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diff --git a/old/66616-0.txt b/old/66616-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 0edfc4e..0000000 --- a/old/66616-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2982 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Elementary Course in Woodwork, by George -Alexander Ross - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Elementary Course in Woodwork - Designed for use in high and technical schools, with one hundred - and thirty-four illustrations: First Edition - -Author: George Alexander Ross - -Release Date: October 26, 2021 [eBook #66616] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team - at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive/American - Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK *** - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes: - - Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_ - in the original text. - Equal signs “=” before and after a word or phrase indicate =bold= - in the original text. - Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals. - Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs. - Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected. - - - - - ELEMENTARY COURSE - IN - WOODWORK - - DESIGNED FOR USE IN HIGH - AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS - - WITH - ONE HUNDRED AND THIRTY-FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS - - BY - GEORGE ALEXANDER ROSS - - INSTRUCTOR IN - WOODWORK AND PATTERNMAKING - LEWIS INSTITUTE, CHICAGO - - FIRST EDITION - - A. FLANAGAN COMPANY - CHICAGO :: NEW YORK - - COPYRIGHT, 1901 - BY - A. FLANAGAN COMPANY - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The character and object of this book is set forth on its title page. -It is a manual designed principally for the practical assistance of -students in elementary woodwork in the Lewis Institute. - -The author has endeavored to present the subject in such a manner as -to make simple the transition from the easier to the more difficult -operations; the exercises have been selected after having had a -thorough test covering a period of three years, and will be found -practical in their application to the students in High and Technical -Schools in elementary woodwork and turning. - -Part one, the bench work, is intended to cover a period of eight -weeks, two hours per day, and part two, wood turning, four weeks, two -hours per day, thus making a course which will be found to touch the -principal points in elementary work, at the same time giving practice -in the uses of the tools most commonly used in carpentry, joinery and -wood turning. Disston & Sons’ Handbook for Lumbermen has furnished many -of the facts presented under “Care of Saws.” - -It has been the author’s aim in this course to give just enough -instruction in the work so that the student might be led to study out -the problems for himself; by this means he is able to study the course -of work that follows the second part of this book, i. e., Pattern -Making. - -A cursory perusal of the work will disclose many features which the -author feels sure will commend themselves to instructors and others -interested in this department of school work, and with the hope that -these pages may prove a valuable aid to students and teachers alike, -this work is presented to the public. - - GEORGE A. ROSS. - Lewis Institute, Chicago, 1901. - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - - PAGE. - - CARE OF SAWS AND EQUIPMENT 7 - EXERCISE IN SAWING AND PLANING 21 - THE HALVED JOINT 47 - THE MORTISE AND TENON JOINT 51 - KEYED MORTISE AND TENON WITH BRACE 57 - EXERCISE WITH THE BENCH, BEAD, RABBET, AND MOLDING PLANES 62 - BLIND MORTISES AND TENONS WITH BEADING AND RABBETING 66 - DOVETAIL CORNER JOINT (COMMON) 71 - GLASS PANEL DOOR FRAME 79 - BENCH HOOK. USE OF SHELLAC 87 - BOX WITH SLIDING TOP 89 - PROBLEM IN TRUSS WORK 94 - PROBLEM IN STAIR BUILDING 100 - PROBLEM IN STAIR RAILING 106 - TO PREPARE SHELLAC 114 - TO PREPARE GLUE AND HOW TO USE IT 115 - TO TRUE OIL STONES 116 - - - - -CARE OF SAWS, AND EQUIPMENT. - - -Elementary woodwork can be more readily learned from small pieces of -wood than from large; so the exercises that are here given are of such -dimensions that they can be easily handled in working out the problems. - -Since it is by what we study and learn that we are able to do something -else, the student in beginning this work should thoroughly familiarize -himself with the tools, their names and uses, so that he may more -readily understand their application in the work that follows. - -The equipment for the general use of students in each bench locker is -as follows: - - 1 20-inch Rip-Saw. - 1 20-inch Cross-Cut Saw. - 1 10-inch Back-Saw. - 1 8-inch Try-Square. - 1 8-inch Bevel. - 1 8-inch Wing Dividers. - 1 Marking Knife. - 1 ⅜-inch Hand Mortising Chisel. - 1 Bit Brace. - 1 ¼-inch, ⅜-inch, ½-inch and ¾-inch Auger Bit. - 1 Nail Set. - 1 Mallet. - 1 Hammer. - 1 Oil Stone. - 1 Oil Can. - 1 Screw Driver. - 1 Dust Brush. - -The equipment of tools in drawer and under the care of individual -students is as follows: - - 1 Number 5 Bailey Iron Plane (Jack-Plane). - 1 Number 4 Bailey Iron Plane (Smooth-Plane). - 1 Marking Gauge. - 1 ¼-inch, ½-inch, ¾-inch, and 1-inch Bevel Edge Paring Chisel. - 1 ¼-inch and ¾-inch Skew Turning Chisel. - 1 ¼-inch and ¾-inch Turning Gouge. - -Tools, such as molding, beading, rabbeting, and plow planes are found -in the tool room, and are issued to students on check when required. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -Fig. 1 shows the double bench equipped with rack, cam and quick acting -vises, with the locker for the general tools and four drawers on each -side of the bench with tools for the use of the individual student. -Carpenters’ benches are usually about 33 inches high, while cabinet and -pattern makers’ benches are from 2 inches to 4 inches higher. - -The careful workman as a rule takes great pride in the condition -in which his bench is kept; so the beginner should see that his -immediate surroundings are kept in a neat, workmanlike manner, and with -everything in proper place. - -Care should be taken to protect the top of the bench from injury; it -should never be marked by the chisel or cut by the saw. If chiseling -has to be done on the bench, place the work on the bench hook or on a -board, and in sawing use a bench hook such as is shown in Fig. 2, that -has a side lip that will protect the bench top. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -The bench hook is made by students as an exercise, and is used to -replace those hooks that have become worn out. - -The material, which is delivered from the lumber yard in boards or -planks, has to be cut up into lengths and widths suitable for the work -to be done. The tools used for doing this cutting are the rip-saw and -the cross-cut saw. - -Now, a great amount of time can be lost in this work by the student, -for the reason of his trying to do work with one tool when another -should be used, and especially is this so in regard to saws. A saw -will cut faster than a chisel in some places, and sometimes make the -work as good if not better; so the student should learn to file and to -keep a saw in just as good order as any other tool used. - -We devote considerable space here to the saw, for we feel that the saw -as one of the principal tools is often neglected, and is not used by -students in their work as much as it should be. By a judicious use of -this tool much time can be saved and a greater amount of ground covered -than by trying to use a chisel or a jack knife in its stead. - -Saws are either reciprocating or continuous in action; the first being -a flat blade and a practically straight edge, making a plane cut, as -in mill, jig, and sash saws; the latter either a circular or rotating -disc, cutting in a plane at right angles to its axis (see buzz-saw in -shop) or a continuous ribbon or band running on two pulleys, making -a plane or curved cut with a straight edge parallel to their axis of -rotation (see band-saw in shop). - -Practically speaking, the teeth are a series of knives set on a -circular or straight line, each tooth cutting out its proportion of -wood, and kept from cutting more by the teeth on either side of it. -Each tooth should cut the same amount and carry out the chips or dust, -dropping it to the side or below the material being sawed. Different -kinds of woods require teeth different in number, angle or pitch, and -style of filing. - -The perfect saw is one that cuts the fastest and smoothest with the -least expenditure of power; to do this it is evident that each tooth -should be so constructed and dressed as to do an equal proportion of -the work, for if any of the teeth are out of line or shape they are not -only useless themselves but a disadvantage to the others. - -A saw tooth has two functions—paring and scraping. A slitting or rip -saw for wood should have its cutting edge at about right angles to the -fibre of the wood, severing it in one place, the throat of the tooth -wedging out the piece. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.] - -The rip-saw, Fig. 3, should be filed square across, and the front or -rake of tooth should be at about right angles to the edge of the saw. - -After jointing and setting, file one half the teeth from each side, -which will give to the cutting edge of the tooth the slight bevel -it should have for soft wood; for medium hard woods use a finer -toothed saw, and file in the same manner; for the very hard, tough -and cross-grained woods, use a saw still finer with the teeth filed -slightly beveling, as ripping cross-grained stuff partakes a little of -the nature of cross-cutting. - -In all cases where ripping is done, the thrust of a saw should be on -an angle of about 45 degrees to the material being cut, as shown in -Fig. 4. This makes a shearing cut, an advantage that can be quickly -demonstrated with an ordinary pocket knife, cutting any piece of soft -wood. - -Saws are designated by the number of points or teeth per inch, and the -selection of a saw depends upon the character of wood to be worked. A -rip-saw should have from 4 to 10 teeth per inch, the cross-cut saw from -6 to 16 teeth per inch. This includes the back-saw, it being filed the -same as a regular cross-cut saw. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.] - -The harder the wood, the greater the number of teeth the saw should -have. - -We will now consider the cross-cut saw tooth in regard to rake or -pitch; this being one of the most important features, too much care -cannot be taken to have the correct amount of pitch for the duty -required. To illustrate this. Fig. 5 represents a board, across which -we wish to make a deep mark or score with the point of a knife. -Suppose we hold the knife nearly perpendicular as at B; it is evident -that it will push harder and will not cut as smoothly as if it were -inclined forward as at A. It follows then that the cutting edge of a -cross-cut saw should incline forward as at C, Fig. 6, rather than stand -perpendicular as at D, Fig. 7. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.] - -Too much hook or pitch and too heavy a set are very common faults, not -only detrimental to good work but ruinous to the saw; in the first -case, by having a large amount of pitch, the saw takes hold so keenly -that frequently it “hangs up” suddenly in the thrust—the result, a -kinked or broken blade; in the second, by having too much set, the -strain caused by the additional and unnecessary amount of set is out of -proportion to the strength of the blade, and it is broken in the same -manner. The most general value of pitch used is 60 degrees, though this -may be varied a little, more or less, to advantage, as occasion may -demand. - -In all cases the size of tooth depends largely upon the duty required; -a long tooth has the demerit of being weak and liable to spring, but -the merit of giving a greater clearance to the saw-dust. The throat -space in front of each tooth must be large enough to contain the dust -of that tooth from one stroke; the greater the feed the deeper the dust -chamber required, or the more teeth. Where the teeth are fine the shape -of the throat is of special interest. - -The teeth of a hand-saw should be filed so true that on holding it up -to the eye and looking along its edge, it will show a central groove -down which a fine needle will slide freely the entire length. This -groove must be angular in shape and equal on each side, or the saw is -not filed properly and will not run true. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.] - -Fig. 8 shows how the groove should appear on looking down the edge of -the saw. The action should be such that the bottom of the cut or kerf -will present the appearance as shown in Fig. 9, and not as in Fig. 10; -the cutting action is shown in Fig. 11, the cutting being done with the -outside of the tooth; the fibre of the wood is severed in two places, -and the wood is crumbled out from point to point by the thrust of the -saw. - -The proper amount of bevel is very important, as is demonstrated by the -above figures, for if too much bevel is given the points will score -so deeply that the fibres severed from the main body will not crumble -out as severed but will be removed by continued rasping. This is true, -particularly in hard woods, as they require less bevel, as well as -pitch, than soft wood. - -The next point to be considered is the bevel or fleam of the point. In -Fig. 12 the filer, as in all cases, files from the heel to the point; -which is the only correct way. