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diff --git a/old/66583-0.txt b/old/66583-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index acd51fc..0000000 --- a/old/66583-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,18839 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The magic of jewels and charms, by George -Frederick Kunz - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The magic of jewels and charms - -Author: George Frederick Kunz - -Release Date: October 21, 2021 [eBook #66583] -[Most recently updated: November 20, 2022] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team - at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MAGIC OF JEWELS AND CHARMS *** - - - - - The Magic of Jewels and Charms - - - “A Volume of Absorbing Interest.”—_N. Y. Sun._ - - - - - THE CURIOUS LORE OF PRECIOUS STONES - - BY GEORGE FREDERICK KUNZ, - A.M., PH.D., D.SC. - -BEING A DESCRIPTION OF THEIR SENTIMENTS AND FOLKLORE, SUPERSTITIONS, -SYMBOLISM, MYSTICISM, USE IN PROTECTION, PREVENTION, RELIGION AND -DIVINATION, CRYSTAL GAZING, BIRTH-STONES, LUCKY STONES AND TALISMANS, -ASTRAL, ZODIACAL, AND PLANETARY - - With 86 illustrations in color, doubletone and line. Octavo. - Handsome cloth binding, gilt top, in a box. $5.00 net. Carriage - charges extra. - -This work represents the observations and discoveries during twenty-five -years of collecting on the part of Dr. Kunz, and will be found a rarely -interesting galaxy of anecdote, research, and information upon a -fascinating subject. - - - J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY - PUBLISHERS PHILADELPHIA - -[Illustration: - - By courtesy of W. Griggs and Sons, Ltd., London. - - MODEL OF A HINDU LADY, ILLUSTRATING THE MODE OF WEARING JEWELRY IN - NORTH INDIA - - From the Journal of Indian Art. -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - The Magic of Jewels and Charms - - BY - GEORGE FREDERICK KUNZ - A.M., PH.D., D.SC. - - WITH 90 ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOR, DOUBLETONE AND LINE - -[Illustration] - - PHILADELPHIA & LONDON - - J. B. Lippincott Company - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1915, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY - - - PRINTED IN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA - - - - - TO THE MEMORY OF - - THE LATE - - PROFESSOR THOMAS EGLESTON, PH.D., LL. D. - - - OFFICIER DE LA LÉGION D’HONNEUR AND FOUNDER OF THE SCHOOL OF - MINES, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, AN ARDENT LOVER OF MINERALS, KEENLY - APPRECIATIVE OF PRECIOUS STONES, AND A KINDLY FRIEND OF THE - AUTHOR, THIS VOLUME IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED - - - - - Preface - - -Jewels, gems, stones, superstitions and astrological lore are all so -interwoven in history that to treat of either of them alone would mean -to break the chain of association linking them one with the other. - -Beauty of color or lustre in a stone or some quaint form attracts the -eye of the savage, and his choice of material for ornament or adornment -is also conditioned by the toughness of some stones as compared with the -facility with which others can be chipped or polished. - -Whereas a gem might be prized for its beauty by a single individual -owner, a stone of curious and suggestive form sometimes claimed the -reverence of an entire tribe, since it was thought to be the abode or -the chosen instrument of some spirit or genius. - -Just as the appeal to higher powers for present help in pressing -emergencies preceded the development of a formal religious faith, so -this never-failing need of protectors or healers eventually led to the -attribution of powers of protection to the spirits of men and women who -had led holy lives and about whose history legend had woven a web of -pious imaginations at a time when poetic fancy reigned instead of -historic record. The writer still holds that true sentiment, the -antithesis of superstitious dread, is good for all mankind—sentiment -meaning optimism as truly as superstition stands for pessimism—and that -even the fancies generated by sentiment are helpful to us and make us -happier; and surely happiness often means health, and happiness and -health combined aid to evolve that other member of the triumvirate, -wealth. Do we not often wish for the union of these three supreme -blessings? - -At all times and in all periods there have been optimists and -pessimists, the former animated by the life-bringing sentiment of hope, -and the latter oppressed by the death-dealing sense of fear. Let us -always choose a happy medium between a foolish excess of hope and an -unreasonable apprehension of future troubles. The world’s history and -our own experience show us that it is the optimist who has caused the -world to progress, and we should trust and believe that the sentiment of -hope and faith will always animate humanity. - -We know that for centuries it has been believed that amber necklaces -protect children from cold. May we not also now add that to pearls the -same qualities are attributed? There must be a reason for this. May not -this belief be ascribed to the circumstance that in the wearing of -either of these gems their virtue consists in the fact that the -necklaces do not cover the neck? In other words, they are worn on the -bare throat and the opinion prevails that an exposed neck means less -liability to cold. For, where the neck is never overheated and then -suddenly chilled, a normal temperature being maintained, there should be -protection from colds and from the many ills resulting from them. As to -pearls, this might serve to illustrate the poetic fancy that these -sea-gems are tears by angels shed to bring mortals joy. - -Having collected a large mass of material, ethnological, historical and -legendary, in the course of personal observations and study, it was -decided that the companion volume, the twin sister of “The Curious Lore -of Precious Stones,” need not treat of gems _alone_. - -For courtesies, information and illustrations I am indebted to the -following to whom my sincere thanks are due: Prof. T. Wada, of Tokyo, -Japan; Dr. G. O. Clerc, President of the Societe Curalienne des Amis des -Sciences Naturelles, Ekaterineburg, Russia; Dr. Charles Braddock, late -Medical Inspector to the King of Siam; Sir Charles Hercules Reed, -Curator of Archæology, British Museum, London; A. W. Feavearyear, -London; Dr. Peter Jessen, Librarian of the Kunstegewerbe Museum of -Berlin; Miss Belle DaCosta Green; Dr. Berthold Laufer, Oriental -Archæologist, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago; Dr. Oliver P. -Farrington, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago; Hereward -Carrington, Psychist, New York; Dr. W. Hayes Ward, Archæologist and -Babylonian Scholar; Mrs. Henry Draper, New York; W. W. Blake, Mexico -City, who has done so much to encourage Mexican archæological -investigation; Dr. Edward Forrester Sutton, New York; Dr. W. H. Holmes -of the United States Bureau of Ethnology, Washington; Mr. McNeil M. -Judd, Archæologist, United States National Museum; Dr. Arthur Fairbanks, -Director of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts; Tan Sien Ko, Government -Archæologist of Burma; Dr. Charles C. Abbott, Archæologist, Trenton, -N. J.; Edgar T. Willson, of the Jewelers’ Circular Publishing Co.; Dr. -Edward H. Thompson, Archæologist, of Progreso, Yucatan, Mexico, and -Cambridge, Mass.; Rev. Charles Sadleir of Aurcaria, Chile; Mrs. Nona -Lebour of Corbridge-on-Tyne, England; and Dr. Charles P. Fagnani, Union -Theological Seminary, New York City. - - G. F. K. - - SEPTEMBER, 1915 - - - - - Contents - - - CHAPTER PAGE - I. MAGIC STONES AND ELECTRIC GEMS 1 - - II. ON METEORITES, OR CELESTIAL STONES 72 - - III. STONES OF HEALING 118 - - IV. ON THE VIRTUES OF FABULOUS STONES, CONCRETIONS AND FOSSILS 160 - - V. SNAKE-STONES AND BEZOARS 201 - - VI. ANGELS AND MINISTERS OF GRACE 241 - - VII. ON THE RELIGIOUS USE OF VARIOUS STONES 277 - - VIII. AMULETS: ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL, AND ORIENTAL 313 - - IX. AMULETS OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES AND OF MODERN TIMES 348 - - X. FACTS AND FANCIES ABOUT PRECIOUS STONES 377 - - - - - Illustrations - - - COLOR PLATES - PAGE - MODEL OF A HINDU LADY, ILLUSTRATING THE MODE OF WEARING - JEWELRY IN NORTH INDIA _Frontispiece_. - JADE BELL OF THE K’IEN-LUNG PERIOD (1731–1795) 143 - 1, 1½. EMERALD THAT BELONGED TO THE DEPOSED SULTAN OF - TURKEY. 2. ALMANDITE GARNET. 3. SARDONYX IDOL-EYE OF - A BABYLONIAN BULL. 4. AQUAMARINE SEAL 159 - ILLUSTRATING PRECIOUS STONES AND MINERALS USED FOR - SEALS IN ANCIENT ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA 242 - PERFORATED JADE DISK CALLED _Ts’ang Pi_, A CHINESE - SYMBOL OF THE DEITY HEAVEN (T’IEN) 302 - TURQUOISE INCRUSTED OBJECTS, PROBABLY AMULETS, FOUND AT - PUEBLO BONITO, NEW MEXICO 353 - HILT OF JEWELLED SWORD GIVEN BY THE GREEKS OF THE - UNITED STATES ON EASTER DAY, 1913, TO THE CROWN - PRINCE OF GREECE, LATER KING CONSTANTINE XII 370 - - DOUBLETONES - INDIAN MEDICINE-MEN 18 - CHALCEDONY AND AGATE PEBBLES FROM PESCADERO BEACH, SAN - MATEO COUNTY, CALIFORNIA 30 - PEBBLE BEACH, REDONDO, LOS ANGELES COUNTY, CALIFORNIA 30 - HINDU WEARING A COLLECTION OF ANCESTRAL PEBBLES AS - AMULETS 37 - KILLING A DRAGON TO EXTRACT ITS PRECIOUS STONE 45 - NATURALLY MARKED STONE 45 - A SIMPLE APPARATUS FOR ILLUSTRATING THE ELECTRIC - PROPERTIES OF THE TOURMALINE 54 - NECKLACE OF FACETED AMBER BEADS 63 - VIGNETTE FROM THE “LAPIDARIO DE ALFONSO X, CODICE - ORIGINAL” 69 - THE “MADONNA DI FOLIGNO,” BY RAPHAEL 73 - THE KAABA AT MECCA 84 - “AHNIGHITO,” THE GREAT CAPE YORK METEORITE, WEIGHING - MORE THAN 36½ TONS 96 - “THE WOMAN,” CAPE YORK METEORITE 97 - “THE DOG,” CAPE YORK METEORITE 98 - TWO VIEWS OF THE WILLAMETTE METEORITE NOW IN THE - AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, NEW YORK CITY 99 - FLINT AMULETS OF THE PREDYNASTIC PERIOD, EGYPT 108 - THE “ORTUS SANITATIS” OF JOHANNIS DE CUBA, PUBLISHED AT - STRASSBURG IN 1483 122 - FAMOUS PEARL NECKLACE OF THE UNFORTUNATE EMPRESS - CARLOTTA, WIDOW OF EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN OF MEXICO 126 - JADE TONGUE AMULETS FOR THE DEAD. CHINESE 139 - FRONTISPIECE OF MUSEUM WORMIANUM 141 - ANCIENT PERSIAN RELIC KNOWN AS THE “CUP OF CHOSROES” 154 - BEZOARS OF EMPEROR RUDOLPH II, NOW IN THE HOFMUSEUM, - VIENNA 216 - FRONTISPIECE AND TITLE-PAGE OF FRANCESCO REDI’S - “EXPERIMENTA NATURALIA,” AMSTERDAM 1675, AND TWO - SPECIMEN PAGES OF THIS TREATISE 232 - FORMS OF TABASHEER 233 - SPECIMENS OF TABASHEER 235 - ZODIAC MOHURS, COINED BY THE MOGUL SOVEREIGN SHAH - JEHAN, ABOUT 1628 246 - THE MEDIEVAL CONCEPTION OF THE COSMOS, THE SUCCESSIVE - SPHERES OF THE PLANETS, INCLUDING THE SUN, AND BEYOND - THESE THE CRYSTALLINE HEAVEN AND THE EMPYREAN 248 - THE ANGEL RAPHAEL REFUSING THE GIFTS OFFERED BY TOBIT 250 - SANTA BARBARA 258 - BLOODSTONE MEDALLION, SHOWING THE SANTA CASA OF LORETO - CARRIED BY ANGELS TO DALMATIA FROM GALILEE 267 - CHINESE JADE AMULETS FOR THE DEAD 283 - LA MADONNA DELLA SALUTE, BY OTTAVIANO NELLI 287 - CEREMONY ANNUALLY OBSERVED IN THE MOGUL EMPIRE OF - WEIGHING THE SOVEREIGN AGAINST PRECIOUS METALS, - JEWELS AND OTHER VALUABLE OBJECTS, WHICH WERE - DISTRIBUTED AS GIFTS 301 - THE SACRED WELL OF CHICHEN ITZÁ 307 - CARVED AND WORKED STONES FROM THE SACRED WELL AT - CHICHEN ITZÁ, YUCATAN, MEXICO 308 - EYE-AGATES 315 - TYPES OF EGYPTIAN SEALS AND SCARABS IN THE MURCH - COLLECTION, METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK 316 - COLOSSAL SCARAB IN BLACK GRANITE, BRITISH MUSEUM 320 - A MEDIEVAL SPELL 328 - FROM A PORTRAIT OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 337 - COMPLETE VIEW OF THE ANCIENT JADE GIRDLE-PENDANT (FROM - KU YÜ T’U P’U) 341 - TIBETAN WOMAN WITH COMPLETE JEWELRY 343 - “THE LIGHT OF THE EAST” 345 - INDIAN MEDICINE-MAN 354 - HEI-TIKI AMULETS OF NEW ZEALAND 362 - JEWELLED SWORD GIVEN BY THE GREEKS OF THE UNITED - STATES, ON EASTER DAY, 1913, TO CROWN PRINCE - CONSTANTINE, LATER KING CONSTANTINE XII OF GREECE. - TOP OF SCABBARD, SHOWING DIDRACHM OF ALEXANDER THE - GREAT 373 - SIDE VIEW OF HILT 373 - “THE LEGEND OF THE MOONSTONE,” AUTOGRAPHED FOR THIS - WORK BY THE AUTHOR OF THE POEM, DR. EDWARD FORRESTER - SUTTON 386 - CLEOPATRA DISSOLVING HER PRICELESS PEARL AT THE BANQUET - TO MARK ANTONY 394 - - LINE CUTS - TITLE-PAGE OF ONE OF THE EARLIEST TREATISES ON - METEORITES 91 - TYPES OF CERAUNIA OR “THUNDER-STONES” 111 - INTERIOR OF FIFTEENTH CENTURY PHARMACY 122 - EXTRACTING TOAD-STONE 162 - TOAD-STONES. NATURAL CONCRETIONS OF CLAYSTONE AND - LIMONITE 163 - TYPES OF CHELONIÆ (TORTOISE-STONES). NATURAL - CONCRETIONS 171 - CHELIDONIUS, OR “SWALLOW-STONES” 172 - ÆTITES 175 - EXTRACTING AN ALECTORIUS 179 - ALECTORIUS 180 - LAPIS MANATI 182 - LAPIS MALACENSIS, STONE OF THE HEDGEHOG OR PORCUPINE 183 - LAPIS JUDAICUS. PENTREMITE HEADS 187 - GLOSSOPETRÆ. FOSSIL SHARK’S TEETH 188 - BELEMNITES. FOSSILIZED BONY END OF EXTINCT CUTTLE-FISH 191 - BRONTIA. FOSSIL SEA-URCHINS 193 - TROCHITES } FOSSIL - } CRINOID 194 - ENASTROS } STEMS - BUCARDITES TRIPLEX 195 - TYPES OF OMBRIA (FOSSIL SEA-URCHINS) 196 - CORNU AMMONIS (FOSSIL NAUTILUS) 197 - SPECIMENS OF ASTROITES (ASTERIA), OR FOSSIL CORAL 199 - APPLICATION OF A BEZOAR TO CURE A VICTIM OF POISONING 202 - MONKEY BEZOAR 204 - 1. HEDGE-HOGSTONE FROM MALACCA. 2, 3. SPURIOUS STONES - OF THIS TYPE MANUFACTURED IN CEYLON. 205 - CALCULI TAKEN FROM BLADDER OF POPE PIUS V 220 - TYPES OF THE OVUM ANGUINUM. ECHINITES (SEA-URCHINS) 222 - COBRA DE CAPELLO 236 - CANADIAN INDIAN MEDICINE-MAN 357 - THE BIRTH OF THE OPAL 374 - EAST INDIAN BAROQUE PEARL 392 - - - - - The Magic of Jewels and Charms - - - - - I - Magic Stones and Electric Gems - - -While the precious and semi-precious stones were often worn as amulets -or talismans, the belief in the magic quality of mineral substances was -not confined to them, but was also held in regard to large stone masses -of peculiar form, or having strange markings or indentations; moreover, -many small stones, possessing neither worth nor beauty, were thought to -exert a certain magical influence upon natural phenomena. An occult -power of this sort was also attributed by tradition to some mythical -stones, the origin of this fancy being frequently explicable by the -quality really inherent in some known mineral bearing a designation -closely similar to that bestowed upon the imaginary stone. - -To certain stones has been attributed the power to produce musical -tones, the most famous example being the so-called “Vocal Memnon” of -Thebes. This colossal statue was said to emit a melodious sound when the -sun rose, and according to Greek legend this sound was a greeting given -by Memnon to his mother, the Dawn. It appears, however, that the statue -was a respecter of persons, for when the Emperor Hadrian presented -himself before it, he is said to have heard the sound three times, -whereas common mortals heard it but once, or at most twice, while -occasionally the statue withheld its greeting altogether. A modern -traveller relates a personal experience that may cast a side-light upon -this matter. His visit to Thebes was made in the evening, but a fellah -who was standing near the statue asked him whether he wished to hear the -musical sound. Of course the reply was in the affirmative. Thereupon the -man climbed up the side of the colossal figure and hid himself behind -the elbow. In a moment sharp metallic sounds became audible; not a -single sound, but several in succession. Knowing from their quality that -they could not proceed from the stone, the traveller asked his -donkey-boy for an explanation and was told that the man was striking an -iron bar. In ancient times the priests probably performed this or a -similar trick in a much more skilful way than did the poor fellah, so -that the mystery of the statue was carefully guarded.[1] - -The river Hydaspes was said to furnish a “musical stone.” When the moon -was waxing, this stone gave forth a melodious sound.[2] This should be -understood in the sense that when the stone was struck at that season -the sound was different from what it was at other times—a fanciful idea -based on some supposed sympathy between the stone and the moon. As -moonstones are rarely larger than a silver dollar, they would not emit a -sound upon being struck, and it is probably a rock known as “chinkstone” -(phonolite) that is referred to, an igneous rock, very hard and -resonant, that has been found in elongated and flat pebbles of large -size; they ring with the resonance of bells when struck. A sonorous -stone at Megara is reported by Pausanias[3]; when struck, it emitted the -sound of the chord of a lyre. This was explained by the tale that, while -helping Alcathous to build the walls of his city, the god Apollo had -rested his lyre on the stone. - -The term sarcophagus is to us so clear and precise in its significance, -that we do not stop to think that its etymology reveals it as literally -meaning body-devourer. Tradition taught that a stone of this type was to -be found near Assos in Lycia, Asia Minor, and also in some parts of the -Orient. If attached to the body of a living person it would eat away the -flesh. Another type, already noted by Theophrastus in the third century -B.C., had the power of petrifying any object placed within receptacles -made from it. If a dead person were buried in a “sarcophagus” of this -material the body would not be consumed, but would, on the contrary, be -turned to stone, even the shoes of the corpse and any utensils buried -with it, would undergo a like wonderful change. Possibly actual -observations of changes in the bodies of those long buried, their -partial disintegration in some cases, and their hardening in others, may -have given rise to the fancy that the stone receptacle in which they had -reposed was directly the cause of this, whether it implied destruction -or petrifaction.[4] - -Of the substance named galactite, Pliny gives some details. He states -that it came from the Nile, was of the color and had the odor of milk, -and when moistened and scraped produced a juice resembling milk. The -liquid derived from the galactite when taken as a potion by nurses was -said to increase the flow of milk. If a galactite were bound to a -child’s arm the effect was to promote the secretion of saliva. To these -favorable effects must be added an unfavorable one, namely, loss of -memory, which was said to befall occasionally those who wore the stone. -A kind of “emerald with white veinings” was sometimes called galactite, -and another variety had alternate red and white stripes or veins.[5] -Perhaps this “emerald” was a variety of jade, or a banded jasper. - -This so-called galactite, which enjoyed such an extraordinary reputation -in ancient and medieval times, is not, properly speaking, a stone, but a -nitrate of lime. The strange and famous relics of the Virgin preserved -in many old churches and called “the Virgin’s milk,” were merely -solutions of this nitrate. Possibly pieces of this so-called galactite -were sometimes found by pilgrims in the grotto of Bethlehem, and were -supposed to be petrified milk.[6] As everything in this sacred spot was -regarded as connected in some way with the miraculous birth of Christ, -it is easy to understand why the devout pilgrims came to believe that -the milky-hued substance represented the milk of the Virgin, which had -been preserved for future ages in this extraordinary way. - -A kind of galactite, evidently a finely deposited form of carbonate of -lime and perhaps absorbent, is mentioned by Conrad Gesner.[7] This was -found on the Pilatus Mountain, Lake Lucerne, and is described by Gesner -as being a “fungous and friable” substance, white and exceedingly light -in weight. The natives called it _Mondmilch_ (moonmilk) and it was sold -in the pharmacies of Lucerne. The powder was used by physicians in the -treatment of ulcers, and, like all the other galactites, it was supposed -to increase the flow of milk and to develop the breasts. Besides this it -was credited with somniferous virtues. - -An old Mohammedan tradition, cited by Ibn Kadho Shobah in his Tarik -al-Jafthi, relates that Noah, after the deluge, on setting out with the -members of his family to settle and populate the regions to the eastward -and northward of Mt. Ararat, confided to their care a miraculous stone -known to the Turks as _jiude-tash_, to the Persians as _senkideh_ and to -the Arabs as _hajer al-mathar_, or the “rain-stone.” On it was impressed -the word Aadhem or Aazem, the great name of God, by virtue of which -whosoever possessed this stone could cause rain to fall whenever he -pleased. In the long lapse of time this particular “precious” stone was -lost, but some of the Turks were said to have certain stones endowed -with a like power, and the more superstitious among these Turks solemnly -asseverated that their “rain-stones” could beget progeny by a mysterious -kind of generation.[8] - -Among the many stones or concretions endowed by medieval belief with -wonderful powers, may be reckoned the “rain-making” stones. Some of -these were to be found in Karmania, south of Khorassan. The miraculous -effect was produced by rubbing one against another. The Arabic author -who reports this declares that this rain-making power was a well-known -fact. He adds that similar stones might be secured from near Toledo in -Spain and also in the “land of Kimar,” inhabited by Turkish tribes.[9] - -The Oriental rain-stones noted by pseudo-Aristotle and by many other -Arabic writers of medieval times, can be paralleled by similar -rain-making or rain-inducing stones in many other parts of the world and -among many primitive peoples even in modern times. The rain-makers of -the African tribe of Wahumas, dwelling in the region bordering on the -great Albert Nyanza Lake in Central Africa, use a black stone in the -course of their magic rites. This is put into a vessel and water poured -over it; the pulverized roots of certain herbs and some blood drawn from -the veins of a black goat are then mixed with the water, and the -resulting liquid mixture is thrown up into the air by the -rain-maker.[10] The sorcerers among the Dieri in Central Australia place -such trust in the efficacy of these conjurations as to believe that all -rainfalls are produced thereby, generally through the intermediate -action of ancestral spirits. If rain falls in a locality where no -proceedings of the kind have taken place, then it is supposed that they -have been initiated in some contiguous territory, a merely spontaneous -and natural rainfall being out of the question. The clouds indeed -generate the rain, but it will not be brought to the earth except by -magic art. In the complicated magic ceremonies of these Dieri -rain-makers, two large stones are employed; after a ceremonial, in the -course of which the blood drawn from the two chief sorcerers is smeared -over the bodies of the others, the stones are borne away by these two -sorcerers for a distance of about twenty miles, and there put far up on -the highest tree that can be found, the object evidently being to bring -them as near to the clouds as possible.[11] - -Rock-crystal as a rain-compeller finds honor among the wizards of the -Ta-ta-thi tribe in New South Wales, Australia. To bring down rain from -the sky one of them will break off a fragment from a crystal and cast it -heavenward, enwrapping the rest of the crystal in feathers. After -immersing these with their enclosure in water, and leaving them to soak -for a while, the whole is removed and buried in the earth, or hidden -away in some safe place.[12] The widely spread fancy that rock-crystal -is simply congealed water may have something to do with the choosing of -this stone as a rain-maker. - -Sumatrans of Kota Gadanz use a stone whose form roughly resembles that -of a cat in their invocations of rain, a live black cat being supposed -in some parts of this island to have certain rain-producing virtues.[13] -Perhaps the electric fur of the animal may have suggested a connection -with thunder-storms. Stones of this type, indeed a great many of those -to which magic properties are attributed, are in many cases smeared with -the blood of fowls, or have incense offered to them, this treatment of -such stones being observed by the peasants in Scandinavia and other -parts of Europe as well as in the Far East. - -Stone crosses have sometimes been utilized as rain-bringers, as in the -case of one belonging to St. Mary’s Church in the Island of Uist, one of -the outer Hebrides, off the Scottish coast. When drought prevailed here -the peasants would set up this cross which usually lay flat on the -ground, in the confident belief that rain would ensue. Of course, sooner -or later, it was sure to come, and then the cross, having done its duty, -was quietly replaced in its former horizontal position.[14] - -A mysterious stone mentioned in Rabbinical legend is called the -_shamir_. This word occurs three times in the Old Testament (Jer. xvii, -1; Ezek. iii, 9; Zech. vii, 12), and in each signifies a material noted -for its hardness. In the first of these passages there is express -indication that the _shamir_ was a pointed object used for engraving, -and the word is translated “diamond” in our Bible; in the two other -cases it is rendered “adamant” and “adamantine stone,” respectively, -thus leaving the determination of the substance an open question. -However, as it is almost certain that the Hebrews were not familiar with -the diamond, _shamir_ most probably signifies one of the varieties of -corundum, the next hardest mineral to the diamond, and extensively used -in classic times for engraving on softer stones. - -In the luxuriant growth of legend that sprang up in Rabbinical times, -the _shamir_ is not forgotten. It is said to have been the seventh of -the ten marvels created at the end of the sixth day of creation. In -size, it is described as being not larger than a barley-corn, but it had -the power to split up the hardest substances, if brought in contact with -them, or even in their neighborhood. Some of the legends ascribe to it -even more wonderful magic powers, so that, like Aladdin’s lamp, great -buildings could be constructed by its help, Solomon having used it in -the erection of the temple and other buildings. The etymology of the -word indicates a pointed object, similar to our diamond-point, but in -legend it is almost invariably described as a small worm, probably -because of a fancied connection between this word and another -designating a species of worm. Many have associated the Hebrew _shamir_ -with the Greek σμίρις, or emery. - -The Hebrew _shamir_ and the Greek ἀδάμας were both used metaphorically -of hardness of heart and implacability. The Hebrew prophet Zechariah -(vii, 12) says of the disobedient Jews that “they made their hearts as -an adamant stone” (_shamir_), and the Greek poet Theocritus (fl. 228 -B.C.) calls Pluto, the god of the infernal regions, “the _adamas_ in -Hades.” This clearly shows that invincible hardness was the common -characteristic of the material designated by these words. However, it -appears probable that while _shamir_ signifies a form of corundum, the -word _adamas_, as used by the early Greek writers, denoted a hard, -metallic substance. Possibly, when iron first became known to the -Greeks, the adjective ἀδαμάντινος, “indomitable,” was applied to it, and -later the noun _adamas_ was formed from this adjective and was used by -the poets to signify an imaginary substance even harder than iron; -hence, when the diamond became known in Greek lands, its extreme -hardness suggested the application to it of this name.[15] - -An Arab legend concerning the fabled _shamir_ stone is related by -Cazwini in his cosmography. When King Solomon set about building the -temple in Jerusalem, he commanded Satan to dress the stones that were to -be used, but the work was performed with such demoniac energy that the -people round about complained bitterly of the dreadful noise. To remedy -this trouble, Solomon sought the council of the leading scribes and also -that of the evil spirits known as Ifrites and Jinns. None of them, -however, was able to help him in this difficulty, but one of them -advised him to question an apostate named Sahr, who sometimes had -special knowledge of such things. When called upon for his opinion, Sahr -declared that he knew of a stone that would do the work required, but -did not know where it could be found; nevertheless he believed that, by -a stratagem, he could secure possession of it. He thereupon ordered that -an eagle’s nest with its eggs should be brought to him, and also a -bottle-shaped vessel made of very strong glass. Into this he slipped the -eggs, put them back into the nest, and had nest and eggs replaced where -they had been found. When the eagle returned to the nest it encountered -this obstacle. In vain it struck at the vessel with claws and beak; -after repeated efforts it flew away, but came back on the second day -holding a piece of stone in its beak, which it let fall upon the vessel, -breaking the latter into two halves without producing any sound. Upon -this, Solomon, who knew the language of beasts and birds, asked the -eagle where it had secured the stone. The bird answered: “O Prophet of -God, in a mountain in the West called the Samur Mountain.” This was -indication enough to the wise king who, summoning the Jinns to his aid, -soon had in Jerusalem a plentiful supply of these _samûr_, or _shamir_ -stones, with which the work of shaping and polishing the blocks for the -temple was noiselessly performed.[16] - -Full and precise directions are given by the old authorities as to the -proper way to secure possession of the stone called _corvia_. On the -Calends, or first day of April, eggs are to be taken out of a crow’s -nest and boiled until they are quite hard; they are then to be allowed -to cool off and are replaced in the nest. The female bird notes that the -eggs have been tampered with and flies away in search of the -corvia-stone. When she has found it, she bears it to the nest, and as -soon as it touches the eggs they become fresh and fertile again. This is -the auspicious moment for securing the stone, which must be quickly -taken from the nest else it would lose its virtue.[17] The lucky owner -of the stone is promised increase of wealth and honors, and the power to -read the future. - -The fabled gem-bearing dragons of India were said to have sometimes -fallen victims to the enchanter’s art. Certain mystic characters were -woven in thread of gold upon a scarlet cloth, and this cloth was spread -by the hunters before the dragon’s den. When the creature emerged, his -eyes were fascinated by the strange letters in which the enchanter had -infused a wonderful soporific power. Hypnotized by the sight, the dragon -would fall into a deep slumber and the hunters would rush upon him and -sever his head from his body. Within the head were found gems of -brilliant hue, some of these possessing the power of rendering the -wearer invisible.[18] - -The “Gem of Sovranty,” or the “Gem of the King of Kings,” may have been -a purely poetic Hindu fancy, or possibly may have been the diamond. Its -surpassing quality is emphasized by the declaration that though the -earth produced the sapphire, the cat’s-eye, the topaz, the ruby, and the -two mystic gems, the favorite of the sun, and the favorite of the moon, -the Gem of the King of Kings was acknowledged to be the chief of all -“for the sheen of that jewel spreads round about for a league on every -side.” To King Milinda the following question was put: “Suppose that on -the disappearance of a sovran overlord, the mystic Gem of Sovranty lay -concealed in a cleft on the mountain peak, and that on another sovran -overlord arriving at the supreme dignity it should appear to him, would -you say, O King, that the gem was produced by him?” “Certainly not, -sir,” replied the monarch, “the gem would be in its original condition. -But it had received, as it were, a new birth through him.”[19] - -The Arabian author, Ibn Al-Beithar (b. ca. 1197 A.D.), describes a stone -called in Arabic _hajer al-kelb_, or “dog-stone.” These stones had such -attraction for dogs of a certain breed that when cast before them they -would snap them up, bite them, and hold them in their jaws. The -magicians saw in this a proof that the stones would produce enmity and -ill-will among men. Having selected seven such stones they marked them -with the names of any persons between whom they wished to stir up -strife. The seven stones were then thrown one by one before a dog of the -requisite species, and, after he had bitten them, two were chosen and -were placed in water of which the persons who were to be set at variance -were sure to drink. We are assured that the experiment had the desired -evil result.[20] - -In ancient times there was found in the river Meander a stone -satirically named _sophron_, “temperate.” If it were placed upon the -breast of any one, he immediately became enraged and killed one of his -parents; however, after having appeased the Mother of the Gods, he was -cured of his temporary madness.[21] - -A most singular stone is described by Thomas de Cantimpré under the name -of “piropholos.” This substance, according to Konrad von Megenberg’s -version, was taken from the heart of a man who had been poisoned, -“because the heart of such a man cannot be burned in fire.” If the heart -were kept for nine years in fire this wonderful stone was produced. It -gave protection from lightning, but its principal virtue was to guard -the wearer from sudden death; indeed, we are told that a man could not -die so long as he held this stone in his hand. However, it did not -preserve him from disease, but only prolonged his life. The stone was -said to be of a light and bright red color.[22] - -After enumerating all the well-known precious stones, Volmar, in his -“Steinbuch,” proceeds to relate that there is one which produces -blindness, another that enables the wearer to understand the language of -birds, still another that saves people from drowning, and, finally, one -of such sovereign power that it brings back the dead to life. However, -we are told that because of the miraculous virtues of these stones God -hides them so well that no man can obtain them.[23] About a century -earlier Saint Hildegard of Bingen wrote that “just as a poisonous herb -placed on a man’s skin will produce ulceration,” by an analogous though -contrary effect “certain precious stones will, if placed on the skin, -confer health and sanity by their virtue.”[24] - -Persian records tell of a “royal stone” found in the head of the _ouren -bad_, a kind of eagle; this preserved the wearer from the attacks of -venomous reptiles. If a deadly poison had been administered to a person, -he would be immediately cured by taking one drachm’s weight of the -stone. It thus appears that its virtues were those of the far-famed -bezoar.[25] Persia evidently had good store of “wonderworkers” of this -kind, for the Persian romance entitled “Hatim Tai and the Benevolent -Lady,” written about the beginning of the eighteenth century, recites -the marvellous virtue of a stone called the _Shah-muhra_. If this were -fastened on the arm the wearer became endowed with miraculous vision and -all the gold and precious stones beneath the earth’s surface were -revealed to him.[26] - -For ten centuries or more, countless thousands, although feeling assured -of spiritual immortality, were none the less eager to have eternal youth -and vigor and the power to peer into the future. Hence Ponce de Leon’s -quest for the “Fountain of Youth” in our Florida. But in addition to -this, there has ever been an intense desire to find something by means -of which gold could be made out of the baser metals, for youth and -vigor, if coupled with poverty, are only half-blessings. The search for -the “Philosopher’s Stone” appears to have been a more or less aimless -pursuit of this end; but there can be no doubt that this search led to -the discovery of many new substances and reactions, and helped to lay -the foundation of our modern chemistry. Whether the conscious aim of the -alchemist was the discovery of an actual stone, or merely the discovery -of some process for turning a valueless substance into one of great -value, is not clearly ascertainable from the purposely vague and obscure -treatises on alchemy. - -The “Philosopher’s Stone,” the fond dream of so many who delved into -nature’s mysteries in the past, does not seem so improbable to-day as it -did twenty years ago. The recent discovery of the element radium, which -is produced from the element uranium, and the story of the strange and -protean changes of radium into helium, neon and argon, according to the -environment in which it is placed, have given the death-blow to the old -idea of the immutability of the elements. Still, while we have been -allowed this peep into the storehouse of nature’s secrets, and are -growing to believe that in eons of time the various different elements -may have been evolved, successively, from one another, the power to -provoke this change at will and in a brief space of time is as yet -withheld from us, and may never be given to us, just as little as the -power to send messages to the distant spheres, whose bulk, density and -composition we can estimate with a considerable degree of accuracy. - -Numerous specimens still exist of what is alleged to be artificial gold -made by the alchemists of a past age. Of all these the most striking is -a large medallion, bearing in relief the heads of Emperor Leopold and -his ancestors of the House of Hapsburg. It is related that on the name -day of the emperor in 1677, this medallion, originally of silver and -weighing 7250 grains, was transmuted into gold by Wenzel Seiler, a noted -alchemist of that time. This wonder was performed in full view of the -emperor and his courtiers, by dipping the medallion in a solution. As -there are four notches on the edge, it has been conjectured that these -were made to secure material for testing the quality of the transformed -metal. However, the simple test of specific gravity shows that the metal -cannot be gold, for according to Bauer’s calculation made in 1883, the -medallion has a specific gravity of 12.67, between that of silver (10.5) -and that of gold (19.27). This might indicate that in some unexplained -way the alchemist had succeeded in precipitating a coating of gold upon -the face of the object. It seems probable that the deception was soon -discovered, for Seiler, who had been knighted on September 16, 1676, was -exiled by order of Emperor Leopold, not long after the date on which the -supposed transmutation is said to have taken place. - -An exceedingly rare medal, and one of great interest to students of -alchemy, was struck in 1647 by order of Emperor Ferdinand III from gold -produced in his presence by Johann Peter Hofmann, a master of the -alchemical art. A specimen of this medal is in the Imperial Cabinet of -Coins in Vienna.[27] On the obverse, around two shields, one bearing -eight fleurs-de-lis and the other the figure of a lion, are two hermetic -inscriptions: LILIA CUM NIVEO COPULANTUR FULVA LEONE (yellow lilies lie -down with the snow-white lion), and SIC LEO MANSUESCET SIC LILIA FULVA -VIRESCENT (thus will the lion be tamed and thus will the yellow lilies -flourish). Around a crown surmounting the two shields appear the initial -letters I. P. H. V. N. F., indicating Latin words the sense of which is -“Johannes Petrus Hofmann a Nurembergian subject made it,” and also the -letters T G V L, intended to signify _tinturæ guttæ v. libram_, or “five -drops of the tincture [transmuted] a pound.” The reverse has Latin words -denoting that iron was the base of this tincture, the symbols used for -lead, tin, copper, mercury, silver and gold being each accompanied by a -cryptic declaration that Mars (iron) had controlled the respective -metal.[28] - -Besides the “Philosopher’s Stone,” the chief object of their quest, the -alchemists believed that several other stones possessing magic virtues -could be produced. Among these was the “angelical stone,” which gave -power to see the angels in dreams and visions, and also the “mineral -stone,” a substance by means of which common flints could be transmuted -into diamonds, rubies, sapphires, emeralds, etc.[29] Possibly some -alchemists were glass-makers, and fused the quartz with various mineral -salts into imitations of the gems, having the colors, but not the -hardness or other properties. - -One of the strangest fancies as to the medicinal efficacy of stones is -that held by the native Australians, who believe that “crystals” are -embedded in the bodies of their medicine-men. This belief is encouraged -by the medicine-men themselves; indeed, they are supposed only to retain -their power so long as these _atnongara_ or _ultunda_ stones remain in -their bodies, and a share of their might can be transmitted by -transferring certain of the stones from their own bodies to that of -another. The ceremony proceeds as follows:[30] - - The Nung-gara [medicine-men] then withdrew from their bodies a number - of small clear crystals called Ultunda which were placed one by one, - as they were extracted, in the hollow of a spear-thrower. When a - sufficient number had been withdrawn, the Nung-gara directed the man - who had come with them to clasp the candidate from behind and to hold - him tightly. Then each of them picked up some crystals, and taking - hold of a leg, gripped the stones firmly and pressed them slowly and - strongly along the front of the leg and then up the body as high as - the breast-bone. This was repeated three times, the skin being scored - at intervals with scratches, from which blood flowed. By this means - the magic crystals are supposed to be forced into the body of the - man.... After which each of them pressed a crystal on the head of the - novice and struck it hard, the idea being to drive it into the skull, - the scalp being made to bleed during the process.... - - One of the Nung-gara then withdrew from his skull just behind his ear - (that is, he told the novice that he kept it there) a thin and sharp - Ultunda, and taking up some dust from the ground, dried the man’s - tongue with it, and then, pulling it out as far as possible, he made - with the stone an incision almost half an inch in length. - -The _mesticas_ of the Malays represent a class of stones differing in -important respects from the various types of bezoars. A principal -distinction is that the _mesticas_ are not supposed to owe their origin -to pathological conditions in the organism wherein they occur, but -rather to a superabundance of the normal and healthy constituents of the -animal or plant. It is probably due to this that the virtues of these -particular concretions are rather talismanic than therapeutic, and that -they are believed to endow the finder, or one who receives them by gift, -with courage, immunity from injury, and also with cunning and shrewdness -in the affairs of life. Especially by warriors are these stones highly -valued, for they are supposed to protect the wearer from wounds; indeed, -this belief sometimes went so far as to lead the Malays to think that -absolute invulnerability was conferred on one who carried several of -them bound so closely to the skin that in some cases they even -penetrated the flesh. The typical _mestica_ is described as a hard -stone, brilliant but seldom transparent; it is found in the flesh or -fat, in the heart or on the legs of animals, and also sometimes in -plants.[31] - -Rumphius declares that many extraordinary cases were related of warriors -who could not be injured by any weapons until the _mestica_ had been cut -out of their flesh, wherein it had become embedded. Indeed, he states -that Dutch officers of proved veracity had confidently asserted that -they had encountered such men among their native antagonists. While -Rumphius feels himself therefore forced to admit the truth of the -invulnerability of these men, he hastens to add that such powers could -not be inherent in any piece of stone, but must owe their origin to -diabolical agencies.[32] The fact that the Mohammedans had their -_mesticas_ blessed by the priests of their faith, and burned incense -beneath them on Fridays, the Mohammedan equivalent of the Christian -Sunday, did not probably shake the belief of Rumphius that the Devil had -something to do with these substances. - -The medicine-men of the Kainugá Indians of Paraguay mutter incantations -over the bodies of the sick, and then, after many struggles and -contortions, proceed to extract stones from their mouths, claiming that -they have taken the patient’s disease into their own bodies, the stones -being regarded as the seat of the ailment. In one case, the medicine-man -produced five of these stones before the patient admitted that his pain -was relieved. After the cure was completed the sorcerer was clever -enough to feign extreme exhaustion, as though his vital forces had been -subjected to a tremendous strain.[33] - -[Illustration: - - INDIAN MEDICINE-MEN - - From “Histoire Générale des Cérémonies Religieuses de tous les Peuples - du Monde,” by Abbé Banier and Abbé Mascrier, Paris, 1741. -] - -In British New Guinea similar tactics are resorted to by the native -doctors. A native who was suffering from lumbago fully believed the tale -that his disease was caused by a stone embedded in his flesh. When the -sorcerer made passes over this man’s back and then exhibited a stone -which he pretended to have taken thence, the sufferer was convinced that -the disease had left his body, and he began to feel relief. When -examined, his back showed some superficial cuts at the spot where the -stone was said to have been extracted. In another case, however, when a -child was to be operated upon in a like way, the child’s father became -suspicious and seized the operator’s hands before they came into contact -with the little one’s body; the result being that the disease-laden -stone was found concealed in the operator’s hand.[34] - -Pebble-mania or lithomania is an inherent trait in all mankind. From the -most primitive man to the most modern, especially those of optimistic -and investigating tendencies, this trait is present in a greater or -lesser degree. That is, curious people would collect pebbles for their -bright colors, or markings, for their transparency or translucence, and -those of an investigating turn of mind, under the impression that the -find was perhaps a diamond or a gem of some kind. In modern times this -kind of collecting has developed into a regular industry, pebbles found -on the shores of the United States and which are either pure white, -transparent or translucent quartz, being cut and offered for sale. These -pebbles are gathered, and are valuable to those who make a business of -selling them, because the white opaque pebbles become translucent after -cutting, or rather, during the process of cutting, and they are then -passed off for moonstones, which are worth from one-third to one-half -more than the cost of cutting the quartz pebbles, the purchaser being -led to believe that he is getting a moonstone, although this could not -be possible, since moonstones have never been found on either the -eastern or the western coast of the United States. As for the cut -moonstones which are brought back by the tourist, under the impression -that he is getting native material and workmanship, these all come from -Europe. - -Pebble-mania is not confined to mankind alone. Birds and animals possess -it. The magpie picks up and hides away bright objects, including odd -pebbles, or carries them to its nest. The stones known as _ætites_ were -said to be found in eagles’ nests, although they may have been swallowed -by the birds for digestive purposes, just as the hen’s crop is full of -stones, many of them being transparent, a proof that the fowl had been -attracted by them, and had swallowed these in preference to other, -duller ones. Notable instances of transparent pebbles are the -_alectorii_, or “cock-stones.” - -The great Italian goldsmith and sculptor, Benvenuto Cellini (1500–1574), -relates that when a youth he often shot cranes with his arquebuse, and -that in several instances he found in their entrails not only fine -turquoises, but also fragments of the so-called plasma-emerald and even -occasionally small pearls. This serves to indicate that the pretty -exterior of such objects exerted an influence upon these birds in some -degree analogous to the impressions aroused in mankind on viewing -them.[35] - -In seventeenth century Denmark there seems to have been no lack of -“magic stones,” for it is related that one day as King Christian II was -strolling along the beach, he picked up a shining pebble by the aid of -which he could render himself invisible at will. Similar power was said -to exist in stones that could be found in ant-hills if hot water were -thrown onto them on St. Walpurgis Day, or St. Hans’ Day. The Danes of -the time also shared in the belief that the stone from the lapwing -preserved from illness and sorrow as did the “swallow’s-stone” as -well.[36] - -It has frequently been maintained that the source of pebbles could be -broadly determined by their form and surface; for example, well-rounded -specimens of fairly uniform size would be classed as marine pebbles, -while river-pebbles would be subangular and usually flat; pebbles of -glacial origin, on the other hand, would have faceted, rounded edges, -their surfaces being polished and striated. However, although these -rules might hold good in many cases, careful observation has -demonstrated that pebbles of all these supposedly distinct types can be -found among those of marine, fluviatile, or lacustrine origin. This is -explicable by the fact that while the constant, unhindered action of sea -or river would probably produce pebbles of distinct type, the local -conditions often interfere with this. For instance, on a low sea-coast, -with weak wave-action, pebbles frequently became buried in the sands, -thus retaining their form practically unchanged, and even where the -waves are stronger, so that the pebbles are more or less constantly -exposed to their force, it must be borne in mind that some of these -coast pebbles have been swept down by rivers, or have already been -affected by glacial action. In these cases the force of the waves will -indeed modify the form, but along the lines of that already produced by -the earlier agencies. Broadly stated, those that were round or oval -would generally remain so, rectangular fragments might have their angles -worn away and become elliptical, while flat fragments would not exhibit -any notable change in shape.[37] - -When a group of pebbles have been long exposed to attrition by the -waters of a powerful stream, especially where the current is -intermittent, and where a large quantity of sand has been worked or -blown into the stream by freshet or wind storm, they may become rounded -by the erosive action of the water or by the abrasive power of the sand, -as well as by the attrition consequent upon their sharp contact with one -another. This is exemplified in the case of boulders in a river bed, it -having been noted in certain streams on the Navajo Reservation that -while the upstream sides of the boulders were polished and rounded, and -even sometimes faceted and etched, but little change was observable on -the downstream sides. This has been tested experimentally, holes an inch -in depth having been drilled in opposite sides of sandstone boulders, -and on examination five years later in five different localities where -this had been done, the deepest hole remaining on the upstream sides -measured but four-tenths of an inch, while in one locality the holes had -entirely disappeared, and yet so trifling was the effect of the water on -the downstream side that a blue-pencil mark had not been washed away. Of -course, the erosion of quartzite and limestone boulders tested in this -way proved to be a much slower process, amounting to less than -one-hundredth of an inch annually. Another important consideration in -the shaping of pebbles by river-water is the swiftness of the current, -it having been noted, for instance, that those which have been washed -down the steep slopes of the Navajo Mountain and the edge of the Black -Mesa are somewhat better rounded than those that have been borne along -for a much greater distance by less swift-flowing water. - -That striated, faceted, or polished pebbles are always of glacial -origin, or that those of glacial origin usually offer these -characteristics is far from the fact; indeed, it may rather be said that -they are generally missing. The fluvio-glacial drift is much more -widespread than ground moraine, and the pebbles found in the former -rarely present these aspects; indeed, it has been noted that in an -hour’s search through the glacial drift of Connecticut, only a single -such specimen may be met with. On the other hand, many pebbles of this -type have been found under conditions plainly showing that the striation -was due to other causes, in some instances, as with those occurring in -conglomerates, to pressure and differential movement.[38] - -The burying of white stones or lumps of quartz with the dead was not -infrequent in early times in Ireland. The peasants of the north of -Ireland call these Godstones. A cist found at Barnasraghy, County Sligo, -was nearly filled with quartz pebbles, and not long since a white stone -was found in a primitive burial place near Larne, County Antrim. That -this was a usage confined to the earlier period of Irish history is -generally admitted, and the discovery of such white stones in a grave is -accepted as an indication that it belongs to an early date.[39] - -It has been suggested that these white stones were used for burials -because of the symbolic meaning of the color, which to the minds of many -primitive peoples was that of purity, as indeed it is still among most -modern peoples, although the symbolism may not always be consciously -accepted. White marble seems to most of us the most appropriate and -beautiful stone for monuments, and if to a very considerable degree -granite is now used as a substitute, this is principally because of its -greater resistance to the deteriorating effect of atmospheric changes. -Already in prehistoric times, the cave-dwellers showed a fondness for -gathering quartz crystals and fragments, and specimens of those taken -from the Auvergne Mountains have been found in the cave-dwellings of Les -Eyzies; they may have been used as amulets or talismans.[40] - -A legend of the great Irish saint, Columba, gives an instance of the -curative use of white pebbles. After this saint had vainly entreated -Broichan the Druid to free a Christian bond-maiden, as a last resort he -menaced the druid with approaching death. The prediction or curse was -speedily on the way to fulfilment, Broichan sickened unto death, and in -his terror consented to free the maiden. Hereupon St. Columba went to -the river Ness and picked up out of its shallows several white pebbles, -announcing that they would, by the Lord’s power, work the cure of -heathen people. One of the stones was blessed by the saint and placed in -a vessel filled with water, on the surface of which it floated, and as -soon as Broichan had taken a draught of the liquid he was restored to -perfect health.[41] - -A famous Scotch amulet was a polished globular mass of white quartz, an -inch and three-quarters in diameter, owned by the chiefs of Clan -Donnachaidh and known as the “Stone of the Banner.” It had been -accidentally found by a chief of this clan, who, on his way to join -Robert Bruce in 1315, before the battle of Bannockburn, noted a -glittering stone embedded in a clod of earth that had become attached to -his flagstaff. It was looked upon as a powerful talisman in battle, and -water in which it had been dipped was said to cure diseases. Tradition -asserted that this white stone of Clan Donnachaidh was identical with -that used long before by St. Columba.[42] As such white stones were -often deposited in graves, sometimes even being placed in the mouth of a -deceased person, it has been suggested that perhaps the sparks emitted -by the quartz on percussion were believed to shed some faint gleams -along the dark pathway of the departed in his journey to the underworld. -In Christian times there can be little doubt in regard to the influence -exercised by the text in Revelation: “To him that overcometh ... I will -give a white stone, and in the stone a new name written, which no man -knoweth save he that receiveth it.”[43] - -Crystal balls are not only valued for the visions to be seen, or -supposed to be seen in them, but are sometimes worn as amulets against -illness. In some parts of Japan they are thought to ward off dropsy, and -their wear is also recommended to guard from all wasting diseases.[44] -The likeness of rock-crystal to congealed water may well be credited, in -the doctrine of sympathy, with its putative power of preventing the -watery infiltration from which a dropsical patient suffers. As the -Japanese make many choice crystal balls, these objects are generally -more or less familiar in that land and have thus appealed as well to -those who were superstitious as to those who appreciated things -beautiful in themselves. - -In Yucatan quartz crystals were not only used for divining, but also to -ensure the success of the crops. The fact that such crystals have been -found in the Indian mounds of Arkansas, North Carolina, and elsewhere, -may warrant the supposition that they had been worn as talismans and -then interred with the deceased persons as a most intimate part of their -property. The writer’s personal observation in Garland and Montgomery -counties, Arkansas, demonstrated that quartz crystals were to be found -in mounds together with chipped arrow-points of chalcedony, although the -crystals did not appear to have been worked in any way. The region about -Hot Springs, Arkansas, has furnished some of the finest rock-crystal -found in the United States. From North Carolina also have come many -remarkable specimens, the largest of which, found in 1886, was unluckily -broken up by the person who discovered it. In its crystal state it must -have weighed about 300 pounds, and if cut would have furnished a crystal -ball 4½ or 5 inches in diameter. This splendid crystal came from Phœnix -Mountain, Chestnut Hill township, in Ashe County, North Carolina, and -from the largest fragment recovered, weighing 51 pounds, several slabs 8 -inches square and from half inch to one inch in thickness were cut. -Nearby a crystal weighing 285 pounds was found, and another weighing 188 -pounds. Some of the crystals from this locality had on one side a green -coating of chlorite, and when this was not removed, the effect was as -though one saw a green moss growing beneath a pool of water. The -rock-crystal slabs have an advantage over glass when used for mirrors, -as they more truly reflect the tints of a fine complexion. Brilliant -crystals from Lake George and its neighborhood have been called “Lake -George Diamonds.” In marked contrast with the large examples we have -noted, many crystals of quartz are so small that 200,000 would have an -aggregate weight of but one ounce and yet many are perfect crystals and -doubly terminated. - -The presence of white quartz pebbles in some graves of the Indian -Moundbuilders, appears to be indicated to a satisfactory extent in the -case of certain specimens from the Etowah Mound in Georgia; these -pebbles, which form part of the Steiner collections in the United States -National Museum, were not, however, worked or polished in any way, nor -are there any traces of use for ornament or decoration. On the other -hand, white quartz pebbles from the Pueblo region of the Southwest offer -undeniable signs of having been long used and are of frequent -occurrence; some of these have been found in graves. In connection with -the probable reasons determining their presence the designations “fire -stones” or “charms” have been given them; some specimens of this worked -quartz had evidently been worn as pendants, while others had probably -been regarded as fetishes.[45] - -It is most interesting to note that the superstitious use of these -objects in burials was so widespread as to prove that it must have been -due to some inherent property or properties in white stones, and -especially in pebbles of white quartz, which appealed very strongly to -the mind of primitive man. That, as has been noted above, the conception -of purity should be associated with whiteness, in its contrast to any -obscure color, is natural enough, and rests upon the association of -spotless cleanliness with moral purity, and very probably the sparkles -of light emitted by a bright piece of quartz, normally or on percussion, -brought this material into some connection with the worship of fire, or -of fire-gods. To another possible conception along the same lines we -have already alluded. - -An instance is reported where a very curious quartz pebble, one-half -white and the other black, was found within the hand bones of the -skeleton of an Indian; the finder carried it about with him for many -years as a “lucky stone,” but it appears that his personal experience of -its effects, if these can be judged from what happened to the bearer of -such a talisman, has been of a kind to shatter the most robust faith in -the protective power of his Indian charm. Possibly the strange relic may -have symbolized night and day for the Indians, and thus have been -believed to guard the wearer or the person with whom it was buried, at -all times and seasons. That pebbles of this sort were sometimes buried -in the ground, disposed in circles and squares, is vouched for by some -who claim to have unearthed them in ploughing, but our informant was not -able to confirm these statements, as the arrangements had always been -effectually disturbed before he reached the spot.[46] - -In many graves of the primitive Red-paint People of Maine, small pebbles -have been found. As they were not large enough to have served as -paint-grinders, and as but one such pebble occurs in any single grave, -the presumption is quite strong that they were considered as talismans -for the dead. The fact that the practical laborers of our day who dug -out these graves instinctively named the pebbles “lucky stones” goes to -prove that this supposition is not too far-fetched, although there is no -positive evidence to support it. The pebbles were yellow, bright red, or -gray in color, the graves explored being at Orland, Maine, as well as at -the outlet of Lake Alamoosook, on the south side of this lake and at -Passadumkeag; indeed such graves have been met with all the way from the -Kennebec Valley eastward to Bar Harbor.[47] - -The respective symbolic meanings of white and black are illustrated in -the designations “white magic” and “black magic,” the latter denoting -conjurations or spells in which the aid of the powers of darkness, of -the Devil and his demons, was sought by the sorcerer, while “white -magic” was to be performed by harmless and innocent means, sometimes -even by religious rites. In this way it sometimes so closely approached -the domain of religious miracle, that it becomes difficult to -distinguish between these two conceptions of supernatural action in the -material world. - -Quartz of a different type with needle-like inclusions is called -“Thetis’s hair stone.” This is a transparent or translucent quartz, but -so completely filled with acicular crystals of green actinolite, or -occasionally altered actinolite of a yellow-brown or brown color, as to -appear almost opaque; seals and charms have been made to a small extent -of this variety. Of other inclusions in quartz we may note those of a -very brilliant stibnite projecting in all directions, some of the -intruded crystals being very curiously bent. Exceedingly beautiful gems -have been cut from this material.[48] When this quartz is cut en -cabochon across the ravalette inclusions, a cat’s-eye effect is -produced. The yellow quartz cat’s-eye of Ceylon and the green of Haff, -Bavaria, are of this type. So densely set were the green actinolite -inclusions in the case of a specimen found at Gibsonville, North -Carolina, that it was believed by the finder to be an emerald. - -An extremely beautiful effect in quartz is produced by enclosed, -acicular crystals, or hair-like particles of some other mineral, such as -rutile, for instance, and sometimes even of gold. To specimens of this -latter type may be referred the Greek name “chrysothrix,” used in the -Orphic poem “Lithica” and signifying literally “golden hair”; of this -the verses tell us there were two varieties, that which may be -identified with quartz, having a resemblance to “crystal,” while the -other, said to have the appearance of chrysoberyl, may have been a -yellower variety. To the quartz traversed by filaments of rutile, or the -red oxide of titanium, has been given the taking name of “Venus’s hair -stone”; a pretty French name is _Flèches d’Amour_ or “Cupid’s -Arrows.”[49] - -The California beaches have furnished some of the most interesting -ornamental pebbles, the greater number being of chalcedony or agate -weathered from an amygdaloidal rock, while a few are of jasper or fossil -coral. Their variegated color-markings made them very attractive -ornamental objects in themselves, and there is reason to believe that -centuries ago the Indians of this region valued them as talismans or -amulets. At present the finest specimens are gathered from Pescadero -Beach in San Mateo County, about twenty-four miles west of San José, -Redondo Beach, fifteen miles south of Los Angeles, and also from -Crescent City Beach, in the northern part of California. On Moonstone -Beach, Santa Catalina Island, many beautiful quartz and chalcedony -nodules have been picked up, which have weathered out of ryolite rock of -sanidine feldspar and quartz. It has been quite a custom for guests of -the hotels to go down to Redondo Beach and gather these pebbles, and -some of those collected by enterprising natives are placed in a bottle -of water to bring out the beauty of their colors. Sometimes they are -drilled and strung on flexible wire to form long chains or necklaces. -Several pebbles presumably from Redondo Beach were found, in 1901, in an -Indian grave, where they were probably placed as amulets for the -dead.[50] - -[Illustration: - - By courtesy of California State Mining Bureau. - - 1. Chalcedony and agate pebbles from Pescadero Beach, San Mateo - County, California. - - 2. Pebble Beach, Redondo, Los Angeles County, California. - - From George Frederick Kunz’s “Semi-precious Stones of California,” - Sacramento, 1905. - Bulletin No. 37 of the State Mining Bureau. -] - -The occurrence of fluid cavities in quartz, chalcedony, sapphire, and -other minerals, is due at times to cavernous structures formed during -the growth of these minerals, when the crystalline substances, for some -reason, instead of filling these up solid, will avoid the caverns and -enclose the liquid of crystallization. In agate inclusions this is found -with silicious content, possibly due to the fact that it is to an extent -carbonic acid gas, or water containing salt or some other foreign -substance. In agate chalcedony, whether in pebbles as minute as a -pinhead, or in amygdules several feet across, the liquid is enclosed -because the walls of the gas-pores in the rock, which are frequently -almond-shaped, are gradually becoming smaller, or rather the walls -thicken by the deposition of the silica forming agate, chalcedony, or -any impenetrable layers, or else an impenetrable form of quartz; then -again, frequently toward the centre or when the liquid forms less -rapidly, or through some change, the quartz becomes crystalline, either -colorless, smoky, or amethystine, and this is due to various inclusions. -This gradual thickening of the walls means that the aperture into which -the liquid penetrates becomes smaller and smaller until at last it is -entirely sealed, so that it becomes enclosed in a kind of nature’s -water-bottle, these being sometimes as large as in the chalcedony -specimens from Uruguay; this is also the case with the hydrolites and -the enhydros, when they can be shaken and the water rattles as in a -bottle. - -An occasional small Redondo Beach, California, or Medford, Oregon pebble -contains a moving bubble of air in liquid. - -Most wonderful specimens of rutilated quartz are the great, rich brown, -possibly titanium-colored masses in the Morgan Collection at the -American Museum of Natural History, that in the Vaux Collection at the -Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, and a smaller mass in the -British Museum; these were all obtained near Middlesex, Vermont. The -rutile is a rich transparent or translucent red, varying in thinness -from that of an ordinary needle to that of a knitting-needle, and even -to that of a thin lead-pencil. Wonderful specimens are also found in the -Alps of St. Gotthard, in Madagascar, and in Alexander County, North -Carolina, where they are found in quantity as minute crystals of a rich -red or golden yellow. - -Other curious and interesting rock-crystals with inclusions are those -showing enclosed drops of water, the kind termed _enhydros_ by Pliny[51] -and many old writers; in some of the rarer specimens the enclosed water -is present in considerable quantity. Quartz with inclusions of this type -was highly appreciated in the Greco-Roman world, and one of the best -poets of the Decadence, Claudian (fl. about 400 A.D.), composed a series -of poetic epigrams upon them, seven of these being in Latin and two in -Greek. An example of the best in each tongue, the first in the former -and the second in the latter, must be of interest, although the literal -prose version cannot have the charm of the original verse.[52] - - The Alpine ice, already precious in its frigidity, acquires an intense - hardness through the action of the solar rays, but unable to transform - itself entirely into a gem, it betrays its original source by the - water that still remains within it. This adds at once to the beauty of - this liquid stone and to its value. - - In its changeful aspect, this crystal born from snow and fashioned by - the hand of man is an image of the world, of the heavens enclosing - cruel ocean in their wide embrace. - -An old superstition among the Laplanders of Sweden is that in order to -avert or cure disease which may be or has been caused by sleeping in the -open air on the exposed moorland, three pebbles should be gathered, one -from the water, one out of the earth, and the third from the surface of -the ground or “from the air.” These are placed on a fire until they -become red-hot, and are then thrown into water; the stone which sizzles -most is that belonging to the element which has caused the illness. The -whole body, or sometimes only the afflicted part, is to be moistened -with the water in which the pebbles have been immersed, and each -separate stone is to be carefully returned to the spot whence it was -taken.[53] - -Near Middleville, in Herkimer County, New York, in a calciferous -limestone, gray and brownish-gray in color, there are numerous cavities -varying in size from that of a pinhead to that of a man’s head. In these -cavities are found carbonaceous substances such as asphaltum and other -hard, black hydrocarbons. These cavities also frequently show mud or -sand adhering to the sides, or mud and sand mixed with the petroleum, in -which are often found brilliant and transparent rock-crystals, the -purest of any found in the world. They are unusually perfect hexagonal -prisms with both sets of six pyramid faces; that is, with same slight -modification, eighteen brilliantly polished faces. These are especially -sought after on account of their great purity, and because it is -considered that he who wears one will have fair weather and secure the -blessing of fair sailing on the sea of life. Some of these crystals are -so small, though of absolute perfection, that it would require 250,000 -of them to weigh an ounce; others again are sometimes as large as from -one to two inches in length. When not entirely transparent they -frequently contain inclusions of black asphaltum or other hydrocarbons -and also contain hollow cavities which are filled with fluid, sometimes -salt water and sometimes liquid carbonic acid gas. In these are moving -bubbles and occasionally a heavy hydrocarbon; that is, a bubble will -ascend and the hydrocarbon will sink; or else the bubble will rise and -take with it a small speck of hydrocarbon, and another will sink. In a -wonderful specimen now at the American Museum of Natural History there -is an object like a small spider of hydrocarbon which sinks while a -minute water-bubble rises. They are called fair-weather stones. - -Tasmanian rain-makers use white stones in their magical rites; however, -the stone by itself is not considered an effective talisman, for it must -be dipped in the blood of a young girl to give it added power. After a -number of white pebbles have been steeped for a time in this blood, the -rain-maker ties them up in strips of bark and sinks them in some deep -water-hole in which a diabolical spirit is supposed to dwell. The -natives confidently assert that this ceremony is soon followed by the -desired rainfall. As the belief prevails here as elsewhere, that these -white stones or pebbles to retain their power must not be looked upon by -a woman, it seems a little strange that the rain-bringing stone is -dipped in a young girl’s blood.[54] - -However, white stones have not always and everywhere been regarded as -lucky, for it is stated that among the fishermen of the Isle of Man the -presence of a white stone in a fishing-smack is confidently believed to -portend poor fishing. Indeed it has been reported by a Scotchman, who -went out in a fishing boat for several consecutive days with a party of -Manx fishermen, that after a succession of days marked by poor fishing -they began to nickname him “White Stone.”[55] - -An oath taken on sacred stones was regarded by the ancient Scandinavians -as peculiarly binding upon him who took such an oath; in the old Norse -annals it is stated that Gudrun Gjukesdatter offered King Atle that he -would take an oath on the “pure white stone.” The hero Duthmaruno is -said to have sworn by “Loda’s Stone of Power,” which represented the -almighty divinity of the Norsemen.[56] - -A sacred well on the north side of Lough Neagh, Ireland, lends peculiar -sanctity to the yellow crystals found in great quantity near by. The -belief in their miraculous quality finds expression in the legend that -they grow up out of the ground on Midsummer Night, and whosoever wishes -to possess them as talismans must pronounce certain magic rhymes in the -act of collecting them. They then become luck-bringers of potent virtue -and ensure the prosperity of the household in which they are -guarded.[57] - -The stone, or rather rock, named catlinite, and popularly known as -“pipe-stone,” was regarded by certain tribes as one of their most -valuable materials,[58] and was extensively used for pipe-bowls. In -color it ranges from a deep red to an ashy tint; the chief quarry is -situated some three hundred miles west of the Falls of St. Anthony, on -the dividing ridge between the Saint Peter’s and Missouri rivers. This -region was visited in 1836 by George Catlin, to whom we are indebted for -the preservation of so much regarding Indian folk-lore and customs, and -after whom the substance is named. While it is impossible to determine -with any degree of certainty for how long a time the Indians were -familiar with this material, there are those who believe that the -quarries were worked and the material used for pipe-bowls by native -sculptors long before the earliest notice we have to that effect.[59] -Great skill and patience were displayed by the Indians in the making of -these pipe-bowls, which were sometimes carved with various symbolical -figures. We have an early record of such pipes from the pen of Jacques -Marquette, a Jesuit missionary to the Indians, who saw one when visiting -the Illinois Indians in 1673. He reports it as being of polished red -stone, like marble, so pierced that one orifice served to hold the -tobacco, while the other was fastened on the stem, which was a stick two -feet long, as thick as a common cane and pierced in the middle. The -whole was covered with large feathers of red, green, and other colors. - -Catlin states that at the time of his visit the “pipe-stone” quarry was -guarded with a certain religious reverence from the visit of the white -man, the Indians declaring that this red stone was “a part of their -flesh,” and that to take it from them would be to tear out their flesh -and spill their blood. This highly poetic language may or may not have -signified a superstitious reverence for the substance; indeed, it may -simply have voiced the fear of these Indians that they might be -despoiled of what for them was an especially valuable material, which -they asserted had been bestowed upon them by the Great Spirit for the -making of pipes exclusively. In our day an old Ojibway Indian, -especially skilled in the work, has a name signifying “he who makes -pipes,” and carved pipe-bowls of catlinite are usually sold for from $1 -to $10 apiece; as much as $20, however, is occasionally paid for a -particularly large and finely carved specimen. This substance is also -worked up into charms and other small ornaments which are sold to -tourists, the annual sales of all descriptions amounting to some $10,000 -annually. Catlinite takes a fine polish and is easily worked; a -peculiarly attractive variety is red with white and gray spots. - -[Illustration: - - HINDU WEARING A COLLECTION OF ANCESTRAL PEBBLES AS AMULETS -] - -The popular fancy for the “Fairy Stones” from a peak of the Blue Ridge -Mountains, Patrick County, Virginia, is said to be directly traceable to -the tale, “Trail of the Lonesome Pine,” by John Fox, Jr., who makes one -of these pretty staurolite crystals exercise an important influence over -the destinies of his hero and heroine. This was cleverly utilized by the -manager of a New York theatre, when he gave a souvenir performance of a -dramatized version of the story, by presenting one of these “Fairy -Stones” to each lady in the audience, a gift not only in perfect -_rapport_ with the play, but one highly appreciated by the recipients, -few of whom were not unconsciously influenced by the symbolic -half-religious, half-mythical quality ascribed to this attractive little -gem. - -Collections of stones and pebbles, often of little or no intrinsic value -but supposed to possess occult powers, are handed down from father to -son in many Hindu families of the poorer class. The accompanying -illustration shows an aged Hindu, as he appeared to a recent traveller, -decorated with such stones to the number of about three hundred on a -ceremonial occasion. In this case they were all pierced and threaded on -cords, so as to be attached to the person, and the old man proudly -declared that, thousands of years ago, one of his ancestors was a -playmate of the god Krishna, who had bestowed the stones upon him as a -special mark of divine favor. - -The presence of erratic boulders was accounted for by popular legend in -a variety of ways. Sometimes it was declared that the Virgin or a saint, -while bearing an enormous stone through the air to be used in the -construction of a church, had learned on the way that the church was -completed and the stone no longer needed, and immediately let it drop to -the earth.[60] - -A stone having the rude form of a chair or seat, and known as Canna’s -Stone, enjoyed repute in Wales for its curative powers. It was in a -field in close proximity to the church of Llangan, Carmarthenshire, -which owed its foundation to St. Canna. Near this stone is a well called -Flynon Canna, the waters of which were believed to be a cure for ague. -To make the cure effective, however, the patient, after imbibing the -sacred water, had to sit for a time in Canna’s Stone, and if he dozed -while sitting there this was considered to promise a speedy recovery. -The combined treatment by well and stone was often repeated for several -successive days and was occasionally prolonged for two or three -weeks.[61] - -That a child could be cured of disease by being passed through an -aperture in one of the sacred stones that had formed part of a dolmen is -shown in the case of a stone of this kind preserved in the church of -Villers-Saint-Sépulcre, dept. Oise, France. There is another such stone -in the same department, at Trie, used in a like way for the cure of -feeble children or those suffering from rachitis. This reveals in a -striking way the persistence of superstitious beliefs which were already -condemned in 567 A.D. by the council of Tours, which prescribed that the -eucharist should be refused to those who venerated these so-called -sacred stones, and at a still earlier date, in 443 A.D., a council -decree pronounced those bishops guilty of sacrilege who permitted the -making of vows over these stones or the deposition of offerings -thereon.[62] - -Some of the stones of the druidic dolmens were called by the French -peasants of a later age _pierres tourniresses_, or “whirling stones,” -for it was solemnly asseverated that at midnight on Christmas Eve these -stones gyrated on their base. A still stranger fancy was that some other -stones of this class became fearfully thirsty at times, once every -hundred days, or perhaps only once in a century, and then rolled off to -the nearest stream to slake their thirst. Under others, again, it was -believed that a hidden treasure reposed, watchfully guarded by a -terrible dragon. However, on one night in the year, while the clock was -striking twelve, he snatched a moment’s sleep, and whoever was clever -enough and quick enough to make use of this chance could acquire untold -riches.[63] - -A strange belief prevails in and about Dourges (dept. Aube), France. On -the top of a hill near this place is a chapel built in honor of St. -Estapin, and in close proximity to this chapel are rocks with many -irregular hollows of such varying shapes and forms that almost any part -of the human body can be thrust into the openings. On the 6th of August -in each year, those from the neighborhood suffering from illness or -disability of any kind come hither, and, after having made their way as -best they can nine times around the chapel, proceed to the platform -whereon are the wonder-working stones, and introduce the afflicted part -of their body into the appropriate opening in one of the rocks. The -result is said to be an immediate cure of the trouble, however serious -this may be, one experiment being sufficient.[64] - -Stones of peculiar shape or marked color are those to which popular -fancy has most often attributed a certain sanctity or power. Instances -of this may be found in the Scottish isles. Thus, on the island of Arran -in the Firth of Clyde, a green stone of approximately spherical form had -acquired great repute for its healing virtue, especially for those -having pains in the side. When this stone was laid upon the seat of the -trouble, the pain would disappear. This, however, was not the only use -to which it was put, for oaths were taken upon it, proving the presence -of a certain animistic belief in the islanders’ minds, as though some -spirit dwelt in or animated the stone and would take vengeance on a -perjuror. A still better proof of this was the idea that the green stone -of Arran would bring victory to a leader if he bore it with him and cast -it into the enemies’ ranks at the decisive moment of a conflict, as is -said to have been done by the Lord of the Isles. Alongside of this green -stone may be placed a blue stone credited in the Scotch island of Fladda -with the possession of like healing power, and on which also oaths were -taken.[65] - -A large, flat stone in St. Andrew’s on the isle of Guernsey is stated to -have borne a somewhat humorously misleading French inscription. This -ran: “Celui qui me tournera, Son temps point ne perdra,” which has been -freely rendered: - - To him who turns me up I say - His labor won’t be thrown away. - -This tempting promise, interpreted as a sign that some buried treasure -was hidden in the ground beneath the stone, finally induced some one to -devote much toil and time to the difficult task of turning the stone -over. What, however, was his chagrin and disgust when the under side -presented the words: “Tourner je voulais, Car lassée j’étais” (I longed -to turn, because I was so tired). Whether the practical joker who -originated the inscription was present to enjoy the success of his joke -is not revealed.[66] - -To a mass of quartz at Jerbourg, Guernsey Island, local fancy has -attached a wild legend, which finds expression in the strange -designation of the stone as “The Devil’s Claw.” The old Chronique de -Normandie, which, although written much earlier, was first printed in -1576 at Rouen, recounts under date of 797 A.D. that Duke Richard, when -on his way from one of his strongholds to a manor where dwelt a damsel -of surpassing beauty, was assailed by the Evil One; but, like a second -St. Michael, Duke Richard overcame his dangerous antagonist. Seeing that -he could not prevail by force, the Devil had recourse to one of his most -perilous wiles, and changed himself into a beautiful, richly attired -maiden. In this disguise he lured Duke Richard to the seashore and -induced him to enter a boat and put out to sea. He thus spirited the -duke away to the lonely isle of Guernsey, and at the landing spot, where -the Devil finally seized his too-confiding prey, stands this mass of -quartz, a deep black splash running right across, indicating in popular -fancy the mark left by the devil’s claws.[67] - -A solitary boulder standing on a heath in North Germany is the subject -of a curious legend illustrating the superstitious reverence inspired by -the thunder. Once upon a time a bridal procession was traversing the -heath when a violent thunder-storm broke out. Taking no heed of this, -the musicians who accompanied the procession continued to play their gay -and festive music, and as a punishment for this lack of respect the God -of Thunder changed the whole party into an immense rock.[68] - -An erratic boulder lying in midstream in the River Ferse, in West -Prussia, at a bend it makes between Peplin and Eichwald, is known in -legend as the Teuffelsstein (Devil’s Stone). It can only be reached by -swimming to it, the part above the surface of the water measuring 26¼ -feet in circumference, the height from the bed of the stream being 8¼ -feet. A thick growth of alders on the banks of the Ferse at this point -casts strange and sharp shadows over the gleaming surface of the block -which is a biotitic gneiss. Legend tells that the Devil once tried to -wreck the tower of the church at Peplin by hurling this mass of rock at -it, but just as he had it poised in the air and was about to cast it -forth the church bells began to ring the call for early mass, and he was -forced to let the boulder drop. Another version is that he really threw -it, but that it fell short of its mark.[69] - -Near Hasselager in Denmark there is an immense boulder about 150 feet in -circumference and 32 feet in height. Of this stone legend tells that a -witch became so enraged at the fact that the steeple of the church at -Svinninge was used by sailors as a landmark, that she picked up the -stone and hurled it at the church, but missed her aim. As the boulder is -estimated to weigh 1000 tons, this “witch” must have been regarded as a -superhuman personality. The legend seems to indicate that she profited -by the shipwrecks which were only too frequent on this rocky coast, and -grudged the poor sailors the good service rendered them by the prominent -steeple. - -A rock in Ardmore Bay, Ireland, is known as the St. Declan Stone, after -the first bishop of Ardmore, who came to Ireland even before the arrival -of the great St. Patrick. This rock is believed by the peasants to be -endowed with great and occult powers, and the legend tells that it was -carried through the air from Rome to its present resting place in the -bay, at the time St. Declan was erecting his church at Ardmore. The fact -that the stone rests upon a number of smaller ones renders it possible -for people to squeeze their way under it at low tide, and those who pass -beneath it three times are believed to have earned the special favor of -St. Declan.[70] - -A mass of calcareous stone in a village called Piada de Roland, situated -in the commune of Toufailles (dept. Tarn et Garonne), France, shares -with some other similar stones in this region the curious name of -Roland’s Foot (Piada de Roland). The one preserved in Toufailles -measures 70 cm. × 47 cm. × 50 cm., and bears a natural imprint having -the form of a foot. Legend accounts for this by the tale that the hero -Roland once jumped from this stone to another at Sept Albres and in -taking this tremendous leap thrust his foot down so strongly upon its -support as to leave an imprint on the solid rock. For a time the “Piada -de Roland” was kept in a cow-house—not a remarkably honorable place of -deposit—but after the death of one of the cows a sorcerer advised the -stone should be broken and removed, as a precautionary measure; this is -said to have happened but thirty years ago, showing how deeply rooted -such superstitious ideas are among the peasantry in out-of-the-way parts -of France.