state it constitutes the clouds. Terrestrial -water forms about three-fourths of the surface of the terraqueous -globe. The average depth of the ocean is calculated at between two and -three miles. Now as the height of dry land above the surface of the sea -is less than two miles, it is evident, that if the present dry land -were distributed over the bottom of the ocean, the surface of the globe -would present a mass of waters a mile in depth. On the supposition -that the mean depth of the sea is not greater than the fourth part -of a mile, the solid contents of the ocean would be 32,058,939 cubic -miles (_Thomson’s Chemistry_.) The quantity of water mechanically -disseminated through rocks, which serve merely as a natural reservoir -for the time, must be, in the aggregate, very considerable, though -it is impossible to form any very accurate estimate of it. Even in -those rocks which merely supply springs, the amount of disseminated -water must be enormous; for they so far resemble filters, that are -necessarily charged with the fluid before they permit it to pass -out. De La Beche has advanced the opinion that capillary attraction -has great power, both in mechanically disseminating water among -rocks, and in retaining it in them when so disseminated, and that it -therefore keeps them, to a certain extent, saturated with moisture, and -assists in promoting a more equal flow of water in springs. Capillary -attraction and gravity probably carry water down far beyond those -situations where it can be returned in springs, at least cold springs, -for there are certain circumstances connected with those which are -thermal, which go to prove, that the water thrown up by them may have -percolated to considerable depths. It is very evident that most rocks -contain disseminated moisture, for there are few which, when exposed -to heat, do not give water. Sulphate of lime, for example, or plaster -of paris, contains about 20 per cent., and common serpentine, as much -as 15 per cent. of it. Soap-stone has 4 per cent., and even quartz 2 -per cent. of water, in their composition. This fluid exists in minerals -either as _water of crystallization_, or combined as a _hydrate_. - -But though water is thus generally diffused over the surface of the -globe, yet it is not found perfectly pure in any place; even the -rain and the snow that descend from the clouds, the condensation, as -it were, of a natural distillation, are slightly tainted by saline -matters; which circumstance can only arise from the great solvent -power of water enabling it to take up a portion of most substances -with which it comes into contact, in its natural condition. In many -lakes, and in the ocean, the quantity of saline matter is so great as -to render it unfit for diluent purposes; but, when sea-water freezes, -the saline impregnations are deposited; and the ice affords fresh -water. In the state in which water is generally employed as a diluent, -its impregnations are in small quantity, and not usually sufficient -either to dim its transparency, or to give it color, smell, or taste, -and consequently to render it unfit for the ordinary purposes of life. -Water, therefore, which is transparent, colorless, inodorous, and -tasteless, is called _good_ and _pure_, and none other can be called -such; though some medical writers are of opinion, that it is not -necessary it should be in this pure state for common use. Such opinion -however is undoubtedly erroneous-- - -II. _In the organized kingdom._ Water enters largely into the -composition of organic substances. It constitutes, at least, four -fifths of the weight of the animal tissues, being the source of their -physical properties, extensibility and flexibility. This water is -not chemically combined in them: for it is gradually given off by -evaporation, and can be extracted at once by strong pressure between -blotting-paper. When deprived of its water, animal matter becomes -wholly insusceptible of vitality; except in the case of some of the -lower animals, which, as well as some plants, revive when again -moistened. According to Chevreul, pure water alone can reduce organized -substances to this state of softness; although salt water, alcohol, -ether, and oil, are also imbibed by dry animal textures. Moist animal -tissues, by virtue of their porosity, allow soluble matters, which -come into contact with them, to be dissolved by the water which they -contain, and which oils their pores: if the matters are already in -solution, they are imparted by their solutions to the water of the -tissues. Gaseous substances are taken up in the same way. Water exists -in nearly as large a proportion in vegetable as in animal substances. - -_Properties._ Pure water, as has already been stated, is a transparent -liquid without color, taste, or smell. Some have doubted whether it -is entirely inodorous, from the fact that the camel, and some other -animals, can scent water to a considerable distance, and also whether -it can be called colorless, as all large masses of water have a -bluish-green color. This phenomenon is, however, probably owing to the -presence of foreign matters. It refracts light powerfully, is a slow -conductor of heat, when its internal movements are prevented, and an -imperfect conductor of electricity. It is almost incompressible, a -pressure equal to 2000 atmospheres occasioning a diminution of only -one-ninth of its bulk; or, when submitted to a compressing force -equal to 30,000 lbs. on the square inch, 14 volumes of this fluid are -condensed into 13 volumes; proving that it is elastic. Water being the -substance most easily procured in every part of the earth in a state -of purity, it has been chosen by universal consent, to represent the -unit of the specific gravity of all solid and liquid bodies. A cubic -inch of water at 60° Fah. weighs 255.5 grains; so that this fluid is -about 815 times heavier than atmospheric air, but being the standard -to which the weight of all other substances is referred, its specific -weight is said to be 1. Accordingly when we say that the specific -gravity of a body is _two_ we mean that it weighs twice as much as -the same volume of water would do. Water unites with both acids and -bases, but without destroying their acid or basic properties. Thus -the crystallized vegetable acids, tartaric, citric, and oxalic, are -atomic combinations of water with acids. Caustic potash (potassa fusa) -and slaked lime may be instanced as compounds of water, and basic -substances; these are therefore called _hydrates_. The crystallized -salts, such as alum, common salt, sulphate of soda, sulphate of -magnesia, borate of soda, (borax,) &c., contain a large amount of -water as a chemical constituent, called water of crystallization. Water -rapidly absorbs some gases, as ammonia, fluoride of boron, &c., but it -is neither combustible, nor, under ordinary circumstances, a supporter -of combustion. - -_Composition._ The composition of water is determined both by analysis -and synthesis. If this liquid be submitted to the influence of a -volcanic battery, it is decomposed into two gases, namely one volume -of oxygen and two volumes of hydrogen. These gases, in the proportions -just mentioned, may be made to recombine, and form water by heat, -electricity, or spongy platinum, as water consists of one equivalent of -hydrogen, 1 and one of oxygen, 8 = 9; and in volume, of one volume of -hydrogen, and half a volume of oxygen, condensed into aqueous vapor or -steam we can easily calculate the specific gravity of steam, for its -density will be, .0689 (Sp. gr. of hydrogen) + .5512 (half the Sp. gr. -of oxygen) = .6201. - - -_Water as affected by the laws of Heat._ - -As the extensive and important functions which water discharges in -the economy of nature, depend mainly on the manner in which it is -affected by the laws of heat, a few remarks on this subject may not be -inappropriate to this place. - -Heat is communicated through water in a different manner, from that -observed in relation to solids, for it is not _conducted_ as in them, -from one particle to another, but carried with the parts of the fluid -by means of an intestine motion. Water expands and becomes lighter -by heat, and therefore it is, that if the upper portion of water be -cooled below the lower, the former descends, and the latter rises to -take its place. Thus a constant counter-current is kept up, and the -whole body of water has to cool down to near the freezing point, before -congelation can take place. This equalization of temperature, moreover, -takes place much more rapidly, than it would do in a solid body; hence -alternations of heat and cold, as day and night, summer and winter, -produce in water, inequalities of temperature much smaller than those -which occur in a solid body. - -Hence it is, that the ocean, which covers so large a portion of the -earth’s surface, produces the effect of making the alternations of heat -and cold much less violent than they would be if it were absent. The -different temperatures of its upper and lower parts produce a current -which draws the seas, and by means of the seas, the air, towards the -mean temperature. This circulation is also carried on between distant -tracts of the ocean; as we see in the case of the Gulf Stream, which -rushing from the Gulf of Mexico across the Atlantic to the western -shores of Europe, carries with it a portion of the heat of equatorial -climes to the colder northern regions, and bringing back in return -a portion of the cold from the same higher latitudes. Thus, large -portions of the earth are rendered habitable to man, which, without -the existence of such a law, would be doomed to perpetual frost -and solitude. This influence of the ocean on temperature, explains -satisfactorily some peculiarities in the climates of certain tracts -and islands, for example, why London is cooler in summer, and hotter -in winter than Paris. But though water expands by heat and contracts -by cold, there is even a limit to this law, for had there not been, -the lower parts of water would have frozen first, and thus entire -lakes, rivers and oceans, perhaps, become solid, and had they become -thus frozen, they would have remained so; for, as the heat at the -surface would not have descended far through the colder parts, the main -body of the ice must forever have remained solid, as in the arctic -circle. To obviate this great disadvantage, water contracts by the -increase of cold till we come _near_ the freezing temperature, (40° -F.) when it begins to expand and continues so to do till it freezes; -at 32° F. Hence, water at 40° is at its greatest density and will lie -at the bottom, with cooler water or ice floating above it. However -much the surface be cooled, water colder than 40° cannot descend to -displace water warmer than itself. Hence we never can have ice formed -at the bottom of deep water, though it is not uncommon to find it -thus situated, in shallow streams or rivers of rapid flow. Here the -temperature of the whole body of water is brought down to the freezing -point, and in freezing the ice adheres to the sides and bottom of the -stream. What a beautiful provision is this, that the coldest water -should rise to the surface, and there freeze and remain, exposed to -the warmth of the sun-beams and the air, to be speedily dissolved upon -the return of spring! This is owing to the well known fact, that in -the act of freezing a still further expansion takes place, so that -the specific gravity of ice is less than water of any temperature, -and consequently floats upon the surface. We thus see that by the -contraction of water by cold, the temperature of various times and -places is equalized, though were that contraction without limit, a -great portion of the earth would be bound in fetters of ice. Such a -disastrous result, is prevented by the substitution of expansion for -contraction, when the temperature is reduced to 40°, and the benevolent -purposes of an all-wise Designer, are made still more manifest by the -further expansion of water in the act of freezing. As water becomes -ice by cold, it becomes _steam_ by heat. We generally understand by -steam the vapor of hot water, but steam or vapor rises from water -at all temperatures, however low, and even from ice. The expansive -force of this vapor increases rapidly as the heat increases, but yet -in all cases the surface of water is covered with an atmosphere of -aqueous vapor, the pressure, or _tension_ of which is limited by the -temperature of the water. If, therefore, the vapor is not confined, -causing the surface of water to be pressed upon, evaporation will -take place, and thus there must, according to this law, always exist -an atmosphere of aqueous vapor, the tension of which may be compared -with that of our common atmosphere. Now the pressure of the latter -is measured by the barometrical column, about 30 inches of mercury, -while that of watery vapor is equal to one inch of mercury at the -constituent temperature of 80 degrees, and to one fifth of an inch at -the temperature of 32 degrees. - -If the atmosphere of air by which we are supported were annihilated, -there would still remain, an atmosphere of aqueous vapor, arising from -the waters and moist parts of the earth, but in the existing state of -things this vapor rises _in_ the atmosphere of dry air, and thus its -distribution and effects are materially influenced by the vehicle in -which it is thus carried. - -The moisture thus floating at all times in the air, serves for the -support of vegetable life, even in countries where rain seldom if -ever falls. It is absorbed by the leaves of living plants, which -thus increase in weight even when suspended in the atmosphere and -disconnected with the soil. During intense heats, and when the soil is -parched and dry, we see the life of plants thus preserved until the -earth is again refreshed with showers, and the roots supplied with -their wonted moisture. - -_Clouds_, are produced when aqueous vapor returns to the state of -water; and this process is called _condensation_. Whenever the -temperature becomes lower than the constituent temperature, requisite -for the maintenance of the vapory state, some of the vapor, or -invisible steam, will be condensed, and become water. This may be -seen illustrated in the condensation of the steam, as it issues from -the spout of a tea-kettle. Clouds not only moderate the fervor of the -sun, but they also check radiation from the earth, for we find that -the coldest nights are those which occur under a cloudless winter sky. -The use of clouds in the formation of rain, is too obvious to need -pointing out more particularly. _Snow_ is frozen vapour aggregated by -a confused action of crystalline laws, and _ice_ is water, solidified -while in its fluid state, by the same crystalline forces. These are bad -conductors of cold, and when the ground is covered with snow, or the -surface of the soil, or if the water is frozen, the roots or bulbs of -plants beneath are protected by the congealed water from the influence -of the atmosphere, the temperature of which in northern winters, is -usually very much below the freezing point; and this water becomes the -first nourishment of the plant, in early spring. The expansion of water -during its congelation, at which time its volume increases one twelfth, -and its contraction in bulk during a thaw, tend to pulverize the soil, -to separate its parts from each other, and to make it more permeable to -the influence of the air. - -When ice changes to water, or water to steam, although at an invariable -degree of temperature, yet the change is not sudden, but gradual. -When the heat reaches the point, at which thawing or boiling takes -place, the temperature makes a stand; a portion of it disappears, or -becomes _latent_, as it is called; thus the temperature of ice cannot -be raised, till the whole is thawed, nor that of boiling water, till -it has all been converted into steam; all the heat that is applied -being absorbed in producing these changes. Were it not for this law of -latent heat, thaw and evaporation would be instantaneous, we should be -overwhelmed with floods, at the first glow of warmth in the spring, and -in heating water the whole would flash instantaneously into steam upon -reaching the boiling point. - -It is through the same relations of water to heat, that springs are -supplied--for these undoubtedly draw their principal supplies from -rain. Mr. Dalton has calculated that the quantity of rain which falls -in England is 36 inches a year. Of this he reckoned that 13 inches flow -off to the sea by the rivers, and that the remaining 23 inches are -raised again from the ground by evaporation. The 13 inches of water -are of course supplied by evaporation from the sea, and are carried -back to the land through the atmosphere. Vapor is perpetually rising -from the ocean, and is condensed by cold in the hills and high lands, -as is easily recognized by the mists and rains, which are frequent in -such regions; whence it descends through their pores and crevices, -till it is deflected, collected and conducted out to the sea, by some -stratum or channel which is water-tight, thus keeping up a perpetual -and compound circulation. In every country these two portions of the -aqueous circulation have their regular and nearly constant proportion; -and their due distribution appears to be necessary to its organic -health, to the habits of vegetables and of man. This circulation goes -on from year to year as regularly as that of the blood, in the veins -and arteries of the human system, and though maintained by a very -different machinery, is no less clearly adapted to its purposes. In -short the properties of water which regard heat make one vast watering -engine of the atmosphere, (_Whewell_.) - -COMMON WATER. Under this head are included the waters commonly known as -_rain_, _spring_, _river_, _well_ or _pump_, _lake_ and _marsh waters_. -Thomson includes _ice_, and _snow water_, _spring_ and _river water_, -and _lake water_ under _rain water_, as it is from this source that -they are chiefly supplied. - -RAIN WATER is the purest kind of all natural waters, though subject to -some variations. Thus, when collected in large towns or cities, it is -less pure than when obtained in the country; moreover it is usually -loaded with impurities at the commencement of a shower, but after some -hours of continuous rain it becomes nearly pure; for the first water -which falls brings down the various foreign matters suspended in the -atmosphere. In specific gravity, it scarcely differs from distilled -water. It nevertheless generally holds in solution common air, carbonic -acid, carbonate of lime, chloride of lime, and a trace of nitric acid. -If it be collected from the roofs of houses, after it has rained for -some time, it contains sulphate of lime and occasionally carbonate -of lead. The quantity of common air in rain water does not exceed 3½ -cubic inches in 100 cubic inches of water; it contains more oxygen than -atmospherical air; the same quantity of rain water contains one inch of -carbonic acid gas. - -These combinations, in the small quantities in which they exist, in no -degree injure the diluent properties of rain water. It is indeed to -the presence of the two elastic gases, that rain water owes the taste -which renders it palatable to animals and useful to vegetables. Ice -water, being destitute of these gases is extremely vapid; fish cannot -live in