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.] - -The file is supposed to be perpendicular to the side of the saw in the -vertical plane (see Fig. 13), at an angle of about 45 degrees in the -horizontal plane, measuring from file line towards heel (see Fig. 14). - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.] - -Fig. 15 is a fair representation of many saws that we have seen owned -by workmen; the result of owning such tools is shown in the poor work -turned out by them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.] - -As has already been said, the filing should be done from the heel of -the saw toward the point. Many practical saw filers contend that this -is wrong; that the filing should be done from the point of the saw -toward the handle; but the only support they offer for this theory -is that they do away with the feather edge that the filing from the -heel of saws puts on the cutting face of the tooth. The feather edge -is no objection, as the main part of it is removed when the teeth are -side-dressed after the saw is set and sharpened. - -Against the correctness of filing from point to handle may be cited the -following objections: - -Where a different angle of back is required (it should be remembered -that that angle of face should be the same in nearly all cross-cut -hand saws, and that angle of back governs angle of point) it will be -found very difficult to obtain it without changing the angle of face -of the tooth, and as the cutting duty is on the long side of the face, -any change is, of course, of great influence. Again, to file from the -point of the saw it is necessary to file with the teeth bent toward the -operator. This will cause the saw to vibrate or chatter, a thing which -not only renders good, clean, even filing impossible, but breaks the -teeth off the file. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.] - -The setting of a saw is an important part of the work in keeping a saw -in order, and should be done AFTER the saw has been JOINTED, and before -filing. - -The set should be uniform throughout, as the good working of a saw -depends nearly as much on this as on the filing. One great mistake is -often made in setting a saw, and that is that many try to put the set -in the blade instead of in the tooth. The set should not go at the most -lower than half the length of the tooth; by going lower it is liable to -spring the body of the saw, if not break the tooth out. - -Two methods may be given for setting saws. The first, or old method -(employed before saw-sets were invented, and still used by old -mechanics) is to take a hardwood block, lay the saw on it, and with a -nail set and hammer set every other tooth on the side, then turn the -blade over and repeat the operation on the teeth missed from the first -side. It is needless to make any comment on this method when saw sets -can be bought that are absolutely reliable in their operation. - -The second method is to use the saw-set. Saw-sets are made in many -styles, and can be bought at any hardware store. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.] - -Figs. 16 and 17 show two styles of saw-sets; much might be said in -favor of each. - -Saw clamps or vises used to hold the saw when filing can be bought (see -Fig. 18), but a simple homemade vise can be put together by means of -two pieces of board, one 3 feet 6 inches long and 6 inches wide, and -one 2 feet 4 inches long and 6 inches wide. By fastening a piece 2½ -inches thick about 10 inches from the top of each, to act as a fulcrum, -and fastening a piece on each board at the top to act as jaws, and -using a wedge at the bottom to tighten it up, a very serviceable vise -is obtained (see Fig. 19). - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.] - -To assist those not skilled in the art of filing, there is made a -saw-filing clamp with a guide, of which a cut is here shown in Fig. 20. - -A few general rules may be observed in saw-filing: See that the file -is held at the same angle throughout the operation. File every other -tooth on one side, and when filed, reverse the saw and file the other -teeth from the other side. For rip saws, place the file at right angles -with the saw, and file the rake of tooth at right angles to the edge. -After a saw is properly set and filed, lay it on a flat board and rub -over the points of the teeth on the sides with an oil stone; this will -regulate the set and insure smooth cutting, making the filing last -longer. Should the saw not run true take another cut with the oil stone -over the side toward which it leads. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.] - -A fast cutting cross-cut saw should have deep teeth. - -Much useful information on saws can be obtained from a small book -published and issued by Disston & Sons, Philadelphia, entitled “Hand -Book for Lumbermen,” which, I believe, can be obtained on application. - -The other tools used in this course will be taken up in order as they -are used in the work. - - - - -EXERCISE NO. 1. - - -The following operations are designed to give the student a TRAINING -in the use and care of the most commonly used carpenters’ and joiners’ -tools. It is not intended that the student will be able to finish -each exercise in one trial, as mistakes will be very common at the -beginning, and it is advised that at least two or three trials may be -given for the practice and training involved. - -In Fig. 21 is shown the working drawing (mechanical drawing) of a -rectangular block of wood, and before we proceed to do the work -required to finish this, we will study the drawing. - -In order to represent solid figures with their three dimensions, -length, breadth, and thickness, on a plane surface, i.e., a sheet -of paper, we must have at least two drawings (projections), but to -simplify the reading still further a third drawing is given, sometimes -with additional drawings in the form of cross-sections. - -To understand fully the principle upon which a working drawing is made, -we will suppose that two transparent planes cross each other at right -angles, making four right angles as shown in Fig. 22, (these angles -to be known as the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th angle of the co-ordinate -planes), and respectively called the Horizontal and the Vertical -planes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.] - -Two of these angles are used in practice, the 1st and the 3rd; the most -modern practice is to use the 3rd, although the 1st is still used in -some manufacturing establishments and by some teachers. - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.] - -We will take, first, the 1st angle, and compare it with the results -obtained from the 3rd angle. We place the solid (exercise 1) in space -in the 1st angle, and also place a similar one in the 3rd angle (see -Figs. 23 and 24). - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.] - -By projecting the lines back on the vertical, and down on the -horizontal plane, we obtain two views which are respectively the -elevation on the vertical and the plan on the horizontal plane; to -obtain the third view or end elevation, we have another plane placed -perpendicular to planes H and V, as shown in Figs. 23 and 24, and the -lines projected back from the left end; by opening or revolving these -planes into one plane, as shown in Fig. 25, we have a working drawing -made in the 1st angle. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.] - -Referring to Fig. 24, where we placed the solid in the 3rd angle, we -project the lines up on the horizontal and to the front on the vertical -plane, and by placing another plane at the end, perpendicular to the -H and V planes, we obtain the third projection. Revolving the planes -into one plane (i. e., a sheet of paper) Fig. 26, we have the working -drawing in the third angle. Compare the results obtained, and note the -difference in the reading of the drawing. - -In the first angle we see the plan is below the elevation, and in the -third angle the plan is above; the pieces cut out of the exercise may -also be noted in the end projection by the lines passing through the -center of the exercise; in the first angle the line comes out full, the -end being exposed, and in the third angle the surface is behind the -full end and shows a dotted line. - -Lines that are seen are shown as full lines. - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.] - -Lines that are below a surface and are required in the reading of a -drawing are shown as dotted lines. - -The drawing, Fig. 21, calls for a piece that is 8 inches at its -longest, 2 inches at its widest, and 1 inch at its thickest point, -and that may be designated thus: piece 8 inches × 2 inches × 1 inch -finished. - -For measuring, a standard rule 2 feet long that can be folded up is -preferred. The rule is divided into feet, inches, ½ inches, ¼ inches, -⅛ inches, ¹/₁₆ inches, etc. On some rules will be found scales that -can be used in measuring drawings that are drawn to scale. The drawing -may be of any scale, using ⅛, ¼, 1, 1½, 3, or 6 inches to the foot. - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.] - -The first thing to be done toward carrying out the work is to saw out -a piece from the plank that is laid on the saw trestles (Fig. 27). -Mark with a pencil the lines to be sawed; holding the rule in the left -hand, and the pencil in the right, and placing the index finger of the -left hand against the edge of the plank, as shown in Fig. 28, draw both -hands toward the body, thus marking out the piece lengthwise; then -measure the length required and place the try-square (Fig. 29) against -the edge of the plank, and draw a line along the blade through the -point marked. - -The piece should be marked out larger than the finished exercise so -that there will be stock enough in the piece to perform the operations -required, say 8½ inches × 2½ inches, the plank being thick enough to -provide for the work on the sides. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.] - -Having “laid out” the piece on the plank, take the rip-saw and hold it -as shown in Fig. 30: saw down the line, taking care that the “kerf” is -square to the side of the plank; then take the cross-cut saw, and saw -across the line marked. Hold the cross-cut saw as in Fig. 30. - -After having cut the piece from the plank take the jack-plane and put -it in good condition for work. A sectional view of the Bailey Iron -Plane is shown in Fig. 31, and the parts are as follows: - - A—Plane-Iron. - B—Cap Iron. - C—The Iron Lever. - D—Thumb piece and Cam. - E—Screw which acts as a fulcrum when the thumb piece is pushed - into position. - F—Thumb screw by which the Plane-Iron A is regulated for any - thickness of shaving. - G—Lever which is in contact with Plane-Iron. - H—Screw which holds the iron bed piece in place. - I—Bed piece. - K—Lever. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.] - -The plane-iron should be ground on the grindstone if nicked or rounded. - -To grind the plane-iron it should be held in the hand as shown in Fig. -32. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.] - -Apply the iron to the stone, as indicated by dotted line A, Fig. 33; -then raise it until the proper angle is reached, a position indicated -by full lines B. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.] - -Move the tool gradually from one side of the stone to the other. See -that there is plenty of water on the stone. The tool should be held -during the operation so that it revolves toward the person grinding. -The tool thus held is not so liable to have a “wire edge” as it is if -held on the stone while it is revolving away from the operator. - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.] - -The “whetted” edge should never be ground away unless the plane-iron is -in very poor condition. - -The grinding is complete when the bevel reaches the cutting edge,—a -condition which can readily be determined by holding the finger along -the flat side of the iron and having the light fall in the proper -direction; a thin bright line will be seen which will determine whether -the iron is ground enough. The plane-iron is shown before it is ground -in Fig. 34, and Fig. 35 shows it after it is ground. - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.] - -To whet or sharpen the iron an oil stone is used. Oil stones are of -different grades; a stone of medium hardness is best, as it will cut a -little faster and leave a fairly smooth edge; whereas if the stone be -hard much time is required to whet the iron, but it leaves a smoother -edge. A coarse stone leaves a rough edge. Use oil that will not become -gummy on the stone. Several good artificial stones have lately come on -the market which give good service. To sharpen the iron, apply it as -shown in Fig. 36, 1 and 2, and move it back and forth as indicated in -Fig. 37. - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.] - -Many persons sharpen their plane irons as indicated in Fig. 38; at -first thought this may appear to be right, but many mechanics of long -experience sharpen the “iron” as indicated in Fig. 36. This method -gives a stronger edge, which is not so liable to get nicked when the -iron strikes a knot or a hard spot in the work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.] - -Great care should be taken to avoid giving the iron a rocking motion on -the oil stone, as this will round the edge and the iron will not be any -sharper than it would be if it were in the form shown in Fig. 39. - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.] - -After having whetted the bevel side of the iron sufficiently, turn the -iron so that it will rest perfectly flat on the stone, as shown at -3, Fig. 36, and whet it in this position; this will remove the “wire -edge.” Care should be taken to see that the iron is not raised in -whetting the flat side; if raised as in Fig. 40 the cutting qualities -of the edge will be injured. - -The iron is now sharpened. Replace the cap iron, keeping it back -from ¹/₆₄ to ¹/₃₂ of an inch from the cutting edge; then place it -in position and fasten it; look down the face of the plane and see -that the edge protrudes far enough to cut the required thickness. The -adjustments are made by the thumb screw F and lever K, Fig. 31. - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.] - -Place the block already sawed on the bench against the bench stop, Fig. -41, and then follow the method here given for planing a piece to the -given dimensions. - - -FIRST. - -Plane one side true and mark (0) for the “working face.” (A surface -is said to be true when it is perfectly straight across; straight -lengthwise, and free from twist). - -“Side” here used means one of the wider surfaces in distinction from -the narrower surface, the edge. - -Methods for testing the surface with parallel strips, etc., will be -shown by the instructor. - - -SECOND. - -Plane one edge perfectly straight lengthwise, and square to the face -side. Mark this edge for the “working edge”; use the try-square, Fig. -29, to test the work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.] - - -THIRD. - -Set the gauge, Fig. 42, to the width given in the drawing, and gauge a -line from the face edge on both sides; then plane to the gauge lines. - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.] - -In using the gauge see that it is held as shown in Fig. 43, and push -away from the body, having the pressure on the gauge as shown by the -line A, B, Fig. 44. This will keep the head of the gauge close to the -work. Do not try to mark a line by holding it as in Fig. 45, with the -spur at right angles to the work, as it will generally follow the fibre -of the wood and a crooked, ragged line will be the result. By holding -it as shown in Fig. 43 (and gently letting the spur touch the work, -going over it once or twice until the line is of the desired heaviness -to work to) a clear, clean-cut line will be obtained. - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.] - - -FOURTH. - -Set the gauge to the given thickness (see drawing for dimension) and -gauge a line on both edges from face side; then plane to gauge lines. -This, if done correctly, will finish the four surfaces. It is sometimes -necessary that the ends of a piece of work should be finished smooth; -the method of procedure is as follows: - -Mark (from one end about ¹/₆₄ of an inch) a knife line all around (see -Fig. 46), placing the head of the try-square against the face edge and -the face side only; then take a small block and put behind the exercise -as shown in Fig. 47, fasten in the vise, and plane to the knife lines. -This block will save the corners from breaking. - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.] - -To finish the other end measure the length and mark as on the first -end. Then if the piece is too long to plane, saw off near the line, -using the back-saw as shown at Fig. 54, and then finish with the plane -to the lines. - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.] - -In planing care must be taken to see that the plane is held firmly on -the work to secure a true surface. A rocking motion must be avoided. In -order to get the best results see that the front of the plane is held -down with the left hand, also pressing down and forward with the right -hand at the same time, and at the end of the stroke lift the front of -the plane as shown in Fig. 48; never let it drop as in Fig. 49. - -A proper and an improper position to stand while planing is shown by -Figs. 50 and 51. - -In planing the edge if it is higher on one side than the other, move -the plane over to the high side and plane it down. Fig. 52 shows the -position of the plane. - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.] - -After the block is planed true and to the correct dimensions, lay out -the lines across the face at the left hand end shown in the drawing and -square the lines down the depth on the edges; then set the gauge and -mark around the end and notch on both edges. Beginners will find it a -little difficult at first to saw a perfectly clean line so as to secure -a sharp corner; by cutting notches with a knife point as shown at Fig. -53, it will be easy to secure sharp corners. Place the back-saw, Fig. -54, in the notch, hold it tightly against the flat side, and saw down -to the desired depth, removing the portion from the end with the rip -saw (see Fig. 55). - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.] - -To remove the portion between the sawed lines take the chisel, Fig. 56 -(the same directions to be used for grinding and sharpening a chisel -as are used for the plane-iron), pare lightly (about half through the -width of the piece), cut down to the gauge line, and then turn the -piece around and finish from the other side, leaving a straight surface -at the bottom of the notch. Be careful not to take too heavy a cut, -for the chisel will be hard to guide if the workman has to exert his -whole strength to push it through the wood. The chisel has a tendency -to go down into the work if the flat side is not used as a guiding -surface; this side, if kept in contact with the solid wood, will insure -a straight surface, and consequently accurate work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.] - -The lining on the exercise is made with the gauge for the lines running -parallel with the edge, with the square and the knife for the lines at -right angles to the edge, and with the bevel, Fig. 57, and the knife -for the oblique lines. Figs. 58 and 59 give methods for finding the -angle of 45 degrees, which is the angle that is used for the oblique -lines. - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.] - -Too much attention cannot be given to the operations in this exercise, -for in all work that requires material to be prepared, carelessness -in detail and inattention to methods, etc., will always appear in the -finished work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.] - - - - -EXERCISE NUMBER 2. - -HALVED JOINT. - - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.] - -When two pieces of timber of equal thickness cross each other and the -joint is to be flush, i. e., the pieces when joined are to form a -flat surface, they are halved together; or, to put it in another way, -a piece is taken out of each half its thickness and as broad as the -piece which is to cross it, thus allowing the one to drop into the -other, as shown in Fig. 60. The working drawing is shown in Fig. 61. - -To make this piece of work, refer to methods and operations given for -the preparation of material in the first exercise. - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.] - -Special results are sought for by specific methods in this exercise. -Exercises that are not finished (by the methods given) as they should -be, are thrown out as not coming up to the requirements and fall short -of the object for which they are designed. - -The drawing shows two pieces of wood of given dimensions crossing -each other at right angles and halved together, making a flush -joint. _Requirements_: The pieces to be of the exact length, breadth, -and thickness called for, fitted closely on both sides, each piece -to be exactly in the center of the other, and both sides smoothed -off and perfectly flat when finished; the ends of the pieces to be -planed square, and the ends of the halving to be fitted from the saw. -_Methods_: After sawing out a piece (long enough to make both pieces, -allowing for work on the ends), plane the piece by the methods given -for planing in the first exercise; then saw it across in the center and -proceed to lay out the pieces so that the face side of each piece will -come on the same side; this means that the halving is cut out of the -face of one piece and the back of the other (see Fig. 60). - -[Illustration: FIG. 62.] - -It will be well to consider this problem of laying out work as a -problem in arithmetic. The pieces called for in the drawing are 5½ -inches long, 1½ inches wide, and 1 inch thick. The piece that crosses -comes exactly in the center. Therefore we have a problem like this: -5½″ -1½″ = 4″, which is the difference between the length of one piece -and the breadth of the other; but the piece comes in the center, and -so we take the difference of the length, which is 4″, and divide it -by 2. 4″/2 = 2″, which will give the distance from the end up to the -first edge of the cross-piece. As all measurements have a beginning -somewhere, we mark a line near the end of the piece as shown in Fig. -62, and from this line we lay off the distance to the cross-piece, -marking with a knife point the position of the edge. Then we lay off -the width of the cross-piece, which is 1½″, leaving the distance to the -other end 2″, the same as at the first end. - -[Illustration: FIG. 63.] - -Having found the position of the edges of the cross-piece, we mark a -line across the work (using a knife and a square); then mark the lines -down the edges. Now taking the gauge, we gauge from the _face side of -each piece_ the depth required. Then we cut a notch _inside the lines_ -with a knife, as shown at Fig. 53, place the piece on the bench hook, -saw down to the gauge lines with the back-saw (position shown in Fig. -54), and remove the portions to be taken out by the methods given for -the notch in the first exercise. - -Then plane the ends of each piece perfectly square to the face side and -face edge. - -An exercise that was made by a careful student and one that was made by -a careless student are shown at Fig. 63, revealing the final results of -careful as against careless work. - -Having cut out the center pieces and finished the ends we fit them -together, seeing that the surfaces come flush; then smooth off the -surfaces, being careful not to cut too much off the ends, for this will -round the surfaces and thus spoil the work. Sharp tools are essential -to good work. - -Lines drawn in their proper places, and then cut to, will give the -results sought for in fitting. - - - - -EXERCISE NUMBER 3. - -MORTISE AND TENON. - - -When beams or pieces of wood stand square with each other, and the -strains are also square with the pieces and in the plane of the frame, -the most common junction is the mortise and tenon. - -A mortise is an opening, which may be square or oblong, intended -to receive the tenon, and which may go into the work only a short -distance, or may go all the way through. Where it goes only part way -through it is called a blind mortise, and where it passes all the way -through, a through mortise. A tenon is a projection on the end of a -piece and fits into the mortise. The tenon usually has two shoulders -formed by cutting away the sides, and should be about one third the -thickness of the piece. - -[Illustration: FIG. 64.] - -There are a number of different styles of this joint and methods of -fastening, which we will consider later in our work. - -The working drawing shown in Fig. 64 gives the dimensions of the -pieces, the material of which is to be worked out in one piece, as -directed in the previous exercise, and then cut up into lengths -suitable for the exercise. The student should commence work on a piece -with a full understanding of what is required to be done in order to -finish the work as called for, and not try to make any kind of work do -in order to proceed to the next task. - -Notice what is required in this exercise: - - 1st. That the pieces be perfectly straight and square. - - 2nd. That the tenon piece be exactly in the center of - the mortise piece, and that the angles be right angles - or “square.” - - 3rd. That the work be laid out systematically, with the - lines in their proper places. - - 4th. That the tenon be made altogether with the saw. - - 5th. That the mortise be cut out with the hand - mortising chisel. - - 6th. That the tenon fit into the mortise, and not be squeezed. - - 7th. That the joint fit closely, and that the work be - finished off smoothly on the sides, with all the - corners sharp and the end of the pieces sawed square. - -The following methods if carried out will help the student to finish -the work as required. - -It will be unnecessary to repeat hereafter the method of planing, -as the student by this time should have learned to plane the pieces -properly to dimensions. - -After the material has been planed, mark the piece to the desired -lengths as shown in Fig. 65, and saw off the pieces square on the ends. -Use the knife to mark the lines. In sawing, care must be taken to -saw on the right side of the line, for the saw will cut out its own -thickness and reduce the length of the piece that much if the piece is -sawed on the wrong side of the line. - -[Illustration: FIG. 65.] - -Leave the tenon piece about ⅛ inch longer than the drawing calls for so -that the tenon will protrude through and be finished off even with the -mortise piece. - -[Illustration: FIG. 66.] - -Proceed to lay out the work. Take the mortise piece, which is 6 inches -long, and mark the distance from one end (6″-1½″ = 4½″.) 