[71] - -Another rock-imprint, this time simulating that made by the hoof of a -horse, is to be seen toward the edge of the abyss of Padirac (dept. -Lot). Here again a local legend has been evolved to explain the imprint. -We are told that the attention of both Satan and St. Martin had been -powerfully attracted to the region, each strenuously seeking to gain -possession of the souls of those who died, Satan of course wishing to -bear them off with him to the depths of the infernal regions, while St. -Martin cherished the fond hope of bringing them to Heaven. Unhappily the -sins of the inhabitants of the region so much outweighed their merits -that the Devil was almost invariably successful. Once upon a time, when -he was riding off to his lurid realm, bearing with him a sackful of lost -souls, he met St. Martin, who was full of grief at the fact that he -himself had not a single soul to carry heavenward. Knowing, however, -that Satan was passionately fond of gaming, he proposed that they should -play a game the stake of which should be the sackful of souls. Satan -consented, trusting to his powers of trickery, but all his deceptions -proved vain, and the precious souls became the property of the saint. -Enraged at losing the stakes, the Devil stamped on the ground, and an -immense abyss opened up, threatening to engulf St. Martin; however, the -latter put up a prayer to God, and spurred on his steed to a supreme and -successful effort at escape, but one of the hoofs struck the rock with -such force that it made an indentation therein figuring the clear -outlines of a horse’s hoof.[72] - -[Illustration: - - KILLING A DRAGON TO EXTRACT ITS PRECIOUS STONE - - From Johannis de Cuba’s “Ortus Sanitatis,” Strassburg, 1483. See page - 16. -] - -[Illustration: - - NATURALLY MARKED STONE - - From Valentini, “Museum museorum,” Frankfurt am Mayn, 1714. Collection - of James I, of England; now in Copenhagen. See page 45. -] - -The Kiowa have a sacred stone whose form suggests the head and bust of a -man. This image, called _taimé_, has long been considered a kind of -palladium of the tribe. It is preserved in a box made of stiff dressed -rawhide (_parflèche_) and was only shown once a year, at the annual Sun -Dance. As this sacred dance has not been performed since 1887, the -_taimé_ of the Kiowa has not been viewed by mortal eye since that time, -not even the custodian of the treasure having the privilege of opening -the box, except on the occasion of the ceremonial dance above -mentioned.[73] Whether this stone has been rudely fashioned into its -present shape, or whether its natural form suggested its use as a -simulacrum of some deity, has not been determined; it is evidently not -of meteoric origin as were many of the curiously shaped stones venerated -as images of the gods in ancient times, in both Europe and Asia. - -In the rock of St. Gowan’s chapel in Wales was a natural cavity upon -which the name of the Expanding Stone was bestowed by popular tradition, -because the strange fancy prevailed that this stone automatically -adapted itself to the size of anyone who entered the cavity. The legend -ran that once, during the Pagan persecutions, when a fugitive Christian, -hotly pursued, reached this rock it opened up of its own accord so that -he could slip into it, and then closed about him so as to hide him -effectually from his enemies. This Expanding Stone was believed to -manifest its magic power by bringing to pass the wish expressed by -anyone who entered it, provided he did not change his wish while he -turned around within it.[74] - -The natives of the French colony of New Caledonia in the southern -Pacific, attach special importance to the fortuitous shape of stones in -using them for talismans or amulets. According to their form such stones -are considered to procure favorable effects against famine, madness, or -death; to induce sunshine or rain, or else to bring good luck in fishing -or in sailing, each special use being suggested by some different form, -the color also being in some cases a determining factor. For the purpose -of securing a better yield from fruit-trees a stone having the -approximate shape of the fruit or with markings similar to those on -fruit or tree is the one indicated by nature as the appropriate -talisman, as in the case of the cocoanut palm, where a stone marked with -black lines is the one chosen. Sometimes two different talismanic stones -are used in this practice, a smaller one figuring the unripe fruit; when -the tree begins to bear, the small stone is buried at its foot, and as -soon as the fruit begins to mature, the small stone is removed and the -larger one, representing the ripe fruit, is buried in its place.[75] - -The Scotch of a century or more ago are said to have considered that an -isolated stone or boulder, firmly fixed in the earth, possessed powers -of a peculiar sort, and some such stones were used to cure bruises and -strains and reduce swellings.[76] As it was also thought that a blow -from a stone of this type was especially hurtful, this would be another -case of homœopathic treatment of which so many and various examples are -afforded by the superstitious use of stones and gems, as well as of -other objects to which certain advantageous qualities were attributed. - -Small stone boulders have been made use of by ejected peasants in -Fermanagh, Ireland, in a magical incantation designed to draw down a -curse upon a merciless landlord. For this purpose the peasant would -collect a number of such stones, pile them up on his hearth as he would -have piled turf sods, and then put up a petition that all manner of bad -luck and misfortune might befall the landlord and his descendants to -remote generations. Hereupon he would gather up the stones again, and, -carrying them off, would scatter them about in bog-holes, pools or -streams, so that they should never be brought together again.[77] This -was evidently done in the belief that the curse could only be raised if -a counter-invocation were pronounced over the same collection of stones. -An allusion to a custom of turning stones about while reciting a formula -of malediction is contained in the following lines by Dr. Samuel -Ferguson: - - They hurled their curse against the King, - They cursed him in his flesh and bones, - And even in the mystic ring, - They turn’d the malediction stones. - -Of all “magic stones” none seem better to deserve this designation than -those mysterious and fascinating mineral specimens, veritable _lusus -Naturæ_, bearing imprinted upon them by nature’s hand some likeness of -the human face or form. The grandeur and the overwhelming power of the -material world are probably as much or even more felt in our prosaic age -than they were in the earliest times, but this sentiment is sometimes -coupled with a sense of distrust—happily neither general nor -permanent—as to the presence in this tremendous and inspiring aggregate -of forces of any distinct and definite evidence of the working of an -intelligence closely similar to our own. It seems not unlikely that to -this half-distrust is in great part due the fascination exercised by -these naturally designed stones. We know, indeed, that when examined -critically by the mineralogist, their strange markings become explicable -as the results of fortuitous stratifications and juxtapositions, but to -our instinctive appreciation they offer so close and startling an -analogy to the artistic reproductions consciously made by the hand of -man, guided by his experience and intelligence, that we are almost -invariably impressed with a keener sense of our kinship with nature. - -Some very characteristic and interesting specimens of these natural -designs were at one time in the possession of Queen Victoria, many of -them having been formerly among the treasures in the valuable and -extensive collection of pearls and precious stones carefully gathered -together by the famous banker and connoisseur, Henry Philip Hope. Quite -recently (April 20, 21, 1914) these objects, which had passed into the -J. E. Hodgkin Collection, were sold at Christie’s in London. Perhaps the -most remarkable is thus described by B. Hertz in the Hope Catalogue:[78] - -No. 62. A very beautiful lusus, in white and brown agate, representing a -miniature face and neck, with light brown hair and white chaplet, -surrounded by a dark brown ground colour. - -So singularly natural and artistic is this strange gem, that it is -difficult to banish the conviction that we are not gazing upon a fine -example of a miniature done by an impressionist.[79] Another -interesting, though somewhat less notable example, was a polished flint, -of a brownish-gray hue, bearing a half-front miniature of an aged head -and face marked in a light brownish-white;[80] still another offered the -representation of a human head, the face half turned away; this was also -a flint, the groundwork of a light horn-color, the design being of a -still lighter shade of the same color.[81] - -While nearly all these natural designs are in the flat, occasional -examples of relief or intaglio are recorded. As an instance may be noted -a remarkable double gem or medallion said to have been revealed on -splitting open a clump of copper ore from the Bottendorf copper mines. -On each of the two halves was marked the image of a male human head, -dressed with a peruke, but while on one side the representation was in -relief, on the opposite half it was in intaglio.[82] - -A remarkable find of three of these naturally marked stones is stated to -have been made in the river Theiss, near the town of Winterhut, in 1556, -“on a Monday after the festival of St. Gall.” On one of these flint -pebbles was depicted a cross, a sword and a rod; the two others bore -respectively a cross and the Burgundian arms, all being as clearly -defined as though the work of the human hand.[83] - -These smaller natural pictures were, however, greatly surpassed in -effectiveness by some most extraordinary representations on slabs of -stone, frequently on marble slabs, the strange arrangement of the -veinings constituting veritable pictures of considerable extent and -marvellously deceptive quality. Thus in the church of San Lorenzo in -Florence was to be seen a natural marble on which were depicted two men -bearing a bunch of grapes on a rod.[84] Another marble slab, preserved -in the Danish Collection in Copenhagen and originally owned by James I -of England, presented in most beautiful colors an image of a -crucifix.[85] - -To the natural image found in a specimen of copper ore may be added a -much more remarkable picture discovered in a piece of iron ore. This was -found on October 8, 1669, by a miner of the Innesberg mines. The clump -of ore weighed about two pounds and when the miner split it open with a -blow of his hammer, he was startled to see on the upper half a strange -and marvellous design. Calling up a companion, he exclaimed: “Look here! -Here is the Blessed Virgin on this stone!” On examining the other half, -the same design appeared there also. This remarkable find is said to -have been recorded in the book of the mine, the stone itself having been -delivered to the German imperial inspectors.[86] - -It is well to bear in mind that the number of these _lusus naturæ_ -seemed very much larger in the eyes of writers of a few centuries ago -than to us to-day, for the numerous petrifactions, showing a great -variety of animal and vegetable forms, were for a long period included -in the same category with the stones bearing curiously deceptive -markings or veinings. Much ingenuity was expended by early observers in -the attempt to explain the cause of these phenomena. The learned Jesuit, -Athanasius Kircher, for example, after having proved experimentally that -designs treated with certain chemical agents could be made to impress -figures upon stones, took refuge in the strange hypothesis that pictures -made on wood or some soft material by primitive miners had been left in -the mine and with the lapse of time had slipped down into crevices in -the rock, and, becoming tightly wedged in, had impressed the design on -the contact-rock; or else he suggested that the original material on -which the design had been made might in process of time have, by some -unknown means, been converted into marble.[87] As a striking example of -a picture of this class, Kircher notes and figures an image naturally -designed on a stone slab in St. Peter’s in Rome and bearing a remarkable -likeness to the Blessed Virgin of Loreto.[88] - -The electric or magnetic gems, tourmaline, amber, and loadstone, possess -not only great scientific interest, but demonstrate the fact that a -certain energy really does proceed from some of these fair, ornamental -objects, an energy that produces a positive action from without upon the -human body. This may well serve to make us less resolutely sceptical as -to the possible presence in gem-stones of some other forms of emanation -not as yet susceptible of scientific determination. - -The supersensitiveness of the innocent child-soul to the most delicate -impressions, and hence to the radiations or emanations from precious -stones, is well brought out in the pretty tale by Saxe Holme (Helen Hunt -Jackson), entitled “My Tourmaline.”[89] The particular specimen here -immortalized was one of the finest from the famous Mount Mica deposits -in the State of Maine. One day, while on a country ramble, the little -heroine’s eye is caught by the color and sparkle of a brilliant crystal -lodged in the gnarled roots of an old tree. In springing forward to -secure this pretty treasure the girl trips on the outstanding roots, -falls, and sprains her leg very seriously, so that she is laid up for -six weeks. However, the beautiful crystal is her great consolation -through the long, dreary weeks, and, strange to say, she comes to feel -that it has a kind of life in it. This is manifested to her and also to -some others, on touching the stone, by a pricking or tingling sensation -in the hand; but to the child the sensations excited by the wonderful -crystal, as perfectly formed as though cut by a lapidary, red at one -end, green at the other, with a separating band of white, are much more -pronounced. When it is placed in the little silken bag that has been -made to hold it, and is laid against her cheek, her feverish -restlessness gradually disappears and gives place to tranquil sleep. -More than this, she is aware of a species of subconscious sympathy with -the tourmaline. So intense is this sympathy that although the child -consented to part with her crystal that it might be offered as a unique -specimen to a foreign museum, and was heart-broken to learn that through -some carelessness it had been lost while being taken thither, she -recognized its presence long years after, when, travelling in Europe as -a young bride, she entered the cabinet of an enthusiastic collector to -view his specimens, and was in no wise surprised when she really found -her “Stonie” there among his prized tourmalines. - -In connection with this pretty recital it is interesting to note that -the first chance observation of the attractive qualities of tourmalines -is said to have been made in Amsterdam by a group of Dutch children -whose attention had been attracted by a number of tourmaline crystals -brought from the Orient, and who were puzzled to see bits of ash and -straw attracted to the stones. This came to the knowledge of some Dutch -lapidaries, who for a time called the stone Aschentrekker, or -“Ash-Attractor.”[90] Our name tourmaline is derived from _turmali_, the -name given the stone by the natives of Ceylon. - -There seems some little likelihood that certain examples of the gem -called _lychnis_ and noted by Pliny may have been varieties of the -tourmaline. As the first tourmalines brought to modern Europe came to -Holland from Ceylon, we might conjecture that those kinds of _lychnis_ -said by Pliny to have been brought from India had a like origin. Of -these Indian specimens, the finest examples of this gem, one kind -resembled the carbuncle or ruby, while another bore the designation -Ionia because its color was like that of the violet (in Greek _ion_). -The most striking peculiarity of the _lychnis_ was its power to attract -straws or bits of paper, when it had been heated by the sun’s rays or by -hand-friction.[91] - -Such is the confusion in the statements made by the early Greek and -Latin writers as to the emerald, under which generic name they seem to -have included almost all green stones of any ornamental or other value, -that we cannot absolutely reject the conjecture[92] that Theophrastus -(third century B.C.), the earliest of these writers on precious stones, -_might_ have referred to specimens of green tourmaline, when he states -that the true emerald appeared to have been produced from jasper, as one -of the Cyprian specimens was said to have consisted of one-half jasper -and the other half emerald, the metamorphosis as yet being -incomplete.[93] We admit that if Theophrastus uses the word jasper here -to signify the reddish variety, we would have the combination of green -and red zones in a single crystal sometimes observable in tourmaline. -How this can be reconciled with the previous statement of the same -author that the Cyprian “emeralds” which came from the copper mines of -that island were chiefly used for soldering gold, and hence seem to have -been of the class of mineral called _chrysocolla_ by ancient writers, -is, however, not easy to suggest.[94] - -The so-called Brazilian emeralds mentioned by the Dutch mineralogist, -Johann de Laet, as having been found shortly before 1647 in mines near -Spiritus Sanctus, may perhaps have been green tourmalines. These -crystals were described by Gesner as of cylindrical form, striated, and -of a vitreous lustre; their color was like that of the prase and they -were transparent. Although De Laet adds the assertion that the Oriental -emerald (green corundum) was as hard as the sapphire, the Brazilian -emeralds approached more closely to the Oriental in point of hardness -than did emeralds from any other source of supply;[95] and green -sapphires have never been found in Brazil, while green tourmalines have -been. - -The earliest published work in which the electric properties of -tourmaline are noted appears to be an anonymous or quasi anonymous -treatise published in 1707, certain initial letters of the quaint title -being italicized to indicate the initials of the author’s name.[96] The -first scientist to derive the action of the so-called _Aschentrekker_ or -“Ash-Attractor” from electric energy is said to have been the great -Linnæus, who bestowed upon the tourmaline the name of the “Electrical -Stone.”[97] - -The attractive properties of the tourmaline are said to have been first -brought to scientific notice by M. Louis Lémery, in a report made during -1717 to the French Academy of Sciences; however, Lémery was inclined to -attribute them to magnetic influence. That these phenomena of attraction -and repulsion were really due to the electric properties of the stone -was first clearly brought out by the German physicist, Franz Ulrich -Theodor Aepinus, and his conclusions were communicated to the Berlin -Academy of Sciences in 1756.[98] Aepinus made his experiments upon two -specimens of tourmaline from Ceylon, which had been furnished him by -Lehmann, a fellow-member of the Berlin Academy, who, as Aepinus frankly -admits, first drew his attention to the electric action of the stone. -That not only friction but heat also should develop the electric energy, -both positive and negative, of the tourmaline, serves to differentiate -it from many other potentially electric substances, in the case of which -friction alone is effective. - -[Illustration: - - A SIMPLE APPARATUS FOR ILLUSTRATING THE ELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF THE - TOURMALINE - - The stone is suspended from a hollow rod and will be attracted by the - finger, if the latter be brought within a short distance of the - tourmaline. When the stone has been slightly heated, its positive - electricity will draw toward it the heart-shaped piece of paper, - just as amber attracts paper, or magnetic iron does iron filings. -] - -The specimen shown by M. Lémery to the French Academy of Sciences in -1717 is stated to have come from “a river in the Island of Ceylon,” and -is described as being of small size, flat, orbicular, quite thin, of a -brown color, and smooth brilliant surface.[99] Its peculiar property of -attracting and then repelling ashes or iron filings as well as bits of -paper, was duly noted. This specimen had cost M. Lémery 15 livres. After -reciting the constant repulsion and attraction exercised by a magnet -upon the needle, the attraction by the opposite pole, and repulsion by -the same pole, he proceeds to remark that this Cinghalese stone acted -quite differently, since it first attracted and then repulsed the same -object presented in the same way. This intermittent or irregular action -was in his opinion to be explained by the theory that a vortex was -intermittently developed in the substance. As it begins the small bodies -are attracted, when it ceases they remain stationary, but when it is -renewed “and there emanates from the stone a material analogous to the -magnetic emanation” then the bodies are repulsed. Another peculiarity -was that the body which had been repulsed could not again be attracted, -whence the conclusion was arrived at that the stone’s repellent force -was superior to its attractive power. These necessarily somewhat inexact -observations are interesting as marking one of the earliest attempts to -explain these phenomena, even although the explanation is faulty. - -The great French crystallographer, Abbé Haüy, relates his experiments on -a tourmaline crystal.[100] He set this crystal in steel clamps, with a -long stem which was inserted in a wooden handle, and then subjected the -tourmaline to the heat of a brasier. As the heat augmented and -penetrated the stone, its natural electric force became decomposed, the -two component fluids being forced to separate from each other. It was -now necessary to cool the tourmaline off a little; when too much heated -the electrical phenomena were interrupted; they were also diminished in -intensity when the stone became cool again. The perfect crystal chosen -for experiment clearly showed the negative and positive electrical -poles; even the smallest pieces showed this, and, indeed, if a very -small piece were broken off the positively electric side of a crystal, -it would preserve this positive electricity and soon develop a negative -electricity also. - -We may be somewhat loath to doubt the tale that little Dutch children -were the first to note what to them was the queer action of some bits of -tourmaline, but preference should probably be given to the statement -that the discovery of the electric phenomena induced by heating in these -stones was due to the fact that some Dutch jewellers put specimens of -tourmaline in the fire to test their hardness, and then found that the -stones attracted or repelled the ashes of the fire.[101] - -Toward the middle of the eighteenth century Dr. Haberden, of London, -confirmed the deductions of Lémery and the somewhat later experiments of -the German physicist Aepinus, and the gay world of London took up the -idea, causing the new stone to become a great favorite with the -fashionable. One of Hogarth’s inimitable designs depicts a spendthrift -fop who has just been arrested while his attention was riveted on the -strange phenomena shown by the tourmaline. - -In view of the important experiments made by Benjamin Franklin in the -then almost unexplored field of electricity, it is easy to understand -that the accounts of the newly-discovered electric properties of the -tourmaline should have possessed considerable interest for him. This is -testified to by a letter he addressed to Dr. William Haberden, June 7, -1759.[102] Herein he expresses his thanks for two tourmalines his -correspondent had sent him, and states that he is returning the smaller -one. Of the electric phenomena he writes that he had heard some -“ingenious gentlemen abroad” had denied the negative electricity -displayed by one side of a tourmaline, but he believes the failure to -observe could be explained by defective cutting of the specimens used, -the positive and negative planes having perhaps been obliquely placed; -to obviate this he suggests that the positive and negative sides should -be accurately determined before the operation of cutting begins. The -larger of the specimens sent by Dr. Haberden was retained by Franklin, -who had it mounted on a pivot in a ring, so that either side could be -turned outward at will. He notes as a curious circumstance that when he -wore this ring, the natural heat of the finger sufficed to charge the -stone, causing it to attract light bodies. Several of his experiments -were made with a cork ball suspended by a thread, and he claims that the -attractive force of the positive face was increased by coating it with -gold-leaf attached to the stone by white of egg. This greater effect he -supposed “to be occasioned by the united force of the different parts of -the face collected and acting together through the metal.” - -While the various corundum gems, ruby, sapphire, Oriental topaz, -Oriental amethyst, etc., offer a remarkable instance of the many -varieties of beautiful coloration observable in a practically identical -substance, no single gem-mineral can be said to equal tourmaline in this -respect, more especially, however, in the combination of several colors -sometimes disposed in bands, at other times in concentric circles in the -same crystal. When to this we add its peculiar electric qualities, we -may truly say that a fine tourmaline answers our idea of what a -talismanic gem or a gem-amulet should be better than any other of the -beautiful crystals with which bountiful nature has provided us. These -most attractive stones are to be found in widely separated regions on -the earth’s surface, as fine examples have been discovered in the State -of Minas Geraes, Brazil, and in our own land, in Maine and California -especially. Where the color is homogeneous we may have the splendid red -or rose-colored variety called rubellite, from its resemblance to the -ruby, or the blue tourmaline gem named indicolite. - -In times of old there was a belief that stones of various kinds would -guard against the assaults of evil in the form of witchcraft, disease, -and other disagreeable visitations. It was a warlike period in which -peace was an unheard-of doctrine, and now that the idea of peace has -become one of the ideals of present-day conditions, it is interesting to -know that nature has furnished us with a stone at once beautiful, -interesting, and illustrating the great fundamental principle of unity -and peace. - -The Peace Stone is formed by the union in one crystal of the green and -the red tourmaline, with an intervening band or zone of white, the -latter strikingly beautiful effect being due to the combination at this -point of the red coloring matter, manganese, and the iron constituent, -the source of the green hue; these two materials, by their union, -neutralize each other, furnishing the transparent, colorless vein or -zone. A slightly different combination of colors appears in a fine -crystal, found some years ago at Mount Mica, Oxford County, Maine; this -even offers a kind of “triple alliance,” as it shows blue in its lower -half, passing through white and pink to a grass-green at the upper -end.[103] - -These three hues combined in one body, in indissoluble union in spite of -the differences of quality and color, yet represent one principle. This -action of manganese in neutralizing the iron is well known to -glass-makers; otherwise white glass could not be made. It would all be -greenish in tint were it not for the use of oxide of manganese, or -“glass-maker’s soap,” as it is termed, which neutralizes the production -of a green tint by the iron and makes the white hue. - -This beautifully symbolic stone is found in Paris, Maine, in San Diego -County, California, and in Brazil. At times the outer edge of the stone -is green, a transparent white zone surrounding the interior red zone, -the whole looking for all the world like a section of watermelon, and -hence it is sometimes called the “Watermelon Stone.” Then again, the -colors are joined in longitudinal strips, showing them side by side. -This variety of tourmaline, although rare, is not especially costly, and -is one more addition to the stones of sentiment, and more especially to -those appropriate as symbols of our fair ideal, universal peace. - -We can see symbolized in them the great and consoling fact that, however -marked may be the differences between any two peoples, they need not be -cause for enmity, but may instead become true and enduring sources of -peace and bonds of union. The characteristic talents of each one will -supplement and complete those of the other, so that working together in -harmony they may accomplish far more for each other and for humanity in -general than either could do singly. - -At an early date amber was brought from the Baltic coast to Rome, and -Tacitus states that those who collected it called it _glæsum_, a name -later applied to the glass introduced into that region by Roman traders. -The natives knew nothing of the nature or growth of amber, and had no -use for the material, only collecting it for export to Rome, where it -commanded such a high price as to excite their astonishment. Tacitus -gives in the following words his theory of the origin and character of -amber—his chief error being due to his belief that the substance was of -very recent formation.[104] - - Now you must know that amber is a juice of trees, since various - creatures, some of them winged, are often found in it. They have - become entangled in the liquid and then inclosed when the matter - hardened. Therefore I believe that, as incense and balsam are exuded - in the remote East, so in the luxuriant groves and islands of the West - are juices which are forced out by the sun close to them. These flow - into the neighboring sea and are washed up by the tempestuous waves on - the opposite shore. If you test the quality of amber with fire, it may - be lighted like a torch and burns with a small, well-nourished flame; - then it is resolved into a glutinous mass resembling pitch or resin. - -Both Juvenal[105] and Martial[106] relate that effeminate Romans used to -hold balls of amber in their hands to cool them during the summer heat. -If any such agreeable sensation was really experienced, it must have -been due to the well-known electric properties of this substance. It is -stated that the Chinese often place pieces of amber on or in their -pillows,[107] a use that may have been suggested by the same -considerations. - -As a proof of the extravagant value set upon amber by the Romans of the -first century, Pliny notes that a very diminutive figure of a man, cut -out of this substance, sold for a higher figure than did a healthy, -vigorous slave. The popularity of this material was also attested by the -fact that in the gay world of Rome the term “amber hair” was used to -designate a rare and peculiar shade that became fashionable in this -period.[108] It seems probable that this modish shade was somewhat -lighter than the “Titian hair” once so much favored, although the -difference may not have been very great. - -A change of hue in amber was thought to portend a waning of love on the -part of the giver, as is shown by the following not especially melodious -lines from “The Fruits of Jealousy” published by Richard Tofte in -1615:[109] - - Thy tokens which to me thou sent - In time may make thee to repent; - Thy gifts do groan (bestow’d on me) - For grief that they thee guilty see. - The amber bracelet thou me gave - (For fear thou shouldst shortly wave[110]) - From yellow turned is to pale, - A sign thou shortly will be stale. - -Not only for curative purposes and for general use as an amulet was -amber prized, but an amber necklace was sometimes regarded as an -especially auspicious decoration for a bride at her wedding, as is shown -by an exceptionally fine necklace of facetted amber beads from -Brunswick, Germany, made in the eighteenth century. - -Our earliest authority on the curative use of amber, the great -encyclopædist Pliny, states that in his day the female peasants of the -valley of the Po, in northern Italy, might be seen wearing amber -necklaces, principally as ornaments, but also because of their remedial -powers; for even at this early period it was generally believed that -amber had most excellent effects in diseases of the throat and tonsils. -The peasants of this region were especially subject to such disorders, -and Pliny conjectures that they were caused by the different sorts of -water in the neighborhood of the Alps.[111] He probably refers not only -to diseases of the throat, properly so called, but also to a swelling of -the glands of the neck, the _goître_ with which so many of the peasants -living on the slopes of the Alps, and in other mountainous regions of -central Europe, are afflicted. - -The golden-hued amber was called _chryselectrum_ by Callistratus, as -cited by Pliny. This was said to attract the flame and to ignite if it -came in contact with the fire. If worn on the neck it was a cure for -fevers; if powdered and mixed with honey and oil of roses it was -beneficial for dimness of vision, and its powder, whether taken by -itself or in water with gum mastic, remedied diseases of the -stomach.[112] In ancient and medieval times the fear of poison being -administered in food or drink was very great, and any substance that was -credited with the power to show the presence of poison, by some change -in clearness or color, was highly valued. An amber cup was said to -reveal the admixture of any of the various kinds of poison with the -liquid it contained.[113] - -The use of amber as a preventive of erysipelas finds a defender in Rev. -C. W. King, who writes as follows: - -[Illustration: - - NECKLACE OF FACETED AMBER BEADS - - German. Eighteenth century. -] - - That the wearing an amber necklace will keep off the attacks of - erysipelas in a person subject to them has been proved by repeated - experiments beyond the possibility of doubt. Its action here cannot be - explained; but its efficacy in defence of the throat against chills is - evidently due to its extreme warmth when in contact with the skin and - the circle of electricity so maintained.[114] - -The electrical property of amber was remarked as early as 600 B.C. by -the Ionic philosopher Thales, and from this observation may be dated the -beginnings of the study of electric phenomena. - -That faith in the magic powers of amber beads still exists is -illustrated in the case of an old Russian Jewess who recently died in -one of our charitable institutions. This woman is said to have reached -the age of one hundred and six years, and she ascribed her extraordinary -longevity to the possession of a necklace of very large amber beads, -which had been given her by her mother, who also lived more than a -hundred years. The daughter, a few days before her death, bestowed this -treasured heirloom upon _her_ daughter, for it is generally believed -that the virtues of gems largely depend upon their being received as -gifts. - -In northern Germany, also, for more than a century a string of amber -beads was looked upon as a favorite and necessary gift. The writer has -seen hundreds of these strings, many of which have been worn for one, -two, and sometimes more generations. The beads are round and usually -facetted; however, they have been abraded against each other for so long -that they are often flat disks, and a string originally fifteen or -sixteen inches long will be twelve, and often only nine inches in -length, so much of the original spheres having worn away. - -A well-known physician of the sixteenth century, Johann Meckenbach, -claimed, in 1548, to have discovered the process of producing oil of -amber. Although Meckenbach was not entitled to the credit he claimed, as -the experiment had already been successfully made, he gained great -repute by this means, and when he communicated to Duke Albrecht of -Prussia the secret of his process, the rulers of other lands overwhelmed -the duke with requests for a supply of the precious remedy. Ferdinand, -Archduke of Austria, sent a special messenger the long journey to -Berlin, twice in a year, for a few flasks of the oil, which was regarded -as a cure for many diseases.[115] The oil of amber—_oleum succini_ of -the Pharmacopœia—has maintained its repute as a cure for various -affections up to the present day. In some forms of gout and rheumatism -it relieves the inflammation and pain in the joints; and its -antispasmodic action makes it a valuable remedy in cases of asthma, -whooping-cough, hysteria, bronchitis, and infantile convulsions.[116] - -An early version of the strange tale that ships were attracted by masses -of rocks, or even mountains of loadstone, is given by Palladius (c. -367–c. 431 A.D.). He relates that the loadstone was produced on a group -of islands called the Maniolæ, which were on the route to Taprobane -(Ceylon), and continues, “if any ship constructed with iron nails -approached these islands they were drawn by the power of the loadstone -and their course was arrested. For this reason those voyaging to -Taprobane use ships especially put together with wooden pegs.” Probably -the legend arose from the fact that wood was often used in the case of -vessels trading in this region, because iron was scarce and expensive. -This is the view of Procopius, who found the same story still current in -the sixth century.[117] - -It has been noted as a curious fact that none of the ancient writers who -treat of the loadstone recognized that the attractive energy exerted by -this substance on iron was also exerted by iron upon the loadstone; on -the contrary, they constructed many ingenious hypotheses to explain why -this was not the case.[118] The strange fancy that in the presence of a -diamond a piece of loadstone was robbed of its attractive force, must -have arisen from an observation of the well-known electric properties of -the first-named stone, and from the idea that the much more valuable -stone should have the greater power. Here, as in many other cases, we -see how little interest was taken in actual experiment by ancient -writers, a pre-conceived idea of the eternal fitness of things being the -main criterion. - -Spaniards of the thirteenth century believed that the magnetic power of -the loadstone would depart from it if it were steeped in the juice of -leek or onion for three days; but the virtue would return to the stone -if it were bathed in goat’s blood. This recalls the queer notion that -the diamond could only be broken when moistened with goat’s blood, both -fancies having their origin in the idea that goat’s, or rather ram’s -blood, was endowed with warmth and vitality to a higher degree than -other blood. - -An ingenious magnetic oracle is described by De Boot.[119] This -consisted of a round board, about the edge of which were marked the -letters of the alphabet, while in the centre there stood a small wooden -figure, set on a pivot, and holding extended in one hand a little wand. -One foot of this figure was slightly advanced and within it was -concealed a small iron ball. The experimenter held in his hand a wooden -sceptre, with a powerful loadstone at its top, and as he touched with -his sceptre the lower side of the board, beneath the spot on which any -one of the letters was marked, the attraction exercised by the loadstone -on the iron made the figure revolve on its pivot so that the little wand -pointed toward the letter indicated. In this way any word could be -spelled out and appropriate answers given to any question. The device -would be too obvious at present, but in De Boot’s time it would have -served well enough to mystify the spectators. - -That the loadstone was highly esteemed in the sixteenth century was well -versified by Robert Norman in “The Newe Attractive.” - - - THE MAGNES OR LOADSTONES CHALLENGE - - Give place ye glittering sparkes, ye glimmering Diamonds bright, - Ye Rubies red, and Saphires brave, wherein ye most delight. - In breefe yee stones enricht, and burnisht all with gold, - Set forth in Lapidaries shops, for Jewels to be sold. - Give place, give place I say, your beautie, gleame, and glee, - Is all the vertue for the which, accepted so you bee. - Magnes, the Loadstone I, your painted sheaths defie, - Without my helpe, in Indian Seas the best of you might lye. - I guide the Pilots course, his helping hand I am, - The Mariner delights in me, so doth the Marchant man. - My vertue lies unknowne, my secrets hidden are, - By me the Court and Common-weale, are pleasured very farre. - No ship could sayle on seas, her course to runne aright, - Nor compasse shew the ready way, were Magnes not of might. - Blush then, and blemish all, bequeathe to mee thats due, - Your seates in golde, your price in plate, which Jewellers doo rewe. - Its I, its I alone, whom you usurpe upon, - Magnes my name, the Loadstone cald, the prince of stones alone. - If this you can denie, then seeme to make reply, - And let the Painefull sea-man judge, the which of us doth lye. - - - THE MARINER’S JUDGMENT - - The Loadstone is the stone, the only stone alone, - Deserving praise above the rest, whose vertues are unknowne. - - - THE MARCHANT’S VERDICT - - The diamond bright, the Saphire brave, are stones that beare the name, - But flatter not, and tell the troath, Magnes deserves the same.[120] - -It was reported in the seventeenth century that ruptures were cured in -Belgium by the help of the loadstone. The patient was first given a dose -of iron filings, reduced to a very fine powder; thereupon a plaster made -of crushed loadstone was applied externally to the affected part. This -was said to produce a cure in the space of eight days.[121] Probably the -plaster was believed to draw the iron filings or some emanation from -them through the affected parts toward the surface. - -In medieval Europe this mineral was greatly valued for its therapeutic -virtues. Trotula, the first of the female physicians connected with the -celebrated School of Salerno, the centre of medical culture in Europe in -the Middle Ages, and who wrote a treatise on female diseases, -recommended the use of the loadstone in childbirth. The stone was to be -held in the right hand, and the learned lady asserted that the wearing -of a coral necklace would aid its beneficent effect. Both these -substances are prescribed for this use by the Oxford teacher, John -Gadesden (1300), in his “Rosa Anglica.” Francisco Piemontese, who taught -in Naples about 1340, also recommends the loadstone, but he directs that -it be strewn with the ashes obtained by burning the hoof of an ass or a -horse; according to this last authority, the stone should be held in the -left hand.[122] - -That wounds caused by burning could be healed if powdered loadstone were -sprinkled over them was confidently taught even in the seventeenth -century. However, some ill effects were occasionally remarked when the -substance was used medicinally, for it sometimes produced melancholia. -In this case an antidote was found in the emerald, and we are assured -that if a solution made from this stone were taken thrice a day for nine -consecutive days, the melancholia would pass away.[123] - -In the sixteenth century in India, it was believed that a small quantity -of loadstone taken internally preserved the vigor of youth, and Garcias -ab Orta relates that a king of Ceylon, when an old man, ordered that -cooking utensils of this material should be made for him, and had all -his food cooked in these. Garcias claims to have this information direct -from a Jew, Isaac of Cairo, who was ordered to make the vessels.[124] - -A loadstone amulet for the cure of gout is stated to have been worn by a -native of the English county of Essex. The stone was sewed up in a -flannel covering to which was attached a black ribbon for suspension -from the neck. Of course it was worn beneath the clothing, although the -encasing flannel must have prevented direct contact with the skin. This -piece of magnetic iron ore measured about an inch and a half in width, -and was two-tenths of an inch thick. The patient, a Mr. Pelly, was an -elderly man, who had suffered for some time from annually recurring -attacks of gout which prostrated him for from three to four months. -Learning of the reputed virtues of loadstones, more especially of those -of Golconda, he sent to India for one and he is said to have been -thereby relieved of his disease.[125] - -[Illustration: - - Vignette from the “Lapidario de Alfonso X, Codice Original” (fol. 12). - Published in Madrid, 1881. This design shows the finding of the - “Stone of Sterility.” Author’s library. -] - -In Persia a certain stone received the name of _Shahkevheren_ or “King -of Jewels,” for it was reputed to attract all other precious stones, as -the loadstone did iron. The greatest of the Sassanian monarchs, Khusrau -II (590–628), had occasion to test the power of this wonderful stone. He -had lost a ring of great price in the river Tigris, near the spot where -some time later the Mohammedans founded the city of Bagdad. Taking a -_shahkevheren_ the monarch attached it to a line and literally fished -for his ring, using the magic stone as a bait. We are told that the ring -was recovered, and this must have greatly added to the reputation of the -“King of Jewels.”[126] - -In the ninth century Arabic treatise, translated from an earlier Syriac -text and falsely attributed to Aristotle, a number of fabulous stones -are noted. All of these were said to have attractive properties, and as -the loadstone attracted iron, they attracted various substances, each -having its special affinity. First, we are told of the stone that -attracted gold, then, in turn, of stones that attracted silver, copper, -and other metals.[127] Probably the legend of the finding of these -stones is based upon the employment of certain mineral substances in the -purifying of gold, silver, etc. Among other fabulous or almost fabulous -stones was one called _askab_, which, although of mean appearance, was -able to break the diamond just as the diamond broke all other -stones.[128] Have we here an allusion to the polishing of the diamond by -its own dust? It is not improbable that this art, in an incomplete form, -was known to the Hindus long before it was practised and perfected in -Europe. - -The stone that attracted hair was the lightest of all stones and very -fragile; a piece as large as a man’s fist weighed but a drachm. It -looked like a piece of fur, but when touched was found to be a stone. -The strange powers of this extraordinary substance could easily be -demonstrated, for if placed on a hairy spot of man or beast the hair was -extracted, while if it were rubbed over a bald spot the hair was made to -grow.[129] Probably the appearance of certain minerals covered with -fine, hair-like spines, suggested the idea that the body of the stone -had attracted hair to itself, and thus gave rise to this strange belief -in the depilatory power of the stone, or it may have been a form of -amber that, owing to its opacity, was not recognized as being the same -as the transparent variety. - -The Arabic Aristotle relates many wonderful tales of stones found by -Alexander the Great during his Asiatic campaigns (327–323 B.C.). While -these are all apocryphal, there can be no doubt that it was subsequent -to these campaigns that western Europe was first made familiar with many -of the precious stones of Persia and India. One of the stones reported -by “Aristotle” bore the name _el behacte_ or _baddare_, rendered in a -Hebrew version _dar_ (pearl?). This was the stone that attracted men, as -the loadstone attracted iron. A quantity of these stones were found on -the seashore by the soldiers of Alexander’s army, but the men were so -fascinated by their aspect as to be unable to gather them up. Therefore -Alexander ordered that the soldiers should veil their faces, or close -their eyes, and, after covering the marvellous stones with a cloth, -should take them away without once looking at them. Hereupon Alexander -gave commands that a wall should be built around “a certain city.”[130] -Possibly we have here a distant echo of the pearl gates of the New -Jerusalem. - -Two other strange stones are described, one of these appearing on the -surface of the water only during the night, while the other shows itself -during the daytime and sinks beneath the surface as soon as the sun -sets. The “daystones,” according to the legend, were quite useful to -Alexander in his campaigns, for if they were attached to the necks of -horses or beasts of burden, the horses would not neigh, and the other -animals would be equally mute as long as they bore the stones, so that -the passage of the army would not be revealed to the enemy. The -“night-stones,” on the other hand, produced an entirely opposite effect, -for when wearing them the animals uttered their respective cries -unceasingly. We are not told that Alexander ever used them to provide an -animal symphony as martial music for his soldiers. - -Referring again to the subject of amber, as the objects placed in Roman -sepulchral urns were always chosen because of some supposed religious or -talismanic quality, there is considerable significance in the fact that -an urn of this type, preserved by Cardinal Farnese, contained a piece of -amber carved into the figure of an elephant. Coming down to modern -times, there is record that the Macdonalds of Glencoe handed down as -heirlooms four amber beads said to cure blindness, and there seems -reason to conjecture that this substance was sometimes credited with -being an antidote for the poison of snake bites, as a small perforated -stone used as late as 1874 in the Island of Lewis for this purpose -appears to be a semi-transparent amber.[131] Indeed, amber set as a -jewel to cure rheumatism is said to be offered for sale in London -to-day, and the writer has learned that the late Rev. Henry Ward Beecher -long carried amber beads with him to ward off this malady. - - - - - II - On Meteorites, or Celestial Stones - - -It is somewhat difficult to obtain trustworthy accounts regarding the -occurrence of meteorites in medieval and ancient times, as there was a -strong tendency to confuse the real meteorites with flint arrow-heads -and hatchets derived from the stone age. A number of interesting facts -bearing on the history of certain real or supposed aerolites were given -in a recent lecture delivered by Prof. Hubert A. Newton in New Haven, -Conn.[132] Some of the more striking instances are here presented. - -As an illustration of the way in which meteorites may have come to be -reverenced in former times, we have the modern instance of a stone that -fell in the region north of Zanzibar, on the East African coast, and was -seen and picked up by some shepherd boys. At first all the efforts of -the German missionaries to buy this stone were fruitless, because the -neighboring Wanikas looked upon it as a god, and, after securing -possession of it, proceeded to anoint it with oil, clothe it with -apparel and decorate it with pearls. They also built a temple wherein -the stone received divine honors. This worship endured for some time, -but when, three years later, the nomad tribes of the Masai swooped down -on the Wanikas and burned their villages and massacred many of the -inhabitants, the Wanikas lost all respect for the stone and were glad to -part with it. This conduct was, after all, not entirely unreasonable, -since the fetish had failed to prove its divine power. - -[Illustration: - - By Courtesy Soule Photo Co. - - THE “MADONNA DI FOLIGNO,” BY RAPHAEL - - In the Vatican Collection, Rome. The white curve in the middle of the - background shows the passage of the meteor to the earth. -] - -This occurrence in the nineteenth century may well be typical of what -must have happened in past times. A case from the fifteenth century, -narrated by Professor Newton, is very interesting, since the treatises -on precious stones of that period and somewhat later contain many -notices of supposed meteorites. We are told that, on November 16, 1492, -a stone weighing 300 pounds fell at Ensisheim, in Alsace. Emperor -Maximilian, who was then in Basel, caused the stone to be brought to the -neighboring castle and summoned a state council to determine the -character of the divine message associated with its fall. The council -decided that the event signified some important occurrence in the -approaching conflict between the French and the Turks, and the stone, -with an appropriate inscription, was suspended in the church, the -strictest injunctions being given that it should not be removed. Conrad -Gesner, in his treatise, “De figuris lapidum,”[133] states that a -fragment of this stone was given to him by a friend and that it -resembled ordinary sandstone. - -We are told that nineteen years later a shower of stones fell near -Crema, east of Milan; these stones fell in French territory and at that -time the Pope was engaged in hostilities with the French. During the -following year, the French, who had long threatened the States of the -Church from their possessions in Lombardy, were forced to withdraw from -Italy. In the celebrated painting by Raphael, known as the Madonna di -Foligno, one of the greatest treasures of the Vatican, this Crema -fire-ball is depicted. - -Naturally the recitals from ancient times are not as easily controlled -as the more modern accounts and it is always possible that stones other -than meteorites were given a celestial origin by superstitious zeal. The -black stone of the Kaabah, which is probably noted by early Greek -writers and was an object of adoration for the Arabian tribes before the -time of Mohammed, was believed to have dropped from heaven together with -Adam, and in many Greek legends images were said to have fallen from -heaven. Of course in the case of real statues this is simply a vague -superstition, but the stone venerated in Phrygia as an image of Cybele -may possibly have been a genuine meteorite. - -The following facts in relation to this stone are presented by Professor -Newton: - - It was a conical mass bearing a rude resemblance to a human head, and - was said to have fallen near Pessinus. It was placed in the Temple of - Cybele and worshipped as her image. During the second Punic war, in - 205 B.C., because of Hannibal’s prolonged invasion of Italy, the - downfall of the Roman state was feared, and the Romans were terrified - by a shower of stones from the sky. On consulting the Sibylline books, - some verses were found to the effect that a foreign enemy could be - driven from Italy if the Idæan mother (Cybele) was brought from - Pessinus in Phrygia to Rome. An embassy was sent to King Attalus of - Pergamos to request his consent to the transfer of the stone, and - although he even refused obedience to the commands of the Delphic - oracle, which required him to surrender the stone as an act of - hospitality, he at last yielded when a violent earthquake shook the - country, and the voice of the goddess was heard, enunciating these - words: “It is my will. Rome is a worthy place for any god; delay - not.”[134] - -Herodian, who relates this story, proceeds to narrate the arrival of the -stone at Rome, where Scipio Africanus was chosen to bear it to the -Temple of Victory. A silver image of the goddess was made, the conical -stone serving as the head. For five hundred years this image, later -transferred to the Temple of the Great Mother of the Gods, was an object -of Roman worship. It has been described very fully by Arnobius (fl. 300 -A.D.).[135] He states that it was a small stone which could be easily -and lightly carried in the hand; it was of a black hue and of rough -surface, and had many irregular projecting angles. As it was naturally -marked with the form of a mouth, it was inserted in the face of an image -of the goddess to figure that feature. - -As the stone was valueless, modern explorers long hoped that it might -not have been carried off from Rome by the spoilers, but the search for -it has been in vain. In a rare volume describing excavations made in the -Palatine hill in 1730, Professor Lanciani is stated to have found a -stone that had been unearthed at that time in a chapel, lacking any -inscription to indicate the divinity to whom it was dedicated. This -stone was said to be “of a deep brown color, looking very much like a -piece of lava, and ending in a sharp point.” The similarity of this -description to that of Arnobius indicates that the Cybele stone may -really have been found in 1730, but it has since disappeared. It would -have been extremely interesting for mineralogists if they could have -been enabled to examine this supposed meteorite, perhaps the very -earliest regarding which we have such definite information. - -To throw it into greater relief it was surrounded by a silver rim. When -first brought to land from the ship on which it had been transported to -Rome, the sacred stone was confided to the care of a company of Roman -matrons who passed it on from one to another as it was solemnly borne to -the Temple of Victory.[136] - -Whether this stone was really a meteorite, as tradition taught, or -whether it was a fossil of the type later known as _hysteriolithus_, as -was conjectured by M. Falconnet, in 1770,[137] remains doubtful. Its -light weight, upon which quality Arnobius lays stress, and its peculiar -form seem to favor somewhat the latter supposition. A similar stone to -which divine honors were paid was in a temple on Mount Ida. - -In prehistoric times meteorites were quite naturally supposed to possess -a special sanctity, and were indeed regarded as animated by the very -essence of some divinity. The name bætylus, given to these stones by -Greeks and Romans, is derived from the Hebrew בֵּית־אֵל(bethel) or -“house of God,” a term indicating clearly enough the belief held by the -ancient Hebrews in regard to meteorites, or supposed meteorites. -However, long before this designation had reached the Greeks, certain -meteorites had been accorded a peculiar reverence, and even worship. One -of these was a black stone, called the Omphalos of Delphi. This was said -to be the stone given by Rhea to Kronos when she substituted a stone for -her offspring Zeus, to save him from being devoured by his father, -Kronos. Zeus himself (or Kronos) threw it down to the Earth and the spot -where it struck was supposed to be the centre of the Earth, hence the -name Omphalos, or “navel-stone.” Meteorites probably played an important -part in the development of civilization, for it is believed that the -earliest iron tools and weapons were made from meteoric iron, apparently -the only supply available before the art of treating iron ores had been -evolved.[138] - -While there is admittedly but scant evidence of the existence of a Stone -Age in China, and still less to indicate that Chinese civilization -passed through such a period, a certain number of stone artefacts, all -polished, have been found within the limits of China. However, curiously -enough in view of this state of things, we find that here, as almost -everywhere else, these objects were popularly regarded as -“thunderbolts.” Thus Chien Tsang-Ki, the author of a Materia Medica, -composed in the first half of the eighth century of our era, states that -objects of this kind “have been found by people who explored a locality -over which a thunder-storm had swept and dug three feet in the ground”; -and he adds that some of these stone implements have two perforations. -They were named _pi-li-chen_, “stones originating from the crash of -thunder,” and a still earlier writer, Chang (232–300 A.D.) applies a -similar designation to stone axes and wedges “frequently seen among the -people.” Several centuries later Shen Kun (1030–1093 A.D.) testifies -that the people of his time found many stone “thunder-wedges,” in all -cases after a thunder-storm; these were unperforated. It is generally -believed that most of these stone implements had been made by a -Tungusian tribe, akin to the Manchus.[139] - -This is partly due to the fact that it was natural, after a -thunder-shower, for a search to be made. Then again, as thunder-showers -are usually heavy rains, they were apt to loosen the soil and leave on -the surface heavy objects, more especially such materials as jade, of -the density of 2.9, or jadeite, of the density of 3.3. These are much -heavier than the quartz, feldspar and other ingredients of the soil, -which vary from 2.6 to 2.7 and are washed away. Finally, there is the -natural disinclination on the part of the Chinese to dig, from their -belief that it is wrong to explore the soil, and this disinclination on -their part has done much to prevent a better knowledge of the Stone Age, -and our knowledge of the races which must have preceded the civilization -of China; many facts of mining interest have been neglected, as well, on -account of this prejudice. Perhaps within the next twenty years we may -learn something about a prehistoric race in China, for as traces of the -existence of such races have been found in every other country of the -world, there can be little or no doubt that such a race existed in -China, although as yet we have no distinct evidences of it. - -The Babylonian royal astrologers taught that the mere fact of the -passage of a meteor across the heavens, whether its course were from -east to west, or from north to south, was a good omen, portending -victory and the successful issue of the royal projects. Especially -favorable was the augury when the meteor was very brilliant and left -behind it a trail that might be likened to the tail of a scorpion. This -not only foretold joy for the ruler and his house, but for the entire -country; evil would be overcome, righteousness would reign supreme, and -prosperity would prevail. A meteor of this type is recorded as having -appeared at the time Nebuchadnezzar laid waste Elam about 1150 B.C. This -refers to the elder Nebuchadnezzar.[140] - -A curious series of cuneiform texts treats of the prognostics to be -drawn from the transformations of stars into various animals, metals, -stones, etc. This is explained as referring to the apparent form or hue -of the meteor itself, or of the trail it left behind. The -transformations into stones concern the dushu-stone, porphyry (or some -other dark red or purple stone) and lapis lazuli. This omen is -invariably a favorable one.[141] - -The Old Testament offers abundant testimony of the ancient belief that -certain stones were animated by a divine spirit. In regard to this, -Benzinger writes:[142] “It was not Yahweh who found Jacob at Bethel but -rather Jacob who found Yahweh there. He anoints the stone; that is, he -sacrifices to it, for the divinity residing in the stone has caused his -dream.” According to Benzinger’s opinion the Ark of the Covenant -originally served as receptacle for a stone of this type, and was hence -regarded as sheltering a divinity. - -One of the very earliest references to meteorites appears in the Book of -Joshua (chap, x, verse 11), where we read, in the account of the battle -fought by the Israelites against the Amorites and their allies, that -“the Lord cast down great stones from heaven” upon the Amorites, so that -more of the latter were killed by these stones than by the weapons of -the Israelites. Admitting the historical character of the account, this -fall of meteorites probably took place in the twelfth century B.C. In an -Assyrian cuneiform inscription, there is mention of the seven black -stones of the city of Urka in Chaldea. These were _bætyli_ and were -regarded as representations of the seven planets.[143] - -The fall of meteors is noted frequently in Chinese records, the first -instance dating from 644 B.C. Of a meteor that fell in 213 B.C., we are -told that it descended as “a star which turned to a stone as it -fell.”[144] A meteorite that fell in China in 211 B.C. is said to have -been the indirect cause of many deaths. The event took place during the -reign of the tyrannical emperor Chi Hoang-ti, who had incurred the -resentment of all the Chinese litterati by his wholesale burning of -books. Some believer in the power of sorcery caused an inscription to be -cut on this stone predicting the death of the hated emperor within a -year, and when news of the fact came to the monarch’s ears he gave -orders to have the stone split up, and to put to death all the -inhabitants of the place where it was found, this being no doubt looked -upon as a most effective conjuration of the spell.[145] - -In 405 B.C., Lysander won his great victory over the Athenian fleet at -Ægospotami in Thrace, and Plutarch writes, in his life of Lysander,[146] -that a stone which fell from the heavens a short time before the battle -was regarded by many as a portent predicting the dreadful slaughter that -was to ensue. At the time Plutarch wrote (circa 150 A.D.) this stone -could still be seen at Ægospotami, where it was regarded with great -veneration by the Chersonites. The Greek philosopher Anaxagoras is said -to have predicted the fall of this meteorite, as he had observed certain -perturbations in the movements of the heavenly bodies. As Anaxagoras -died in 428 B.C., his prediction must have long antedated the fall of -the meteorite. - -A detail given in one of the early recitals might possibly have -constituted the basis of a prediction by some contemporary physicist. In -the latter part of his account of the phenomenon Plutarch quotes from a -Treatise on Religion, by a certain Daimachus, to the effect that, for -seventy-five days before the fall of the meteorite, a vast fiery body -was seen in the heavens, in appearance “like a flaming cloud.” This well -describes the appearance of a great comet, and might be regarded as -significant when we consider the latest modern theory of the origin of -meteors, according to which these bodies are detached particles of a -cometary aggregation. Of this meteoric mass said to have fallen at -Ægospotami, Pliny states that it was as large as a wagon and of a dusky -hue, adding that a brilliant comet was visible at the time of its fall. -Regarding the assertion that Anaxagoras predicted the occurrence, Pliny -declares that this prediction, if true, was a greater miracle than the -fall of the meteor. A portion of the stone was preserved as a venerated -relic in the town of Potidæa.[147] - -The site of the city of Seleucia is said to have been determined by the -fall of an aerolite, and this stone is figured on some of the coins of -the Seleucidæ, a thunderbolt appearing in its stead on other coins. - -In the Temple of Diana, at Ephesus, there was a stone partly fashioned -into the conventional form of the Ephesian Diana. This, it was asserted, -had fallen down from the heavens. The stone is mentioned in the Acts of -the Apostles (xix. 35), where we read that the city of the Ephesians was -“a worshipper of the great goddess Diana, and of the _image_ which fell -down from Jupiter.” In this text the word “image” has been supplied by -the translators, a more literal rendering being “that which fell down -from the sky.” This clearly shows that the stone only faintly indicated -the human form. - -Tacitus says of the stone sacred to the Astarte (or Aphrodite) of -Paphos, that it was a symbol of the goddess, not a human effigy, since -it was an obscurely formed cone.[148] In his life of Apollonius of -Tyana, Philostratus, also, mentions this stone and tells us that when -Apollonius visited Paphos, he admired there “the famous symbolic figure -of Aphrodite.”[149] These “living stones” λιθοι εμψυχοι were often -covered with ornaments and vestments, and it has been conjectured that -these adornments were, in some cases, changed so as to accord with the -garments appropriate to certain special festivals of the respective -gods.[150] - -The colossal emerald of the temple of Melkarth at Tyre is designated in -the fragments of Sanchoniathon as an αεροπετῆ ἀστέρα, or star fallen -from heaven. It was said to have been raised up by Astarte, and this -last myth is represented on the silver coins of Marium in Cyprus. Here -the radiance and splendor of the object suggested a stellar or celestial -origin, and we see the same tendency at work in the application of the -name _ceraunia_ (thunder-stones) to certain brilliant gems by -Pliny.[151] - -Virgil[152] seems to confound with thunder the detonation of a bolide, -followed by a train of light, and he seems also to confound the bolide -itself with a lightning flash, for he says that its fall diffused a -sulphurous vapor far and wide. Seneca was more critical, for he regarded -the fact of thunder sometimes accompanying the fall of a meteorite as -merely a coincidence. - -Although, in the absence of exact and trustworthy contemporaneous -accounts of the fall of these sacred stones, we cannot be absolutely -certain that they were meteorites, the testimony in several cases is -sufficient to render this almost certain, while in many other cases -there is no reason to doubt the substantial accuracy of the tradition. -The choice of some of the _bætyli_, however, was determined by their -form alone, to which was ascribed a religious significance, not exactly -compatible with our religious ideas of to-day, but quite easily -understood when we remember that the divine creative energy was -concretely represented in ancient times by many symbols offensive to our -sense of propriety. - -In the treatise “On Rivers,” attributed to Plutarch, a stone is said to -have been found on Mount Cronius, which bore the name of “cylinder.” -When Jupiter thundered, this stone, terrified by the noise, rolled down -from the top of the mountain.[153] This passage is interesting as -suggesting one of the reasons which caused the name “thunderbolt” to be -given to certain stones, for stones adapted to ornamental use might -easily be exposed by the weathering of the rocks, and then detached by -the concussion produced by heavy thunder. Of course, the cylinder-stone -here mentioned must have more especially signified one of the -prehistoric celts, but it is not unlikely that the name was also given -to other, unworked stones, having a similar form. - -Before Galba was chosen emperor, and when he was acting as governor of -the Basque provinces in Spain, a thunderbolt descended upon the shore of -a lake in that region. Search was made for the stones which were -supposed to have fallen, and Suetonius tells us that twelve axes were -found. This was regarded as a sure augury of Galba’s elevation to the -imperial dignity,[154] but for the archaeologist the presence of the -axes merely signifies that this was the site of a lake dwellers’ -village. - -In some cases, the stone which was held to be a dwelling-place of the -divinity was also regarded as a representation, or epitome, of some -sacred mountain. In the earliest stage of this belief, the god was -supposed to have his abode in the mountain, and later he was thought to -animate the stone which had a fancied likeness in shape to the mountain. -A coin of the Roman emperor Elagabalus (204–222 A.D.)[155] bears on its -reverse a representation of one of the sacred stones of Astarte, namely, -that worshipped at Sidon. This is shown resting upon a car, and it seems -probable that it was transported from place to place, so that large -numbers of people could have the privilege of paying reverence to it. - -There seems to be fairly strong reasons for the belief that the Black -Stone of the Kaaba at Mecca is an aerolite.[156] If the conjecture be -correct, this stone occupies a unique place among meteoric masses, for -it was an object of worship for many centuries before the advent of -Mohammed, and is to-day regarded with the highest reverence by one -hundred and twenty millions of Mohammedans. One of the most solemn acts -performed by the pilgrims at Mecca is the kissing of the Black Stone, -and should any one doubt that true religious enthusiasm is aroused by -this act, he should read the following words of Ibn Batoutah:[157] - - The eyes perceive in it a wonderful beauty, similar to that of a young - bride; in kissing it one feels a pleasure that delights the mouth, and - whoever kisses it wishes he might never cease to do so; for this is an - inherent quality in it and a divine grace in its favor. Let us only - cite the words of the Prophet in this connection: “Certainly it is the - right hand of God on earth.” - -For centuries before Mohammed’s time the Kaaba at Mecca had been a -famous sanctuary and a religious centre for the nomadic Arabs. It is -stated that there were 360 idols in the temple, a number which suggests -a connection with the year of 360 days in use among the Arabs. The most -celebrated of these idols bore the name of Hobal, and was the figure of -a man cut out of red agate. There was a tradition to the effect that -this idol had been brought from Belka in Syria. As one of the hands was -broken off, the Koreish, the Arab tribe having charge of the Kaaba, -repaired this defect by attaching a golden hand, in which were held -seven arrows, plain shafts without heads or feathers, similar to the -arrows used for divination by the Arabs. For some occult reason the -agate was supposed to exercise a certain control over meteorological -phenomena, for in Persia it was believed to ward off tempests, while -prayers for rain in time of drought were made to this agate image of the -Kaaba.[158] - -[Illustration: - - _LE TEMPLE DE LA MECQUE_ - - THE KAABA AT MECCA - - The letter A indicates the place where the Black Stone is inserted in - the wall of the building. From “Histoire générale des cérémonies - religieuses de tous les peuples du monde,” by Abbé Banier and Abbé - Mascrier, Paris, 1741. -] - -Much has been written regarding the Black Stone, but perhaps the most -satisfactory description is that given by Burckhardt, who writes:[159] - - At the Northeast corner of the Kaabah, near the door, is the famous - “Black Stone”; it forms part of the sharp angle of the building at - from four to five feet above the ground. It is an irregular oval, - about seven inches in diameter, with an undulated surface, composed of - about a dozen smaller stones of different sizes and shapes, well - joined together with a small quantity of cement, and perfectly smooth; - it looks as if the whole had been broken into many pieces by a violent - blow, and then united again. It is very difficult to determine - accurately the quality of this stone, which has been worn to its - present surface by the millions of touches and kisses it has received. - It appears to me like lava, containing several small extraneous - particles of a whitish and of a yellowish substance. Its color is now - a deep reddish-brown, approaching to black. - -This description seems to support the conjecture that the stone is a -meteorite. The injuries it has sustained are attributed to various -accidental or intentional causes. In the early part of the Mohammedan -era the Kaaba was damaged by fire, and the intense heat caused the stone -to break into three pieces. This injury was repaired, but some years -later (926 A.D.) the heretic sect of the Carmates captured and sacked -Mecca. Hoping to divert to another place the tide of pilgrims, and the -riches they brought with them, the leader of the sect caused the stone -to be wrenched from its place and borne away to Hedjez. During the sack -of Mecca, or possibly in its violent removal, the stone was broken into -two pieces,—perhaps along the line of one of the old fractures. At first -an offer of 50,000 dinars ($125,000) was made for the return of the -stone, but before many years had passed the Carmates restored it -voluntarily, having been disappointed in their hope of attracting the -pilgrims. The Black Stone was destined to suffer still greater injury. -In 1022 A.D., Hakem, the ruler of Egypt, who suffered from megalomania -and was disposed to claim divine honors for himself, dispatched an -emissary to Mecca to destroy the stone. Mixing with the crowd of -pilgrims, this man approached the revered relic, and crying out “How -long shall this stone be adored and kissed?” struck it a tremendous blow -with a club. The story runs that only three small pieces were broken -from the stone, but as it is also stated that these pieces were -pulverized and the powder made into a cement to fill up the cracks, the -injury was probably much greater than the pious Mohammedans were willing -to admit.[160] - -Mohammedan tradition teaches that the Black Stone was sent from heaven -and was once pure and brilliant; it only grew black because of the sins -of men. Legend relates that Abraham stood on this stone during the -construction of the Kaaba. This edifice was erected in a miraculous way, -for the stones came of themselves, all cut and polished, from the -Mountain of Arafat. However, no place was found for the Black Stone, and -it was afflicted and said to Abraham: “Why have not I also been used for -the House of God?” “Be comforted,” replied the Prophet; “for I will see -that you are more honored than any other stone of the edifice. I will -command all men, in the name of God, that they shall kiss you when they -pass in the procession.”[161] - -A fragment of the Black Stone of Mecca was brought to Bagdad in 951 A.D. -by order of the Khalif Moti Lillah, and was inserted in the threshold of -the main entrance to the royal palace there. From a balcony directly -above the entrance was suspended a piece of tapestry taken from that in -the Kaaba, and it was so hung that its lower border was about on a level -with the face of anyone entering the portal. All who passed in were -strictly enjoined to touch their eyes with this tapestry and also to -kiss the piece of the Black Stone, upon which no one was permitted to -tread. These details are given in Khondemir’s life of Abu Jafer Al -Mostasem, the last of the Khalifs, who died in 1258 A.D.[162] - -The Kaaba at Mecca offers to the adoration of faithful Mohammedan -pilgrims to the shrine, not only the famous Black Stone, which is set in -the eastern corner of the building, but also another sacred stone -inserted in the southern corner at a height of five feet from the -ground. This is designated as the “Southern Stone.” The Kaaba itself is -a small rectangular structure, built of stone from the surrounding -hills, and having a length of 12 metres (39.4 feet), a width of 10 -metres (32.8 feet) and a height of 15 metres (49.2 feet). One of the few -Europeans who have been permitted to enter the sacred enclosure, Dr. -Snouck-Hurgronje, does not believe that the Kaaba owes its origin and -sanctity to the Black Stone, but that its foundation was rather due to -the presence of the well Zemzem, whose waters were already reported to -have a therapeutic quality in the early days of Islam, and which may -have earned its repute on this account. If, however, we admit that the -medical properties (of a purgative nature) are due to contamination or -percolation posterior to the primitive time when the well Zemzem first -attracted the reverence of the Arabs of this region, then the purity of -the water may account for its high place in the esteem of the Arabs. Of -the Black Stone, a native of Mecca who saw the stone when it had been -taken out of the wall of the building, in the course of the latest -restoration of the structure, states that its inner surface is of a -grayish hue.[163] - -The Kaaba also contained the Maquam Ibrahim, a sacred stone preserved -from pre-Islamite times, and brought into connection with the history of -Abraham by the Mohammedan legends. This stone, enclosed in a receptacle -of like material, was at one time buried in the ground underneath the -building, but receptacle and enclosed stone are now set within the iron -gratings which partition off a part of the space inside the cupola over -the pulpit of the Mosque of Mecca.[164] - -An Oriental poem by Assmai detailing the wonderful exploits of the hero -Antar, describes the way in which he became possessed of a matchless -sword. One day he came upon two knights in desperate encounter; on -seeing him they paused in their strife and to his question as to its -cause one of the combatants told him that they were brothers, sons of a -great Arab emir, recently deceased. Their father had once found a black -stone, in appearance like a common pebble, but possessed of such -penetrative power that when a herdsman threw it at a camel it traversed -the animal’s body, inflicting a gaping wound. The emir immediately -recognized that the stone must be a “thunder-stone,” as meteorites were -called; he therefore secured possession of it and commanded his most -skilful smiths to forge a sword from it. When this task had been -successfully performed the emir clothed the smith in a robe of honor, -and then, drawing the new sword from its sheath, cut off his head with a -single stroke. This served at once as a test of the weapon’s quality and -as an assurance that it would not soon be duplicated. On his death-bed -the emir called to him his youngest son and said to him: “My son, take -the sword and hide it from your brother, and when you shall see that he -has seized my goods and is squandering them in riotous living, and sends -you away, without reverence for the Lord of Heaven and Earth, take the -sword away with you. If you bring it to the court of the Persian King, -Khusrau Nushirwan, he will heap gifts and honors upon you, or if you -elect to go instead to the court of the Byzantine Cæsar, monarch of the -Servants of the Cross, he will give you as much gold and silver as you -may ask for.” This was the tale told by the younger knight, who added -that when, after the father’s death, the brother had sought in vain for -the famous sword, he had resorted to torture to extract from the favored -son the secret of its hiding-place, and had brought the latter to this -spot commanding him to find it and give it up, and when he refused so to -do, had attacked him. The hero Antar, like a veritable knight-errant, -took up the quarrel of the oppressed brother and slew his opponent, -securing as a free-will offering of gratitude the magic sword.[165] - -The forging of swords from meteoric iron was, in the opinion of the -Orientalist Hammer-Purgstall, the origin of the characteristic surface -given to the famous Damascus blades. A most interesting modern example -of a meteoric-iron weapon is a dagger made by Von Widmanstädt for -Emperor Francis I of Austria, out of the famous Bohemian siderite long -preserved in the Rathaus at Elbogen and known as the “Verwünschte -Burggraf.” On the surface of this blade, however, the lines were -angular, while on the true Damascus blade the lines are wavy.[166] An -unsuccessful attempt to forge a sword from a piece of meteoric iron is -reported by Avicenna in the case of a siderite that fell at Jurgan in -1009 A.D., from which swords that were ordered to be made by the Sultan -of Khorassan could not be executed.[167] - -In an Arabic work bearing the name of Avicenna and entitled “The Cure,” -the writer mentions a meteorite which fell in the Jordan, and of which -Sultan Mohammed Ghazni wished to have a sword made for him, thus proving -that the Sultan believed that meteorites possessed marvellous -properties.[168] - -A number of Greek and Roman coins bearing representations of these -sacred meteorites have come down to us, and more than two hundred -specimens may be seen in the section of meteorites in the Natural -History Museum (Königlich-kaiserliches naturhistoriches Hofmuseum) in -Vienna. These coins are of great value in determining the history of -those aerolites which were preserved in the temples of certain -divinities. - -The Viennese collection of meteorites is the finest in the world, and -this is largely due to the zeal and intelligence of the late Dr. -Aristides Brezina, while superintendent of the department of mineralogy -and meteorites in the Museum. In regard to the impression made upon the -mind of man in ancient times by the fall of meteorites, Dr. Brezina -writes:[169] - - The ancients supposed the stars to be the domiciles of the gods; - falling stars and falling meteorites signified the descending of a god - or the sending of its image to the earth. These envoys were received - with divine honor, embalmed and draped, and worshipped in temples - built for them. - -[Illustration: - - Title-page of one of the earliest treatises on meteorites. -] - -The coins to which we have alluded were usually struck in honor of the -sanctuaries wherein the aerolites were objects of adoration, and the -temple is often rudely figured with the stone set up in the centre. In -many cases the meteorite was preserved in its original form, which, if -conical, was regarded as a phallic symbol; in other cases, the mass was -rudely shaped into the conventional form of some divinity. - -It is stated in Spangenberg’s Chron. Saxon. that in 998 A.D. two immense -stones fell at Magdeburg during a thunder-storm. One of these is said to -have fallen in the town itself and the other in the open country, near -the river Elbe. The description of a meteoric fall given in an -eighteenth century treatise on meteors, presents a vivid picture of the -phenomena attending—or believed to have attended—such a fall. We are -told that on June 16, 1794, at about seven o’clock in the evening a -thunder cloud was seen in Tuscany, near the city of Siena and the town -of Radacofani. This cloud came from the north, and shot forth sparks -like rockets, smoke rising from it like a furnace; at the same time a -series of explosions was heard, not so much resembling the sound of -thunder as that produced by the firing of cannon or the discharge of -many muskets. The cloud remained suspended in the air for some time, -during which many stones fell to the earth, some of which were found. -One of them is described as being of irregular form, with a point like a -diamond; it weighed about five pounds and gave out a “vitriolic smell.” -Another weighed three and a half pounds, was very hard, of the color of -iron, and “smelled like brimstone.”[170] - -The following passage written in the fourteenth, or perhaps in the -thirteenth century, shows considerable accuracy of observation:[171] - - There are some who fancy that the thunder is a stone, for the reason - that a stone often falls when it thunders in stormy weather. This is - not true, for if the thunder were a stone, it would wound the people - and animals it strikes, just as any other falling stone does. However, - this is not the case, for we see that the people who have been struck - by thunder (sic) show no wounds, but they are black from the stroke, - and this is because the hot vapor burns the blood in their hearts. - Therefore, they perish without wounds. - -The fall of a siderite twenty miles east of Lahore in India, on April -17, 1621, is reported in contemporary records. From this iron, which -weighed about 3¼ pounds, the Mogul Emperor Jehangir ordered two sabres -to be made, as well as a knife and a dagger, and commanded that the fact -should be properly registered. Here, as in other similar cases, the -weapons were believed to possess a quasi-magic power because of the -celestial origin of the material employed.[172] - -Michele Mercato[173] (d. 1593) gives a vivid description of the fall of -a meteor which was observed near Castrovilarii, in Calabria, January 10, -1583. Some men in a meadow observed a black, whirling cloud rushing -through the air, and saw it descend to the earth not far from where they -were standing. The noise accompanying the descent of the meteorite was -so deafening that it was heard far and wide, and the poor men fell to -the ground almost unconscious from terror. People from the neighborhood -hastened to the spot and, after restoring the terrified witnesses of the -phenomena, discovered a mass of iron weighing thirty-three pounds at the -spot where the black cloud had touched the earth. - -The startling phenomenon of a rain of stones from the sky which took -place under rather queer circumstances is reported by the Jesuit priest -Alvarus as having occurred in China in 1622. The Taoist priests of that -land enjoyed the repute of being able to bring down rain from the sky by -their magic or religious rites, and when, during the year mentioned, -China was visited by a drought of unexampled severity, the aid of these -rain-makers was invoked. Yielding, perhaps not unwillingly, to the -popular entreaty, a group of priests ascended a hill and proceeded to -pronounce their invocations. To the joy of the onlookers the sky became -darkened and a rushing sound was heard, at first mistaken for an -oncoming rainstorm, but to the dismay of all an immense shower of stones -of all sizes fell upon the earth, destroying what remained of the -parched fruits and grain crops, and killing or maiming many persons. So -terrifying was the sight that the Jesuits who were watching the result -of the affair half-believed that the Last Day had come. When the panic -had finally subsided, the people fell upon the unlucky Taoist priests -and beat them soundly.