it; and it does not seem either to quench thirst or to be so -complete a solvent in the stomach as rain water. Carbonate of ammonia -is also another ingredient. It is derived from the putrefaction of -nitrogenous substances. When several hundred pounds of rain water were -distilled by Liebig, in a copper still, and the first two or three -pounds evaporated with the addition of a little muriatic acid, he -found a very distinct crystallization of sal-ammoniac, the crystals -having a brown or yellow color. “It is worthy of observation,” says -Liebig, “that the ammonia contained in rain and snow water possesses -an offensive smell of perspiration and animal excrements, a fact which -leaves no doubt respecting its origin.” It is owing to the presence of -carbonate of ammonia that rain water owes its _softer_ feel than pure -distilled water. According to Liebig, it is the atmospheric ammonia -which furnishes the nitrogen of plants. The traces of nitric acid which -have been detected in the air, are referable to the oxidation of the -constituents of ammonia; and not to the direct union of the oxygen and -free nitrogen of the atmosphere. Dr. Pereira states that a carbonaceous -(sooty) substance, and traces of sulphates, chlorides, and calcareous -matter, are the usual impurities of the first rain water of a shower. -Zimmerman found oxide of iron and chloride potassium in rain water; -other chemists have been able to detect no iron in it, but have found -meteoric iron and nickel in dew. Brande detected in it, chloride of -sodium, chloride of magnesium, sulphate and carbonate of magnesium, -sulphate of lime, and oxide of manganese. The putrefaction to which -rain water is subject, shows that some organic matter is present. The -term _pyrrhin_ (from πυρρος red) has been applied by Zimmerman to -an atmospheric organic substance which reddens solutions of silver. -Whenever rain water is collected near large towns, it should be boiled -and strained before use, as it contains less saline impregnation than -other kinds of natural waters, it is more apt to become contaminated -with lead from roofs, gutters, cisterns, and water pipes. To purify -rain water and render it useful, for the delicate purposes of chemical -experiment, Morveau recommends dropping into it a little barytic -water and then exposing it for some time to the atmospheric air. -This combines with the carbonic acid, which being the solvent of the -carbonate of lime, both it and the carbonate of baryta are precipitated -as insoluble salts. Instead of exposing it to the atmosphere, it may be -poured from one vessel to another; by which means not only the minute -portion of barytic water is dispersed through the rain water, and -brought into contact with the carbonic acid, but it involves a great -portion of air in its substance, which improves both the taste and the -utility of the fluid. - -_Snow water_, as we have already stated, is destitute of air and -other gaseous matters found in rain. According to Liebig, it contains -ammonia. It has long been a popular, but erroneous opinion, that it -was injurious to health, and had a tendency to produce bronchocele. -But this malady occurs at Sumatra, where ice and snow are never seen; -while, on the contrary, the disease is quite unknown in Chili and -Thibet, although the rivers of these countries are chiefly supplied by -the melting of the snow, with which the mountains are covered. Ice is -said not to quench thirst, but on the contrary to augment it, and that -the natives of the Arctic regions prefer enduring the utmost extremity -of this feeling, rather than attempt to remove it by eating of snow,[8] -(_Captain Ross_.) - -2. SPRING WATER. Rain water, when it falls on high grounds, enters the -soil and filtrates through it, until it is stopped by some natural -obstacle, when it pushes upwards, and welling out upon the surface, -forms springs; the water is therefore merely a modification of rain -water. During its passage, however, it almost always takes up some -soluble matters, which of course vary according to the nature of -the soil. It is purest when it passes through sand or gravel; in a -limestone region, it always contains more or less of the sulphate and -carbonate of lime, and it generally contains a trace of common salt, -and the usual proportions of air and carbonic acid gas. The presence of -these is detected by subacetate of lead, which displays the smallest -portion of carbonic acid or a carbonate, and nitrate of silver, which -detects the muriates by the formation of muriate of silver. - -Water from melted _ice_ is perfectly wholesome, and is drunk during -the summer season, wherever the climate will admit of its being -collected and preserved at a moderate expense. In this form, it is a -luxury--almost a _necessary_--in the middle states of this country more -particularly, “where,” Dr. Dunglison remarks, “there is not a tavern on -the road, on the eastern side of the Blue Ridge, that does not furnish -ice to the traveller in any abundance.” When sea-water freezes, the ice -does not contain the salts. Consequently, when melted, it affords fresh -water, and according to the voyagers in high northern and southern -latitudes, the water has been found sweet, soft, and wholesome. - -_River Water._ This is a mixture of rain and spring water, and when -deprived of the matters which it frequently holds in suspension, is -generally of considerable purity. Mountain streams, which generally -issue from siliceous rocks, and run over stony or pebbly beds, are, -for the most part, comparatively pure and soft. The river water of -New-England, and the other hilly portions of the United States, -is usually of this description, though in the time of floods, and -after heavy rains, they contain much sedimentary matter. River water -gradually deposits much of its earthy salts as it flows, and becomes -purer by exposure; it therefore generally contains less calcareous -matter than spring water; its specific gravity is less, and its taste -more vapid. It, however, more or less partakes of the nature of the -soil over which it flows; consequently some rivers, whose waters were -pure and excellent at their source, lose these properties before they -mingle with the sea. The water of the Thames, for example, in England, -which is originally very soft and pure, becomes so loaded with animal -and vegetable matter from the towns and villages on its banks, that -after being kept a month or two in a closed cask, on opening it, a -quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, of the most offensive odor -escapes, and the water is so black and nauseous as to be unfit for -use. But on racking it off, it clears, depositing a quantity of slimy -mud, and becomes remarkably clear, sweet and palatable. As the matters -deposited in such rivers are merely mingled with the body of the -water, which is too large, and too changing, to admit of any permanent -taint from solution, filtration, or even the natural deposition of the -ingredients fits them for every domestic and medicinal purpose. - - * * * * * - -The following Table shows the solid contents of the Thames water[9] -London, and of the Croton water[10] in the city of New-York. - - +-----------------------+-----------------------++----------------------+ - | | THAMES WATER. || CROTON WATER. | - | +------------+----------++---------+------------+ - | QUANTITY OF WATER. |_Brentford._|_Chelsea._|| At its | In the | - | 1 Gallon = 10 lbs. | Source of | Source || source, | City of | - | Avoirdupois, at | the Grand | of the || _Croton | _New-York_ | - | 62° Fah., or 70, grs. | Junction | Chelsea || Lake._ | as it | - | Avoirdupois. |Water Works | Water || |issues from | - | | Company. | Works || | the pipes. | - | | | Company. || | | - +-----------------------+------------+----------++---------+------------+ - | | Grains. | Grains. || Grains. | Grains. | - |Carbonate of Lime, | 16·000 | 16·500 || 1·42 | 1·52 | - |Sulphate of Lime, } | | || ·00 | ·44 | - |Chloride of Sodium, } | 3·400 | 2·900 || | | - |Oxide of Iron, } | | || | | - |Silica, } | very | || | | - |Magnesia, } | minute | Ditto. || ·34 | ·46 | - |Carbonaceous Matter, } | portions. | || | | - |Chloride of Magnesium,}| | || ·86 | ·90 | - |Chloride of Calcium, }| | || | | - |Carbonate of Magnesia, | | || ·70 | ·84 | - | | | || | | - |Solid matter held in | | || | | - | solution, | 19·400 | 19·400 || 2·98 | 3·70 | - |Mechanical impurity, | 0·368 | 0·238 || ·34 | ·46 | - | +------------+----------++---------+------------+ - |Total solid matter, | 19·768 | 19·638 || 3·32 | 4·16 | - +-----------------------+------------+----------++---------+------------+ - -Analysis of the Croton and Schuylkill waters, by J. C. Booth, Professor -of Chemistry to the Franklin Institute of Pennsylvania, and H. M. Boye, -of Philadelphia. - - _Croton Water._ _Schuylkill Water._ - In 100 gr. in 1 In 100 gr. in 1 - parts gall. parts gall. - Carbonate of Lime, 45.86 2.293 53.67 2.190 - Carbonate of Magnesia, 18.78 .939 11.87 0.484 - Alkaline Carbonates, 16.57 .828 4.53 0.185 - Alkaline Chlorides, 3.87 .193 3.75 0.153 - Oxide of Iron, 2.21 .110 - Silica, 7.18 .359 9.68 0.395 - Organic Matter, 5.53 .276 0.88 0.036 - ------ ----- - Parts, 100.00 grs. 4.998 - - Alumina and Oxide of Iron, 1.88 0.077 - Alkaline Sulphates, 13.74 0.560 - ----- ----- - Parts, 100 grs. 4.080 - -The Croton water was taken from the Croton dam, and when perfectly -clear was found, as appears by the above analysis to contain 4.998, -or about _five_ grains of solid matter to the gallon. The Schuylkill -water was taken from the middle basin on Fair Mount, and contained -4.08 grains of solid matter to the gallon. The Croton differs from -the Schuylkill water in containing a larger amount of the alkaline -carbonates, and