4½″/2 = ⁹/₂ × -½ = ⁹/₄ or 2¼″; locate the first point on the face edge; then measure -from this point the width of the tenon piece, which is 1½″. Through -the points just found draw the lines square to the face side. Place -the square against the face edge and mark (on the opposite edge on the -corner), a small cut for both lines (see Fig. 66) and square from the -face side across the edge; lay the piece aside; take the tenon piece -and point off the distance from the end of the piece to the shoulder, -and mark across the face and back, using the square and the knife in -marking. Prepare the shoulder lines for the back-saw, as shown in Fig. -53, taking care that the notch is cut on the right side of the line. - -Take the gauge and set it to the distance from the face side to the -first side of the mortise, and gauge the lines for the mortise on both -edges; gauge the lines for the tenon. (This is for a single gauge.) -Take the mortise chisel, Fig. 67, and make a mark from this line (see -Fig. 68), which will give the thickness of the tenon and the width of -the mortise; set the gauge out to the width and gauge the rest of the -lines. - -[Illustration: FIG. 67.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 68.] - -Take the rip-saw and saw down the outside of the lines on the tenon -piece the length required; cut off the sides with the back-saw. In -sawing split the line so that the tenon will be as thick as the mortise -is wide. This means that half the line is to be left on the work. -Fasten the mortise piece in the vise, putting a piece below to keep it -from going down when cutting. - -Place the mortise chisel about the center of the mortise; hold it -vertically, and with the mallet drive the chisel down into the work; -release the chisel and make a new cut, keeping the flat side of the -chisel towards the end to which the mortise is being cut. Fig. 69 shows -how the cutting should be done. - -Having reached the end, turn the chisel around, and cut towards the -other end in the same manner. (Where the mortise goes through it will -be unnecessary to take the chips from the first side.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 69.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 70.] - -Turn the piece over, and repeat the operation on the other side, when -the chips can be easily removed. Proceed to test the work; see that the -mortise is straight on the ends. Generally the student will leave the -ends rounding as shown in Fig. 70; this, if the tenon is driven into -the mortise, will squeeze the edges out of true (Fig. 71) and leave an -opening on the ends of the mortise, as shown in Fig. 72. - -[Illustration: FIG. 71.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 72.] - -Care should be taken to avoid this fault in this exercise. (A mortise -gauge such as a joiner uses is shown in Fig. 73; it has two spurs, one -being adjusted by the thumb screw at the end of the shank. We will use -a mortise gauge in our work later on.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 73.] - -After the pieces have been cut, put them together, having the face -sides together, and finish smoothly. - - - - -EXERCISE NUMBER 4. - -KEYED MORTISE AND TENON, WITH BRACE. - - -This method of joining timbers is sometimes used in heavy frame work, -but can be used to advantage in light frame work that has to be taken -apart, such as curtain frames, etc. - -In Fig. 74 is shown the assembled and the detailed drawings of this -piece of work. The experience gained from the previous exercises can be -used to advantage in working this problem. - -The requirements in this exercise are that all pieces be square and to -dimensions. - -That the upright and cross-pieces when keyed be square to each other. - -That the brace fit snugly, and form two angles of 45 degrees back at -its junction with the upright and cross-piece. - -That all joints fit closely, and the whole work be smoothed off and -made true. - -The method of laying out the keyed joint is somewhat similar to that in -the third exercise. - -[Illustration: FIG. 74.] - -On the upright locate the cross-piece (on the face edge), which is 1½ -inches from the end to the upper edge, and measure the width of the -piece, which is 1½ inches; draw the lines square to the face side, -deduct the amount of splay or bevel that is given to the mortise and -tenon from the lower end of the mortise, and add to the upper end the -width of the key; draw the lines, and mark them in some manner so that -they will be known as working lines. Figs. 75 and 76 will show how this -may be done. - -From the line which locates the lower edge of the cross-piece (using -the square on the face edge) mark the position (on the opposite -corner) of the lower line on the outside edge, by the method given in -the previous exercise (see Fig. 66), and square this line across the -outside edge; then measure the width of the tenon, plus the width of -the key, and square the line across. - -[Illustration: FIG. 75.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 76.] - -(Where work is to be finished on the faces, care should be taken not to -mark the work with knife lines, but if auxiliary lines must be used, -then mark them with a pencil so that they may be cleaned off when the -work is being smoothed.) - -Having laid out the keyed mortise lay out the brace mortise, the lower -end of which is located 3½ inches below the lower edge of the cross -piece; the drawing gives all the dimensions for this. - -Take the cross-piece and lay out the tenon in the same way that the -tenon in Exercise Number 3 is prepared, using the dimensions that are -given in the drawing for the work on hand. - -After marking the shoulders of the cross-piece lay out the brace -mortise, which is 3½ inches from the shoulder to the farthest end, and -mark the other lines as called for in the drawing. Use the single gauge -as directed in Exercise Number 3 to mark the side lines of the mortise -and tenon, and cut the mortise with the mortising chisel, taking care -to cut the ends to the proper angle. - -Saw the tenon as previously directed, and after the sides have been cut -off, mark the splay on the lower side of the tenon and cut it off with -a paring chisel. - -The method of finding the length of the brace is of importance, as it -will give the student some idea of the application of square root to -practical work of this kind. - -The hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle equals the square root of -the sum of the squares of its sides. For example, take the triangle -that is formed by the upright, the cross-piece, and the outside of the -brace. We have a triangle that has two sides of equal length and wish -to obtain the length of the brace on its longest side. - -We will designate the angle where the cross-piece meets the upright, -A, and the lower point of the brace on the upright, B, and the outside -point of the brace on the cross-piece, C. Then we have the side AB, and -the side AC, which we will square and add together, then extract the -square root of this sum, which will give us the length of the brace on -the longest side, to which we must add the length of the tenons that -go into the upright and the cross-piece. The angles at each end of the -brace will be 45 degrees, as the opposite angles of the triangle are -equal, there being 180 degrees in the sum of the three angles; one of -the angles is a right angle (90 degrees), which we subtract from 180 -degrees; the remainder divided by two will give the number of degrees -contained in the angle at the ends of the brace. - -The lines at the outside of the tenons on the brace are parallel with -the upright and the cross-piece respectively. - -A method often used by practical men to get the length of short braces -is to take a steel framing square and a rule, and find the length of -the brace by applying the rule to the square as shown in Fig. 77. On -the short leg of the square will be found a brace measure which gives -the length of the sides of the triangle and the length of the brace, -thus, ⁵⁴″/₅₄″ = 76.31″. - -[Illustration: FIG. 77.] - -Bevels and tapers are found by applying the bevel to the square -according to the bevel or the taper required, such as 1 inch on one -side and 4 inches on the other side of the square; this would be called -a taper of 1 inch in 4 inches. - -Having cut the pieces to dimensions as called for in the drawing, put -them together, and finish smooth. - - - - -EXERCISE NUMBER 5. - - -Moldings and beads are sometimes used to ornament work, but the chief -use of the bead is to conceal open joints by the shadow it casts. An -example of this may be seen in beaded wainscoting or large surfaces -that are finished with matched ceiling. If the boards were put together -without a beaded edge, an unsightly crack would be the result from the -shrinking and swelling of the material. - -Moldings are so varied in form that it would be useless to try to -describe them here. The molding shown in the drawing is given for -practice in the use of the molding plane. - -[Illustration: FIG. 78.] - -A rabbet is generally a square corner cut out of the edge of a piece so -as to lap over, or to make a place for glass, etc., as in window sash, -glass panel doors, and door frames. The rabbet plane (see Fig. 78) is -so constructed that the iron comes out flush with both sides, so that -it will cut out a sharp corner or interior angle. - -To cut the rabbet, the iron combination plow, beading, and rabbeting -plane may be used, an illustration of which is shown in Fig. 79. - -[Illustration: FIG. 79.] - -This tool can be set up as a rabbet plane or fillister, having a fence -to guide it along the side and a shoe to stop its cutting when the -desired depth is reached. - -The plan and end elevation of this exercise is found in Fig. 80. The -bead plane, Fig. 81, that is used on the edge of the exercise is known -as a single quirked bead, and has a fence or guide by which it is held -in position while the bead is being stuck on the work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 80.] - -The angle bead is made with the same plane, but the work must be turned -in order to cut the quirk on the other side. - -The center bead plane (see Fig. 82) is a double quirked bead plane, and -requires a piece fastened on the work in order to guide it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 81.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 82.] - -The guide piece can be held in place by several methods; one method is -to tack it on to the work, but this leaves the nail holes in the work. -Another method is to make a piece as shown in Fig. 83; if the work is -long a thin strip with small blocks fastened on the ends, Fig. 84, and -a wedge driven between one of the blocks and the work will hold it -firmly in place. - -[Illustration: FIG. 83.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 84.] - -After planing the piece to the desired dimensions we would advise the -student to follow the following order of work: - -First, cut the rabbet. - -Second, stick the center bead and cluster of beads or reeding. - -The reeding is done by first sticking one of the beads by means of the -guide piece and then letting one of the quirks of the bead plane follow -in the quirk of the bead already stuck. - -Third, cut the edge and angle beads. - -Fourth, stick the molding. - -[Illustration: FIG. 85.] - -In Fig. 85 is shown the molding plane held in position for work. On -the front end of the plane will be found a line, which must be kept -vertical when the plane is at work. Finish the beads with sand paper in -order to remove all roughness. - -Bead and molding plane irons are ground on an emery wheel with a -rounded edge. - -The sharpening is done with a slip-stone. A slip-stone used for beads -and molding planes is wedge-shaped in the cross section, with rounded -edges (see Fig. 86). - -[Illustration: FIG. 86.] - -Where sharp corners occur in molding plane irons, triangular and square -slips are used. - - - - -EXERCISE NUMBER 6. - - -It has already been mentioned that a bead is used in decoration. An -application of the bead as a decoration is given in connection with the -use of the rabbet in this exercise, the bead can be applied to door -frames where glass panels, etc., are to be used. - -[Illustration: FIG. 87.] - -In Fig. 87 is shown the working drawing. The features in this exercise -to be specially noticed are the method of joining the bead so as to -form a continuous bead around the edge, the method of laying out and -cutting the shoulder so that the opening in the frame will be kept to -size; the mortise and tenon used here is what is called a blind mortise -and tenon. - -Having noticed these features, proceed to prepare the material, by -methods previously given, to dimensions called for in the drawing. The -requirements for this exercise are that all measurements be correct, -that all joints fit closely, that the angles be right angles, and that -the work be finished in a neat workmanlike manner. - -The material having been prepared, proceed to lay the work out. - -Suppose this exercise to be the top of a glass panel door; the pieces -on the sides of a door are called the stiles; the cross-pieces are -called the rails, and, according to the position they occupy, are -called respectively the top rail, the mid-rail, and the bottom rail. -The pieces that stand in the center are known as muntings. - -To lay out the work, mark out the mortise on the top of the stile about -1½ inches from the end. It will be noticed that the mortise is not so -long as the top rail is wide; the piece that is cut out of the tenon is -known as a rebate or rabbet. The reason for cutting out this piece and -shortening the mortise is to strengthen the joint by leaving a piece -of solid wood so that the mortise will not be open on the end. Fig. 88 -shows the piece marked out for the stile; the arrow heads in the figure -are known as witness marks and show between what lines the cutting is -to be done. - -[Illustration: FIG. 88.] - -The shoulders on the top rail and on the muntings are to be specially -noticed. In laying out the top rail the opening between the munting and -the stile is 4 inches. The shoulder on the face side of the top rail -reaches to the farthest side of the bead so as to form a close fitting -joint, and the shoulder on the back reaches to the bottom of the glass -rabbet. - -In order to keep the opening as called for in the drawing and to miter -the bead so as to make it continuous around the edge, lay out the work -in the following manner: Locate a line on the edge of the rail that -will represent the side of the opening next to the stile, leaving -enough for the tenon; then lay off the width of the opening; draw a -line which will represent the end of the mortise for the munting; mark -the length of the munting mortise. On the inside of each end of the -mortise lay off the width of the bead which is stuck on the munting. - -Return to the first line which represents the opening, and add to the -outside of that the width of the bead and rabbet; then from those lines -mark across the face from the line which will represent the bead, and -across the back from the line which represents the depth of the glass -rabbet. - -[Illustration: FIG. 89.] - -Prepare the shoulder lines for the saw as directed in previous work. -The lines to be drawn on the edge of the rail are shown in Fig. 89. - -The shoulders on the munting are prepared in the same way as the rail. -In marking the sides of the mortise and tenon use the _mortise_ gauge -(see Fig. 73). - -Cut the mortise and the tenon as directed in previous work, using a -narrow chisel to remove the chips from the mortise. The bead is to be -joined so that it will appear continuous; the method of joining is -called mitering. A miter is made by cutting, at an angle of 45 degrees, -the pieces to be joined. - -The practical man will try many methods of cutting material in order -to save time. For instance, if he is to make frames where the corners -are to be mitered, he will make a miter box. This box (which is not a -box at all) is three pieces fastened together to form a bottom and two -sides, all of which must be true before being nailed together; then by -cutting across the sides in both directions with the saw at an angle of -45 degrees and square to the bottom, the so-called miter box is made, -an illustration of which is shown in Fig. 90. Iron miter boxes are now -in general use; of these Fig. 91 is a good representation. - -[Illustration: FIG. 90.] - -In the mitering of the bead, a templet, which can be made by the -student, is of great service. - -[Illustration: FIG. 91.] - -A templet is a mould or pattern used as an auxiliary. The templet for -this work is made in the following manner. Take a piece and rabbet out -one corner as shown in Fig. 92; then cut the ends as shown in Fig. 93, -which are at 45 degrees. With this templet placed on the work as shown -in Fig. 94, with a chisel cut off the bead, which protrudes beyond the -templet. - -[Illustration: FIG. 92.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 93.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 94.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 95.] - -At the mortises remove part of the bead as shown in Fig. 95; then place -the templet in position, and cut to the angle. - -Care should be taken to see that the mortises are cut square to the -edges on the ends, so that they will not squeeze the tenon when putting -the work together. - -After all cutting and fitting is done glue the work (see note on glue -at the end of the book), and clamp the pieces together with handscrews. -Handscrews are of the form as shown in Fig. 96. - -[Illustration: FIG. 96.] - -In order further to strengthen this kind of joint, small iron pins -may be driven into the back through the tenon, but they must not come -through the work. The pins may be made by cutting wire brads off to the -required length and driving them in and setting them below the surface -with a nail set. After the glue is set finish off the work with a -smooth plane. - - - - -EXERCISE NUMBER 7. - -DOVETAILING. - - -One of the most important methods employed by the joiner is that -termed dovetailing, which is of three kinds, namely, common, lap, and -miter. Common dovetailing (see Fig. 97) shows the form of the pins or -projecting parts, as well as the excavations made to receive them. Lap -dovetailing is similar to this, but in that system the ends of the -dovetails of the side A, Fig. 98, are shortened, and the recesses which -are to receive them in B are not cut through when joined together; only -the ledge is visible on the return side. - -[Illustration: FIG. 97.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 98.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 99.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 100.] - -Miter dovetailing (sometimes also called secret dovetailing) conceals -the dovetails, and shows only the miter at the edges. The manner in -which this joint is made will be understood from Fig. 99, in which the -two parts A and B are given, each part being lettered to correspond -with the position it is to occupy when the sides are joined. Concealed -dovetailing is particularly useful where the faces of the boards are -intended to form a salient angle; that is, one which is on the outside -of any piece of work; but when the faces form a re-entrant angle, -that is, a joint to be seen from the inside, common dovetailing will -answer best; for, first, it is stronger, because the dovetails pass -entirely instead of only partly through; secondly, it is cheaper, for -the dovetails which go through the whole wood take up much less time -in working than where a miter has to be left; and further, if well -executed, the dovetails are, by the very nature of the work, concealed -internally. - -Fig. 100 shows a variation of the common dovetail, used in attaching -the fronts of drawers to the sides, and for similar purposes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 101.] - -In Fig. 101 is given the working drawing of the common dovetail, and -Fig. 102, A-B shows the details of each piece. - -The stock can be prepared in one piece (having it long enough so that -if a poor joining is made, the dovetails can be cut off and new ones -cut on this piece). After planing, cut in two, square one end of each -piece (the ends to be joined). To lay out the work, it is advisable to -lay out the piece with the pins or tenons first. From the squared end -measure in the thickness of the side; then mark on both sides, using -the knife to draw the lines. - -[Illustration: FIG. 102.] - -On the face side (which is the side that would be toward the inside of -a box) lay off the lines shown for the pins in the detail marked A, -Fig. 102. These lines can be drawn from the working edge with a gauge, -or, if the ends are perfectly square, the square can be used (the lines -being parallel with the edge). From these lines will be drawn the -oblique lines across the end with the bevel set at a taper of 1 inch -to 4 inches. The bevel can be set by the steel framing square, by the -methods already given. - -After drawing the lines saw down the required depth on the outside of -the line, and remove the pieces between the pins or tenons by first -boring a hole through the piece to be removed, then cutting from both -sides with the chisel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 103.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 104.] - -(The boring is done with the brace, Fig. 103, and the bit, Fig. 104. -Bits are of different forms; Fig. 105 shows a number of different -styles). - -It will be necessary only to draw the lines across the end of the piece -marked B, Fig. 102, as the marking of this piece for the recesses will -be made by holding in position the piece already cut, and scribing or -marking the pins or tenons, then squaring the lines across the end. - -Great care must be taken in sawing the mortises if a perfect fit is -desired. This can be done only by sawing on the inside of the line, -cutting the lines in two. The pieces should go together by light -driving, and should be perfectly square on the inside. If the joint is -satisfactory take apart and glue together. After the glue is dry the -joint can be smoothed and the ends of the pieces cut off and squared to -the proper dimensions given in Fig. 101. - -[Illustration: FIG. 105.] - - - - -EXERCISE NUMBER 8. - -DOOR FRAME FOR GLASS PANEL. - - -The preceding exercises are only a few of the methods employed by the -workmen in joining pieces together. The experience gained in their -execution will be of great help in the work that follows. - -Fig. 106 shows the working drawing for a small frame door for a glass -panel; the details and sections of the pieces required are shown in -Fig. 107. - -It must be taken into consideration that this door is actually to fit -into an opening of a given size, and a little forethought will be -necessary to work the material so that when all cutting and fitting is -done the correct size will be the result of the labor expended. - -Study the drawing and make out a bill of lumber, noting what work must -be done in order to proceed intelligently with the work. - -The outside size of the door is 9 inches by 12 inches, and the width of -the stiles is 2 inches. The width of the top rail is 1½ inches, and the -width of the bottom rail is 2 inches, so that (allowing a little on the -length of the rails so that the tenons would project through the stiles -about ⅛ inch, and the stiles would project beyond the rails about ½ -inch, leaving what is known to workmen as horns) the bill of lumber -would be: - - { 2 pieces 13 in × 2 in × 1 in. - Bill of Lumber { 1 piece 9¼ in × 2 in × 1 in. - { 1 piece 9¼ in × 1½ in × 1 in. - -[Illustration: FIG. 106.] - -It must also be taken into consideration that the door must be planed -on the edges and the ends when it is all put together; it will be -necessary to allow for this work when the material is being planed; -having the stiles and rails a little over size in width will provide -for this. - -The laying out of this exercise is important, for there are several -things to be considered; we must first find out the depth of the rabbet -and the width of the molding before we proceed to lay out the work. - -It will be seen from section drawing A, Fig. 107, that the molding -from the edges of the piece to the quirk is ⁵/₁₆ inch, (this is the -depth that the molding plane cuts); the rabbet is also the same depth; -the opening between the stiles is 5 inches; to this must be added the -depth of the molding and rabbet on both sides, which makes the distance -between the shoulders of the rails 5⅝ inches. - -A simple rule to follow in laying out work, where pieces are in pairs -or right and left, is to place the pieces together with their faces out -and their edges up. - -Placing the rails in this position, lay out the rails. At the end draw -a line across the edges. (It must be remembered that when the pieces -were sawed out, they were left a little longer than the width of the -door, so that the position of the first line is to be determined by -the amount of extra stock left). From this line measure off the width -of the door and mark across the other end. From these lines measure in -the width of the stiles, which is 2 inches; this gives the width of the -opening. - -[Illustration: FIG. 107.] - -We saw from A, Fig. 107, that the depth of the molding and the rabbet -was ⁵/₁₆ inch; so from the 2 inch line we measure back on each end ⁵/₁₆ -inch; this gives the lines from which the shoulder lines are to be -drawn across the faces and the backs of the pieces. Prepare shoulders -for back-saw as directed in other work. - -Now, taking the stiles, and placing them together by the rule given, -lay out the lines for the extreme length of the door, and from one end -measure in the width of the top rail (1½ inches). From the other end -measure in the width of the bottom rail (2 inches). From these lines -measure back the length of the mortises. It will be understood that by -measuring is meant that lines are to be drawn. - -Lines are also needed on the back edges of the stiles for the mortises, -as the mortise is cut all the way through. To obtain those lines apply -the method given in exercise No. 3; never mark lines across the outside -of the work unless it is absolutely necessary, and then with pencil -only, so that they may be cleaned off when the work is being finished. - -The marking of the sides of the mortises and the tenons is done with -the mortise gauge set to the dimensions given in the drawing, the gauge -to be applied to the face side. Cut out mortises and tenons as in -former work, using the ¼ inch mortising chisel which is found in the -tool room. - -(All gauging for mortises and tenons having been done from the face -side, and all cutting having been done to the lines, it necessarily -follows that the face side of the door will be flush. This is -absolutely necessary for the molding and the rabbet to match.) Take -the combination plow and set it to cut the rabbet, applying the fence -to the face side and cutting the rabbets out of the corners opposite to -where the plow is placed. See that the shoe is set to stop the plane -cutting when the desired depth is reached. - -[Illustration: FIG. 108.] - -Fig. 108 shows how this may be done. After cutting the rabbet, stick -the molding (which in this case is called a Gothic or Scotia molding). -Prepare the stiles as shown in Fig. 107, B. - -The joining of the molding is to be what is known as coping. This is -done in the following manner: The molding is left projecting beyond -the inside end of the mortises, as shown in Fig. 107, B. The molding -on the rails is to be cut at an angle of 45 degrees. This is done by -taking the templet used in Exercise No. 6 and placing it on the rail -as shown in Fig. 107, C, and cutting the molding with a chisel down to -the tenons. This will give the line by which the coping is to be cut. -The cutting is done by using the gouge, Fig. 109, one that is ground on -the inside preferred; cut the coping deep enough to receive the molding -which projects beyond the mortise, Fig. 107, B. The line which will -show at the joining of the molding on the face of the exercise will -look like a miter joint. This joint has the advantage of always being -close, for no amount of shrinking or swelling will open it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 109.] - -After all cutting is done, put together and see if all joints fit; -having tenons cut as shown in Fig. 107, C. This allows room for wedges. - -The wedges are cut with a back-saw out of a piece of board of the same -thickness as the tenons. Fig. 110 shows how this is to be done. - -If the joints are all satisfactory open them enough to allow the glue -brush to go between the shoulders and the stiles; put a little glue -on both sides of the tenons and drive together, putting clamps or -large handscrews on to bring the joints up close; dip the points of -the wedges in glue and drive them between the ends of the mortise and -the edges of the tenon; remove the clamps and let the glue set before -smoothing the sides of the work. The door, when the wedges are driven -and clamps removed, will look as shown in Fig. 111. - -[Illustration: FIG. 110.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 111.] - -The ends of the tenons and horns are sawed off and the edges planed. -The gouge, (Fig. 109), has a blade that is curved in its section the -whole length; gouges are of different sweeps. The bevel which is ground -on the cutting edge may be on the concave or the convex side; and -according to this grinding the tools are known as inside and outside -gouges. The sharpening is done with a slip-stone. - -After the glue is hard enough, smooth the surface with the smooth -plane, and then take sand paper and finish the work. Put the sand paper -on a block, being careful not to round the surfaces when using it. - - - - -EXERCISE NUMBER 9. - -BENCH HOOK. - - -(This exercise may be omitted at the option of instructor.) - -It will not be necessary to give many directions for this exercise, as -the student by this time should have learned the sequence of operations -in preparing material. The special points to be noticed in the working -out of this exercise are that the sides are cut out with the rip-saw; -the ends cut with the back-saw; the sides to be finished with the -plane, using the rabbet plane to plane the corners at the stops at the -ends, and the jack-plane for the rest of the surfaces. Surfaces are to -be finished with sand paper and shellaced. - -In Fig. 112 will be seen the working drawing. The thickness of stock -required is 1¾ inches. The angle at which to set the bevel for the -ends is ½ inch in 4 inches. All the other dimensions are found on the -drawing. - -After the piece is cut out and finished with sand paper, give it a coat -of shellac varnish and let it dry from 8 to 10 hours. Then with No. 00 -sand paper smooth the shellac (but do not cut through). After which -give another coat. To obtain a glossy surface the pores of the wood -must be filled with the varnish; by repeating the operation with the -sand paper and giving another coat of shellac, a very good surface will -be obtained. - -[Illustration: FIG. 112.] - -Care must be taken in putting on the shellac varnish not to put it on -too thick, as it sets or dries quickly and an uneven coat of varnish -is unsightly. Spread it quickly; see that plenty of shellac is on the -brush; do not go over it after it has once been spread evenly, as it -will roll up in small lumps which will have to be left to dry before -anything can be done to it, and then it will take a great amount of -labor to smooth it. - -This is one method of finishing with shellac varnish. - -To prepare shellac varnish see note. - - - - -EXERCISE NUMBER 10. - - -BOX WITH SLIDING TOP. - -There are so many ways in which a box may be made that it would be out -of place here to enumerate them all. The joints used here are known as -butt joints. - -Fig. 113 is the working drawing; the details of the work are shown in -Fig. 114. - -The first step to be taken in making this exercise is to make out a -bill of lumber. By the drawing we find the length of the box to be -12 inches, the width to be 7 inches, and the height to be 5 inches, -allowing ⅛ inch on each end of the sides for finishing. The side pieces -would be 12¼ inches. The thickness of the sides is ½ inch and the ends -are let into the sides ¼ inch as shown in Fig. 114, A; this would -make the length of the ends 6½ inches finished; one end being ½ inch -narrower than the other to let the top slide over it in the groove on -the sides. The width of one end would be 5 inches, and of the other 4½ -inches. The bottom is to be let into the sides and ends in a groove -which is ¼ inch deep. This would make the bottom 11½ inches long, 6½ -inches wide, and ½ inch thick. The top slides in the groove shown in -the section at B, Fig. 114, which is ¼ inch deep, and the end of the -top goes into the groove in the end of the box, which is ¼ inch deep. -This would make the length of the top 11¾ inches, the width 6½ inches, -and the thickness ½ inch. The bill of lumber would be as follows: - - Bill of Sides, 2 pieces 12¼ in × ½ in. - Lumber Top, 1 piece 11¾ in × 6½ in × ½ in. Finished - Cherry or End, 1 piece 6½ in × 5 in × ½ in. - Birch End, 1 piece 6½ in × 4½ in × ½ in. Size. - Bottom, 1 piece 11½ in × 6½ in × ½ in. - -[Illustration: FIG. 113.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 114.] - -The material used in this exercise will be planed nearly to the -thickness by the planing machine, enough being left to smooth the work. -Select and lay out on a board the pieces required (allowing enough for -the work on the edges). Saw out the pieces; then plane the edges by the -methods given, omitting the planing of the face side and the back, but -select and mark the sides for the working faces. - -The extremities of the end pieces are to be planed perfectly square to -insure a close fit against the sides. The method of planing the ends -is to plane half way through from the edge, then plane from the other -edge, being careful not to let the plane go all the way across, as the -corner will be liable to break off. - -It will not be necessary to plane the ends of the sides until the box -is glued together, when they can be finished off even with the end. - -To lay out and prepare the sides, place the pieces together, faces out -and edges up, draw a line across the edges at the ends for the full -length of the box, then measure back the thickness of the ends. From -these lines mark across the faces of each piece. It will be noticed -that one end of each side can be sawed across, but the other end where -the top enters the grooves will have to be cut partly with a saw and -the rest of the way with a chisel. Prepare the ends the same as the -shoulders of the tenon, being careful not to cut the groove all the way -across where the top enters. - -Gauge the depth to which the ends go into the sides, and after sawing -across remove the pieces from the corners with a chisel. It will be -necessary only to have the end pieces the correct length, as there will -be no lines to be drawn on them. - -Take the plow plane and put a ¼ inch iron into it, and set it for the -grooves that are cut out of the sides and the ends. - -The grooves are all the same distance in from the edges and are all -the same depth. To protect the bench while using the plow, get a piece -of board and on it fasten pieces to hold the work while running the -groove. This is done by sawing out three or four pieces as shown in -Fig. 115, and fastening them to the board as shown in Fig. 116. - -[Illustration: FIG. 115.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 116.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 117.] - -The tongue on the edges of the top and the bottom can be made with the -plow by fastening the pieces in the vise and rabbeting out the corners -as shown in C, Fig. 114. - -After all cutting and fitting has been done smooth the inside of each -piece with the plane; then take the steel scraper (shown in Fig. 117), -and scrape the surfaces; then finish with sand paper; glue the corners; -put the bottom in place and fasten together with hand screws and let -dry. There are no nails used in the construction of this exercise. - -Finish the outside of the box in the same way that the inside was done. - -After finishing the outside and the top, use filler or stain to color -the wood. The filler is a mixture of fine whiting and linseed oil with -a little turpentine to act as a dryer, colored with any of the pigments -desired. A little experience is necessary in using the colors to obtain -the desired shade. - -The filler comes already prepared, of a cream color, and must be -colored as required. Apply the filler with a brush, and let it stand on -the wood for a short time; then rub it off with cotton waste or a rag; -then set the work aside until the surfaces are perfectly hard; then -give a coat of shellac varnish and let it dry. Repeat the operation two -or three times, using sand paper to smooth each coat of varnish. - -After the varnish is thoroughly hard, take powdered pumice and oil or -water, using a soft rag, and rub the surfaces until they are smooth; -then take rotten stone and oil and rub until it has a fairly bright -gloss. Rub with a soft dry cloth, then finish with the palm of the hand -until a bright glossy surface is obtained. - -For polishing see note. - - -PROBLEM IN TRUSS WORK. - -The preceding work is what might be termed joiner work; the carpenter -also is called upon to join timbers, and uses to a great extent the -same joints that the joiner does, but the joiner’s work is usually -where it must bear inspection, whereas the carpenter’s work is -generally covered over either by plaster or casings. A single mechanic -may be able to perform every kind of work that is required in the -construction of a building; thus the two trades are usually spoken of -as one, i. e., carpenter work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 118.] - -In Fig. 118 is shown a method that is sometimes used in the -construction of trusses. A truss is that part of a roof which supports -the purlines, rafters and sheathing. A roof is the covering or upper -enclosure of a building with the frame work by which it is supported. -It may be of almost any shape. A light roof is usually of moderate -span, without trusses, the rafters being supported by the walls or -partitions of the building. A heavy roof is employed for wider spans, -and the rafters are then supported by the purlines and trusses. A truss -is usually required for spans of more than 20 feet.[A] - -[A] Definitions from Ricker’s Trussed Roofs. - -The span of a roof is the horizontal distance between the external -surfaces of the walls of the building; its rise is a vertical let fall -from its ridge to a horizontal line joining the intersections of the -external surfaces of the walls and the roof surfaces. The inclination -of a roof equals the angles between its surface and a horizontal. - -The span of a truss is the horizontal distance between the centers of -its end joints, and is usually the same as that between the centers of -the walls, which support the truss. Its rise is the vertical connecting -its span line and the center of the joint at the apex or highest point -of the truss. - -A member of a truss is any straight or curved piece which connects two -adjacent joints of the truss. - -The upper chord is composed of the members which form the upper edge or -margin of the truss. Each half of the upper chord of a triangular truss -is often called a principal. The lower chord is composed of the members -forming the lower edge of the truss. If straight, this is termed the -tie-beam or tie-rod; the first being a wooden timber; the second, one -or more rods of iron. - -The web members connect the joints of one chord with those of the -other, and may be radials in case of curved trusses, diagonals, -or verticals. They are commonly called struts where they resist -compression, ties where they resist tension, and strut-ties where they -resist compression and tension. - -A joint is the connection of two or more members whose center lines -must intersect at a common point if possible, this common point being -the center of the joint. - -The rafters of light roofs are not trussed, but rest directly on the -walls, and support the sheathing and covering of the roof. - -Heavy roofs are supported by trusses resting on the side walls. - -The sheathing is supported by rafters which rest on the purlines, these -being supported by the trusses. - -The drawing, Fig. 118, shows the half of a truss; the members are the -upper chord, the lower chord, and a strut. - -Although carpenter work is usually of a rough character, the joints of -a truss should fit snugly so that there will be no room to give when -loaded; so, for the practice, the student will plane the stock either -to the sizes given in the drawing or double the sizes, making the whole -truss as time and circumstances permit. (This to be determined by the -instructor.