[174] - -In the “Annals of the Ottoman Empire,” by Subhi Mohammed Effendi, there -is an account of the fall of a meteor at Hasergrad, on the banks of the -Danube, on the fourth of Saban, A. H. 1153 (October 25, 1740). The -weather was fine, not a cloud was to be seen in the sky, and not a -breath of air was stirring. Suddenly there arose a whirlwind, the air -became obscured with clouds of dust, rain fell in torrents, and it -became dark as night. While all who were out of doors were hastening to -seek shelter from the storm, three terrific peals of thunder were heard, -as loud as the sound of many cannon. After the storm had passed several -strange masses partly of stone and partly of iron were discovered in a -nearby field. The Vizier bore two of these as great rarities to the -Sultan in Constantinople.[175] - -The influence exerted by popular beliefs, even upon the learned, is well -illustrated by the opinion given by some of the leading French -physicists of the eighteenth century as to the character of meteorites. -When a meteoric stone fell at Luce, Dept. Marne, France, September 13, -1768, three French scientists, among them the celebrated Lavoisier, were -sent to investigate the matter. In their report to the Academy of -Sciences, they state that there must have been some error in the -accounts given of the event, for it was an assured fact that no such -things as _pierres de foudre_, or thunder-stones, existed. This was, of -course, perfectly true, but Lavoisier and his companions did not stop to -think that stones might fall to the earth in some other way. The result -of the investigation was summed up as follows: - - If the existence of thunder-stones was regarded as doubtful at a time - when physicists had scarcely any idea of the nature of thunder, it is - even less admissible to-day, when modern physicists have discovered - the effects of this natural phenomenon are the same as those of - electricity. There is no record that the fulgarite, the fused sand or - rock struck by the lightning, has ever been used. - - The opinion which seems the most probable to us, and that which is - most in accord with the accepted principles of physics as well as with - the facts reported by Abbé Bacheley, and our own investigation, is - that the stone was originally covered with a slight crust of earth and - turf, and was struck by lightning and so made visible. - -Chladni reports in a pamphlet published in 1794 that the mass of -meteoric iron discovered by Dr. Pallas in Siberia, and known as the -Pallas or Krasnojarsk iron meteorite, was regarded by the Tartars as a -sacred object which had fallen from heaven.[176] As it is somewhat -unlikely that this belief could be accounted for by an ancient -tradition, we must seek an explanation in the conviction among primitive -peoples that any mass of rock or metal of unusual appearance and -differing notably from the surrounding formations must have come from -the sky. In this way primitive instinct often anticipates the results of -modern scientific investigation. This siderite, of irregular form and -weighing some 1500 pounds, was seen by Dr. Pallas in 1772, and deposited -by him in 1776; he learned that it had been found in 1749 at the summit -of a mountain situated between Krasnojarsk and Abakansk, by a Cossack. -Most of this famous siderite is preserved in the St. Petersburg Museum. - -A singular circumstance in regard to the fall of a meteor, and one that -in ancient times would have been explained in a miraculous way, is that -during the desperate and bloody battle of Borodino, won by Napoleon over -the Russians, September 6, 1812, a meteorite is said to have fallen near -the headquarters of the Russian general. This would certainly have been -regarded—after the event—as a manifestation of divine wrath, and hence a -prognostic of the Russian defeat. However, had the French been defeated, -the meteorite would have been looked upon as a sign of divine favor, and -it would have been honored and reverenced. In modern times the natural -phenomenon is taken for what it is worth, and the only interest excited -is a purely scientific one. - -Of all the meteorites that have been discovered, the most remarkable are -undoubtedly those found at Melville Bay, about 35 miles east of Cape -York, West Greenland, in 1894, by Admiral, then Lieutenant, Robert E. -Peary, and brought by him to the United States in 1895 and 1897.[177] -They are now to be seen in the American Museum of Natural History, New -York. The first report of the existence of meteoric iron in the vicinity -came from Captain Ross, who in 1818 was given two iron knives, or -lance-heads, by some Eskimo of Regent’s Bay. An analysis of the metal -revealed the presence of nickel and immediately suggested a meteoric -origin of the material; nothing more definite could be learned at the -time from the Eskimo than that the metal had been taken from an “iron -mountain” not far away. In 1840, the King of Denmark, whose interest had -been aroused in the matter, authorized the sending out of an expedition -to seek for the suspected siderites, but the search proved unsuccessful; -a later attempt made by the officers of the _North Star_, a Franklin -relief ship, in 1849–50, also failed. For a time the determination of -the telluric origin of the supposed siderites discovered at Ovifak, -Disko Island, West Greenland, by Baron N. A. E. Nordenskiold in 1870, -cast some doubt upon the true meteoric character of the iron of which -the Cape York knives had been made, and rather discouraged further -searches. It was not until 1894 that these extraordinary masses of -meteoric iron were at last seen and located by a European, one of the -hunters of the Tellikontinah tribe of Smith Sound Eskimos serving as -Lieutenant Peary’s guide. The siderites were three in number, the two -smaller having been named by the Eskimo “The Dog” and “The Woman,” -respectively, while the largest was known as “The Tent.” It now bears -the name of Ahnighito, that of the daughter of the explorer. - -[Illustration: - - By courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History, New York. - - “AHNIGHITO,” THE GREAT CAPE YORK METEORITE, WEIGHING MORE THAN 36½ - TONS - - In the American Museum of Natural History, New York City. Obtained by - Admiral Peary. -] - -[Illustration: - - By courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History, New York. - - “THE WOMAN,” CAPE YORK METEORITE - - In the American Museum of Natural History, New York City. Weight 3 - tons. Obtained by Admiral Peary. -] - -The two smaller ones reposed loosely upon gneissic rocks, but Ahnighito, -found on a small island some six miles away, on a terrace 80 feet above -tide-water and about 100 feet from the shore, lay almost buried in rocks -and sand. - -Eskimo legend had woven its web about these enigmatic meteorites and the -natives saw in them an Innuit woman, who with her dog and tent had been -hurled from the sky in a bygone age by Tornarsuk, the Evil One. -Originally the mass called “The Woman” was said to have closely -resembled the figure of a woman, seated and engaged in sewing, but by -the gradual chipping away of fragments of the iron this form had almost -disappeared. Peary was told that not long before, the “head” had fallen -off and that a party of Eskimo had tried to carry it away, lashed to a -sledge; however, as they were passing over the ice, it suddenly broke -up, so that sledge, iron and dogs sank in the water and the Eskimo -themselves barely escaped with their lives. - -The dimensions of Ahnighito, the largest siderite ever discovered, are -given as follows: length, 10 feet 11 inches; height, 6 feet 9 inches; -thickness, 5 feet 2 inches. It weighs something over 36½ tons. The -weight of “The Woman” is 3 tons, and that of “The Dog” 1100 pounds. The -chemical compositions of these three siderites, which are regarded as -having originally constituted a single mass, have been determined by J. -E. Whitfield. In addition to small quantities of copper, sulphur, -phosphorus and carbon, the following proportions of the main -constituents were ascertained:[178] - - The Dog The Woman Ahnighito - Iron 90.99 91.47 91.48 - Nickel 8.27 7.78 7.79 - Cobalt .53 .53 .53 - -Though smaller and less imposing by its mass than the greatest of the -Cape York meteorites, that called “Willamette” from having been found -two miles northwest of the town of that name in Clackamas County, -Oregon, ranks as the fourth, or possibly the third largest iron -meteorite in the world, and is the largest discovered within the -territory of the United States; remarkable peculiarities of form make it -an especially interesting object.[179] It was a chance find, made in -1902 by two prospectors in their search for gold or silver. Noting what -appeared to be a very slight rock projection they tapped this with their -hammers and the sound of the blow revealed the presence of metal; -digging down here and there, they ascertained the existence of a -considerable mass of iron. Although at first no one supposed that it was -a meteorite, before long this fact became known, and the finder, by very -primitive methods and by dint of tireless efforts, succeeded in -transporting the iron to his own land. His courageous attempt to acquire -possession of it was not, however, crowned with success, as the courts -decided that the company owning the land whereon it had been found -possessed the right to reclaim it from the finder. - -[Illustration: - - By courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History, New York. - - “THE DOG,” CAPE YORK METEORITE - - In the American Museum of Natural History, New York City. Weight 1100 - pounds. Obtained by Admiral Peary. -] - -[Illustration: - - By courtesy of Rochester (N. Y.) Academy of Sciences. - - TWO VIEWS OF THE WILLAMETTE METEORITE NOW IN THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF - NATURAL HISTORY, NEW YORK CITY - - Found in Clackamas County, Oregon, near the town of Willamette. Weight - 31,107 pounds. -] - -When weighed on the railroad scales in Portland, Oregon, the net weight -of this siderite was shown to be 31,107 pounds. The most striking -peculiarity is the abundance of pittings and hollows and their unusual -size. That these resulted in part from the effects of the enormous heat -generated by the swift flight of this weighty mass through the earth’s -atmosphere, is generally admitted; but some of the deepest pits are -believed to owe their origin to the decomposition of spheroidal nodules -of troilite, and the cylindrical holes to the decomposition of rod-like -masses of the same substance. Willamette, which was donated to the -American Museum of Natural History, by Mrs. William E. Dodge, is 10 feet -long, 6 feet 6 inches high, and has a thickness of 4 feet 3 inches.[180] -Chemical analyses have been made by Mr. J. M. Davison of the University -of Rochester and by J. E. Whitfield of Philadelphia. Their respective -determinations are here given: - - Davison Whitfield - Iron 91.65 91.46 - Nickel 7.88 8.30 - Cobalt .21 ? - Phosphorus .09 ? - ————— ————— - 99.83 99.76 - -The famous Cañon Diablo meteorite possesses a surpassing mineralogical -interest.[181] In 1891, at the Tenth International Geologic Congress, -Washington, D. C., the mineralogist Koenig announced that he had -discovered some microscopic diamonds in this meteorite, and later -investigations by Prof. Henri Moissan confirmed this discovery and -enlarged its scope. A mass of the iron weighing about 400 pounds was -used by Professor Moissan; this was cut by means of a steel ribbon saw. -As had been the case in Koenig’s investigations, the saw soon -encountered excessively hard portions that obstructed its operation, so -that twenty days’ labor was requisite to separate the iron into two -parts, each with a section area of nearly 100 square inches. On close -examination it became evident that the obstacles to the cutting -consisted of round or elliptical nodules, of a dark gray to black hue, -and enclosed in the bright iron. These nodules were mainly composed of -troilite (iron protosulphide). After chemical treatment an insoluble -residue remained, consisting of silica, amorphous carbon, graphite and -diamond. Many of these very minute diamonds were black, but a few were -transparent crystals, octahedrons with rounded edges.[182] The presence -of this diamond material in the interior of the iron mass of the -meteorite indicates their formation from carbon by the combined agencies -of high temperature and great pressure, as in the case of the artificial -diamonds experimentally produced by Moissan in an iron mass first -subjected to intense heat in the electric furnace and then rapidly -contracted in volume by sudden chilling. The fervid imagination of early -writers would certainly have attributed wonderful talismanic powers to -stones like these, probably generated in some lost planet and reaching -our earth through the wastes of celestial space, could they have been -able to observe and distinguish them with the incomplete optical -resources of their time. - -The first announcement of the discovery of these diamonds from the Cañon -Diablo meteorite was made by Dr. A. E. Foote, and not long after -Professor Koenig’s determination of their character, the present writer -suggested an experiment that would afford absolute proof that the -material was really diamond. This was to charge a new skaif, or -diamond-polishing wheel, with the supposed diamond dust obtained from -the meteorite; should the material polish a diamond there could be no -doubt as to its character. On September 11, 1893, this experiment was -tried at the Mining Building of the World’s Columbian Exposition. After -the skaif had been charged with the residuum separated from the -meteorite by Dr. O. W. Huntington, it was given a speed of 2500 -revolutions to the minute, and in less than fifteen minutes a small flat -surface had been ground down and polished on a cleavage-piece of rough -diamond held against the wheel. The experiment was then repeated several -times on other diamonds and always successfully. This showed -conclusively that the residuum of the meteorite contained many minute -diamond fragments.[183] - -A most important group of meteorites were found in 1886 in Brenham -township, Kiowa County, Kansas, by some of the farmers of this district -in the course of their farming operations.[184] Entirely unaware of -their scientific value, the finders used these objects to weight down -haystacks, or for similar uses to which they would put small boulders. -In all some twenty of these specimens have been recovered, varying in -weight all the way from 466 pounds down to a single ounce. Most of them -were taken from an area of about sixty acres, although some were -scattered over a wider tract. The largest piece of the group, that on -which the farmers had bestowed the fanciful name of the “moon -meteorite,” had lain only three inches beneath the surface of the ground -and broke a ploughshare when it was first struck; none of the masses -appear to have been buried deeper down than from five to six inches. The -largest mass measures twenty-four inches across the widest part and -fourteen and a half at the thickest part. These Kiowa meteorites are in -a sense gem-meteorites, for a number of beautiful and brilliant olivine -crystals occur in them; many are in two distinct zones, the inner one -being a bright transparent yellow, while the outer one is of a dark -brown iron olivine, in reality a mixture of troilite and olivine. The -character and composition of the worked iron of meteoric origin found in -some of the Turner group of Indian mounds, in the Little Miami Valley, -Ohio, indicate that the latter may perhaps be brought into connection -with this group of meteorites. For here, as in the Frozen North among -the Esquimo, and in a number of other cases, the iron available for -primitive man was mainly that of meteorite origin. - -In view of the relatively small number of meteorites that have fallen in -historical times, and of the small part of the earth’s surface actually -occupied by human settlements, we need scarcely be surprised at the -statement that there is but one credibly recorded instance of the -killing of a human being by a meteorite. This unique disaster is said to -have happened at Mhow in India, and fragments of the meteorite which -fell then are to be seen in museum collections. The great weight of some -meteorites would have rendered them very destructive had they not fallen -in the open country; the heaviest single mass actually _known_ to have -fallen, came to the ground at Knyahinya, Hungary, in 1866, and weighed -547 pounds; it buried itself 11 feet in the ground. Of course much -heavier aerolites and siderites, satisfactorily recognizable as such, -have been found, the heaviest being perhaps that at Bacubrit, Mexico, 13 -feet in length with a width of 6 feet and a thickness of 5 feet; the -weight of this mass is estimated to be some 50 tons. Of meteorites which -have fallen in more or less close proximity to human beings, may be -noted one at Tourinnes-la-Grosse, which broke the street pavement; -another at Angers, which fell into a garden, near to where a lady was -standing; and still another at Brunau, which passed through a cottage -roof.[185] - -Many other accidents caused by meteorites or what were believed to be -meteorites are recorded, the credibility of some of the statements not -being very convincing; others, however, appear to be quite worthy of -credence. Thus the Chronicle of Ibn Alathir relates that several persons -were killed by a rain of stones that fell to the earth in Africa in -August, 1020 A.D.[186] In the middle of the seventeenth century the -tower of a prison building in Warsaw is said to have been destroyed by a -meteorite.[187] A hundred years or so before, on May 19, 1552, there was -a great fall of stones, not far from Eisleben, one of which killed the -favorite steed of Count Schwarzenburg, while another wounded the count’s -body-physician, Dr. Mitthobius, in the foot. This was witnessed by -Spangenberg, who reports it in his Saxon Chronicle; he carried off some -of the stones with him to Eisleben.[188] An eight-pound stone (probably -a siderite) is stated by a certain Olaf Erikson to have fallen on -shipboard and killed two persons, at some time about the middle of the -seventeenth century; this is rather indefinite information.[189] The -most remarkable happening, however, is reported from Milan from the end -of the seventeenth or the beginning of the eighteenth century, when a -very small meteorite, weighing not quite an ounce, fell into the -cloister of Santa Maria della Pace (now a cotton factory) and killed a -Franciscan monk. Such was the velocity of this little stone that it -penetrated deep into the monk’s body, whence it was extracted and -preserved for a long time in the Collection of Count Settála. The -greater part of this collection went later to the Ambrosian Library at -Milan, but Chladni sought in vain there for any trace of the -death-dealing meteorite.[190] - -Among the Welsh peasants there is a belief that when a meteor falls to -the earth it becomes reduced to a mass of jelly. This they name _pwdre -ser_. The most plausible explanation offered for this fancy is that the -autumn, the season when the largest number of meteors may be observed, -is also the time of the year when the jelly-like masses of the -plasmodium of Myxomycetes most frequently appear in the fields. A -peasant who, after noting the apparent fall of a meteor, should go in -search of it, might easily come across one of these lumps of plasma, and -might well be induced to think that he had found all that was left of -the meteor after its violent fall to the earth. Of course we have here -to do with the apparent, not with the real, fall of a meteorite. In this -connection it is interesting to note that the _medusa_, or jelly-fish, -has been called a “fallen star” by sailors.[191] - -This Welsh fancy that meteors or “falling-stars” turned to a jelly when -they struck the earth appears to have been quite general in Great -Britain, and the jelly-like substance was variously named “star-slough,” -“star-shoot,” “star-gelly” or “jelly,” “star-fall’n.” The Welsh _pwdre -ser_ literally means “star-rot.” As early as 1641 Sir John Suckling -(1609–1642) wrote the following lines which well describe the way in -which these gelatinous substances came to be regarded as the remains of -a “fallen star”: - - As he whose quicker eye doth trace - A false star shot to a mark’d place - Do’s run apace, - And, thinking it to catch, - A jelly up do snatch. - -Sir Walter Scott also, whose familiarity with superstitions was very -great, has not failed to note this one in his “Talisman,” where the -hermit says: “Seek a fallen star and thou shalt only light on some foul -jelly, which in shooting through the horizon has assumed an appearance -of splendour.” Here the star itself is supposed to have had this -gelatinous form. - -An early writer,[192] noting this curious belief that “a white and -gelatinous substance” was all that remained of a fallen star, declares -that he had clearly demonstrated to the Royal Society that the mass was -composed of the intestines of frogs, and had been vomited by crows, -adding that his opinion had been confirmed by the testimony of other -scientific men. Huxley, from a description, conjectured that the -substance was nostoc, a gelatinous vegetable mass, but this seems to be -somewhat doubtful. In 1744 Robert Boyle states that some of this -“star-shoot” was given to a physician of his acquaintance, who “digested -it in a well-stopt glass for a long time,” and then sold the liquor for -a specific in the removal of wens.[193] - -A jelly-like mass believed by him to be the remains of a “fallen star” -was found by Mr. Rufus Graves at Amherst, Mass., on August 14, 1819, and -duly reported in the American Journal of Science.[194] As this gentleman -was at one time lecturer on chemistry at Dartmouth College, his -testimony is worth heeding, but there can be no doubt that while he -accurately describes what he found, he was altogether mistaken in -supposing that the meteor fell precisely on the spot where he discovered -the gelatinous substance. As we have noted, it has recently been -suggested that these “jellies” are plasmodia of forms of Myxomycetes -which do not appear to have any connection with the spot whereon they -rest, but seem to have fallen from the air.[195] - -Falling stars are explained by the natives of Labrador and of Baffin’s -Bay as being souls of the departed bound on an excursion to Hades in -order to see what is going on there, while the phenomena of thunder and -lightning are caused by a party of old women, who quarrel so violently -over the possession of a seal that they bring the house down over their -heads and shatter the lamps. These “old women” must, of course, be -spirits of the upper air, not human beings.[196] - -In some Australian tribes the sorcerers, or “medicine-men,” taking -advantage of the superstitious dread of falling stars common among the -aborigines, pretend to have marked the spot where such a star has fallen -and to have dug it up and preserved it in their medicine-bag. These -supposititious “fallen stars” are sometimes quartz pebbles, and in one -instance the curiosity of a European investigator was satisfied by the -display of a piece of thick glass, which the sorcerer strictly -maintained he had dug out of the ground wherein the star had -fallen.[197] - -Arrow-heads encased in silver were looked upon as the solid contents of -the lightning flash, and were not only thought to protect the house in -which they were kept from being struck by lightning, but their -protective power was believed to extend to seven houses in the immediate -neighborhood. An interesting example is a neolithic silex arrow-head -figured by Bellucci. This has been elegantly set in silver in modern -times, and comes from Pesca Costanzo, in the province of Aquila, Italy. - -The Italians are convinced that if the arrow-head, or similar object, -come in contact with a piece of iron, the “essence of the lightning” -departs from it, revealing itself in a spark; hence they wrap it up, -carefully, in skin, cloth, or paper so as to guard it from harm. -Sometimes these objects are anointed with oil, a survival of the custom -of making propitiatory offerings of oil. This usage in the case of -sacred stones is very general, and is met with in places as remote from -each other as Sweden, India and the Society Islands.[198] - -In an Iroquois myth and legend, He-no, the god of thunder, is an object -of great veneration because of the powerful aid he renders to those whom -he favors. He is believed to direct the rain which shall fertilize the -seed in the earth, and also to give aid to the harvesters when the -fruits of the earth have ripened. While traversing the celestial vault, -in his journeyings hither and thither above the surface of the globe, he -bears with him an enormous basket filled with huge boulders of chert -rock. These he casts at any evil spirit he may encounter, and when on -occasion a spirit succeeds in avoiding such a boulder, it will fall down -to the earth surrounded by fire. We have here another version of the -almost universal myth of thunder-stones.[199] - -In treating of the flint arrow-heads of the American Indians, Adair -notes that in form and material they closely resembled the “elf-stones” -with which European peasants were wont to rub any of their cattle -believed to have been “shot” by fairies or elves. A village in which one -of these magic objects existed was considered to be particularly favored -by fortune, as they not only served to protect the cattle from -bewitchment but were equally efficacious in preserving human beings from -the spells of witches.[200] - -In East Prussia, when cows are believed to have been bewitched so that -their milk is under a spell, resort is had to the powers of a perforated -“thunder-stone.” Such stones were ancient stone hammers with a central -perforation for a handle. The stone is held beneath the cow at -milking-time, and the milk is allowed to pass through the -perforation.[201] By this means the spell is broken and the milk becomes -harmless. - -Such perforated stones are also used to protect a house from being -struck by lightning. When a storm approaches nearer and nearer, the -owner of one of these magic stones will thrust his finger through the -hole, twirl the stone around three times, and then hurl it against the -door of the room. When this has been done, the house is believed to be -proof against lightning.[202] - -In Westphalia the stone is laid upon a table alongside of a consecrated -candle, the shrewd peasants thus assuring for their houses the -protection of the church as well as that of the ancient God of -Thunder.[203] - -Another phase of the superstition in regard to the stone axes known in -many different parts of the world as thunder-stones, because they are -believed to have fallen during a thunder-storm, is given by Dr. Lund in -a letter written from Logoa Santa in Brazil. He states that the -inhabitants rather look askance at these stones, believing that wherever -they are found the lightning is apt to strike, “in order to seek its -brother!”[204] - -[Illustration: - - By courtesy of the British Museum, London. - - FLINT AMULETS OF THE PREDYNASTIC PERIOD, EGYPT -] - -The stone implements of various forms found in the shell-heaps of Brazil -are called by the natives _Curiscos_ or “lightning-stones.” The Guaranis -name them “stars fallen from heaven”; the Cajuas, “stones hurled by the -thunder”; and the Coarados, “axe-stones.” A high price is paid for these -by the gold-seekers in Brazil, who believe that, by attraction, they -show the presence of gold beneath the surface, just as the divining-rod -is supposed to be affected by the presence of water or by hidden -treasures.[205] - -The peasants of Slavonic descent in Moravia have great faith in the -virtues of the “thunder-stone.” During Passion Week the stone has the -power to reveal the location of hidden treasures, and it is also -believed that warts on man and horse will disappear if they be rubbed -with such a stone before sunset. However, not only healing virtues are -attributed, for if the stone be hurled at anyone and strikes him, it -inflicts a mortal wound.[206] - -A poetic and appropriate name has been applied to the earliest of the -chipped stone artefacts of primitive man by archæologists. They are -called “Dawn Stones” (eoliths), and the name characterizes these -interesting relics, the first steps in the development of sculptural -art, as products of the dawn of human civilization. - -A curious survival of the adoration of stones is reported by the Earl of -Roden in his “Progress of the Reformation in Ireland.”[207] A -correspondent informed Lord Roden that in Inniskea, an island off the -coast of Mayo, there was, in 1851, a stone idol called in the Irish -tongue Neevougi. This was said to have been preserved and worshipped -from time immemorial. The stone is described as having been wrapped in -so many folds of homespun flannel that it looked like a mass of that -material. This is explained by the custom of dedicating a dress of this -flannel to the stone whenever its aid was sought, the garment being -sewed on by an old woman who officiated as the priestess of the stone. -Prayers were offered to this strange idol for the cure of diseases, as -it was supposed to be endowed with extraordinary powers. A stranger -petition sometimes made was that a storm might arise and wreck a ship -upon the coast so that the thrifty islanders might profit by its -misfortune; on the other hand, with charming inconsistency, when they -wished to go a-fishing or pay a visit to the mainland, the trusty stone -was expected to assure them fair weather and a calm sea. - -In Tavernier’s time (about 1650) many poor families living in the woods -and on the hillsides in India, far from any village where there was a -temple, would take a stone, probably one of a peculiar shape, and would -roughly paint on it a nose and eyes in red or green color. This being -done, the whole family would gather about this stone and reverently -adore it as their idol.[208] - -In certain districts in Norway, up to the end of the eighteenth century, -superstitious peasants used to preserve round stones, and set them up in -a conspicuous place in their houses. At Yule-tide these stones were -sprinkled with fresh ale. Some of them were worshipped as divinities, -and every Thursday, or oftener, they were smeared with butter, or some -similar substance, before the fire. This ointment was allowed to dry on -the stone, which was then returned to its place of honor. These -ceremonies were supposed to insure the health and happiness of the -household.[209] - -[Illustration: - - Types of ceraunia or “Thunder-stones.” From “Museum Wormianum.” - Lugduni Batavorum, 1655. -] - -The fact that special ceremonies were performed in connection with these -stones on Thursday, as well as the name “Thor-stones” applied to many of -them, indicates that in early times they were associated with the -worship of the god Thor. The so-called thunderbolts—usually flint -axe-heads—are believed to have been hurled at the trolls or elves by the -thunder, so that these evil-disposed spirits might be subdued and -prevented from fulfilling an old saying, according to which they would -desolate the earth. Originally it was Thor himself who was believed to -hurl the thunderbolt. - -These stones were supposed to be endowed with wonder-working powers. -When a woman was in labor, ale was allowed to drip over a stone of this -kind, and was then given to the woman to drink. All through the -Scandinavian countries the peasants believed that if such a stone were -hung up in a house or on cattle, the trolls and other malevolent spirits -would be driven away, and all spells and witchcraft would be rendered -harmless.[210] - -In Sir William Brereton’s account of his travels (1634–1635)[211] we -read that he saw in the School of Anatomy at Leyden a stone called -“_Fulminis Sagitta_, or the dart of the thunderbolt, about the size of -your little finger.” This was either a belemnite[212] or a stone -arrow-head of somewhat similar form. It bore a Latin inscription to the -following effect: “Many believe that nursing children can be cured of -rupture if this stone be attached to their thighs, or if they do not -suffer from this complaint, they will be preserved from it.” - -On the ridge-beam of an Irish cottage at Portrush was found a neolithic -celt of the kind believed by the peasantry to be “thunderbolts.” This -celt had been placed on the roof of the cottage to protect it from being -struck by lightning, a notion thoroughly in accord with the theory of -sympathetic magic. In Surrey, England, a like belief is held as to the -fossil belemnites, and nodules of iron pyrites such as have been found -in Cretaceous formations near Cragdon are also thought to have fallen -from the sky during a thunder-storm, and to possess peculiar powers in -reference to the lightning.[213] - -In Ireland the prehistoric stone arrow-head is believed to have been -shot at man or beast by the fairies. Should an old woman be so lucky as -to find one she will become highly honored in her village, and it is -used as a cure for diseases produced by the wiles of evil spirits. To -effect a cure, the _saigead_ (“arrow”) must be placed in water, which is -then given to the sick person to drink.[214] Cows which have been -wounded by the “fairy-darts” are also made to drink of this water. The -Irish peasants wore the stone arrow-heads, set in silver, as amulets for -protection against injury from like weapons at the hands of the fairies. -Similar superstitions exist in the North of England.[215] Nilsson -believes that the “elf-shots” (the arrow-points or axe-points) of the -Irish peasantry are identical with the “Lap-shots” of the Swedish -peasantry. These stones were thought to have belonged to the Laplanders, -the “black elves” of the Edda, and were therefore used as a protection -against the witcheries of these elves. The idea that the substance or -thing that has caused an injury can effect a cure of this injury, -appears in the Edda.[216] - -The shepherds in the French Alps value the “thunder-stones” (_peyros de -tron_) very highly. They are handed down from father to son as precious -heirlooms, and when the flocks are driven to the pasturage, one of these -wonder-working stones is embedded in a tuft of wool on the back of the -bell-wether; this is supposed to serve as a protection for the whole -flock.[217] In Spain the peasants call these stones _piedros del rayo_, -or “lightning-stones.”[218] - -The names bestowed on such prehistoric stone implements by the -inhabitants of the Malay Archipelago, of Java and Sumatra, all indicate -that they are believed to have fallen from the sky. In Malacca they are -called _batu gontur_, “lightning-stones,” and in Sumatra we have the -name _anakpitas_, “child of the lightning.” In the island of Nias, near -Sumatra, they are worn as amulets on the head or attached to the sword. -The Watubela islanders denominate them “teeth of the thunder,” a name -which suggests the appellation glossopetra (“stone-tongue”), and like -this is evidently derived from the form of certain of these prehistoric -celts.[219] - -The Burmans have given the highly poetic name of “rainbow-disease” to -the disorder known to us as appendicitis, and they use the axe-heads and -other pointed or sharpened arrow-heads of the Stone Age for the cure of -this malady, stroking the region affected with one of these implements. -The natives share in the delusion almost universal among primitive -peoples, that these stone implements have fallen from the sky during -thunder-storms, and that they partake of the nature of thunderbolts; -hence they are supposed to destroy the rainbow-disease, as the approach -of heavy storm clouds, charged with lightning, darken the sun and put an -end to the beautiful natural phenomenon. - -In the island of Mindanao, one of the Philippine group, the heathen -Manobos called the thunder the “speech of the lightning,” and regarded -the latter as a kind of wild animal, so that whenever the lightning -struck the earth or a tree they believed that the animal had buried its -teeth in the spot. They therefore looked upon any stone implement found -there as one of these teeth.[220] - -The ancient stone hammers found in Japan are called _rai fu seki_, -“thunderbolts,” or _tengu no masakari_, “battle-axes of Tengu,” the -warder of the heavens. Other stone implements bear the name “fox-axes,” -or “fox-planes.” These peculiar designations are employed because the -fox is a symbol of the devil, and the stone axes are regarded as weapons -of the devil. Of course this in no wise prevents their use as amulets or -medicinally; indeed, their powder is thought to be an especially -effective remedy for boils and ulcers. Many such stones may be seen in -the temples, where they are carefully preserved and shown to the -pilgrims who visit the different shrines.[221] - -Even at the present day, the superstitious belief in the magic -properties of the prehistoric stone implements still survives among some -of the Scandinavian peasants. They believe that these offer protection -against lightning, and they are very unwilling to part with them. In -some regions the stone axes or arrow-heads are supposed to afford -protection against lightning, and they are occasionally used to relieve -the pangs of childbirth. In the latter case they are placed in the bed -of the suffering woman. Another curious use to which they are put is as -a cure for an eruptive disease of children. Here the flint is struck -sharply with a piece of steel, so that the sparks fall upon the child’s -head.[222] This gives us an added proof of the association of these -stone axes, etc., with fire and with the lightning flash. - -The Burmese celts or stone hatchets are frequently of jade and differ -from those usually met with in Europe and India, in that they are -provided with a chisel-edge instead of a double-sloped cutting edge. An -interesting account of the superstitions connected with these implements -is given by Mr. Theobald,[223] from whom we quote the following passage. -It will be noted that the Burmese ideas are in almost exact accord with -those current in Europe. - - The Burmese call these implements _mo-jio_, thunder-chain or - thunderbolt, and believe that they descend with the lightning flash, - and, after penetrating the earth, work their way back by degrees to - the surface, where they are found scattered about the fields among the - lower hills, usually after rain, or on removing the crops. The true - _mo-jio_ is supposed to possess many occult virtues, and it is not - common to find one which does not show signs of having been chipped or - scraped for medicinal purposes. - - One of the chief virtues of the _mo-jio_ is to render the person of - the wearer invulnerable; and many an unlucky _mo-jio_ has succumbed to - the popular test, which is to wrap it in a cloth and fire a bullet at - it at short range. If the man misses the cloth, the authenticity and - power of the charm is at once established; if the stone is fractured - it is held not to be a real _mo-jio_. - - Fire will not consume a house which contains one, though I never heard - of this ordeal being attempted. Last but not least is the known fact - that the owner of a real _mo-jio_ can cut a rainbow in half with it. - -Certain recent happenings have suggested that the name “aviator-stone” -would be a peculiarly appropriate designation for meteorites, and indeed -this new name would only serve to emphasize the legendary belief, that -he who bore with him a meteorite when he was in deadly peril would -escape all injury. By a strange coincidence those who are willing to -take great risks and chances are generally more or less superstitious -regarding small things, and a daring aviator recently remarked that on -one occasion, when his machine had suddenly fallen fifty feet, he felt -for his tie and said to himself: “This accident has happened because I -forgot to put on my opal pin, but I have been saved from injury because -I carried a meteorite.” This aviator, having mentioned the incident to -Harmon, a few minutes before the latter made his successful attempt to -win the Doubleday-Page aviation prize, Harmon immediately took the -meteorite which had been shown to him, saying: “Let me have it.” He -accomplished his task, and although both the competing machines were -injured, the aviators themselves were saved. - -A meteorite, of course, cannot be claimed to be a preventive of danger -on all occasions, but several who have always carried them have seemed -to escape all sorts of harm. Some years ago a meteorite was given to -Edward Heron Allen, the famous writer on palmistry and the violin, and -this gifted man always wore it about him. One morning he awakened to -find that the entire roof above him had fallen in, except just that -portion over his bed. He told the story to one of the best known ladies -in Boston; one who is known for her public spirit, her love of art and -her faultless manner of entertaining. This lady successfully urged Allen -to give her the meteorite. A few days later, while out driving, a great -truck with two runaway horses attached to it struck her carriage. -Instinctively she raised her muff to protect her face; the muff was -almost cut in two, but the lady was not hurt. A few days later, while -she was walking under some scaffolding, it fell, and the open part where -the hoists went up proved to be just where she stood. Although -surrounded by ruin, she remained unharmed. - - - - - III - Stones of Healing - - -In his commentary on Theophrastus, Sir John Hill touches upon the -question of the medicinal virtues of precious stones. His researches -regarding the causes and conditions determining color in stones, led him -to the conjecture that the active principle, if it really existed, was -to be sought in the coloring matter. As the opinion of a very clever -student in his day, his words will bear quotation:[224] - - The greatest part of these [medicinal virtues] cannot but be seen at - first view to be altogether imaginary; and as to the virtues of the - Gems in general, it is now the reigning Opinion, that they are nearly - all so, their greatest Friends allowing them no other than those of - the common alkaline Absorbents. However, whether the metalline - Particles, to which they owe their Colours, are, in either Quantity or - Quality, in Condition to have any effect in the Body, is a Matter - worthy of a strict and regular Tryal; and that would at once decide - the Question between us and the Antients, and shew whether we have - been too rash, or they too superstitious. - -The so-called “doctrine of signatures” treated of the marks set by -nature upon certain objects to denote their usefulness in the cure of -diseases affecting different parts of the body, or their power to -neutralize the effects of the bites of certain animals or reptiles. Of -this theory Martius says that the “signatures” are not to be sought in a -fanciful resemblance to the form of the objects with the diseased parts -of the human body, but rather in the color, odor, taste, composition, -etc., of the objects.[225] - -Medieval medical literature has no more interesting example than the -treatise entitled “Thesaurus Pauperum,” or the “Poor-man’s Treasury,” -written by Petrus Hispanus, who later reigned for a brief period as pope -under the name of John XXI (1276–1277). The birthplace of the author was -Lisbon in Portugal, and he studied for some time at the University of -Paris, where his learning earned him high praise. Prior to his election -as pope, he served for a time as first physician to Pope Gregory X -(1271–1276). Most of the remedies prescribed in this little treatise are -naturally such as had long been popular among the peasantry, and the -ingredients of which could easily be secured; vegetable growths, plants, -herbs and flowers, and certain parts of the more common animals, served -here, as in Pliny’s day and earlier still, as those most highly favored. -Of the comparatively few mineral substances whose use is recommended may -be noted the red variety of _chelidonius_ or “swallow-stone,” for the -cure of epilepsy; the powder of the “iris” (probably an iridescent -variety of quartz) was also a cure for epileptics. Then we find, strange -to say, a recommendation of such costly remedial agencies as emerald and -sapphire, either of which if touched on the eye would heal diseases of -that organ. Cold stones placed on the temples and tightly bound on were -said to arrest bleeding from the nose, and coral was a great help in -syncope. For stone in the bladder two mineral substances, “humus” and -“songie,” are warmly recommended (the former can scarcely be held to -signify mere “soil”), as are also “stones found in the gizzards of -cocks” (the _alectorius_) and those from the bladders of hogs. All these -were to be reduced to powder, dissolved in liquid, and taken in the form -of potions. The use of stones and coral rather as amulets or talismans -than as remedies is occasionally mentioned. Thus the loadstone, if worn, -is said to remove discord between man and woman; coral, if kept in the -house, destroyed all evil influences, and if a woman wore touching her -skin a concretion taken from the stomach of a she-goat that had not had -young, this woman would never bear a child.[226] - -The curious old medical treatise in verse called the “Schola -Salernitana,” was translated into English by Sir James Harington in -1607. The following lines give advice that is as appropriate to the -conditions of our own age as to those of any other:[227] - - Use three physitians still, first doctor Quiet, - Next doctor Merry-man and doctor Dyet. - -Whether with or without intention, the translator has omitted to render -the qualification given in the original: “Si tibi deficiant medici” (if -other doctors are lacking). - -The terrible plague known as the Black Death is said to have claimed -13,000,000 victims in Europe in the years 1347 and 1348. A contemporary, -Olivier de la Haye, in a poem describing this fearful visitation, gives -a number of recipes used, or to be used as remedies. In one of these -there appear as ingredients pearls, jargoons, emeralds and coral, -one-sixth of a drachm of each of these materials entering into the -composition of the prescription.[228] The symptoms of this form of the -plague, as described by the old writers, are said to resemble closely -those of the disease that was prevalent not long ago in some parts of -Asia, especially in northern China and Manchuria. - -A famous class of medical remedies used in medieval times bore the -generic name _theriaca_, or theriac, this designation being derived from -the Greek _therion_, signifying a beast, more specifically a poisonous -animal and hence also a serpent. These preparations were primarily -antidotes for poison, but were also freely administered for any form of -“blood-poisoning,” for malarial infection, malignant fevers and the -like. Principal ingredients were the “Armenian stone” (a friable, blue -carbonate of copper), pearls, charred stag’s-horn, and coral. The -Veronese physician, Francesco India, confidently affirms that this -remedy not only cured the plague, but also protected those who had -partaken of it from contracting the disease; this was said to be more -especially true of the _theriaca Andromachi_, or Venice treacle as it -was popularly called, which purported to be the invention of a Roman or -Greek physician, Andromachus, who composed some medical poems dedicated -to Cæsar.[229] - -In medieval Bohemia the knowledge of precious stones and their -employment for curative purposes is well attested. There exists a -Bohemian manuscript list of precious stones dated in 1391, in which no -less than 55 different gems are noted. Their medicinal use in Bohemia at -this time is vouched for by the Synonima Apothecariorum where precious -stones are listed among the materials of the apothecaries’ art.[230] - -In the testaments of royal and princely personages, medical stones are -often bestowed as precious legacies. Thus in the will of the Hessian -prince, Henry VIII of Fürstenberg, the following stones are mentioned as -especially costly objects: a “crabstone” (Krebstein), a bloodstone, and -a gravel-stone, the latter being a piece of jade or nephrite.[231] The -crabstone, sometimes called crab’s-eye, is a chalky concretion which -forms on either side of the stomach of a crab or other crustacean during -the moulting period, and this was and is still used as an eye-stone for -the removing of foreign bodies that have entered the eye, the eye-stone -being introduced under the eyelid. This results in a rapid flow from the -tear-ducts which often washes away the foreign bodies, the passage of -the stone across the eyeball occasionally aiding in the work by rubbing -off the body. - -[Illustration: - - Interior of fifteenth century pharmacy. From Johannis de Cuba’s “Ortus - Sanitatis”, Strassburg, 1483. -] - -[Illustration: - - THE “ORTUS SANITATIS” OF JOHANNIS DE CUBA, PUBLISHED AT STRASSBURG IN - 1483. - - The woodcut depicts Adam and Eve beneath the “Tree of Knowledge.” -] - -In the sixteenth century sapphires, emeralds, rubies, garnets, jacinths, -coral and sardonyxes were used in all tonics prescribed to protect the -heart against the effects of poison and of the plague. As it was noted -that these remedies were frequently ineffectual, an explanation was -sought in the fact that spurious stones were often used, the -apothecaries either not having the knowledge to recognize the genuine -stones, or being moved by a desire to profit by the substitution of some -inferior substance. Hence physicians were warned to be on their guard -against such deceptions, and only to employ thoroughly trustworthy -apothecaries for the compounding of their prescriptions. A substitution -frequently made was that of the so-called yellow chrysoprase (cerogate), -a stained chalcedony, for the jacinth, although the true jacinth of the -ancients was of the color of the amethyst. The grinding of coral in a -brass mortar, instead of in one of marble, was also regarded as a very -dangerous proceeding, which would have the worst possible results for -the unlucky patient who took the powder, for some particles of the brass -might be rubbed away and mix with the coral. This was said to have often -produced very serious illness.[232] - -In a price-list of a firm of German druggists, printed in 1757, all the -precious stones still appear. Here the cost of a pound of rock-crystal -is six groschen ($.18); the same quantity of emerald was priced at eight -groschen ($.25), while the pound of sapphire was quoted at sixteen -groschen ($.50), of ruby at one thaler ($.75), and of lapis lazuli at -five thalers ($3.75). This indicates quite clearly the quality of the -emerald, sapphire and ruby offered for sale. A pound of Oriental bezoar -commanded the highest price, sixteen thalers ($12).[233] - -Regarding the length of time during which various preparations retained -their strength, Braunfels[234] states that, according to the opinion of -the Arabian physicians, the solution of lapis Armenus lasted for ten -years, while that of lapis lazuli could be preserved only about three -years. A list of the indispensable materials which should be in every -good pharmacy included the following precious stones: - - Jacinth - Sapphire - Emerald - Topaz - Margaritha (pearl) - Magnes - Coral - Hematite - Ætites - Jasper - -The supposed medicinal properties of precious stones are subjected to a -searching criticism by the Veronese physician, Francesco India, writing -in 1593.[235] After establishing the distinction between alimentary and -medicinal substances, he proceeds to exclude from the latter category -the jacinth, emerald, sapphire, etc., because although they could be -reduced to a powder, they could not be dissolved, so that when taken in -a potion they could be absorbed in the human system.[236] Hence no such -effects could properly be ascribed to them as were to be expected from -the regular and normal medicinal agencies. This writer ascribes the -original use of such stones as remedies for malignant fevers and other -dangerous diseases to the Arabs, adding that “had they not made this -mistake and thus led many physicians into error, they would have been -better worthy of praise.”[234] In fact he does not hesitate to pronounce -the emphatic opinion that these stones are not remedial agents fit to be -administered or used by any rational physician.[237] That powdered -hematite (red oxide of iron) possesses an astringent quality and may -really be looked upon as a medicine, he fully recognizes, more -particularly its efficacy for the cure of diseases of the eye, but -neither these nor similar qualities can be credited to sapphires, -emeralds, or jacinths. At the same time he is not disposed to deny that -these stones may have some subtle effect upon the body when worn, or -when held in the mouth for a time. Thus he agrees with Avicenna (Ben -Sina) that a jacinth worn over the heart may strengthen that organ, for -he knows of the power inherent in jasper to check a hemorrhage. In a -word his argument is principally directed against the internal use of -powders made from these hard and unassimilable stones.[238] - -Robert Boyle, writing in 1663, attempts to show that the theory of the -therapeutic action of precious stones is not incompatible with observed -facts. In this connection he says:[239] - - I am not altogether of their mind, that absolutely reject the internal - use of Leaf-Gold, Rubies, Saphyrs, Emeralds, and other Gems, as things - that are unconquerable by the heat of the stomach. For as there are - rich Patients that may, without much inconvenience, goe to the price - of the dearest Medicines; so I think the Stomach acts not on Medicines - barely upon the account of its heat, but is endowed with a subtle - dissolvent (whence never it hath it) by which it may perform divers - things not to be done by so languid a heat. And I have, with Liquors - of differing sorts, easily drawn from Vegetable Substances, and - perhaps unrectified, sometimes dissolved, and sometimes drawn - Tinctures from Gems, and that in the cold.... But that which I chiefly - consider on this occasion is, that ’tis one thing to make it - _probable_, that is, _possible_, Gold, Rubies, Saphyrs, etc., may be - wrought upon by humane Stomach; and another thing to shew both that - they _are wont_ to be so, and that they _are_ actually endowed with - those particular and specifick Virtues that are ascribed to them; nay - and (over and above) that these Virtues are such and so eminent, that - they considerably surpass those of cheaper Simples. And I think, that - in Prescriptions made for the poorer sort of Patients, a Physician may - well substitute cheaper Ingredients in the place of these precious - ones, whose Virtues are no half so unquestionable as their Dearnesse. - -Whether the somewhat mysterious illness and death of the popes Leo IV -and Paul II could have been caused by the great quantity of pearls and -precious stones they were in the habit of wearing was a question -seriously discussed by Johann Wolff, the supposed lethal effect being -attributed to the coldness of such objects.[240] Indeed, the frigidity -of precious stones was adduced by certain writers as one of the chief -reasons for their remedial use in fevers.[241] - -Not only to King Frederick III of Denmark himself, to whom on his -death-bed in 1670, a dose of pulverized bezoar was administered, but to -his queen and their children such remedies were given, there being -record that on September 19, 1663, a prescription containing red coral -and pearl-powder was compounded by the Court Pharmacy for the queen, -while a few years earlier the inevitable bezoar and also a tonic -pearl-milk were administered to some of the royal offspring.[242] - -[Illustration: - - FAMOUS PEARL NECKLACE OF THE UNFORTUNATE EMPRESS CARLOTTA, WIDOW OF - EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN OF MEXICO. -] - -Some interesting details as to the use of precious stone remedies for -the cure of illness appear in the manuscript notes of lectures given at -the Leyden Hospital by the seventeenth century physician, Lucas Schacht, -in 1674 and 1675.[243] This shows that these remedial agents were there -and at that time only used as a last resort, when the patient’s -condition had become desperate, and the physician is usually obliged to -record the fact that death ensued shortly afterwards. Thus we are told -of the case of a certain Ludovicus Carels who was suffering from -difficulty of breathing and purulent expectoration; his body was so -distended that he could scarcely move his limbs, and he also had a -severe diarrhœa. This was his condition on November 12, 1674, and the -symptoms steadily grew worse under a treatment of herb decoctions, until -a few days later, on November 21, it is noted that “he only thinks of -death.” Still the doctors waited until November 24 before they decided -to administer a compound remedy consisting in part of the elixirs of -jacinth and pearl; three days later the patient died. In general the -chief symptoms which justified the use of such remedies were those of -high fever or great weakness. - -Although by the middle of the eighteenth century the belief in the -special curative powers of precious-stone material had almost entirely -disappeared, giving place to a more scientific conception of the -chemical composition of these bodies, still, we find, even in so capable -a writer as the German mineralogist, U. F. B. Brückmann, a lingering -trace of the old idea, for while he declares that all intelligent -physicians have abandoned their use, he adds, “if, however, any stone of -this kind has more effect than an ordinary earthy substance, it is the -lapis lazuli, but we have a hundred other remedies equally efficacious -and much cheaper.” He also testifies to the fact that very little -genuine material was to be had from the apothecaries, he himself having -often seen a yellow feldspar offered instead of a jacinth, and poor -garnets as substitutes for rubies.[244] - -Toward the end of the eighteenth century, a famous cordial medicine, -called “Gascoign’s Powder,” after the physician who compounded it, had -an immense vogue in England. This man is said to have got more than -£50,000 ($250,000) from the sale of this single remedy. It is stated to -have contained Oriental bezoar (the most important ingredient), white -amber, red coral, crab’s eyes, powdered hartshorn, pearl and black -crab’s claws; certainly a most incongruous mixture and one well -calculated to test the resisting powers of the person to whom it was -administered.[245] - -A modern writer finds in the homeopathic theory of medicine an -explanation of the apparent therapeutic effects of precious stones.[246] -For if the smaller the dose the greater the effect, then such -super-subtle emanations as are thought to proceed from precious stones -must have effects still more powerful than those of the most highly -diluted tinctures administered by homeopathists of the old school. -Christian Science, however, with its bold denial of the existence of -disease, and with its purely spiritual treatment of the “mental error” -that is supposed to be at the root of all morbid symptoms, could even -more easily account for the apparent cures wrought by merely wearing -precious stones. The belief in their remedial virtue would serve to -remove the morbid impression, and would restore the mind to its normal -and healthy state. - -An instance from our own day of the application of a mineral substance -externally for the cure of disease, appears in the use of the uranium -pitchblende occurring in Joachimsthal, Bohemia. This is enclosed in -leather bags and applied to the head for the cure of headache. The most -violent pains are said to be relieved in a short time by this treatment, -the effect being produced by the radium contained in the -pitchblende.[247] - - -Agate - -Treating of the medicinal virtues of agates, Pliny distinguishes between -the Indian agates, which were a remedy for diseases of the eyes, and -those from Egypt and Crete, which were especially adapted for curing the -bites of spiders or scorpions.[248] This latter quality was probably -attributed to the agate because it was believed to have a cooling -influence upon the body. Damigeron directs that when used to cure the -bites of venomous creatures the stone should be reduced to a powder, -which was to be strewn over the wound; sometimes, however, this powder -was dissolved in wine and administered internally.[249] As an agate, if -held in the mouth, was supposed to quench thirst, it was recommended at -an early period for the cure of fevers and inflammatory diseases.[250] - -In Byzantine times the use of agate for inflamed eyes and for headaches -is still advised by Psellus (eleventh century), who adds that it checks -menstruation and prevents the accumulation of water in cases of dropsy. -This he attributes to the wonderful absorbent power of the stone.[251] -It seems most probable that here some kind of hydrophane has been -confounded with the agate. The other use, that of checking hemorrhages, -presupposes the use of a red variety of agate. - - -Beryl - -Thomas de Cantimpré[252] tells us that the beryl cures quinsy and -swollen glands in the neck if the affected part be rubbed with the -stone. It is also useful as a remedy for diseases of the eye, and if -water in which it has been steeped be given to anyone suffering from an -attack of hiccoughs, relief will be afforded. - -The beryl was warmly recommended as a cure for injuries to the eyeball, -even of the most serious kind. For use in such cases the stone was to be -pulverized in a mortar, and this powder then passed through a fine -sieve. Of the minute particles thus secured, a small quantity was to be -introduced each morning into the injured eye, the patient being in a -recumbent posture. He was then to keep properly quiet with his eyes shut -for a considerable length of time after this operation. Although it was -not indeed claimed that where the power of sight had been destroyed it -could thus be restored, still even in case of such severe injury the -eyeball was healed sooner and assumed a better appearance. In less -serious cases a cure was considered to be assured.[253] - - -Carbuncle - -Many virtues are attributed to carbuncles. It is related that those who -wear them can resist poisons and are preserved from the pest. They -dissipate sadness, control incontinence, avert evil thoughts and dreams, -exhilarate the soul and foretell misfortunes to man by losing their -native splendor.[254] - - -Chalcedony - -Perforated, spherical beads of milky white chalcedony are worn at the -present day by Italian peasant women to increase the supply of milk. -Hence the Italian name for such a bead, _pietra lattea_. Perforated -beads of white steatite, belonging to the early Iron Age, have been -found near Perugia, where the chalcedony beads are worn, and it is -believed that these steatite beads were borne for the same purpose.[255] - - -Coral - -Coral and safran, if wrapped in the skin of a cat, were believed to have -marvellous powers; and when emeralds were added to the coral the -talisman would drive off a mortal fever. To have the proper effect, -however, it must be attached to the neck of the patient.[256] As a cure -for hydrophobia, dog-collars set with flint and Maltese coral were -recommended in Roman times; “sacred shells” and herbs over which magic -incantations had been pronounced were also attached to, or enclosed in -these collars. The use of coral in this case appears to have been due to -the belief in its power to dissolve the spell cast by the Evil Eye, for -Gratius, who flourished in the first century A.D. and was a contemporary -of the poet Ovid, asserts that if such collars were put on dogs -suffering from hydrophobia, the gods were appeased, and the charm cast -by “an envious eye” was broken.[257] - -The Hindu physicians found that coral tasted both sweet and sour, and -they asserted that its principal action was on the secretions of the -mucous membrane, on the bile and on certain morbid secretions.[258] -Although the chemical constituents of coral have but slight medicinal -value, it is quite possible that some effects upon the secretions may -have been observed experimentally after the administration of a dose of -powdered coral. - -An old pharmacopœia gives elaborate directions for the preparation of -the “Tincture of Coral.” A branch of very red coral was to be buried in -melted wax, and allowed to remain over a fire for the space of two days, -“after which time you will see that the coral has become white, while -the wax has assumed a red hue.” A fresh branch of coral is then to be -put into the partially colored wax, and the above operation repeated; -the wax will then be “redder than before.” It is now to be broken into -crusts, which are to be steeped in alcohol until the liquid has -extracted the coloring matter from the wax and has become reddish. In -this way, after the removal of the wax by filtration, etc., a tincture -was obtained which is represented to have been an excellent tonic, and -to have had the power to expel “bad humors,” by inducing perspiration, -or by its diuretic action.[259] We strongly suspect that in this, as in -many modern “tonics,” the contents of spirit was the active principle. - -An apparent confirmation of the widespread belief of former centuries -that red coral changed its hue in sympathy with the state of the -wearer’s health, caused perhaps by the exudations or sweats arising from -fevers or other ailments, is given from personal experience by the -German physician, Johann Wittich. Writing toward the end of the -sixteenth century, this author relates that he was called in to attend a -youth named Bernard Erasmus, son of the burgomaster of Arnstadt. As the -youth sickened unto death a red coral which he was wearing turned first -whitish, then of a dirty yellow, and finally became covered with black -spots. To the anxious questions of the youth’s sister, Wittich could -only give a mournful answer, telling her to take away the coral, for -death was surely approaching, and this prognostication proved to be only -too true, as in a few hours young Erasmus was dead.[260] - -A rosary of coral beads was sometimes called in France a _pater de -sang_, or “blood-rosary,” since it was believed to check hemorrhages. An -anonymous author of an eighteenth century treatise on superstitions, -assuming that this effect could be produced only by thickening the -blood, asserts that such a rosary might do more harm than good, for if -it possessed this power at one time, it must possess it constantly, and -its action would be very injurious.[261] Pearls and corals were still -freely used as therapeutic agents in the last half of the seventeenth -century, for we are told that Louis XIV (1638–1715), in 1655, took -tablets containing gold and pearls, which had been prescribed for him by -his physician Vallot, and, in 1664, a remedy composed of pearls and -corals was recommended by the same authority.[262] - - -Corundum - -A stone, which from the description seems to have been an almost -colorless variety of corundum with a faint reddish tint, is recommended -in the Syrian Aristotle for the alleviation of diseases of the breast. -To have the proper effect this stone was to be worn on the region -affected by the malady.[263] - - -Diamond - -The Hindu physicians claimed that they had found that the diamond had -six flavors; it was sweet, sour, salty, pungent, bitter, and acrid. -Since the stone united all these apparently contradictory qualities, we -have no reason to be surprised that it should be supposed to cure all -diseases and lessen all ills. An elixir of great potency, stimulating -and strengthening all the bodily functions, was made from the -diamond.[264] - -The author of the Jawâhir-nâmeh (Book of Jewels), written about a -century ago, gives some of the prevalent Hindu ideas regarding the -diamond. He asserts that the similarity of this stone and rock-crystal -led to the belief that the latter was only an incomplete or “unripe” -form of the diamond. For this reason rock-crystal was called _kacha_, -“unripe,” and the diamond, _pakka_, “ripe.” The same writer, after -noting the general belief that if a diamond were put in the mouth it -caused the teeth to fall out, states that some were not disposed to -admit this, as diamond dust had been used as a tooth-powder without any -bad effects.[265] It might certainly serve to whiten the teeth, but any -one who trusted to this very drastic dentifrice would soon be sadly in -need of the dentist’s help. - -As a proof that the diamond was not much prized as an ornamental stone -in the Middle Ages, although some of the praise bestowed upon it by -Pliny and other classical writers was copied and recopied in a more or -less perfunctory way, we may cite the few lines devoted to the stone by -Psellus, who lived in Constantinople in the eleventh century A.D. This -writer simply remarks of the diamond that it is hard and difficult to -pierce, adding, as its chief virtue, that it would quench the heat of -the “semi-tertian” fever.[266] The belief in this cooling quality of the -diamond was suggested by its lack of color coupled with its extreme -hardness, the latter quality being thought to augment the refrigerant -power supposed to be inherent in colorless crystals which resembled ice. - - -Emerald - -The emerald is especially commended for amulets to be suspended from the -necks of children; it is believed to preserve them from epileptic -convulsions and to prevent the falling sickness; but if the violence of -the disease is such that it cannot be overcome by the stone, the latter -breaks up. Bound to a woman’s thigh it is said to hasten parturition; -hanging from the neck it drives off vain fears and evil spirits. It -strengthens the memory, restores the sight, reveals adultery and gives a -knowledge of the future, produces eloquence and increases wealth.[267] - -Besides the usual designation _marakata_ which Garbe believes to be -derived from the Greek σμάραγδος, the Sanskrit has several -distinguishing names for the emerald. One of these, _açmagarbhaja_, -signifies “sprung from the rock,” and well describes the emerald in its -matrix. Another name is _garalari_, “enemy of poison,” indicating the -great repute enjoyed by this stone in India as an antidote for all -animal, mineral and vegetable poisons.[268] In Mexico the emerald[269] -bore the name Quetzalitzli, “stone of the quetzal,” because its color -resembled the brilliant green of the plumes of the bird called in the -Mexican tongue _quetzal_. These plumes were worn as insignia of royalty -by the sovereigns of Mexico and Central America, and hence the emerald -was regarded as an essentially regal gem, although its use was not -confined to royalty. - -The tincture of emerald is recommended by the Arab physician Abenzoar as -an internal remedy for the cure of dysentery, the dose prescribed being -six grains. He also claims to have cured one of his patients suffering -from this disease by making him wear an emerald.[270] This illustrates -the use of the stone in Moorish Spain in the early part of the eleventh -century, the period of the highest development of Moorish civilization, -for Abenzoar, or Abû Meruân, as he is sometimes called, was born in -Seville about 1091 A.D. and died in 1161 or 1162. - - -Hematite - -The curative properties of the hematite were generally recognized by the -early writers, and in this case they were not so much at fault, as this -substance possesses considerable astringent properties. Galen recommends -its use for inflamed eyelids, following in this the teachings of the -Egyptian schools of medicine. If there were tumors on the eyelids, the -hematite was to be dissolved in white of egg, and if the tumors were -very large it was to be boiled with fenugreek (fœnum græcum); if, -however, there were no tumors, but simply a general inflammation of the -eyelids, a solution in water sufficed. At the outset a few drops of a -weak solution were to be poured into the eye through a glass tube; -should this treatment not prove effective, the solution was to be made -thicker and thicker, until at last it had to be dipped out on the point -of the tube. If ground to a fine powder in a mortar, hematite cured -spitting of blood and all ulcers. Galen advises great care in judging of -the quality and strength of the powder, which was to be poured on or -spread over the sore, but in his own case he admits that he trusted to -his sense of taste to determine its quality.[271] - -Sotacus as quoted by Pliny distinguishes five kinds of hematite, each -one of which possessed special medicinal virtues. The best was the -Ethiopic, which was a valuable ingredient in lotions for the eyes, and -for burns. The second kind was called androdamus and came from Africa; -this was very black, and was exceedingly hard and heavy, whence its name -“conqueror of man”; it was reputed to attract silver, brass and iron. If -rubbed with a moistened whetstone it gave forth a red juice, and was -considered to be a specific for bilious disorders. The third kind was -brought by the Arabs; this gave scarcely any juice when rubbed with the -whetstone, but occasionally a little of a yellowish hue, and was useful -for burns and for all bilious disorders. The fourth kind was called -elatite in its natural state and melitite when burned; and the fifth -appears to have contained an admixture of schist. These shared in the -general virtues of the hematite, three grains of whose powder, when -taken in oil, would cure all blood diseases.[272] - -That the cause of the friendship between Hector and Dolon was the -latter’s ownership of a hematite is asserted in the Greek Orphic poem -“Lithica.” This statement must be derived from some annotation to the -Iliad made in the Alexandrine schools, for Homer himself knows nothing -of it. In the fateful encounter of Hector with Achilles, the form and -aspect of Dolon are assumed by Athena to deceive Hector into the belief -that his friend was at his side to aid him in the unequal struggle. The -blood of Uranus when wounded by Kronos is stated in “Lithica” as the -generating cause of hematite, and the stone is recommended as a cure for -eye-diseases.[273] - - -Jacinth - -A peculiarly stimulant and tonic effect exercised by the jacinth was -noted by Ben Sina (Avicenna), and to this is attributed its value as an -antidote for poisons. Not, however, to the material composition of the -stone was this effect to be attributed, for it proceeded from the mass -in the same way as did the virtue of the magnet. Hence Ben Sina is -opposed to the theory that the natural warmth of the body acted upon the -jacinth, when taken internally, producing a transmutation, dissolution -and mingling of its substance with the volatile spiritual essence.[274] - -In Constantinople, at a time when the plague was exceptionally -prevalent, the citizens used to wear jacinths, because of the special -virtues these stones were supposed to possess as guardians against the -plague. That jacinth amulets intended for therapeutic use were -occasionally to be found in pharmacies, is attested by Ambrosianus, who -states that a jacinth the size of a human nail, and set in silver, was -kept in a “pharmacy in Poland.” This stone, if held to a wound, was said -to prevent mortification.[275] - -[Illustration: - - JADE TONGUE AMULETS FOR THE DEAD. CHINESE - - Figs. 1–4, plain types; Fig. 5, carved in shape of realistic cicada - (a. upper, b. lower face); Figs. 6–9, conventionalized forms of - cicada. From “Jade,” by Berthold Laufer. - - By courtesy of the author and Field Museum of National History, - Chicago. -] - - -Jade - -The first mention of this material is made by Monardes, who says:[276] - - The so-called nephritic stone is a species of stone, the finest of - which resemble the emerald crystal, and are green with a milky hue. It - is worn in various forms, made in ancient times, such as the Indians - had; some like fish, some like the heads of birds, others like the - beaks of parrots and others again round as balls; all, however, are - perforated, since the Indians used to wear them attached for nephritic - or gastric pains, for they had marvellous efficacy in both these - infirmities. Their principal virtue regards the nephritic pain, and - the passing of gravel and stone, in such sort that a gentleman who - owns one, the best I have ever seen, wearing it bound on his arm, - passed so much gravel that he often takes it off, thinking that it may - be injurious for him to pass such a quantity; and, indeed, when he - removes the stone he passes much less.... This stone has an occult - property, by means of which it exercises a wonderful prophylactic - effect, preventing the occurrence of nephritic pain, and should it - nevertheless ensue, removing or alleviating it. The duchess my lady, - having suffered three attacks of this malady during a short period, - had one of these stones set in a bracelet and wore it on her arm, and - from the time she put it on, she has never felt any pain, although ten - years have past. In the same way it has served many, who have realized - the same benefit. Therefore, it is highly prized and it cannot now be - worn so easily as in former times, as only caciques and noblemen own - it, and rightly, since it has such wonderful effects. - -The Chinese Taoist adept T’ao Hung Ching, who flourished A.D. 500, -directs that when powdered jade is prescribed by a physician, carved -jade must not be used, nor unwrought jade that has been buried in tombs. -While sometimes a very fine powder was recommended, the usual plan was -to reduce the jade by pounding it into pieces the size of small pulse. -When administered in this form the Chinese physicians asserted that the -powder passed unchanged through the system, but that the essential -principle, the innate virtue, was absorbed by the patient. It relieved -heart-burn and asthma and stilled thirst. Taken regularly for a long -period it acted as a powerful general tonic, and had the special effects -of strengthening the voice and rendering the hair glossy; but all these -good effects could only be secured by the use of unwrought jade.[277] - -The _lapis nephriticus_ (jade) was held to be a remedy for œdematous -affections of the feet. As this stone was so highly in favor in Europe -for a century or two after it had first been brought from America by the -Spaniards, many were of the opinion that it should be constantly worn to -exert its full curative power. There were some, however, who argued that -with this as with other remedies, constant and unremitting use weakened -the effect, so that when the wearer was suddenly attacked by some -disorder for which jade was a cure, his system would have become so -habituated to its action that it would no longer work as a remedy.[278] - -Of the _lapis nephriticus_ the old Danish writer, Caspar Bertholin, -relates in 1628 that four prominent citizens of Copenhagen, whom he had -recommended to wear it to break up the calculi with which they were -afflicted, could testify to its worth, adding, somewhat naïvely, “at -least two of them can, for the two others are dead—but not of the -stone.” He himself, however, although he had sent for specimens at great -expense, to Venice, Nuremberg and Batavia, could not gain any relief -from his trouble, but nevertheless, firm in his conviction of the -special curative power of jade, he asserts that the calculi which -tormented him must have been exceptionally hard and flint-like, so that -they could not be broken up. The vogue enjoyed by this supposed remedy -in the Denmark of the time is illustrated in the case of the reigning -sovereign, Christian IV, who wore on his person a green nephrite until -the day of his death. This stone is still preserved in the Rosenborg -Museum collection among the relics of this king.[279] - -[Illustration: - - FRONTISPIECE OF MUSEUM WORMIANUM - - Printed in Leyden in 1655, showing a part of the remarkable collection - of specimens illustrating natural history owned - by Olaus Wormius of Copenhagen. -] - -Johannes de Laet was much impressed with the virtues of the _lapis -nephriticus_ as were most of his learned contemporaries, since he -assures his readers that an oblong, smooth, moderately thick stone in -his possession, having the color of honey and a very oily surface, had -given his wife great relief from the severe pains caused by renal -calculus, when the stone was bound upon her wrist. This particular -specimen he sent a few years later to his Danish friend, Ole Worms, for -the latter’s cabinet of natural history. De Laet writes that all the -virtues claimed for nephrite by Monardes in 1574, were observable in his -specimen.[280] - -As late as 1726, there were some who retained faith in the curative -power of jade, for a record of that date informs us that the traveller -Paul Lucas had just come back to Paris from the Orient, and had brought -with him a specimen of the lapis nephriticus which he intended to have -cut up into thin slabs to bestow upon such of his friends as were -suffering from gravel or calculus, or similar troubles.[281] - -After relating that a specimen of American jadeite had been sent to him -prior to 1602, Cleandro Arnobio states that when he showed it to a -Signor Michele Mercato, “a man well versed in medicine and in the -knowledge of minerals and herbs,” the latter immediately recognized it -and called it “nephite,” from its virtues, saying also that he had found -it useful in aiding parturition. A pharmacist, to whom it was shown in -turn, declared that he had used the stone in this way but did not know -its name. This is perhaps the earliest use of the name nephrite, the -form occurring in the Italian text being either due to a typographical -error, or to Arnobio’s ignorance of the correct spelling. - -Proceeding to dilate upon the many virtues of this stone, Cleandro -quotes Aldobrando, “a physician, physicist and philosopher of Bologna,” -who described it as having usually a purple shade, almost like porphyry, -with various figures of herbs, flowers, knots and Arabic characters in a -yellow color. There were, however, according to the same authority, some -of a darker hue, with protuberances and bands of yellow and also black -spots, as though the stone were a section of the spleen. This kind was -recommended and used in diseases of the spleen. In another variety, in -the midst of the purple color might be seen a yellow stain with pittings -and hollows; this was thought to figure a section of the liver, -spattered with bile, and such stones were employed with good effect to -cure those suffering from bilious disorders. To discharge the bile a -dose of four grains was administered, the powdered stone being -thoroughly dissolved in wine. Still another kind, of a reddish hue, -“like coagulated blood,” full of pittings and veinings, was thought to -be more especially valuable as a remedy for disorders of the blood and -for checking hemorrhages.[282] - -The learned Ko Kei asserts that the body of a man who had taken nearly -five pounds of jade did not change color after his death and states that -the body having been exhumed several years later did not show the -slightest alteration. Besides this, it was observed that there were gold -and jade around the tomb. Since then (in China), in the Kan period, the -custom was followed of embalming the dead bodies of the emperors, and of -preserving them in a garment ornamented with pearls and enclosed in a -case of jade.[283] - -[Illustration: - - JADE BELL OF THE KIEN-LUNG PERIOD: 1731–1795. - - Carved out of a single piece of jade. Dimensions: height, 20 cm.; - width 14.6 cm.; thickness, from 1 cm. to - 3.8 cm. From Berthold Lauter, “Jade, a Study in Chinese Archæology and - Religion,” Chicago, 1912. - - By courtesy of the author and Field Museum of Natural History, - Chicago. -] - -The Indians of Brazil prize the so-called Amazon stones (jade) more -highly than any other of the ornaments they wear. This is not chiefly -because of their ornamental quality, but rather because these _ita -ybymbae_ (green stones) have in many cases been handed down from -generation to generation for many centuries. They are of cylindrical, -tabular or other regular form and polished, and are believed to be -amulets affording protection against many diseases as well as against -snake bites. They are worn suspended from the neck and are regarded as -valuable aids in difficult parturition. Because of their remedial -virtues they are sometimes called _ita poçanga_, or “medicine stones.” -They are also found with the natives of the Caribbean islands and are -there called “the smooth stones from the far-off continent.”[284] - -As in all superstitions, so in those concerning jade in China, the fact -that ill luck instead of good luck fortuitously resulted from the use of -the material was explained in a way that did not do violence to the -fundamental idea. We are told that on the road near Kneha, in Turkestan, -there lies a block of jade from the quarries of Raskam-Darya, in Eastern -Turkestan. This block was on its way to Peking, when orders came from -the imperial court not to forward any more jade from this quarry. The -reason was that the heir apparent had been taken ill after having slept -on a couch made of Raskam jade.[285] - - -Jasper - -In the collection of the Biblioteca di Ravenna there is a red jasper -amulet engraved with a device representing Hercules strangling the -Nemæan Lion. Amulets of this type are recommended for the cure of the -colic by the Greek physician Alexander Trallianus, who flourished in the -first half of the sixth century A.D. He directs that this design be -engraved on a “Median stone,” which is then to be set in a gold ring and -worn by the patient.[286] The fact that the constellation Leo was -believed to rule over the stomach, and possibly over the liver also, -probably determined the selection of the design. On the reverse of the -Ravenna amulet are inscribed the letters K K K, which are believed to -stand for Κωλική, “colic.”[287] - -After noting the power of the jasper (probably the red variety) to check -hemorrhages from any part, and its general effect upon the circulation -of the blood in reducing the pulse, thus calming desire and quieting the -restless mind, Cardano turns to another of the reputed virtues of this -stone, that of rendering the wearer victorious in battle. The true -reason for this he finds in the stone’s tendency to diminish passion, -and hence to render the wearer timid and cautious, for “the timid -usually conquer, since they avoid a doubtful contest if possible.” -Gesner states that he saw “in the possession of a writer of Lausanne,” a -green jasper, bearing the image of a dragon with rays, similar to the -gem described by Galen.[288] - -Of the jasper, De Boot relates,[289] from his own experience, that for -checking hemorrhages the red variety is the most effective, and, in this -connection, he describes the case of a young woman in Prague, who had -suffered for six years from hemorrhages. Many different remedies had -been tried without avail, and when De Boot was called in to attend the -case, he advised the woman to wear a red jasper. As soon as this stone -was attached to her person the hemorrhage ceased. After wearing the -jasper for some time, the woman thought she could safely lay it aside, -but whenever she did so the hemorrhage returned after a longer or -shorter interval, while it always ceased immediately she resumed wearing -the stone. This seemed to prove conclusively that it checked the flow of -blood. Eventually the woman was so effectively cured that she was able -to give up wearing the stone. Green jasper, if worn attached to the neck -so as to touch the gastric region, was, according to De Boot, a cure for -all diseases of the stomach. The same writer alludes to the belief that -the virtue of this stone was enhanced if it were engraved with the image -of a scorpion while the sun was entering the constellation Scorpio, but -he rejects this belief as entirely superstitious and futile, while -admitting that, to obtain the best results, the jasper should always be -set in silver. - -Pear-shaped pieces of red jasper seem to have been more especially -favored for use as amulets. Italian amulets of to-day show this, and -Bellucci finds that the form is chosen as representing a drop of blood, -and thus aiding, by sympathetic magic, in the cure of hemorrhages or -wounds, and preventing the infliction of the latter. Sometimes such -amulets of red jasper are attached to the bed-post by a red ribbon. In -the case of a particularly valued amulet of this type, Bellucci was -informed by the peasant owner that it owed its great virtue to having -been blessed by the parish priest. Thus the traditional power of a pagan -amulet received the sanction of the church and the object was associated -with purely Christian amulets.