of the carbonate of magnesia, while it contains less -carbonate of lime, and is entirely destitute of the alkaline sulphates, -of which the Schuylkill contains 13.74 parts in 100 of the total solid -matters, though amounting to only one half a grain to the gallon. - -It appears from the above table, that the amount of impurities -contained in the Thames water, exceeds those of the Croton by nearly -six fold, and that the quantity of lime, held in solution in the -former, surpasses that of the latter, about fifteen times. The Thames -water differs also from the Croton, in the circumstance that it -contains an appreciable quantity of chloride of sodium, or common salt -of which the Croton is entirely free. There are but very few streams to -be found, whose waters contain less than 4.16 grains of solid matter -to the gallon. The carbonate of lime is held in solution by carbonic -acid, forming bicarbonate of lime. By boiling, this acid is expelled, -and the carbonate of lime is precipitated on the sides of the vessel, -constituting the _fur_ of the tea-kettle, and the _crust_ of boilers. -River water always contains a quarter or less quantity of organic -matter in suspension or solution. As a general rule, the quantity is -too small to produce any decidedly injurious effect, but physicians and -medical writers agree in the opinion that water impregnated with it to -any great extent must be deleterious. Where the quantity of decomposing -matter is too small to produce any immediately obvious effects, it -is difficult to procure any decisive evidence of its influence on -the system. When the amount is considerable, it causes dysentery and -fevers, often of a highly fatal character. In a trial at Nottingham, -England, in 1836, it was proved that dysentery of an aggravated form, -was caused in cattle by the use of water contaminated with putrescent -vegetable matter, produced by the refuse of a starch manufactory. The -fish, (perch, pike, roach, dace, &c.,) and frogs in the pond, through -which the brook ran, were destroyed, and all the animals which drank of -the water became seriously ill, and many of them died with the symptoms -of dysentery. It was, moreover, shown, that the animals sometimes -refused to drink the water, that the mortality was in proportion to -the quantity of starch made at different times; and that subsequently, -when the putrescent matter was not allowed to pass into the brook, but -was conveyed to a river at some distance, the fish and frogs began -to return, and the mortality ceased among the cattle. There are many -instances on record where troops have sickened and many died of putrid -fever and dysentery, from drinking the water of stagnant pools and -ditches or of rivers, as of the river Lee, near Cork, (Ireland,) which, -in passing through the city, receives the contents of the sewers from -the houses, and is otherwise unwholesome. - -The organic matter contained in river water consists chiefly of the -exuviæ of animal and vegetable substances, but another class of -impurities consists of living beings, (animals and vegetables.) The -aquatic animals, which have, from time to time, been exhibited in this -city by means of the solar microscope, are collected in stagnant pools, -and are not found in river or well water. The quantity of organic -matter contained in the Croton must be extremely small, as this, -together with the silex, iron, and magnesia, amount to only 4/10ths of -one grain to the gallon. - -WELL WATER,--or _pump_ water, as it is often called in cities, is -essentially the same as spring water, but liable to impregnation, -owing to the land springs filtering through the walls, and conveying -impurities into it. This is sometimes prevented by lining them with -cast-iron cylinders, or by bricks laid in water-cement. Dr. Percival -affirms, that bricks harden the softest water, and give it an aluminous -impregnation. The old wells must, therefore, furnish much purer water -than the more recent, as the soluble particles are gradually washed -away. It contains a greater proportion of earthy salts, and of air, -and has a greater specific gravity than other spring waters. Owing -to the fact, that it contains a larger quantity of bicarbonate and -sulphate of lime, than river water, it decomposes and curdles soap, -and is then denominated _hard water_, to distinguish it from those -waters which mix with soap, and are therefore called _soft waters_. -The reason that hard water does not form a pure opaline solution -with soap, is, because the lime of the calcareous salts, chiefly the -_sulphate_, forms an insoluble compound with the margaric and oleic -acids of the soap. Here a double decomposition ensues, the sulphuric -acid unites with the alkali of the soap, setting free the fatty acids, -which unite with the lime to form an insoluble earthy soap. Hard water -is a less perfect solvent of organic matter than soft water; hence in -the preparation of infusions and decoctions, and for many economical -purposes, as making tea and coffee, and brewing, it is much inferior -to soft water, and for the same reasons it is improper as a drink in -dyspeptic affections, causing irritation, and a sensation of weight -in the stomach. The abundance of this earthy salt in the water of -Paris, and London, of many parts of Switzerland and this country, cause -uncomfortable feelings in strangers who visit these places. It is also -said to produce calculous complaints in the inhabitants, a result which -might be expected, owing to the low solvent power of the water not -being sufficient to carry off the animal acid, which concretes in the -kidneys to form calculi.[11] Well water can be easily freed from these -earthy salts; boiling precipitates the carbonate of lime by driving -off the carbonic acid which holds it in solution; and the addition of -a little carbonate of soda precipitates the lime, if any exist in the -water. Many persons prefer the taste of hard water to that of soft, and -a change from one to the other, frequently causes a derangement of the -digestive organs. The briskness, and rapidity of this and other water -is owing to the air, and carbonic acid mixed with it. The air contained -in water, has a larger proportion of oxygen than atmospheric air, and -hence it is better adapted for the respiration of animals. - -The water procured from wells in the city of New-York, has gradually -been growing more and more impure, as the city has increased in size, -until a very large proportion of it, is entirely unfit for culinary -and dietetic purposes. That in the lower part of the city, has always -been, more or less, brackish, owing to the percolation of the salt -water from the north and east rivers through the loose sandy soil, thus -giving them a distinct saline impregnation. The amount of impurities -contained in these waters, varies, therefore, in different parts of the -city, according to its elevation, and the denseness of the population. -A gallon of water from the well belonging to the Manhattan Company -in Reade-street, yielded 125 grains of solid matter; while the same -quantity of water, from their well in Bleecker-street, yielded 20 -grains, and in 13th street, 14 grains. A gallon of water taken from -four of the city wells in the densely populated parts of the city -yielded on an average, 58 grains each of solid matter. - -The supply also of well water has been gradually diminishing in this -city for the last several years. For example, at the Chemical Works -on the North River, at 33d street, and at an extensive distillery on -the East River, some distance above the Alms House, water cannot be -procured in sufficient quantities on their premises, where, but a few -years past, it was obtained in great abundance. At the Gas Works on -the Collect grounds, where they have a well 20 feet in depth, by 18 -feet in diameter, which, until 1834, furnished water freely, enabling -the engine to raise 20,000 gallons in ten hours, in 1835 it required -14 to 16 hours to raise the same quantity, and in order to continue -the supply, it was found necessary to return the water to the well, -after using it for condensing the gas. The Corporation well, also, -in 13th street, furnished, for several years, about 120,000 gallons -of water daily, but in 1835, this quantity was reduced down to from -five to ten thousand. In order to remedy this evil, a well was sunk at -Jefferson Market, which in a short time deprived most of the wells in -that vicinity, of water; thus drying up one source of supply, in order -to increase that of another. There is, therefore, every probability -that had not water been introduced into the city of New-York from -abroad, the supply from the wells would, in a few years, have been -insufficient for the economical, domestic and manufacturing purposes of -the inhabitants. It is fearful to contemplate the amount of decomposing -organic matter contained in the wells in the vicinity of Trinity, St. -Paul’s, and St. John’s burying grounds, which for more than a century -furnished the only water used by those residing in their neighborhood. -No one can doubt that the use of such water, as well as that from the -wells on the Collect, and over the greater portion of the city below -Canal-street, must have proved extremely detrimental to the health of -the citizens, and especially to children, and infants. We believe, -therefore that the introduction of the Croton water, will increase the -average duration of human life in the city of New-York, from 8 to 12 -per cent. From 1815 to 1836, it ranged from 30.08 to 22.05, (in 1836), -but the mean duration of life for the last 20 years is about 25 years; -and the ratio of mortality, according to population, about as 1 to 35. -From the manner, however, in which the