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 119.] - -Fig. 119 shows what is termed a truss diagram; the distance from point -A, to B, is the distance between the center of the walls, and the angle -A, C, D, is the inclination or pitch of the roof. The pitch of the roof -is determined by the distance the peak of the roof rises above the -walls; thus if a roof has a quarter pitch, the peak would rise above -the walls one quarter the width of the building; if half pitch the peak -would rise one half the width of the building, etc. For simplicity in -laying out this problem we will make the pitch one half. The points -A, B, represent the span of the walls; also the lines A, C, and B, C, -show the outside margin of the upper chord of the truss. By bisecting -A, B, and erecting a perpendicular at D, to C, we divide, the triangle -A, B, C, into two triangles, A, D, C, and B, D, C. Now, the line A, -C, is the hypotenuse of the right-angled triangle A, D, C. We had one -example of finding the length of the hypotenuse of a right-angled -triangle in Exercise No. 4. The workman who lays out rafters or trusses -rarely takes time to calculate the hypotenuse of the triangle, but -uses the steel framing square in the following manner. He obtains the -horizontal distance at the bottom of the rafters, and the pitch. Take -for example a truss that is 30 feet across from point to point, and a -pitch of one half; then the distance the peak would rise would be 15 -feet. Take the framing square and lay it on the chord, taking 12 inches -on the blade and 12 inches on the tongue and mark off 15 triangles as -shown in Fig. 120, which is half the width of the building. The rise -was also 15 feet; so by using the square as shown, we obtain the rise -and the run of the rafter. The line on one side of the square gives the -angle at which the chord or rafter is to be cut at the peak. The line -at the other end of the chord gives the line from which to measure the -distance the tenon and shoulders go down into the tie-beam. The strut -shown in the drawing, Fig. 118, has one joint square, and the other at -an angle of 45 degrees. Where the pitch is one half, the angles are 45 -degrees and right angles. - -[Illustration: FIG. 120.] - -The line E, D, on the diagram represents a tie-rod, which by the -construction of this truss would naturally tend to stiffen the -structure by supporting the center of the tie-beam. - -Wire, nuts, and washers are supplied (where the student makes a whole -model) to make the tie-strut. - -The student in writing out notes will make two sketches of trusses he -may have observed on shop visits. The buildings visited almost all have -trussed roofs, either wood or iron. - - -PROBLEM IN STAIR BUILDING. - -Two or three students may work together on this problem. - -Read all through before commencing work. - -The stair and the hand-rail may be considered as one problem, since the -hand-rail forms part of the completed staircase, but they are separated -into two distinct problems for convenience in working them out. - -In Fig. 121, is shown the plan and the elevation of the stair, the -dimensions for each piece required are calculated by the student from -this drawing. The name of each piece also is found in Fig. 121. The -nosing is to be added to the width of the tread. The nosing is the part -which projects beyond the front of the riser. - -The thickness of the stringers is to be ½ inch, the risers ⅜ inches, -the treads ⅜ inches, and the well-hole is to be built up as in -practical work, as shown in Fig. 122. - -[Illustration: FIG. 121.] - - FORM OF BILL OF LUMBER. - - Length Width Thickness - Wall stringer “ “ “ - Outside stringer “ “ “ - Risers (5 pieces) “ “ “ - Treads plus nosings (4 pieces) “ “ “ - Top tread (1 piece) “ “ “ - Well-hole piece “ “ “ - -[Illustration: FIG. 122.] - -After the material is prepared, proceed to make the templets. The -templets required are shown in Fig. 122. - -Templet E, is used to lay out the brackets for the risers and treads -on the wall and outside stringers; templet G, to lay out the housing -for the treads on the wall stringer; templet H, for the housing for the -risers on the wall stringer. - -Now take the piece for the wall stringer, A, Fig. 122, and draw the -line X, Y; proceed to lay it out. - -Commencing at the bottom, lay templet E on the piece as shown at 1 A, -and draw lines for the riser and the bottom of the tread; then place -the templet as shown by 2 A, (remembering that in order to have the -bottom step the same height as the others the bottom riser must be the -thickness of the tread narrower than the others. This will be seen -by looking at the drawing, Fig. 122, which shows the height of the -risers). Then place templet E, in position as indicated by 3 A, and -draw the line for the riser and the tread, and so on until all the -lines have been drawn which will represent the front of the risers and -the bottom side of the treads. - -After having drawn these lines, take templet G, and place it on the -tread line as shown at J, Fig. 122, and draw the lines for the top of -the steps, the nosing, and the wedges; the thickness of the step is to -be measured up from the tread line. - -Now take templet H, place it in position on the riser lines, J, Fig. -122, draw lines back of the riser line for the thickness of the risers -and the wedges; then proceed to cut out the housing in the following -manner: - -Take a center or auger bit the same size as the thickness of the step -and bore the depth that the housing is to be, as shown at 5 A, Fig. -122; then take a chisel and cut out as shown at 4 A, Fig. 122. This -will give room to use the back-saw to cut the rest of the lines. Now -take a chisel and remove the pieces to the depth required, which, in -this case, is ¼ inch; cut for the risers and remove in the same manner. - -In larger work of this kind a router should be used. - -To lay out the outside stringer take templet E, Fig. 122, and mark as -at B, Fig. 122. The riser is to form a miter with the front of the -bracket; so it will be necessary to begin at the top step and saw the -stringer off square to the face; then take a bevel (which will be set -at an angle of 45 degrees) and mark from the riser line so that it will -form a miter. Saw down this line; then saw the next tread line square -to the face. Repeat with the bevel as before, and saw the next riser -line, and so on until the bottom is reached. C, and D, Fig. 122, show -how the risers and the treads are to be cut. The ends of the risers are -to be cut at an angle of 45 degrees to fit the bracket on the outside -stringer. The end of the step is cut as shown in order to receive the -return nosing. The dovetails on the end are to receive the baluster -which supports the hand-rail. - -The piece F, which is to form the well-hole, is built up of pieces, -then planed out with a round bottom plane. The method of fastening this -piece to the stringer is to halve the stringer and to cut out the -well-hole piece to receive it; then glue and screw together. - -I, Fig. 122, shows what the top or landing step is to be. - -The curves that are shown at the bottom and the top of the stringers -are known as easings. The student will use his own ingenuity in forming -the easing, remembering that a little glue will fasten pieces together, -and that it is not necessary to take a board the whole width at those -points of the stringers to accomplish this. - -To put the stairs together after all the pieces have been prepared, -place the bottom riser in place and fasten it in with glue and a -wedge; then toe-nail it into the stringer from the back. Now fasten -the outside stringer to the riser, bracing it into position; then fit -the second riser and the first tread into place; then fasten with glue -and wedges, and toe-nail the riser and the tread to the stringer. The -treads will be nailed to the risers so as to unite the work firmly -together. - -Another method of fastening the riser to the tread is to groove the -front edge of the tread and have a tongue on the riser, an illustration -of which is shown in Fig. 123. - -[Illustration: FIG. 123.] - -To decorate stairways mouldings are used; generally a cove moulding is -fastened under the front and the end of the tread, an illustration of -which is shown at Fig. 124. The hammer is used in this problem; it is -hardly necessary to explain its use. - -[Illustration: FIG. 124.] - -Toe-nailing is the driving of nails obliquely in order to fasten two -pieces that may be at an angle to each other, as illustrated by Fig. -125. - -[Illustration: FIG. 125.] - - -PROBLEM IN HAND RAILING. - -The student, not having had wood turning as yet, will not consider -the making of the turned balusters, such work being introduced in the -course in wood turning. - -In commencing work on the hand railing, notice the several parts that -have to be made; first, the newel post; second, the easing at the -bottom of the stairs; third, the straight piece of railing; fourth, the -return or twist at the top. - -[Illustration: FIG. 126.] - -Fig. 126 shows the working drawing for the newel post, the explanation -of which will be unnecessary. The easing is the bend in the rail before -it strikes the newel post. The method of laying out a graceful easing -is shown in Fig. 127. The straight piece of rail is worked out with the -hollow and the round planes which are to be found in the tool room. - -The return or twist requires to be developed by descriptive geometry, -and to do this we will refer to drawing Fig. 121 in order to find the -diameter of the well. It will be noticed that one half of the twist is -parallel with the landing and that the curve for that half would be a -true quarter circle, while the other half of the twist, that part which -follows the incline of the stairs, would be part of an ellipse. - -To demonstrate this, take a cylinder and cut it at an angle to its -axis; the section through which the cylinder was cut would be an -ellipse, an illustration of which is shown by Fig. 128. To develop this -part of the ellipse lay out, on a board, by the following method, a -full sized drawing of the rail required. - -[Illustration: FIG. 127.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 128.] - -On the board draw a straight line which will be the center line of the -well, and on any convenient point placing the leg of the compass (which -will be set at the required radius), describe a semi-circle, which -will represent the diameter of the well given in the plan in Fig. 121. -Now from the semi-circle draw lines parallel to the center line, which -will represent the outside stringer of the stair and the casing on the -landing. Fig. 129 shows the development thus far. - -The rail is to be 1¼ inches wide and the balusters to be ½ inch square. -The side of the balusters which come on the outside of the stairs -comes even with the stringer, and the rail is to be placed so that the -balusters are on its center. - -From the line which is already drawn to show the part which is parallel -to the landing, draw a line for the center of the rail, and on each -side of the center line lay out half the width of the rail. On the -other half, which represents the outside stringer (the incline of -the twist), draw the center line of the rail for the straight part; -then draw lines for the width of the rail as on the other half. Now, -to obtain that part of the ellipse required, take the pitch-board E, -Fig. 122, and place it on the drawing as shown in Fig. 130; then draw -lines from points X, Y, Z, perpendicular to the center line. Now set -the compass to the distance A, B, and mark the distance A, B, on each -side of the point Y. This gives the width of the piece required for the -twist on the center line. - -[Illustration: FIG. 129.] - -Describe the ellipse. The major chord would be 2 (E, F,) for the -outside ellipse, and the minor chord is G, H, for the inside. - -[Illustration: FIG. 130.] - -There are several methods used in describing an ellipse which the -student no doubt has used in studying geometry, but the practical -stair builder uses a trammel and block. The block is grooved through -its center as shown in Fig. 131, and the trammel is a strip of wood; a -pencil is fastened on one end and pins are fixed at points to be found -by trial near the middle. Fig. 132 shows how the trammel is made. The -pins slide in the grooves of the block, and the pencil marks the curve -required. - -[Illustration: FIG. 131.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 132.