[290] - - -Jet - -Jet, the _gagates_ of the ancients, was said to have been first found in -the river Gagates in Lycia, whence its name was derived. Galen, the -greatest physician of ancient times, reports, however, that he searched -in vain for this river, although he sailed in a small vessel along the -whole coast of Lycia, so that he might closely observe it. Still, he did -not give up his search for the material, even when he failed to find its -reputed source, and in Cælo-Syria, on a hill on the eastern shore of the -Dead Sea, he came across certain black, crustaceous stones, which -emitted a slender flame when placed in the fire. These must have been -small masses of bitumen, and, according to Galen, they were used for -chronic swellings of the knee-joint “which are difficult to cure.”[291] - -The fumes of jet are mentioned as a remedy for the pest in one of the -earliest Greek medical treatises, written by Nicander, who flourished in -the second century B.C. He declares that the most virulent pestilence -could be driven away if the bedrooms were fumigated with the smoke of -the slow-burning jet.[292] The plague was called the black plague and -naturally the aid of a black substance was sought to cure it. - -For Pliny, jet was endowed with many medicinal virtues. Its fumes were a -cure for hysteria and were said to reveal the presence of a latent -tendency to epilepsy; connected with this in some way was the curious -belief, repeated by later authors with certain variations, that these -fumes could also be used as a test of virginity. When powdered and mixed -with wine, jet relieved the pains of those suffering from toothache, and -if the powder were combined with wax, a salve was produced that gave -very beneficial results in cases of scrofula.[293] Even as a toilet -preparation jet was recommended for use, and a most excellent dentifrice -is said to have been made from it. In this connection jet was credited -with tonic as well as cleansing properties, as is shown by the words of -Bartholomæus Anglicus, who declares that this material was especially -beneficial for “feeble teeth and waggyng,” since it strengthened them -and made them firm.[294] - -The delusions and hallucinations of melancholic subjects were believed -to be put to flight by the power of jet, either in its solid form or -when reduced to a solution. The fact that this material was often used -for the beads of rosaries was thought to have some connection with its -supposed virtues, since the bad dreams or dreadful hallucinations -sometimes accompanying melancholia were designated as “demons,” and thus -the prayers counted off on jet beads might be supposed to have the -greater power to banish the devil and his black angels. The old writer -who cites these particulars about jet, adds that there was to be found -in the river Nile a black stone the size of a bean, at sight of which -dogs would stop barking, and which also drove away evil spirits. Here we -have another among many instances of the curious blending of the -doctrines of sympathy and antipathy, the black stone repelling the imps -of darkness and nullifying the spells of the Black Art.[295] - - -Lapis Armenus - -The _lapis Armenus_ was well known to the Arabs under the name _hajer -Armeny_, and their medical writers describe it quite accurately and -distinguish it from the somewhat similar lapis lazuli, with which it was -often confused in ancient times. Ibn Beithar states that if properly -prepared it would not provoke nausea, as was otherwise the case. It was -said to cause a very abundant evacuation of bile and must have been -regarded as an efficient remedy for the bilious disorders so general in -warm climates.[296] - -A “blue amulet” against vertigo, melancholia and epilepsy could be made -up of the following ingredients: shavings from an elk’s horn and from a -human skull, to be reduced to a fine powder, the excrement of a peacock, -white agate, lapis lazuli or _lapis Armenus_, of which enough was to be -used to give the required sky-blue tint. The whole mass was then to be -softened by the addition of gum tragacanth, and formed into heart-shaped -tablets, which were to be dried out in the air, and then smoothed on a -turning-lathe. These amulets were to be worn attached to the neck or the -arm, sometimes they were enclosed in a little receptacle of silver or of -red sandal-wood and suspended from the neck.[297] - - -Lapis Lazuli - -In Papyrus 3027 of the Berlin Museum, a record that dates from about the -fifteenth century B.C., and appears to be contemporaneous with the -celebrated Papyrus Ebers, we have directions for the curative use of -three stones as amulets; namely, lapis lazuli, malachite (Amazon stone?) -and, probably, red jasper. The interpretation of the text offers -considerable difficulty, but it seems that the stones were worked into -the form of beads and then strung on a cord and suspended from a sick -child’s neck. Thereupon a formula was recited, calling upon the disease -to pass through the beads and disperse itself through water and air, or, -more literally, to attach itself to the denizens of water and air. The -translation of Dr. Adolph Erman is as follows:[298] - - [A red bead? of lapis lazuli thereon.] - ... a green bead? of malachite is thereon. - a red bead of jasper? is thereon - - O, ye beads! fall upon the haunches [of the ...] in the flood; on the - scales? of the fish in the stream; on the feathers of the birds in the - heavens. Hasten forth! _nšw_, fall upon the earth - - Let this text be recited over the beads?, one of lapis lazuli, the - other of jasper?, the other malachite, which are drawn on a string - of ... and hung upon the neck of a child. - -Erman does not venture to translate the name of the disease (nšw), but -says that another word derived from the same root signifies a discharge -from the nose. Possibly we have to do with croup or some similar disease -of the respiratory organs. - -A curious prescription for the cure of cataract is given in the Ebers -Papyrus,[299] dating from about 1600 B.C. The six ingredients are as -follows: genuine lapis lazuli, verdigris salve, a resinous substance -perhaps similar to what is to-day called tabasheer, milk, stibium, and -“crocodile-earth,” the slime of the Nile. It is possible that the word -_chesbet_, which usually signifies lapis lazuli, was understood in this -case as indicating some other stone, such as that known by the name of -_lapis Armenus_—this latter is a carbonate of copper and really -possesses astringent properties. - -For remedial use a lapis lazuli (_cyanus_) of deep hue is recommended by -Dioscorides. This stone was to be burned thoroughly and the resultant -powder moistened so that a kind of paste was obtained. This was claimed -to have an astringent and caustic effect, and was freely used as a -counter-irritant.[300] Probably here as in other cases a sulphate of -copper has been confused with the lapis lazuli. The ancients did not -favor the administration of lapis lazuli internally, and Braunfels[301] -therefore regarded the free use of pills of lapis lazuli which was -common in his time as a source of grave danger. The _lapis Armenus_, -however, if well prepared and properly washed, was less to be feared; -but, unfortunately, the genuine stone was rarely to be found in the -apothecaries’ shops. - - -Malachite - -Many medicinal virtues were ascribed to malachite. Worn as an amulet, it -averted attacks of faintness, prevented hernia, and saved the wearer -from danger in falling. In this latter respect similar powers seem to -have been admitted in the case of the green malachite as were attributed -to the light blue or greenish-blue turquoise. If malachite were reduced -to a powder, dissolved in milk and taken as a potion, it cured cardiac -pains and colic; mixed with honey, and applied with a linen cloth to a -wound, it stanched the flow of blood, and cramps were relieved if this -solution were applied to the affected part; lastly, if mixed with wine, -it was a cure for virulent ulcers.[302] - -Powdered malachite was sometimes administered medicinally, with what -results we have little definite information; certainly, if not very -carefully used, the effect would have been anything but favorable. A -friend of De Boot once told the latter that a dose of six grains of -powdered malachite acted as a purgative, but the wary doctor confesses -that he never ventured to test the efficacy of this prescription.[303] -In Bavaria, at the present time, mothers and midwives are fond of -wearing pieces of malachite set in rings or strung for use as necklaces. -These are believed to help the dentition of children and are also -thought to bring more clients to the midwives. Amulets of this and other -kinds were sold in Bavaria, in the seventeenth century, by wandering -students and by gypsies.[304] - - -Median Stone - -Of the so-called Median stone we read, in Konrad von Megenberg’s “Buch -der Natur,”[305] that it had powers of good and evil; “for when -dissolved in the milk of a woman who has borne a son, it restores sight -to the blind.” It also cured gout and insanity. If, however, anyone were -so ill-advised as to dissolve the stone in water and partake of the -solution, he would die of hasty consumption; or if he simply bathed his -forehead with the liquid, he would be robbed of his sight. - - -Onyx - -A famous medicinal stone was at one time in the Abbey of St. Alban, -founded in 793 A.D. by Offa, King of Mercia, in honor of the British -protomartyr. In 1010, under Abbot Geoffrey de Gorham, a sumptuous shrine -was erected to receive St. Alban’s body; this shrine was principally of -silver, and was richly adorned with precious stones, chosen from among -those in the treasury of the monastery. The records state that one of -these stones “was so large that a man could not grasp it in his hand.” -It was believed to give great help to women in childbirth. Hence, it was -not set in the shrine, but was left free, so that it might be taken from -house to house as required. The size of this stone and the fact that it -was not used for ornamentation might have induced the belief that it was -one of the singular “eagle-stones,” so celebrated in ancient and -medieval times, but it is expressly described as an onyx-gem, the gift -of King Ethelred II (968–1016) to the monastery. From the description we -learn that on one side of this onyx was cut an image of Esculapius, the -god of healing, and on the other that of “a boy bearing a buckler.” As -the art of gem-cutting was practically unknown in Europe in the tenth -century, this must have been an antique gem, and may have served as a -pagan amulet many centuries before it was placed upon the shrine of a -Christian saint and used as a Christian amulet.[306] - -An old manuscript of Matthew Paris[307] gives a sketch of the gem from -this author’s own hand. As the special power exerted by this talisman -was to aid women in their confinements, it was loaned out from time to -time to such as were considered worthy of the honor. In one case, -however, it came into untrustworthy hands, for the favored lady failed -to return the gem when her immediate need of its help had passed, -retaining it in her possession until her death, when she bequeathed it -to her daughter. During her lifetime the latter appears to have had no -prickings of conscience, but on her death-bed, possibly through the -exhortations of her confessor, she made provision that the long-lost -sardonyx should be returned to the Abbey. It is said to have borne the -name Kaadman, which Mr. Thomas Wright regarded as a corruption of -_cadmeus_ or _cameus_, early forms of our “cameo.”[308] - - -Pyrite - -In Geneva and in the neighboring regions great virtues are ascribed to a -cut and facetted iron (pyrite), very hard, susceptible of a high polish -and of resplendent lustre. This is cut to resemble the rose or brilliant -form of diamond, and is set in rings, buckles, and other ornaments. In -appearance it resembles polished steel and is called _pierre de santé_, -or “health-stone,” for it is believed to grow pale when the health of -the wearer is about to fail.[309] This substance is known as marcasite -and is a bisulphide of iron. In the time of Louis XVI it was largely -used for ornamental purposes; at present steel has almost entirely taken -its place, although it is still utilized to a limited extent. Many -believe that this is the material to which Victor Hugo alludes in his -great romance, “Les Miserables,” as having been manufactured by Jean -Valjean. - - -Rock-crystal - -Medical men in Rome, in the first century, attested that no better -cautery for the human body could be used than a crystal ball acted upon -by the sun’s rays,[310] and this use of the material seems to have been -very general at that time. - -In his commentary on Andrea Bacci’s gem-treatise, Wolfgang Gabelchover, -the German translator, says that a German name of rock-crystal in his -time, the early sixteenth century, was _Schwindelstein_ -(“vertigo-stone”), because it was believed to preserve the wearer from -attacks of dizziness. Other remedial or physical effects of rock-crystal -are also noted. Taken as a powder in dry wine, it was a cure for -dysentery, and the physician, Christopher Barzizius, taught that if its -powder were mixed with honey and administered to mothers, they would be -the better able to nurse their offspring.[311] - -The following lines by Robert Wilson (d. 1600), a popular -sixteenth-century comedy writer, credit amber and rock-crystal with -qualities not commonly ascribed to them, although the fancied growth of -rock-crystal from a piece of ice probably explains its supposed styptic -virtue:[312] - - LUCRE: And if they demand wherefore your - wares and merchandise agree, - You must say, jet will take up a straw; - amber will make one fat; - Coral will look pale when you be sick, - and crystal stanch blood. - -That a remedial tincture of rock-crystal could be made was firmly -believed by the Danish chemist, Ole Borch (Olaus Borrichius, 1626–1690), -and in his chemical lectures he gives the following directions as to the -processes to be employed. A rock-crystal was to be heated to a high -temperature and then cast, while still warm, into cold water; it would -thereupon break up into small fragments. By heating these particles -together with tartaric salts, the whole mass would be reduced to a -liquid solution. Half of the quantity, after cooling off, was to be put -into a distilling glass with the best “spirit of wine” and was to be -digested in a bath of lukewarm water. It would then be seen that the -solution became red. This process is repeated several times, and finally -the tincture is concentrated by distilling off the spirit of wine, -leaving the pure rock-crystal tincture. Its remedial quality is stated -to have been applicable to dropsy, scrofula, or hypochondriac -melancholia, if it were taken in doses up to forty drops in a proper -medium.[313] - -[Illustration: - - ANCIENT PERSIAN RELIC KNOWN AS THE “CUP OF CHOSROES” - - The engraved rock-crystal medallion in the centre depicts Khusrau II, - Parwiz (A. D. 591–628), in the peculiar and characteristic garb of - the Sassanian monarchs. The strange wing-like adornments rising from - each shoulder, and the moon crescent and sun-disk above the head, - are especially noteworthy. In the Royal Museum, Bucharest, Roumania. -] - -To make the _magisterium_ of rock-crystal, a pound of the substance was -to be heated to a high temperature and then dipped into spirits of -vitriol. After this operation had been repeated ten times, the -rock-crystal was to be ground, on a marble slab, to a very fine powder, -which was a sure remedy for gout and for calculi formed in any of the -bodily organs. The spirits of vitriol in which the rock-crystal had been -dipped was sometimes filtered through blotting-paper and sold as crystal -spirits of vitriol; this was asserted to be a powerful diuretic, from -seven to ten drops being given at a dose in a cup of meat broth.[314] - -As late as the last half of the eighteenth century a Dr. Bourgeois -recommended the use of rock-crystal, calcined and ground, as a very -excellent astringent in the most obstinate cases of diarrhœa. In -reporting this, Valmont de Bomare (1731–1807) adds that it would be -desirable to know the nature of the acid in rock-crystal and its state -of combination.[315] Here, as in all cases where some of the -constituents of precious stones may really possess certain curative -powers, a better result can be attained by using these constituents in -other forms or combinations. - -The wonderful therapeutic virtues of a Scotch lake named Loch-mo-naire -are explained by a local legend as having arisen from certain magic -crystals which had been cast into its waters. These crystals, if placed -in water, rendered the liquid a potion of great curative power. They -were the property of a woman who had gained by their possession a great -reputation as a healer, but her success attracted the envy of a neighbor -who determined to secure for himself the woman’s wonder-working stones. -In pursuance of this design he came to her, feigning illness. She saw -through his deception and sought safety in flight, but he pursued her -and was gaining rapidly on her, when she threw the stones into the -waters of the lake, crying out the Gaelic word _noire_, “shame,” and -uttering the wish that its waters should be rendered powerful to cure -the sick, all except those of the clan Gordon to which the would-be -thief belonged. As the correct translation of the name of the lake is -said to be not “Lake of Shame” but “Serpent Lake,” the legend appears to -have no good foundation, but is perhaps as true as any of the popular -tales purporting to explain the origin of the virtues of healing springs -or waters.[316] - -To many stones was attributed the power of transmitting a certain -remedial virtue to water or other liquid in which they were immersed. -This, as we have related, was the case with the white stone that St. -Columba sent to King Brude at Inverness when the king’s druid priest -Broichan was suffering from disease. A peculiarity of this stone was -that if it were required in the case of a person about to die, it would -disappear from view. Thus its remedial powers could never be put to test -unless success were assured.[317] - -There can be no reasonable doubt that some remarkable cures have been -effected by means of relics, or by drinking the waters of a spring -believed to have been pointed out by some divine vision. From a purely -scientific standpoint this can be explained as the result of an -extraordinary stimulation of the nerve-centres, caused by the rapt -enthusiasm of religious faith. The relics, or the pure water, simply -serve as an object about which this faith crystallizes, so to speak, and -gains a concrete and external form, which in turn reacts upon the mind -of the believer. It is a well-known fact that a great shock, or imminent -peril, has sometimes suddenly restored the power of motion to those who -have long been paralyzed. This view does not, however, necessarily -exclude a religious interpretation of these phenomena when they are -produced by religious impressions, for the divine will manifests itself -by natural means, and a true understanding of the regular and normal -working of these means should give us a deeper, truer, and purer faith. - - -Sapphire - -As a substance for medicinal use, the Hindus declared the sapphire to be -bitter to the taste and lukewarm. It had a remedial action against -phlegm, bile and flatulence.[318] A similar action is ascribed to -several other precious stones, the medicinal qualities attributed to -them being less differentiated among the Hindus than they were with the -Greeks and Romans, or in medieval times. - -To drink of a potion made from the sapphire was said to be helpful for -those who had been bitten by a scorpion, and for those suffering from -intestinal ulcerations, or from growths in the eye; it also prevented -boils and pustules, and healed ruptured membranes.[319] Here we see that -the sapphire shared with the emerald the power of strengthening the -sight, and one authority asserts that if anyone looked long and intently -at a sapphire, his eyes would be protected from all injury, and nothing -harmful could befall them.[320] - -A medieval test of the antitoxin quality of the sapphire was to place a -spider in a vessel to whose mouth a sapphire was so suspended that it -would swing backwards and forwards just above the spider. The supposedly -venomous insect was not long able to resist the power of the stone and -fell a victim to its virtues. Wolfgang Gabelchover gravely asserts that -this experiment had often been successful.[321] - -The removal of particles of sand or dust from the eye was said to be -successfully accomplished by “warming” a sapphire over the eye, the -virtue of the stone thus passing into the eye and giving the organ the -strength necessary for the ejection of the troublesome foreign -body.[322] This attribution of a chemical action to the sapphire in -eye-trouble may be added to the many statements of its general curative -powers in eye-diseases. - - -Topaz - -The thirteenth century Hindu physician Naharari states that the topaz -tastes sour and is cold. It is a remedy for flatulence and is a most -excellent appetizer. Any man who wears this stone will be assured of -long life, beauty and intelligence.[323] Many a curious legend has been -woven about the old belief that the topaz quenched thirst. However, -popular fancy does not endow any and every topaz with this power. One of -these thirst-removing topazes is said to have been in the possession of -a celebrated Hindu necromancer, whose services had been sought by one of -the petty rajahs of India on the day of a decisive battle. Either this -necromancer’s art must have failed him at the critical moment, or else a -more powerful enchanter guided the fortunes of the enemy, for the latter -prevailed and the owner of the potent topaz was left dying upon the -field of battle. Alongside him was a poor wounded soldier who was -clamoring for a drop of water to quench his burning thirst. Hearkening -to this prayer, the dying necromancer threw his topaz to the soldier, -telling him to place it upon his heart. No sooner did he do so than his -thirst passed away, and we must suppose that his wounds were also -healed, for we are told that on the morrow he sought everywhere on the -battle-field for the corpse of his benefactor but could find no trace of -it. - -[Illustration: - - 1. Emerald that belonged to the deposed Sultan of Turkey, Abdul Hamid; - weight 45.33 carats. Auctioned December 11, 1911, Paris. - - 1½. Side view of the emerald. - - 2. Almandite garnet (transparent) fashioned into a knuckle bone; on - the upper surface is engraved an eagle with outspread wings, above - which are the Greek characters κακγ. Charm seal of some early - knuckle-bone player. - - 3. Sardonyx idol-eye of a Babylonian bull, pierced for suspension. - Engraved at a later period with the head of a Parthian king. - - 4. Aquamarine seal (transparent). Sassanian Pahlavi. Found in ruins of - Babylonia. -] - -Tavernier, the great French Seventeenth Century jeweler-traveler, the -first European to visit the ruby mines, took with him a number of -emeralds, generally large. These were often cut from the top of the -crystal, usually darker in color, and simply domed off, preserving the -original hexagonal shape. Remarkable specimens are in the Indian Museum -and the South Kensington Museum, part of the jewels of Thebaud, King of -Burma. The finest emeralds of this type belonged to the late Sultan of -Turkey; one of the finest, a remarkable gem, cut rounded en cabochon, -was with the Bijoux du Sultan, S. M. Abd-Ul-Hamid II, sold at the -Galerie Georges Petit, November 28, 1914. It weighed 44³⁄₁₆ carats (old -system) or 45.29 carats (metric system). (See color plate.) - -A remarkable charm is a hemispherical, transparent aquamarine, with -figure of hump bull, found in ancient Babylonia. (See color plate.) - -A quaint, ancient amulet is carved out of fine knuckle bone, an eagle -with spread wings engraved on one side; portrait of a Parthian King. -(See color plate.) - -A Babylonian idol’s eye, of sardonyx, was pierced and worn as charm -against the Evil Eye; later engraved with portrait of a Parthian King. -(See color plate.) - - - - - IV - On the Virtues of Fabulous Stones, Concretions and Fossils - - -Not only precious or semi-precious stones were used as charms or -talismans and for curative purposes; a large number of animal -concretions also were and are still somewhat in favor. These -concretions, variously composed but usually containing a quantity of -carbonate of lime, are found in different parts of animals’ bodies, and -they were believed to contain a sort of quintessence of the nature of -the animal in which they occurred. For this reason the _alectorius_, -from the body of the cock, one of the most widely known of the animal -stones in ancient times, was thought to confer valor upon the wearer, -and is said to have been worn by athletes in their contests. - -In the case of venomous, or supposedly venomous, creatures, such as the -toad and certain snakes, the stone was used as an antidote for poisons. -This virtue was thought to be notably present in the so-called bezoar -stone, taken from the stomach of a species of goat, as well as from some -other animals. As we shall see, legend sought to account for the -peculiar qualities of the bezoar by the tale that the animals in whose -bodies the stones were formed had been bitten by serpents. Indeed, it -seems not unlikely that the belief in the curative properties of the -bezoar stone originally owed its existence to the finding of some such -concretion in the body of an animal that had died from the effects of -snake-bite. - -As is well known, certain pathological conditions induce the formation -of stones of various kinds and shapes in the human body also. Here the -tendency has been to use these stones to counteract the disease which -produced them. Renal or vesical calculi, for instance, were recommended -for diseases of the kidneys and bladder, a treatment quite in accord -with the popular idea of the homeopathic theory. - -Another class of animal substances, namely, the fossil teeth of the -shark, enjoyed a tremendous vogue at one time, and were known by the -name of _glossopetræ_. These were usually regarded as stones, and -because of their peculiar form were frequently assimilated to the -belemnites and even to the flint arrow-heads and other prehistoric flint -instruments, which were dug up in many places. All these flint artefacts -were believed to have been precipitated to the earth by the discharge of -electricity during a thunder-storm; in other words, they were -“thunderbolts.”[324] The same idea was frequently held as to the origin -of the _glossopetræ_, and those found on the island of Malta were -brought into connection with an incident of St. Paul’s visit to that -island. - -In many different countries, especially in the north of Europe, these -flint arrow-heads and the fossil remains of similar form, were called -fairy-darts or elf-shots, and were believed to be the enchanted weapons -of the elves and fairies, who, in the old folk-lore, are represented as -beings of a very different quality from the fairies and elves of the -tales of our childhood. In some parts of Europe at the present day, for -example in Ireland, the peasantry talk with bated breath of the doings -of the “good people,” for they shrink from using the word “fairy” lest -it might offend these mysterious and generally malevolent beings. The -designation “good people” is therefore used to placate and flatter them. - -[Illustration: - - Extracting toad-stone. From Johannis de Cuba’s “Ortus Sanitatis,” - Strassburg, 1483. -] - -Various shell fossils were also used as talismans. Here the form -generally determined the virtues they were supposed to possess. Some of -these strange forms lent themselves to an interpretation in line with -the primitive adoration of the life-giving forces of nature, and -suggested the use of such fossils to cure certain special diseases. -Other of these petrifactions retaining the form of the enclosing shell, -especially those of circular shape, and with concentric rings, were -believed to be of meteoric origin and to have fallen during thunder or -rain; hence the names of _brontia_ and _ombria_. A certain class of -these fossils, with convolutions on the surface resembling the form of a -snake, were called snake-eggs (_ova anguina_), and, very naturally, -enjoyed the repute of preserving the wearer from poisons. All these -varieties will be described in this and the following chapters. - -While some believed that the toad-stone was vomited by the animal, -others held that it constituted a part of the toad’s head. That this was -the popular belief in Shakespeare’s time is shown by the well-known -lines in his “As You Like It” (Act II, sc. 1): - - Which like the toad, ugly and venomous, - Wears yet a precious jewel in his head. - -De Boot, whose treatise was published about the time that Shakespeare -wrote these lines, gives the following account of the result of his -efforts to obtain a toad-stone according to the prescribed method:[325] - - I remember that, when a boy, I took an old toad and set it upon a red - cloth that I might secure a toad-stone; for they say that it will not - give up its stone unless it sits upon a red cloth. However, although I - watched the toad for a whole night, it did not eject anything, and - from this time I became convinced all the tales concerning this stone - were merely fond imaginings. - -A stone called simply the “Indian Stone,” and said to be light and -porous, is noted by pseudo-Aristotle, and to it is attributed the power -to relieve those suffering from dropsy, by drawing the water to itself. -If weighed after having been applied to the patient, the stone was found -to have increased in weight in proportion to the amount of water -absorbed, and when it was placed in the sun, water of a yellowish hue -exuded, until, finally, the stone resumed its original appearance and -weight.[326] Another and perhaps earlier authority gives the name -“toad-stone” to this material.[327] - -[Illustration: - - BVFONITES - - Toad-stones. Natural concretions of claystone and limonite. From - Mercati’s “Metallotheca - Vaticana,” Romæ, 1719. -] - -The toad-stone was not only an antidote for poisons, but was also -thought to give warning of their presence by becoming very hot. To fully -profit by this strange quality, the wearer of such a stone was advised -to have it so set in a ring that it would touch the skin; in this way he -would be sure to have timely notice, if any poisoned food or drink were -offered to him.[328] The writer who mentions this adds the following -tale of the discovery of a toad-stone: - - A clerk once found a toad which had a round knob on its head, - wherefore he thought that there must be a toad-stone. So he took up - the toad and tied it firmly in the sleeve of his coat. When he - returned from the fields and searched for the toad he found it not, - although the sleeve of his coat was tightly bound below and he could - not discover any opening through which the creature could have passed. - This shows us that it is a great help to prisoners in jail. - -Another early authority, Thomas de Cantimpré, says of the toad-stone: - - If one take the stone from a living and still quivering toad a little - eye can be seen in the substance; but if it be taken from a toad that - has been some time dead, the poison of the creature will have already - destroyed this little eye and spoiled the stone. - -If the toad-stone be swallowed at meal-time it passes through the system -and carries off all impurities.[329] Here the substance may have been -one of many concretionary materials,—bauxite, impure pearls, -concretionary limestone, stalagmite, or even the eye-stones from the -crawfish; indeed, any material, white or gray, that had a semblance to a -toad color, and was then sold by the vendor of charm stones as coming -from a toad’s head. - -The great Erasmus (1465–1536) made a pilgrimage to the famous shrine of -the Virgin in the church at Walsingham, in Kent. In his description of -what he saw there he expressly notes a wonderful toad-stone: - - At the feet of the Virgin is a gem for which there is as yet no Latin - or Greek name. The French have named it after the toad [crapaudine], - because it represents so perfectly the figure of a toad that no art - could do this so well. The miracle is all the greater that the stone - is so small, and that the exterior surface has not the form of a toad, - the image showing through it as though inclosed within.[330] - -As we see, the stone of Erasmus contained the form or image of a toad. -This was not usually the case with the concretions that bore this name, -and it appears probable that the “crapaudine” of the shrine at -Walsingham owed its peculiarity rather to art than to nature. A rather -far-fetched explanation of the origin of these substances is given by -Ambrosianus, who relates that, in order to investigate the quality and -character of toad-stones, he killed a number of toads and took out their -brains. Although these were not hard when extracted, they became, in -time, as hard as stones.[331] - -A toad-stone which appeared to represent the form of this animal was -preserved as an heirloom in the Lemnian family. It exceeded the size of -a walnut and was often seen to dissipate the swelling caused by the bite -of a venomous creature in any part of the body, if it were rubbed -quickly over the swelling. It, therefore, seemed to possess the same -quality as was attributed to the animal from which it was taken, namely, -to draw out and annul all poisons. If any neighbor of the Lemnian family -were bitten by a mouse, a spider, a dormouse, a wasp, a beetle, or any -such creature, he soon sought the aid of this stone.[332] - -We have noted De Boot’s unsuccessful attempt to secure a toad-stone, but -he does not seem to have used the orthodox method for obtaining it. -According to one authority,[333] the creature should be placed in a cage -covered with a red cloth and then set in the hot sunshine for several -days, until thirst forced the poor toad to eject his precious stone, -which was to be removed as soon as possible lest it should be swallowed -again. Another method proposed is so cruel that it is a comfort to know -that the whole matter is little more than a fanciful conceit. In this -case, the toad was to be enclosed in a pot with many perforations, and -the vessel with its unlucky inmate was then to be placed in an ant-hill -and left there until nothing remained of the toad except his bones and -the coveted stone. It is quite probable that any stone found in an -ant-hill after this procedure would be termed a “toad-stone,” since the -toad was put away in order to find one. In some instances they may have -been bony concretions from the head of the toad, or even pebbles that -the toad had swallowed. - -While it is quite possible that some of the so-called toad-stones may -really have been concretions found in the head of the toad, by far the -greater part were probably small pebbles sold as “toad-stones” to those -who believed in the magic virtues of such a stone and were ready to pay -a good price for one. Where there is a demand there will always be a -supply, and the rarer the genuine article is, the greater is the -incentive to imitation or substitution. In the case of some of these -“toad-stones” set in rings to serve as amulets, the material has been -found to be the fossil palatal tooth of the ray, a species of fish.[334] - -The small share of material prosperity that fell to the lot of wits and -literary men in the England of the sixteenth century, even in the age of -Elizabeth, induced Thomas Nash (1567–1601) to liken the fate of the wit -to that of the toad-stone, or, as he writes, of “the pearl,” which was -said to be in the head of the toad, this “being of exceeding virtue, is -enclosed with poison; the other, of no less value, compassed about with -poverty.”[335] A writer of the same period affirms that if the -toad-stone were touched to any part, “envenomed, hurt, or stung with -rat, spider, wasp, or any other venomous beast,” the swelling and pain -were diminished.[336] - -The bones of the lizard were supposed to have medicinal virtues similar -to those attributed to various “stones” found in animals. The following -directions are given by Encelius for securing these bones: “Put a green -lizard, while still alive, in a closed vessel filled with the best -quality of salt. In a few days the salt will have consumed the flesh and -the intestines, and you can easily gather up the bones.”[337] These were -used as remedies for epilepsy and were considered to be as efficacious -as the hoofs of the elk, a recommendation which seems to have been -regarded as sufficient to convince the most sceptical of the remedial -virtues of the lizard’s bones. - -The crab furnished the stone called the crab’s-eye, because in form it -resembled an eye. Like almost all the animal concretions, it was -principally used as a remedy for those suffering from vesical calculi, -and no other concretion was believed to be so efficacious in breaking up -or dissolving the calculi in the case of those who had long been -afflicted with them. Those referred to by Encelius were from the -crawfish and are often used as eye-stones.[338] - -In the last joint of a crab’s claw was sometimes found a small -concretion closely resembling in size and appearance a grain of -millet-seed; it was in no wise like the “lapillus” found in crab’s eyes. -We have the testimony of Cardanus that he had preserved two such -concretions, one of which he had himself come across, while the other -had been found by a colleague. They were smooth and light, and of a -reddish-white color. Because they were very rarely met with, the -circumstance was regarded as of good augury for the finder.[339] - -A round concretion (a calculus) from the liver of the ox is described by -Ibn Al-Beithar as being of a yellowish color and composed of successive -superimposed layers. If secured at the time of the full moon it was -believed to promote _embonpoint_, and was much prized by the Egyptian -women for this virtue. The effect was to be attained by taking two -grains of the pulverized concretion, either with the bath or directly -after bathing, and thereupon a “fat hen” was to be eaten.[340] The -latter prescription, if regularly and frequently administered, might be -thought to suffice without the powdered calculus. - -From the second stomach of heifers was sometimes obtained a dark brown -or blackish concretion of very light weight and as round as a ball. This -was credited with great remedial virtues provided it had not fallen to -the ground.[341] There seems to have been a belief that the curative or -talismanic properties of animal concretions, or of the teeth of animals, -were weakened, or destroyed, if these objects came in contact with the -earth. This belief was perhaps due to the idea that the mysterious power -of the substance was originally derived from earth currents, or -emanations, and that the active principle would return to the earth if -the object came in contact with it. - -The _lapis carpionis_ or carp-stone, a triangular mass, was taken from -the jaws of the carp. It was smaller or larger according to the size of -the fish. The principal remedial use was against calculi, or for the -cure of bilious diseases and colic.[342] These are bony plates from the -upper part of the mouth of the carp. Such so-called “stones” were also -said to check bleeding of the nose, a quality they owed to their -astringent properties, quite noticeable if anyone tasted the powder made -from them.[343] - -The _cinædias_, a white and oblong concretion, had in Pliny’s time the -reputation of possessing extraordinary powers, announcing beforehand -whether the sea would be clear or stormy.[344] In what way this weather -prediction was manifested we are not told; perhaps the surface of the -concretion may have become dull or grayish when there was much humidity -in the air. The cinædia were said to be found in pairs in the fish of -that name; one pair being taken from the head of the fish and another -pair from the two dorsal fins. Power to cure diseases of the eye was -conferred upon these concretions by putting nine of them, duly numbered, -in an earthen jar together with a green lizard. Each day one of the -“stones” was taken from the vessel in the numerical order, and on the -ninth day the lizard was liberated. Evidently it was thought that to -kill the animal would interfere with the transmission of its virtue to -the concretions.[345] - -The eye of the hyena was supposed to furnish a stone called _hyænia_ and -Pliny writes that these animals were hunted to secure possession of it. -Like rock-crystal and many other decorative stones, this _hyænia_ was -thought to give the power to foretell the future, if it were placed -beneath the tongue.[346] Because of the hyena’s uncanny habit of feeding -on carrion, and unearthing dead bodies from graves, it has often been -associated with necromancy and with evil spirits. - -The _lacrima cervi_, or “stag’s tear,” is not to be confounded with the -bezoar stone according to Scaliger, who maintains that it was a bony -concretion that formed in the corner of a stag’s eye only after the -animal had passed its hundredth year; as the stag never attains this age -he might as well have said that the existence of this “tear” was a -fable. However, he describes it as though he had carefully inspected a -specimen, saying that it was so smooth and light that it would almost -slip through the fingers of anyone who held it in his hand. It had -similar powers to those of the bezoar, being a powerful antidote to -poisons and a cure for the plague if powdered and given with wine; these -good effects resulting from the excessively profuse perspiration that -followed the administration of the dose.[347] - -These fabled stag’s tears, though often praised as substitutes for the -bezoar, were not believed in by all the early writers, one of them, -Rollenhagen, giving expression to a caustic opinion that might do credit -to a writer of our own day. Alluding to the many reports of the -existence of such “tears,” shed by the animals because of the pains they -suffered after indulging in a diet of serpents, he notes that all those -who make these statements are careful to place the habitat of these -eccentric stags as far away from their own land as possible, always -“somewhere in the Orient,” probably at “Nowheretown,” as he adds.[348] - -[Illustration: - - Types of _cheloniæ_ (tortoise-stones). Natural concretions. From - Aldrovandi’s “Museum metallicum,” Bononiæ, 1648. -] - -The _chelonia_ is said by Pliny to have been the eye of the Indian -tortoise. The magicians asserted that this was the most marvellous of -all “stones”; for if bathed in honey and then placed in the mouth, when -the moon was either full or new, it conferred the power of divination, -and this power lasted for one entire day.[349] This virtue was not, -however, altogether peculiar to the _chelonia_, for it was shared by -several other substances; in each case the stone was to be placed in the -mouth, thus coming into more immediate contact with the organs of -speech, and stimulating to prophetic utterance. A later writer states -that it was the uterine stone from the tortoise that gave the gift of -prophecy. That from the head cured headaches and averted lightning, -while the stone taken from the liver, if administered in solution, was a -remedy for ague.[350] - -The wild ass was another of the animals that furnished concretions -prized for their talismanic and medicinal powers. That taken from the -animal’s head cured headache and epilepsy; that from the jaw made the -owner indefatigable, so that he yielded to none in battle. It was also a -remedy for ague and for the bites of venomous creatures, as well as a -marvellously efficacious vermifuge for children.[351] Very likely the -story of Samson, who wrought such slaughter among the Philistines when -armed with the jawbone of an ass, may have suggested the fancy that the -concretion from the ass’s jaw would give victory to the wearer. - -[Illustration: - - Chelidonius, or “Swallow-stones.” From “Museum Wormianum,” Lugduni - Batavorum, 1655. -] - -Pliny notes the opinion that a stone taken from the body of a young -swallow, if worn attached to the human body, helps to strengthen the -brain, and he adds that the stone is said to be found in the young bird -even when it has just broken the shell.[352] According to Thomas de -Cantimpré the swallow-stone is a talisman for merchants and -tradesmen.[353] The merits of the _chelidonius_, as this stone was -called, were fully recognized in Saxon England and are given due -prominence in an Anglo-Saxon medical treatise, dating from the first -half of the tenth century. When these “swallow-stones” had been obtained -they were to be carefully protected from contact with water, earth, or -other stones. To secure the best results _three_ of them were to be -applied to the person who stood in need of their remedial effects. Not -only did they cure headache and eye-smart, but they banished the dreaded -nightmare, rendered futile the wiles of goblin visitors, and dissolved -all fascinations and enchantments. The seekers after these wonderful -stones are stoutly assured that they can only be found in “big -nestlings.”[354] - -The _ætites_ (eagle-stone) is first mentioned by Pliny who states that -it was found in the nests of eagles of a certain species, and adds that -some called this stone _gangites_. Fire had no power over it and it was -a useful remedy for many diseases. Its special virtue, however, was to -prevent abortion, this use being suggested by the character of the stone -itself, which “was as though pregnant, for when it was shaken another -stone rattled within it, as though in a womb.” The curative virtues of -the _ætites_, like that of the swallow-stone, only existed when the -stone was taken from the bird’s nest. This was probably a story told by -the vendors of such geodes to enhance the value of their wares, although -there may have been some foundation for it in folk-lore. - -They are really hollow concretions of an iron stone, containing a piece -of loose iron or hardened sand, or a concretion of some kind that -rattles, and is called by the Italians _bambino_ or “babe.” Such -concretions are found at many places on every continent, many fine ones -having been found in Delaware. They vary in size from one to six inches -across. The small ones of a hard, smooth exterior that have become -polished from wear, are especially valued as charms.[355] - -A passage in the treatise on stones by Theophrastus, pupil of Aristotle, -might seem to indicate that the _ætites_ was already known in the third -century B.C. The words he employs are as follows: “The most astounding -and greatest power of stones (if indeed this be true) is that of bearing -progeny.” As both Pliny and Dioscorides name this stone or geode and -fully describe its character, laying especial stress upon the loose, -rattling material enclosed in its hollow interior, this fact giving rise -in later time to the half-poetic name of “the pregnant stone,” there is -every reason to believe that it was already known of three or four, or -even more centuries before their time.[356] - -Marbodus of Rennes calls this stone “the guardian and defender of -nests.”[357] Enclosing as it did one or more smaller stones, it was -thought to be symbolically designated as an aid to parturition. -According as it was attached to the left arm or to the left thigh, it -either retarded or accelerated the natural processes. This, however, by -no means exhausted the virtues of the stone, for when worn on the left -arm of man or woman, it conferred sobriety, increased riches, and moved -the wearer to love; it also brought victory and popularity, and -preserved children from harm. In addition to all its other powers this -stone seems to have possessed a certain detective quality, to judge from -the following words of Ætius, who wrote in the sixth century A.D.:[358] - - The ætites serves to discover thieves, if anyone places it in the - bread which they eat; for whoever has committed a theft is unable to - consume the bread. It has also been stated that, if cooked with any - kind of food, the ætites unmasks thieves, since they cannot eat such - food. If taken with wax from Cyprus, with fresh olive oil, or with any - other calefacient, this stone greatly helps those suffering from - rheumatism and paralysis. - -[Illustration: - - Ætites. From Johannis de Cuba’s “Ortus Sanitatis,” Strassburg, 1483. -] - -The loose, enclosed concretion was named in Latin _callimus_, and we -have a detailed description from the sixteenth century of one of these, -which belonged to Georgius Fabricius. Because of its curious markings he -had it set on a pivot in a ring, so that both sides of the stone could -be easily seen. The material was in part as clear as a rock-crystal, -evidently a very translucent chalcedony, but the chief interest centred -in the images or figures traced by nature upon the stone. These showed -what seemed to be two forms, one of a cowled monk, and the other that of -a tall, beardless man; there was also a third, showing an undefined -form. On the under side of this _callimus_ was marked the outline of a -crescent moon.[359] - -A seventeenth century writer, not otherwise uncritical, does not -hesitate to declare that he had himself witnessed, in the case of a -fig-tree, an instance of the special power exercised by the _ætites_. -One of these stones having been attached to this tree, all the fruit -dropped off in, the space of ten hours, although tree had apparently -lost nothing of its vigor, its foliage remaining as luxuriant as -before.[360] - -An old treatise on the _ætites_ gives the following names as applied to -it in various languages:[361] - - Italian: Aquilina, pietra d’aquila, pietra aquilina, ethite. - French: Pierre de l’aigle. - Spanish: Piedra de l’aguila. - Polish: Orlovi Kamyen. - Swedish: Oernarsteen. - English: Eagle-stone. - German: Adlerstein. - Flemish: Adelersteen, arensteen. - Arabic: Hager achtamach. - Syriac: Abno dneshre. - Chaldaic: Abno dineshar, or abno denishra. - Hebrew: ’Eben ha-nosher. - -Some said that this stone might be found not only in the eagle’s nest, -but also in that of the stork. This idea was, however, entirely -erroneous in Bausch’s opinion, for though he had caused diligent search -to be made by all those who encountered such nests, no “eagle-stone” -could ever be found. To the supposed “stork-stones” had been given the -name _lychnites_, as they were believed to be luminous, their light -serving to frighten off any snakes which might be seeking the new-laid -eggs.[362] - -Bausch enumerates and rejects a number of explanations to account for -the supposed presence of the _ætites_ in the nests of eagles. One theory -was that these stones served to give stability to the nest, and enabled -it better to resist the assaults of the wind; others asserted that the -coolness of the stones lowered the unduly high temperature of the eggs -and of the parent bird’s body; others again were inclined to attribute -to them a mysterious formative and vivifying power exerted on the eggs, -or else a talismanic power protecting these from injury. While rejecting -all these notions, as we have stated, and indeed denying the truth of -the assertion that such stones were ever found in eagles’ nests, Bausch -cites the authority of St. Jerome, in his commentary on Isaiah, chap. -lxvi, that the amethyst had been found with the young of the eagle, -being placed with them in the nest to protect them from venomous -creatures.[363] - -That the “eagle-stones” were not always hollow is shown by a specimen -owned in the eighteenth century by the English family Postlethwayte. -This was solid, and had been cut into the shape of a heart, a hole being -pierced at the upper end so that the stone could be worn suspended. In a -curious letter written April 25, 1742, by Martha Postlethwayte, sister -of Sir Thomas Gooch, who successively presided over the episcopal sees -of Bristol, Norwich and Ely, to her daughter Barbara Kerrick, the writer -advises her correspondent, in order to avoid a repetition of former -misadventures, to “wear the eagle-stone and take Mrs. Stone’s receit,” -and adds: “I hope it may have good effect and make me a good -grandmother.” The result was favorable, and must naturally have affirmed -the faith in the powers of the stone.[364] - -An inventory of the furniture, plate, jewels, etc., of Charles V of -France, made in 1379,[365] describes two stones preserved in a case of -cypress-wood which the king always carried about with him. One of these -was called the “holy stone” and aided women in childbirth. This was -probably an “eagle-stone.” It was set in gold and the setting was -adorned with four pearls, six emeralds and two balas-rubies. The other -stone, which cured the gout, was an engraved gem bearing the figure of a -king and an inscription in Hebrew characters. This description suggests -one of the Gnostic gems so common in the early Christian centuries. The -gem was suspended from a silver cord, so that it could be worn on the -neck, or perhaps attached to some other part of the body. We find in the -_comptes royaux_ of 1420 an electuary composed of powdered precious -stones, for the cure of the infirmities of Isabel of Bavaria, who was -fifty years old and had been for several years obese and a -valetudinarian.[366] - -In some parts of the Orient the superstitious notion exists that the -_ætites_ occasionally emits a wailing sound during the night, and this -is said to be either an expression of the birth-pangs of the mother -stone, or else the cry of its new-born offspring, the small stones -enclosed within the geode, for the story goes that each night some of -these are generated.[367] - -These “eagle-stones” still retain their repute in Italy, where they are -called _pietre gravide_, or “pregnant stones,” and are considered by -many of the peasants as almost indispensable aids to parturition. They -are in such demand that the lucky owners rent them for the nine months -during which they are worn. As soon as one case has been happily -concluded, the amulet is passed on to some other woman who is in need of -it. A fee of five lire, or one dollar, is paid in each case, and a -pledge worth a hundred lire ($20) is required before the stone is handed -over. Some amulets of this class bear Christian symbols.[368] - -Geodes of this description consisting of limonite are to be found in -many places. Some of them are of relatively recent formation, and one of -these shows curiously enough that in addition to its other virtues the -_ætites_ can on occasion perform the functions of a savings-bank. This -strange specimen was found in 1846, at Périgueux, department Dordogne, -France. On opening the geode there appeared within some 200 silver coins -dated in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; all of these were -encrusted with the material forming the enclosing mass.[369] - -Long, white, rough stones, calcareous shell growths, were sometimes -taken from snails and cockles. These were believed to have a marked -diuretic action, and were therefore strongly recommended for certain -diseases of the kidneys and the bladder. They were also believed to be -helpful in cases of difficult parturition. Although no details are -given, it seems most probable that the stones were reduced to a powder -from which some sort of potion was concocted,[370] this having no more -action than so much ground shell or marble dust. - -[Illustration: - - Extracting an alectorius. From Johannis de Cuba’s “Ortus Sanitatis,” - Strassburg, 1483. -] - -The _alectorius_ or “cock-stone” is one of the most famous of those real -or supposed animal concretions that were known in ancient times. From -the age of Pliny—and unquestionably long before his time—there was a -popular belief that this stone was only to be found in the gizzard of a -cock which had been caponed when three years old, and had lived seven -years longer. This was believed to allow the substance to acquire its -boasted virtue, for the longer it remained in the body of the capon, the -greater its power. Such a “cock-stone” never exceeded the size of a -bean. From its association with the pugnacious fowl, the _alectorius_ -became a favorite stone with wrestlers, and the great and invincible -Milo of Croton is said to have owed many of his victories to the -possession of one, for if held in the mouth, it quenched the thirst and -thus refreshed the combatant. - -Many other virtues of this stone are recorded; it rendered wives -agreeable to their husbands, dissolved enchantments, brought new honors -and powers in addition to those already enjoyed, and helped kings to -acquire new dominions. How persistent was the faith in the virtue of the -_alectorius_ is shown by the fact that the great astronomer Tycho Brahe -greatly valued a stone of this kind, not larger than a bean, and -believed that it brought him luck in gambling and in love. Thomas de -Cantimpré[371] says that the name signifies an allurer or enticer, -because the stone excites the love of husbands for their wives.[372] In -order to secure the due effect it should be held in the mouth, possibly -because this would render the wife less eloquent. - -[Illustration: - - ALECTORIVS - - Alectorius. From Mercati’s “Metallotheca Vaticana,” Romæ, 1719. -] - -A specimen of the _alectorius_ is listed in the inventories of Jean Duc -de Berry (1401–1416). It is called there a “capon-stone” and is -described as having red and white spots. Several other objects to which -talismanic virtues were ascribed are also noted, such, for instance, as -the “molar of a giant,” set in leather; probably the tooth of a -hippopotamus, or the fossil tooth of some antediluvian creature. There -is also what is termed a “tester,” composed of several “serpent’s teeth” -(_glossopetræ?_), horns of the “unicorn” (narwhal’s teeth) and stones -regarded as antidotes to poison. These were all suspended by golden -chains, and were valued at seventy-five livres tournois.[373] - -As a companion piece to the “cock-stone,” the hen furnished a concretion -possessing special virtues. This came from the fowl’s gizzard and was of -a sky-blue color; its Arabic name was _hajar al-ḥattaf_. If it were worn -by an epileptic, the attacks of his malady would cease; it favored -procreation and also nullified the effects of the Evil Eye, and it kept -children from having bad dreams if placed beneath their heads when they -were sleeping. Thus the effects it was fancied to produce differed from -those ascribed to the _alectorius_.[374] - -In medieval times bunches of dried “serpent’s tongues” were sometimes -hung around salt-cellars or attached to spits; but frequently, for royal -or princely use, such tongues, or the jawbones of snakes, were set with -valuable precious stones and constituted a peculiar jewel termed in old -French a _languier_, or _épreuve_ (tester); for these utensils, often -very rich and tasteful specimens of the goldsmith’s art, were believed -to show in some way the presence of the much-dreaded poison in any -viands with which they were brought in contact.[375] - -The Indians and Spaniards in South America made remedial use of a stone -said to be obtained from the cayman or alligator, at Nombre de Dios, -Cartagena, etc. This was employed as a cure for various intermittent -fevers. Monardes writes that he applied two of these _lapides caymanum_ -to the temples of a young girl suffering from an attack of fever, and -found that the fever was alleviated thereby; but he doubts that fevers -could be entirely cured by this treatment.[376] - -From New Spain was also brought the _lapis manati_, taken from the -manatee, or sea-cow. This does not appear to have been a stone, but -rather the cochleæ of the animal, the small bones in the head which -transmit the auditory vibrations to the sensorium. They were highly -valued by the Indians for their remedial action in cramps and colic, and -the Spaniards collected them and brought them to Spain to enrich their -very miscellaneous pharmacopœia. Sometimes they were taken internally, -but often they were set in rings or worn suspended from the neck as -amulets. This stone, or bone, is described as oval in shape and of a hue -resembling that of ivory. When pulverized and dissolved, the solution -was odorless and tasteless. They are in size often as large as a woman’s -clinched fist.[377] - -[Illustration: - - Lapis manati. From Valentini’s “Museum Museorum, oder Vollständige - Schau-Bühne,” Frankfurt am Main, 1714. -] - -The ear-bones of fish, almost invariably in pairs, are still used as -amulets in Spain and Italy. One of their chief virtues is to protect -children from the Evil Eye, as well as from accidents of any kind. They -are also believed to preserve the wearer from deafness or diseases of -the ear.[378] This is quite in accord with the primitive fancy that the -different parts of the animal body had prophylactic or curative powers -in relation to any disease of that portion of the human body. - -[Illustration: - - Lapis malacensis, stone of the hedgehog or porcupine. From Mercati’s - “Metallotheca Vaticana,” Romæ, 1719. -] - -Even the spider was supposed to produce a stone having remedial power, -especially that variety called by the Germans Kreuzspinne -(“cross-spider”). The belief was general in Germany, in the sixteenth -century, that it was very unlucky to injure one of these spiders; -indeed, Encelius writes that although he had never seen a -“spider-stone,” he had never dared to dissect one of the spiders to seek -for the stone. He also remarks that it was in no wise strange this -should have such power, since spider-webs were used as remedies for many -diseases. Naturally enough the “spider-stone” was an antidote against -poisons, and a belief was current that in a year when the plague was -raging no Kreuzspinne was to be seen.[379] - -An attempt to induce one of these spiders to secrete or produce its -stone or calculus is told by Simon Paulli. On his return from France in -1630, he stopped for the summer with his revered master, Sennart, at -Wittenberg, in order to pursue his studies. One day they found by chance -that an enormous spider had wandered into the rain-water holder, and the -extraordinary size of the creature—it was as big as a muscat -nut—suggested the idea of making it the subject of experiment. It was -therefore put into a glass jar with a quantity of powdered valerian -root, this material (or salt) being reputed to have a favorable -influence in the production of the stone. However, the experimenters -were doomed to disappointment, for the poor spider was unable to live up -to its reputation. Tired of waiting for nothing, recourse was finally -had to the drastic measure of dissection, but no stone of any kind could -be found. This convinced the observers that all the talk about spiders’ -stones was mere foolishness or deception. In a note in the Miscellanea -Curiosa, under date of 1686, the statement is made that such stones -could indeed be found, but only in the autumn season and in no other -part of the year.[380] - -A small golden amulet, having the form of a heart and set with various -stones, was strongly recommended to ward off the plague by Oswald Croll, -a writer of the early part of the seventeenth century. On the upper side -of the heart-amulet should be set a fair blue sapphire; above, beneath, -and at either side of this should be put a toad-stone, or a -“spider-stone,” so as to give a cross effect. The “spider-stones” were -asserted to be powerful enemies of the plague. On the under side of the -heart a good-sized jacinth was to be set, the jacinth also being -credited with great virtue against plague or pestilence. The gold heart -was to be hollow within. To give a finishing touch to the efficacy of -the amulet it was necessary to take a living toad and keep the creature -suspended by its hind-legs until it died and dried up so that the body -could be reduced to a powder. This powder was then to be kneaded into a -sort of paste with a little very sharp vinegar and introduced into the -hollow interior of the gold heart.[381] - -The “fretful porcupine” also contributed its stone to the series of -concretions; this was usually found in the animal’s head, and was -considered to be even superior to the bezoar as an antidote against -poison. If steeped in water for a quarter of an hour, the water became -so bitter that “there was nothing in the world more bitter.” Another -stone supposed to be found in the animal’s entrails possessed like -properties, but was said to lose none of its weight when placed in -water, while the first-mentioned stone became lighter. Tavernier bought -three of these stones, paying as much as five hundred crowns for one of -them.[382] - -A jewel made of ambergris, in the J. Pierpont Morgan collection, is said -to be the only specimen of its kind that has been preserved for us from -medieval times. The perfumed material has been skilfully carved into the -symbolic figures of a woman and three children. At one time believed to -symbolize Charity, the later theory is that these figures have a less -pure significance and rather denote the reproductive energies, for -ornaments of this material were credited with aphrodisiac powers; -however, they were also believed to cure stomachic disorders. The -delicate perfume they exhaled was one of their chief titles to -admiration, and after the lapse of more than three centuries, this -particular jewel still emits a fragrant aromatic odor when it has been -held for some time in a warm hand. The style of the workmanship -indicates that this is a piece of cinquecento Italian work. It was at -one time in the Wencke Collection, in Hamburg, and later formed part of -the Spitzer Collection, until the sale of the latter in 1893.[383] - -While many of the reports of the finding of immense masses of ambergris -(in one the weight of the mass is given as three thousand pounds) may be -classed as at least highly improbable, still there is abundant -unmistakable evidence that very large pieces have really occasionally -been found. In Rome and in the Santa Casa of Loreto costly and -artistically shaped pieces of ambergris were to be seen, which clearly -indicated that the weight of the original unworked mass must have -greatly exceeded that of the ornamental object. There can be no doubt of -the authenticity of the details regarding a great piece of ambergris -weighing 182 pounds bought in the year 1693 from King Fidori by the -Dutch East India Company for 11,000 rigsdalers or nearly $12,000 at the -current valuation of the coin of that time. In form it resembled a -tortoise-shell, was 5 feet 8 inches thick, and 2 feet 2 inches long. -After being long kept in Amsterdam as a curiosity, and having been -viewed there by thousands of persons, it was finally broken up and sold -at auction.[384] A lump extracted from a whale in the Windward Islands -weighed 130 pounds and was sold for $3500, or nearly $27 a pound. - -The livers of certain animals provided concretions called haraczi by the -Arabs; these were much used as remedies for epilepsy. The Turkish -butchers, when slaughtering animals, always examined the livers -carefully so as to secure these stones. As the Jews were said to suffer -much from melancholia and epileptic disorders they valued the -liver-stones very highly.[385] - -The use of fossils as talismans and for the cure of diseases was mainly -due to their strange and various forms. As color played the most -important part in the case of precious stones, each color being looked -upon as possessing a certain symbolic significance fitting the stone for -some special use or uses, so in the case of fossils the form was the -determining factor. Sometimes it was as the form of some creature held -by the superstitious to be particularly endowed with mysterious -qualities beneficial to mankind, at other times the fossil form -suggested some part of the human body, and was therefore believed to -afford protection to this part, or to cure any disease affecting it. -This will be made clearer by a brief notice of some of the principal -fossils which were favored in ancient and medieval times, either by -popular superstition or by those who from interested motives made use of -these superstitions for the purpose of gain, although they may have only -half believed in the real virtue of the objects they sold. - -[Illustration: - - Lapis Judaicus. Pentremite heads. From “Museum Wormianum,” Lugduni - Batavorum, 1655. -] - -The remedial quality of fossils, which were believed to have been formed -from shells and marine animals deposited during the deluge, is ascribed -by Mentzel to the fact that they had been produced by the action of -fire, and hence had the same quality as though prepared and calcined by -the chemist’s art. They were therefore believed to have great medicinal -virtues in the cure of diseases.[386] - -The lapis Judaicus[387] is described as of oval form, in shape like an -olive, and sometimes provided with a stem at the upper part as though it -had grown on a tree. The stone was soft and friable and in color either -white or grayish. The “male” variety had several rows of equidistant -spines, while the “female” was quite smooth. The description and the -figured representations of the lapis Judaicus show that it was a form of -pentremite—that is, a form of crinoid. This fossil, which was said to -come from Syria and Palestine, was taken in solution as a remedy for -calculus. The larger, male stones, were regarded as the better for renal -calculus and the smaller, female stones, for vesical calculus. Hence -this fossil was sometimes called tecolithos, from τήκειν, to dissolve, -and λίθος, stone.[388] Pliny also states that this name was applied to -certain concretions found in sponges and supposed to possess similar -virtues.[389] Of the remedial use of this stone, or fossil, Galen states -that when prescribed for vesical calculi, it was pulverized in a mortar, -and the powder being mixed with water, three glasses of the solution -were given. He adds, however: “I must say that as far as I have seen -they have no effect, but they are efficient in the case of renal -calculi.”[390] - -[Illustration: - - Glossopetræ. Fossil shark’s teeth. From “Museum Wormianum,” Lugduni - Batavorum, 1655. -] - -No fossils were more prized than the so-called _glossopetræ_ or -“tongue-stones.” Although these were really the fossilized or petrified -teeth of a species of shark, Pliny and his sources believed them to be -meteorites, which “fell from the sky when the moon was waning.” This -was, indeed, a prevalent fancy regarding all dart-shaped, pointed or -sharpened fossils, or flints. Because of this celestial origin, the -_glossopetræ_ were said to control the winds and even to affect the -motions of the moon. At a later time the chief source of supply for -these petrified teeth was the island of Malta, and they were therefore -sometimes called _lingues Melitenses_, or Maltese tongues; the Germans -named them _Steinzungen_, or “stone-tongues.” According to popular -belief these so-called Maltese tongues were petrified snakes’ tongues -and they were brought into connection with the miraculous adventure of -St. Paul on the island of Malta, when he shook off a viper that had -fastened on his hand, and sustained no injury from the bite (Acts, -xxviii, 3–5). This was taken to signify that the poison had been taken -from all the snakes on the island.[391] - -The material called “St. Paul’s Earth,” said to be derived from “St. -Paul’s Cave,” in the island of Malta, was reduced to a fine powder and -made into tablets. These were stamped with the Maltese cross; sometimes -on the opposite side some other figure was impressed. As there was -temptation to sell other material for the genuine, the purchaser was -warned to be on his guard. The virtues of this powder—which was -dissolved in wine or water—were numerous, and were the same as those -ascribed to the “tongues” (_glossopetræ_) and to the “eyes”; for it was -believed to be an antidote for poisons, cured the bites of venomous -creatures, and remedied many other ills. The “eyes” were set in rings so -that the material touched the wearer’s skin; the “tongues” were worn -attached to the arm or suspended from the neck. Sometimes vessels were -made from the earth. These were filled with wine or water, the liquid -being allowed to stand until it had absorbed the virtues of the earth; -it was then taken as a potion with good effects. The “tongues” and -“eyes” were often dipped in wine or water and were supposed to transmit -their curative powers to the liquid.[392] - -In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries a strange belief was prevalent -among the ignorant to the effect that the fossil sharks’-teeth, the -“tongue-stones,” were the teeth of witches who sucked the blood of -infants; these “vampires” were called _lamiæ_ in ancient times.[393] -Probably the fact that a certain species of shark bore the name _lamiæ_ -gave rise to this idea, which was therefore merely due to a confusion of -names. Nevertheless we can easily understand that this popular belief -added to the repute of the _glossopetræ_, for the more dreaded the -object the greater the power it was credited with possessing. In the -seventeenth century De Laet (d. 1649), the Dutch naturalist and -geographer, received in Leyden certain _glossopetræ_ sent him by a -friend in Bordeaux, who wrote that they would cure any one suffering -from soreness of the mouth, whether this were the result of having eaten -impure food, or were produced by some derangement of the secretions. The -“tongues” were to be dipped in spring water and would cause bubbles to -form therein; as soon as these disappeared, the water was to be used as -a gargle, and the mouth was to be washed with it two or three times. De -Laet’s friend assured him that this treatment would cure the disorder in -twenty-four hours.[394] - -A seventeenth century amulet of a fossil shark’s tooth, mounted in -silver and found in an excavation at Salzburg, Austria, was among the -objects exhibited by the writer for the New York branch of the American -Folk-Lore Society, in the Department of Ethnology of the Columbian -Exposition held in Chicago, in 1893. They are frequently found at Lake -Constance but are from the ancient fossiliferous formations and not from -the lake. They are often sold as amulets. - -[Illustration: - - Belemnites. Fossilized bony end of extinct cuttlefish. From - Aldrovandi’s “Museum metallicum,” Bononiæ, 1648. -] - -Fossils whose form suggested that of a more or less acutely pointed -shaft, were thought to possess special powers, sometimes offensive as -against enemies, and again defensive for the protection of the wearer. -Thus the belemnites,[395] considered to represent the form of a dart, -when dissolved and taken as a potion, were said to prevent nightmare and -to guard against enchantments. They are often either ash-colored or -whitish, and sometimes reddish-black. All these varieties were -frequently found during the sixteenth century in Hildesheim, and in the -marble grotto near the castle of Marienburg, called the “Dwarf’s -Grotto.”[396] - -The umbilicus marinus, a fossil shell, which in form bore a great -likeness to the human navel, was called “sea-bean” by sailors. Usually -of a pale saffron hue, some specimens have a reddish or blackish tinge. -In the sixteenth century it was believed to have astringent properties. -We are also told that women used it as one of the ingredients of a -cosmetic for whitening the complexion.[397] - -Certain echinites (fossil sea-urchins) found on the Baltic coast are -called by the peasants _Adlersteine_ and _Krallensteine_ (“eagle-stones” -and “claw-stones”), since they believe that while the substance was soft -eagles had seized them with their talons, thus producing the peculiar -forms and markings. Whoever had a fossil of this description on his -table while a thunder-storm was raging ran no risk of being struck by -lightning.[398] - -Reich describes another variety of echinite, which was popularly known -as a “toad-stone,” the specimen he figures having been given him by a -certain Johannis Krauss. In this appeared some large cavities, whose -presence Reich found it very difficult to explain, until Krauss informed -him that they had been made by a former owner of the fossil who had -scraped out a few grains of the substance each year for medicinal use. -He was persuaded that his long life—he attained the age of eighty—was -entirely owing to his employment of this remedy.[399] - -The _trochites_ and _entrochus_, named Räderstein, or “wheel-stone,” by -the Germans, are other fossils to which remedial or talismanic virtue -was accorded in popular fancy. These “wheel-stones,” while detachable, -fitted as closely together in the original formation as though they had -been skilfully adjusted by a clever artisan.[400] De Laet states that -when immersed in oil they gave forth bubbles and moved about -spontaneously. Still another of these fossils believed to be amulets was -the _enastros_, which De Boot terms the _asteria vera_, or genuine -asteria, since it not merely showed a star-shaped marking as did the -fossil coral bearing the name astroites, but was shaped like a -five-pointed star. As with the _trochites_, chains of these little stars -were found, closely joined together but separable from one another. Some -called them “star-seals,” because the stellar imprint was sharp and -clearly defined as though the work of an engraver or gem-cutter.[401] -These fossils are types of encrinites. - -[Illustration: - - Brontia. Fossil sea-urchins. From Mercati’s “Metallotheca Vaticana,” - Romæ, 1719. -] - -[Illustration: TROCHITES] - -[Illustration: ENASTROS] - - Trochites│Fossil - │Crinoid From Mercati, “Metallotheca Vaticana,” Romæ, 1719. - Enastros │Stems. - -The sections of the stem-like fossils called _entrochus_ by the older -writers have been named St. Cuthbert’s beads in later times, while the -fossil called _lapis Judaicus_ has borne the name of “stone-lily,” -because in form it resembles the lily. Ages ago the stem and flower-like -head united constituted a crinoid (a marine zoophyte). These aquatic -creatures—half-plant and half-animal—usually twine their roots about -some shell in the depths of the waters, but sometimes they become -detached and then, moving their delicate tentacles, they creep along the -bottom of the sea. - -[Illustration: - - Bucardites triplex. From Aldrovandi’s “Museum metallicum,” Bononiæ, - 1648. -] - -In olden times parts, or segments, of an animal were worn as a -protection against harm from that particular creature, or else to endow -the wearer with some of its real or fancied qualities. In modern times -this tendency finds expression in the wearing of jewels of animal form, -wherein precious stones are grouped and arranged so as to constitute -different parts of the creature’s body. Such jewels are often looked -upon as “mascots.” - -A peculiar fossil was known to the Germans by the name of Mutterstein, -and is called _hysterolithus_ in the Latin treatises of Agricola, De -Boot, etc., a word of Greek derivation signifying the resemblance of the -object to an organ of the body. These fossils are formed from the -contents of certain shells, and retain the shape of the enclosing shell, -which has broken away. Some of these formations were called _enorchi_ -from a fancied resemblance to another organ and were regarded as phallic -emblems, while others were thought to figure the heart, especially large -specimens being named _bucardites_, or “ox-hearts.” This name is already -employed by Pliny. The _hysterolithus_ was used to cure various female -diseases, and to the _bucardites_ was accorded among other virtues that -of increasing the wearer’s courage.[402] The _hysterolithus_ is believed -to be the same as the _autoglyphus_ mentioned by pseudo-Plutarch as -having been found in the river Sagaris, in Asia Minor. Its peculiar -shape was regarded as symbolizing Cybele, the mother of the gods, and -the story ran that if one of the unfortunate male victims of Eastern -jealousy should obtain a stone of this kind he would become reconciled -to his sad lot and would cease to regret his lost manhood. - -[Illustration: - - Types of Ombria (Fossil Sea Urchins). From Mercati’s “Metallotheca - Vaticana,” Romæ, 1719. -] - -If we were inclined to accord the title of precious stones to stones -greatly esteemed for their talismanic virtues, a high place in this -category would be assigned to the sâlagrâma-stone of the Hindus.[403] -Among the aboriginal inhabitants of India this was regarded as a symbol -of the female principle in nature, and of its representative the goddess -Prakrti, and in the later Hindu belief the stone was looked upon as the -special emblem of the god Vishnu, the “Preserver,” the second personage -of the Hindu Trimurti. It is therefore ardently revered by those who are -more especially devoted to the worship of Vishnu. These stones are -fossil formations, either of ammonites or univalve mollusks of a spiral -order, and consist of a number of spirals surrounding a circular, -central perforation. They are generally the hardened filling of the -shell itself, which has entirely weathered away. For the stone to be an -effectual talisman, the diameter of the perforation should not exceed -one-eighth of the total diameter of the sâlagrâma. The best specimens -are said to be found in Nepal, on the upper course of the Gandakî, which -flows into the Ganges from the north, and is called the Salagrama River, -because the sacred stone is found in it. - -[Illustration: - - Cornu ammonis (Fossil Nautilus.) From “Museum Wormianum,” Lugduni - Batavorum, 1655. -] - -There can be little doubt that we have here a substance similar to the -fossils described by Pliny and his successors under the names _brontia_, -_ombria_, _ovum anguinum_, and _cornu ammonis_, and it is most probable -that in India, as in Europe, these fossils were believed to have fallen -from heaven, and were associated with the thunderbolt. Hence they would -be regarded by the Hindus as more especially sacred to Vishnu, who was -originally a divinity representing the various forms of light, one of -his manifestations being the lightning. - -The sâlagrâmas must be carefully chosen, for not all of them are -luck-bringing, some being bearers of ill-fortune. A black sâlagrâma -brings fame to the owner, and a red one, a crown; but one with an unduly -large perforation would cause dissension and strife in a family, one -with irregularly formed spirals portends misfortune, and a brown one -would bring to pass the death of its owner’s wife. Each faithful -worshipper of Vishnu has one of these stones, but two may not be in the -same house. To give away a sâlagrâma would be equivalent to casting away -every prospect of good fortune. However, only one who belongs to the -three highest castes is entitled to become an owner of the sacred stone, -in which the very spirit of Vishnu is supposed to dwell; neither a Sudra -nor a Pariah enjoys this privilege, which is also denied to women. - -The sâlagrâma is carefully wrapped in linen cloths, and must be often -washed and perfumed. The water with which it has been washed becomes a -consecrated drink. The master of the house must adore the stone once -each day, either in the morning or in the evening. As the sâlagrâma not -only brings happiness in this world but also insures felicity in the -future world, it is held over the dying Hindu while water is allowed to -trickle through the orifice. This ceremony appears to have a certain -analogy to the rite of extreme unction administered in the Catholic -Church. - -It is stated by Finn Magnusen that in Iceland, toward the beginning of -the last century, he saw superstitious peasants carefully guard small -stones of peculiar appearance in pretty bags filled with fine flour. -They treated these stones with great reverence and either wore them on -their persons or placed them in their beds or other furniture.[404] - -The fossils known as _brontiæ_, _ombriæ_ and _chelonites_ were all -believed to be antidotes for poison and also to make the wearer -victorious over his enemies. Hence they were sometimes set in the -pommels of swords. That these objects were equally potent in peace, is -shown by the fact that Danish peasant women placed them in their milk -pails to ward off the effects of any spell that might have been cast -over the cow’s milk by a malevolent witch.[405] - -David Reich notes the four kinds of astroites, or “victory stones,” -given by De Boot; the first, marked with small stars; the second, with -rose-like figures; the third, with wavy lines, like the convolutions of -a worm; the fourth, with obscure and indefinite markings. To these -varieties Reich adds a fifth, the convex side of which was marked with -black crosses, while the other, flat side, showed larger crosses -surrounded by circles; all these markings were so perfect that an artist -could scarcely imitate them; this specimen he had set, with other -precious gems, in a silver cross, the flat side of the fossil, at the -back of the cross, being covered by a heart-shaped topaz.[406] These -were all specimens of fossil coral. - -[Illustration: - - _.ASTROITES._ - - Specimens of Astroites (asteria), or fossil coral. From Mercati’s - “Metallotheca Vaticana,” - Romæ, 1719. -] - -The saga of Dietrich of Bern relates of King Nidung that on the eve of a -battle in which his forces were much inferior to those of the enemy, he -was filled with despair to find that he had left his “victory stone” in -his castle, miles away from where he had pitched his tent. Overmastered -by his desire to regain possession of his stone at this critical time, -Nidung offered a large sum of money and his daughter’s hand to anyone -who would bring it to him before the battle began. The distance was so -great and the time so short that the task seemed utterly impossible, and -a young esquire, Velint by name, was the only one willing to risk the -enterprise. He was favored in his quest by having a horse of wonderful -strength and endurance, by whose help he barely succeeded in making the -long journey to the castle and returning in time. King Nidung, wearing -his invincible stone, was the victor in the battle, and he did not fail -to carry out his rather rash promise.[407] - -Amulets of fossil coral are freely used in Italy, especially in the -province of Aquila, and are called “witch-stones” (_pietre stregonie_). -These are similar to one type of the “asterias” worn as amulets in -ancient and medieval times. Many of the Italian amulets are incised or -engraved with Christian subjects, one figured by Bellucci bearing the -head of Christ on the obverse, and Christ on the cross on the reverse -side; on others appears the image of the Virgin Mary.[408] - -Crystalline quartz will sometimes show a star either at base or apex, if -cut _en cabochon_. This is due to the presence of acicular crystals of -rutile or to air spaces. Those specimens from Albany, Maine and other -places present this phenomenon, and Starolite and Astrolite or “star -stone” has been suggested as an appropriate name for this variety. - - - - - V - Snake-Stones and Bezoars - - -The bezoar stone, according to the usual belief, was taken from the -intestines or the liver either of the goat or of the deer. The Arabs -told a strange tale as to the generation of this stone.[409] They said -that at certain seasons the deer were wont to devour snakes and other -venomous creatures, whereupon they would straightway hasten to the -nearest pool and plunge into it until only their nostrils were above the -water. Here they remained until the feverish heat caused by the poison -they had swallowed was alleviated. During this time stones were formed -in the corners of their eyes; these dropped as the deer left the pool, -and were found on its banks. The stones were a sovereign antidote for -poisons of all kinds. When reduced to a powder and taken internally, or -when simply bound to the injured part, they effected a cure by inducing -a profuse perspiration. It is curious to note that this tale -foreshadows, in a fanciful way, the latest progress of medical science; -namely, the use of a substance generated in the body of a diseased -animal as an antidote for the disease from which the animal suffered. - -We are also told that Abdallah Narach narrates the case of the Moorish -king of Cordoba, Miramamolin, as Monardes gives the name, to whom a -violent poison had been administered and who was cured by means of a -bezoar stone. The king, overcome with gratitude for the preservation of -his life, gave his royal palace to the man who had brought him the -stone. Monardes remarks: “This certainly was a royal gift, since we see -that at this day the castle of Cordova is something rare and of great -value and the stone must have been highly prized when such a price was -paid for it.”