inspector’s reports have been -made, from the imperfection of the law, no great confidence can be -placed in the returns,--those carried out of the city for burial, not -having been included. - -From a “Report on the subject of introducing pure and wholesome water -into the city of Boston, by L. Baldwin, Esq., Civil Engineer,” it -appears that the whole number of wells in that city in 1835, was 2,767. -The water from 2,085 of these wells was drinkable, though brackish -and hard, and 682 of them were bad and unfit for use. There were only -seven of the city wells which yielded soft water occasionally and for -washing, and from 33 of them the water was obtained by deep boring. -“Within a few years,” says the Report, “it has become common in Boston, -and the vicinity, to bore for water, and to make what are called -Artesian wells. But no certain or valuable result has grown out of -these endeavors. There are 33 bored wells, only two of which are stated -as furnishing soft water. The same remarks will apply to the public -wells of this city, the most of which produce nothing but hard and -brackish water, and none of which is sufficiently soft to authorize its -use in washing clothes,” &c. - -LAKE WATER is a collection of rain, spring and river water, usually -more or less contaminated with putrefying organic matter. It is -generally _soft_, and when filtered, is as good and wholesome as any -other description of waters. Though lake water cannot be characterized -as having any invariable qualities; yet most of the Lakes of the United -States, especially our great ones, afford a very pure water. In many -of our smaller lakes the water is more or less stagnant, and of course -very unhealthy. - -_Marsh Water._ This is analogous to lake water, except that it is -altogether stagnant and is more loaded with putrescent matter. -The sulphates in sea and other waters are decomposed by putrefying -vegetable matter, with the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen; hence -the intolerable stench from marshy and swampy grounds liable to -occasional inundations from the sea. Marsh water cannot be drunk with -safety either by man or beast. - - -_Tests of the usual impurities in Common Water._ - -The following are the tests by which the presence of the ordinary -constituents or impurities of common waters may be ascertained. - -1. EBULLITION.--By boiling, air and carbonic acid gas are expelled, -while carbonate of lime, (which has been held in solution by the -carbonic acid) is deposited. The latter constitutes the crust which -lines tea-kettles and boilers. - -2. PROTOSULPHATE OF IRON. If a crystal of this salt be introduced into -a phial filled with the water to be examined, and the phial be well -corked, a yellowish-brown precipitate (sesquioxide of iron) will be -deposited in a few days, if oxygen gas be contained in the water. - -3. LITMUS. Infusion of litmus or syrup of violets is reddened by a free -acid. - -4. LIME WATER. This is a test for carbonic acid, with which it causes a -white precipitate (carbonate of lime) if employed before the water is -boiled. - -5. CHLORIDE OF BARIUM. A solution of this salt usually yields, with -well water, a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid. This -indicates the presence of sulphuric acid (which, in common water, is -combined with lime). - -6. OXALATE OF AMMONIA. If this salt yield a white precipitate, it -indicates the presence of lime, (carbonate and sulphate.) - -7. NITRATE OF SILVER. If this occasion a precipitate insoluble in -nitric acid, the presence of chlorine may be inferred. - -8. PHOSPHATE OF SODA. If the lime contained in common water be removed -by ebullition and oxalic acid, and to the strained and transparent -water, ammonia and phosphate of soda be added, any magnesia present -will, in the course of a few hours, be precipitated in the form of the -white ammoniacal phosphate of magnesia. - -9. TINCTURE OF GALLS. This is used as a test for Iron, with solutions -of which it forms an inky liquor, (tannate and gallate of iron). -If the test produce this effect on the water before, but not after -boiling, the iron is in the state of carbonate; if after, as well -as before, in that of sulphate. Tea may be substituted for galls, -to which its effects and indications are similar. _Ferro cyanide of -potassium_ yields, with solutions of the sesqui-salts of iron, a blue -precipitate, and with the proto-salts a white precipitate, which -becomes blue by exposure to the air. - -10. HYDROSULPHURIC ACID. (_Sulphuretted Hydrogen._) This yields a -dark (brown or black) precipitate, (a metallic sulphuret) with water -containing iron or lead in solution. - -11. EVAPORATION AND IGNITION. If the water be evaporated to dryness, -and ignited in a glass tube, the presence of organic matter may be -inferred by the odor and smoke evolved, as well as by the charring. -Another mode of detecting organic matter is by adding nitrate (or -acetate) of lead to the inspected water, and collecting and igniting -the precipitate; when globules of metallic lead are obtained if organic -matter be present. The putrefaction of water is another proof of the -presence of this matter. Nitrate of silver is the best test for the -presence of chloride of soda or common salt. By adding a small quantity -of this to the common well water of New-York, a copious, white, -flocculent precipitate is immediately formed, which is the chloride of -soda. The same test, however, applied to the Croton water, produces no -discoloration whatever. - -_Purification of Common water._ By _filtration_, water may be deprived -of living beings and of all suspended impurities; but substances -held in solution, cannot thus be separated. _Ebullition_ destroys -the vitality of both animals and vegetables; expels air, or carbonic -acid, and causes the precipitation of carbonate of lime, but the -water should be afterwards subjected to the process of _filtration_. -_Distillation_, when properly conducted is the most effectual method -of purifying water. But distilled water is in general contaminated by -traces of organic matter. The addition of chemical agents is another -mode which has been proposed and practised, for freeing water from -some of its impurities. _Alum_ is often used by the common people to -cleanse muddy water, and ashes and pearl-ash to destroy its hardness. -When alum is used, two or three grains are sufficient for a quart of -water. The alum decomposes the carbonate of lime; sulphate of lime is -formed in solution, and the alumina precipitates in flocks, carrying -with it mechanical impurities. This agent, however, adds nothing to -the chemical purity of the water, but by converting the carbonate into -sulphate of lime augments its hardness. _Caustic alkalies_ added to -lime saturate the excess of carbonic acid, and throw down the carbonate -of lime, having an alkaline carbonate in solution. Professor Clark -of Aberdeen,[12] (Scotland) has recently patented a plan for the -purification of water, by the addition of lime. The lime unites with -the excess of carbonic acid in the water, and forms carbonate of lime -(chalk) which precipitates, along with the carbonate of lime held -previously in solution in the water. The effect of this process is -similar to that of ebullition,--as the hardness of water is, however, -owing to the sulphate and not the carbonate of lime,[13] this plan can -have little or no influence in rendering hard water soft. Alkaline -carbonates soften water, decompose all the earthy salts (calcareous and -magnesian carbonates, sulphates, and chlorides) and precipitate the -earthy matters. They leave, however, in solution, an alkaline salt, but -which does not communicate to water the property of hardness. - -SEA-WATER includes the waters of the ocean and of those lakes, called -island seas, which possess a similar composition. The Dead Sea, -however, varies so much from ordinary sea-water, as to rank amongst -mineral waters. - -The quantity of solid matter varies considerably in the waters of -different seas, as the following statement proves-- - - _10,000 parts of water of_ _Solid constituents._ - _the Mediterranean Sea_, contain 410 grs. - English Channel, 380 „ - { At the Island of Fohe, 345 „ - German Ocean { At the Island of Norderney, 342 „ - { In the Frith of Forth, 312 „ - { At Ritzebuttle, 312 „ - At Apemalle, in Sleswick, 216 „ - At Kiel, in Holstein, 200 „ - Baltic Sea At Doberan, in Mecklenbergh, 168 „ - At Travemunæ, 167 „ - At Zoppot, in Mecklenbergh, 76 „ - At Carshamm, 66 „ - -The average quantity of saline matter in sea-water is 3½ per cent., -and its specific gravity about 1.0274. The composition of sea-water -differs also in different localities. Iodine has been found in the -Mediterranean sea. - -_Action of Water on Lead._ When lead is exposed to atmospheric air, -the oxygen of the air combining with it, forms an oxide, while, at -the same time the carbonic acid of the air, unites with it forming a -thin white crust, which is the _carbonate of lead_. This formation is -accelerated by moisture, and by the presence of an unusual quantity of -carbonic acid in the atmosphere. The same process goes on with still -greater rapidity in pure running water. But if water be deprived of -all its gases by ebullition, and excluded from contact with the air, -the lead will not be acted upon If water, however, be exposed to the -air, although all the gases have been expelled, a white powder will -soon form around the lead, till, in the course of a few days, there is -formed a large quantity of white, pearly scales, which partly float -in the water, but are chiefly deposited on the bottom of the vessel. -In 12 ounces of distilled water, contained in a shallow glass basin, -loosely covered to exclude