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 133.] - -Fig. 133 gives a very comprehensive idea of the pieces before they are -worked down. The pieces at the right and at the top are the moulds, and -the mould for the rail is on the top of the piece which is seen in the -front of the figure. - -After having laid out the lines as directed make the moulds or templets -out of thin stuff; then mark the stock (out of which the pieces of the -rail are to be made), by the templets, and saw them out, either with a -compass saw, or with the band-saw where it is convenient to do so. - -It will be noticed that the piece out of which the curved or twisted -piece is made is thicker than the piece which is parallel with the -landing. - -After the pieces are sawed out, proceed to lay out the lines by which -the rail is to be worked out. The templet E, Fig. 122, is used to -obtain the perpendicular and the horizontal lines, from which is drawn -the rectangle that is seen on the end of the rail, (in Fig. 133,) and -the templet seen on the right (in Fig. 133) is used to obtain the -curved lines on the top. Work off the surplus stock on each side of the -rectangle with the draw knife and the spokeshave, then work off the -top and the bottom, taking care to make a graceful curve on the top -and the bottom. Then mark the shape of the rail on the end and work out. - -In Fig. 134 is seen the finished twist developed from the pieces shown -at Fig. 133. - -[Illustration: FIG. 134.] - - - - -NOTES. - - -TO DISSOLVE SHELLAC. - -Put gum shellac into a glass or earthen vessel (a wooden box coated -inside with glue makes a very good vessel in which to dissolve -shellac), and pour over it alcohol enough to cover the shellac; keep -stirring it until no lumps remain. This will take from two to three -hours, according to quantity. If left in a tin can the shellac becomes -very dark. To clear it when dark add a little oxalic acid and stir -until cleared. - - -TO POLISH WITH SHELLAC. - -Dissolve shellac in 90 per cent alcohol. Stir for two hours, though not -continually; do not allow it to stand long enough for lumps to settle. -After the shellac is dissolved the polish is ready for use. - -Now take a piece of old soft woolen material, and form it into a ball -about the size of an egg in a way to permit the lower side to remain -smooth. On the latter pour about from one half to one thimbleful of -the polish. Around the whole put a four-cornered piece of old linen -about 10 × 13 inches, and fold it around the ball just as you have done -with the woolen cloth but in such a way that you can hold it by the -end of the goods. On the smooth side put a few drops of linseed oil, -and then begin to polish the surface with a light and even pressure in -a circular movement from one side to the other, forward and backward, -until the entire surface receives a slight covering of polish. When the -work becomes more difficult the ball requires moistening by a few drops -of oil; at the same time put a few drops of oil on the plate, and the -ball will move easily again. You must observe the work constantly. If -everything is in order the plate as well as the ball will keep clean, -but if the ball sticks to the plate and gets smeary then you will know -that the polish is too thick and must be thinned with alcohol, which -you are to put on the woolen cloth, previously removing the linen and -putting it back on the other side; that is, turn the linen rag before -putting it back on the ball. After having polished it sufficiently -so that all the pores of the wood are filled and the surface has a -nice gloss, put another soft linen rag around the ball, and moisten -it with a few drops of alcohol; again polish as before until the flat -surface has a high grade of smoothness and gloss and all the greasy -appearance has disappeared. You must be very careful, however, to apply -but a few drops of alcohol and to press these into the ball as well as -possible; otherwise the strength of it may dissolve the polish in some -places entirely. When at last the ball leaves but weak traces, then -polish fast with strong strokes forward and backward until the ball is -completely dry and the surface of the wood very glossy. - -If you polish the finished surface once more after ten days the gloss -will be nicer, as the surface gets harder with age. - -If you want the polish to be colored use Curcuma for yellow, Sandal for -red, and Spanish green for green. The color is to be put in a thin coat -between two linen rags, over which should be put a woolen rag. While -polishing some of the coloring will stick to the polish. - -It is not to be expected that by working according to these directions -you will learn how to polish perfectly, as there are always some -unlooked-for difficulties, but generally you can tell what to do in any -emergency. - - -GLUE. - -How to dissolve and how to use. - -Glue, which one workman finds all right and from which he obtains -excellent results, may, in the hands of another workman, prove a -failure from many causes, some of which may be that the glue is too -thick, or it may have been chilled before the pieces were clamped -together, or the glue is too thin. The workman has to know from -experience just how thick the glue has to be for the work he has on -hand. A hardwood piece of work requires a thinner glue than soft -wood. The average consistency of glue should be about like that of -thin syrup, and should be applied hot to the work. Sometimes in cold -weather the glue “sets” quickly; then the pieces to be glued should -be heated so that the glue may be kept soft. When the pieces are put -together clamp them up quickly or rub them together, forcing out the -surplus glue from the joint. When work is glued together it should -stand from eight to twelve hours before being handled. - -When the end grain of wood has to be glued, it should first be sized, -that is, it should be given a coat of glue and let dry. This fills the -pores of the wood so that when the joint is made it will hold. - -There are two kinds of glue, animal and fish glue. Animal glue is made -from the refuse of slaughter houses and tanneries, and the number of -grades and colors are innumerable. Fish glue is made chiefly from the -entrails and skin of fish, and is mostly in liquid form. - -To prepare glue, put as much as is needed in the glue pot and cover -over with cold water; then let it soak from six to ten hours, according -to the quantity; after this place the glue pot in the water kettle or -glue heater, and apply heat in any convenient way to the water, which -in turn heats the glue. The use of the two vessels is to prevent the -glue from burning. - -Glue should always be used as freshly as possible, for then it holds -better than when it is old. - -It can be made to stand the weather by adding boiled linseed oil. Add -the linseed oil to the glue slowly, stirring it all the time, the -proportion of oil to glue being two ounces of oil to sixteen ounces of -glue. Another method of preparing glue to stand the weather, is to use -skimmed milk instead of water when preparing it. - - -TO TRUE OILSTONES. - -Oilstones by their continuous use by students become hollow at the -center and must be trued up so that plane irons and chisels can be -sharpened properly on them. There are a number of methods that can be -employed to accomplish this; any of them, if tried, will give good -results: - -1st Method. Take a piece of flagstone or any kind of stone that has a -flat surface, and on it place sharp sand and wet it with water. Take -the oilstone, and with a circular motion rub on the sand until a flat -surface is obtained. The sand should be kept moist during the operation. - -2nd Method. Take a flat board and on it place a sheet of number one and -one half sand paper; moisten slightly and rub the oilstone on it until -the desired results are obtained. Emery cloth is also good. - -3rd Method. We have obtained the best and quickest results from this -method, which is to have an iron plate finely corrugated and sprinkle -No. 30 or No. 40 emery on it; rub the oilstone over the plate, -sprinkling a little emery from time to time as the work advances. Use -the emery dry. An oilstone in very poor condition can be trued up by -this method in from three to five minutes. - -A mixture to apply to a hard oilstone to make it “cut” when sharpening -a plane-iron or a chisel, is to take glycerine one part and alcohol -one part. This mixture will not become gummy, and an oilstone that is -sometimes considered worthless while using common oils, will be found -to give good satisfaction. - - - - - TOOLS - FOR - SCHOOLS - - WHITTLING TRAYS, WITH OUTFITS. - SLOYD KNIVES. - VENETIAN IRON and TOOLS. - WOOD CARVING TOOLS. - CLAY MODELING TOOLS. - PLASTER CARVING TOOLS. - ALL THE STANDARD GOODS, INCLUDING - HAMMERS, - SAWS, - SQUARES, - CHISELS, - GOUGES, - BITS, - BRACES, - GAUGES, - &c., &c., &c. - - AND THE STANDARD BENCHES FOR - ONE, TWO OR MORE PUPILS. - SEND FOR SPECIAL CATALOGUE. - - [Illustration] - - HAMMACHER, SCHLEMMER & CO. - - 209 BOWERY, NEW YORK, SINCE 1848. - - THE BRAND =DISSTON= ON SAWS, ETC. - - IS A =GUARANTEE= OF - - SUPERIOR QUALITY and WORKMANSHIP. - - D 100 A PERFECTLY PROPORTIONED - BEAUTIFULLY FINISHED SAW. - - [Illustration] - - SEND FOR OUR HANDBOOK. - - A Treatise on the care and use of SAWS. - - MAILED FREE. - - - FILES Manufactured from our own make of Crucible Steel, - carefully Forged and Hardened; correctly shaped Teeth. - They are the most durable FILES on the market. - - We manufacture the Largest Line of Saws in the world. - Circular Saws, Band Saws, Crosscut Saws, Hand Saws, Back - Saws, Gauges, Plumb & Levels, Screwdrivers, Try - Squares, Saw-sets, etc. - - - HENRY DISSTON & SONS, Inc., - - KEYSTONE SAW, TOOL, STEEL AND FILE WORKS, - PHILADELPHIA, PENN. - - Construction Work - - IN CARDBOARD AND PAPER, WITHOUT - THE USE OF TOOLS, WITH COURSE IN - WOODWORK for Fifth and Sixth Grades - - _By ROBERT M. SMITH_ - - Supervisor of Manual Training, Chicago Public Schools. - - A complete course in Manual Training for the first - four grades. The work is definite, practical, simple, - and connects the Kindergarten with the Grammar - grades. The details are complete. The materials are - inexpensive. This course is now being used in a - number of the Chicago Public Schools. - - THE ONLY PRACTICAL BOOK PUBLISHED COVERING THIS - WORK. ITS COMPLETENESS OF PLAN AND ILLUSTRATION - ... MAKES IT INVALUABLE ... - - - CLOTH, 42 FULL PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS, 75 CENTS - - A. FLANAGAN COMPANY, Publishers - - 266 Wabash Avenue, CHICAGO - - - - -[Illustration: No. 1 MANUAL TRAINING BENCH] - - Length of Top 50 inches - Width of Top 21 inches - Height 32 inches - - These benches are made of selected hard maple throughout, - and are fitted with our No. 60 rapid-acting vise. They - are shipped knocked down and any boy can set them up. - They are extremely strong and rigid, and with our steel - and iron vise make an outfit practically indestructible. - We make benches only fitted with our vises, and can - furnish any style desired, either single or double. - Cabinetmakers’, carvers’ or special designs made to - order. Our prices are but little, if any, higher than - asked for cheaply made benches with wooden vises or cheap - cast-iron vises. This is an excellent bench to have about - the house, and is suitable for boys from 6 years old to - men of 60. They are superior benches for manual training - and have plenty of capacity for the work. - - Manufactured - only by W. G. TOLES & CO. - Irving Park....Chicago, Ill. - - SEND FOR CATALOGUE. - - Manual Training Schools - - Should have the very best Hand - Saws that can be obtained.... - - [Illustration] - - - We make a =Specialty= of furnishing the - =Right Kind=—with proper shaped handles for - youths and children, and made from our celebrated - - TRADE - =SILVER STEEL= - MARK - - which is the finest steel ever used in saws. - - Atkins Quality Stands at the Head - - MANUFACTURED ONLY BY - E. C. Atkins & Co., Inc’p’d. - FACTORIES - Indianapolis, Ind. - - BRANCH HOUSES: - Memphis, Tenn. Minneapolis, Minn. Atlanta, Ga. - Portland, Or., New York City. - - OUR MOTTO: - “Atkins Always Ahead” - - SIX! SIX! - BRIGHT NEW - BOOKS - - IN THE MISTY REALM OF FABLE - _By_ EMMA ROBINSON KLECKNER - - “The book contains all that is best in Mythology, - and what it presents is made the most of in the way - it is told.”--WM. HAWLEY SMITH, Author and - Lecturer. - - =This book is admirably adapted as a - Supplementary Header for fourth and fifth - grades. Second Edition. Cloth. Eight full page - illustrations. Many smaller ones. 160 pages, - handsome cover, list 50 cents.= - - TURNING POINTS IN TEACHING - _By_ D. C. MURPHY, PH. D. - Superintendent Training Department of Slippery Rock (Pa.) - State Normal School. - - Dr. Murphy is a practical teacher; he knows the - needs of teachers and has given them a book full of - New Methods, Ideas, Anecdotes and Helps. Some of - the chapters are: The First Day of School; Critical - Moments in the School Room; Managing the Bad Boy; - Managing the Bad Girl; Blue Monday. Cloth, 144 - pages, 50 cents; paper, 25 cents. - - THE STUDENT’S GUIDE TO MUSIC - _By_ J. N. 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RICH, Professor of Mathematics - in the Iowa State Normal School. - - This book is the result of practical work in the class room, - and furnishes a complete course for all ordinary purposes. - - =Among the Features of Special Note are=: - - 1. A set of tables and drills for mental work. - These cover the essential operations of arithmetic - and are designed to make the pupil proficient in - the shortest time possible. - - 2. A presentation of the necessary definitions, - principles, and rules in compact form so as to - indicate clearly the arithmetical elements and - relations. - - 3. A great number of model problem solutions. The - scope, the varied character, and the helpfulness of - these emphasize the thought side, and are of the - highest value in developing the reasoning powers. - - 4. A large variety of Drill Tables, Test Problems, - and other means of testing the pupil’s power as - well as giving him mastery over the subject. - - _Cloth_, 5 × 7½ inches. - 222 pages. 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