[410] - -[Illustration: - - Application of a besoar to cure a victim of poisoning. From Johannis - de Cuba’s “Ortus Sanitatis,” Strassburg, 1483. -] - -The first mention of the bezoar stone is by the Arabic and Persian -writers. In the Arabic work attributed to Aristotle, and which was -certainly written as early as the ninth and possibly in the seventh -century, it is even described among the precious stones. The same is -true of the oldest Persian work on medicine, namely, that of Abu Mansur -Muwaffak, composed about the middle of the tenth century. A valuable -monograph on the bezoar was written in 1625 by Caspar Bauhin, a learned -professor and physician of Basel; this work contains all that was then -known of the various qualities ascribed to this substance by the older -authors. - -The bezoar does not appear to have been used medicinally in Europe -before the twelfth century, when the so-called pestilential fevers -became very prevalent. In their distress people turned to the lapis -bezoar, which was so highly recommended by the Arabic physicians whose -works were, at that time, becoming more widely known through the -intercourse between the Spaniards and the Moors. Caspar Bauhin -writes:[411] “Even to-day princes and nobles prize it very highly and -guard it in their treasures among their most precious gems; so that the -physicians are forced, sometimes against their better judgment, to -employ it as a remedy. So great are its virtues that many imitations are -made.” - -The name bezoar, derived from the Persian _padzahr_ (_pad_, expelling; -_zahr_, poison), or some of its many variants, was often used to -designate any antidote for poison, so that the Arabs would say that such -or such a substance was the bezoar for a particular poison. This should -be understood to signify that the stone received its name because it was -regarded as a specially powerful antidote. - -The various authors give many different sources for the bezoar. We have -already cited Monardes and repeated his account; other writers asserted -that this concretion came from the heads of certain animals, others -again said that it was taken from their livers, and still others stated -that it was formed in the eye of the stag. Naturally, concretions of a -similar form and quality may well have been obtained from any of these -sources. Indeed, one of the most potent bezoars was that taken from the -monkey. A specimen of this kind is described and figured in the Museum -Brittanicum[412] with the following description: - - A Monkey’s Bezoar, very much resembling one from the goat, of an - oblong shape broke in two, with a long straw, or some such like - substance in its centre; its colour brown, pink, or deep yellow. I - found it set as generally they are for preservation in a little chest, - or case, of what is called _Lignum Læevisiunum_; the pith or medula of - which appears to resemble the common elder, and may, for what I know, - be as curious as the stone itself. - -Toll quotes[413] Jacob Bontius to the effect that these monkey bezoars, -which were rounded and a little longer than the finger, were considered -the best of all. - -As the chief quality claimed for the bezoar was that it induced a -profuse perspiration, we might understand that it could have a -beneficial effect in some cases. It was also remarked that the solution -of the stone blackened the teeth and those who used it were therefore -obliged to take great care that the medicine should not touch their -teeth. - -[Illustration: - - Monkey bezoar. From Valentini’s “Museum Museorum oder Vollständige - Schau-Bühne,” Frankfurt am Main, 1714. -] - -We learn that a genuine stone was valued at 50 gold crowns (about $125) -in Calcutta; another is said to have brought 130 crowns ($325). De Boot -states that a drachm of the powdered stone was worth two ducats ($5) in -Lower Germany and four ($10) in Upper Germany; why, he does not say. - -Garcias ab Horto, a Portuguese physician of Goa, in India, describes a -variety of the bezoar called the Lapis Malacensis, used as an antidote -for poisons in Malacca. This was found in the liver of the hedgehog, and -the substance was held in such esteem that of two found in the fifteenth -Century, one was sent as a very valuable gift to the Portuguese Viceroy -at Goa. Garcias describes this as being of a light purple hue, bitter to -the taste and smooth as the skin of a toad. The custom was to steep the -stone in water for some time and then to give this water to the patient -as a medicinal draught. A specimen was brought to Rome from Portugal by -Cardinal Alexandrinus, and Mercato states that he had seen a test of its -virtues as an antidote for poisons. In the opinion of De Boot: “As an -antidote for any poison which may have been administered, nothing more -excellent than the bezoar stone can be had.”[414] It was even asserted -that if a bezoar set in a ring were frequently placed in the mouth and -sucked, this would afford a cure for poison by inducing a profuse -perspiration.[415] Besides its exceptional quality as an antidote for -poisons, this stone was regarded as a panacea for all chronic and -painful diseases, especially if taken each morning for several days, -after the use of a cathartic. - -[Illustration: - - 1. Hedge-hogstone from Malacca. 2, 3. Spurious stones of this type - manufactured in Ceylon. From Kaempfer’s “Amœnitatum exoticarum - fasciculi V,” Lemgoviæ, 1712. -] - -Besides this use as a remedy or antidote, the bezoar was credited with -the powers of an elixir of life, for some of the Hindus employed it as a -preservative of youth and vigor. Twice a year, after dosing themselves -with a strong cathartic medicine, they would take ten grains of powdered -bezoar daily for fifteen days, and they are said to have derived great -benefit from this treatment.[416] - -The celebrated practical test of the bezoar’s power as an antidote to -poison, recorded by the famous French surgeon, Ambroise Paré -(1510–1590), was performed in Paris with one which had been brought from -Spain to Charles IX of France. Clearly the only perfectly satisfactory -means of ascertaining whether the reputed virtues of this curious -concretion were really present was to make an experiment therewith upon -a living human being. Now it chanced that just at this time there was in -the royal prison a cook who had stolen two silver dishes from his -master, and who, in accord with the pitiless laws of that period, had -been condemned to death for this offence. Here was an excellent -opportunity, therefore, to make a trial of the bezoar, but as the -adjudged legal penalty could not well be arbitrarily changed to some -other form of death, the matter was first laid before the condemned man -himself, with the promise that should he not succumb to the poison he -would be given his liberty. As at the worst this was taking a chance of -life in exchange for certain death, the cook readily consented. The -necessary preparations having been made, the poison was administered and -immediately thereafter the man was given a dose composed of a part of -the bezoar reduced to powder and dissolved in liquid. The effects of the -poison were soon manifested by violent retching and purging, and when -Paré was called in an hour later, he found the man in great agony, with -blood issuing from his nose, ears and mouth, and from the other bodily -apertures. He piteously complained that he felt as though consumed by an -inward flame, and before another hour had passed he expired, crying out -that it would have been much better to have died by hanging. From his -report, Paré seems not to have been present when the poison was given -and not to have been informed of its character, as he merely states that -from the results of his autopsy and from the symptoms he had observed, -he concluded that it was corrosive sublimate. Probably, conscientious -and truly religious as he was, he was unwilling to take an active part -in such an affair. The king ordered that his discredited bezoar should -be cast into the fire and destroyed. As an illustration of Ambroise -Paré’s humility and piety we may cite his remark on the recovery of one -of his patients: “I treated him and God cured him.”[417] It was Paré who -operated upon Admiral Coligny after the unsuccessful attempt on the -latter’s life made a few days before his assassination on St. -Bartholomew’s Day, August 24, 1572, at the outset of the dreadful -massacre. - -Alluding to the ill-success attending the experiment performed by -Ambroise Paré, in order to test effectively the supposed virtues of the -substance as an antidote for poisons, Engelbert Kaempfer remarks that -Paré’s bezoar may have been of inferior quality, and, moreover, bezoars -could not be successfully used to counteract mineral poisons, but were -only useful when vegetable poisons had been taken. This opinion was -probably due to the fact that the bezoar itself is largely or in the -main a vegetable substance. That the interior layers of a specimen -should be inferior in quality to the external layers was not for -Kaempfer a proof of its spurious character, but might easily be -accounted for by a change of pasturage in the case of the creature in -whose body the concretion had formed. - -This writer asserts that he considered those bezoars to be genuine which -were of a partly resinous and partly mineral composition, so that when -pulverized they could be dissolved in nitric acid, the solution having a -reddish hue. The Persians not only attributed to bezoars the same -virtues as did the Europeans, but also recommended the administration of -the bezoar elixir to persons in health, that they might avoid -contracting disease and prolong their lives, more especially if the dose -were taken at the beginning of the year. In general, however, he found -that where Europeans used the bezoar as a remedy, the Persians gave a -dose of pearl tincture instead; but as rarities, or perhaps as -talismans, bezoars were even more highly prized in Persia than in -Europe, for there was hardly a Persian of note who did not preserve one -of these concretions among his treasures. The price depended upon -perfection of form and color, as well as upon size, one weighing a -mishkel (about 75 grains Troy) was commonly valued at one toman, the -equivalent of 15 ounces of silver (about $20), according to Kaempfer’s -computation, but the price rose rapidly with the size of the bezoar in a -proportion similar to that observable in the case of pearls. As Persian -bezoars were so costly in Persia, and the home demand for them so great, -those sold by this name in Europe must have had another origin.[418] - -Of several experiments made with criminals to whom poison was -administered and then a dose of bezoar to test its virtues as an -antidote, one of the most interesting has to do with a criminal -incarcerated in the prison at Prague, in the reign of Emperor Rudolph -II. To this man a drachm of the deadly poison _aconitum napellus_ was -administered. Five hours were allowed to elapse before the bezoar was -given, so that the poison should have full time to be absorbed by the -system. During this time the effects were fully manifested, oppression -at the chest, pain in the gastric region, dimness of vision and -dizziness. When the five hours had expired five grains of bezoar were -given to the man in a little wine. After taking the dose he felt some -relief and vomited, but the bad symptoms soon returned and even became -aggravated, as though a supreme conflict for the mastery between poison -and antidote were in progress. There was delirium, extreme tension of -the abdomen, repeated vomiting, and an irregular, feverish pulse; -finally an acute inflammation of the eyes supervened, causing such -intense pain that the man declared he would rather die than endure it -longer. However, at the end of eight hours’ time from the administration -of the poison—three hours after the dose of bezoar had been given—all -the morbid conditions passed off, the patient was able to eat food with -relish and he slept quietly. In the morning he was perfectly well, and -never realized any subsequent bad effects. The emperor released him from -prison and even bestowed a handsome reward upon him.[419] - -A strange experiment to determine the character and quality of bezoars -is related by Kaempfer on the authority of Jager. The latter asserted -that while in Golconda he had the opportunity of examining recently -captured gazelles for the presence of bezoars, and that by compressing -their abdomens he could distinctly feel two such concretions in the case -of one of the animals and five or six in the case of the other. They -were kept some days for further observation, but as they absolutely -refused all food, it was decided to kill them rather than have them -starve to death. This was done, but when the bodies were opened no trace -of any bezoar could be found, and Jager conjectures that the substance -of these concretions had been absorbed into the system of the animal for -lack of any other nourishment.[420] - -In his memoirs, Jehangir Shah relates that an Afghan once brought from -the Carnetic two goats said to have bezoar stones [pâzahar] in their -bodies. Jehangir was much surprised to note that these animals were fat -and healthy looking, as he had always been told that those having -bezoars were invariably thin and wretched in appearance. However, the -Afghan was shown to be correct in his conjecture, for when one of the -goats was killed and the body opened four fine bezoars were brought to -light.[421] - -About the beginning of the eighteenth century, Charles Jacques Poncet, a -French physician, was called to the court of the Abyssinian monarch of -that time. One of the favorite remedies of this Frenchman was a kind of -artificial bezoar, which he claims to have used with great success in -cases of intermittent fever. This so-called bezoar he administered to -the sovereign and to two of his children, and he also revealed to the -Abyssinian king the secret of its composition. He tells us that this -“Emperor of Ethiopia,” as he terms him, showed great interest in medical -science, and listened eagerly to explanations of the character and -operation of the various remedies.[422] - -The Indians of Peru had their own theory as to the genesis of the bezoar -stone. In relation to this Joseph de Acosta writes:[423] - - The Indians relate from the traditions and teachings of their - ancestors, that in the province of Xaura, and in other provinces of - Peru there are various poisonous herbs and animals which empoison the - waters and pastures where they [the vicuñas, etc.] drink and eat. Of - these poisonous herbs, one is right well known by a natural instinct - to the vicuña and to the other animals which engender the bezoar, and - they eat of this herb and thus preserve themselves from the poison of - the waters and pastures. The Indians also say that the stone is formed - in the stomachs of these animals from this herb, whence comes the - virtue it possesses as an antidote for poisons, as well as its other - marvellous properties. - -Of the mineral bezoar, which was also regarded as an antidote against -poisons, Mohammed ben Mançur relates that various ornamental figures -were formed from it, such as small images of the Shah or little female -figures; these were perhaps regarded as talismans. Knife-handles were -also made of this material,[424] and here the use may have been -connected with the belief in the curative power of the bezoar, if -brought into direct contact with the skin, as would be the case when the -knife-handle was grasped in the hand. - -A mineral bezoar bearing a close likeness to the animal concretion was -found in Sicily. This stone was usually round, sometimes oblong like an -egg, and sometimes compressed; its usual size was about that of a -pigeon’s egg, the largest stone not surpassing the size of a hen’s egg. -It was commonly white, occasionally of a somewhat ashy hue, and the -surface was generally smooth, though now and then it was rough with -small protuberances. Its taste resembled that of the white _bolus -armenus_. The composition of this stone was similar to that of the -Oriental bezoar of animal origin, having the same layers, and in the -centre a small mass of sand over which nature had imposed from eight to -ten layers, just as in the animal bezoar.[425] - -A peculiar bezoar is reported from Indrapura, India. This was said to -have been found in the skull of a rhinoceros, and was of light weight -and of a black hue, varying to pale red when held against the light; it -was hard enough to cut glass. The owner believed it to be a panacea for -all ills. For blood-spitting it was held in the mouth; for rheumatism, -bruises, or burns, it was rubbed over the affected part; and for the -bites of venomous creatures it was simply laid upon the wound; even -those at the point of death were revived by it.[426] - -An amulet set with a bezoar stone is said to have possessed such a power -to prevent bleeding that when a Malacca prince was killed in a battle -with his rebellious subjects, no blood was flowing from any of his -numerous wounds. On stripping the body a golden armlet set with a bezoar -came to view, and the moment this was removed blood began to flow freely -from the wounds.[427] - -Mercato writes of a marvellous Occidental bezoar, sent from Peru to Rome -in 1534, as a gift to Pope Gregory XIII. It weighed no less than -fifty-six ounces, although it was defective, since a large portion of -the exterior crust was missing, the second layer was partly broken away, -and even the third layer was damaged in some places. This wonderful -concretion had been dedicated to one of the Peruvian gods, as a rare and -precious object, and it was taken away by the Spaniards when they -spoiled the temple. Mercato says that this bezoar was “of a truly -monstrous size, unheard of in all previous centuries, and it is still -the largest in the whole realm of nature.”[428] - -The bezoars of the New World seem to have differed considerably from -those of India. They had a rough surface, were usually of a gray color, -of various sizes and forms, and composed of a number of superimposed, -coalescing layers, much thicker than those of the Oriental, or Indian, -bezoar. They were usually of considerable size, either hollow within or -containing seeds, needles and similar substances. They came from the -West Indies, especially from Peru, and were brought thence by the -Spaniards and Portuguese. The greater number were found in a kind of -chamois; however, we are told that the bezoar was not found in all these -animals, “but only in the old ones.”[429] - -A letter written in the sixteenth century by one who had travelled -extensively in India and in Peru, illustrates the ideas of that time -regarding both Oriental and Occidental bezoars: - - A gentleman living about twenty-eight years in these Countries, writes - to his Friend, that he saw those Animals out of which comes the - Bezoar, and saith, they are very like _Goats_, only they have no - Horns; and are so swift, that they are forc’d to shoot them with guns. - He tells us, that he and some Friends, on the 10th of _June_ 1568, - hunted some of these Creatures, and in five Days kill’d many of them; - and that in one of the oldest of them, they made diligent Search for - the stone, but found it not, neither in the Ventricle, nor in any - other Part of the Animal. They ask’d the Indians that attended upon - them, where the Stones lay; they denied they knew anything of them, - being very envious and unwilling to disclose such a Secret. At length - (he saith) a Boy about twelve years old perceiving us to be very - inquisitive, and to be very desirous of Satisfaction in that - Particular, shew’d us a certain Receptacle and (as it were) a _Purse_, - into which they receive their eaten herbs, which afterwards when - churned, they convey into the Ventricle.[430] - -The same circumstances were observed by this informant in regard to the -Peruvian bezoars, and from the “pouch” of one of these animals were -taken no less than nine stones, “which, by the help of nature, seemed to -be made of the Juice of those salutiferous Herbs, which were crammed up -into this little Pouch.”[431] - -While the Occidental bezoar from South America enjoyed a special repute -in Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when bezoars were -so freely used as poison-antidotes, and for the cure of fevers and other -diseases, it has been doubted whether the aborigines of South America -ever valued them in any way before the time of the Spanish Conquest. -What seems, however, to be a proof that they sometimes did so, is -afforded by the discovery of a bezoar, probably taken from the body of a -llama, in a tomb at Cojitambo, in the Cañari region of Ecuador. In spite -of the contrary opinion expressed by Garcilasso de la Vega, there is -reason to believe that such animal concretions were used by these -Indians in magic practices. The Quichua name is _illa_, and Holquin in -his Quichua dictionary says that the natives believed that bezoars were -luck-bringing stones. Another name, _quicu_, is vouched for by Arriaga, -who states that the Spaniards found some bezoars stained with the blood -of sacrificial victims, thus showing that they were thought to possess a -certain religious or mystic significance. Another author, Don Vasco de -Contreros y Vievedo, writing in 1650, states that the most highly valued -of these concretions among the natives of South America were those taken -from the American tapir, which they called _danta_.[432] - -The comparative value of Oriental and Occidental bezoars was still an -open question toward the end of the sixteenth century. In a letter -written by Sir George Carew to Sir Robert Cecil, on October 10, 1594, -the former states that he had submitted a bezoar from the West Indies to -a London jeweler named Josepho, who had told him that had the substance -come from the East Indies he would value it as high as £100, but that -never having made trial of West Indian bezoars, he would not venture on -an estimate, although he did not doubt but that they were quite as good. -Nevertheless he would not care to buy this one before having tested its -virtues experimentally.[433] - -That good Queen Bess shared the beliefs of her age as to the virtues of -stones is well known, and she appears to have regarded her bezoars as -worthy of a place among the treasures of the Crown, for in the inventory -of the jewels made at the accession of James I we read: - - Also one greate Bezar stone, sett in goulde that was Queene - Elizabeth’s, with some Unicorne’s Horne, in a paper; and one other - large Bezar stone, broken in peeces, delivered to our owne handes, by - the Lord Brooke, the two and twentith day of Januarie, one thousand - sixe hundred and twenty and two.[434] - -After the death of Rudolph II, in 1612, the Venetian envoy, Girolamo -Soranzo, wrote to the Doge, “No other monarch has ever accumulated so -many jewels.” He also communicates the fact that some at least of these -gems were to follow him to the grave, for when interred, his head was -covered with a cap adorned with many valuable precious stones. However, -Rudolph’s fondness for the more splendid gems and jewels was accompanied -by a very particular taste for the collection of Oriental bezoars, of -which a large number are noted as in his possession at the time of his -death. These ranged in weight from 1 loth (½ oz. Troy) to 25½ loth (a -little more than one pound Troy); most of them were provided with a rich -gold setting, and one especially prized bezoar, weighing about 8 ounces, -reposed in a silver box decorated with 32 diamonds and 26 rubies. -Another of very singular shape, resembling “four toes,” is also entered -on the list. Besides these the imperial collection included several -other curious animal concretions, probably regarded as having -therapeutic virtues, such, for instance, as a “stone” from the body of a -doe; this had been found by a certain Helmhardt Jörger and by him -presented to the emperor; another of these treasured concretions came -from the stomach of a stag. A specimen of the famed “eagle-stone” is -also listed; this had a double gold setting, and on it were inscribed -the words “Piedra Geodas,” showing that the real character of this stone -as a geode was then well understood.[435] - -Some of the gold mounted bezoars of Rudolph II are still to be seen in -the Hofmuseum, at Vienna. One is surrounded by a gold band with a scroll -pattern; another has a capping of gold and stands upon a golden base, -and still another, capped and belted with gold, is attached by a chain -to a golden bowl. This was probably to be used as a test of the freedom -from poison of any beverage in the vessel. A bezoar of the eighteenth -century is mounted upon a tree of gold, against the trunk of which a -wild boar is leaning. This may be only a decorative adjunct, or it might -be an indication of the particular animal source of this special -bezoar.[436] - -The bezoars of Borneo are taken either from monkeys or porcupines. For -medicinal use, the gratings are dissolved in water and the solution is -administered as required. Skeats relates that he was once asked $200 by -a native for a small stone, erroneously asserted to be a bezoar. This -stone was carefully wrapped up in cotton and preserved in a tin box with -some grains of rice, the owner firmly believing that the stone fed on -the rice. A red monkey (semnopithecus) furnishes many of these bezoars, -but those from the porcupine are supposed to be so much the more -efficacious that the Sultan of Saik claims all bezoars of this kind -found in his dominions as his personal property; nevertheless, many are -said to be surreptitiously taken out of the country by Malayan or -Chinese traders. A remarkably fine specimen in the possession of the -Sultan is valued at $900; small ones may be worth no more than $40, but -the value increases very rapidly with the size of the concretion. Though -it is confidently believed that the bezoars work wonderful cures in -diseases of the bowels and of the respiratory organs, the natives value -them chiefly as aphrodisiacs, this action being secured either by -wearing them or by taking them in solution.[437] - -[Illustration: - - BEZOARS OF EMPEROR RUDOLPH II, NOW IN THE HOFMUSEUM, VIENNA -] - -The Chinese work entitled P’ing-chou-k’o-t’an, by Chu Yü, written in the -first quarter of the twelfth century, mentions the _mo-so_ stone (the -bezoar) and states that it was worn in finger rings. Should anyone have -reason to suppose that he had taken poison, all he had to do in order to -escape any bad effects was to lick the bezoar stone set in his ring. The -Chinese writer adds that it might thus be justly called “a life -preserver.”[438] - -The Dayaks of Borneo have a method for producing bezoars which they call -_guligas_. This is to shoot an animal with an unpoisoned arrow. When the -wound heals, there is often a hardening of the skin, which finally -results in the formation of a _guliga_. In some of these concretions the -point of the arrow still remains. The _guligas_ of natural formation are -frequently found between the flesh and the skin of apes and -porcupines.[439] - -In the eighteenth century Valmont de Bomare reports that the bezoars of -the hedgehog commanded the highest price. These were greasy and soapy, -both to the eye and to the touch, and of a greenish or yellowish color; -a few were reddish or blackish. They were so highly valued in Holland -that a Jew in Amsterdam asked 6000 livres ($1200) for a specimen in his -possession as large as a pigeon’s egg; and such bezoars were even rented -in Holland and Portugal, at the rate of one ducat ($2.50) a day, to -those who were exposed to contagion, and believed that the bezoars, if -worn as amulets, would protect them from the danger.[440] - -In a letter to the Macon, Georgia, _Journal and Messenger_ of August, -1854, Major J. D. Wilkes, of Dooley County, relates that while hunting -he shot down a fine buck. He states that on cutting up the animal he -found a stone of a dark greenish color, about where the windpipe joins -the lights. It was from an inch and a half to two inches long, and quite -heavy for its size, although it appeared to be porous. Major Wilkes says -that he had heard of similar stones from old hunters, and had been told -that they possessed the power of extracting poison, but that they were -rarely found. The communication proceeds to relate a case where this -stone was successfully applied to a dog which had been bitten by a -rattlesnake. We have here one of the few notices extant regarding an -American bezoar stone.[441] - -An American bezoar taken from the stomach of a deer killed in the -Chilhowee Mountains, in Tennessee, was reported in 1866 by Prof. David -Christy. In extracting this concretion the hunter had damaged the outer -layer, but when this was removed there remained a perfectly smooth, -round body, about the size and shape of a hen’s egg, and of a light -brown color. When Professor Christy obtained it, this bezoar had already -acquired the reputation of possessing great though somewhat undefined -virtues; he presented it to Professor Wood of the Ohio Medical College -in Cincinnati.[442] - -Writing of bezoars in the year 1876, Dr. Learned states that Signor -Korkos, of Morocco, showed him one for which he had paid twelve dollars. -It was as large as a small walnut, the surface being smooth and -cream-colored; a section revealed the presence of the concentric -circular layers characterizing the formation of this concretion. For -remedial use it was rubbed on a stone until a sufficient quantity of its -powder was obtained, which was then diluted in liquid and administered -as a potion. Strict dieting and absolute rest in the house for seven -days were an essential part of the treatment, the bezoar powder being -more especially recommended in diseases of the heart, liver or other -internal organs, but for sore eyes and for rheumatism its virtues were -praised. This illustrates a modern employment of the concretion in -Mohammedan Morocco.[443] - -Some medical authorities of the sixteenth century were disposed to -regard the calculus produced by the human subject as superior in -medicinal efficacy to the far-famed bezoar. One of their arguments was -that as man was the highest type of organized being a human product must -exceed in value one from an animal source; then again, his food was of -the best, superior in quality to that taken by the animals furnishing -the bezoars. For every theory a proof can be found if one is on the -lookout for it, and therefore we need not be surprised if the virtues of -calculi or gravel were also supported by evidence. In 1624 or 1625 the -Dutch city of Leyden was visited by the plague, and to the great regret -of the physicians there was no supply of bezoars on hand. Hereupon they -were driven to make use of human gravel, and found to their astonishment -that this was an even more excellent sudorific than the bezoar -itself.[444] - -[Illustration: - - Calculi taken from the bladder of Pope Pius V. From Mercati’s - “Metallotheca Vaticana.” Romæ, 1719. -] - -Although there is no direct relation between bezoars and the hair-balls -sometimes found in the stomach or intestines of human beings, there is -some slight analogy, as the animal bezoar concretions seem to have been -formed about a nucleus consisting of some indigestible material that has -been swallowed by an animal. From the report of hospital surgeons, it -appears that these hair-balls, which result from a long-continued habit -of swallowing hair, are almost exclusively found in the bodies of women, -generally of very young girls. The large size which they sometimes -attain is very surprising; in several instances they have so filled up -the stomach that they are moulded by it into its exact shape. Although -when a hair-ball has reached this size, and indeed long before, the most -alarming symptoms set in, frequently recurrent vomiting being the most -characteristic, we cannot but wonder how it is possible for _any_ food -to enter and pass through the stomach under such conditions, the only -explanation being the great power of dilation this organ possesses. Its -disposition to patiently tolerate foreign bodies where it cannot expel -them, renders it often a poor guide in a diagnosis based upon the -patient’s personal experience. These hair-balls accumulate and lodge not -only in the stomach but also in the intestines, and in either case the -eventual result is almost certain to be fatal unless the obstacle is -removed by operation. Very occasionally only does nature react -sufficiently to expel the impediment without surgical aid. Of course all -treatment is vain unless the morbid habit of hair-swallowing can be -overcome. This does not seem to be an accompaniment of a distinctly -diseased mental condition, although that is sometimes coincident, but -must assuredly result from some derangement or abnormality of the -nervous centres, inducing a morbid and unnatural craving.[445] - -[Illustration: - - Types of the Ovum Anguinum. Echinites (sea-urchins). From Aldrovandi’s - “Museum metallicum,” Bononiæ, 1648. -] - -The serpent-stone, called by Pliny _ovum anguinum_, or “serpent’s egg,” -is said to have been worn by the Druid priests as a badge of -distinction. Pliny relates that he had seen one of them which was as -large as a moderate-sized apple, its shell being a cartilaginous -substance. It was supposed to be generated in midsummer out of the -saliva and slime exuding from a knot of intertwined serpents. When the -moisture had coagulated and formed into a sphere, this was tossed in the -air by the hissing snakes, and, in order to preserve its efficacy as a -talisman, the finder had to catch it in a linen cloth before it fell to -the ground. Such “serpent’s eggs” were in high favor with the Romans, -who believed they procured for the wearers success in all disputes and -the protection of kings. So great was the faith reposed in their magical -virtues that Claudius is said to have condemned to death a Roman knight, -one of the Vecontii, simply because he had an _ovum anguinum_ concealed -in his bosom when he appeared in court during the trial of a lawsuit in -which he was involved. In order to enhance the value of this amulet, the -story was circulated that great dangers were incurred in securing it; -for the snakes pursued any one who seized the egg and he could only -escape by fording a river, across which they could not swim.[446] In -later accounts of this amulet it is described as a ring, sometimes -composed of a blue stone with an undulating streak or stripe of yellow, -thought to represent a snake. - -Certain so-called floating-stones have been found in a branch of Mann -Creek, a tributary of the Weiser River, which flows into the latter near -its confluence with the Snake River in Idaho.[447] These are hollow -quartz globes, with a shell so thin that the air in the cavity more than -makes up for the specific gravity of the quartz. Some formation similar -to this may possibly have been intended by Pliny in his description of -the _ovum anguinum_ or serpent’s egg of the Druids, which floated if -thrown into a stream, although it is perhaps more probable that these -“serpent’s eggs” were shells of the sea-urchin, as they are figured by -De Boot and other writers. - -The snake-stone, legends regarding which are met with in so many -different parts of the world, is known to the Lapps of northern Europe, -and strange to say, some of the elements of Pliny’s old recital touching -the “serpent’s egg” come out in the account given of it by this -primitive race, in general so far removed from any notion of classical -tradition. Anyone in search of this stone must resort, according to the -Lapps, to the pairing place of snakes, for here they throw the stone, -which is small and white, back and forth to one another; he must steal -along quietly until he is quite near to the snakes and then snatch the -stone as it flies through the air, and run away with it as fast as he -can to the nearest piece of water. Should he reach the water before the -snake does—for the reptile pursues him—he gains the ownership of the -stone; if, however, the snake first reaches the water, this is very -dangerous for the man. Hence he should carefully search out the nearest -water before snatching the stone, and as the snake will not immediately -know what has become of it, and will hunt for it awhile before starting -in pursuit of the thief, the latter will have time to come first to the -water.[448] - -Tertullian writes that the wearing of stones taken from the head of a -dragon or of a serpent was especially reprehensible in the case of a -Christian; for how could a Christian be said to “bruise the head” of the -Old Serpent (Gen. iii, 15) while wearing such a stone about his neck or -on his head, and thus testifying to a kind of serpent worship![449] - -The Greek poem “Lithica,” belonging to the fourth century B.C., also -celebrates the virtues of a “snake-stone,” which is to be pressed -closely on the bitten spot; but besides this application, the drinking -of undiluted wine in which the stone _ostrites_ had been pulverized, is -recommended. This shows that the therapeutic value of alcohol as a -stimulant to revive the nerve-centres, paralyzed by the animal poison, -was recognized at this time. An unusually precise description is given -of the _ostrites_; it was round, hard, black and rough, and was marked -by many wavy lines or veins. Some one of the many varieties of banded -agate seems to answer best to this description.[450] - -The legend that St. Patrick drove out all snakes from Ireland sometimes -took the form that the saint had transformed them into stones. This -belief is noted by Andrew Borde, physician and ecclesiastic, who, -writing in 1542, mentions some strange stones he had been shown on that -island: - - I have sene stones the whiche have had the forme and shape of a snake - and other venimous wormes. And the people of the countrie sayth that - such stones were wormes, and they were turned into stones by the power - of God and the prayers of saynt Patrick. And English merchauntes of - England do fetch of the erth of Irlonde to caste in their garden’s, to - keepe out and to kyll venimous wormes.[451] - -The legendary serpent-stone is usually one taken from the reptile’s -head, but Welsh tradition tells of one extracted from the tail of a -serpent by the hero Peredur, and having the magic property that anyone -holding it in one hand would grasp a handful of gold in the other. This -stone was generously bestowed upon Etlym by the finder, who only secured -it after vanquishing the serpent in a dangerous conflict.[452] - -The snake-stone (or “madstone”), in Arabic _ḥajar alḥayyat_, is -described by the Arab writer Kazwini, as being of the size of a small -nut. It was found in the heads of certain snakes. To cure the bite of a -venomous creature the injured part was to be immersed in sour milk, or -in hot water, and when the stone was thrown into the liquid it would -immediately attract itself to the bitten part and draw out the -poison.[453] The homeopathic idea plays a considerable rôle in the -superstitions of the Arabs of northern Africa. To cure the bite or sting -of the scorpion, the creature is to be crushed over the wound it has -inflicted. If anyone is bitten by a dog, he should cut off some of the -animal’s hair and lay this on the bitten part; if, however, the dog was -mad, it must be killed, its body opened and the heart removed. This is -then to be broiled and eaten by the person who has been bitten.[454] - -Many beautiful glass beads of Roman, or perhaps of British fabrication, -have been found in Great Britain and Ireland. Upon some of these are -bosses composed of white spirals, the body of the bead being blue, red, -yellow, or some other brilliant color. These have been called “holy -snake beads.” Probably most of them are merely ornamental productions -and were not intended to represent serpent-stones. The curious test of -the genuineness of an _ovum anguinum_ mentioned by Pliny, namely, that -even if set in gold, it would float up a stream against the current, -indicates a very porous structure; perhaps some of these serpent’s eggs -were hollow, vitrified clay balls with wavy lines on the surface. - -De Boot, in his treatise on stones and gems,[455] figures the _ovum -anguinum_, and says that its form was either hemispherical or -lenticular. In his opinion the name “serpent’s egg” was given to the -stone because on its surface there appeared five ridges, starting from -the base and tapering off toward the top. These bore a certain -resemblance to a serpent’s or adder’s tail. The stone was believed to -protect the wearer from pestilential vapors and from poisons. - -The so-called “snake-stones,” many specimens of which have been found in -British barrows, bear in the Scottish Lowlands the designation “Adder -Stanes.” They are also sometimes called adder-beads or serpent-stones. -For the Welsh they were _gleini na droedh_ and for the Irish _glaine nan -druidhe_, the meaning being the same, “Druid’s glass.” Many interesting -examples were added to the collection of the Museum of Scotch -Antiquaries, one of these being of red glass, spotted with white; -another of blue glass, streaked with yellow; other types were of pale -green and blue glass, some of these being ribbed while others again were -of smooth and plain surface. That the glass “snake-stones” were objects -of considerable care and attention is indicated by the mending of a -broken specimen shown by Lord Landesborough at a meeting of the Society -of Antiquaries in 1850. This broken bead had been repaired and -strengthened by the application of a bronze hoop.[456] - -The supposed snake-stones are also to be found among the Cornishmen, who -sometimes call these objects _milprey_ or “thousand worms,” and they -even lay claim to the power of forcing a snake to fabricate the “stone” -by thrusting a hazel-wand into the spirals of a sleeping reptile. In -another version it is not a bead that is formed but a ring which grows -around a hazel-wand when a snake breathes on it. If water in which this -ring has been dipped be given to a human being or an animal that has -been bitten by a venomous creature, all ill effects of the bite will be -warded off, the water acting as a powerful antidote to the poison.[457] - -The belief that the snake-stone of Welsh legend—in reality either a -fossil or a bead—was evolved from the venom or saliva ejected by a -concourse of hissing snakes, gave rise to a peculiar popular saying -among the Welsh to the effect that people who are whispering together -mysteriously, and apparently gossiping, or perhaps hatching some -mischief, are “blowing the gem.”[458] - -Many of the glass beads known as “snake-stones” or “Druid’s glass” are -perforated, and this is fancifully explained as being the work of one of -the group of snakes which forms the bead. This particular snake thrusts -its tail through the viscous mass before it has become hardened into a -glass sphere. In various parts of Scotland such beads are treasured up -by the peasants; according to the testimony of an English visitor of -1699, who reports that they were hung on children’s necks as protection -from whooping-cough and other children’s diseases, and were also valued -as talismans productive of good fortune and protective against the -onslaught of malevolent spirits. To guard one of these precious beads -from the depredations of the dreaded fairies the peasant would keep it -enclosed in an iron box, this metal being much feared by the -fairies.[459] - -A type of snake-stone used in Asia Minor is described as being of a -pearly white hue, rounded on one side, and flat on the other. Toward the -edge of the flat side runs a fine, wavy, bluish line, the undulations of -which are fancied to figure a serpent. The victim of a snake-bite first -had the spot rubbed with some kind of sirup; then the stone was applied -to the bitten spot, and it would adhere to the inflamed surface for -eight days; at the expiration of this time it would fall off. The bite -would be entirely healed and would not be followed by ill effects of any -kind.[460] - -A novel theory in regard to the formation of a type of snake-stones is -given by an old Chinese writer. This is that snakes, before they begin -to hibernate, swallow some yellow earth and retain this in the gullet -until they come forth again in the springtime, when they cast it forth. -By this time the earth has acquired the consistency of a stone, the -surface remaining yellow, while the interior is black. If picked up -during the second phase of the moon this concretion was thought to be a -cure for children’s convulsions, and for gravel, and was powdered and -given in infusion. The infusion could also be applied with advantage -externally to envenomed swellings.[461] - -An old manuscript found in a manor house in Essex, England, contains a -translation, made in 1732 by an Oxford student, E. Swinton, of some -details on the snake-stone, taken from a work published in the same year -at Bologna by Nicolo Campitelli. After noting that these stones came -from the province of Kwang-shi in China and from different places in -India, their appearance and qualities are described. In color they were -almost black, some having pale gray or ash-color spots. The test of the -genuineness of such a stone was to apply it to the lips; if not a -spurious one, it would cling so closely to the membrane that -considerable force must be exerted to separate it therefrom. The usual -directions are given for its employment in the cure of snake bites, but -its usefulness by no means ended here; its curative power was also -exhibited in the case of “Scrophulous Eruptions and Pestilential Bubos,” -and it could be used in the treatment of malignant tremors, venereal -disorders, etc. With the manuscript was found a specimen snake-stone. -This was described as being a thin oval body, about an inch in length -and three-quarters of an inch broad; the color was gray with light -streaks, and the surface was bright and polished. It was of the -consistency of horn, and the writer of the note in the “Lancet” believes -that it was part of a stag’s antler or some similar substance, from -which the animal matter had been removed by the action of heat; many of -the Oriental snake-stones are of this type, but, as we have already -seen, a great variety of more or less porous materials have been and are -still used in this way in different parts of the world. A practical -experiment was made in 1867 by Dr. John Schrott, who excited six cobras -to bite a number of pariah dogs. Without delay the snake-stones were -applied to the wounds, but they proved absolute failures, death -resulting as speedily as though nothing had been done.[462] - -Jean Baptiste Tavernier, the great Oriental traveller of the seventeenth -century, gives the following description of the “snake-stones” found in -India:[463] - - Finally, I will mention the snake-stone, which is about the size of a - doubloon, some approximating to an oval form, being thicker in the - middle and tapering toward the edges. The Indians say that it forms on - the head of certain snakes, but I rather believe that the priests of - these idolators make them think this, and that this stone is a - composition of certain drugs. However this may be, it has great virtue - to draw out all the poison, when anyone has been bitten by a venomous - creature. If the part that has been bitten has not been punctured, an - incision must be made, so that the blood can flow out, and when the - stone has been applied, it does not fall off until it has absorbed all - the poison which gathers about it. To clean it, woman’s milk is used, - or should this be lacking, cow’s milk, and after ten or twelve hours - steeping, the milk which has drawn out all the poison takes on the - color of pus. Having dined one day with the Archbishop of Goa, he took - me into his museum, where he had several curious objects. Among other - things he showed me one of these stones, and having told me of its - properties, he assured me that but three days before he had seen them - tested, and presented the stone to me. As he was traversing a marsh on - the Island of Salsate, whereon Goa is situated, to go to a country - house, one of those who bore his palanquin, and who was almost - entirely naked, was bitten by a snake and was immediately cured by - this stone. I have bought several of them, and they are sold only by - the brahmins, which makes me think the brahmins themselves make the - stones. There are two methods of testing whether the stone is good or - the product of some deception. The first of these tests is to place it - in one’s mouth, for then, if it be good, it springs up and cleaves to - the palate; the second test is to place it in a glass full of water; - if it is not sophisticated, the water begins to seethe, small bubbles - rising from the stone at the bottom to the surface of the water. - -Thevenot, a French traveller who visited India in 1666, about the time -Tavernier was there, asserts that the famous “Stones of the Cobra” were -manufactured in the town of Diu, in Guzerat, and that they were made “of -the ashes of burnt roots, mingled with a kind of Earth they have, and -were again burnt with that Earth, which afterwards is made up into a -Paste, of which these Stones are formed.” After describing the process -employed for cleaning the stones after they had been used, Thevenot adds -that if not freed from the absorbed venom the stones would burst.[464] - -Dr. J. Davy examined and analyzed some of these “stones,” and found one -of them to be a piece of bone partially calcined. When applied to the -tongue or to any other moist surface it adhered firmly. Another, which -lacked all absorbent or adhesive power, was said to have saved the life -of four men. It therefore appears that while some of the “snake-stones” -really possessed some possible curative virtues, others were esteemed -only because of a superstitious belief in their magical properties. -Kaempfer, writing in 1712, informs us that these stones should always be -used in pairs, and applied successively to the wound.[465] The belief in -the efficacy of such stones is still general in India, and one of the -varieties is supposed to be found in the head of the adjutant bird.[466] - -Francisco Redi[467] describes the extraordinary healing power attributed -to stones obtained from the heads of certain serpents, called by the -Portuguese “_cobras de capello_,” found throughout Hindostan and Farther -India. These stones are claimed to be an infallible remedy for the bites -and stings of all kinds of venomous reptiles or animals, and likewise -for wounds made by poisoned arrows, etc. He repeats the usual tales of -their adhering powerfully when applied to the bite or wound, and -clinging to it like a cupping-glass until they had absorbed all the -poison, when they would fall off spontaneously, leaving the man or -animal sound and free. Then follows the account of steeping the stones -in milk to remove the poison, the milk assuming a color between yellow -and green. These wonderful stones and the narrations concerning them had -been brought to Italy by Catholic missionaries, who seemed to have -entire faith in their powers; so that Redi says they offered to prove -the accounts by any number of experiments, such as would satisfy the -most incredulous, and prove to medical men that Galen was correct when -he wrote (Chapter XIV, Book I) that certain medicines attract poison as -the magnet does iron. For this purpose a search for vipers, etc., was -recommended; but, owing to the season being later and colder than usual, -none could at that time be obtained, as they had not emerged from their -winter quarters. An experiment was therefore substituted, after much -consultation among the learned men of the Academy of Pisa, whereby oil -of tobacco was introduced into the leg of a rooster. This was regarded -as one of the most fatal of such substances, and was administered by -impregnating a thread with it to the width of four fingers and drawing -it through the punctured wound. One of the monks forthwith applied the -stone, which behaved in the regular manner described. The bird did not -recover, but it survived eight hours, to the admiration of the monks and -other spectators of the experiment. - -[Illustration: - - Frontispiece and title-page of Francesco Redi’s “Experimenta - naturalia,” Amsterdam, 1675, and two specimen pages of this - treatise, referring to the snake-stones believed to be taken from - the Indian _Cobras de Capello_, or hooded snakes. -] - -[Illustration: - - FORMS OF TABASHEER - - Bought at Fair at Calcutta, 1888, by Dr. Valentine Ball. -] - -Redi states that he himself possessed some of these stones, as did also -Vincent Sandrinus, one of the most learned herbalists of Pisa. Redi -describes them as “always lenticular in form, varying somewhat in size, -but in general about as large as a farthing, more or less. In color some -are black, others white, others black, with an ashy hue on one side or -both,” etc. - -Up to the present time no one has apparently identified what Tavernier -referred to in speaking of snake-stones. It, however, occurred to the -writer, after receiving a quantity of tabasheer from Dr. F. H. Mallet of -the Geological Survey of India, who obtained it at the bazaar of the -Calcutta Fair in November of 1888, that many, if not most of the Hindu -snake-stones must have been tabasheer. Tabasheer is a variety of opal -that is found in the joints of certain species of bamboo in Hindostan, -Burma, and South America; it is originally a juice, which by evaporation -changes into a mucilaginous state, then becomes a solid substance. It -ranges from translucent to opaque in color, and is either white or -bluish-white by reflected light, and pale yellow or slight sherry red by -transmitted light. Upon fracture it breaks into irregular pieces like -starch. As in Tavernier’s account of its clinging to the palate and -causing water to boil when immersed, it actually has the property of -strongly adhering to the tongue, and when put into water emits rapid -streams of minute bubbles of air. It has a strong siliceous odor, but -after absorbing an equal bulk of water becomes transparent like a -Colorado hydrophane described by the writer several years ago before the -New York Academy of Sciences. - -Although tabasheer is mentioned in nearly all the textbooks, very little -of it has reached the United States. It is highly interesting, since we -have here an organic product scarcely to be distinguished from a similar -opal-like body found by Mr. Arnold Hague in the geysers of the -Yellowstone Park. Both tabasheer and the hydrophane were probably what -was called “Oculus Beli,” “Oculus Mundi,” and “Lapis mutabilis” by -Thomas Nicol, Robert Boyle, and other writers of the seventeenth -century, and “Weltauge” by the Germans. - -The great capacity of this substance for absorbing a fluid would -undoubtedly render it as efficacious for the purpose of absorbing poison -as any other known stone, providing the wound were open enough; and its -internal use to-day as a medicine is possibly also due to this property. - -Tabasheer, as known among mineralogists, is a corruption of the word -tabixir, a name which was used even in the time of Avicenna, the Grand -Vizier and body surgeon of the Sultan of Persia in the tenth century. It -played a very important part in medicine during the Middle Ages. As to -its origin, Sir David Brewster[468] says that tabasheer is only formed -in diseased or injured bamboo joints or stalks. - -[Illustration: - - SPECIMENS OF TABASHEER - - At the upper right-hand corner is figured a hydrophane, or “Magic - Stone,” at the upper left-hand corner is a floating stone from - Oregon. The tabasheer was bought at the Fair held in Calcutta in - 1888. -] - -Guibourt[469] differs from Brewster, inasmuch as he attributes the -different rates of growth to the fact that when there is a -superabundance of sap the tabasheer is formed from the residuum. More -recently, Henry Cecil[470] says, “In the onrush of tropical growth in -the young shoot, nature, after flooring the knot, has poured in, as it -were, sap and silica sufficient for a normal length and width of stem to -the knot next above it. But by some check to the impulse, or by -irregularity of conditions, the portion of stem thus provided for is -shorter or narrower than intended, and the unused silica is left behind -as a sediment, compacted by the drying residuum sap.” - -This latter view is sustained by Dr. Ernst Huth, who discusses the name, -history, origin, and reputed virtues of this substance with much -fulness.[471] In regard to its use in medicine during the Middle Ages, -he quotes a remarkable list of applications to the ills that flesh is -heir to. - -Here it is cited as a remedy for affections of the eyes, the chest, and -of the stomach, for coughs, fevers, and biliary complaints, and -especially for melancholia arising from solitude, dread of the past, and -fears for the future. Other writers speak of its use in bilious fevers -and dysentery, internal and external heat, and injuries and maladies. - -The writer has examined a large number of so-called madstones, and they -have all proved to be an aluminous shale or other absorptive substance. -But tabasheer possesses absorptive properties to a greater degree than -any other of the mineral substances examined, and it is strange that it -has never been mentioned as being used as an antidote. It may be -confidently recommended to the credence of any person who may desire to -believe in a madstone. - -[Illustration: - - Cobra de Capello. From Tavernier’s Travels, English translation by - John Philips, London, 1684. -] - -The writer believes that Tavernier’s snake-stones may all have been -tabasheer, or again, while some of them were of this substance, others -may have been artificially compounded by the authorized dealers of the -Brahmin caste. The instance he gives of the successful use of such a -stone is not altogether incredible, as, should one of the less active -poisons be sucked out of a wound shortly after this were inflicted, a -cure might well be effected. In view of the great difference in the -virulence of poisons and the varying degrees of the sensibility to toxic -effects, it is not strange that the snake-stones should sometimes seem -to give good results. Tavernier states that these stones were brought to -India by Portuguese soldiers returning from service in Mozambique.[472] -For successful use a pair of them were needed, so that, when applied to -a snake-bite, as soon as one became saturated with the venom the other -could be immediately substituted. To have them always at hand, those -natives fortunate enough to own a pair of _pedras de cobra_ carried them -about in a little bag.[473] - -A curious traditional belief is current in some parts of India, notably -in Ceylon, to the effect that the male cobra, during the night, uses a -certain luminous stone to lure its prey and to attract the female. This -is probably the chlorophane, a variety of fluorite, a substance which -shines with a phosphorescent light in the darkness, and this quality, -quite mysterious in the eyes of the natives, may have induced them to -associate the stone with the snake, the epitome of all subtlety and -cunning. Serpent-stones were supposed to exist in both ancient and -medieval times, and the belief in their existence is widespread among -many races of mankind. - -A chlorophane is also found in the microlite localities of Amelia -Court House, Virginia. The writer made a series of experiments and -noted that some of these specimens emit a phosphorescent light at a -low temperature. The material occurs in Siberia, and Pallas -describes a specimen from this locality. When subjected to the heat -of the hand, it gave out a white light, in boiling water a green -light, and when placed on a burning coal a brilliant emerald-green -light, visible at a considerable distance. Similar phenomena have -been observed by the writer, who has found that very slight -attrition, even the rubbing of one specimen against another in the -dark, will produce phosphorescence.[474] - -The real or supposed virtues of the “snake-stones” of Ceylon are -detailed at considerable length by the great Dutch naturalist, Rumphius. -After noting the old tale that the “natural” snake-stones came from the -_cobra de capello_ (_Serpens pilosus_), he proceeds to relate the -information he had been able to gather regarding the “spurious” stones -of this type. These were fabricated by the Brahmins, the process being -kept a profound secret; indeed, there were those who asserted that the -Brahmins themselves had lost the art, as this had been possessed by but -a single family which had died out, leaving the secret unrevealed. -Rumphius describes these artificial stones as usually round and flat, -the size varying from that of a half-shilling piece to that of a -two-shilling piece. Some were of lenticular form and a few were oblong; -all had a white spot in the middle. In making the application, the -bitten spot was first pricked until it bled, whereupon the stone was -immediately laid on and allowed to remain until it dropped off of itself -“just as a leech would do.” So intense was its absorbent activity that -it would sometimes break, in which case a substitute had to be quickly -applied. The saturated stone was placed in milk and the absorbed venom -was thus drawn out, turning the milk blue.[475] - -One of the tales of the Gesta Romanorum treats of a serpent-stone of -singular medicinal virtue. According to the story—which is, of course, a -mere legend—a certain Theodosius, who “reigned in a Roman city,” was a -most prudent ruler, but was afflicted with blindness. In his care for -the welfare of his subjects he had decreed that when anyone who desired -justice rang the bell at the palace gate, a judge must forthwith appear -and try his case. Now it happened that a serpent had its nest near the -bell-rope, and one day, while the reptile was absent, a toad took -possession of the nest. Returning and finding the nest occupied, the -serpent,—evidently a worthy descendant of the original serpent of -Paradise, “more subtle than any beast of the field,”—wound its tail -about the bell-rope and pulled the bell. When the judge appeared, as in -duty bound, he was struck by this strange spectacle, and reported it to -the emperor, who told him to right the wrong which had been done, -directing him to expel and kill the toad. Not long after, the serpent -made its way into the palace and entered the emperor’s room, bearing in -its mouth a small stone. Proceeding to the emperor’s couch, it crawled -up, raised its head above the emperor’s face and dropped the stone upon -his eyes. As soon as the stone touched the eyes, the emperor’s sight was -restored. The serpent disappeared and was never seen again.[476] - -A representative type of “madstone” is a concretionary calculus -occasionally, but very rarely, found in the gullet of male deer. In form -it bears a resemblance to a water-worn pebble and is usually of oblong -shape, the largest specimens being 3 inches in length and 1½ inches in -width. The chemical analysis of Dr. H. C. White showed that the chief -component was tricalcic phosphate. His experiments demonstrated that -while such a concretion would absorb water to the amount of 5 per cent. -of its own weight, the quantity of blood or other fluid it was able to -absorb only amounted to 2.3 per cent. of its weight. When immersed in -water, after having been placed on a wound caused by the bite of a -venomous creature, the liquid absorbed was given out so as to discolor -the water, and the material exuded was found to be of toxic quality. -However, experiments with animals that had been bitten by snakes or -other reptiles, failed to show that the stone exercised any curative -effect. Dr. White states that he has in his possession a “madstone” -dating from 1654, but this is of a different type, being a porous -sandstone.[477] - -Even in South Africa snake-stones are known, but it appears that the few -specimens reported had been brought thither from the Dutch East Indies; -one such stone had been handed down for generations in a Dutch settler’s -family. From their appearance some of these snake-stones were judged to -be pieces of burnt hartshorn. A Boer farmer owned an amulet of this kind -that he would loan from time to time to neighbors who might have need of -it. On one occasion, when the daughter of an English hunter had been -bitten by a snake, the father sent off a man on horseback to borrow this -snake-stone. Owing to the unavoidable delay, some hours elapsed before -it could be applied to the wound. The girl recovered after its use but -the wound did not heal satisfactorily, and this was attributed to the -length of time that had intervened between the attack of the snake and -the use of the remedial stone.[478] - -In December, 1887,[479] the writer described a white opaque variety of -hydrophane with a white, chalky or glazed coating, which had recently -been brought from a Colorado locality. The absorbent quality of this -stone is quite remarkable, and when water is allowed to drop on it, it -first becomes very white and chalky, and then gradually perfectly -transparent. This property is developed so strikingly that the finder -proposed the name “Magic Stone” for the mineral and suggested its use in -rings, lockets, charms, etc., to conceal photographs, hair, and other -objects, which the wearer wishes to reveal only as caprice dictates. - - - - - VI - Angels and Ministers of Grace - - -The veneration of angels and the attribution to them of especial days or -months, as well as the idea that they were guardians of those born on -those days or during those months, was the result of many factors. The -belief in the existence of angels is present in all parts of the Bible, -but in the earlier portions they are not individualized in any way. The -angel of God, or of the Lord (_malach Elohim_ or _malach Yahveh_) was -simply a messenger of God, employed to communicate his will or else to -accomplish some act of divine justice. - -It is quite possible that the greater prominence given to angels among -the Jews after the Babylonian Captivity was not solely dependent upon -Babylonian or Persian influence. We learn from the historical and -prophetical books of the Old Testament that the Jews had, from the -earliest times, worshipped other gods besides the God of Israel, and -were ever ready to assimilate the religious superstitions of the heathen -world. Several of the divinities that were worshipped in Babylonia and -Assyria were also objects of adoration in Israel, not indeed by the -chosen spirits of the nation from whom we receive our records, but by -the masses of the people. This very fact, however, served in a certain -sense to maintain the purity of the national religion. As the -superstitious inclinations of the populace were so fully satisfied from -without, there was no necessity to develop or distort the national -religion in this direction. The Babylonian Captivity changed all this. -It was the élite of the Jewish nation that was deported, and the -sufferings and humiliations to which they were subjected in a foreign -land only served to strengthen their faith in Yahveh and in his Law. -Hence it is, that when this tried and purified remnant returned to -Judæa, rebuilt the fallen temple and reorganized the state, the latter -became a theocracy in a much stricter sense than ever before, and from -this time we can really speak of Judaism as the religion of the whole -people. - -But the inevitable tendency to split up the unity of the divine force, a -tendency that makes itself felt in all religions and among all peoples, -soon asserted itself anew and in a different direction. As the people -were no longer allowed, we may even say were no longer inclined, to go -after foreign gods, they proceeded to develop the idea of divine -messengers or intermediaries which had always formed part of the -national faith, but had never been fully evolved. While Isaiah and -Ezekiel both knew of a division of the angels into certain categories -as, for example, cherubim, seraphim, hayyot (living creatures), ofanim -(wheels) and arelim, there is no attempt at individualization, and the -first mention of an angel’s name occurs in the Book of Daniel, which -later critics are disposed to assign to the second century B.C. It is -most natural to suppose that such names were known and were familiar to -the people long before that time. When we read in the Book of Daniel, -xii, 1: “And at that time shall Michael stand up, the great prince which -standeth for the children of Israel,” it is easy to see that the idea -that certain special qualities were attributed to this angel was deeply -rooted in the popular mind. In a previous verse, x, 13, we read: -“Michael, one of the chief princes, came to help me,”—a conclusive proof -that a hierarchy of angels had already been thought out. - -[Illustration] - - Fossil Amethystine Lapis Anhydrite Banded Hematite - Coral of Quartz Lazuli About 2500 Agate About About 2000 - the About 2500 About 2000 B.C. 2800 B.C. B.C. - Devonian B.C. B.C. - Period 1000 - B.C. - - Amethystine Lapis Lazuli Aragonite-banded Amazon Stone Black - Quartz 2000 B.C. or 3000 B.C. About 1500 Serpentine, - Probably earlier B.C. hard and - Assyrian of compact. - 700 B.C. Seals of this - type are - generally as - old as 2500 - B.C. - - Marble, Jaspery Agate Aragonite Rock-Crystal Serpentine - discolored by As late as Probably as old About 1200 (banded) - fire About 800 B.C. as 3000 B.C. B.C. Probably as - 2500 B.C. early as 2500 - B.C. - - Ferruginous Shell 3000 Jasper, banded Chalcedony, Agate - Agate About B.C. or red and black Blue (banded) - 800 B.C. earlier About 1200 B.C. Saphirine Assyrian of - About 700 about 700 - B.C. B.C. - - ILLUSTRATIONS OF ACTUAL PRECIOUS STONES AND MINERALS USED FOR SEALS IN - ANCIENT ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA - - Mostly from the collection in the American Museum of Natural History, - New York City. - -The great source of information in regard to angelology is the -Rabbinical literature which had its rise about the first century B.C. -and culminated in the Talmuds of Babylon and Jerusalem in the fifth -century A.D. As these compilations, although nominally commentaries on -the books of the Old Testament, are almost encyclopedic in their -character, they throw much light on this subject. In a monograph of -Kohut, entitled “Jüdische Angelologie,”[480] many extracts, belonging to -an early period, are given. Seven princes of heaven were recognized and -among these four were especially favored. They occupied a place near to -the Throne of Light and were bathed in its radiance. We are told that -“God surrounded his Throne of Light with four angels: Michael, ‘Who is -like God?’ at the right; Gabriel, ‘Might of God,’ at the left; Uriel, -‘Splendor of God,’ before it; and Raphael, ‘Salvation of God,’ at the -west” (Numeri Rabba, c. 2).[481] They represented various attributes of -the divine: Michael, goodness and mercy; Gabriel, punitive justice; -Uriel, the majesty of God, and Raphael, his providence. Michael and -Gabriel are particularly prominent and are called Royal Angels (מלכיהון -דמלאכיא); they have especial care of Israel. As we have seen, Michael -was singled out by Daniel and he was commonly regarded as chief prince. -Gabriel was looked upon as the avenger and the executor of divine -judgments and occupied the next place, while Uriel and Raphael are less -frequently alluded to, although the latter appears prominently in the -Book of Tobit. - -In the New Testament, also, Michael and Gabriel are evidently regarded -as the chief angels, and Revelation places Michael at the head of the -hosts of the good angels in their conflict with Satan and his followers. -We can see in the Gospels how widespread was the belief in demoniacal -possession, and in the existence of evil spirits; it was almost -inevitable that the aid of good spirits should be invoked to counteract -them, and although both Christianity and Judaism sternly rebuked any -direct worship of angels, they were regarded as ministering spirits, and -it was only natural that the masses should be led to use their names on -amulets and talismans, and little by little to arrive at the belief that -a particular angel was entrusted with the welfare of each individual. -The same tendencies were at work in both religions, but a new -development was initiated for the Christian church by the growing -veneration of the early martyrs and of their relics. When this became -more pronounced, the saints to a great extent took the place of the -angels; a passage from the writings of St. Ambrose composed in 377 A.D. -shows us that this transformation of belief had already begun to make -itself felt at that time. St. Ambrose writes: “We should address our -supplications to the angels who are appointed to guard us; we should -also address them to the martyrs, whose patronage seems assured to us by -a physical pledge” (their relics). - -The danger that the worshipping of angels might lead Christians away -from the Church into magic practices and beliefs was clearly recognized -in the early centuries, and at the Council of Laodicea, in 363 A.D., it -was proclaimed that Christians should not render worship to angels -outside the church, or in private assemblies or associations. Whoever -was found guilty of such practices (of such idolatry, as it was called) -was pronounced anathema, as he was considered to have turned away from -the Lord Jesus Christ and worshipped idols. The first Council of Rome, -held in 492 A.D., expressly forbids the wearing of talismans inscribed -with the names “not of angels as they pretend, but rather with those of -demons.” Indeed, there is abundant evidence that in this age, and even -earlier, those addicted to angelolatry were not satisfied with the few -angels named in the Holy Scriptures, but addressed their petitions to a -multitude of angels evolved from the fervid imagination of the -superstitious among the Jews. Of these angels not recognized by the -Church, the following prayer of a certain Aldebert, condemned by the -second Council of Rome, 745 A.D., gives us a few names: “I pray and -supplicate the angel Uriel, angel Raguel, angel Michael, angel Adimis, -angel Tubuas, angel Sabaoth and angel Simihel.” In the judgment of the -Church fathers, all these names, with the exception of Michael, -designated demons.[482] - -A manuscript of the ninth or tenth century in the Library of Cologne -gives the following “nomina angelorum”, and instructs the reader as to -their special virtues: - - If when it thunders you think of the Archangel Gabriel, no harm will - befall you. If on awakening you think of Michael you will have a happy - day. Have Orihel (Uriel) in mind against your adversary and you will - prevail. When eating and drinking think of Raphael and abundance will - be yours. On a journey think of Raguhel and everything will prosper. - Should you have to lay your case before a judge, think of Barachahel - and all will be explained. When you take part in a banquet, think of - Pantasaron and all the guests will delight in you.[483] - -On some medieval gems appear angel figures, one very curious specimen of -this class being an onyx, engraved in intaglio. On this gem, which is in -the British Museum, the engraver depicts the Annunciation, but the -figure of the Angel Gabriel is precisely that of a nude Cupid; hand and -foot are raised as though the little god (or angel) were dancing. It has -been conjectured that this strange attempt at adapting a classic form is -due to the fact that the gem was cut in Constantinople during one of the -violent iconoclastic persecutions, and that the engraver thus sought to -veil the true significance of his work. In this case, however, we must -believe that the accompanying inscription was added at a later date, for -it expressly names the Annunciation, the Angel Gabriel, and the Virgin -(“Mother of God”).[484] - -Another interesting gem, from about the same period, is a square -amethyst, measuring about 3 cm. in each direction. This bears, engraved -in intaglio, a standing figure of Christ, without a halo; behind his -head is the monogram [Symbol], and in his left hand he holds a scroll -with the words (in Greek): “In the beginning was the Word”; his right -hand is stretched forth in benediction, and alongside the figure are the -following angels’ names in Greek characters: Raphaêl, Penel, Ouriêl, -Ichthys, Michaêl, Gabriêl, Azaêl. The fourth and middle name, Ichthys -(fish) is the well-known anagram of the Greek words signifying “Jesus -Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour,” and the use of this as the name of -an angel is thought to have been suggested by a passage in Isaiah (ix, -6).[485] - -A “prime émeraude” among the Gorlæus gems is engraved with a design -showing two souls brought before God by the two guardian angels.[486] -Somewhat the same belief in the guiding or conducting of souls after -death is found in Plato’s “Phædon,” where it is said that the _daimon_ -which had guided a person during life led his spirit to the place in -Hades where judgment was to be rendered. - -The following list from Lodge’s “Wit’s Miserie,” printed in 1596, gives -the seven good angels and sets over against them the seven bad angels, -each of whom represents one of the seven deadly sins: - -[Illustration: - - By courtesy of the American Numismatic Society, New York. - - ZODIAC MOHURS, COINED BY THE MOGUL SOVEREIGN SHAH JEHAN, ABOUT 1628. -] - - Good Angels Bad Angels - Michael Leviathan, pride - Gabriel Mammon, avarice - Raphael Asmodeus, lechery - Uriel Beelzebub, envy - Euchudiel Baalberith, ire - Barchiel Belphagor, gluttony - Salathiel Ashtaroth, sloth - -The curious book called in Hebrew “Sepher de-Adam Kadmah” and attributed -to the angel Raziel, is supposed to belong to the twelfth or the -thirteenth century, or at the earliest to the eleventh century,[487] -although the redactor may have used some earlier materials. Legend -states that it was engraved upon a sapphire and was given by the angel -Raziel to Adam when the latter was driven from Paradise. Handed down -from generation to generation, it finally came into the possession of -Solomon. The name Raziel signifies “secret of God,” in allusion to the -revelations contained in the book, which was supposed to protect the -house wherein it was from all danger of fire. - -In this book there is an interesting list of angels, denominated the -twelve princes, set over the twelve months of the year. The text of the -first printed edition appears to be corrupt in some places, but the -names may be transliterated as follows:[488] - - Sh’efiel, “Balm of God” Presiding over Nisan (April) - Ragael, “Balance of God” Presiding over Ayyar (May) - Didanor, “Our Light” Presiding over Sivan (June) - Ta’anbanu, “Answer for us” Presiding over Tammuz (July) - Tohargar, “Whirlwind” Presiding over Ab (August) - Morael, “Fear of God” Presiding over Elul (September) - Hahedan, “The Brilliant” Presiding over Tishri (October) - Uleranen, “To chant, celebrate” Presiding over Marchesvan (November) - Anatganor, “Thou art the Guardian” Presiding over Kislev (December) - Mephniel, “Before God” Presiding over Tebah (January) - Tashnadernis, “Saturnus” Presiding over Shebat (February) - Abarchiel, “Fire of God” Presiding over Adar (March) - -The following list, while probably of later date than the one we have -just given, is more frequently cited as authoritative:[489] - - Orders Angels Tribes Signs - Seraphim Malchidiel Dan Aries - Cherubim Asmodel Reuben Taurus - Thrones Ambriel Judah Gemini - Dominations Muriel Manasseh Cancer - Powers Verchiel Asher Leo - Virtues Hamaliel Simeon Virgo - Principalities Zuriel Issachar Libra - Archangels Barbiel Benjamin Scorpio - Angels Adnachiel Naphtali Sagittarius - Innocents Hanael Gad Capricornus - Martyrs Gabriel Zabulun Aquarius - Confessors Borichiel Ephraim Pisces - -In Rabbinical writings we are told that if a man fulfilled one of the -commandments, one angel was bestowed upon him; if he fulfilled two -commandments, he received two angels; if, however, he fulfilled all the -commandments, many angels were given him. This was a literal -construction of the text Ps. xci, 11: “For he shall give his _angels_ -charge over thee.” These angels were believed to shield the believer -from the attacks of evil spirits.[490] - -[Illustration: - - The medieval conception of the cosmos, the successive spheres of the - planets, including the sun, and beyond these the crystalline heaven - and the empyrean. In an outermost circle are named the great - celestial powers, as recapitulated above the spheres. From a XIV - century Italian MS. in the author’s library. -] - -The Mohammedan Atlas, the angel appointed by God to bear the earth on -his shoulders, was given a rock of ruby to stand upon. Beneath this -ruby-rock, were, successively a huge bull, an immense fish, a mass of -water, and lastly darkness.[491] Thus the grand vision of “the face of -the deep” over which hovered the Spirit of God, before the creative -words were spoken, giving form to the earth, is not altogether lost -sight of in this Mohammedan fancy. - -Luther was a firm believer in the existence of guardian angels, and he -even goes so far as to assert that the angels assigned to men differed -in rank and ability as did the men themselves. Of this he says: - - Just as among men, one is large and another small, and one is strong - and another weak, so one angel is larger, stronger, and wiser than - another. Therefore, a prince has a much larger and stronger angel, one - who is also shrewder and wiser, than that of a count, and the angel of - a count is larger and stronger than that of a common man. The higher - the rank and the more important the vocation of a man, the larger and - stronger is the angel who guards him and holds the Devil aloof.[492] - -Our idea of a guardian angel is so spiritual and so pure that it is -difficult for us to understand the curious results this belief has -occasionally produced among the primitive peoples. A weird tale is told -of a Congo negro who killed his mother so as to gain an especially -powerful guardian spirit.