the dust, twelve brightly polished lead -rods weighing 340 grains, will lose 2½ grains in 8 days, and the lead -will show evident marks of corrosion; and this action will go on as -long as the water is exposed to the air. While these changes are going -on, a small quantity of lead will be dissolved, as may be shown by -carefully filtering the water acidulating with a drop or two of nitric -acid, and evaporating to dryness. Sulphuretted hydrogen is also a good -test, occasioning, where lead is present, first a brown color, and -subsequently a black precipitate. Christison has proved that the lead -which is dissolved, is in the form of the carbonate, and hydrate of the -oxide, or, oxide of lead, carbonic acid and water. - -The fact is then sufficiently established, that distilled water has -the property of dissolving lead--Does the same hold true in relation -to waters in ordinary use? In the year 1809, it was first announced by -_Guyton Morveau_, that the salts which are held in solution by some -natural waters, destroy their property of acting on lead, and that of -these modifying circumstances none are more remarkable in their action -than the neutral salts. Dr. Christison has pursued this investigation -with great success, and has proved that this preservative power -exists in the case of sulphates, muriates, carbonates, hydriodates, -phosphates, nitrates, acetates, tartrates, arseniates, &c. These -salts, however, do not possess an equally protective influence, the -carbonates and sulphates being most, the chlorides the least energetic -of those saline substances commonly met with in waters. As a general -rule, it appears that those whose acid forms with the lead a soluble -salt of lead, are the least energetic; while those whose acid forms an -insoluble salt of lead, are most energetic. The variable quantity of -salts necessary to prevent the action of water on lead, may be seen -from the following results obtained by actual experiment. - - Of acetate of soda a 100th part of the water is a preservative. - Of arseniate of soda 12,000th „ „ „ - Of phosphate of soda 30,000th „ „ „ - Of hydriodate of potash 30,000th „ „ „ - Of muriate of soda 2,000th „ „ „ - Of sulphate of lime 4,000th „ „ „ - Of nitrate of potash 100th „ „ „ - -The sulphates of soda, magnesia, lime, and the triple sulphate of -alumina and potash, possess about the same preservative power; which -appears to depend on the acid, not on the base of the salt. The general -results of Dr. Christison’s investigations, appear to be, that neutral -salts in various, and for the most part minute, proportions, retard or -prevent the corrosive action of water on lead--allowing the carbonate -to deposit itself slowly, and to adhere with such firmness to the -lead as not to be afterwards removed by moderate agitation,--adding -subsequently to this crust other insoluble salts of lead, the acids -of which are derived from the neutral salts in solution,--and thus at -length forming a permanent and impermeable screen in the form of a -film over its surface, through which the action of the water cannot -any longer be carried on. These films are composed of the carbonate of -lead, with a little of the muriate, sulphate, arseniate, or phosphate -of lead, according to the nature of the acid in the alkaline salt, -which is dissolved in the water. The following general conclusions may -therefore be considered as sufficiently established. - -1. Lead pipes ought not to be used for the purpose of conducting -water, at least where the distance is considerable, without a careful -examination of the water to be transmitted. - -2. The risk of a dangerous impregnation with lead is greatest in the -instance of the purest waters. - -3. Water, which tarnishes polished lead when left at rest upon it in -a glass vessel for a few hours, cannot safely be transmitted through -lead-pipes without certain precautions; and conversely, it is probable, -that if lead remain untarnished, or nearly so, for 24 hours in a glass -of water, the water may be safely conducted through lead-pipes. - -4. Water which contains less than about an 8000th of salts in solution, -can not be safely conducted in lead pipes without certain precautions. - -5. Even this proportion will prove insufficient to prevent corrosion, -unless a considerable part of the saline matter consists of carbonates -and sulphates, especially the former. - -6. So large a proportion as a 4000th part, probably even a considerably -larger proportion, will be insufficient, if the salts in solution be in -a great measure muriates. - -7. In all cases careful examination should be made of the water -after it has been running a few days through the pipes; for it is -not improbable that other circumstances, besides those hitherto -ascertained, may regulate the preventive influence of the neutral salts. - -8. Where the water is of sufficient purity to act on lead, a remedy -may be found, either, in leaving the pipes full of water and at rest -for three or four months, or by solution of phosphate of soda; in the -proportion of about a 25,600th part.[14] - -Dr. Kane, however, seems to differ from Dr. Christison in opinion on -this subject; for after having mentioned the crust which gradually -forms on the interior of the cistern, and assists in protecting it from -the oxidizing action of the air, he remarks, “no danger is therefore -to be apprehended from the supply of water to a city being conveyed -through leaden pipes, and preserved in leaden cisterns; for _all water -of mineral origin dissolves, in filtering through the layers of rocks -in its passage to the surface_, a sufficiency of saline matters to -serve for its protection.” - -Now, to apply these results to the water of the Croton; as this holds -in solution only about one 18,000th part of salts, it must, according -to Christison, exert a corroding influence on the lead-pipes. Dr. -Dana, of Lowell, has lately investigated this subject and detected -lead in the water which had passed through the leaden-pipes for the -distribution of water in the city of Lowell. The first examination was -made from a sample of water taken from the source or spring-head before -it had entered the leaden pipes, when the specific gravity was found to -be 1,000,18. The pint, on evaporation to dryness, yielded 2.37 grains -of solid matter. The solid contents of an imperial pint were found to -be, - - _Grains._ - Chloride of Sodium, 1.54 - Chloride of Magnesia, 0.71 - Sulphate of Lime, 0.128 - ------ - A trace of Carbonic acid, - Grains, 2.378 - Excess in the course of analysis .008 - -The second examination was made of water taken from the leaden pipes -when the specific gravity was found to be 1.000.42. Upon a pint of -this water being evaporated to dryness it yielded two grains of solid -matter, (viz.) - - Carbonate of lead 164 Grains, - Organic matter and salts 038 „ - --- - 202 „ - Excess in analysis, 002 „ - -It therefore has been calculated that every gallon of the water used -after passing through the leaden pipes, contains 1.312 grains of the -carbonate of lead. Such water, although it would not speedily destroy -life, would undoubtedly be attended with injurious consequences, should -its use be habitually continued. - -On the other hand, Dr. Hare of Philadelphia, in reply to a letter -requesting his opinion as to the action of the Schuylkill water[15] on -lead pipes, states that after using the Schuylkill water for 25 years -in his laboratory, he has never perceived the slightest indication of -the presence of lead; and that if there had been any in the water, the -re-agents which he has been accustomed to use must have rendered the -impurity evident. If it be true that the Schuylkill water does not act -upon the lead pipes, it would follow as a matter of course, if the -doctrines above laid down be correct, that the Croton, which contains -very nearly the same quantity of saline ingredients, would also exert -no influence upon this metal. In cases, however, where injurious -consequences have resulted from the agency of lead, the pipes through -which the water was conducted, were of considerable length; suppose for -example that the pipes are 4000 feet long, and three fourths of an inch -in diameter, each portion of water will pass successively over no less -than 784 square feet of lead before being discharged; and it would not -therefore be at all remarkable, if the water were found contaminated -with the lead. In this city, however, the pipes are rarely more than 50 -feet in length, generally not more than 25, and therefore cannot exert -so deleterious an influence as in those of greater extent. Dr. Chilton, -recently inspected the Croton water drawn from the leaden pipes, by -which it is introduced into the house of Mr. G. D. Coggeshall. No 421 -Pearl-street in this city, and found the water evidently affected -by the lead. He has also obtained similar results in several other -instances. If the precaution be used, of not employing the water first -drawn from the pipes for dietetic and culinary purposes, no injurious -consequences would probably attend the use of water conveyed in this -metal, but as this is not likely to be attended to generally, it is -expedient to employ other measures to guard against its deleterious -effects. - -For this purpose, various means have been suggested, such as the -substitution of block-tin and other metals not acted upon by water; -but the most efficient, scientific, and useful, as well as the most -economical, of all the plans hitherto proposed, is that introduced by -Thomas Ewbank, Esq., of coating the lead-pipes with tin both inside and -out. The process, which has been patented, consists simply in drawing -an ordinary lead-pipe through a bath of melted tin, coated with a layer -of