[493] The dreadful deed was perpetrated in the -full conviction that the mother’s love would remain unshaken, while her -power for good would be increased. Such ferocious egoism does not find -an exact parallel among civilized peoples, but the underlying principle -is unfortunately too often illustrated in our midst at the present day. - -The belief in guardian angels has the best of Scripture warrant as -offered by the text Matthew, chapter xviii, v. 10, where Christ speaking -of little children says: “Their angels do always behold the face of my -Father who is in Heaven.” Another New Testament passage testifying -distinctly to the existence of this belief in the Apostolic Age, is in -the Acts of the Apostles (xii, 15), where we read that after the -miraculous rescue of Peter from his imprisonment, his friends could not -believe the report that he had been seen standing at the door of their -dwelling, and exclaimed: “It is his angel.” - -That not only individuals but nations also had special guardian angels -was, as we have already noted, a belief held to a certain extent among -the Jews after the Babylonian Captivity. To the trace of this in the -tenth chapter of Daniel (vs. 13, 21), where Michael stands for Israel, -may be added the evidence afforded by the Greek Septuagint version of -Deuteronomy xxxii, 8, part of the “Song of Moses.” Here the Revised -version based on our Hebrew text reads: - - He set the bounds of the peoples, - According to the number of the children of Israel. - -The Septuagint translators, however, must have had a slightly different -text before them for they render the last words: “According to the -number of God’s angels.” It therefore seems probable that they read in -Hebrew _benê Elohim_ instead of _benê Yisrael_. Of the _benê Elohim_ or -“Sons of God” we read in Genesis, chapter vi, verse 2, that they wedded -with the “Daughters of Men.” This has been given a poetic form by Thomas -Moore in his “Loves of the Angels.” The Book of Job also, in its -Prologue in Heaven (i, 6–12), introduces the “Sons of God” among whom -appeared Satan, the “Adversary.” Of angel names, as has been noted, -there is Biblical warrant only for Gabriel, Michael, and Raphael, the -last-mentioned, in the Apocryphal Book of Tobit; to these IV Esdras (not -a canonical book) adds Jeremiel and Uriel, names not admitted by the -Church. - -[Illustration: - - THE ANGEL RAPHAEL REFUSING THE GIFTS OFFERED BY TOBIT - - By Giovanni Biliverti. Pitti Palace, Florence. -] - -There has been preserved for us a most interesting calendar for the city -of Rome, written by Furius Dionysius Filocalus in 354 A.D., and -containing a series of drawings by his hand showing the symbolical -figures of the months of the year. Though the original manuscript is -lost, several apparently faithful copies exist, one of which is in the -Imperial Library in Vienna. Much of this work deals with matters -referring to the Roman calendar, but perhaps its most valuable part is a -list of the early Christian saints and martyrs. As this is the earliest -list of the kind, of even earlier date than the rest of the work, we -give it here unabridged, as a most interesting documentary proof of the -veneration in which the saints were held in the fourth, or, we should -probably say, in the third century. - - - ITEM DEPOSITIO MARTIRUM[494] - - VIII kal. Jan. natus Christum in Betleem Judeæ. mense Januario. - - XIII kal. Feb. Fabiani in Callisti et Sebastiani in Catacumbas. - - XII kal. Feb. Agnetis in Nomentana. mense Februario. - - VIII kal. Martias natale Petri de cathedra. mense Martio. non. - Martias. Perpetuæ et Felicitatis, Africæ. mense Maio. - - XIIII kal. Jun. Partheni et Caloceri in Callisti, Diocletiano VIIII - et Maximiano VIII [304]. mense Junio. - - III kal. Jul. Petri in Catacumbas et Pauli Ostense, Tusco et Basso - cons. [258]. mense Julio. - - VI idus Felicis et Filippi in Priscillæ et in Jordanorum, - Martialis Vitalis Alexandri et in Maximi Silani. hunc - Silanum martirem Nouati furati sunt. et in Praetextatæ, - Januari. - - III kal. Aug. Abdos et Semnes in Pontiani, quod est ad ursum - piliatum. mense Augusto. - - VIII idus Aug. Xysti in Callisti et in Praetextati Agapiti et - Felicissimi. - - VI idus Aug. Secundi Carpofori Victorini, et Seueriani Albano. et - Ostense VII ballisteria Cyriaci Largi Crescentiani Memmiæ - Julianetis et Ixmaracdi. - - IIII idus Aug. Laurenti in Tiburtina. - - idus Aug. Ypoliti in Tiburtina. et Pontiani in Callisti. - - XI kal. Septemb. Timotei, Ostense - - V kal. Sept. Hermetis in Basillæ Salaria uetere. mense Septembre. - - non. Sept. Aconti, in Porto, et Nonni et Herculani et Taurini. - - V idus Sept. Gorgoni in Lauicana. - - III idus Sept. Proti et Jacinti, in Basillæ. - - XVIII kal. Octob. Cypriani, Africæ. Romæ celebratur in Callisti. - - X kal. Octob. Basillæ, Salaria uetere, Diocletiano IX et Maximiano - VIII consul. (304) mense Octobre. - - pri. idus Octob. Callisti in via Aurelia. miliario III. mense - Nouembre. - - V idus Nou. Clementis Semproniani Claui Nicostrati in comitatum. - - III kal. Dec. Saturnini in Trasonis. mense Decembre. - - idus Decem. Ariston in pontum. - -This list, which begins with the great Christian festival of Christmas, -enumerates the days on which Roman martyrs died and were buried. The -months are given in their order and below their names appears a very -brief record, giving the day and place of burial and the name of each of -the martyrs. The first entry, for instance, reads: “January 20, -interment of Fabianus in the cemetery of Callistus.” The earliest -martyrs mentioned are SS. Perpetua and Felicitas who died in 202 A.D.; -thus all definite memory of the many martyrs of the first and second -centuries seems to have been lost. Even heretics do not appear to have -been excluded, for as it is stated that the Novatians carried away the -body of Silanus, it seems more than probable that he himself belonged to -this heretical sect. As martyrs, all are regarded as equally entitled to -the highest veneration, regardless of what they may have passed through -on earth. Other communities than the Roman one possessed similar lists, -as is clearly indicated by the words of Cyprian, in his thirty-ninth -epistle, where he says: “As you remember, we offered the sacrifice for -them, just as we celebrated a commemoration of the sufferings of the -martyrs and of their anniversary days.” - -To many of the saints curative powers are attributed, and these powers -are usually specialized so that each of these saints is invoked for aid -against a different disease or defect. With very few exceptions it will -be found that some circumstance in the history or legend of the saint is -the origin of these beliefs. An exception may perhaps be made in the -case of the two saints to whom recourse is most frequent at the present -day, namely, St. Anthony of Padua (June 13) and St. Anne, the mother of -the Virgin Mary (July 26). Relics of the latter saint, preserved in many -parts of Europe and also in America, are regarded as endowed with -wonderful therapeutic powers. Recently, in New York City, at the church -of St. Jean Baptiste, a relic of St. Anne was shown to many thousands of -the faithful, and some wonderful cures are said to have been -accomplished by its aid. Sceptics will be inclined to attribute such -cures to the influence of suggestion, while Catholics will see in them a -proof of the power of the saint’s intercession on behalf of those who -repose their trust in her. St. Anthony is usually appealed to for -success in difficult enterprises, and more particularly for the -discovery of lost articles. Here the belief in the successful -intervention of the respective saints is more generalized and appears to -have grown up independently of any event chronicled in the legends, but -these instances are quite exceptional. - -An exceedingly beautiful jewelled medallion said to have been given by -Pope Paul V, in 1614, to the Archbishop of Lisbon, Don Miguel de Castro, -shows in the centre the figures of the Virgin and Child, surrounded by a -setting of old Indian, table-cut diamonds. The archbishop donated this -to the Church of St. Antonia da Se, sometimes called the “Royal House of -St. Antonio,” for this church was built on the site of the house in -which dwelt the parents of St. Anthony, Don Martin de Bulhoes and Dona -Teresa de Azavedo, and in which the saint was born on February 6, 1195. -At his baptism he was given the name Fernando, but later he changed this -to Antonio. The great Lisbon earthquake of 1755 completely wrecked this -church, but the high altar wherein the medallion had been placed escaped -comparatively unharmed, and the jewel was found by some peasants, who -later sold it to the family of Machados e Silvas, in whose private -chapel it reposed until within a few years. - -The shrine of St. Anne de Beaupré may be seen in the Basilica of -Beaupré, about 20 miles distant from Quebec. It stands on the site of a -small wooden sanctuary erected about the middle of the seventeenth -century by some Breton mariners who, when in imminent danger of -shipwreck while navigating the St. Lawrence, made a vow to build a -chapel to St. Anne, the dearly-loved patron saint of their native -province, at the spot where they should first come to land. St. Anne was -regarded in French Canada as the patroness of seafarers and hence a -large number of those who frequented her shrine were seafaring people. -However, even more were attracted by the report of the marvellous cures -of all kinds of diseases which were said to have taken place there. -Pilgrimages to this shrine continue to be made at the present time; -indeed, the number of those who thus testify to their belief in the -power of the saint has increased rapidly during the past thirty years. -In 1880 the pilgrims numbered 36,000; in 1900 the record showed 135,000, -and in 1910 the number had increased to 188,266, a proof that the -devotees are more and more convinced that St. Anne’s relics are the -sources of great healing virtue. - -All of the numerous relics of St. Anne exhibited in Canada and elsewhere -are said to have come originally from the town of Apt in France, where, -according to Catholic tradition, her body was found by the Emperor -Charlemagne in 792, and it is related that when the reliquary covering -the holy body was opened a fragrance as of balsam emanated from the -interior. How the body was transferred to Apt from its resting place in -Palestine is a mystery not solved even in tradition, although some -believe that it was brought thither by St. Auspicius, known as the -Apostle of Apt. The Basilica of Beaupré contains five of these precious -relics; one of them was brought to Canada from the Cathedral of -Carcasonne, in France, about the year 1662, at the instance of -Monseigneur de Laval, first bishop of Quebec, and founder of Laval -University. This is the first joint of the middle finger of the saint. -The devotees at the shrine first saw this precious gift March 12, 1670; -it is adorned with two intersecting rows of pearls, forming a cross. -Another relic of peculiar importance is that given in 1892 by the late -Cardinal Taschereau. This is a bone from St. Anne’s wrist measuring four -inches in length. It is enclosed in a reliquary made of massive gold and -studded with precious stones, the gifts of those whose prayers to the -saint had been answered. In the ornamentation appear eight diamonds, -four amethysts, a fire opal, etc. At the bottom of the reliquary there -is a gold plate with the inscription: “Ex brachio S. Annae,” and a gold -ring set with twenty-eight diamonds. This jealously-guarded treasure is -exhibited in the shrine but once a year, from July 26 to August 2, a -period comprising St. Anne’s Day and the week following it; at other -times the reliquary is kept in the Sacristy, but may be seen on special -request. - -A remarkable jewel in the treasury of the Basilica is the seal of Santa -Anna, elected president of Mexico in 1832. A golden eagle, with eyes -formed of two rubies, stands on a rock of lapis lazuli and bears the -stamp of the seal; resting on his spread wings is a sphere of lapis -lazuli in which the words “Diaz, Mexico,” are inlaid in letters of gold. -The seal is engraved with the initials of the president’s name, -surrounded by a design embodying the insignia of his office. - -At the feast of St. Blaise, Bishop of Sebaste, in Armenia (d. circa -316), which occurs on February 3d in the Roman Church, the wick of a -candle is sometimes dipped in a vessel containing consecrated oil, the -throats of the faithful being then touched with this wick, to preserve -them from diseases of the throat. At other times the ceremony is -performed in a different way. The priest holds two candles, adjusted so -as to form a cross, above the heads of those who come to seek the -saint’s aid, and the following prayer is recited: “Through the -intercession of St. Blaise may God free thee from diseases of the -throat, and from every other disease. (Per intercessionem S. Blasii -liberet te Deus a malo gutteris et a quovis alio malo.)” - -It is related that this saint in his travels, once meeting a poor woman -whose only child had swallowed a fish-bone, relieved the child of its -trouble by offering up a prayer and laying his hand upon its throat. In -the prayer he adjures all who may suffer from a like trouble to seek his -intercession with God. - -St. Apollonia of Alexandria (February 9) is said to cure toothache and -all diseases of the teeth, the reason for this being that at her -martyrdom all her beautiful teeth were pulled out. In a similar way St. -Agatha, of Catania or Palermo, in Sicily, is endowed with the power to -cure diseases of the breast, because it is related that before her -martyrdom her breasts were cruelly torn and mutilated. - -To recite the formula of St. Apollonia was considered by the Spaniards -of three centuries ago to be a cure for toothache. This fact is brought -out by a passage in Don Quixote, when the knight’s housekeeper is urged -to recite it for her master’s benefit when he is ailing. To this request -the woman quickly answers: “That might do something if my master’s -distemper lay in his teeth, but, alas! it lies in his brain.” This -formula was probably used before the age of Cervantes, and has persisted -to our own time. It is in verse and has been literally translated into -English as follows:[495] - - Apollonia was at the gate of Heaven and the Virgin Mary passed that - way. “Say, Apollonia, what are you about?” “My Lady, I neither sleep - nor watch, I am dying with a pain in my teeth.” “By the star of Venus - and the setting sun, by the Most Holy Sacrament, which I bore in my - womb, may no pain in your tooth, neither front nor back, afflict you - from this time henceforward.” - -Of Santa Lucia (December 13), born in Syracuse on the island of Sicily, -a strange legend is told. A young man fell passionately in love with -her, and wrote to her that her wonderful eyes pursued him even in his -dreams. Moved by the Scripture text, “If thine eye offend thee, pluck it -out,” and longing to save the youth from sensual passion, Lucia cut out -her beautiful eyes, placed them on a dish, and sent them to her lover -with the following message: “Here thou hast what thou so ardently -desirest; I beseech thee leave me in peace.” Very naturally, this saint -is believed to cure all diseases of the eye. - -For protection against highway robbers and thieves, St. Nicholas -(December 6), Bishop of Myra, in Lycia, was invoked. Legend relates of -this saint that he restored to life three boys who had been murdered at -an inn by the wicked innkeeper, a wretch who was in the habit of making -away with his guests and then utilizing their bodies to enrich his menu. -This tale accounts for the fact that, under the familiar name of Santa -Claus, St. Nicholas is the patron saint of children. - -St. Barbara (December 4), born in Heliopolis, is appealed to for -protection against lightning and injury by firearms. For this reason the -gun-room on a ship is called in French the _sainte-barbe_. The legend, -as usual, gives us the origin of the belief in the saint’s special -powers, for her heathen father is said to have been killed by a stroke -of lightning, because of his having denounced his daughter, as a -Christian, to the Roman authorities, and then executed judgment upon her -with his own hands. Of St. Barbara the legend says: “She was a fair -fruit from an evil tree.”[496] - -Beneath portraits or images of St. Christopher (July 25) there often -appears a Latin verse to the effect that whoever gazes on the image will -not suffer from faintness or exhaustion on that day. As the saint is -said to have been of great size and strength, the worshipper at his -shrine was believed to acquire some of his physical power. - -[Illustration: - - SANTA BARBARA - - French school, 1520. Leaf of a triptych in the Museum of Budapest. -] - -The cure of diseases of the tongue was the province of St. Catherine of -Alexandria (November 25), who was famed for her eloquence as well as for -her devotion to the study of the Scriptures. - -St. Roch, who was born in Montpelier toward the end of the thirteenth -century (d. August 16, 1327), is regarded as the special guardian of -those afflicted with plague or pestilence. In his lifetime he went from -place to place ministering to those who suffered from the plague until -finally he himself succumbed to this malady. So great was the repute of -St. Roch’s curative powers that the Venetians are said to have stolen -his body from Montpelier, where it was interred, and transported it to -Venice, that they might have ever-present help in the numerous -pestilences from which this city suffered, because of the constant -commercial intercourse with the East. - -Another saint who was invoked for help in plague and pestilence was St. -Sebastian (January 20), born in Narbonne in Gaul. In this case the story -of the saint’s martyrdom gave rise to the belief in his curative powers, -for the legend tells us that he was transfixed with arrows, and these -missiles were regarded as symbols of the plague. We have an illustration -of this old belief in the first book of Homer’s Iliad, where the -pestilence that visited the army of the Greeks is represented as due to -the shafts sped from Apollo’s silver bow. - -Although no curative powers are attributed to them, no one of English -speech should forget SS. Crispin and Crispian, on whose day the battle -of Agincourt was fought, in 1415. The old feud between France and -England has been long forgotten, the rivalry between these nations has -given place to a close friendship, and there is no trace of animosity in -the glow that warms an Englishman’s heart when he reads the ringing -words put by Shakespeare into the mouth of Henry V: - - And Crispin Crispian shall ne’er go by - From this day to the ending of the world, - But we in it shall be remembered. - -It is related by Metaphrastus that when St. George was condemned to -death by burning, his executioners (fearing that the flames of the pyre -might be extinguished because of his virtue) covered his body with a -garment of amiantos (asbestos); for it was believed that when this -material began to burn the flame could not be extinguished. But all -precautions were vain, for as soon as the saint was placed in the flames -the fire went out, contrary to the laws of nature, and not a hair of his -head was injured. This tale illustrates a curious but not unnatural -misunderstanding of the name asbestos, which really signifies -inextinguishable, but was intended to mean that the substance would not -burn, and hence that no flame could be extinguished in it.[497] - -In an unpublished manuscript written by Aubrey are quoted the following -curious lines on the legend of St. George and the Dragon:[498] - - To save a mayd, St. George the Dragon slew, - A pretty tale if all is told be true; - Most say there are no Dragons, and ’tis sayd, - There was no George; pray God there was a mayd. - -The St. George thalers, coined by the counts of Mansfeld (Thüringen), -enjoyed in bygone times a reputation as amulets for soldiers. This -belief is said to have originated from the actual preservation of a -soldier’s life by one of these coins, which he had sewed up in the -lining of his coat just over his heart for safe-keeping. A bullet which -struck him here and would otherwise have killed him, was diverted by -coming in contact with the thaler. Hungarian St. George thalers were -regarded as amulets for sailors as well as soldiers. These coins derived -their name from bearing the design of St. George and the Dragon. - -Among the wonder-working saints none enjoyed greater repute in medieval -times than Sainte Foy, the virgin martyr whose remains were taken from -Agen to the abbey-church at Conques, a village on the hills of Aveyron. -Pilgrims came from far and near to the shrine of Sainte Foy, for she -worked marvellous cures upon those who appealed to her for help, even -giving sight to the blind. Her grace appears to have been bestowed upon -animals as well as upon human beings, a fantastic legend relating that -she had raised donkeys from the grave! Naturally the pilgrims must bring -rich gifts, as otherwise the saint might turn a deaf ear to their -prayers. - -Many of these treasures may still be seen in this out-of-the-way church, -wherein no one would suspect the existence of the rich specimens of -early goldsmiths’ work that are carefully preserved in the treasury. The -most interesting of these treasures is a statuette supposed to represent -the saint. This is a seated figure, about 33 inches high and encrusted -with an immense number of precious stones, uncut emeralds, sapphires and -amethysts, as well as with many cameos and pearls; all these having been -offered at various times to the saint. - -The figure—probably the representation of some ecclesiastic—is seated -on an elaborate chair, originally surmounted by two golden doves. The -saint is said to have appeared in a vision to the Bishop of Beaulieu -and expressly directed this adornment; these doves have disappeared -and have been replaced by crystal balls. The execution of the -statuette—constructed of wood covered with gold plates—is stiff and -conventional, but it is not unimpressive and gives evidence of -considerable skill on the part of the artist. Nevertheless, it -certainly has nothing of the youthful grace we would associate with a -virgin martyr.[499] - -The offering of precious stones to attract the favor of gods or saints -is really a talismanic use of such gems and is intimately connected with -the wearing of gems for their talismanic or therapeutic effect. The gift -established a sort of relation between the being whose help was desired -and the petitioner, and the gem was the medium through which the favor -was bestowed. - -The legend of the royal princess who was canonized by the Church as St. -Enimie (d. 628 or 630 A.D.) contains an account of a miraculous spring -and also enshrines the popular view of the cause of the strange outlines -of an extensive mass of heaped-up boulders. This saint was a daughter of -the French king Clotaire II (d. 628). Her most ardent wish was to devote -herself exclusively to the service of Christ, but her royal parent -insisted upon a marriage with one of the great nobles. The princess, who -was the fairest of the fair, put up an earnest prayer that the Lord -would destroy her beauty, even at the expense of some dreadful malady, -so that she might cease to be an object of desire for men. Her prayer -was heard and she was stricken with leprosy which entirely blotted out -her charms. Not long after this an angel appeared to her in a dream and -directed her to bathe in the Fountain of Boule, in the region of -Gévaudan. On doing so she was immediately cured of her leprosy, but as -soon as she went away from the spring to return to the royal residence, -the malady returned. A second attempt had the same favorable and -unfavorable results, and she now recognized that she must remain near -the spring. So after bathing there a third time and being again -completely cured, she erected a monastery on the spot and became the -prioress. The institution flourished, but a few years later the saintly -prioress was horrified to see that the Devil was busy with her nuns. -Once more she sought for divine aid, and she was given authority to -imprison the Evil One should she catch him in the monastery. This she -did, but the Devil was crafty enough to make his escape. Near the spot -where the monastery stood was a mass of heaped-up boulders, through -which led a way called the Chasm Road which led to a rocky aperture of -unknown depth. This was fabled to afford egress and ingress to the Devil -in his passage out of and back to the infernal regions. Along this road -he fled when he escaped from the monastery; St. Enimie fearlessly -pursued, but the agile demon was on the point of slipping back again -into his own realm, when the saint made a supreme appeal and called upon -the rocks to help her. As she raised her arms in supplication, one of -the largest boulders, called “La Sourde,” moved of its own accord and -fell upon the Devil, pinning him fast to the ground beneath its -ponderous weight. In his rage and despair he made frantic efforts to -free himself and his bloody claws left an imprint on the rock. This -mark, still observable a half-century ago, though it has now -disappeared, was prosaically explained by scientists as a stain of -iron-oxide. The other boulders were in motion to assist in the good -work, but when the Devil had been caught they stopped short in their -downward course, and this is supposed to account for the strange angles -at which they stand.[500] It would be pleasant to fancy that His Satanic -Majesty eventually failed to make his escape, but unfortunately the -ever-recurring instances of his activity from the age of St. Enimie down -to our own time preclude this belief. - -An heirloom in the family of Dom Pedro of Brazil is said to have been -loaned to one of the pioneer aviators, Santos-Dumont, by Dom Pedro’s -daughter, the Comtesse d’Eu. This was a medal of St. Benedict and had -been long regarded as a powerful talisman in the Braganza family. One of -its princely members had a striking proof of this virtue in 1705, when, -after having worn the medal but two weeks, he was saved from deadly -peril by the timely discovery and consequent defeat of a plot. -Santos-Dumont had just experienced a terrible fall while experimenting -with his new airship in the Rothschild park near Paris, and this it was -that induced the Comtesse d’Eu to loan him the talismanic medal, with -the injunction that he should always wear it on his person, and the -assurance that if he did so no further harm could befall him. The -talisman seemed to do its work well, for although the aviator had many -narrow escapes, he was always saved from serious injury. Unfortunately, -however, a thief picked it from the pocket of his coat while he was -busily engaged in work on an airship in a Paris machine-shop.[501] - -While it was customary to close the shops of the goldsmiths on Sundays -and feast-days, a special exception permitted the “Confrérie de St. -Eloi,” the goldsmiths’ guild, to open a single shop (not always the same -one) on each Sunday and feast-day, the profits of the sales being -devoted to providing a dinner on Easter Day for the poor of the Hôtel -Dieu.[502] This combination of commercialism and philanthropy has -illustrations in our own day, and, whatever may be the ulterior motives, -some good results are certainly attained. - -The Well of St. Cuthbert, near Cranstock, Newquay, England, long enjoyed -the repute of miraculously curing the ailments of infants. Not only were -curative powers attributed to the waters of the well, but also to a -perforated stone alongside of it. As recently as 1868 a puny infant is -said to have been passed through the orifice of this stone with the firm -expectation that this act would strengthen the infant and bring good -luck to it.[503] - -In the region of the Abruzzi, in Italy, more especially in the province -of Teramo, wonderful virtues are attributed to the intercession of St. -Donato. So great is thought to be his power to cure those afflicted with -epilepsy that in this region the disease is called the malady of St. -Donato. This saint, however, is credited with much more extensive -powers, for he is believed to cure hydrophobia, to prevent the ill -effects of the Evil Eye, and in general to bring to naught the -enchantments of witches. Such being his powers, it is not surprising -that his image was added to many amulets, those figuring the lunar -crescent being frequently surmounted with the bust of the saint. This -type of amulet owes its supposed efficacy to the horn-like shape of the -crescent, horns or substances having a likeness to a horn, like certain -branches of coral, being regarded as a sure protection against the Evil -Eye. A curious amulet bears the bust of St. Donato surmounting a -crescent moon within which is the dreaded number thirteen. This fateful -number is considered to be a source of misfortune for those who do not -wear it inscribed on an amulet; but it becomes a source of good fortune -and a happy life for those who possess such an amulet.[504] - -A notable instance of the use of a saint’s name to facilitate the -perpetration of a crime is afforded in the case of the poison known as -Aqua Tofana. This appears to have been a preparation of arsenic and was -concocted by a woman named Tofana, a native of Palermo, in Sicily, who -eventually took up her abode in Naples and devoted herself to the -preparation and sale of her poison in Naples, Rome and elsewhere. To -divert suspicion she used vials marked “Manna of St. Nicholas of Bari,” -and bearing the image of this saint. Most of her clients are said to -have been women who were anxious to rid themselves of their husbands, -and she must have had a large practice in this specialty, for so many -husbands died in Rome in a mysterious manner that in 1659 the -authorities finally took cognizance of the matter and instituted a -searching investigation. This revealed the fact that there existed in -Rome a secret society entirely composed of women who wished to “remove” -their husbands by poison. The leader of this society and many of the -members were duly executed, but Tofana does not seem to have been -molested. - -Many strange superstitions as to the saints prevail among the -Spanish-speaking inhabitants of New Mexico. If a saint whose aid has -been invoked fails to respond to the appeal, his image is shut up in -some receptacle until he vouchsafes to render the service desired. On -the other hand, if the image of a saint falls to the ground, this is -interpreted as a sign that the saint has performed a miracle. One means -of forcing a saint to perform a miracle was to hang the image head -downward; this was especially recommended in the case of St. Anthony. -All strangers who presented themselves on St. Anthony’s day or St. -Joseph’s day were to be hospitably received and entertained, for one of -them might be the saint himself. Those who wished to read the future -were instructed to put the white of an egg in a glass of water on the -eve of St. John’s day; on examining the contents of the glass the next -morning they would see written in black characters on the white -background a prophecy of what was to happen. On this saint’s day women -were assured that if they cut the tip of their hair with an axe, or -merely washed it, they would be blessed with an abundant growth of hair. - -[Illustration: - - BLOODSTONE MEDALLION, SHOWING THE SANTA CASA OF LORETO CARRIED BY - ANGELS TO DALMATIA FROM GALILEE -] - -A strange legend of angelic activity is that touching the miraculous -transportation through the air (from Galilee to Dalmatia) of the “Santa -Casa,” the house wherein the Virgin Mary dwelt. This event is placed in -1295, and the reverse of an Italian medallion engraved in 1508, during -the pontificate of Julius II, gives a representation of the journey to -Dalmatia, two angels sufficing to bear the little edifice. The sea, over -which the house is being borne, is conventionally indicated by waves, -but the fact that the medallist has seen fit to show a relatively large -figure of the Virgin seated on the roof of the little structure and -holding the Infant Jesus in her arms, scarcely adds to the realism of -the effect. - -Quite naturally Catholicism could not be satisfied with the pagan idea -that the constellations held sway over the different parts of the human -body, and the saints were substituted for the stars. - - The saints of the Romanists have usurped the place of the zodiacal - constellations in their government of the parts of man’s body, and so - for every limbe they have a saint. Thus, St. Otilia keepes the head - instead of Aries; St. Blasius is appointed to govern the necke instead - of Taurus; St. Lawrence keepes the backe and shoulders instead of - Gemini, Cancer and Leo; St. Erasmus rules the belly with the entrayls, - in the place of Libra and Scorpius; in the stead of Sagittarius, - Capricornus, Aquarius and Pisces, the holy church of Rome hath elected - St. Burgarde, St. Rochus, St. Quirinius, St. John, and many others, - which govern the thighes, feet, shinnes and knees.[505] - -When we consider how many beautiful and symbolic rites and observances -have marked the celebration of saint’s days and holidays in the Old -World, and how few of these have been preserved by the inhabitants of -our own country, we must find this most regrettable. Of late years there -has been a marked tendency to increase the number of holidays, and in a -few cases to revive the celebration of old holidays, but the popular -idea of the best way to celebrate these occasions seems to be confined -to making them carnivals of noise and disorder. This is largely owing to -a lack of intelligent guidance, for it is too much to expect that any -people, above all those so practical as our American people, can -spontaneously evolve, at short notice, an emblematic expression of the -idea underlying the festival. If, however, a beautiful and adequate -symbolism were presented in a concrete form, the masses of the people -would grasp its significance quickly enough, and would thus gain a -higher and better conception of the historic anniversary or the -time-honored festival they were called upon to celebrate. - -The saint’s days on which the summer and winter solstices fell were -memorized by distichs. For instance: - - St. Barnaby bright! St. Barnaby bright! - The longest day and the shortest night. - - St. Thomas gray! St. Thomas gray! - The longest night and the shortest day. - -The former of the verses is probably the earlier, as St. Barnabas’ Day -is June 11, the day on which the summer solstice fell in England for -some time before the reform of the “Old Style” calendar, in 1752, -replaced this date; while St. Thomas’ Day is December 21, the date of -the winter solstice in our modern calendar.[506] - -Writing of the origin of the rural superstitions in regard to the -weather on certain saint’s days, Wehrenfels quotes the distich: - - If Paul’s Day be fair and clear - It foreshows an happy Year. - -and continues: - - The contrary has happened a thousand Times, but however this cannot - destroy the Rule. It once happened; certainly, say they, these Rules - of the Husbandmen are not to be despised; see how exactly they are - made good by Experience. Thus a great Part of Mankind reasons; which - if one consider, he will neither depend much upon the Content of the - common People in these Things, nor wonder at so great a Number of most - silly Opinions.[507] - - - VERSES ON SAINTS’ DAYS AT VARIOUS SEASONS OF THE YEAR.[508] - - January 25. Saint Paul’s Day: - - If the clouds make dark the sky, - Great store of people then will die; - If there be either snow or rain, - Then will be dear all kinds of grain. - (Robin Forby, “Vocabulary of East Anglia,” London, 1830.) - - Somewhat different in a Latin form: - - Clara dies Pauli multas segetes nitant amni, - Si fuerint nebulæ, aut venti, erunt proelia genti. - - February 2. Candlemas Day: - - If Candlemas day be fair and bright, - Winter will have another flight; - If on Candlemas day it be shower and rain, - Winter is gone and will not come again. - (John Ray, “A Collection of English Proverbs,” 2d ed., Cambridge, - 1678.) - - February 12. St. Eulalia’s Day: - - If the sun shines on St. Eulalie’s day, - It is good for apples and cider they say. - - February 14. St. Valentine’s Day: - - On St. Valentine’s day - Cast beans in clay - But on St. Chad - Sow good or bad. - (Seed time of this Lenten crop limited between February 14 and March - 2.) - - February 24. St. Matthias’ Day: - - Saint Matthew (Sept. 21) - Get candlesticks new; - St. Mattheg - Lay candlesticks by. - - March 1. St. David’s Day: - - Quoth Saint David, “I’ll have a flood.” - Saith our Lady [Mch. 25] “I’ll have as good.” - (Referring to spring tides in Wales, from Poor Robin’s Almanack, - 1684.) - - June 15. St. Vitus’ Day: - - If Saint Vitus’ day be rainy weather, - It will rain for thirty days together. - (M. A. Denham, “Proverbs and Popular Sayings Relating to the - Seasons,” Percy Soc., 1846.) - - July 15. St. Swithin’s Day: - - St. Swithin’s day, if thou dost rain, - For forty days it will remain; - St. Swithin’s day, if thou be fair, - For forty days t’will rain nae mair. - (M. A. Denham, “Proverbs and Popular Sayings Relating to the - Seasons,” Percy Soc., 1846.) - - July 15: All the tears that St. Swithin can cry - Aug. 24: Saint Bartholomew’s dusty mantle wipes dry. - (R. Inwards, “Weather Lore,” London, 1893.) - - July 20. St. Margaret’s Day: - - “Margaret’s floods” (heavy rains). - - July 25. St. James’ Day: - - “Whoever eats oysters on St. James’ day will never want money.” - (M. A. Denham, “Proverbs and Popular Sayings Relating to the - Seasons,” Percy Soc., 1846.) - - August 24. St. Bartholomew’s Day: - - St. Bartholomew - Brings cold dew. - (John Ray, “A Collection of English Proverbs,” 2d ed., Cambridge, - 1678.) - - October 28. St. Simon and St. Jude: - - Simon and Jude - All the ships on the sea home they do crowd. - - Dost thou know her then? - Trap. As well as I know ’twill rain upon - Simon and Jude’s day next. - (Middleton, “The Roaring Girl,” Act 5, Sc. 1.) - - Now a continual Simon and Jude’s rain beat all your feathers as flat - down as pancakes! - (Idem, Act II, Sc. 1.) - - November 11. St. Martin’s Day: - - Expect St. Martin’s summer, halcyon days. - (Shakespeare, “I Henry VI,” Act 1, Sc. 2.) - - December 13. St. Lucy’s Day: - - Lucy [bright] light - The shortest day and the longest night - (For a long time, before the change of the calendar, St. Lucy’s Day - corresponded to our 21st of December.) - - December 21. St. Thomas’ Day: - - St. Thomas gray, St. Thomas gray - The longest night and the shortest day. - - December 27. St. John the Evangelist’s Day: - - Never rued the man - That lead in his fuel before St. John. - (Robin Forby, “Vocabulary of East Anglia,” London, 1830.) - - Additional verses on Candlemas Day (Purification of the Blessed - Virgin): - - If the sun shines bright on Candlemas Day, - The half of the winter’s not yet away. - - In Latin: - - Si sol splendescat Maria purificante, - Major erit glacies post festum quam ante. - - - SAINTS’ DAYS - - ADRIAN. September 8. As also of his wife, Natalia. Anniversary of - translation of his relics to Rome; anciently his festival on day - of his martyrdom, March 4, 306. Patron of soldiers in Flanders, - Germany, and northern France; also against the plague. Relics in - Abbey of St. Adrian, Gearsburg, Belgium; and elsewhere. - - AFRA. August 5. Especially celebrated in Augsburg, of which city (her - native one) she is patroness. Martyred Aug. 7, 304. - - AGATHA. February 5. Patroness of Malta, and Catania, Sicily. Died - February 5, 251. - - AGNES. January 21. Supposed anniversary of martyrdom in 304. - - ALBAN. June 22. First English saint and martyr, died June 22, 303. - Present town of St. Albans upon site of martyrdom. - - AMABLE. June 11. Patron of Riom, France. Died 475. - - AMBROSE. December 7. Patron of Milan. Died April 4, 397. Founder of - church, now Sant’ Ambrogio basilica Maggiore, Milan, in 387. One - of four Latin Fathers. - - ANDREW. November 30. Apostle, patron of Scotland and Russia. - - ANNE. July 26. Supposed anniversary of her death. Mother of the Virgin - Mary. Patroness of Canada. - - ANSELM. April 21. Archbishop of Canterbury (1033–1109). - - ANTHONY. January 17. Hermit (251–356). - - ANTHONY OF PADUA. June 13. Died June 13, 1231. - - APOLLONIA. February 9. Martyred February 9, 250. Patroness of those - suffering from toothache. - - ATHANASIUS. May 2. One of four Greek Fathers. Died May 2, 373. - - AUGUSTINE. August 28. Died 430. Patron of theologians and learning. - Bishop of Hippo in Africa. One of four Latin Fathers. - - AUGUSTINE. May 26. Apostle to England in 596. Died May 26, 604. - - BABYLAS. September 1 (14) in Eastern Church; January 24 in Western - Church (237–250). Bishop of Antioch. Relics said to have silenced - the revived oracle of Apollo at Delphi, during reign of Julian the - Apostate. - - BARBARA. December 4. Patroness of Ferrara, Mantua and Guastalla, - Italy, and of armourers and gunsmiths. Died December 4, 235 (?). - - BARNABAS. June 11. His birthday. One of the patrons of Milan. Apostle. - - BARTHOLOMEW. August 24. Apostle. - - BASIL THE GREAT. January 1, Eastern Church; June 14, Western Church - (328–380). - - BATHILDA. January 30 in France; January 26 in Roman Martyrology (died - ca. 680). - - BAYO OR BAVON. October 1. Patron of Ghent (589–653). - - BENEDICT. March 21. Founder of Benedictine Order (480–543). - - BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX. August 20. Founder of Abbey of Clairvaux, one of - the Fathers of the Church (1091–1153). - - BERNARD OF MENTHON. June 15. Founder of hospices in the Alps, “Great - St. Bernard” and “Little St. Bernard” (923–1008?). - - BLAISE. February 3. Patron of Ragusa, and of those afflicted with - throat diseases. Bishop of Sebaste, Cappadocia (died 316). - - BONIFACE. June 5. Apostle of Germany (680–755). - - BRIDGET OR BRIDE. February 1. Patroness of Ireland (450–521). - - BRUNO. October 6. Founder of Carthusian Order (1035–1101). - - CATHERINE. November 25. Patroness of Venice and appealed to against - diseases of the tongue. - - CATHERINE OF SIENA. Patroness of Siena; lived in fourteenth century. - - CECILIA. November 22. Patroness of sacred music (died 100). - - CLEMENT. November 23. Patron of farriers and blacksmiths (died 100). - - COLUMBAN. November 21. Irish saint (543–615). - - CRISPIN AND CRISPINIAN. October 25. Patrons of shoemakers (died 284). - - CUTHBERT. March 20. Patron saint of Durham, England (died 687). - - DAVID. March 1. Patron saint of Wales (446–549). - - DECLAN. July 24. First bishop of Ardmore, Ireland. - - DENIS. October 9. Patron of France. Living in 250. - - DOMENIC. August 4. Founder of Dominican Order (1170–1221). - - EDMUND. November 20. King of East Anglia and martyr (died 870). - - EDWARD. March 18. King of England and martyr (962–978). - - EDWARD THE CONFESSOR. October 13. King of England (1004–1066). - - ELIZABETH OF HUNGARY. November 19. Daughter of Alexander II, King of - Hungary (1207–1231). - - ELMO (ERASMUS). June 2 (died 304). - - ELOY (ELIGIUS). December 1. Patron of goldsmiths (588–659). - - EMERIC. November 4. Eldest son of St. Stephen of Hungary. - - ENGRACIA. - - ERIC (OR HENRY). May 18. Patron of Sweden (died 1151). - - ETHELREDA (AUDREY). October 17. Princess of East Anglia (died 679). - - EUPHEMIA. September 16. Patroness of Chalcedon (died ca. 307). - - FELICITAS. November 23. Patroness of male heirs (died 173). - - FILLAN. January 9. Scotch saint (died ca. 649). - - FILOMENA (FILUMINA, PHILOMENA). August 10. Supposititious saint. - - FRANCIS OF ASSISI. October 4. Founder of Franciscan Order (1182–1226). - - FRANCIS XAVIER. December 3. Patron and Apostle of India (1506–1552). - - FRIDESWIDE. October 19. Patroness of city and university of Oxford, - daughter of Sidan, Prince of Oxford (died ca. 740). - - GENEVIEVE. January 3. Patroness of Paris. - - GEORGE. April 23. Patron of England, of Germany and Venice, of - soldiers and armourers (born third century). - - GILES. September 1. Patron of Edinburgh (ca. 640–). - - GREGORY THE GREAT. March 12 (born 540). - - GUDULA. January 8. Patron of Brussels (born middle of seventh - century). - - HELENA. August 18. Wife of Constantius, mother of Constantine the - Great (died 328). - - HENRY OF BAVARIA. July 15. Patron of Bavaria. Emperor (Henry II) of - Germany (972–1024). - - HILARY. January 14 (died 368). - - HONORATUS. Bishop of Arles. Died January 6, 429. - - HONORATUS (HONORÉ). May 16. Patron of bakers. Bishop of Amiens. (Died - 690.) - - HUBERT OF LIEGE. November 3. Patron of the chase and of dogs (died - 727). - - IGNATIUS LOYOLA. July 3. Founder of Jesuit Order (1491–1556). - - ISIDORE THE PLOUGHMAN (Isidro el Labrador). May 15. Patron of Madrid - and of farmers (born ca. 1110–1170). - - JAMES THE GREAT. July 25. Apostle; patron of Spain and of pilgrims to - Jerusalem (died 42). - - JANUARIUS. September 19. Patron of Naples (died 305). - - JEROME. September 30. Patron of scholars. One of the four Latin - Fathers (342–420). - - JOHN THE BAPTIST. June 24, or Midsummer Day. - - JOHN THE EVANGELIST. December 27 (died 101). - - JOSEPH. March 19. - - JULIAN HOSPITATOR. January 9. Patron of hospitals (died 313). - - JUSTINA OF PADUA. October 7. One of the patrons of Padua and Venice - (died 303). - - KENELM. December 13 and July 17. Son of Kenulph, King of Murcia - (812–820). - - KEYNE (KEYNA). Cornish saint (died 689). - - KILIAN. July 8. Irish saint (died 689). - - LAWRENCE. August 10. Patron of Nuremberg, Genoa, and of the Escorial. - - LEONHARDT. November 6. Patron of prisoners and slaves; in Bavaria, of - cattle (died ca. 560). - - LUCY (LUCIA). December 13. Patron of Syracuse, and against - eye-diseases. - - LUDMILLA. September 16. Patron of Bohemia. Queen of that country (died - ca. 920). - - LUKE. October 18. Patron of painters. - - MACAIRE THE ELDER. January 15. (Fourth century.) - - MACAIRE THE YOUNGER. January 2. (Fourth century.) - - MALO (MACLOU). November 15. Patron of St. Malo, France (died 627). - - MARGARET. July 20. One of the patrons of Cremona and of women in - childbirth (died fourth century). - - MARK. April 25. Evangelist (died 68). - - MARTHA OF BETHANY. July 29. Patroness of cooks and housewives (died - 84). - - MARTIN OF TOURS. November 11, Martinmas. Patron of Tours and of - beggars, tavern-keepers and wine-growers (316–397). - - MARY MAGDALENE. July 22. Patroness of Provence and of Marseilles as - well as of penitent fallen women. - - MATTHIAS. February 24. - - MAURICE. September 22. Patron of Austria, Savoy, Mantua, and of - foot-soldiers (fourth century). - - MICHAEL. September 29. Archangel. - - NICHOLAS. December 6. Archbishop of Myra in Lycia, patron of Russia, - and especially of serfs and serfdom (died 342). - - OLAF. July 29. Patron of Norway. Not canonized but informally - accepted. - - OUEN (OUINE). August 24. Patron of Rouen (595–683). - - PANTALEONE. June 27. Patron of physicians (fourth century). - - PATRICK. March 17. Patron of Ireland (born ca. 386). - - PAUL. June 29 (with St. Peter), and January 25. - - PETER. June 29; also August 1, St. Peter’s Chains, and January 18, - Chair of St. Peter. - - PHILIP. May 1. Patron of Brabant and Luxemburg. - - PHILIP NERI. May 26. Founder of Oratorian Order (1515–1595). - - POLYCARP. January 26. Bishop of Smyrna (died 167). - - QUIETUS. (No day.) Bones in church of Our Lady of Grau, Hoboken, - enshrined June 1, 1856, Archbishop Bailey officiating. - - ROCHE (ROCH, ROQUE). August 16. Patron of prisoners and the sick, - especially the plague-stricken (born ca. 1280–1327). - - ROMAIN. October 23. Patron of Rouen (died 639). - - ROMUALD. February 7 (956–1027). - - ROSALIA. September 4. Patroness of Palermo (died 1160). - - RUMALD (RUMBALD). November 3. Patron of Brackley and Buckingham, - England. Son of King of Northumbria. - - SCHOLASTICA. February 10. Sister of St. Benedict (died ca. 543). - - SEBALD. Son of a Danish king (eighth century). - - SEBASTIAN. January 20. Patron of Chiemsee, Mannheim, Oetting, Palma, - Rome, Soissons, and of archers (fourth century). - - SECUNDUS. March 30. Patron of Asti (died 119). - - STEPHEN. December 26. Patron of horses. - - SWITHIN (SWITHUN). July 15. Patron of Winchester (died 862). - - SYMPHOROSA. July 18. Only in Greek Church. A Jewish martyr, the mother - of the Maccabees (second century B.C.). - - THERESA. October 15. Patron of Spain (1515–1582). - - THOMAS À BECKET. July 7 (1117–1170). - - THOMAS DIDYMUS. December 21. Apostle, patron of Portugal and Palma. - - URBAN. May 25. Pope and martyr (died 236). - - URSULA. October 21. Patroness of young girls, and of educational - institutions (died 383). - - VALENTINE. February 14 (first century). - - VERONICA. Shrove Tuesday (first century). - - VICTOR. Patron of Marseilles (fourth century). - - VINCENT. January 22. Patron of Lisbon, Valencia, Saragossa, Milan, and - Châlons. - - VINCENT DE PAUL. July 19. Founder of Order of the Sisters of Charity. - - VITUS. June 15. Patron of Bohemia, Saxony, Sicily, and of dancers and - actors (third century). - - WALBURGA. February 25 (died ca. 778). - - WILLIAM. January 10. Patron of Bruges (died 1209). - - WINIFRED. November 3. British maiden of seventh century. - - - - - VII - On the Religious Use of Various Stones - - -The precious stone mentioned in the earliest biblical reference, Gen. -ii, 12, and there translated onyx, is rendered chrysoprase in the -Septuagint version, and is by others referred to the emerald on the -ground that the land of Havilah, where it is there said to occur, is -thought to have been a part of what was later called Scythia, and as -such would include the emerald region of the Urals. But the ancient -emeralds are now known to have come largely from Upper Egypt, and such -vague conjectures are of little use in determining what stone was really -meant in this most ancient allusion. Professor Haupt has even suggested -that we might translate the Hebrew word _shoham_ used in this passage by -“pearl,” since he conjectures that one of the four “rivers” surrounding -the land of Havilah was the Persian Gulf. - -For all attempted identifications of the stones mentioned in the Old -Testament, we are principally dependent upon the Greek version of the -Seventy. As this was made in the Alexandrian period, not far from the -time of Theophrastus, whose work on gems we shall presently mention, the -names at that time adopted by the Greek translators may be regarded as -fairly correct equivalents of the Hebrew. The difficulty lies more in -the translation of the classical names into the English, and arises -largely from the unscientific nomenclature of the ancients; the same -name being employed for stones that resemble each other to the eye, but -which are now well distinguished by chemical and physical differences -formerly unknown. - -There are some traces in the Bible of the use of precious stones as -amulets. In Proverbs xvii, 8, we read that “a gift is like a precious -stone in the eyes of the owner; whithersoever he turneth he prospereth.” -This passage is rendered somewhat differently in the Authorized Version, -but the above translation is evidently more correct. The stones of the -breastplate were of course amulets in a certain sense, and possibly -oracles also, and it is therefore quite probable that the Hebrews shared -in the belief common to all the peoples around them, although opposition -of the orthodox to all magical practices prevented them from going into -particulars in regard to such superstitious fancies. - -In support of his theory that the Urim and Thummim of the Hebrew -high-priest signified the stones of the breastplate worn on the sacred -ephod, and should be rendered “perfectly brilliant,” Bellermann cites -the passage in Ezekiel (chap, xxviii, verse 14), where he writes of -“fiery stones” in treating of the royal splendors of the ruler of the -great commercial city of Tyre. As to the oracular utterances of the -high-priest when, clad in the ephod and wearing the glittering -breastplate, he sought for the counsel of the Almighty, this author -rejects the idea that the divine will was revealed by changes in the -brilliancy of the stones, by casting of lots, or by a mysterious use of -the ineffable name, the Tetragrammaton, J h w h (Jahweh), but believes -that the answer to the questions was communicated to the high-priest by -an inner voice, an inspiration similar to that vouchsafed to the great -prophets of Israel.[509] - -A curious analogy to the use by Christians of fragments supposed to have -come from the True Cross as amulets, was the employment by the Talmudic -Jews of chips from an idol or from something that had been offered to an -idol, for the same purpose. It is needless to say that this was severely -condemned by the Rabbis. - -It is interesting to note the statements of Arab historians that the -mummy of Cheops, the Pharaoh of the Great Pyramid, was decorated with a -pectoral of precious stones. As the regal and priestly functions were -united in the monarch, we may have here the first form of the -high-priest’s breastplate. - -The Arab historian Abd er-Rahmân, writing in 829 A.D., states that Al -Mamoun(813–833), son of Haroun-al-Raschid, entered the great pyramid and -found the body of Cheops: - - In a stone sarcophagus was a green stone statue of a man, like an - emerald, containing a human body, covered with a sheet of fine gold - ornamented with a great quantity of precious stones; on the breast was - a priceless sword, on the head a ruby as large as a hen’s egg, - brilliant as a flame. I have seen the statue which contained the body; - it was near the palace of Fôstat. - -Essentially the same account is given by Ebub Abd el-Holem, another -Arab, who says: - - One saw beneath the summit of the pyramid a chamber with a hollow - prison, in which was a statue of stone enclosing the body of a man, - who had on the breast a pectoral of gold enriched by fine stones, and - a sword of inestimable price, on the head a carbuncle the size of an - egg, brilliant as the sun, on which were characters no man could read. - -In the opinion of Mariette Bey these details are so circumstantial as to -leave little doubt that the mummy of Cheops was found by Mamoun, but he -believes that the body was covered with a gilt wrapper and that the -stones were paste imitations. The ruby was probably the “uræus,” the -sacred asp, emblem of royalty, and the wonderful sword may have been a -sceptre or a poniard similar to those found in tombs of the eleventh -dynasty and in that of Queen Aah-Hotep; the statue of green serpentine -often occurs in later tombs. Should this view be correct, precious -stones were imitated in glass at a very remote period.[510] - -An exceedingly fine specimen of ancient Egyptian goldsmith’s work, now -in the Louvre Museum, Paris, is a pendant terminating in a bull’s head, -each of the horns being tipped with a little ball. Above the double -reins are four rondelles, one of gold, two of a material still -undetermined, and one of lapis lazuli; the different parts of the -pendant are connected by gold wire. Its most interesting and attractive -feature, however, is a polished hexagonal amethyst, engraved on both -faces. In each case the form of a priest is figured; in one he appears -with his official staff or wand, and in the other he is represented as -bearing an incense-burner and offering the mineral and vegetable -sacrifices; an Oriental pearl is set above the engraved amethyst. The -religious and sacrificial significance of this ornament, coupled with -the costliness of the materials and the superior excellence of the -workmanship, make it likely that we have here an amulet or talisman made -for some Egyptian of very high rank.[511] - -St. Jerome (346?–420 A.D.), in his commentary on Isaiah (liv, 11, 12), -alludes to the verses of Ezekiel describing the glories of the King of -Tyre and the precious stones with which he was adorned. Evidently Jerome -believed that this passage was to be taken symbolically, for he asks: - - Who could have so little judgment and intelligence as to think that - any Prince of Tyre whatever should be set in the Paradise of God, and - have his place among the Cherubim, or could fancy that he dwelt with - the glowing stones, which we should without doubt understand as the - angels and the celestial virtues.[512] - -It would be both curious and interesting if we could trace a connection -between the significance of the names of the Hebrew tribes and those of -the breastplate gems assigned to the tribes. In ancient times names were -much more significant than they are to-day, and the tribal names in -particular possessed for the Hebrews a symbolic meaning, but this does -not appear to have induced any marked tendency to connect the colors or -the symbolic meanings of the different stones with the fame, or with the -characteristics or fortunes of the several tribes. On the other hand, -the foundation stones, as symbols of the Apostles, became a favorite -theme with the early Christian writers. Possibly the neglect of ancient -Hebrew writers to perform a similar task in connection with the -breastplate stones might still be made good, even at this late date, and -an effort in this direction might result in giving a wider range to the -symbolic value of certain well-known gems. - -The name Reuben signifies “Behold a Son,” and this has been given a -Messianic meaning by some commentators. In Jacob’s enigmatic blessing, -“excellency of dignity” and “excellency of power” are attributed to -Reuben, but this birthright is taken from him because of a heinous sin -he has committed. Still we might see in the carnelian, the gem of -Reuben, a symbol of “dignity” and “power.” - -Simeon has been variously rendered “Hearing” or “Hearkener.” The -blessing accuses him of an act of cruelty in which he was aided by his -brother Levi. To the peridot, or chrysolite, dedicated to Simeon, could -be appropriately assigned the meaning “good tidings.” - -The priestly functions of the tribe of Levi are expressed by the name -itself which means “attached” or “joined,” that is, to the altar. Hence -in the emerald we should see the symbol of “dedication” or -“ministration,” in addition to its other and better known meanings, such -as “hope,” “faith,” and “resurrection.” - -For the tribe of Judah we have the ruby, and here the meaning of the -name, “praised,” fits in well with the dignity of the rare and glowing -ruby. This noble gem has always been a favorite adornment for royal -crowns and from Judah sprang the royalty of Israel. The blessing given -to this tribe declares that “the sceptre shall not depart from Judah, -nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh come.” This is often -taken to signify the consummation of the Kingdom of Israel in the -Kingdom of Heaven. - -Issachar, signifying “reward,” or “the rewarded,” suggests as symbolic -meanings of the tribal stone lapis lazuli, “success” and “fruition.” -This stone, the sapphire of the ancients, was typical of heaven, -probably owing to the appearance of the specimens most highly valued in -olden times, those in which a number of golden spots are scattered over -the blue surface of the stone, which thus figure both the blue of heaven -and the hosts of the stars. - -The tribal name Zebulon signifies “exaltation,” and to this tribe is -assigned a dwelling-place by the sea bordering on the domains of the -rich Phenician seaport, Sidon. We could thus see in the gem of Zebulon, -the onyx, a symbol of dominion and authority. This could serve to offset -some of the old superstitions regarding the onyx, which was sometimes -charged with bringing discord and dissension. - -Of the tribe Joseph, we are told that it was to be increased, and this -meaning is contained in the name itself, which is rendered: “May God -add.” To Joseph were promised “blessings of heaven above,” and -“blessings of the deep that lieth under.” The sapphire, probably the -tribal stone of Joseph, was known in ancient times by the name hyacinth -and was a stone of good omen, bringing increase of health and wealth; -therefore its significance as a tribal gem does not differ essentially -from the traditional one. - -[Illustration: - - CHINESE JADE AMULETS FOR THE DEAD - - Figs. 1_a_ and _b_, pair of eye-protecting amulets; Fig. 2, presumably - eye-amulets; Fig. 3, eye-amulet with design of fish; Figs 4–7, lip - amulets, 4 and 7 in shape of fish; Figs. 8–9, amulets in the shape - of monsters. From “Jade,” by Berthold Laufer. - - By courtesy of the author and Field Museum of Natural History, - Chicago. -] - -Benjamin signifies “son of the right hand,” hence this name denotes -strength and power. This meaning accords well with what is said in -Jacob’s blessing: “Benjamin shall raven as a wolf; in the morning he -shall devour the prey and at night he shall divide the spoil.” The -banded agate symbolizing this tribe would have the meaning “strength” -and “mastery”; indeed, according to other sources the agate was reputed -to bring victory to the wearer. - -Dan is the “judge” among the tribes, according to the meaning of the -name. In Jacob’s blessing Dan is said to be “a serpent by the way,” and -“an adder in the path.” These metaphors, which may not strike us as -commendatory of the tribe, probably indicated the craft and courage of -the tribesmen in attacking and defeating their foes, and enriching -themselves with the spoils of war. The amethyst, as the tribal stone of -Dan, could thus signify both “judgment” and “craft.” - -To the tribe of Gad was given the beryl, and the fact that spheres made -from this stone were believed to be best adapted for use in -crystal-gazing makes it an especially appropriate gem for the tribe of -“good fortune,” this being the most probable signification of the name -“Gad,” although in the Bible the interpretation “a troop,” is given. The -beryl would therefore signify “good luck” and perhaps also -“coöperation.” - -The twelfth and last tribe, Asher, has the jasper for its gem. This -would also gain an auspicious significance from its association with -Asher, which means “happy.” To the other meanings assigned to jasper -might be added that of “happiness.” As we have elsewhere remarked, there -seems good reason to suppose that jade was frequently designated jasper -in ancient times, and this stone was everywhere believed to possess -wonderful magic powers. - -The jasper[513] as an emblem of strength and fortitude is noted by St. -Jerome in his commentary on Isaiah (liv, 11, 12), where he writes that -the bulwarks or walls of the Holy City were strengthened by jasper. -These bulwarks served “to overthrow and refute every proud attack -against the knowledge of God, and to subject falsehood to truth. -Whoever, therefore, is most convincing in debate and best fortified with -texts of Holy Scripture is a bulwark of the Church.”[514] Jerome also -alludes to the variety of jasper called _grammatias_, because of the -peculiar markings, suggesting letters of the alphabet. This was believed -to possess great talismanic virtue, especially in putting to flight -phantoms and apparitions, since the markings were thought to signify -some potent spell, written on the stone by nature’s hand. Of another -kind of jasper, “white as snow or sea-foam,”[515] and having reddish -stains, we are told that it symbolizes the spiritual graces, which -preserve those endowed with them from vain terrors; and the learned -Father quotes as descriptive of this stone the words of Solomon’s Song -(v, 10): “My beloved is white and ruddy.”[516] - -Writing of the sapphire (lapis lazuli), one of the foundation stones of -the Holy City, St. Jerome likens it to heaven and to the air above us, -adding, somewhat fancifully, that we might apply to the sapphire the -words of Socrates in the “Clouds” of Aristophanes: “I walk upon air and -look down upon the Sun.” Turning then to Holy Scripture, Jerome notes -the well-known passage in Ezekiel (i, 26) where the Throne of God is -said to have “the appearance of a sapphire stone,” and finds in this -text a proof that blue denoted the glory of God.[517] The ingenuity of -the ancient commentators in finding hidden meanings in the simplest -things is well shown by the assertion of Thomas de Cantimpré that St. -John placed the emerald fourth in the list of foundation stones, because -the _four_ evangelists are constant in their praise of chastity.[518] - -Certain gems and stones have a definite relation and appropriateness to -the various religious holidays and festivals. Notable among these is the -rhodonite, a silicate of magnesia, named from the Greek word _rhodon_, -“a rose,” because of its beautiful rose-pink hue. This is found more -especially in the Ural Mountains, and in Massachusetts, but in a number -of other places as well. In the Ural Mountains one single mass was so -immense that ninety horses were needed to move the 22–ton weight a -distance of thirty miles to the Imperial Lapidary Works at -Ekaterineburg; here the material was cut up into smaller masses to be -finally worked up in the Imperial Lapidary Works at Peterhof into a -sarcophagus and tomb for the Emperor Nicholas I. - -This stone is a great favorite in Russia, and is frequently cut into -egg-shaped ornaments, either in the form of a simple egg, or of one with -a halo and a moonstone effect at one end. It may well be termed the -“Easter Stone.” For those unable to afford such an egg-shaped piece of -rhodonite, a yellow fibrous gypsum or satinspar cut into a similar form -may be substituted. Jade cut in the same way is also sometimes favored, -as well as many varieties of rock-crystal. - -In marked contrast with the joyful festival of Easter stands the most -solemn day of the Christian year, Good Friday, and for this day also we -have a singularly appropriate stone, the variety of jasper known as the -bloodstone. Here the red markings can be regarded as symbolical of the -blood of Our Lord, shed for the salvation of mankind in the supreme -sacrifice of the Passion. When the head of the Christ is cut in this -stone it is often possible to utilize the red spots to figure the drops -of blood flowing from the wounds inflicted by the Crown of Thorns. - -With the glad tidings of Christmas Day is intimately associated the -memory of the Star of Bethlehem, which served as a beacon light to guide -the three wise men of the East to the humble manger wherein reposed the -newly-born Saviour of the World. Hence for this great Christian festival -no gem can equal the star-sapphire, combining as it does the pure -sapphire-hue, always looked upon as symbolic of the highest moral, -spiritual, and religious sentiments, and the mysterious moving star, -which, shifting its apparent place with the slightest movement of the -stone, seems endowed with a wonderful independent life, just as the -phenomenal star of Bethlehem, unlike the fixed and changeless stars of -the firmament, glided through the heavenly expanse, by a miraculous -motion, due indeed to some supernatural law, but differing in kind and -degree from all the usual, every-day aspects of nature. - -The symbolism of precious stones presented in so many different ways by -the early ecclesiastical writers appears in the prayer offered by the -Archbishop of Canterbury at the coronation of the kings and queens of -England. While the king kneels upon a footstool, the archbishop takes -St. Edward’s Crown and lays it upon the altar; whereupon he pronounces -the following words: - -[Illustration: - - LA MADONNA DELLA SALUTE, BY OTTAVIANO NELLI - - In the Basilica of S. Francesco at Assisi. -] - - O, God, the crown of the faithful, who on the heads of Thy saints - placed crowns of glory, bless and sanctify this crown, that as the - same is adorned with divers precious stones, so this Thy servant, - wearing it, may be replenished of Thy grace, with the manifold gifts - of all precious virtues, through the King eternal, Thy Son our Lord. - Amen.”[519] - -In a tractate “Of the Crown of the Virgin,” ascribed to Saint Ildefonso -(607–669), the writer describes this wondrous gold crown as adorned with -twelve precious stones, six splendid stars, and six beautiful and -fragrant flowers, thus uniting the fairest treasures of earth and sky in -honor of the Queen of Heaven.[520] - -The gems, stars and flowers are given in the following order: Topaz, -Sirius, sard, lily, chalcedony, Arcturus, sapphire, crocus, agate, the -evening star, jasper, the rose, carbuncle, the Sun, emerald, the violet, -amethyst, the Moon, chrysolite, sun-flower, chrysoprase, Orion, beryl, -camomile. “That thus,” the writer concludes, “with precious stones, -radiant luminaries, and fair flowers, a splendid crown may be ennobled, -beautified and adorned, and may be the more willingly and gladly -accepted by Our Lady.” - -In a private collection in Smyrna there is a black hematite engraved -somewhat in the style of an Abraxas gem; and certainly not Christian. On -it is represented a galloping horseman, beneath whose steed is a -crouching man; above the rider’s head appears a star. The reverse bears -the inscription: σφραγίς θεοῦ, “seal of God.” In contrast with this is -an intaglio carnelian of the Munich Royal Collection, with the figures -of the Virgin Mary and the Infant Jesus, and the Greek words ἡ ἐικὼν τῆς -ἁγίας Μαρίας, “the image of the Holy Mary.” This is one of the best -examples of Byzantine work in gem-cutting.[521] - -One of the very curious cases of the employment of a purely secular -Roman gem for ecclesiastical uses is offered by the exceedingly -beautiful convex blue aquamarine engraved with the head of Julia, -daughter of Titus, a fine work of the Augustan Age, now in the French -Cabinet des Médailles in Paris. This was donated in the ninth century by -the Carolingian emperor, Charles the Bald, to the Treasury of St. Denis, -after it had been given a setting of pearls and precious stones. In St. -Denis it was placed at the apex of a reliquary, which became known as -the Oratorium of Charlemagne, and the head of the vain and worldly -princess is said to have been venerated by the pious monks and priests -as that of the Virgin Mary. As a work of portrait art this gem is one of -the finest examples from classic times.[522] - -The strange decadence and the conventionalized but profoundly earnest -quality of Early Christian art is shown in an intaglio gem of the Royal -Numismatic Museum in Munich. This is a dark-hued sardonyx of two layers, -and the engraving depicts a bearded Christ, enthroned and accompanied by -the twelve apostles, six on either side, four of them beardless while -the remainder are represented with beards; they are all gazing -reverently upon the central figure, behind whose head appear the arms of -the cross and above them the letters _I̅C̅_ _X̅C̅_ Ἰησοῦς Χριστός.[523] -Another somewhat similar Early Christian gem is a cameo cut in a -sardonyx of three layers, the groundwork being a brownish-black, and the -figures of a light-bluish hue, the upper parts yellowish-brown. Here -also we have an enshrined Christ; above his head two angels hold a -diadem. This is of superior workmanship to the intaglio gem just -described.[524] There is a sardonyx cameo showing a rude figure of the -Prophet Daniel, a lion on either side of him, and inscribed with his -name in Greek letters. This is of Byzantine workmanship.[525] - -The reliquarium of Wittekind, now in the Kunstgewerbe Museum at Berlin, -is considered to be probably the most important specimen of early -Frankish goldsmith-work that has been preserved, and is richly set with -precious stones, some of these being ancient gems. This is one of a -number of cases where engraved stones of Pagan times were used in the -adornment of ornamental objects destined for Christian religious use. -The upper edge shows a row of entwined animal figures, and the front -side has medallions with primitive bird forms in cloisonné enamel; on -the reverse side are very rudely executed repoussé figures of saints. -This work is assigned to the latter part of the eighth century A.D., and -is conjectured to have been a gift from Charlemagne to the Saxon King -Wittekind, on the occasion of the latter’s conversion to Christianity in -the year 807. It was long preserved in Wittekind’s foundation at Enger -near Herford, to which he had bequeathed his treasures; in 1414 it was -removed for safe-keeping to the Johanniskirche at Herford, where it -remained until 1888, when it came into the possession of the Berlin -Kunstgewerbe Museum. This precious example of the earliest German work -has the form of a small portable satchel, in which could be placed those -sacred relics the owner might wish to bear around with him because of -the protection they were assumed to afford.[526] - -One of the most notable and valuable objects in the famous Guelph -treasure that has recently been brought back to the city of Brunswick as -a result of the marriage of the Duke of Cumberland’s son, Ernest -Augustus, with the daughter of Emperor William II, is an elaborately -designed cross, a very fine specimen of the goldsmith’s art of the -twelfth century. This with the other treasures was taken by the Duke of -Cumberland to Vienna for safe-keeping, at the time he gave up, in 1884, -his title as Duke of Brunswick, rather than acknowledge Prussian -supremacy. The cross, which has the form of a so-called “crutch-cross,” -with rectangular projecting plates at the ends of the arms, was designed -to serve as a reliquary, the relic shrine being in a cruciform capsule -behind a small, round-edged golden cross set in the midst of the cross -proper. The precious relics reposing here were said to be bones of John -the Baptist, St. Peter, St. Mark the Evangelist, and St. Sebastian. On -the reverse side of the cross are set four large and beautiful sapphires -and in the centre is a remarkably brilliant topaz. - -While nothing definite is known as to the goldsmith who executed this -work, its style and general character suggest the conjecture that it may -have been produced by the artist who made the “Crown of Charlemagne” in -Vienna, really a crown executed for Conrad III, King of the Germans -(1093–1152), the first Hohenstaufen, and also several regal ornaments -for the latter’s consort, Queen Gisela. In addition to the jewelled -decoration of its reverse, the front of the cross is set with many -pearls, and the form of these settings is one of the chief arguments -adduced in favor of attributing it to the maker of the so-called “Crown -of Charlemagne.”[527] - -An ecclesiastical jewel of great beauty and remarkable historic interest -is known as the Cross of Zaccaria. It was secured in 1308 by Ticino -Zaccaria at the capture of the ancient Greek colonial city Phocæa, in -Asia Minor, and was donated to the Cathedral of San Lorenzo in Genoa. -This cross is of silver gilt, measuring 64 cm. in height and 40 cm. in -width, and within it behind a crystal is set a piece of the Holy Cross. -It is profusely adorned with precious and semi-precious stones, there -being 57 good-sized rubies, emeralds, sapphires, carnelians, malachites -and amethysts, besides 44 smaller stones and 299 of still lesser size. -The jewel is now preserved in the Palazzo Bianco, Genoa. - -The greatest treasure in the Cathedral of Chartres was the “Sacred -Shrine.” It was made of cedar-wood covered with gold plates and was -adorned with an immense number of precious stones including diamonds, -rubies, emeralds, sapphires, jacinths, agates, turquoises, opals, -topazes, onyxes, chrysolites, amethysts, garnets, girasols, sardonyxes, -asterias, chalcedonies, heliotropes, etc. These had been presented by -many different donors during a long period of time. In front of this -shrine was a cross composed entirely of precious stones, comprising 56 -rubies and garnets, 18 sapphires, 22 pearls, 8 emeralds, 8 onyxes and 4 -jacinths. When this was first placed in the cathedral is not known, but -it was there in 1353, as it is noted in an inventory made at that time. -An uncut diamond weighing about 45 carats, and constituting one of the -adornments of the shrine in 1682, was said to have been the gift of a -marshal of France; another ornament, an oval agate engraved with the -Virgin and Child, may now be seen in the Louvre where it forms part of -the Sauvageot Collection.[528] - -That all trace has been lost of an emerald engraved with the head of -Christ and given to Pope Innocent VIII by Sultan Bajazet II about the -year 1488, is greatly to be deplored, even though there be no truth in -the legend or report that it had been engraved in the time of Christ by -the order of Tiberius Cæsar. The evidence of two medals with Latin -legends and of certain old paintings with English inscriptions of the -sixteenth century seems to prove the existence of the gem in the Vatican -treasury about the time specified, and it has been conjectured, with -some probability, that the emerald had been engraved by a Byzantine -artist at some time before 1453, when Constantinople fell into the hands -of the Turks, and that this gem formed part of the booty they then -secured. A print, often copied photographically and otherwise, -purporting to be a representation of this emerald portrait of Christ, -has no evidential value, and has either been freely worked up from the -details of the spurious letter of Lentulus to Tiberius, giving a -personal description of the Saviour, or still more probably from a -Rafaelesque type of Christ’s head.[529] - -The beads of rosaries, when blessed by the Supreme Pontiff, or by one of -the dignitaries of the Church, are considered to be endowed with a -certain special virtue in favor of the individual for whom the blessing -is imparted. However, should this person loan the beads to another with -the intention of making him a partaker of this special blessing, or -indulgencing, they lose their virtue. It is prescribed that these beads -should be made of stone, glass, or some other durable material not -easily broken, in order that the effects of the blessing should not be -lost, or perhaps that the object so blessed should be less liable to -injury. Various precious stones as well as pearls are used for this -purpose, there being generally groups of ten small spheres, each group -separated from the other by a larger sphere, the ten smaller beads -serving to numerate the paternosters while the large bead is passed -through the fingers when a credo has been recited. - -A legend very popular in the Middle Ages has been conjectured to be the -source of the word “rosary” as applied to a chaplet of beads for -counting prayers. This legend tells of a pious youth, who on each and -every day wove a garland of roses for the statue of the Virgin in the -parish church. His religious zeal soon induced him to become a monk, and -as the restrictions and duties of monastic life forced him to -discontinue his floral offerings, he was much troubled in conscience, -and was only relieved when the abbot told him that by reciting 150 aves -at the close of each day, he would please the Virgin as much as by the -gift of flowers. The prayers were faithfully said and they eventually -became the occasion of a miracle. One evening, as the young monk was -traversing a dense forest, it suddenly occurred to him that he had -forgotten to recite his aves. He knelt down quickly and began to pray; -all at once he saw a radiant and beautiful figure standing before him, -and he immediately recognized in it the Blessed Virgin. Graciously she -bent over him and drew from his lips one rose after the other, until -fifty roses of supernatural beauty lay upon the ground. Of these she -then made a garland and placed it upon the head of her faithful -servant.[530] - -The first literary allusion to rosaries in India is in a Jain treatise -written about the beginning of our era. The Prakrit name here employed, -_ganettiya_, is equivalent to the sanscrit _ganayitrika_, or “counter,” -and it is enumerated among the ten utensils of a Brahman ascetic. The -other nine are the tridanda-stick, the water jar, the Bramanical thread, -the earthen vessel named karotikâ, the bundle of straw used as a seat, -the clout, the six-knotted wood, the hook, and the finger-ring. It is -said that no mention of rosaries has been found in Indian Buddhist -literature.[531] - -A splendid ecclesiastical ornament is described in the inventory of the -royal treasures in the Château de Fontainebleau made in 1560, on the -accession of Charles IX. This was of gold and composed of a crucifix -with the figures of the Virgin Mary and St. John. It was “enriched with -41 sapphires, 3 pointed diamonds and 12 balas-rubies,” which served to -mark the nails in the cross. The weight of the gold was 25 marks 5 -ounces, and the value of the entire object, gold and precious stones, is -given as 2720 écus, or about $6120. The intrinsic value of the gold -alone would be about $4240.[532] - -The most impressive of the ecclesiastical ornaments in the Spanish -churches was the _custodia_, or monstrance, in which the Holy Eucharist -was borne through the streets on Corpus Christi day; indeed, only at -this time was the custodia publicly shown. It was in fact a large -shrine, generally affecting the form of a church tower. The most ancient -example now in existence is in the Cathedral of Gerona. It is of gold, -is 1.85 m. (over 6 feet) high, and weighs nearly 66 pounds. This work, -in which the architectural style is an ornate Gothic, was completed in -1458 by the goldsmith Francisco de Asís Artau. One of the finest -specimens, however, was executed by Enrique d’Arphe for Charles V and is -in the Cathedral of Toledo. This _custodia_ measures no less than nine -feet in height and is three feet wide. Here also the form is that of a -Gothic tower; the cross at the apex was made by the goldsmith Lainez, -and is adorned with 86 pearls and 4 large emeralds. - -The shrine itself contains 795 marks’ weight of silver (about 600 -pounds), the gold in its composition weighing 57 marks, or about 38 -pounds. The Venetian Navagero estimated its worth to be 30,000 -ducats.[533] - -The wife of Marshal Junot, the celebrated Duchesse d’Abrantès, seeks to -exonerate her husband and to refute the many charges of spoliation -brought against him during and after the French occupation of Spain in -1808 and the succeeding years. For her, Marshal Lannes was a much worse -offender, and she asserts that after the siege of Saragossa in 1809, -Lannes secured possession of the immensely valuable treasures of the -church of Nuestra Señora del Pilar, treasures valued at nearly -$1,000,000. On his arrival in Paris, Lannes informed Napoleon that he -had brought with him from Spain “a few colored stones of little value,” -and was graciously told that he could keep them for himself. The finest -jewel of this collection contained 1300 diamonds, nine of which were of -great magnitude and value; the jewel was heart-shaped, and had in the -centre a dove, typifying the Holy Spirit, with wings extended. It had -been given to the church by Doña Barbara de Portugal, Queen of -Spain.[534] - -About the year 1630 there could be seen in Paris a crucifix a foot and a -half high, all of a single piece of yellow amber; on either side were -the figures of the Virgin Mary and of St. John respectively, each carved -in most excellent style. The writer who gives this information, a lineal -descendant of Lodowyk van Berghem, commonly regarded as the first -diamond-cutter, tells from hearsay evidence of a marvellous emerald -which six hundred years before his time, or about 1060, hung suspended -from the top of the nave of the Cathedral of Mainz. It was “as large as -half-a-melon,” and was of exceeding brilliance.[535] - -The writer of a Bohemian poem on the legend of St. Catherine’s betrothal -to Christ, written about 1355, appears to have been, in one part, -inspired by the glowing adornment of the Wenceslaus chapel in the -cathedral of St. Veit. The poet gives an enthusiastic description of the -gorgeous ornamentation of the mystic, imaginary temple in which the -betrothal takes place. The pavement is of aquamarine beryl, the walls -are studded with diamonds in golden settings, the framework of the -windows is alternately of emerald or of sapphire, and the window-panes -are not of stained glass, but of precious or semi-precious stones. Some -of these are not ill fitted for this use, the transparency of rubies, -amethysts, spinels, jacinths, garnets, and similar stones, admitting -quite sufficient light; but others mentioned here, such as turquoises, -chalcedonys and jaspers, would permit but a dim ray of light to traverse -their opaque or semi-opaque substance. It has been conjectured by some -that the poet drew his material from the account of the temple of the -Holy Grail in the old German legend, probably through a Bohemian -version; but as he omits in his enumeration twelve of the stones given -in the Grail legend, and adds a number of others, diamond, turquoise, -chalcedony, garnet, etc., this literary source is not fully -satisfactory. Rather might it be believed that the splendid decoration -of the Wenceslaus chapel and of the Karlstein Castle suggested the -vision wrought out by the Bohemian poet, especially as among the stones -he mentions which are not in the Grail legend, we have the garnet, so -eminently a product of Bohemia.[536] - -A peculiar and very interesting facetted diamond of 6³⁄₃₂ carats -displays alternate black and white facets and presents the appearance of -a clearly defined Greek cross in black outline when viewed by -transmitted light. The original crystal, which came from Brazil and -weighed 10½ carats, was an octahedron and was of a jet black hue. The -expectation was that the result of its cutting would be the production -of a black brilliant, but when one of the points of the octahedron had -been removed to form the table, it became evident that the black tint -was only superficial, the body of the crystal being white. This -peculiarity was then utilized by leaving some of the natural black faces -of the crystal. This diamond was found to be of excessive hardness, -rendering the task of cutting it an exceedingly arduous one. It is now -in the possession of one of the Royal Household of Siam.[537] - -Among the Buddhist legends current in India in the seventh century A.D. -is one referring to the vases offered by the “four kings of heaven” to -the Buddha. They first brought four gold vases, but the Buddha declared -that one who had renounced the world could not use such costly vases. -Silver vessels were then substituted, and were also refused, as were -successively vases made of rock-crystal, lapis lazuli, carnelian, amber, -ruby and other precious materials. Finally, four stone vases were -proffered. These were of violet color and transparent, but the fact that -they were not of precious material rendered them acceptable to the -Buddha.[538] - -The images of Buddha usually bear as adornment a small gem. This is most -frequently a moonstone, but occasionally a ruby or some other gem will -be used. The reason for this religious use of gems must not be sought -only in the idea that precious and costly objects are most fitting as -decorations of the sacred images, but it also implies a certain belief -in the magic or quasi-sacred character of the gem itself. - -The Saddharma-Pundarîka, one of the nine most sacred books of the -Buddhists, composed perhaps as early as the beginning of our era, gives -the following description of a celestial stûpra, a sort of shrine -containing a celestial being:[539] - - It [the _stûpra_] consisted of seven precious substances, _viz._, - gold, silver, lapis lazuli, musaragalva, emerald, red coral, and - Karketana stone. - - This _stûpra_ of precious substances once formed, the gods of paradise - strewed and covered it with _mandârava_ and great mandâra flowers. And - from that stûpra of precious substances there issued the voice: - “Excellent, excellent, Lord Sâkyamuni! thou hast well expounded the - Dharmapayârya of the Lotus of the True Law. So is it, Lord; so is it, - _sugata_.” - -Some of the most valuable temple treasures in the Island of Ceylon were -preserved in a pagoda near the frontiers of the realm of Saula. The -report of the gold and jewels accumulated here excited the avidity of -the Portuguese, then in control of a considerable part of the island, -and finally an energetic attempt was made to gain possession of them. -Although the existence of the pagoda was well attested, the Portuguese -were ignorant of its exact location in the tract of forest land wherein -it stood. The expeditionary force consisted of 150 Portuguese and 2000 -Lascars. On nearing the forest they placed themselves under the guidance -of a native captured in the neighborhood. He led them through the -woodland, traversing it hither and thither, but no pagoda appeared. -Suddenly the native exhibited signs of madness, which were at first -believed to be simulated, but were later regarded as genuine, on which -he was made away with and another native substituted, however, with the -same result. One after another five natives showed the same symptoms and -were successively put to death, and at last the Portuguese were -compelled to abandon this unsuccessful quest. We have here either a -remarkable example of fidelity to the temple, or else an instance of the -psychic influence of the terror inspired by the risk of violating it. -Undoubtedly the priests represented the result as due to supernatural -influence, and perhaps really felt justified in doing so.[540] - -An official account of the embassy of the Cinghalese monarch Kirti Sri -to Siam, in 1750, offers a description of the magnificent pagoda erected -over the Sacred Footprint of Buddha, at Swarna Panchatha Maha Pahath. -The free use of sapphires and rubies is quite natural, when we consider -that some of the finest specimens of these stones are still found in -this region:[541] - - Above the sacred footstep and made of solid gold was a pagoda - supported on suitable pillars, forming a shrine. At the four corners - were placed four golden _sésat_, and from above hung four bunches of - precious stones like bunches of ripe areca-nuts in size. On the edge - of the roof hung ropes of pearls, and on the point of the spire was - set a sapphire the size of a lime fruit. Within and overshadowing the - footprint like a canopy, there hung from the middle of the spire a - full-blown lotus of gold, in the middle of which was set a ruby of - similar size. Chariots, ships, elephants, and horses with their - riders, all made of gold, and of a suitable size, were placed on a - golden support above the silver pavement. This was hung on wires of - gold, to which were hung ornaments set with pearls the size of the - _nelli_ fruit, as well as other jewelled ornaments, rings and chains. - By some skilful device all this could be moved along the silver - pavement. - -Recent excavations made by Dr. J. H. Marshall in the Punjab, India, on -the site of the ancient city of Taxila, captured by Alexander the Great -during his Indian campaign, have brought to light many valuable Buddhist -remains, dating from about 2000 years ago. One of the most striking of -these is a relic casket taken from a _tope_ of the type called _dagoba_, -this name designating that class of those Buddhist structures designed -especially for the reception of relics. This relic casket is of -steatite, and contained a golden box within which was a fragment of -bone, presumably regarded as a relic of the Buddha; around it were many -pearls as well as engraved carnelians and also a number of other -precious stones. - -A carved sapphire, once in the collection of the Marquess of -Northampton, shows a representation of the Hindu divinity, Siva. It is -of Indian workmanship and the stone measures 1½ inches in length, 1½ -inches in width and ¾ inch in thickness.[542] - -One of the writers most familiar with Indian gem-lore recognizes that -while the rich and educated Hindus of our day wear diamonds and other -gems chiefly as ornaments, in ancient times these brilliant objects were -more largely employed in India to enrich the images of the gods, thus -rendering the idols more impressive and causing them to be worshipped -with more intense fervor. In ancient India gemmed ornaments were -believed to bring to the wearer “respect, fame, longevity, wealth, -happiness, strength, and fruition”; a list of benefits long enough to -satisfy the most exigent. However, as though this were not enough, we -are further assured that these gems “ward off evil astral influences, -make the body healthy, remove misery and ill-fortune, and wash away -sin.”[543] - -[Illustration: - - Ceremony annually observed in the Mogul Empire of weighing the - sovereign against precious metals, jewels and other valuable - objects, which were distributed as gifts. From “Histoire générale - des cérémonies religieuses de tous les peuples du monde,” by Abbé - Banier and Abbé Mascrier, Paris, 1741. -] - -The oldest jewel offered to a shrine by an Indian potentate, of which we -have certain knowledge, was a magnificent pendant containing a number of -precious stones, the gift of Sundara Pandiyan, at a date prior to 1310 -A.D. Another magnificent gift was a gorgeous jewelled turban adorned -with diamonds, rubies, emeralds and pearls, bestowed in 1623 by Trimal -Nayakkan.[544] These gifts or dedications show the prevailing tendency -to propitiate the higher powers and insure success in royal enterprises. - -The English ambassador, Sir Thomas Roe, sent to the court of Shah -Jehangir by King James I, saw the Shah on the day of his great birthday -festival when he was weighed against a great variety of objects, jewels, -gold, silver, stuffs of gold and silver, silk, butter, rice, fruits, -etc. All these things, heaped up on the scale balancing the one in which -stood the Shah, were distributed as imperial gifts after the conclusion -of the ceremony. Sir Thomas Roe declares that on this occasion (he -missed seeing the actual weighing) the monarch was adorned with a great -array of jewels, and he adds: “I must confess I never saw at one time -such unspeakable wealth,” a testimony of considerable value, for the -English Court in the time of James I was one by no means poor in jewels, -that sovereign having a great fondness for them. After the ceremony of -weighing had been completed, Jehangir enjoyed the spectacle of a -procession of twelve troupes of his choicest elephants, each troupe led -by a “lord elephant of exceptional stature.” The finest of these had all -the plates on his head and breast set with rubies and emeralds, and all -the elephants as they neared the Shah saluted him with their -trunks.[545] - -In Persia the pink and red coral was believed to have acquired its -beautiful color after removal from the water, and the odor of the -material was said to be a trustworthy means of discriminating between -genuine and imitation coral; genuine coral had the smell of sea-water. -The Chinese and the Hindus prized this substance very highly, because -among them it was used to adorn the images of the gods.[546] - -The perforated jade disk called _ts’ang pi_ is still used as the symbol -of the deity Heaven (T’ien) in the temple of that divinity at Peking. By -a regulation of Emperor K’ien-lung, the proper dimensions of this -ceremonial disk were rigidly established; the diameter of the disk -proper was set at 6.1 inches, and its thickness at ⁷⁄₁₀ of an inch; the -perforation was to have a diameter of ⁴⁄₁₀ of an inch. While the quality -of the jade to be employed is not especially determined, the name -_ts’ang_ implies jade of a bluish shade. The veined type of stone is -regarded as peculiarly adapted for this purpose.[547] - -[Illustration: - - PERFORATED JADE DISK CALLED _TS’ANG PI_, A CHINESE SYMBOL OF THE DEITY - HEAVEN (T’IEN) - - From Berthold Laufer, “Jade, a Study in Chinese Archæology and - Religion,” Chicago, 1912, p. 157. - - By courtesy of the Author and Field Museum of Natural History, - Chicago. -] - -We are apt to regard Tibet as the land least accessible to modern -influence of any kind, and that least in touch with any aspect of -European civilization. It seems, therefore, not a little strange that at -the chief altar of the Royal Chapel in the Dalai Lama’s palace on Potala -Hill, Lhasa, the elaborate _tse-boum_ (incense vase or vessel), used by -the Buddhist priests in their services, is a product of modern Parisian -art, having been made in Paris about ten years ago. The vessel proper, -which is carved from several exceptionally large pieces of coral, rests -upon a flat, silver-gilt base, ornamented with two dragons, and is -crowned with an oval framework of lapis lazuli leaves; upon this -framework is a coral statuette of Amitabha, the “Lord of Boundless -Light,” revered as the emanation of Adi-Buddha, supported by a lotus -flower of white chalcedony. At the apex of the leafy oval rests a -representation in white chalcedony of a crescent moon, above is a sun in -yellow stone from which springs a coral flame, symbolizing the radiance -of wisdom (_nada_). Although the Dalai Lama was anxious to avail himself -of the aid of French art for the embellishment of his altar, he took due -precautions that the religious character of the vessel should be -properly conceived and maintained, and therefore sent one of his -high-priests to Europe to choose the artists best fitted for the -execution of the vessel, and this priest took the pains to make a -special trip to Leghorn in order to select the coral appropriate for the -sacred utensil. As will be noted, this material, so greatly prized by -the Tibetans, is that most prominent in this temple incense vase. The -dragons attached to the silver-gilt platter have been placed there to -honor the Chinese, and are so affixed that they can be removed when no -Chinese representatives are present at the ceremonies. In the older -_tse-boum_, to take the place of which this Paris product was executed, -the red-tinted ivory was used where coral appears in the newer vessel. -The employment of this color is due to the fact that it is the sacred -color of Amitabha.[548] - -Within the sacred precincts of the temple of Cho Kang, in Tibet, is a -splendid, life-size image of the Buddha formed of solid gold. The -priests teach that it is of supernatural origin, and ascribe its -execution to the creative energy of Visvakarma, a personification of the -formative energy in the cosmos. The gold in this image is, however, not -absolutely pure, but is alloyed with silver, copper, zinc and iron, the -choice of these four metal alloys being dictated by the significance of -the five metals in union as symbols of the world. The precious-stone -adornment of this wonderful idol consists of magnificent diamonds, -rubies, emeralds and _indranila_ or Indian sapphires. Pearl, turquoise -and coral necklaces are twined around the figure’s neck and crossed over -its breast; on its head rests a golden coronet with a setting of -turquoises, and rising from the rim of this coronet are five upright -leaves within each of which is a small golden image of the Buddha; from -one of these hangs as a pendant a remarkably fine, large and flawless -piece of turquoise, measuring six inches in length and four inches in -width. All these splendors lavished upon the image of the great apostle -of the simple life show but a poor comprehension of the deep meanings -and tendencies of his early career. - -Treating of the religious associations of turquoise among the Tibetans, -Dr. Berthold Laufer writes:[549] - - Turquoises, usually in connection with gold, belong to the most - ancient propitiatory offerings to the gods and demons; in the - enumeration, gold always precedes turquois as the more valuable gift. - They also figure among the presents bestowed on saints and Lamas by - kings and wealthy laymen. The thrones on which kings and Lamas take - their place are usually described as adorned with gold and turquoises, - and they wear cloaks ornamented with these stones. It may be inferred - from traditions and epic stories that in ancient times arrow-heads - were made not only of common flint, but also occasionally of turquois - to which a high value was attached. A powerful saint, by touching the - bow and arrow of a blacksmith, transforms the bow into gold, and the - arrow-head into turquois. - -In the native languages of Mexico and Central America the name -_chalchiḥuitl_ most frequently designates jadeite, but it appears -sometimes to have been applied to other stones of a green or -greenish-blue color, such as the so-called amazon-stone from the region -of the Amazon River, and even occasionally to the turquoise. Thus the -talismanic value of the chalchihuitl seems to have depended rather upon -its hue and its rarity, than upon its mineralogical character; indeed, -among primitive peoples, stones of the same, or closely similar color, -although of different composition, often bore the same name, and were -conceived to have the same virtues whether talismanic or therapeutic. -Writing of the rich gifts sent by Montezuma to Cortés upon the latter’s -arrival at San Juan de Ulúa (1519), Bernal Diaz de Castillo -mentions[550] “four chalchiuites, a kind of green stone of great value, -and much esteemed by them [the Indians], more highly, indeed, than we -esteem the emerald. They are of a green color.” And he proceeds to state -that each one of these stones was said to be worth a great weight of -gold. - -The statue of the earth-goddess Couatlicue, found in the village of -Cozcatlan, Mexico, and now preserved in the National Museum of Mexico, -shows, inserted in the cheek, a disk of jadeite.[551] Green seems thus -to have been the color sacred to this goddess, which may remind us of -the attribution of the green emerald to Venus. Indeed, green as the -color of foliage and plants must naturally have suggested itself as -eminently appropriate for an earth-goddess, just as its significance as -a symbol of life and generation connected it with the Goddess of Love. - -The story of the emeralds brought from the New World by Hernan Cortés -must have been quite familiar to sixteenth century writers, for we find -Brantôme applying some details of this story to “a beautiful and -incomparable pearl” said to have been brought from Mexico by Cortés on -his return to Spain. This he later allowed to slip from his fingers into -the sea while showing it to a friend on board the ship that was bearing -him toward Algiers; it was lost in the sea, and in the words of Brantôme -“vanished from the sight of mankind, unworthy to possess such a miracle -of nature.” The loss of this pearl is looked upon by the French writer -as a punishment for the “inscription” Cortés had caused to be placed -upon it: Inter natos mulierum non surrexit major;[552] this refers to -John the Baptist and was, as we have seen, engraved upon one of the -famous emeralds of Cortés. Brantôme believes that its application to a -simple product of nature was sacrilegious and the cause of the object’s -loss; he also sees in this loss an omen of the death of the Emperor -Charles which occurred shortly afterward, and he draws attention to the -fact that the “Africans” called their kings “precious stones.”[553] - -The Aztec art-workers of the period immediately antedating the Spanish -Conquest had attained a high order of skill in the difficult work of -inlaying carefully cut and shaped bits of precious material so as to -produce some form or design of symbolic or religious meaning. In judging -the artistic merit of such work, we must always remember that the Aztec -inlayers were only provided with rude and primitive tools and implements -for the execution of their task, and extraordinary patience and -application must have been necessary to complete some of the objects -that have been preserved for us. This art seems only to have been -cultivated in ancient Mexico and Central America, and perhaps Peru also; -of the Mexican work some twenty-five examples have been saved. The -Spaniards, shortly after their first landing, were given an opportunity -to judge of the quality of this Aztec inlaying, for among the gifts sent -by Montezuma to Cortés, were five such objects, a mask with -incrustations of turquoise, so disposed as to figure two intertwined -serpents; a crozier, also with turquoise mosaic and ending in a -serpent’s head; a pair of large ear-rings of serpentine form decorated -with the _chalchihuitl_ stone (perhaps nephrite or jadeite); a mitre of -ocelot skin, surmounted by a large _chalchihuitl_, and also decorated -with turquoise mosaic, and a staff of office with similar inlays. A -serpent-mask answering to the description of one of Montezuma’s gifts is -now in the British Museum and is in a fairly good state of preservation, -although unfortunately the two serpent-heads have been lost. Evidently -this mask was used in connection with the worship of Quetzalcoatl, the -serpent-god, an incarnation of which deity the poor Aztecs at first -believed Cortés to be.[554] - -[Illustration: - - By courtesy of Dr. Edward H. Thompson. - - THE SACRED WELL OF CHICHEN ITZA - - Wherein, according to tradition, human victims and votive offerings of - great value were cast. -] - -Surpassing this mask in a certain strange and weird interest, and -equalling it in artistic workmanship, is another most remarkable Aztec -ceremonial mask, also in the British Museum Collection. The foundation -of this is the front part of a human skull, and its outer surface has -been covered with an incrustation of turquoise and jet mosaic in five -alternate bands, the upper, middle and lower ones being of jet, while -the two intermediate ones are of shaped pieces of turquoise; part of the -nose has been removed and the space covered over by tablets of pink -shell; protruding eyeballs are figured by convex disks of polished iron -pyrites with a bordering of white shell; a number of the teeth have been -broken out. Straps attached at the temples rendered it possible to bind -this mask to the face of an idol, or for a priest of high rank to wear -it on solemn ceremonial occasions. - -Some three hundred yards or more from the great temple pyramid at -Chichen Itzá, Yucatan, Mexico, at the termination of the Sacred Way -traversed in times of tribulation, of pestilence or famine, by -processions of priests conveying sacrifices to be offered to the -offended divinities, was the Sacred Well. Into this the priests would -throw the ornaments and trinkets dedicated to the gods as -peace-offerings. But such inanimate objects were regarded as -insufficient, and even animal sacrifices were deemed to be inadequate, -and hence it often happened that prisoners of war and fair maidens were -cast into the deep, still waters of the Sacred Well.[555] - -Many fragments of the carved stone ornaments have been recovered from -the depths of this Sacred Well, and even in their present imperfect -state, they testify to a considerable development of the lapidarian art -among the ancient Mayas, and a high degree of artistic skill in the -fashioning of such objects of adornment. Undoubtedly those used in this -way as sacred offerings were considered to be amulets and therefore to -be the more acceptable in the sight of the gods. - -That lapis lazuli was as much favored for religious use by the -aborigines of the New World as it was in ancient Egypt and in other -parts of the Old World, is shown by the recent discovery of twenty-eight -carefully formed cylindrical beads of lapis lazuli among some very -ancient deposits in the island of La Plata, Ecuador. From the general -character of these deposits it is evident that they did not belong to -permanent dwellers on the island, and there is every reason to believe -that they were left by visitors from the mainland, who came to the -island for the performance of certain sacred rites and ceremonies.[556] - -[Illustration: - - By courtesy of Dr. Edward H. Thompson. - - CARVED AND WORKED STONES FROM THE SACRED WELL AT CHICHEN ITZA, - YUCATAN, MEXICO -] - -The ancient Mexicans held the turquoise in high esteem, and that Los -Cerrillos and other mines in Arizona and New Mexico were extensively -worked prior to the discovery of America is proved by fragments of Aztec -pottery-vases; by drinking, eating, and cooking utensils; by stone -hammers, wedges, mauls, and idols which have been discovered in the -debris found in many different localities. - -While Major Hyde was exploring this neighborhood in 1880, he was visited -by several Pueblo Indians from San Domingo, who stated that the -turquoise he was taking from the old mine was sacred, and must not go -into the hands of those whose Saviour was not a Montezuma, and these -Indians offered, at the same time, to purchase all that might come from -the mine in the future. - -About ten miles from Tempe, Arizona, in ruins designated as Los Muertos, -there was found enclosed in asbestos, in a decorated Zuñi jar, a -sea-shell coated with black pitch, in which were incrusted turquoise and -garnets, in the form of a toad, the sacred emblem of the Zuñi. Incrusted -clam shells, representing toads, may be seen in the Brunswick -Collection, the Christie Collection in the British Museum, and in the -Pitorini Museum, Rome. - -At the annual Fiesta which is attended by the San Felipe, the Navajo, -the Isleta, the Acoma, the Jicorrilla, Apache and other Indians at the -Pueblo of Santo Domingo, a place situated about three miles west by -south of Wallace Station on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé Railroad, -a carved wooden image of the saint, about four feet in height, and said -to date from the time of the conquest in 1692, is carried in procession -through the principal streets to a small tent made of the finest Navajo -blankets, where it is placed on an improvised altar. Here various -offerings are made. Among them strings of turquoise beads, both round -and flat, of the choicest color, are suspended from the ears of the -figure, and from a string which encircles its neck. On the centre of the -breast is one of the curious turquoise-encrusted marine clam-shells -similar to the one found by Lieutenant F. H. Cushing in the excavations -near Tempe, Arizona. The writer saw a fine example of this ornamental -object suspended from the neck of the Virgin of Santo Domingo, at the -Annual Fiesta, August 4, 1890. With the exception of a black band of -obsidian running across the centre, the entire exterior of the shell is -covered with a sort of miniature pavement of little squares of turquoise -which are cemented to it with a black shellac-like substance obtained -from “the grease-wood” plant common in New Mexico.[557] - -It has been suggested that the types of ornamentation used by the -aborigines of Central America may become fashionable at the time of the -opening of the Panama Canal. In jewelry the crawfish model, as shown in -a gold-plated ornament discovered in the Chiriqui district of Panama, -offers a striking and peculiar form which might win favor; a curious -frog pattern could also be used. If the local usage in ancient times is -to be considered, the emerald and other green stones would be given the -preference for decoration, as stones of this color were the most in -favor among the primitive inhabitants of Central America because it -symbolized the verdure of field and forest, and hence youth and vigor. -When set in gold these stones gained in symbolic value, for gold, having -the color of the sun, was regarded as typical of force, courage, and -vitality. - -The mystic lake of Guatavita, high up on the Andean plateau of Colombia, -South America, was the chief holy place of the native Indians of this -locality hundreds of years ago, at a time when gold and emeralds were -plentiful among them, luxuries unknown to their impoverished descendants -of our day. Legend had taught them to regard this lake as the abiding -place of a powerful divinity or demon, whose good will must be secured -at any price if dire disease were to be held aloof from the people. Four -other sacred lakes on the plateau, Guasca, Siecha, Teusaca, and Ubaque, -shared in a lesser degree with the principal one in the attribution of -mysterious power. As early as 1534 word was brought to Sebastian de -Belalcazar, founder of Quito, that in the course of the religious -ceremonies held by the Indians at the Lake of Guatavita, they were wont -to cast into its waters immense quantities of gold-dust, emeralds and -other precious stones. It was also related that at these semi-annual -festivals the Caciques and the principal chiefs, bearing valuable gifts -of gold-dust and emeralds, were paddled out in canoes (or on rafts) to -the exact middle of the lake, this point being determined by the -intersection of two ropes stretching from four temples erected at four -equidistant points on its banks. Arrived at this spot the offerings were -cast into the lake, and the Cacique of Guatavita, whose naked body had -been coated with an adhesive clay, over which gold-dust was sprinkled in -profusion, sprang into the water, and after washing off the gold-dust, -swam to the shore. This resplendent living golden figure strongly -appealed to the Spaniards’ imagination, and the name they bestowed upon -the Cacique, El Dorado (“The Golden,” or “Gilded”), is used to our day -as a designation of a region or a spot exceptionally rich in gold. At -the moment the “Golden Cacique” made his plunge into the lake, the -assembled people scattered along its banks turned their backs toward the -water, shouted loudly, and threw their propitiatory offerings over their -shoulders into the lake. - -Attempts have often been made to secure the treasures by drawing off the -waters of the lake, but only with very partial success so far. The first -serious effort is said to have been made by Antonio de Sepulveda, a -merchant of Santa Fé, in United States of Colombia, who obtained a -Spanish concession. In or about 1823 we have record of another -unsuccessful venture on the part of José Ignacio Paris, in an account of -Colombia written in 1824 by Captain Charles Stuart Cochrane, of the -Royal Navy, who aided Paris in his efforts. The report that at the time -of the Spanish Conquest, the Cacique of Guatavita caused gold-dust -constituting the burdens of fifty men to be cast into the lake, greatly -contributed to the zeal of the treasure-seekers in the vicinity. One of -the early attempts at least resulted in the recovery of so much treasure -that the Government’s 3 per cent. share is said to have amounted to -$170,000. - -In none of these essays, however, was the lake really and effectually -drained off, and that of Paris in 1823 or 1824 failed in the same way, -because of inadequate capital. He had succeeded in persuading sixteen -shareholders to club together, each one contributing $500 to a common -fund, but after not only this $8,000, but $12,000 more supplied by -himself had been expended, there still remained 33 feet of water in the -lake. - -Recently an English company has recognized that the treasure must be -sought at or even beneath the true bottom, as this existed at the time -of the Spanish Conquest, and thus at levels considerably lower than -those of the bottom at the present time. The project is, after 30 feet -of the present bottom has been removed, to set up a steam shovel and -sink down 40 or 50 feet in search of the gold-dust, golden ornaments and -emeralds believed to exist here. - - - - - VIII - Amulets: Ancient, Medieval, and Oriental - - -The present and the following chapter are devoted to a study of the -talismanic virtues attributed to precious stones and gems, as -distinguished from the curative powers with which they were credited. It -is sometimes difficult to establish a hard and fast dividing line -between the two classes, as everything that conduces to the happiness -and well-being of man also affects his bodily health, but a distinction, -correct in the main, may be made by regarding the talismanic use as -covering all cases except those in which the stone was used where to-day -some really medicinal substance would be administered. - -A modern German writer on amulets has proposed to apply the term -“emanism” (Emanismus) to the virtue existing or supposed to exist in -amulets and talismans, and gives as his opinion that their virtue is -neither a spiritual nor a personal one, but the operation of forces, the -latter not being special, mysterious vital forces, but impersonal -physical components and qualities, and that these exercise their -influence by means of emanation. Wundt has held that the very earliest -amulets were parts of the human body, and almost always such parts as -were believed to be the bearers of the soul.[558] - -Radiation or emanation of energy, without observable loss of substance, -is a fact familiar enough to us to-day, but this phenomenon was not so -generally accepted centuries ago. Still the lodestone always offered a -striking example with which all writers on such subjects were -acquainted. A stranger argument in support of the truth of this property -was adduced by the seventeenth century physician, Sir Thomas Browne -(1605–1682), who writes:[559] - - If amulets do work by emanation from their bodies upon those parts - whereunto they are appended and are not yet observed to abate their - weight; if they produce visible and reall effects by imponderous and - invisible emissions, it may be unjust to deny all efficacy to gold, in - the non-emission of weight or deperdition of any ponderous articles. - -While the learned doctor does not expressly state his belief in these -“imponderous and invisible emissions” from amulets, he certainly does -not attempt to deny their existence. - -The Bolivian natives believe that the so-called mountain-sickness, the -affection from which some travellers suffer at high altitudes, probably -originates in subtle emanations from certain mineral veins. A -confirmation of the fact that such a belief exists, though not of the -truth of the theory, is found in the native name for this illness, -_veta_, which signifies at once “mountain-sickness” and a vein or lode. -The fact that at the pass of Livichuco, on the trail from Challapata to -Sucre, there are considerable deposits of antimony, is regarded as -substantiating this strange fancy.[560] - -Among the Babylonians one of the most dreaded of the malign spiritual -powers was the terrible female demon Labastu, and a long series of -amulets are recommended, one or more of which should be worn to ward off -her pernicious influence. For some of these amulets precious stones were -used, and the effect of color, probably a determining circumstance in -the selection of the particular stone, was to be strengthened by the -color of the wrapping about the stone and of the cord by means of which -it was to be hung from the neck, or attached to the right or left hand -or foot, or to other parts of the body. As this dreadful spirit was -chiefly feared as the inducer of disease, the location of the amulet was -perhaps in some cases determined by the presence of local pain or -disorder; in this case it would be expected to act as a cure of disease -rather than a mere preventive. The following passages refer to such -stone amulets:[561] - -[Illustration: - - EYE AGATES - - Used as charms against the Evil Eye. East Indian. -] - - Thou shalt wrap up a _shubu_-stone in white wool, and hang it on a - white woollen cord, with four eye-stones (_enâti_) and four parê, and - bind it to thy right hand. - - A black _ka_-stone shalt thou enwrap in black wool, hang it on a black - woollen cord, provide it with three eye-stones and three _parê_, and - bind it to thy left hand. - - Thou shalt wrap a white _ka_-stone in red wool, hang it on a red - woollen cord, with four eye-stones and four _parê_, and bind it to the - right foot. - - An _appu_-stone shalt thou wrap up in blue wool, hang it on a blue - woollen cord, furnish it with three eye-stones and three _parê_, and - bind it to the left foot. - - Seven eye-stones and seven _parê_ shalt thou string on a black cord. - -The _enâti_ (eye-stones) here mentioned were most probably eye-agates -similar to those still prized in the Mesapotamian region for their -supposed magical virtues, and more especially for protection against the -Evil Eye. There is, indeed, a bare possibility that some form of the -cat’s-eye (known by that name to the Arabs) or one of the star-stones -may occasionally be signified by this Assyrian name. The word _parê_, as -it is not preceded by the determinative character signifying stone, may -refer to some other material. - -An immediate association of an animal eye with a turquoise, an example -of the sympathetic magic to which we have frequently alluded, comes from -Persia. During the celebration of the imposing ceremonies attending the -great annual assemblage of pilgrims at the shrine of Mecca, it is -customary to slaughter an immense number of sheep, and certain of the -Persian pilgrims will secure possession of some of the eyes of their -sacrificial victims, and will embed turquoises in them, firmly believing -that in this way they have composed an infallible amulet against the -Evil Eye.[562] - -A Persian manuscript of a work entitled “Nozhat Namah Ellaiy,” written -in the eleventh century by Schem Eddin, the transcription being dated -1304, asserts that the turquoise (piruzeh), though lacking in -brilliancy, was esteemed to be a stone of good omen, and one that would -bring good luck, since this was indicated by its name, signifying in -Persian, “the Victorious.”[563] - -One of the Egyptian tales from the time of the early dynasties shows the -value placed upon the turquoise in Egypt at that time. This recital -occurs in Baufra’s Tale. The reigning Pharaoh, to relieve a fit of -mental depression, took a pleasure trip on the palace lake in a boat -rowed by twenty beautiful and richly attired maidens. While bending over -her oar, one of the maidens let fall into the water from her -hair-adornment a fine turquoise (Egypt _mafkat_, thus rendered by -Petrie) and was deeply chagrined at the loss. However, the court -magician Zazamankh, who accompanied the sovereign, by his magic arts was -able to provide a remedy, for on his reciting a charm of great power the -turquoise rose up through the water so that it could be picked up from -the surface and returned to its disconsolate owner.[564] - -[Illustration: - - TYPES OF EGYPTIAN SEALS AND SCARABS IN THE MURCH COLLECTION, - METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK - - Royal names: Fig. 1, XII Dynasty (2000–1788 B.C.), Usertasen III; Fig. - 2, XIII Dyn. (1788–1680, B.C.), Sebekhetep III; Fig. 3, Hyksos - Kings (1680–1580 B.C.), Aamu; Fig. 4, XVIII Dyn. (1580–1350 B.C.), - Amenhetep I; Fig. 5, XIX Dyn. (1350–1205 B.C.), Rameses II; Fig. 8, - XXII Dyn. (945–745 B.C.), Sheshonk I; Fig. 9, XXV Dyn. (712–663 B.C.), - Taharka; Fig. 10, XXVI Dyn. (663–525 B.C.), Psamtek I; Private - names; Fig. 11, Shemses, “Attendant”; Fig 12, Rera, “Superintendent of - the Storehouse of Offerings”; Fig. 13, Ankh, “Attendant”; Figs. - 14–16, scroll designs and ornamental groupings of hieroglyphs; Fig. - 17, Goodluck amulet “May your name be established, may you have a - son!” - Figs. 18–24, animal-back seals. -] - -The Egyptians believed that the different kinds of precious stones were -endowed with certain special talismanic properties, and these stones -were combined in their necklaces in a way supposed to afford protection -from all manner of malign influences. The beads were of various forms, -sometimes round or oval, and at others, rectangular or oblong; besides -the stones in general use, such as the emerald, carnelian, agate, lapis -lazuli, amethyst, rock-crystal, beryl, jasper and garnet, beads of gold, -silver, glass, faience, and even of clay and straw, were employed. To -complete the efficacy of the necklace, small images of the gods and of -the sacred animals were added as pendants. Even on the mummies and mummy -cases such ornaments are painted in imitation of necklaces or collars of -precious stones, with flowers, etc., as pendants.[565] - -One of the most artistic and beautiful specimens of ancient Egyptian -goldsmiths’ work was recently sent by Dr. Flinders Petrie, on behalf of -the Egyptian Research Account Society, to the Boston Museum of Fine -Arts. It is adorned with amethysts set in gold, the stones with their -symbolic settings constituting a charm of powerful amulets for the -protection of the wearer, who is believed to have been the Princess -Sat-Hathor-Ant, of the Twelfth Dynasty, the wife of the heir to the -throne. Dr. Petrie pronounces this to be one of the finest ancient -Egyptian necklaces he has ever seen. - -This splendid ornament came from tomb No. 154 at Haragh. It measures -26.3 inches in length and is composed of 88 amethyst beads varying in -length from nearly a quarter-inch to about four-tenths of an inch (0.6 -cm. to 1 cm.) and in diameter from a little over a quarter-inch to over -four-tenths of an inch (0.7 cm. to 1.1 cm.). The beads are slightly -flattened and the borings were made from both ends, meeting accurately -in the centre in the majority of cases. In spite of small surface scars, -they are generally of very clear and even color.[566] - -Special chapters from the great Egyptian collection of hymns and -invocations known as the “Book of the Dead” were inscribed on certain -particular stones, as in the following instances: - -Chapter XXVI of the Book of the Dead to be inscribed on, or recited -over, a figure in lapis lazuli.[567] - - Chapter whereby the Heart is given to a person in the Netherworld. - - He saith: Heart mine to me, in the place of Hearts! Whole Heart mine - to me, in the place of Whole Hearts! - - Let me have my Heart that it may rest within me; but I shall feed upon - the food of Osiris, on the eastern side of the mead of amaranthine - flowers. - - Be mine a bark for descending the stream and another for ascending. - - I go down into the bark where thou art. - - Be there given to me my mouth wherewith to speak, and my feet for - walking; and let me have my arms wherewith to overthrow my - adversaries. - - Let two hands from the Earth open my mouth: Let Seb, the Erpâ of the - gods, part my two jaws; let him open my two eyes which are closed, and - give motion to my two hands which are powerless; and let Anubis give - vigor to my legs that I may raise myself upon them. - - And may Sechit the divine one lift me up, so that I may arise in - Heaven and issue my behest in Memphis. - - I am in possession of my Heart, I am in possession of my Whole Heart, - I am in possession of my arms and I have possession of my legs. - - [I do whatsoever my Genius willeth, and my Soul is not bound to my - body at the gates of Amenta.] - -Chapter XXVII of the Book of the Dead to be inscribed on, or recited -over, a figure in green feldspar.[568] - - Chapter whereby the Heart of a person is not taken from him in the - Netherworld. - - O ye gods who seize upon Hearts, and who pluck out the Whole Heart; - and whose hands fashion anew the Heart of a person according to what - he hath done; lo now, let that be forgiven to him by you. - - Hail to you, O ye Lords of Everlasting Time and Eternity! - - Let not my Heart be torn from me by your fingers. - - Let not my Heart be fashioned anew according to all the evil things - said against me. - - For this Heart of mine is the Heart of the god of mighty names - [Thoth], of the great god whose words are in his members, and who - giveth free course to his Heart which is within him. - - And most keen of insight is his heart among the gods. Ho to me! Heart - of mine: I am in possession of thee, I am thy master, and thou art by - me; fall not away from me; I am the dictator to whom thou shalt obey - in the Netherworld. - -Were there sufficient evidence as to the use of jade by the ancient -Egyptians, we might be justified in finding an allusion to this -substance in the 160th chapter of the Book of the Dead. This chapter was -to be inscribed upon a small column made of a green stone (Renouf -translates “green feldspar”), as appears in the text, which reads, in -part, as follows: - - I am the column of green feldspar which cannot be crushed, and which - is raised by the hand of Thoth. - - Injury is an abomination for it. If it is safe, I am safe; if it is - not injured, I am not injured; if it receives no cut, I receive no - cut. - - Said by Thoth: arise, come in peace, lord of Heliopolis, lord who - resides at Pu. - -The text is accompanied by a vignette in which Thoth is represented -bringing the column enclosed in a box or casket. This is one of the -forms of the _neshem_-stone, a name used in Egyptian as widely and -vaguely as was _smaragdus_ in Latin. One thing is, however, quite -evident, the material designated here must have been of exceptional -hardness and toughness, for the special virtue of the column-amulet was -to make the body as hard and indestructible as itself. Incidentally we -may recall that the hermetic work of Thoth, named by the later Greeks -Trismegistos, the Thrice Mighty One, which was said to have been -unearthed in a tomb, was inscribed upon _smaragdus_. - -The larger part of the amulets used in ancient Egypt represented some -living creature. The most usual type is the bull’s head, which was cut -from carnelian, hematite, amazon stone, lapis lazuli, or quartz. -Prehistoric Egyptian amulets representing the fly have been found; these -were of slate, lapis lazuli and serpentine. In historic times gold was -employed as the material. Other types occurring in prehistoric times are -the hawk, of quartz or limestone; the serpent, of lapis lazuli or -limestone; the crocodile and the frog. Carnelian was freely used as the -material for amulets in the earlier historic times, among the prevailing -forms were the hand, the fist, and the eye; amulets figuring the lion, -the jackal-head, the frog, and the bee, also appear. Silver or electrum -was substituted for carnelian in the Middle Kingdom. At a later period -amulets were used less and less frequently.[569] - -The mysterious virtues of the scarab are not yet forgotten in the East, -in Syria at least, for we are told that this beetle is an object of much -veneration among the Syrian peasants as an amulet. One use of it in this -way is to enclose a specimen in a box and lay this upon the breast of a -babe in its cradle as a sure protection against the greatly-dreaded Evil -Eye. There is also a superstition in this region that if a “scarab” is -found lying helplessly on its back, anyone who charitably relieves it of -its embarrassment by setting it on its feet, will be relieved of the -guilt of a number of sins.[570] - -[Illustration: - - By courtesy of Herbert J. Ward and John Murray, Publisher. - - COLOSSAL SCARAB IN BLACK GRANITE, BRITISH MUSEUM - - Length 60 in., by 33 in. high. From “The Sacred Beetle” by John Ward, - F.S.A. -] - -It is difficult to see any other origin for the scaraboid, or imperfect -scarab form, than that afforded by the Egyptian scarabs, some of which -date back to about 4000 B.C. Whether we can literally say that the -scaraboid was introduced into Babylon by the Egyptians may be open to -question, as the form itself appears to have been evolved by Etruscans -and Greeks. Unquestionably the scaraboid was much more easily shaped -than the scarab proper, and for those traders who wished large supplies -for commercial purposes at a low cost, this was by no means a negligible -quality. - -The evolution of the ring from the cylindrical seal is of course purely -a matter of conjecture. Here, as is often the case in a chain or series -of fossil remains, we have a succession of types which _may_ be -connected with one another genetically, but which _must_ not be so -connected. That is to say, we cannot prove the affirmative and can only -point to a probability. - -Many cut and engraved stones, some of which had evidently been used as -talismans, have been washed up on the shore at Alexandria, Egypt. Not -all of these are completed, some being only half worked, as though the -engraver had become dissatisfied with his design, or had found a flaw in -the material, or that they had been lost from boats or ships. It has -been conjectured that these half-completed gems were the work of -household jewellers employed in the palaces of Alexandria.[571] In -Mas’ûdi’s “Meadows of Gold” we read that in his time, in the tenth -century A.D., there was what he terms “a fishery for precious stones” on -the sea-coast near Alexandria, Egypt. To account for this he relates two -bits of legend. One of them represents these fragments of precious -stones as having originally adorned the richly decorated vases and -vessels of Alexander the Great, which were broken up and cast into the -sea by Alexander’s mother after his death. The other tale was to the -effect that Alexander himself had gathered together a mass of jewels and -ordered them to be thrown into the sea near the Pharos, so that its -neighborhood should never be deserted; for, Mas’ûdi remarks, wherever -precious stones are to be found, whether in mines or in the depths of -the sea, men are sure to assemble to seek for them.[572] - -The prophet Isaiah in his third chapter, where he scores the wantonness -and vanity of the Daughters of Zion (vs. 16–26), enumerates in detail -the various adornments of a Hebrew _mondaine_ toward the end of the -eighth century before Christ. Among the jewels and trinkets, amulets -(_lehâshîm_; v. 20) are expressly mentioned, and also “crescents,” these -being probably of gold. While it is not possible to determine the -material of the amulets, the fact that they are named together with rich -ornaments of various kinds, rings, nose-jewels, bracelets, anklets, -etc., indicates that they were of precious material, and were possibly -engraved precious stones or seals of some sort.[573] In the Song of -Songs, which can scarcely be assigned to a later date than Isaiah, and -may have been written earlier, the seal is named in what is perhaps the -most beautiful passage of this unique poem, Chapter VII, verse 6: - - Set me as a seal upon thine heart; - as a seal upon thine arm. - For love is strong as death; - passion is unyielding as Hades, - The flashes thereof are flashes of fire; - an all-consuming flame. - -The golden “crescents” were used as amulets by the Midianites for -suspension on the necks of their camels, at the period of the Hebrew -conquest of Canaan, as appears from the eighth chapter of Judges (v. -21). - -The burying in a grave of valuable gems and ornaments worn by the -deceased during life must have been originally due to a belief that they -served as talismans to guard the remains from the malign influence of -evil spirits, or perhaps even to afford protection and aid, by some -strange occult power, to the soul of the departed in the under or upper -world whither it had journeyed. In the New World, among the more highly -civilized and wealthy Indian tribes of the south, this custom was very -general, and rich spoils have been taken from their graves by the -unsentimental settlers from Europe. In the Old World also this usage was -quite common; Egyptian tombs have afforded jewels of gold and gems worth -large sums intrinsically, apart from their archæological value, and only -to note one among many instances, we may recall the treasures unearthed -by the indefatigable Schliemann in the old Greek tombs of Mycenæ. -However, of all these finds none surpasses in interest that made by M. -Henry de Morgan near Susa on February 10, 1901, when there was brought -to light, from a depth of some six metres below the surface, a bronze -sarcophagus containing the skeleton of a woman. Heaped upon the breast -of the skeleton and strewn about the head and neck was a mass of -finely-wrought and artistic gems and jewels, including several detached -amulets. From coins found in the burial and also from the general -character of these relics, M. de Morgan believes that the interment must -have been made at some date between 350 and 330 B.C., just before -Alexander’s invasion of Persia.[574] - -The jewels embrace a beautiful gold torque weighing 385 grams (something -over one pound Troy). The hoop terminates in two lions’ heads having -cheeks of turquoise, while on the muzzle is a lapis lazuli flanked by -two turquoises; on the top of the head is a plate of mother-of-pearl. -Bracelets similar in design and decoration to the torque go to complete -the parure. Of even greater interest than the gold torque was a -three-row pearl necklace, 238 of the pearls being still more or less -well preserved; originally there must have been from 400 to 500 of them. -Still another valuable necklace consists of 400 beads of precious or -ornamental stone material and 400 gold beads. The stones represented are -turquoise, lapis lazuli, emerald, agate, various jaspers, red and blond -carnelian, feldspar, jade (?), hyaline and milky quartz, amethyst of a -pale violet hue, hematite, several marbles and breccia. A fourth -necklace had a row of beads and pendants incrusted with carnelian, lapis -lazuli and turquoise; here the sharp contrast of the bright red -carnelian disturbs the harmonious effect produced by the combination of -the dark blue lapis lazuli and the light blue turquoise. - -The detached amulets are of various forms, one figuring a sphinx with a -ram’s head; this was in white paste with green enamel. Another, of gold, -was rudely fashioned in the form of a lion or a cat, and there was also -a dove of lapis lazuli, poorly executed, the amulets (mainly of Egyptian -type) being of very inferior workmanship as compared with the jewels. -Still they serve to confirm the belief that this heaping up in the tomb -of all the dearest treasures cherished in life, was intended to exert a -post-mortem influence upon the after-life of the dead woman. - -That some of the Hebrew patriots who fought under the banner of Judas -Maccabæus toward the middle of the second century B.C. were tinged with -the prevailing superstition regarding amulets, appears in a passage of -the second book of Maccabees, where it is stated that when Judas -collected together for burial the bodies of those patriots who had -fallen in battle before Odolla, they were found to have worn beneath -their tunics certain idolatrous amulets, a custom strictly forbidden to -the Jews. Their death was then looked upon as a signal instance of -divine justice, which “had made hidden things manifest,” and Judas -exhorted the people to take this lesson to heart and guard themselves -from sin. - -The wealth of books on magic and divination produced in the ancient city -of Ephesus, in Asia Minor, was so great that the designation “Ephesian -writings” was quite generally given to writings of this kind, more -especially to denote short texts that could be worn as amulets or -charms. We read in the Acts of the Apostles (xix, 19) that after hearing -the fervent discourses of St. Paul, in which he eloquently attacked the -superstitions of the Ephesians, many of those who owned books of this -description were so deeply moved that they burned up all such books in -their possession, to the value of 50,000 pieces of silver, that is to -say $9000, equivalent perhaps to $90,000, if we make due allowance for -the greater purchasing power of money nearly two thousand years ago. The -small literary value of the writings of this sort that have been -preserved for us indicates that the loss to posterity by this auto-da-fé -was not very considerable, and yet many queer superstitions and strange -usages of which we now lack information must have been noted in these -magic rolls and sheets. - -The following lines may serve to show how highly the jasper was esteemed -in ancient times, this designation covering jade as well:[575] - - Auro, quid melius? Jaspis. Quid Jaspite? Virtus. Quid virtute? Deus. - Quid deitate? Nihil. - - What is better than Gold? Jasper. - - What is better than Jasper? Virtue. - - What is better than Virtue? GOD. - - What is better than the deity? Nothing. - -The first mention of the famous charm Abracadabra, which so often -appears engraved on Gnostic gems, occurs in a Latin medical poem written -by Serenus Sammonicus who lived in the third century and is said to have -bequeathed his library consisting of sixty-two thousand volumes to the -Emperor Gordian the Younger. The poem recommends this mystic word, or -name, as a sovereign remedy for the “demitertian” fever, if it were -written on a piece of paper and suspended by a linen thread from the -neck of the patient. To have its full efficacy the word should be -written as many times as there are letters in it, but taking away one -letter each time, so that the inscription assumed the form of an -inverted cone.[576] - -It is interesting to note that De Foe, writing in the seventeenth -century of the Great Plague in London (1665), alludes to this strange -talisman as still in use.[577] Treating of the curious prophylactics -employed at that time, he reproaches those who employed such methods, -and acted “as if the plague was not the hand of God, but a kind of -possession of an evil spirit, and that it was to be kept off with -crossings, signs of the zodiac, papers tied up with so many knots, and -certain words or figures, as particularly the word Abracadabra formed in -triangle or pyramid, thus: - - A B R A C A D A B R A - A B R A C A D A B R - A B R A C A D A B - A B R A C A D A - A B R A C A D - A B R A C A - A B R A C - A B R A - A B R - A B - A” - -A curious charm which was extensively used as an amulet in medieval -times consists of five Latin words so arranged that they can be read -backwards or forwards and also upwards or downwards. The disposition of -the letters is as follows: - - s a t o r - a r e p o - t e n e t - o p e r a - r o t a s - -This charm has been preserved for us in Greek and Coptic as well as in -Roman characters, and examples of it have been found cut in a marble -slab above the chapel of St. Laurent at Rochemaur (Ardèche), France, and -also in the plaster wall of an old Roman house at Cirncester, -Gloucestershire, England. In a Greek manuscript in the Bibliothèque -Nationale, in Paris,[578] the Latin words are transliterated and -translated as follows: - - σάτορ, the sower - ἀρεπο, the plough - τένετ, holds - ὀπερα, works - ρότας, wheels - -Another and more ingenious explanation of this puzzle has, however, been -given.[579] Beginning with the last word “rotas,” and taking the other -words in their order, it is proposed to read as follows: “The -plough-wheels (rotas), the laborer (opera), holds (tenet), creep after -him (arepo), I, the sower (sator).” The chief defect in this version -appears to be the assumption that “opera” can be rendered “laborer,” an -interpretation which is, at best, supported by a doubtful use of the -word in that sense by Horace. This charm appears in an Italian -manuscript of the fourteenth century,[580] where it is recommended to be -used for the assurance of a speedy delivery. - -Touching the wonderful and mystic power attributed to the seven vowels -of the Greek alphabet by the Gnostics, C. W. King cites the following -words from the Pistis Sophia of Valentinus:[581] - - Nothing therefore is more excellent than the mysteries which ye seek - after, saving only the mystery of the Seven Vowels and their forty and - nine Powers, and the Numbers thereof. And no name is more excellent - than all these [Vowels], a Name wherein be contained all Names and all - Lights and all Powers. - -The last sentence probably refers to the arrangement of these vowels -often met with in inscribed Gnostic talismans, the so-called Abraxas -gems. Here we often find them in the following order Ι Ε Η Θ Ο Υ Α, and -the sound of these vowels really suggests the conventional pronunciation -of the Hebrew name Jehovah (yehowah). The words quoted from the Pistis -Sophia are placed in the mouth of Jesus, and King calls attention to the -fact that in Greek the same word is used for voice and vowel (φώνη). He -therefore believes that the passage in Revelations (x, 3–4): “The seven -thunders uttered their voices,” signifies that the sound of the seven -vowels “echoed through the vault of heaven, and composed that mystic -utterance which the sainted seer was forbidden to reveal unto mortals.” - -[Illustration: - - A MEDIEVAL SPELL - - From a XIV century Italian MS. in the author’s library. The efficacy - of the spell is to be insured by reciting the accompanying - invocation thrice. -] - -Certain talismans were supposed to afford protection not only to -individuals but even to entire cities. Of this class were two talismans -described by Gregory of Tours. He relates that Paris had enjoyed from -ancient times a surprising immunity from serpents and rats, as well as -from fires. However, in clearing out the channel beneath a bridge across -the Seine, the workmen found, embedded in the mud, two brazen images, -one of a serpent and the other of a rat; after these had been removed -from their resting place, serpents and rats appeared, and conflagrations -became common.[582] - -Of the many memorials of the Age of Charlemagne preserved in the -Cathedral Treasury at Aachen, that popularly known as the Talisman of -Charlemagne always exerted a peculiar fascination over the minds of -those visiting the shrine, both because of its sacred character and on -account of the mystic power ascribed to it. - -The “Talisman” is composed of two large sapphires, cut _en cabochon_, -one being of oval form and the other square, these constituting -respectively the front and back of the relic; enclosed between them is a -cross made from wood of the Holy Cross said to have been found in -Palestine by St. Helena, mother of Constantine the Great. This is only -visible when looking through the oval sapphire set in front of the -medallion. The two sapphires are joined and framed by a band studded -with precious stones, and various other gems are set above and below -them. The oval sapphire is of a pale blue, and is furnished with a gold -openwork bordering. At the top of the medallion, in a square space is -set a lozenge-shaped garnet, and around the oval sapphire forming the -front are placed successively, (1) an emerald, (2) a pearl, (3) a -garnet, (4) a pearl, (5) an emerald, (6) a pearl, (7) a garnet, (8) a -pearl, (9) an emerald, (10) a pearl, (11) a garnet, (12) a pearl, (13) -an emerald, (14) a pearl, (15) a garnet, (16) a pearl. - -The square sapphire at the back of the medallion is of poor quality and -imperfect color; about it are sixteen settings, containing respectively, -(1) (lacking), (2) a pearl, (3) a garnet, (4) a pearl, (5) an emerald, -(6) a pearl, (7) a garnet, (8) a pearl, (9) an emerald, (10) a pearl, -(11) a garnet, (12) a pearl, (13) an emerald, (14) a pearl, (15) a -garnet, (16) a pearl. - -On the band are set the following stones: (1) a pearl, (2) a sapphire, -(3) a pearl, (4) an amethyst, (5) a pearl, (6) a sapphire, (7) a pearl, -(8) an amethyst, (9) a pearl, (10) an almost white sapphire, (11) a -pearl, (12) an amethyst, (13) a pearl, (14) a white sapphire. - -In the summer of 1804, Empress Josephine went to Aix-la-Chapelle -(Aachen) to take the waters there, and during her stay, on August 1, she -visited the tomb of Charlemagne in the Cathedral. We are told that -Napoleon, who joined Josephine at Aix-le-Chapelle on September 3, had -already _authorized_ the Cathedral chapter to part with certain of the -relics and bestow them upon Josephine at the time of her visit to the -tomb. This authorization, of course, was only a polite equivalent for a -command, and was duly carried out, the most prized object secured by -Josephine being precisely this famed talisman. It eventually came into -the hands of Hortense, Josephine’s daughter, the mother of Napoleon III, -and was inherited by him. It is said to be now in a private collection -in Paris.[583] Empress Eugénie is stated to have worn it at the time of -the birth of the Prince Imperial, and to have further shown her belief -in the mystic, or magic, virtues of the talisman by sending it several -years later to Biarritz, that it might be kept for a time in the -sick-room of M. Bacciochi, when he was prostrated by illness in that -city.[584] - -An Anglo-Saxon treatise on the medical art, from the beginning of the -tenth century, the original manuscript of which was owned by an -Anglo-Saxon leech named Bald, as testified to by an entry on the -title-leaf, gives the agate a prominent place as a talismanic and -curative agent. More especially is its power over the demon-world -emphasized. Indeed it is asserted to serve as a sort of diagnostic of -demoniacal possession, the words being: “The man who hath in him -secretly the loathly fiend, if he taketh in liquid any portion of the -shavings of this stone, then soon is exhibited manifestly in him that -which before secretly lay hid.” Less unfamiliar to those acquainted with -the early literature on the subject are the statements that the wearers -of agates were guarded against danger from lightning, and from venom. -The liquid “extract of agate,” taken internally, also produced smooth -skin and rendered the partaker immune from the bites of snakes.[585] - -An extremely strange type of amulets found occasionally in Gallic -sepulchres are disks made from human skulls. It appears to be a -well-ascertained fact that the operation of trephining was performed at -this early date, almost if not quite exclusively in the case of infants, -and it is believed principally for the cure of epilepsy. If the child -survived the operation its skull was thought to have acquired a certain -magic power. This idea had its rise in the belief that epilepsy was the -result of an indwelling evil spirit, so that if the disease disappeared -as a result or sequence of the operation, this evil spirit was believed -to have made his way out through the aperture. On the eventual death of -one whose skull had been successfully trephined, disks were sometimes -cut just on the edge of the opening through which the possessing spirit -had slipped out, leaving as a trace of his passage some of his diabolic -but still potent virtue.[586] That the superstition regarding these -cranial disks lasted well into the sixteenth century, even among some of -the educated, is proven by the fact that on a bracelet which belonged to -and was worn by Catherine de’ Medici, one of the talismans was a piece -of a human skull. - -Attention was first called to the strange amulets taken from the human -skull by the operation of trephining, by M. Prunetière, at a meeting of -the French Association for the Advancement of Science, held in Lyons in -1873.[587] The specimen he then exhibited came from a sepulture in the -department of Lozère. This particular example showed a break on the -edge, and M. Paul Broca has conjectured that a small piece may have been -chipped off, so that it might be pulverized and administered as a powder -to persons suffering from disease of the brain, a treatment favored by -those who doubted the generally-believed supernatural origin of -epilepsy, and suspected its source in some lesion of the brain or of the -meninges. For this, of course, no more efficient remedy could suggest -itself, according to the old sympathetic theory of medicines, than a -powder made from the skull of one who had been an epileptic. These -skull-amulets have been unearthed in neolithic burials in various parts -of France, a considerable number having been found by M. de Baye and -others in the department of Marne; a specimen was also found in an -Algerian sepulture by General Faidherbe. - -The great Greek physician Hippocrates of Cos, a contemporary of Plato, -advised that resort should be had to the operation of trephining in many -cases of injury to the head, and that the ancient Hindus were to a -certain extent familiar with it as a method of treating diseases of the -brain appears in one of the Buddhist recitals from a Tibetan source. -Here it is related that Atreya, master of the King of Physicians, -Jîvaka, when appealed to for help by a man suffering from a distressful -cerebral disorder, directed the man to dig a pit and fill it up with -dung; he then thrust the man into this soft and savory mass until -nothing but his head and neck protruded, and opened his skull. From it -was drawn out a reptile whose presence had caused the malady. Jîvaka -seems to have been in consultation with his master in this interesting -operation, and is said to have later extracted a centipede from a man’s -skull after making an aperture therein with a golden knife.[588] In -neither of these cases, however, do we have any hint that disks or -fragments from the human skull were used as amulets. - -A ghastly object much favored in France in the Middle Ages, as it was -believed to give the owner the power to discover hidden treasures, was -the so-called _main-de-gloire_, or “hand of glory,” which was the -desiccated hand of one who had met his death by hanging.[589] - -A remarkable talismanic bracelet owned by Catherine de’ Medici was set -with a skull-fragment and with a representation of a “_main-de-gloire_.” -This is described in the catalogue made in 1786 of M. d’Ennery’s -collection. The settings of the bracelet, ten in number, comprised the -following objects, to each of which was probably ascribed some special -significance and virtue.[590] - -An oval “eagle-stone” (ætites), on which was graven in intaglio a winged -dragon; above this figure was the date 1559, the year in which the -bracelet was composed and that of the death of Catherine’s husband, -Henri II. - -An octagonal agate, traversed by a number of tubular apertures, the -orifices of which could be seen on either side of the stone. - -A very fine oval onyx of three colors, bearing graven on its edge the -following names of angels: Gabriel, Raphael, Michael, Uriel. - -A large oval turquoise with a gold band. - -A piece of black and white marble. - -An oval brown agate, with a caduceus, a star and a crescent engraved in -intaglio on one of its faces, and on its edge the name Jehovah and -certain talismanic characters; on the other face were figured the -constellation Serpens, the zodiacal sign Scorpio and the Sun, around -which were the six planets. - -An oblong section of a human skull. - -A rounded piece of gold on the convex side of which was graven in relief -the “hand of glory” (_main-de-gloire_); on the concave side appeared the -Sun and Moon done in repoussé work. - -A perfectly round onyx, bearing graven in the centre the name or word -“Publeni”; this possibly designated the original Roman owner of the -stone. - -In the opinion of a German writer of the eleventh or twelfth century, -the amethyst, if worn by a man, attracted to him the love of noble -women, and also protected him from the attacks of thieves.[591] This -stone was always prized because of its beautiful color, even though it -was never so rare or costly as some others. Some authorities assert that -the amethyst induces sleep.[592] Perhaps this was one of the means by -which the stone cured inebriety, as it enabled its votaries to sleep off -the effects of their potations. - -As testimony of the belief in the efficiency, remedial or talismanic, of -precious stones prevalent at the opening of the fifteenth century, may -be noted the presence among the manuscript books of Marguerite de -Flandres, Duchesse de Bourgogne, of a work listed as follows: “The book -of the properties of certain stones.” It was carefully enclosed in a -crimson velvet covering.[593] Incidentally it is a rather interesting -fact that at this early date, 1405, we find in Duchess Margaret’s little -library two Bibles in French and a separate copy of the Gospels also in -that language. This serves to disprove the popular idea that -translations of the Bible into the vernacular were in distinct disfavor -with Roman Catholics before the era of the Reformation. Of course until -the invention and use of the art of printing there could be no wide -diffusion of such translations. - -The jacinth is described by Thomas de Cantimpré as being a stone of a -yellow color. “It is very hard and difficult to cleave, or cut; it can, -however, be worked with diamond dust. It is very cold, especially when -held in the mouth.” Among many other virtues, it protects from -melancholia and poison, and makes the wearer beloved of God and men. It -also acts as a sort of barometer, since it grows dark and dull in bad -weather and becomes clear and bright in fine weather.[594] Cardano says -that when the weather was fine the stone became obscure and dull, but -when a tempest was impending, it assumed the ruddy hue of a burning -coal. It also lost its color when in contact with any one suffering from -disease, more especially from the plague.[595] - -As a result of his study of precious stones, Cardano was induced to -affirm that they had life, but he gravely states that he had never noted -that they possessed sex (a common belief in his day), although “as -nature delights as much in miracle as we do, some may be so constituted -that they are almost distinguished by sex.”[596] - -The beautiful sapphire has always been a great favorite with lovers of -precious stones and to it has been attributed a chastening, purifying -influence upon the soul. Even Burton, in his Anatomy of Melancholy, -wherein precious stones are rarely mentioned, takes occasion to write as -follows of the sapphire: “It is the fairest of all precious stones of -sky colour, and a great enemy to black choler, frees the mind, mends -manners.”[597] - -[Illustration: - - FROM A PORTRAIT OF QUEEN ELIZABETH - - In the possession of the Duke of Devonshire, K. G., Hardwick Hall. The - queen has jewels in her hair, a pearl eardrop, and two necklaces, - one fitting close to the neck, the other falling over the breast. - The stiff brocade skirt is embroidered with a wonderful array of - aquatic birds and animals. On the left, the cushion of the chair of - state is embroidered with the queen’s monogram. Surmounting the - chair is a crystal ball. The original canvas measures 90 × 66 - inches. -] - -The poets have sung the praises of the turquoise. In Shakespeare’s -Merchant of Venice, when the “amorous Jessica” made off with her -father’s jewels, Shylock particularly bewails the disappearance of his -turquoise, crying out that he would not have lost it for “a wilderness -of monkeys.” The poet Donne, also, writes of this stone and draws -attention to its sympathetic quality in these words: - - As a compassionate turquoise that doth tell, - By looking pale, the wearer is not well. - -That Queen Elizabeth clung fondly to life is well known, and it is said -that she trusted much in the virtues of a talisman which she wore round -her neck. This was a piece of gold engraved with certain mystic -characters. The statement has also been made that at the bottom of a -chair in which she often sat, was the queen of hearts from a pack of -cards, having a nail driven through the forehead of the figure.[598] -Could this have been a spell of witchcraft used against her hated rival, -Mary of Scotland? - -The belief that turquoise changes its hue with the changing health of -the wearer leads an early seventeenth century author to offer it as a -symbol of wifely devotion, saying that “a true wife should be like a -turquoise stone, clear in heart in her husband’s health, and cloudy in -his sickness.” Although a more prosaic explanation than that of occult -sympathy has been proposed for this asserted change of hue, we need not -therefore reject the more poetic fancy.[599] - -Among the believers in the virtue of amulets must be counted the French -religious philosopher, Pascal. After his death in 1662 there was found, -sewed up in his pourpoint, a piece of paper bearing a long and very -strange inscription. At the top was a cross with rays, a similar cross -being drawn at the bottom of the text. This began with the following -words: - - Monday, November 23, the day of St. Clement, pope and martyr, and of - others in the martyrology. - - The Eve of St. Chrysogone, martyr, and of others. From about half-past - ten in the evening until about a half-hour after midnight, - - FIRE - -Then follow a series of ejaculations and short religious sentences, and -toward the end, after the name of Christ, thrice repeated, the words: - - I have separated myself from Him, I have fled from Him, denied Him. - -and finally the prayer that this separation might henceforth cease. The -original text is said to be in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris with -the MS. of the “Pensées.” - -Pascal is stated to have always kept this amulet on his person, removing -it carefully from the lining of an old garment and putting in a new one, -when this was assumed. The strange introduction referred to a vision of -fire which he had had on the night in question, and this has been -explained as resulting from a severe nervous shock he had experienced -six months before, when driving along the banks of the Seine. As the -vehicle neared Neuilly the horses took fright and ran away, dashing -toward the edge of the bank; just on the brink the reins broke and the -horses plunged down into the river, leaving the carriage in which Pascal -was sitting on the edge of the precipice. This shock impressed him so -vividly that he would often see the precipice before him as distinctly -as though it were a reality. In any case the matter is of interest as -showing that one of the most gifted men of the seventeenth century was a -believer in amulets.[600] - -The giving of corals to new-born infants was expressly forbidden in 1708 -in the bishopric of Bamberg, because of the superstition connected -therewith, although Christian painters of the fourteenth century often -represented the child Jesus as holding corals in his hand. The -persistence of the superstition as to the Evil Eye and the belief that -coral safeguarded the wearer therefrom, have impressed many cultured -Italians of our day, and even so able and clear-headed a statesman as -prime minister Crispi is said never to have gone to a parliamentary -sitting without having with him a coral amulet.[601] - -Some characteristic Hindu amulets figure the god Jagannath (Lord of the -World), or associated divinities, and also symbols related to the -worship of this form of Krishna.[602] In the month Joyestha (May-June) -his world-renowned temple at Puri in Orissa is thronged with pilgrims -from all parts of India, and on the great festival day his image and -those of his brother Balarana and of his sister Subhadra are taken out -of the sanctuary and placed in an elaborately decorated car, which is -drawn through the streets of the city. The readiness of fanatical -believers to sacrifice their lives by casting themselves beneath the -wheels of this ponderous car, has made the expression “Car of Jagannath” -almost a household word, freely used by those who know little or nothing -about Hindu religion. The English Government has long since put a stop -to these reckless and useless martyrdoms. - -Many of these amulets are made of a black steatite. One represents -Krishna (Jagannath) standing and playing on a flute, another figures -this avatar of Vishnu with his wife Radha. A curious series presents -Jagannath, Balarana and Subhadra; the unnaturally large heads of the -figures and the truncated crowns and legs are explained by the fact that -the group was carved from the trisala of a tope of a Buddhist temple -erected at Puri in the third century B.C., the Hindus of a later time -having utilized this relic of a former faith for gods of their ethnic -religion. There are also a number of stamps, incised with emblematic -figures such as a shell, a _sankha_ wheel, a serpent, two footprints, -etc., so that the corresponding seal may be impressed in colored clay -upon the arms of the faithful in the sanctuary of Jagannath. Many of the -amulets bearing the double footprint, emblematic of Vishnu -(Krishna-Jagannath), are arranged in groups of five, all being -perforated so that a group can be suspended on the person. - -The footprints are explained by a curious legend to the effect that when -a dispute as to superiority arose between the gods of the Trimurti, -Brahma, Siva and Vishnu, the selection of a test to decide this was left -to Bhrigu, one of the ten patriarchs. He approached Brahma without -saluting him; this infuriated the god, but he restrained himself. -Approaching Siva in turn, Bhrigu failed to return the god’s salutation, -which so enraged him that he raised his trident to slay the insulter, -and was only prevented from doing this by the timely intervention of the -goddess Parvati. Nothing daunted Bhrigu pursued his test, and, finding -Vishnu reposing with his head in Lakshmi’s lap, he kicked the divinity -to arouse him. Vishnu, however, instead of losing his temper, quietly -arose; saluted the rash patriarch, and even thanked him for the -reminder, and craved his pardon that he had not immediately greeted him, -asserting that the kick (which must have been most vigorously -administered if it left _two_ footprints) had left on his breast a mark -of good augury. - -[Illustration: - - COMPLETE VIEW OF THE ANCIENT JADE GIRDLE-PENDANT (FROM, KU YÜ T’U P’U) - - From “Jade,” by Berthold Laufer. - - By courtesy of the author and Field Museum of Natural History, - Chicago. -] - -A fine presentation of the style of jewels worn by the Mahârânî of -Sikkim, a full-blooded Tibetan by birth, is offered by a portrait of -this queen done in oil by Damodar Dutt, a Bengali artist, in 1908, while -the Mahârânî was sharing the captivity of her husband at Darjeeling, -where they had been sequestrated by the British authorities for many -years. The elaborate and rather oppressive headdress is a typical -adornment of the queens of Sikkim; the broad bandeaux are composed of -pearls, and a brilliant color effect is produced by the rows of -alternating corals and turquoises. The gold ear-rings have a -turquoise-inlay, in concentric rings, and from the queen’s neck hangs a -long necklace of coral beads, separated at intervals by large spheres of -amber; a coral bracelet and two rings, with coral and turquoise setting -respectively, complete the very effective, if not especially costly, -jewelry.[603] - -Jade girdle pendants having a talismanic quality were in great favor -during the period of the Chou dynasty (1122–249 B.C.). The typical -girdle pendant of that time was a seven-jewelled one, each of the -combined ornaments being made of some one of the choice varieties of -jade. These adornments consisted of a top-piece or brooch, whence -depended a circular central plaque (yü), flanked by two square ornaments -(kü); below followed a centre-ornament of segment form, on either side -of which was a bow-shaped jewel. The girdle ornaments were rich in -symbolic significance, the rhythmic swinging of the jades caused a -musical note whenever they came in contact with one another, or with any -metallic object; as love-trinkets they had the most fortunate meaning; -as indications of office they gained consideration and respect for the -wearers of high rank, while for those of less distinction they were so -differentiated as to become marks of the respective craft or -vocation.[604] - -In Siam the girls’ heads are shaved, with the exception of the top of -the head, where a knot of hair is allowed to grow. On the fourteenth -anniversary of the girl’s birthday this “top-knot” is cut off, the -operation being accompanied by a solemn religious ceremony, to mark -and consecrate the event, which denotes the passing of the girl into -womanhood. On this occasion, the members of the family gather together -all the jewels they can secure for the adornment of the “new woman,” -and where they are not wealthy enough to provide brilliant and rich -ornaments from their own possessions kind friends will always be found -ready to supply the deficiency. In the case of the Siamese girl -figured in our plate, and of a girl companion, the Queen of Siam -herself acted as fairy godmother to the extent of furnishing from her -own private treasures a costly and suitable decoration. The gems and -ornaments worn were worth $20,000 and are said to have filled a small -steamer-trunk.[605] - -In a favorite form of white jade amulet, the stone is cut flat and is -then inlaid with rubies in gold settings, so disposed as to indicate a -flower-form. Jade amulets of this type are found in China and in various -parts of northern Asia, and are believed to guard or free the wearer -from palpitation of the heart.[606] - -[Illustration: - - TIBETAN WOMAN WITH COMPLETE JEWELRY - - From “Notes on Turquois in the East,” by Berthold Laufer. - - By courtesy of the author and Field Museum of Natural History, - Chicago. -] - -Flowers fashioned from precious stones make most attractive ornaments, -and by their variety of coloring can be worn with almost any costume. A -celebrated beauty of London society has a number of pansies of different -colors, one made of rubies, another of sapphires, still another of -emeralds, and so on through the range of colors. In this way she always -had a pansy according in color with that of her gown. As bridal gifts -these jewel-flowers are most appropriate, more especially when the -lady-love bears a “floral name” such as Violet or Rose. - -Coral ornaments of all sorts are in great demand in Tibet, and a fine -piece of this material will bring about $20 an ounce, and is therefore -literally worth its weight in gold. The Venetian traveller, Marco Polo, -who visited Tibet in the latter half of the thirteenth century, already -noted that coral was in high favor there and that coral necklaces -adorned the necks of the women and also those of the idols in their -temples. The love of personal adornment is very strong among the Tibetan -women, and those in any way well-to-do load themselves with a mass of -jewelled ornaments, great pieces of amber, coral and turquoise -constituting the principal gem-material. The favor extended to coral, -apart from the religious significance of red as symbolical of one of the -incarnations of Buddha, may perhaps have an esthetic basis as well, for -red or pink affords a pleasant contrast to the dark complexions and hair -of the Tibetans.[607] - -Much more prized, however, than coral is the beautiful blue turquoise, -which not only serves for purely ornamental use but is freely employed -in the decoration of religious objects, such as the curious “prayer -wheels” so indispensable a part of Tibetan ritual. - -The talismanic quality of this stone is an important element in its -popularity, as it is supposed to bring good fortune and physical -well-being to the wearer and to afford protection against contagion. The -Tibetans share in the quite general belief that the turquoise will grow -pale in sympathy with the present or prospective fortune and health of -the person wearing it, and as a loss of color is considered portentous -of coming evil, such stones are gotten rid of as soon as possible to be -replaced by those of a brighter hue. The dealers who buy up for a -trifling sum these discolored turquoises often treat them with a dose of -blue dyestuff which superficially restores the color, and it is stated -that many of the soldiers of the British expeditionary force to Tibet in -1904 were at first deceived into buying these vamped-up stones, but they -soon discovered the deception and were more careful later on. Turquoises -are also believed to guard against the Evil Eye, and a quasi-sacred -character is lent to some especially fine specimens by setting them in -the foreheads of statues of the Buddha or other religious images.[608] - -The women of Tibet are said to prize most highly as amulets pieces of -cloth adorned with turquoise or coral, which they have acquired from the -Lamas, who by the imposition of their priestly blessing have endowed -these objects with a peculiar sanctity in the eyes of the Tibetan -devotees. Another amulet favored in this far-off land is a small metal -box of gold, silver, or copper, and encrusted with turquoise. Within are -enclosed little scrolls inscribed with mystic characters to conjure evil -spirits and thwart their malevolent schemes for the tribulation of -mankind. - -An ingenious, if rather far-fetched explanation of the supposed power of -coral to avert lightning and hail is given by Fortunio Liceti. In his -opinion, coral, being of a warm quality, overcomes the coldness of the -atmosphere, which produces lightning by the attraction of contraries, -and hail by its own quality. This is a specimen of the attempts to find -a plausible physiological reason for the powers of gems, the writers -never for a moment hesitating to accept the popular beliefs in this -respect.[609] - -[Illustration: - - “THE LIGHT OF THE EAST” - - Mural fresco painting by Albert Herter, in the Hotel St. Francis, San - Francisco, California. The crystal ball upheld by the female figure - is more highly esteemed in Japan than any other jewel. Note the fine - contrast afforded by the black armor of the Japanese warrior to the - white arm and pure crystal sphere. - - By Courtesy of the Artist and Hotel St. Francis, San Francisco. -] - -Among the Bhots of Landakh in the western part of Tibet, a large piece -of amber or agate is often worn by the men suspended from the neck as an -amulet. Here as in so many other parts of the world, the amulet is -believed to acquire especial efficacy when worn in this way, as it comes -in immediate contact with the person of the wearer.[610] - -A very singular manner of using precious stones as talismans is noted in -Burma.[611] There are certain talismans called _hkoung-beht-set_, which -are inserted in the flesh beneath the skin. They are usually of gold, -silver, or lead, or else of tortoise-shell, horn, etc., but sometimes -they are rolled pebbles and occasionally precious stones. We are told -that when a prisoner is found to have such talismans on, or rather in -his person, the jailer cuts them out lest they should be used to bribe -the guards. The talismans owe much of their supposed power to -inscriptions in mystic characters, and they are so highly favored that -some of the natives wear one or more rows of them across the chest. - -For the Japanese, rock-crystal is the “perfect jewel,” _tama_; it is at -once a symbol of purity and of the infinity of space, and also of -patience and perseverance. This latter significance probably originated -from an observation of the patience and skill required for the -production of the splendid crystal balls made by the accurate and -painstaking Japanese cutters and polishers. - -The belief of Mohammedans in the Evil Eye claims the authority of the -Prophet to the effect that “the áïn (eye) is a reality.” The Arabs also -designate the Evil Eye as _nuzra_, “the look,” and _nafs_, “breath or -spirit.” It is not commonly regarded as the result of a definite -malevolent intention, but rather as an effect engendered by envy at the -sight of anything especially beautiful or attractive. Indeed, sometimes -the bare expression of great admiration is supposed to produce evil -results, as is illustrated by the assertion that when a man, on seeing -an exceptionally large and fine stone, exclaimed, “What a large stone!” -it immediately broke into three pieces. - -In the Sahara, the horns of oxen, and sometimes their skulls with the -horns attached, are set over the entrances of dwellings to protect the -residents from this dreaded influence; in Tunis and Algiers, boars’ -tusks are also used in this way. However, the most favored weapons of -defence are the outstretched fingers of the hand, sometimes but two -fingers, but more often all five. The gesture of holding out the fingers -toward the envious person is frequently accompanied by the utterance of -the words: _Khamsa fi ȧïnek_, “five (fingers) in your eye!” The number -five has thus acquired such a special significance that Thursday, as the -_fifth_ day of the week, is looked upon as the appropriate day for -pilgrimages to the shrines of those saints whose protection against the -Evil Eye is believed to be most potent.[612] - -The Arabs of Arabia Petraæ believe that when anyone casts longing and -covetous eyes upon any animal belonging to another, part of his soul -enters the animal and the latter is doomed to destruction if it remains -in the possession of the rightful owner. The same idea prevails in the -case of a child whose possession is envied, or who is unduly admired. -Where the identity of the one who has cast the spell is known, there is -a fair chance of rendering it harmless if a piece of the guilty one’s -garment can be stolen and the animal or child rubbed with it. The virtue -of coral as a protection from such dangers is generally believed, and -almost every woman, child, mare and camel, wears or bears a coral amulet -of some kind. A special variety of amulets against the Evil Eye, worn by -equestrians, are small, smooth flint-stones, gathered at a spot where -two valleys unite; and, for horses, protection is believed to be -afforded by a ring of blue glass or blue porcelain, suspended from the -neck. Another queer superstition among these Arabs regarding the Evil -Eye is that if a child yawns, this is supposed to be a sign that he has -been smitten by the evil spell, and the mother is advised to place -glowing coals on a plate, strew alum over the coals, and bear the plate -around the child.[613] - -Over the entrance gate of the Alhambra in Granada, Spain, may be seen -the representation of a hand, and this is regarded as having been -figured there to serve for a talisman against the Evil Eye,[614] just as -some of the Arabs are still wont to paint or figure a so-called -“Fatima’s Hand” on doors or door-posts for a similar purpose. The idea -which has been advanced that the “horse-shoe arch” had some connection -with the belief in the luck-bringing quality of the horse-shoe, is, -however, scarcely to be admitted as an explanation of this most -characteristic feature of Moorish architecture. - - - - - IX - Amulets of Primitive Peoples and of Modern Times - - -The folk-lore tales of the settlement called Milpa Alta, in the Federal -District, Mexico, not far from Mexico City, have preserved many legends -from old Aztec times, as this community was originally settled by some -noble Aztec families fortunate enough to escape with their goods from -the Spaniards at the time of the conquest by Cortés. In several of these -legends the chalchihuitl (a green stone, often nephrite or jadeite) is -mentioned. Thus it is said that when some minor divinity sees fit to -confer upon a man or woman the endowments of a _tlamátque_ or “sage,” he -gave warning of this in a dream, and the truth of the vision was -confirmed when, during the ensuing day, the dreamer found on the ground -within his enclosure idols of _chalchihuitl_, or fragments of obsidian, -which were believed to have fallen from the sky, this usually occurring -during a rainstorm. Evidently the rain had washed them out of the earth -or volcanic ash in which they had been buried. These objects were -immediately picked up and preserved, as they signified that the person -whose dream had thus been verified was admitted to the companionship of -the gods. There appears to have followed some initiation ceremony to -render definite the consecration of the chosen _tlamátque_, and this was -to be connected with a fiery ordeal, the traces of which in scars or -severe burns, and sometimes even in the loss of eyesight, served to -recommend the “sage” to those seeking his aid. This was called for in -cases of illness and also for the finding of hidden treasure and for -predictions of the weather. In attempting to effect cures, the -_tlamátque_ made use of pieces of jade as talismans, fortified by -elaborate exorcisms and prayers.[615] - -Among the lower classes of the Mexican Indian population of Milpa Alta, -to cure diseases the aid of a _tepo pohque_ (one who purifies the -disease) is sometimes called in. This once very general custom is, -however, gradually falling into disuse. The progress of popular -scepticism is illustrated by the half-apologetic tone in which this is -explained in the words: “If he does no good, he will do no harm, and -besides he is so cheap.” The healer may be either a man or a woman. One -of the most important helps is a chain of chalchihuitl beads. After -invocations of the various appearances of Christ and of the Virgin -chronicled in local tradition, and of the patron saints (for these -Indians are devout Roman Catholics), the healer chooses out a -chalchihuitl bead with which he pretends to extract the “air” from the -sick person. He successively touches with it the patient’s temples, the -sides and top of the head, the stomach, and lastly the affected part, at -the same time forcibly drawing in his own breath, producing thereby a -peculiar noise. The use of the stone is sometimes supplemented by that -of two eggs, one being held in each of the healer’s hands. A different -type or form of chalchihuitl is used for each different disease, and as -a final operation the affected part is moistened with alcohol, and then -“massaged” with the stone, bathing with a hot decoction of herbs being -also resorted to in some cases.[616] - -A characteristic object secured in the Province of Chiriqui, Republic of -Panama, is a singular amulet of a fine quality of green translucent jade -(jadeite). This is fashioned into a conventional representation of a -parrot with a disproportionately long beak. The details of the bird-form -are but roughly indicated, what is supposed to represent the head and -body being but a trifle larger than the beak. In the region of the neck, -marked by a peripheral incision, there is a hole through which a cord -for suspension was probably passed. The type resembles that of the -Chiriquian gold parrots, and differs from that of the amulets of Las -Guacas, Costa Rica. As a much larger number of jade objects have been -found at this latter place than occur at Chiriqui, it has been -conjectured that the common source was a deposit of jade somewhere in -Costa Rica.[617] Chiriqui has also yielded a plain, highly-polished -amulet of pale green jade; the front is convex and is traversed by a -groove; a small hole has been pierced near the top to facilitate -suspension. - -The South American Indians had a class of stone love-amulets, -representing more or less clearly two embracing figures. It was claimed -by their magicians that these had not been cut or fashioned in any way, -but were so formed by nature, and were endowed with the power of -attracting to the wearer the love of the chosen object of affection. -These special amulets bore in the native language the names of -_huacanqui_ and _cuyancarumi_. They were said to be found buried in the -earth where a thunderbolt had descended, and were thus a particular -class of the so-called “thunder-stones,” and a high price could be -obtained for one, more especially if the owner had to deal with a woman. -A characteristic specimen, presumably from Ecuador, is of black -serpentine.[618] - -The Araucarian Indians of Chili and Argentina, who occupied a region -1000 miles in length, bordering on the Pacific Ocean, according to facts -communicated by the Rev. Charles Sadleir, had their medicine _women_, -instead of medicine-men. These women carried with them a quartz crystal -(as did many of the medicine-men of the Indian tribes) or a rolled -fragment of quartz found in the river beds. They affirmed that this -crystal had been entered by a mighty spirit who dwelt in one of the -great volcanoes which existed in that region (called _pillan_ in the -native tongue). This spirit inspired the medicine-woman with a knowledge -of what she should tell those who came to her for advice or for -forecasts of the future. - -A medicine-woman will never show the crystal, because, as the abode of a -spirit, it must not be seen. While it is to be supposed that the -services of these “doctoresses” are not altogether gratuitous, the -Araucarians as a general rule detest gold, although they willingly -accept silver. This preference for the less valuable metal is due to the -traditions handed down to them from the time the Spaniards persecuted -their ancestors for the gold they owned, or were thought to own. - -These Indians have a peculiar belief in regard to the nature of the -soul, which they regard as a dual being formed of a superior essence, or -spirit, which they call _pullu_, and an inferior essence, or soul, to -which they give the name _am_. - -An agate charm in the shape of a dog’s head was found in the Valley of -Mexico. The material used here was a banded agate with a rich stain in -the centre. The great variety of markings presented by these stones -rendered them especially attractive for use as amulets, since fancy -could easily trace designs and figures of symbolic significance -calculated to secure success or protection. - -Of all quaint ideas in amulet making and naming, none is stranger than -that of employing for this purpose artificial eyes from Peruvian -mummies. Originally eyes of the giant cuttlefish (_loligo gigas_), they -were used by the ancient Peruvians to replace the natural eyes of the -dead because these substitutes were more durable. Of course the rather -grewsome source whence these mummy-eye amulets were secured, bringing -them measurably in touch with a sort of necromancy, made them all the -more sought after by the superstitious natives. An example from a mummy -found at Cuzco, Peru, was exhibited by the writer in the Folk-Lore -Collection at the Columbian Exhibition in Chicago in 1893.