melted rosin, which leaves a continuous deposit, of tin upon both -sides of the pipe, of sufficient thickness, to effectually prevent -any oxidation of the lead. These pipes have been highly recommended -by our first chemists, and other men of science, as furnishing an -effectual safeguard against the corroding effects of pure water This -highly ingenious process, strengthens the pipe, without diminishing -its elasticity, and although some small portions of the lead should -escape being coated, yet the proximity of the tin, will, from galvanic -action, probably prevent oxidization of the lead. As these pipes are -furnished at about eight cents per pound, the usual price of ordinary -lead-pipe, there can be no doubt that they will be generally adopted by -our citizens,--as they have been, already, by the Corporation, in the -conveyance of the Croton water, into the public buildings. - -_Use of Water as Aliment._ Water is the beverage provided by nature for -all animated beings. It is a vital stimulus, or one of the external -conditions essential for the manifestations of life. Consequently, -without it, life, at least in the higher order of animals, could not be -maintained. - -Considered in a dietetical point of view, water serves three important -purposes in the animal economy; namely, it repairs the loss of the -aqueous part of the blood, caused by the action of the secreting and -exhaling organs; secondly, it is a solvent of various alimentary -substances, and therefore assists the stomach in the act of digestion, -though, if taken in very large quantities, it may have an opposite -effect, by diluting the gastric juice; thirdly, it is a nutritive -agent, that is, it assists in the formation of the solid parts of the -body. - -_As a diluent_, water is indispensable to the preservation of health. -The body being composed of solids and fluids, there must be maintained -a certain relative proportion of these, to constitute that state of -system called health. In a full grown adult, the solid matter of the -body, by which we mean all that substantial part of the frame which -is not in constant motion in the vessels, amounts to only about one -fifth of the weight of the body--Chaussier says, one ninth of the total -weight, the difference, perhaps, being owing to the fact that there is -a quantity of fluid combined with the solids in so intimate a manner, -as almost to constitute a part of their substance. The diminution -of the fluid part of the body, is the cause of an uneasy sensation, -indicating the necessity of repairing the waste of fluids, which we -familiarly call _thirst_. This is a sensation connected with some -natural state of the corporeal functions, and altogether independent of -the occasional excitement of foreign bodies, although it may be induced -by these. There is a demand for a certain supply of liquid which is -the result of repletion of the stomach, and the cause of our drinking -at our ordinary meals, but this is different from true or spontaneous -thirst. True thirst occurs, when we have been some time without taking -drink, (unless the food has consisted mainly of fruits and other -succulent vegetables; under which circumstances, a person may go for -months without any desire for drink); when the system has been greatly -excited, whether by corporeal or mental causes; when acid substances, -particularly saline bodies, have been taken into the stomach; and, in -short, in every condition of the system, which favors the inordinate -excretion of fluids. The immediate cause of thirst appears to be a dry -state of the mouth and fauces; owing to the mucus which covers these -parts becoming thick and viscid, though physiologists are not agreed -on this point. This may arise from the absorption of the fluid parts -of the saliva; for it appears to be necessary for the due performance -of the functions of the palate and the tongue, that the mucus should -possess a certain degree of liquidity. The sensation of thirst is -generally indicative of the necessity of a supply of fluid to the -system generally; for although thirst may be momentarily assuaged by -wetting the mouth, or holding a thin fluid in it--yet it can only be -effectually relieved by conveying into the stomach a quantity of fluid -sufficient to supply the deficiency. This supply is termed _dilution_, -from the fact that the fluid is absorbed and carried into the blood, -which it renders thin, and the fluids themselves are called _diluents_. - -Thirst, however, does not always indicate a deficiency of fluids in the -circulating mass, and the tongue and fauces are occasionally dry and -harsh whilst the sensation of thirst is absent. Some individuals never -experience the sensation of thirst. Mr. Alcott, who lives entirely -on succulent vegetables, states that he has drunk no fluids for more -than a year past, and that he never experiences the sensation of -thirst--a similar case is mentioned by Sauvages, of an individual who -never thirsted, and passed whole months of the hottest weather without -drinking. It is well known that many warm-blooded animals such as mice, -quails, parrots, rabbits, &c., drink but very little; which is supposed -to be owing to the circumstance that they have very large salivary -glands, and a larger pancreas in proportion to the size of their -bodies. In general, as we have already remarked, thirst is indicative -of diminished fluidity of the blood and when it is not assuaged by -taking liquids into the stomach, or by moistening the mouth with them, -or by applying them to the surface, the torment which it induces -amounts occasionally almost to phrenzy, and is borne with less patience -and greater difficulty than hunger; sometimes inflammation of the mouth -and throat and intense fever supervene. Various circumstances connected -with the ordinary condition of the body influence the sensation of -thirst. Thus it is greater in infancy and childhood than in adult age, -and less in old age; it is greater in women than in men; it is varied -by constitution and temperament; by climate; season; the nature of -the diet; exercise; passions of mind, and even by imagination. As an -_aliment_, water is of prime necessity to all organized beings. As a -solvent, it reduces to a fluid mass all the principles necessary for -the growth of animal and vegetable bodies; which must be in a fluid -form, before they can be taken up by the fine lacteal and other -absorbent vessels, and thus carried to every part of the living tissue. -How important then, that this universal solvent should be pure,--that -it should be free from those foreign ingredients, whether of animal, -vegetable or mineral origin, which, if introduced into the system, tend -to disturb the functions of the various organs, and often to occasion -serious derangement and disease. But besides its important office as -a _menstruum_, water is perhaps the most important _nutrient_, of -all those which sustain the existence of organized bodies. A great -proportion of that which is drunk, is speedily absorbed by the veins, -and carried into the circulation, some time before the product of the -digested food is introduced by the way of the laeteals. There are -numerous cases on record, where persons have lived, for a considerable -length of time, on water alone. In the “Transactions of the Albany -Institute,” for 1830, Dr. M’Naughten relates the case of a man who was -sustained on water alone, for 53 days. “For the first six weeks he -walked out every day, and sometimes spent a great part of the day in -the woods. His walk was steady and firm, and his friends even remarked -that his step had an unusual elasticity; he shaved himself until about -a week before his death, and was able to sit up in bed till the last -day.” - -To the evils which result from the use of impure water, we have -already alluded, although it would require far more space than has -been assigned to us in this Appendix, to do them adequate justice. -There can be no doubt, that the chief cause of the excess of mortality -in cities, over that of the country, is to be found in the impure -water, with which the former are so generally supplied, and we may -confidently predict, that in consequence mainly of the introduction -of the Croton River into the City of New-York, no city in the world -of equal size, will surpass it in salubrity. To the operation of -the same cause, we may doubtless look with confidence for a decided -improvement in personal comeliness and beauty. “It is evident,” says -Dr Jackson, “that the health of a whole community may be so affected -by impurities in water drank by them, as to give a peculiar morbid -expression to their countenances which causes the observant eye of a -traveller to remark it, while he in vain endeavours to account for the -phenomenon. Who has not remarked the expression common in some of our -cities, as in New-York and Boston, which is called a “care worn and -anxious expression.” This expression I will venture to assert, is not -so much the result of “too much care,” as it is of abdominal disease, -produced by the habitual and continued use of impure and unwholesome -water, which has fixed upon us this morbid stamp. I do not know that -the people of the cities in question, are subject to more care than -those in other districts, but I do know that they use every day, in -many forms, a variety of noxous ingredients, which they pump up from -their wells, dissolved in the water, and which enters into every -form of food and drink they use in their houses.” Mrs. Hale, also, -in her excellent Manual “The Good Housekeeper,” remarks, that “hard -water always leaves a mineral matter on the skin, when we use it in -washing, which renders the hands and face rough and liable to chap. -Does not this water, if we drink it, likewise corrode and injure the -fine membranes of the stomach? The Boston people, who constantly use -hard water for all purposes of cookery and drink, certainly have bad -complexions, sallow, dry, and _hard_ looking; and complaints of the -stomach or dyspepsia are very common among them.[16] A Salem gentleman -declared, that when his daughters, who frequently visited at Boston, -passed two or three weeks at a time there, he could see a very material -change in their complexions. At Salem there is plenty of soft water, -and the ladies of that ancient town are famed for their beauty, which -is chiefly owing (its superiority I mean) to a peculiarly fair, -delicate tincture of skin contrasted with the half petrified appearance -of those who are obliged to drink _hard water_ always, and often to -wash in it.” Such authority on this point we presume will not be -disputed. - -Health, however, is no less promoted by the internal, than by the -external use of water; and it is to be hoped, that but a short period -will elapse, before free baths will be provided at the public expense, -for the use of the poor, as well as the public generally. Daily -ablution should be regarded as necessary as daily food or sleep. - -The advantages which soft water possesses over hard, in the thousand -economical purposes of life, are too obvious to need particular -remark. The lime contained in well water, renders it inapplicable -to the purposes of brewing, tanning, washing, bleaching, and many -other processes in the arts and domestic economy; and we believe the -calculation would not be found extravagant, if we should say that by -the use of the Croton water 100,000 dollars annually will be saved to -the inhabitants of New-York, in the articles of soap and soda alone. -When to this, we add the increased comfort and health of the citizens, -from its free external and internal use,--the superior cleanliness -of the streets, by the washing away of all stagnant matters in the -sinks and gutters, and the consequent purity of the atmosphere,--the -diminution of danger from fires, and the consequent reduction of rates -of insurance, with other important advantages too numerous to detail, -we shall not consider its introduction purchased at too dear a rate, -even were the expenses attending it increased to double the actual -amount. - -We need not attempt to specify in detail the benefits which are likely -to accrue to the city of New-York from the introduction of an abundance -of pure water. Its value is not to be estimated by dollars and -cents; though it might easily be shown, that it already saves to the -citizens a sum far exceeding the annual interest on its cost. We have -already referred to its superiority as a solvent of vegetable matter, -over the hard well water, formerly used. Since then, we have made a -calculation, by which we are satisfied that in the single items of tea -and coffee, it will save to the inhabitants of this city annually, -not far from 90,000 dollars. To this may be added the improvement -of the public health, and the consequent saving in medicine, and -physicians’ fees, a sum probably exceeding that above specified; the -increase of the working days, and the extension of the average period -of working ability among the laboring classes; and lastly, the moral -and intellectual advancement of the entire population, attendant upon -the improvement of their physical condition; each of which is not an -unimportant item in the aggregate of public prosperity and happiness. - -Such are some of the facts connected with this important fluid--water. -So common and abundant is it in nature, that we are apt to overlook its -value; but we need only be deprived of it for a season, when we shall -set a due estimate upon its importance. Pure and sparkling to the eye, -bland and refreshing to the taste, whether it bubbles up from mother -earth, gurgles in rills, flows along in streams and rivers, or spreads -out in lakes and oceans, it every where proves a blessing,--and ought -to be universally regarded as one of the most inestimable gifts of -Providence to man. As it is the only fluid capable of quenching thirst, -so it is the only one compatible with the prolonged duration of animal -life--we need not add, that as ALCOHOL, under all its combinations, -fermented and distilled, is a deadly poison, fatal to organized beings, -whether they belong to the vegetable or animal kingdom, WATER can in -no case be improved by combining it with this deleterious fluid. It -was formerly common in this city, and still is so in many places where -the well-water is brackish, to modify its taste by the addition of a -quantity of brandy, or some other form of ardent spirit, with a view, -not only of rendering it more agreeable to the palate, but also of -correcting the deleterious properties, occasioned by the salts held by -it in solution. But in all such instances, the spirit which is added -proves far more injurious than the small quantity of vegetable and -mineral matters which it is designed to correct. To the latter, the -system becomes in a manner habituated, so that even when pure soft -water can be had, the former is often preferred, as is now the case -with many individuals, who prefer our brackish well water to that of -the Croton. But where ardent spirit is added, an artificial appetite -for stimulants is soon created,--there is a constantly increasing -demand for a repetition as well as increase of the dose, derangement of -the digestive organs succeeds, and in a large majority of instances, -the health is irremediably impaired. But fortunately, no arguments are -needed in this place to convince the citizens of New-York that pure -Croton water needs no corrective,--and that it is the sworn enemy of -_fire_, whether in the shape of alcoholic poison, or that of the more -simple element-- - - “Αριστον μεν υδωρ”--PINDAR. - - - PRINTED BY WILLIAM OSBORN, - 88 William-street. - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[1] It is proper to remark that, the pier at each extremity, of the -range of arches of eighty feet span, has an extra thickness, making it -a pier of equilibrium; this is also the case with the one in the centre -of that range of arches, so that on each shore and in the centre of the -river this additional security has been given. - -[2] This report was from the pen of Samuel Stevens, Esq. - -[3] This Act was drawn up by Myndert Van Schaick, Esq., and its -character and suitableness to obviate former difficulties were approved -of by the Common Council, and the situation of Mr. Van Schaick, as -member of the Senate, no doubt promoted its success. - -[4] This Act was prepared by Myndert Van Schaick, Esq., from materials -which he had previously collected for the purpose, and it passed into a -Law, and is the one under which, as its main foundation, the work has -been constructed. - -[5] For some general remarks on Water, its economical and dietetical -uses, an analysis of the Croton and the comparative purity of that -supplied to different cities, the action of water on lead, &c., see -Appendix, which has been kindly furnished by Charles A. Lee, M. D., of -New-York. - -[6] The Aqueduct is calculated to convey 60,000,000 gallons in -twenty-four hours. - -[7] This includes, besides the actual cost of constructing the work, -the accumulation of interest on loans. - -[8] The air in ice and snow water contains 34.8 per cent. of oxygen, -while that in rain water contains but 32 per cent. - -[9] Report from the Select Committee of the House of Lords, appointed -to inquire into the supply of water to the Metropolis, p. 91, 1840. -Analysis by R. Phillips, Esq. - -[10] Analysis, by Dr. J. R. Chilton, of New-York. - -[11] The bad effects of hard water on the animal system, are likewise -manifested in horses. “Hard water drawn fresh from the well,” says Mr. -Youatt, “will assuredly make the coat of a horse unaccustomed to it -stare, and it will not unfrequently gripe, and otherwise injure him. -Instinct, or experience, has made even the horse himself conscious of -this; for he will never drink hard water, if he has access to soft; -he will leave the most transparent water of the well, for the river, -although the water may be turbid, and even for the muddiest pool. Some -trainers have so much fear of hard or strange water, that they carry -with them to the different courses the water that the animal has been -accustomed to drink and what they know agrees with it.” - -[12] Repository of Patent Inventions, for October, 1841. - -[13] It is now well ascertained, that carbonate of lime has only a -slight action on soap, and cannot in the proportions in which it exists -in potable waters decompose it, by giving rise to the formation of a -clotty precipitate, as we observe with sulphate and nitrate of lime, -and chloride of calcium--and this is probably owing to the excess of -carbonic acid which prevents the re-action of the calcareous carbonate -on the oleate and stearate of soda of the soap. - -[14] Where water contains a large quantity of carbonic acid, there -are some facts which appear to prove, that it may act on lead, to an -injurious extent, though there may be present a large amount of neutral -salts. - -[15] Containing 4.05 grains of solid matter to the gallon, or about one -18,000 part. - -[16] “It has been computed that the Boston people have drank sufficient -_lime_, were it all collected, to build the Bunker Hill Monument as -high as it was ever designed to be carried.” - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - -Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a -predominant preference was found in the original book; otherwise they -were not changed. 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