[619] - -A strange animal figure from the Pueblo Bonito ruins, rudely carved out -of stone and having a band composed of pieces of turquoise set about the -neck, was undoubtedly an amulet. Two depressions in the stone where the -eyes should be indicate that these were of inlaid turquoise. In spite of -the imperfect form of this object, it gives evidence in some of its -details to the skill of the native artist who executed it, especially in -the care he has taken to protect the soft stone from the attrition of -the cord used for its suspension, a piece of bird-bone having been -introduced into the perforation near the neck, and the ends of the hole -countersunk and filled with gum into which a piece of turquoise was set; -one of these caps still remains in place. Frog forms, entirely of -turquoise, also appear in Pueblo Bonito, several tadpoles and frogs of -this material having been found in the burialroom explored by Mr. -Pepper. Sometimes the form is barely indicated by the protuberant eyes -and a slight incising which marks the place of the neck.[620] - -[Illustration: - - TURQUOISE INCRUSTED OBJECTS, PROBABLY AMULETS, FOUND AT PUEBLO BONITO, - NEW MEXICO - - The work of ancient Indian dwellers in this region. From George H. - Pepper, American Anthropologist, vol. vii, Pl. xvii. 1. Turquoise - incrusted bone. 2. Jet frog with turquoise eyes. 3. Jet plaque with - turquoise setting. -] - -The Pueblo Bonito ruins in New Mexico have furnished some very effective -examples of turquoise inlaying by the Indians of an earlier time who -dwelt in this region. The symbolic forms, the precious material used for -the inlays, and the labor and skill expended in the execution of certain -of these works, indicate that they must have been regarded as amulets. -Perhaps the finest inlaying-work is shown in the turquoise decoration of -a fragment of bone of peculiar shape, having alternate bands of jet with -a chevron-decoration of interlaced triangular pieces of jet and -turquoise. Another of these jet and turquoise amulets is a frog, the -body being of jet and the protruding eyes of turquoise; about the -creature’s neck runs a band of turquoise mosaic. Still another of these -relics is a square plaque of jet with an inlaid turquoise at each of the -four corners; two of these inlays have fallen out.[621] - -The history of the turquoise, a stone which has been mined in Persia for -thousands of years, and has long been prized as one of the most -beautiful and attractive of the semi-precious stones, has been very -fully and ably treated in an exceedingly comprehensive monograph -recently published by Dr. Joseph E. Pogue.[622] This valuable and -interesting work contains extracts from all the older and more modern -writers on the subject, and also describes the stone fully from a -mineralogical point of view, besides discussing it from the historic -standpoints. - -So highly was the turquoise esteemed among the Pima Indians of southern -Arizona, that the loss of one was looked upon as a most ominous event, -portending for the owner a serious illness or physical disability, which -could only be cured by the magic rites of a medicine-man. When one of -those worthies is called in to avert the impending misfortune, his -favorite remedy consists in placing a piece of slate, a turquoise and a -crystal in a vessel filled with water, the liquid being administered in -regular doses to the threatened victim. The threefold remedy, comprising -a specimen of the lost stone, is supposed to outweigh and counteract the -probable evil influences of the lost turquoise alone.[623] - -The magic power that dwelt in these Indian fetishes was named _oyaron_ -in the Iroquoian tongue, and each person or kindred was believed to have -a special _oyaron_ which exerted a controlling power over their good or -evil fortune. The material object in which this entity would take up its -abode was determined in a peculiar way. When a youth had attained -maturity, he was entrusted to the charge of an old man who took him to a -far-away lodge in the wilderness. Here he had his face, shoulders and -breast blackened to symbolize his lack of spiritual or occult -enlightenment. He was then compelled to fast for a considerable time and -was instructed to carefully note his dreams, and if he should have an -exceptionally vivid dream regarding any specific object, to tell his -guardian of it. The fact was then duly reported to the wise men of the -tribe, who decided whether the object was the chosen abiding place of -his _oyaron_. This having been satisfactorily determined, an object of -the kind was sought out and was preserved and treasured by the one to -whom it had been assigned in the vision. Perhaps the familiar spirit -might have elected to dwell in a calumet, a pipe or a knife, or else in -some animal, plant, or mineral form.[624] - -[Illustration: - - INDIAN MEDICINE-MAN - - From “Histoire Générale des Cérémonies Religieuses du tous les Peuples - du Monde,” by Abbé Banier and - Abbé Mascrier, Paris, 1741. -] - -The Midêwiwin, or, as it is sometimes erroneously called, the “Grand -Medicine Society” of the Ojibway Indians, is an association composed of -shamans, whose supposed powers are much in request among these Indians -of the northwest. Two other classes of medicine-men exist among them to -a very limited extent, the Wâbeno, “Men of the Dawn,” and the Jessakid -or “revealers of hidden things.” The members of this latter class, who -operate singly, are regarded as very dangerous and generally malevolent -sorcerers, having the power to call evil spirits to their aid, and are -even believed to practise the fearful art of drawing a man’s soul out of -his body, so that he either becomes insane or dies. The turtle is -regarded by the Jessakids as the abode or symbol of the mightiest -spirit. However, the Midês, members of the Midêwiwin, are far the most -numerous, and it is to them that the Indian looks for help and health. -While they usually “treat” their patients in their own abodes, when the -disease fails to yield to the might of ordinary incantations and spells, -the assistance of the great magic stone in the Medicine Lodge or -Midêwigen must be resorted to. For this purpose the sick person is -carried thither and is laid on the ground constituting the floor of the -lodge, so that the diseased part of his body may touch the stone. In -addition to this magic stone, which is set in the ground near the -entrance, three magic wooden posts rise up, one behind the other, and at -the end opposite the entrance is set a painted wooden cross, the base of -which is cut four-square, each side having a different coloring, namely, -white, for the East, the source of light; green, for the South, the -source of rain which brings the verdure; red, for the West, where the -red glow of the sunset appears and whither the spirits of the departed -wend their way after death, and, lastly, black, for the cold and -pitiless North, the origin of disease, famine and death.[625] - -The various adjuncts of the sorcerer’s trade are carefully preserved by -the Midê or Jessakid in his medicine-bag. A good specimen of this was -made out of the skin of a mink, _Putorius vison_, Gapp., and adorned at -one end with two fluffy white feathers.[626] Often a flat, black, -water-worn pebble will be one of the great treasures in this sack. The -virtues of a stone of this type are said to have been put to a curious -test on the person of a Jessakid at Leech Lake, Minn., in 1858. The man -offered to wager $100 that if he were securely tied up, hand and foot, -with stout rope, but having his stone resting on his thigh, he could -remove the bonds without assistance. The wager was taken up and the test -duly applied; the Jessakid being left alone in his tent tightly and -firmly bound. Before long he called out to those on the watch outside -the tent that search should be made for the rope at a certain spot -nearby. This was done and the rope was found with the knots undisturbed, -while the Jessakid was to be seen calmly seated on the ground, smoking a -pipe and still bearing his magic black stone on his thigh.[627] - -French missionaries of the early part of the eighteenth century reported -that the Indian wizards of some of the northwestern tribes would take a -pebble the size of a pigeon’s egg, and mutter over it certain -conjurations. This, they assert, caused the formation of a like stone -within the body of the person who was to be bewitched.[628] The -medicine-men of certain Canadian tribes of this time were not content -with muttered conjurations in treating their patients, but would not -infrequently resort to the charm supposed to be exerted by dancing and -howling before the sick person. The nervous shock produced by a -combination of such grotesque movements and discordant cries might well -“rouse” the patient, and perhaps had sometimes good effects in restoring -vitality. - -[Illustration: - - Canadian Indian Medicine-man. From “Histoire générale des cérémonies, - mœurs, et coutumes religieuses de tous les peuples du monde,” by - Abbé Banier and Abbé Mascrier. Vol. VII. Paris. 1741. -] - -An interesting use of the Röntgen rays to detect hidden amulets is noted -by Stewart Culin. It was conjectured by Mr. Cushing that some pieces of -turquoise, conceived to be the hearts of fetichistic birds, were -concealed beneath the heavy wrapping of brown yarn that binds the -finger-loops of the prehistoric throwing stick in the Museum of the -University of Pennsylvania. This object was too valuable and too fragile -to permit of its examination, and therefore the Röntgen rays were used, -disclosing the presence of four stone beads, presumably of turquoise, as -Mr. Cushing had indicated.[629] - -As the Point Barrow Eskimos are so largely dependent on fishing, they -especially favor amulets or talismans referring to this, and in many -cases the peculiar power of the talisman is accentuated by giving it a -specially significant form. Thus, from Utkiavwin was brought a piece of -dark crimson jasper two inches long, rudely fashioned by chipping into -the form of a whale, and also a similar figure made from a water-worn -quartz pebble.[630] Another Point Barrow amulet consisted of three small -fragments of amber, carefully wrapped up and placed in a cottonwood box -1½ inches in length. This box was cleverly made of two semicircular -pieces of the wood, the flat faces having been hollowed out so as to -leave space for the amber. They were then bound together by loosely -knotted sinew braid.[631] - -A black jade, adze-shaped, that may have served as a fisherman’s -talisman for the Point Barrow Eskimo, was brought from Utkiavwin. It -measured 5.1 inches in length, and was slung with a thong and whalebone, -so that it could be suspended. Its weight is so considerable as to make -it somewhat burdensome for wear on the person, but as one of these -Eskimo wore a stone weighing two pounds suspended from a belt, the jade -artefact may really have been worn in this way. The form suggests that -of a sinker, as was also the case with the two-pound stone, and it may -have earned its repute as a talisman from having been used in former -times by some exceptionally fortunate or skilful fisherman, in the -belief that it would transmit his good luck to anyone wearing it.[632] -An artefact of somewhat similar form, 1.4 inches in length, and made of -red jasper, came from the same locality; this was slung in a sinew band -for suspension.[633] - -The native Greenlanders of a couple of centuries ago had a great variety -of amulets, and Hans Egede, in his Description of Greenland, notes these -“Amulets or Pomanders” which the natives wore about the neck or arms, -the materials being of the most heterogeneous kind, pieces of old wood, -old fragments of stone, bones of various animals, the bill and claws of -certain birds, and many other objects whose form or associations had -suggested the possession of a magic potency.[634] A similar account of -old Greenland amulets is given by David Crantz, another early author, -who even asserts that some of the amulets were so grotesque that the -natives themselves occasionally laughed at them. In the absence of any -more definite talisman, recourse was sometimes had to the expedient of -binding a leather strap over the forehead or around the arm.[635] -Possibly, however, some talisman was hidden beneath this strap, or else -it may have been designed to serve as a point of support for an amulet -that had been taken off at the time the traveller saw the strap. - -Animal amulets, that is to say, amulets for animals, are in use in the -Arctic regions, one class of these being stones that have fallen from a -bird-rock. These the Eskimo attach to their dogs, proceeding upon the -theory that as these pieces of rock in falling from a great height have -traversed the air with tremendous rapidity, they will communicate the -quality of fleetness to the dogs.[636] This transmission of an acquired -quality of the stone to the person wearing it is shown in other -instances, a favorite amulet with the Eskimos being a piece of an old -hearth-stone. This is believed to give strength to the wearer, because -the stone has so long endured the attacks of fire, the strongest and -fiercest element. Such fragments of stone are often worn by Eskimo -women, who wrap them up in pieces of seal-skin, making in this way a -decoration to be worn on the neck.[637] - -Not only does the medicine-bag of an Eskimo medicine-man serve to guard -his trusted amulets and talismans, but some of these wonder-doctors -claim to be able to draw within it the soul of a sick child, so as to -keep this soul hidden away from all harm and danger. In fact, the -opinion has been expressed that many personal amulets have owed their -repute to their supposed power as soul-guardians, the owners’ souls -having been transferred to the material body of the amulet, which is -more easily concealed and kept out-of-the way of injury than is the -human body, the tabernacle of the spirit. A trace of this belief has -been found by some in the term _battê ha-nephesh_, used by Isaiah (chap, -iii, ver. 20). These feminine adornments are called “perfume boxes” in -the Revised Version, but the literal meaning is “houses of the soul (or -life).”[638] - -The natives of southwestern Australia regard shining stones with so much -veneration that only sorcerers or priests are believed to be worthy to -handle them, and so great is the faith in the innate power of such -objects that any ordinary native does not dare to touch them and cannot -even be bribed so to do. For the preservation of the virtue of these -stones it is considered essential that no woman shall be permitted to -touch them, or even to look upon them. A particular form of talisman is -made by winding lengths of opossum yarn about a fragment of quartz, of -carnelian, of chalcedony, or some other attractive stone, and thus -forming a round ball about the size of a crochet-ball; these are worn -suspended from the girdle. Talismans of this type are very highly prized -for their supposed power to cure diseases, and in case of illness a -tribe which is not provided with one will borrow it from a more -fortunate tribe.[639] White quartz is used by the natives in New South -Wales, Australia, for the manufacture of a charm to cast a spell over an -enemy. This charm is called _muli_, and consists of a fragment of white -quartz to which a piece of opossum-fur has been gummed; it must then be -smeared with the fat of a dead body and placed in a slow-burning fire. -It is confidently believed that the person over whom the spell is cast -wastes slowly away and dies.[640] - -Jade carvings of an exceedingly peculiar type are the _hei-tikis_ -(neck-ornaments) greatly prized among the Maoris of New Zealand. The -grotesque representation of the human form here realized by the native -carvers, the association of these objects, treasured up as heirlooms, -with the personality of some renowned ancestor, the story that the -special portraiture to be made was sometimes communicated in a dream or -vision, all this induces the belief that in former times, though perhaps -not at the present time, the Maoris looked upon their _hei-tikis_ as -amulets, or possibly even as fetiches.[641] - -The Dowager Queen Alexandra is said to greatly value as a talisman a -pendant consisting of a nugget of massive gold surmounted by a figure of -a hunchback, executed in green enamel. The nugget is hollowed out and -opens when a secret spring is touched; within appears a heart-shaped -ornament made of New Zealand jade. The story runs that this jewel was -given to his mother by the late Duke of Clarence, the elder brother of -the present King George V.[642] - -The popularity in England of these queer _hei-tiki_ amulets, made from -the _punamu_ or “green-stone” (nephrite) of New Zealand, has been -ascribed by many to the wearing by Queen Alexandra of ornaments made of -New Zealand jade, and to the report that every member of the “All -Blacks,” an almost invincible English foot-ball team, carried some -little trinket made from this material while he was engaged in play. The -popular faith in “lucky jade” was further corroborated by the story that -Lord Rosebery had on his person a jade amulet when his horse Cicero won -the Derby and that Lord Rothschild was wearing such an amulet as his -horse St. Amand carried his colors to victory.[643] When we consider to -how great an extent popular enthusiasm is excited in England by her -great and classic horse-races, we need not hesitate to believe that -these reports did much to render jade amulets generally fashionable. - -[Illustration: - - HEI-TIKI AMULETS OF NEW ZEALAND - - Made of the jade found on the island, the punamu, or “green-stone.” - Illustrates the two types of this “neck-ornament,” - one with the eyes slanted to the left, the other to the right. -] - -An old Polynesian legend recounts that jade was brought to New Zealand -from a distant land by a certain Ngahue, who sought by this means to -save the precious material from an enemy who coveted it. He settled at -Arahua, on the west coast of the middle island, and in this region he -found an eternal and safe resting place for his jade, which he valued -above all things.[644] This legend has often been adduced as a proof -that the New Zealand jade was brought from other countries, but as it -proceeds to state that Ngahue made neck and ear ornaments of this -material, there is at least as great probability that we have here the -supposed origin of the _hei-tiki_ ornaments, and that the legend -testifies to the popular belief that the art of making these objects -came to New Zealand from without. - -The quasi-magic character of New Zealand jade (nephrite) in the eyes of -Maoris of the olden time is proved by the fact that certain -superstitious restrictions were established in regard to the cutting of -nephrite, one of these being that no woman should be allowed to approach -the jade-cutters while they were engaged in their task. For the drilling -of holes in jade implements or amulets the cord-drill was employed, and -the surface of the object received its polish by rubbing it with a piece -of sandstone, after it had been roughly fashioned, by chipping, to the -desired form. The toughness of jade is such that infinite patience and -long-continued effort must have been necessary to complete any ornament -or implement under these primitive conditions.[645] - -A curious and characteristic jade artefact, known as _nbouet_ or -_koindien_, is found among the natives of New Caledonia. This is a more -or less circular disk of jade, with a cutting edge. In most cases this -disk is attached through two perforations to a straight cylindrical -handle, having a slit at the upper extremity into which the jade disk is -introduced. The lower extremity has an ovoid termination, or else it is -set in a cocoanut shell, usually covered with the integument of a -pteropod. Attached are pendants of beautiful marine shells, and -sometimes the cocoanut shell is filled with small pebbles so that it can -be used as a rattle. These _nbouet_ were originally used as cleavers to -cut up the dead bodies for the cannibalistic orgies, and this use seems -to have been thought to impart a kind of talismanic virtue to the -objects, for they eventually became insignia of the chiefs of the native -tribes.[646] - -The ornament most highly prized by the natives of New Caledonia is a -necklace of perforated jade beads. One of these necklaces, in the rich -collection of Signor Giglioli, contains 122 jade beads, somewhat larger -than peas; another necklace comprises eight beads alternating with small -shells of the _oliva_, a species of mussel. As a pendant hangs an -_oudip_, or slung-shot, of steatite.[647] Necklaces of this kind are -called _peigha_ by the natives, and the high esteem in which they are -held probably arises from their supposed talismanic powers. The jade -ornaments or artefacts found in the neighboring Loyalty Islands have all -been brought from New Caledonia, and we are told that so great was the -value placed upon them that the natives of the Loyalty Islands often -traded their young girls in exchange for objects made from the greatly -coveted jade. - -From a Fijian mission teacher at Goodenough Island comes a tale of a -magic crystal. Many years ago some Europeans embarked in a boat manned -by two Fijians to visit one of the smaller islands of the group. After -they had landed and gone off to explore the island, one of the Fijians -said to the other: “You look after the boat while I take a look around.” -He had not gone far when he saw two strange men, one of whom fled at his -approach; the other he seized, holding on to him fast, although dragged -along for a considerable distance until after scrambling up a hill the -strange man finally loosed himself and disappeared in the hollow of a -tree-trunk. For some time the Fijian lay in a trance, but awakening from -this he found his way back to the boat. In the course of the afternoon -the strange being appeared to him suddenly and told him “to go back to -the tree, where he would find a small stone wrapped up in a piece of -calico.” This he duly sought and found; it proved to be a crystal, like -glass. In the night time the man or spirit again appeared and strictly -enjoined the Fijian not to let anyone see his crystal but told him that -if he wished for anything he only had to look into the stone. The -possession of this treasure earned a wonderful repute for the Fijian as -a medicine-man, as when any sick person sought for help one look into -the stone revealed the proper remedy for the disease. All this time, -however, no one had been allowed to see his crystal, or to suspect the -source of his wisdom. At last his fame reached the ears of some European -doctors, who called him in to help them in their hospital work, and -while he was at the hospital two young men came in and asked him to -prescribe for a sick friend. The Fijian consented, but, unluckily for -him, the men saw him take out his crystal and look into it before -prescribing the treatment. They told this to the doctors and the man was -locked up for two years, his crystal being taken away from him. The -mission teacher who related the story believed that Sir J. Thurston, at -this time governor of the islands, had secured possession of the -confiscated crystal.[648] It is rather difficult to determine in what -proportions truth and fiction are represented in this tale. - -The doctrine of sympathy finds an echo among the natives of Melanesia. -In the Banks Islands, for instance, if a native comes across a piece of -coral to which the action of the waves has imparted the form of a loaf -of bread, this will be taken to signify that such a coral has an -affinity with the bread-fruit tree, and the native will bury it under -such a tree in the confident expectation that its fruit-bearing quality -will be enhanced thereby. Chance may perhaps seem to prove the truth of -his belief, and in this case he will permit his neighbors to bury stones -near his own, so that somewhat of its virtue may pass into them.[649] - -To have one’s life depend upon the safe preservation of a talisman may -not always be a blessing, as appears in a Kalmuck story. A Khan who -owned such a talisman thought that he had concealed it so effectively -that no one could find it, and hence he did not hesitate to make the -discovery of its hiding-place a crucial test of the skill of a wise man -who came to visit his court. The sage proved equal to the emergency and -found the talisman while its owner was asleep, but was so rejoiced at -the successful accomplishment of the task that he very irreverently -clapped a bladder on the sleeping Khan’s head, who was so much enraged -at the indignity that he ordered the wise man’s immediate execution. -However, the latter quickly made use of the magic power over the Khan’s -life that the possession of the talisman gave him, and cast it down so -violently as to break it. No sooner had this happened than blood spurted -from the Khan’s nostrils and death overtook him.[650] - -Agate amulets still find favor in Spain, a number of interesting -examples having recently been acquired in that country by Mr. W. L. -Hildburgh, many of them being offered for sale in small stalls, both in -the capital, Madrid, and in other of the Spanish cities.[651] In a -number of cases these amulets are milky white agates, this hue -recommending their use as lactation amulets. In one specimen, however, -secured in Seville, the agate showed seven concentric white stripes, -probably indicating that it had been used as a charm against the Evil -Eye as well as to favor the secretion of milk. - -For the latter purpose, in lieu of agate, white glass beads are often -sold, a dealer in a small stall in Madrid having in his stock a string -of fifty such beads which he sold one by one to the women who had faith -in their efficacy; agate beads of combined grayish, reddish and white -coloration are also to be found. - -Quite an ambitious type of these popular amulets is figured by Mr. -Hildburgh (Pl. i, p. 64, fig. 7). This is a triple pendant, with chain -attached for suspension, the upper part being an agate grayish-white and -reddish, probably rendering it at once a lactation amulet and one -serving still another use as a woman’s amulet. The middle of this -pendant was of blue glass banded with other colors, and the terminal was -of black glass, spotted blue, yellow and red; both of these glass -objects are supposed to have served against the Evil Eye. Thus this -particular amulet combined a number of virtues. - -Coral is a favorite material for amulets in Spain as in many other -lands, being shaped for this purpose as a “fig-hand” or into some other -of the diverse forms to which a certain symbolic significance has been -given. One amulet of rock-crystal is reported, which may have been taken -from some old reliquary; this was used against the Evil Eye. Amber also, -in its way as generally popular as coral, is freely used in Spain by the -makers of amulets; being generally given the form of beads. The wearing -of these is regarded as very effective in the case of teething children. -For some reason or other, a preference is given to facetted beads, in -spite of the risk that the sharp edges may irritate the sensitive and -delicate skin of an infant.[652] - -Some of the “fig-hand” amulets made and sold in Madrid are of jet, the -peculiar hand form being in many cases so highly conventionalized as to -be barely indicated. These are believed to be efficacious not only -against the Evil Eye, as the other amulets of this form, but also for -the preservation of the hair. When worn for this purpose the women of -Madrid are said to carry them upon any part of the person, but those of -Toledo place them in the hair itself, so that the desired effect may be -more immediate.[653] - -In southern Russia amulets enjoy high power both among Jews and -Christians. Especially are they valued for the protection of children -and for the cure of their diseases. An imitation wolf’s-tooth, made of -bone, set in a ring, is one of these amulets; however, while such -imitation teeth are used, the natural teeth are greatly preferred. As an -amulet against the Evil Eye the wing-bones of a cock will be used. This -malign influence is held in such awe by the common people that they do -not even dare to use the word “evil” of it and call it “the _good_ eye.” -Carnelian beads purporting to have been brought from Palestine command -what is regarded as a good price, three roubles being paid for a single -one; these are great favorites with the Jews more especially, one of -their supposed virtues being to prevent abortion.[654] - -The religious fervor of the Russians is illustrated by the character of -the amulet said to be constantly worn by the Czar as a protection -against the dangers which hourly threaten him. This is a ring in which -is set a piece of the True Cross, the sacred material which was believed -to lend a mighty potency to the famous “Talisman of Charlemagne.” A less -venerable belief is said to render the Czar superstitiously careful to -see that an ancestral watch in his possession is always kept wound up, -for a family legend tells that should this watch ever stop the glory of -the reigning house would pass away.[655] - -Of bone amulets there is a great variety. Among those used in the -British Isles may be noted a hammer-shaped type, fashioned out of a -sheep’s bone, worn by Whelby fishermen as protection from drowning; -similarly shaped bone amulets find favor with some London laborers as -preventives of rheumatism. This is the type of Thor’s Hammer, still -popular with the Manxmen. The strange resemblance of the os sacrum of -the rabbit to a fox’s head has recommended its use as a talisman, or -luck-bringer, and a London solicitor is stated to have owned an example -which he had mounted as a gold scarf-pin, the likeness to an animal head -being brought out still more by the insertion of onyx eyes.[656] - -The talismanic power of the turquoise is still credited in provincial -England, for in the counties of Hampshire and Sussex it is believed that -when two persons station themselves on opposite banks of a frozen stream -or pond, on a Christmas Day, and each one slides a turquoise to the -other over the ice, both of them will be blessed with good fortune for -the following year and will prosper in all their undertakings. If the -stream or pond were at all wide, the fact of having accomplished this -feat successfully might indeed be taken as proof of considerable -dexterity, and might perhaps indicate that one who could succeed in this -little exploit had a chance of making his way in more important matters. - -The natural markings on agate pebbles often present designs having some -special symbolical significance, and could then be looked upon by the -superstitious as amulets of notable power, much exceeding in efficacy -those artificially formed. A strange instance in illustration of this is -an agate pebble picked up not long since on Newport Beach, Rhode Island. -This stone is clearly and definitely marked with the mystic Chinese -monad, a device that is widely known in the United States from its -adoption as a symbol by the Northern Pacific Railroad. - -A limestone pebble with peculiar markings is in a private collection in -New York. This somewhat resembles in shape the famous magatama jewel of -the Japanese, and the markings suggest that, like the latter, it may -have had a phallic significance, or at least one connected with the -worship of the reproductive powers. The markings indicate an attempt to -figure an undeveloped being, and possibly the object was intended for -use as an amulet to facilitate parturition. - -The prevailing reaction against the purely materialistic beliefs so -generally accepted a score or more of years ago, finds expression in a -marked tendency toward a renewal—in a greatly modified form, of -course—of the old fancies or instinctive ideas touching the virtues of -gems. Thus one modern writer at least was bold enough to suggest not -long since that “the efficacy of charms and precious stones may be -recognized and placed on a scientific basis before many years are -passed.”[657] - -[Illustration: - - HILT OF JEWELLED SWORD GIVEN BY THE GREEKS OF THE UNITED STATES ON - EASTER DAY, 1913, TO THE CROWN PRINCE OF GREECE, LATER KING - CONSTANTINE XII. See page 373 - - View from above, showing the splendid star-sapphire, a symbol of - success, set at the apex. -] - -The belief in the hidden powers of precious stones was used as the theme -of one of Hoffman’s novels, “Das Fräulein von Scudéry.” Here the hero, -René Cardillac, is represented as a man for whom the possession of -precious stones has become indispensable, and who is happy only when he -can handle them and watch the play of light and color emanating from -them. They exert a kind of hypnotic influence over him, and so intense -and absorbing is his devotion to them that he even resorts to murder -rather than part with one of his darling stones. - -In the course of a meeting of the English Folk-Lore Society, one of the -members expressed the opinion that the revival of interest in amulets -and talismans and in all sorts and kinds of “mascots” was largely due to -the articles printed about such things in certain of the daily and -weekly papers. These items, put in a taking way and read with avidity, -more especially by those who were already predisposed to a belief in the -mythical or magical, served to spread these fancies far and wide -throughout the land. The president of the society, Dr. Gaster, in -closing the discussion, said that “from his experience the modern belief -in amulets as aids to luck was genuine and widely spread.”[658] - -One of the latest Parisian oracles on mystic subjects, the Baroness -d’Orchamps, says that emeralds should not be worn by women before their -fiftieth year, although men may wear this gem without danger at any age. -Sapphires, on the other hand, may be worn by both sexes at all times, -since they have a potent influence for good luck. Hence speculators, and -indeed all who hope for a favorable turn of Fortune’s wheel, should look -with favor on this stone. As medicinal gems, the ruby and the moonstone -are especially recommended; the former for chronic headaches and the -latter for the manifold forms of nervousness. Lastly, the diamond, if -worn on the left side, wards off evil influences and attracts good -fortune. The unjustly maligned opal is asserted to be robbed of all -power to harm if it be associated with diamonds and rubies. - -Many of the members of the French nobility are the owners and wearers of -talismanic ornaments of one kind or another. A powerful combination of -such “life-preservers” is credited to the Duc de Guiche. On his right -hand he wears three curiously chased rings, one on the first finger, the -second on the middle finger, and the third on the “ring-finger.” One of -the rings is set with a sardonyx engraved with the figure of an eagle, -the second ring bears a topaz on which has been graven a falcon, and the -third ring shows a beautiful coral bearing the design of a man holding a -drawn sword in his right hand. Both the stones and the special designs -engraved on each one are in accord with the oldest traditional lore in -regard to talismans, and the stones themselves are those indicated by -the date of the duke’s birth and by his baptismal name. While such an -array of finger rings would hardly appeal to the taste of an American -man, the fashion of wearing an appropriate series of rings has met with -considerable favor among our American mondaines, and certainly has the -merit of lending an individual significance to the rings selected for -wear.[659] - -[Illustration: - - JEWELLED SWORD GIVEN BY THE GREEKS OF THE UNITED STATES, ON EASTER - DAY, 1913, TO CROWN PRINCE CONSTANTINE, LATER KING CONSTANTINE XII - OF GREECE - - Top of scabbard, showing didrachm of Alexander the Great. -] - -[Illustration: - - JEWELLED SWORD GIVEN BY THE GREEKS OF THE UNITED STATES, ON EASTER - DAY, 1913, TO CROWN PRINCE CONSTANTINE, LATER KING CONSTANTINE XII - OF GREECE - - Side view of hilt. -] - -The magnificent star-sapphire set in the hilt of the richly chased and -ornamented sword given by the Greeks of America to King Constantine of -Greece, on Easter Day, 1913, just before the recipient succeeded to the -royal dignity, may be looked upon as a talisman designed to assure good -fortune and long life to the sovereign, as well as prosperity to the -state over which he rules. This sword, which was made by Tiffany & -Company, is even more noteworthy because of its artistic merit than on -account of its intrinsic value. Another talismanic embellishment of the -sword is an inlaid didrachm of Alexander the Great (356–323 B.C.); it is -a well-known fact and one frequently recorded by ancient and medieval -writers, that the coins of this monarch were often treasured up as -amulets or talismans.[660] In the present instance, indeed, the charm, -if charm there be, should work most effectively, as we can imagine no -more appropriate guardian of the present ruler of Greece than the -greatest hero and the mightiest conqueror the Greek race ever produced. - -This sword was presented to His Majesty Constantine XII, King of the -Hellenes, by the Greek residents of the United States, to commemorate -his defeat of the Turks at Salonika and Janina. By these victories of -the Greek armies under King Constantine, who was at that time the Crown -Prince of Greece, the Greek people of Macedonia and Epirus were -liberated from the Turkish yoke, and these rich provinces were added to -the Greek crown. The Committee of Presentation consisted of Mr. -Caftanzoglu, Chargé d’Affaires of Greece in Washington; Mr. D. Vlasto, -editor of “Atlantis”; Dr. Breck Trowbridge, president, and Dr. T. -Tileston Wells, vice-president of the Society of American Philhellenes, -with the coöperation of Dr. George F. Kunz, a member of the council of -the above society. - -The green variety of microcline, a potash-feldspar, is known as the -“amazon-stone.” It is found at Amelia Court House, Virginia, at Pike’s -Peak, Colorado, at Rockport, Cape Ann, and in the Ural Mountains in -Russia. It has recently been proposed as the stone for the Suffrage -party. This amazon-stone could be cut in little beads of a beautiful -pale green and after appropriate mounting they could be worn suspended -by a ribbon from the button-hole. As the stone is inexpensive it ought -to meet with favor among the hundreds of thousands who are aggressive in -their advocacy of this cause. - -Among the many persons of our day who still have or had a lingering -faith in the efficacy of amulets, may be mentioned the late actress, -Mrs. Annie Yeamans, who left special directions in her will that a -little amulet attached to a gold chain which she constantly wore, should -be left on her body and buried with her. We may call this superstition -or sentiment, as we will, but there seems to be an almost invincible -tendency to associate something of those dear to us and lost to us with -inanimate objects that may have been theirs, and the memories called up -by some simple trinket show that psychologically a certain power really -does exist in such objects. The sentiment they awaken is only in -ourselves, and the impression that awakes it as well, but the presence -of the inanimate object actually conditions the awakening of the -feeling. Thus we can scarcely deny to amulets a certain inherent quality -in this respect. - -Often some strange, quaint, or bizarre design seen in the shop of a -dealer in antiques will make a peculiar and individual appeal to the -observer, and will be chosen by him as his personal amulet, as though -fate had destined the object for his special use. So we are told that -Mr. Augustin Osman, the artist, secured possession of a singular gold -ornament representing a human skull; upon it was figured in opals the -word “Ave.” On the first night after the acquisition of this object, the -artist had a vivid dream, in which the impression was conveyed to him -that he would always enjoy good fortune as long as the golden skull -remained in his possession. Evidently the opals took nothing in his -opinion from the luck-producing quality of this grewsome ornament; -indeed, it seems more probable that they added to it. - -[Illustration: - - THE BIRTH OF THE OPAL - - Autographed for this work by the authoress, Ella Wheeler Wilcox -] - -A curious modern talisman is the work of M. Charles Rivaud, who has -frequently exhibited splendid specimens of artistic jewelry at the Paris -Salon; this talisman cleverly combines artistic merit with a dash of -African magic. It is a slender bracelet composed of interlaced spirals -of oxidized silver and gold; around the circlet is twined a hair taken -from an elephant. Among the tribesmen of the Soudan the hairs of this -animal are believed to be endowed with great talismanic virtue; indeed, -they enjoyed a similar repute among the ancient Romans. Whether this -belief was due to the idea that the wearer of the hair was assured a -mighty protection, typified by the enormous strength of the elephant, or -whether to the fact that the elephant was with some peoples a divine -symbol, we cannot easily determine. - -The opal has long since emerged from the slight cloud of disfavor due to -a most erroneous fancy that it was in some way associated with ill-luck. -This idea, possibly in its origin explainable by the comparative -fragility of the gem, found a consistent and earnest opponent in the -late Queen Victoria, whose influence did much to make opals fashionable. -Of late years they have become favorite bridal gifts, the exceptional -variety of color in the beautiful examples from the White Cliff mines in -New South Wales, having also contributed to the renewed popularity of -the stone. A parure of these opals was not long since bestowed upon the -Empress Augusta by Emperor William of Germany, and one of the finest -Australian opals is a treasured possession of the Duchess of -Marlborough. - -A very attractive example of symbolic jewelry has lately been made by a -jeweler’s firm of Besançon, France. This ornament is composed of three -keys, to which are given the respective names, Key of Love, Key of Good -Fortune, and Key of Heaven. They are to open up for the wearer the -treasures of true love, of wedded bliss, and, finally, of paradise. A -legend from the time of the Crusades suggested the form of this pretty -jewel. Mourning the departure of a knight on the long and perilous -journey to Palestine, a Provençal maiden wandered through the woodland, -seeking peace and consolation in its quiet recesses. As she passed along -the leafy pathways, she all unconsciously gave utterance to her longings -and fears in softly spoken words. All at once a bright light beamed -about her, and a radiant fairy advanced toward her and gave her an ivory -casket in which lay three jewelled keys, masterpieces of the goldsmith’s -art. The first of these, the fairy assured her, would open the young -knight’s heart to receive her image; the second would open the church -door to admit her, a happy bride; and the third, when life’s journey was -o’er, would unlock for her the gates of Paradise. - -On the deservedly popular watch bracelets, things of beauty as well as -utility, the precious stones used for decoration are sometimes selected -for the significance of the first letters of their names when read in -sequence. The following example may be noted: - - D iamond - E merald - A methyst - R uby - - S apphire - A gate - R uby - A methyst - -In this way any name or endearing epithet can be prettily expressed. - - - - - X - Facts and Fancies about Precious Stones - - -Many interesting facts about precious stones do not properly refer -either to their talismanic or curative powers, and yet serve in not a -few cases to indicate more or less clearly the reasons which have -determined popular fancy or superstition in attributing particular -virtues to a given stone. - -As an instance of the strange vagaries of belief in the influence -exerted by certain of these stones, we may take the statement that -powdered agate dissolved in beer was used by the Bretons as a test of -virginity. If a young girl were unable to retain this delectable mixture -on her stomach, she was supposed to be impure.[661] The ability to stand -this test seems rather to prove the possession of a strong stomach than -a clear conscience. - -Rainbow Agate is a name appropriately applied to agates showing a -beautiful prismatic effect. These are composed of quartz and chalcedony -in very fine layers. The writer secured a splendid specimen of this type -of agate set in a jewel which had formed part of an old Saxon -collection; it may possibly have come from India. The prismatic play of -color differs from that observed in quartz iris, in that the iridescence -is due to the minute interference lines and not, as with the iris, to -internal fractures. - -The greatest interest was manifested in the eighteenth century in these -agates, one of which was described in a special pamphlet under the -title, “Regenbogen Achat,” and illustrated with a colored plate. The -effect was that of a spectrum rather than the iris effect of the -crystalline quartz. This iris was also highly valued, and great favor -was set upon brilliant examples of what was in reality rock-crystal -fractured, the small fracture-planes causing the breaking up of the -light and producing the rainbow or iris effect. In fact it was a -spectrum produced by the mixture of quartz between the chalcedonic -layers. - -Cellini has a marvellous story to tell of a luminous carbuncle. A -certain Jacopo Cola, a vine-grower, going into his vineyard one night -noticed what appeared to be a bit of glowing coal at the foot of one of -the vines, but on reaching the spot he was unable to locate the source -of this radiance. Very wisely he retraced his steps to the spot whence -he had first observed the light, which became again apparent, and when -he now very carefully approached the vine he found that the gleam -proceeded from a rough little stone, which he joyfully picked up and -carried off with him. He showed it to a number of his friends and among -them chanced to be a Venetian envoy, an expert on precious stones, who -immediately recognized that the find was a carbuncle. Thereupon taking a -base advantage of the finder’s ignorance, he succeeded in buying the -stone for only ten scudi, and then hastened away from Rome, lest his -deception should be discovered. Not long afterwards this same Venetian -went to Constantinople and sold the stone to the Sultan of the time for -100,000 scudi, a profit of 10,000 per cent.[662] The fact that the -vintner could only see the gleam from a given spot is in itself -sufficient proof that what he noted was merely the reflection of some -distant light striking a smooth surface of the stone at a certain angle. - -Among the many virtues credited to carnelian by the Mohammedans may be -noted its power to preserve the equanimity and gravity of the wearer in -the midst of disputes or inordinate laughter. A special and peculiar -utilization of this material was to employ splinters of it as -toothpicks. Their use not only whitened the teeth but also prevented -bleeding of the gums. The Prophet, according to tradition, asserted that -the wearer of a carnelian ring would never cease to be happy and -blessed.[663] - -The chrysolite is now regarded as a semi-precious stone only, yet -Shakespeare presented this gem as the type of excellence in its kind -when he wrote (“Othello,” Act V, Scene 2): - - Nay, had she been true, - If heaven would make me such another world - Of one entire and perfect chrysolite, - I’d not have sold her for it. - -It is interesting to note that this appreciation of the beauty of the -chrysolite is also shown in an old Greek glossary of alchemical terms, -where occur the words: Ιερὸς λίθος ἐστὶ Χρυσόλιθος, “Sacred stone means -the chrysolite.”[664] - -Such was the sacred quality ascribed to strings of coral beads in some -parts of Africa, not long since, that they were regarded as the most -precious gifts a ruler could bestow. If the favored recipient were so -unfortunate as to lose this royal donation—which was a mark of high -rank—he himself, as well as all involved in the theft, incurred the -penalty of death. A writer of the seventeenth century, Palisot de -Beauvais, relates that in Benin human victims were sacrificed at a -“coral festival,” when the corals of the king and royal family were -dipped in the victim’s blood, so as to placate the coral fetish and -ensure a further supply of the precious material.[665] Possibly human -blood was believed to strengthen the special virtue supposed to be -inherent in this red substance. - -There is a note of republican simplicity in the reported wearing of -coral ornaments on ceremonial occasions by the present Queen of Italy. -Indeed, the assertion that this is done to stimulate the coral industry -in Italy may be true, as nothing would better tend to do this than such -an example of royal favor for coral. Certainly this is in marked -contrast with the almost exclusive use of pearl ornaments of all kinds -so characteristic of Queen Margarita, whose devotion to the pearl, now -perhaps the most costly of gems, had a poetic appropriateness for one -bearing her name, and we can scarcely imagine the Pearl of Savoy without -her splendid parures and necklaces of pearls. Still, undoubtedly this -new departure renders it possible for all Italian women, rich or poor, -to loyally follow the example set by their Queen Helena, and there is -little danger that the rich will ever neglect to avail themselves of the -exclusive privilege they possess of owning and wearing diamonds, pearls, -rubies, sapphires and emeralds, which surpass coral as much in beauty as -they do in price. - -A comparatively recent attempt to use diamond dust as a poison is said -to have been made in 1874 on Colonel Phayre, British Resident at the -court of the then reigning Gaikwar of Baroda. The colonel was in the -habit of refreshing himself after his morning walk with a glass of -sugared water flavored with a little lime-juice. One day, on taking a -sip of his customary beverage, he noted that it had a strange taste, and -instead of drinking it he saved it up and had it analyzed. The analysis -revealed the presence of arsenic in quantity sufficient to cause death, -and of diamond dust as well. Here, as in the case of Sir Thomas -Overbury, the really innocuous diamond material was accompanied by an -actual poison. The current belief in the poisonous quality of the -diamond is reflected in the words “mortal as diamond dust,” used by -Horace Walpole in one of his letters to the Countess of Ossory.[666] - -A German writer of the seventeenth century quotes with admiration a -wonderful tale told by Johannes Bustamantius to the effect that he had -seen a marriage of two diamonds, the two crystals being so firmly drawn -toward each other by mutual sympathy that when they were put in one -place they would cling to one another, as with an “unending kiss,” as -though one were a man and the other a woman, and he asserts that the -union was blessed with offspring. This curious idea has been repeatedly -put forth by certain of the older writers as we have had occasion to -note elsewhere.[667] - -After expatiating on the mechanical skill displayed by the Indians of -the New World, an early Spanish traveller gives the following details -regarding their success as gem-cutters:[668] - - Yet all that we have said is surpassed by the ingenuity of the Indians - in working emeralds, with which they are supplied from the coast of - Manta and the countries dependent on the government of Atacames, - Coaquis or Quaques. But these mines are now entirely lost, very - probably through negligence. These curious emeralds are found in the - tombs of the Indians of Manta and Atacames; and are, in beauty, size - and hardness superior to those found in the district of Santa Fé; but - what chiefly raises the admiration of the connoisseur is, to find them - worked, some in spherical, some cylindrical, some conical, and of - various other figures; and all with a perfect accuracy. But the - unsurmountable difficulty here is, to explain how they could work a - stone of such hardness, it being evident that steel and iron were - utterly unknown to them. They pierced emeralds and other gems, with - all the delicacy of the present times, furnished with so many tools; - and the direction of the hole is also very observable; in some it - passes through the diameter, in others only to the centre of the - stone, and coming out at its circumference they formed triangles at a - small distance from one another, and thus the figure of the stone to - give it relief was varied with the direction of the holes. - -The existence of emeralds in the region near Berenice is vouched for -by Ptolemy. The mines of emerald here were duly entered in the map of -the patriarch and the Arabs are said to have dug for them; but, Pocock -writes, “As all stones that may be found belong to the Grand Signior, -the Arabs are very well satisfied that the presence of emeralds should -not be suspected, because he would have the profit, and the -inhabitants might be obliged to work in the mines for a very small -consideration.”[669] - -The number of ancient hematite artefacts found in the United States -indicates that this material was more largely used within its -territorial limits for implements and ornaments than in any other part -of the world;[670] indeed the somewhat sweeping statement has been -ventured that it does not seem to have been used outside of this section -of the New World; however, some exceptions to this rule must be -admitted. That certain of these ornaments were used as amulets is highly -probable, and they were undoubtedly regarded as objects of great value, -since with the primitive tools at his command the Indian cutter must -have found his task a very hard one, requiring the expenditure of much -time and patience. In the Andover Collection there is an exceptionally -fine specimen from Ross County, Ohio. It is of heavy pure hematite, -which has been worked into the form of a pendant; notches have been made -at both ends, as a form of decoration, and on the lower, broad end, -fourteen lines have been incised; the edges are slightly beveled and the -patina indicates the antiquity of the work. The lines have evidently -been made by a flint cutting-implement.[671] Another probable hematite -amulet is a rudely fashioned fish effigy. Here the appearances of eye -and gill (only on one side) are evidently merely natural irregularities -of surface, which it has been conjectured determined the cutter to add a -mouth and round off the material so as to approximate a fish-form; the -hematite is black and of fine quality. This relic comes from Cole Camp, -Benton County, Missouri.[672] The larger number of these hematite -artefacts are from Missouri, southern Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, -West Virginia and Kentucky, and considerable numbers have been turned up -in Tennessee, New York, Wisconsin, and parts of Arkansas. Only a -relatively small number were taken out of burials or graves, the -majority of specimens having been secured on or near the surface. - -Shah Jehangir relates in his memoirs that Mûnis Khân, son of Mihtar -Khân, presented him with a jug of jasper (jade), which had been made in -the reign of Mîrzâ Ulugh Beg Gûrgân, in the honored name of that prince. -It was a very delicate rarity and of a beautiful shape. Its stone was -exceedingly white and pure. Around the neck of the jar were carved -characters expressing the auspicious name of the Mîrzâ and the Hijra -year. Jehangir ordered them to inscribe his name and the auspicious name -of Akbar on the edge of the lip of the jar.[673] - -Jade ornaments of ancient workmanship have been found in Syria, and it -is quite likely that in many cases where the designation plasma is used -by ancient writers, true jade, or nephrite, was the material. As there -was no specific designation for jade, the different varieties were -assimilated to other stones of like color and appearance, so that, among -others, the names jasper, plasma and even _smaragdus_ were used to -denote jade. - -Mortuary tablets of jade have been used from time immemorial in China -for the reception of historic inscriptions, the toughness and durability -of the material making it especially desirable for this purpose. In the -case of rulers, such tablets not only bore the names of the deceased -sovereign but also an epitome of the leading events of his reign, and -additions were made to this record from time to time so that in historic -value they may be compared with the clay tablets of Babylonia and -Assyria. One of these interesting monuments found its way to San -Francisco, after the looting of the Forbidden City by the international -army of relief in 1901. On it appeared a record of the treaty between -the United States and China in 1868, and the other records went back to -the death of Shun Chi in 1661. Probably owing to exposure to the weather -the earlier inscriptions were not very legible. - -At all important Chinese marriage ceremonies the priest carries what is -known as a “marriage sword.” This is usually about twelve or thirteen -inches in length and the sheath is often studded with various pink -stones, cut _en cabochon_. The stones most favored for this decoration -are pink tourmaline, rubellite from the Shan Mountains, or rose-quartz, -and the natural color of these gems is often intensified by placing a -pink paste or foil beneath them; occasionally the coloration of the -stones is enhanced by dipping them in a pink aniline solution. A piece -of green jade is usually set as a boss at the hilt of this symbolical -sword. In one remarkable specimen the guard consisted of a piece of -white jade with the figure of a dragon carved in relief upon it; the -sword-blade was of bronze. At the marriage ceremony the bridegroom is -given the sword to hold, and the bride the sheath; as the wedding ring -is placed upon the bride’s finger, sword and sheath are brought -together. - -Among the innumerable forms of jade decoration or carving, produced by -the indefatigable and painstaking Chinese artists, is a small curved -wand often having a trefoil termination; sometimes the entire wand is of -jade, and at other times it is of teakwood adorned with jade medallions, -frequently showing birds and flowers. This wand was used as a kind of -sceptre of office, and the official entitled to bear it would hold it in -both hands when standing before the emperor. Its name, _ju-i_, means -“may all be,” and is to be taken as a wish that everything may turn out -fortunately. In modern times the _ju-i_ is carried as a lucky charm, -although its official significance is not forgotten. This form of wand -is said to have been introduced into China from India, at the time of -the Buddhist propaganda, and in representations of Buddhist priests they -are sometimes shown carrying one of them. In ancient India it was taught -to be one of the seven precious objects, the _septa-ratna_, mentioned in -the Vedas.[674] This Indian origin is, of course, highly probable, but -it is strange that in ancient Egypt also, curved wands of a somewhat -different type, made of ivory and embellished with symbolical figures, -possessed the same blended significance of marks of official dignity and -magic wands. - -A large mass of lapis lazuli was found in one of the Inca graves of Peru -by Señor Emilio Montés, and was exhibited by him in the Centennial -Exhibition of 1913. With the exception of one corner that has been -chipped off, the block is of symmetrical form, the dimensions being, in -inches, 24 × 14 × 9, and the weight 312 pounds. The smoothed surface -gives evidence of careful and fairly successful polishing by the native -lapidaries. This exceptionally fine specimen of lapis lazuli is now in -the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago.[675] Evidently in -ancient Peru as in the Old World the “celestial hue” of lapis lazuli was -thought to render it most appropriate for use as a memorial offering to -the dead or as a talisman by the aid of which their heavenward journey -might be made easier. - -The so-called “black onyx” has almost entirely replaced jet. This is a -chalcedony impregnated with a carbonic matter, such as blood or a -solution of sugar, the carbonate of which is charred by sulphuric acid, -giving a rich, velvety, black hue to the stone, which takes a high -polish. However, a certain limited amount of the old “Whitby Jet” once -so highly favored is still mined and worked up into ornaments in the -neighborhood of Whitby on the northeast coast of England, in the -district of Leeds, although but fifty persons are now engaged in this -industry which fifty years ago gave employment to 1500 workers. Some -Spanish jet is also used, a material harder and more brittle than that -found in England. - -[Illustration: - - Autographed for this work by the author of the poem, Dr. Edward - Forrester Sutton. -] - -The story was current that Pope Leo X (1475–1521) had a precious stone, -probably some type of “moonstone,”[676] which grew brighter as the moon -waxed, exhibiting the soft, silvery brilliance of our satellite, and -then gradually lost its brightness as the moon waned, growing paler and -dimmer and becoming quite obscure as the moon’s disk ceased to be -illumined by the sun. As a mate to this, Pope Clement VII (1475–1534) -was reputed to have in his possession a stone with a golden spot which -moved across the surface in exact accord with the apparent motion of the -sun across the heavens from sunrise to sunset.[677] These are -undoubtedly fables that were circulated intentionally, or more probably -through pure love of exaggeration, in order to enhance the merit of two -exceptionally fine specimens of moonstone and sunstone in the papal -treasury. - -In the eighteenth century the collection of the Duke of Brunswick -contained a magnificent ancient drinking-cup, of the kind used in -sacrificial ceremonies, cut from a single piece of onyx; this cup was -said to have formed part of the rich spoils taken from Mithridates by -the Romans under Pompey. It was valued in the duke’s inventory at -150,000 thalers, and Catherine II of Russia is stated to have offered -four times that sum, or 600,000 thalers ($400,000) for this unique -cup.[678] - -In the symbolism of the Manichean sect, an early Christian heresy owing -its origin to a direct and predominant influence of Persian ideas, -pearls occupy a prominent place. A legendary or poetic pearl called “the -bright moon” was the symbol of compassion, and one of the treatises ends -with the words: “Our heart has received the majestic splendor of the -pearl granting every wish.” We are also told of “a diamond pillar” which -sustains humanity, and the Messenger of Light is likened to a perfumed -mountain entirely composed of a mass of jewels.[679] - -The recital of two Arab travelers, Hasan ibn Vazid and Sulaiman, who -visited India in the ninth century, contains a curious theory of the -formation of pearls or rather of the pearl-oyster. The primal matter is -assumed to be a gelatinous moss, analogous to that of a species of algæ. -This floats upon the water and attaches itself to the keels of ships, -where it hardens, develops a shell, and finally drops off to sink into -the depths of the sea. The formation of the pearl itself is then -discussed and the theory noted in Pliny’s Natural History and so often -repeated after his time, namely, that pearls are formed from the “dew of -heaven,” is cited; but the writer adds: “Others say that they [the -pearls] are produced in the oysters themselves. This appears more -probable and is confirmed by experience; for the greater part of those -observed in the oysters are firmly attached there and are immovable. -Those which are mobile are called by the merchants seed-pearls.” As a -true Mohammedan the writer concludes with the pious ejaculation: “God -knows how the matter really stands!”[680] - -The same travellers relate the story of the discovery of a pearl under -very singular conditions. An Arab came to Bassora with a very fine -pearl. He took it to a druggist whom he knew and asked the latter how -much it was worth. The merchant estimated it at a hundred pieces of -silver, to the great surprise of the Arab, who demanded whether anyone -could be found willing to pay so much. Without hesitation the merchant -declared that he was ready to give the price himself, and immediately -paid over the money. He then took his purchase to Bagdad, where he -secured a large profit on his investment. On concluding his sale the -Arab told the Bassora druggist how he had secured his pearl. One day, -while walking along the Bahrein coast, he saw on the sands a dead fox, -whose mouth was tightly compressed by a strange object. On closer -observation this proved to be an enormous pearl-oyster shell. Evidently -the fox had thrust his snout into the shell while the valves were open -so that he might devour the soft contents, but the valves suddenly -closed upon him and he had died of suffocation. On prying open the shell -the Arab found therein the pearl which was destined to bring him what he -regarded as a fabulous sum.[681] - -The women of the Arab town occupying a site close to that on which stood -the Babylon of ancient times, wore, as a favorite adornment, nose-rings -of gold set with a pearl and a turquoise. The English traveller, John -Eldred, who traversed Mesopotamia in 1583, found this custom so general -that he writes: “This they doe be they never so poore.”[682] - -For years a statement has been going through the press that pearls are -liable to become diseased and die, and that the famous necklace of -pearls presented by President Thiers of France to his wife, and -bequeathed by Mme. Thiers to the French Government, had lost their -lustre and died, perhaps owing to the death of the owner. For there is -an old belief that pearls, as well as opals and turquoises, lose some of -their lustre when the owner or wearer becomes ill, and change to a dull -and lifeless hue when the owner dies. An examination of the necklace by -the writer showed that the pearls were in good condition, and to confirm -his statement to this effect he had the director of the Louvre Museum -write him a letter. In this official communication the director not only -states that the pearls had not sickened and died, but that they were in -as “healthy” a condition as they had ever been. - -The invariable experience of the writer has been that whenever pearls -have been said to have suffered in this way, the true explanation has -been that they were old and poor at the time of their purchase, and that -this romance was started on its travels as an excuse to cover up the -defect of such pearls and to arouse the belief that they had been -remarkably beautiful and valuable when they were originally acquired. - -As though to make amends to the Queen Gem for such disadvantageous -rumors, considerable publicity has recently been given to a report that, -in the Musée de Monaco, there was a luminous pearl whose beauties were -revealed by an inner light, so that darkness had no power to dim its -lustre. In a thoroughly impartial spirit, the writer went to the -fountain-head for information in this matter, and received as answer -from the director of the museum that there was no such pearl in the -collection and that he had absolutely no faith in the luminosity of -pearls. - -As has been seen, both of these legends must be set aside as false, and -we fear there is just as little truth in a report that a genuine -“pearl-powder” is now used by the fair ladies of Paris and by their -numerous imitators. The story goes that the Arab workmen engaged in -pearl-piercing in India are noted for the clearness—we can hardly say, -the lightness—of their complexions, and that this is supposed to be -attributable to the fact that, when resting from their difficult task, -they are in the habit of taking up some of the pearl-dust that has -fallen on the floor and rubbing their faces with it. As the conditions -under which these men work are eminently unsanitary, those who noted the -clearness and smoothness of their complexions came to the conclusion -that there must be something especially beneficial in pearl-dust, and -brought the matter to the notice of a French chemist. The latter -proceeded to utilize the suggestion and compounded a new cosmetic. He -did not, however, pin his faith to the pearl-dust alone, but wisely -added a number of other ingredients. - -Still another mythical tale in reference to pearls has to be refuted. -For some time past numerous specimens of a so-called “cocoanut-pearl” -have been brought from the East. These are very white pearls, resembling -in hue the hard meat of the cocoanut, and said to have been produced in -the cocoanut, just as other pearls are produced in certain species of -mollusks. However, the writer has always found them to be pearls -secreted by the gigantic mollusk _Ostrea Singapora_. - -A strange poetic fancy regarding the transmutation of parts of the human -form into gems of the sea appears in Ariel’s song in Shakespeare’s -“Tempest”: - - Full fathom five thy father lies, - Of his bones are coral made; - Those are pearls that were his eyes, - Nothing of him that doth fade - But doth suffer a sea-change - Into something rare and strange. - _Tempest_, Act I, Sc. ii. - -Some natives of the Sulu Archipelago believe that the nautilus pearl is -a most unlucky object to possess, for should a man engage in a fight -while wearing such a pearl he would inevitably be killed. Hence, when a -native by chance comes across one of them, he very quickly throws it -away, as a probable bringer of ill-luck. Occasionally, however, such -pearls fall into the hands of those who are less influenced by -superstition, and one weighing 72 grains was given, in 1884, to an -Australian gentleman, by Mohammed Beddreddin, brother-in-law of the -Sultan of Sulu. This was a perfect, pear-shaped pearl of a creamy-white -hue and somewhat translucent; it is composed of the porcelanous, not of -the nacreous constituent of the shell.[683] - -[Illustration: - - East Indian Baroque pearl. Weight over 1700 grains, Holland, 1775. -] - -It has been stated that this Sulu superstition is not shared by the -natives of Celebes Island, near Borneo, for here such pearls are kept as -charms and talismans. One of an irregular pear-shape, weighing 27½ -grains, has been found on the northern coast of the island.[684] The -finding of a nautilus pearl by a Chinese woman in Borneo is noted by -Rumphius, who describes it as being as large as a bean and white as a -piece of alabaster, hard and bright, but of very irregular shape. The -finder put it in a closed box, and was not a little surprised to -discover when she opened the box after a time that the original pearl -had engendered another one the size of a lentil; later it had two other, -smaller offspring. The woman carefully treasured her find as a lucky -stone which would bring her good fortune in her search for mussels. -Rumphius shrewdly conjectures that the smaller concretions had broken -off the larger one while it was enclosed in the box.[685] - -The well-known lines in Shakespeare’s “Othello”: - - Of one whose hand, like the base Judean’s, - Cast away a pearl richer than all his tribe. - -have been explained in many different ways by the commentators, one of -whom (Steevens) saw in them a reference to the following story current -in Venice in the sixteenth century. A Jew, after long and perilous -wanderings in the East, succeeded in bringing with him to Venice a great -number of fine pearls. These he disposed of there at satisfactory -prices, with the exception of one pearl of immense size and -extraordinary beauty, upon which he set a price so high that no one was -willing to pay it. Finally, the Jew invited all the leading gem-dealers -to meet him on the Rialto, and when as many of them as answered his call -had assembled, he once more, and for the last time, offered his peerless -pearl for sale, detailing all its perfections in eloquent terms. -However, he made no concession in the price, and the dealers unanimously -refused to purchase it, probably expecting that the Jew would at last be -forced to make a reduction, but to their amazement, instead of doing -this, he threw his pearl before their very eyes into the waters of the -canal, preferring rather to lose it than to cheapen it.[686] - -The belief that the growth of pearls in the pearl-oyster was due to -rain-drops is perpetuated in the Arab proverb: “The rain of the month of -Nisan brings forth pearls in the sea and wheat on the land.”[687] This -spring month was, and is still, the period when pearl-fishing begins in -the Orient. Another pearl proverb repeats the evangelical saying in this -form: “Do not throw pearls under the feet of swine.” - -A Tonquinise legend of the origin of pearls represents them as springing -from the blood of a young princess who was slain by the king, her -father, because she had betrayed to her husband the secret of a magic -bow, whose death-dealing arrows always flew to their mark. In his anger -at his daughter’s act, the father drew his scimitar and beheaded her, -but with her last breath she prayed that her blood might be turned to -pearls. Her prayer was heard and now the finest pearls of this land are -found in the waters about the place where she died.[688] - -From blue sapphires the color may be extracted so that they become -white, in such sort that they excellently imitate the diamond, so well, -indeed, that the fraud can only be detected by an expert jeweller. This -art was known at an early period, and no doubt induced many writers to -ascribe certain of the qualities of the diamond to the sapphire. As -illustrating this, a Rabbinical author states that a certain man went to -Rome to sell a sapphire. The purchaser said to him: “I will buy it -provided I may first test it.” He placed it on an anvil and struck it -with a hammer; the anvil was split and the hammer was broken to pieces -but the stone remained in its place uninjured.[689] - -[Illustration: - - CLEOPATRA DISSOLVING HER PRICELESS PEARL AT THE BANQUET TO MARK ANTONY - - Tapestry. Eighteenth century. -] - -The virtues of the sapphire are enumerated at length by Bartolomæus -Anglicus, the old scholastic philosopher, who flourished in the first -half of the thirteenth century and taught theology in the famous -University of Paris.[690] After noting the old dictum according to which -the sapphire was the “gem of gems” and one worthy to adorn the fingers -of kings, Bartolomæus proceeds to instruct his readers in regard to the -wonderful curative powers of this beautiful gem. These appear always to -be connected with its supposed calming and cooling influence. Thus it -reduced the temperature in fevers and checked the flow of blood; for -instance, if attached to the temples it stopped nose-bleed; if the heart -were unduly excited, this agitation could be controlled by the power of -the sapphire. Too profuse perspiration was also checked if a sapphire -were worn. It shared with the diamond the virtue of reconciling discord. -Its power as an antidote to poison was believed to be proved by an -experiment in which a spider was placed in a box with a sapphire. After -a short time the poor spider expired, done to death by the supreme -virtue of the celestial stone. A like story was told by ancient writers -in regard to the emerald. Of course, the chastening virtues of the -sapphire are not forgotten, virtues which have caused it to be selected -as especially appropriate for the rings of cardinals and high church -dignitaries; this belief arose from the association of purity with the -color of the heavens, the pure, unadulterated blue of the cloudless sky. - -One of the rarest and most beautiful of the corundum gems of Ceylon is -locally known there by the name _padparasham_. It is of a most rare and -delicate orange-pink hue, the various specimens showing many different -blendings of the pink and orange. The significance of the Cinghalese -name seems to be somewhat obscure, but a probable conjecture explains it -to mean “hidden ray of light”; another etymology would see in the first -syllable, _pad_, an abbreviation of _padma_, lotus, the petals of this -flower often having a soft orange tint. In this case the meaning would -be “hidden lotus,” as though the very color-essence of the flower were -enclosed within and shone through the gem.[691] - -A Persian treatise on precious stones was composed by Mohammed Ben -Mansur[692] in the thirteenth century of our era. This work was written -for Sultan Abu Naçr Behadirchan, and consists of two divisions, the -first treating of precious stones and the second of metals. It is -interesting to note in this treatise the recognition of the essential -likeness of the Oriental ruby, sapphire, topaz, etc.; these varieties of -corundum are all grouped under the single designation “_yakut_.” Ben -Mansur writes:[693] - - The yakut is six-fold: 1, the red; 2, the yellow; 3, the black; 4, the - white; 5, the green or peacock-hued; 6, the blue or smoky-hued. Some - divide the yakut into four classes: red, yellow, dark, and white, - reckoning the peacock-hued and the blue among the dark. The yakut cuts - all stones except carnelian and diamond. - -Although the Oriental carnelian is hard and difficult to cut or polish -only popular prejudice accounts for this statement, as it falls far -short of the diamond in hardness. - -Pseudo-Aristotle, writing some time from the seventh to the ninth -century A.D., was the first to define clearly the three leading -varieties of the corundum gems (yakut) as the same mineral substance, -and differing only in color. These are the ruby, the Oriental topaz -(jacinthus citrinus) and the sapphire. Instead of according different -medicinal or talismanic virtues to these three precious stones, this -writer states that each and all of them, when set in rings or worn -suspended from the neck, protected the wearer from danger in epidemics, -gave him the honor and good will of his fellow-men, and also the -privilege of having his petitions accorded.[694] - -The great Athenian comic poet, Aristophanes (c. 448–c. 385), makes -Strepsiades, one of his characters in the “Clouds,” assert to Socrates -that he knows of a stone having the virtue of saving him from the -payment of a claim of five talents, for which suit has been brought -against him. This stone, called ὓαλος in Greek, was to be found in the -stock of those who dealt in medicines; it was transparent and with it -fire could be kindled. The philosopher, although he knows the stone well -enough, fails to see how it could be made to help the defendant in a -suit at law, and asks Streposiades what he proposes to do with it. The -latter is not at a loss for an answer and declares that when the clerk -proceeds to write down the charge on his waxen tablet, he, Streposiades, -will hold the stone in the sun’s rays so that its beam of light will -fall upon the tablet and melt the wax, thus quite literally “wiping out -the charge.”[695] - -Rock-crystal was so highly prized in Roman times that one of the -greatest treasures preserved in the Capitol was a mass of this stone, -weighing fifty pounds, that had been dedicated by Livia, wife of -Augustus Cæsar. Vessels of great size were also made from this material, -one of the largest being a bowl owned by Lucius Verus, the colleague of -Marcus Aurelius, the dimensions of which were so great that the stoutest -toper of the time could not empty it at a single draught. If we can -trust a statement of Mohammed Ben Mansur, the Arabs and Persians of a -later age must have far surpassed the Romans in the size of their -crystal vessels, for he says that a Mauritanian merchant owned a basin -of rock-crystal within which four men could seat themselves at the same -time. It is true that this basin was composed of two pieces of the -material.[696] - -The Chinese word for crystal, _ching_, was originally represented by the -symbol [Symbol]; that is, three suns, an attempt to figure the -refraction and dispersion of light by the crystal.[697] The _soui che_ -stone of the Chinese which is said to quench thirst if it be placed in -the mouth, is almost certainly rock-crystal, for the Chinese, in common -with the ancient Greeks and Romans, believed this substance to be a -transformation of water, a kind of fossil ice. A similar power was -attributed by Pliny to one of the varieties of agate.[698] - -Labrets of quartz are used in Central Africa and we have a very -interesting description by M. A. Lacroix regarding these ornaments as -worn by the natives of a part of the French possessions. In the land of -the Bandas the natives highly prize a piece of rock-crystal so shaped -that it can be introduced into the lower lip. This usage is confined to -the basins of the Ombella, the Kemo and the Tomi, affluents of the -Oubanghi. - -The following description of the labrets was communicated to M. Lacroix -by M. Lucien Fourneau, Administrator of the Colonies: - - These objects, called _baguérés_, consist of hyaline quartz, perfectly - transparent; they are very regularly cut, and measure from four to - seven cm. (two to three inches) in length. Some have the form of a - very elongated and pointed cone, without any protuberances, the - greatest diameter being about one cm. (about half an inch); the - others, thinner and sharper, have at the base a rim destined to hold - them in place; in all cases a pad of thread constituting a kind of - permanent plug, assures and completes their stability. Some women wear - as many as three of these singular ornaments, thrust, point downwards, - into the same lip. - -The most regular quartz crystals are selected, and these are chipped off -and roughly shaped by blows struck with a hard substance; the quartz is -then set in a wooden handle, and the final shaping and polishing are -accomplished by friction upon a round slab of quartzite or sandstone. -These slabs show grooves along which the crystals have been rubbed. On -an average the time required is four or five days of five hours. The -completed ornament is valued at nine pounds of red wood worth about -$1.20; sometimes one can be secured for three chickens, worth sixty -cents.[699] Those who cannot afford quartz labrets substitute wood, -glass, or pewter. M. Lacroix draws our attention to the fact that a -study of the processes employed in shaping and polishing these pieces of -quartz is of great importance for the elucidation of the methods in use -during the Stone Age.[700] - -A nose-jewel from the New Hebrides consists of a crystal of hyaline -quartz reduced to a cylindrical form, one extremity having been pointed, -while the other retains the natural faces of the crystal. This was -passed through the septum of the nose, and was most likely worn as an -amulet.[701] - -Rock-crystal has been used extensively in the past year with ornaments -of ribbon-like or plaque-like effects. Sometimes all the parts are made -into the exact shape of a bowknot, with a bordering of platinum and -diamonds, or of platinum and diamonds with a calibre-cut onyx; that is, -the rock-crystal material is cut into minute square or oblong stones, -which are run into double triangular edges that hold them. The crystals -are dulled, and frequently have the appearance of moonstones. At times, -indeed, moonstones are used in their place. Sometimes these panels, or -bits and pieces of rock-crystal, are drilled, diamonds set in platinum -are inserted into the drill-holes, and the ornament is engraved in -classic designs of Watteau-like effects. - -The origin of Burmese rubies is thus explained in a Burmese legend -current in the region of the Ruby Mines. According to this legend, in -the first century of our era three eggs were laid by a female _naga_, or -serpent; out of the first was born Pyusawti, a king of Pagan; out of the -second came an Emperor of China, and out of the third were emitted the -rubies of the Ruby Mines.[702] - -Dealing in precious stones was by no means an unusual occupation in -Europe more than four hundred years ago, as is shown by the fact that a -certain Peter, one of the secret agents of Perkin Warbeck, a pretender -to the throne of England in Henry VIII’s reign, was called in the secret -correspondence of the conspirators, “The Merchant of the Ruby.” Such -dealers frequently travelled from place to place, and usually offered -their wares to princes and nobles; hence the statement in a letter that -the Merchant of the Ruby “was not able to sell his wares in Flaunders” -might not seem suspicious if the letter were intercepted and read, -although the meaning was that the emissary had been unable to obtain -succor in Flanders for the cause of the pretender.[703] Probably this -designation also contained a covert allusion to the Red Rose of York, -for Perkin Warbeck gave himself out to be Richard, Duke of York. - -A sixteenth-century traveller, the Portuguese Duarte Barbosa, after -saying that “the rubies grow in India,” proceeds to state that those of -finest quality and greatest value were for the most part gathered in a -river called Pegu and were named _nir puce_ by the Malabars. As a test -of their fineness, the Hindus would touch them with the tip of the -tongue, the coldest (densest) being the best. When a superior ruby was -thus picked out, the examiner would attach a little wax to its finest -point, and so pick it up and look through it against a bright light; by -this means any blemish would immediately become apparent. These rubies -came not only from the river of Pegu but from other parts of the land of -the same name, often being discovered in deep mountain clefts. However, -they were not cut and polished in that country, but were merely cleaned -and sent for cutting to “Palecote and the country of Narsynga.”[704] - -The balas-ruby (originally a spinel from Badakshan) was one of the most -admired precious stones in medieval times, before the diamond was helped -to its proud preëminence by having its beauties revealed through the -exercise of the diamond-cutters’ skill. Almost all the large “rubies” of -which we read, those of Europe at least, were balas-rubies, as were also -by far the greater part of the so-called rubies in Oriental royal -collections of that and later times. The great Italian poet Dante uses -this stone (_balascio_) as a symbol of the glowing radiance of divine -joy in the following lines from the Divina Commedia (Paradiso, ix, -67–69): - - L’altra letizia, che m’era già nota - Preclara cosa, mi si fece in vista - Qual fin balascio in che lo sol percota. - -In very ancient times as well as at the present day (if we admit that -the _anthrax_ of Theophrastus really was ruby and not a pyrope garnet), -the ruby was the most valuable of all precious stones, the Greek writer -stating that at the time he wrote, about 260 B.C., an exceedingly small -specimen would sell for as much as forty gold pieces. His statement that -these stones came from Carthage and Marseilles should not induce us to -prejudge the question as to their real character, as many articles of -Asiatic commerce were distributed from these parts, more especially from -the great Carthaginian seaport.[705] - -A variety of sapphire, having, to a certain extent, the coloration of -the ruby, was called by natives of Ceylon in the sixteenth century -_nilacandi_;[706] this might be rendered sapphire-ruby. These stones are -purple-red by daylight, but artificial light kills the blue and they -appear red. They are frequently called phenomenal sapphires or -alexandrite sapphires. - -Indian poetic fancy has connected the creation of sapphires in Ceylon -with the fair maidens of that island.[707] - - When the young Cingalese maidens sway, with the tips of their fingers, - the stems of the lavali blossoms, then do the two dark blue eyes of - the Daitya fall, eyes with a sheen like that of the lotus in full - bloom. - - Hence it is that this island, with its long sea-coast and its - interminable forests of ketskas, abounds in magnificent sapphires, - which are its glory. - -The following pretty bit of Oriental imagery occurs in a Cinghalese poem -on the deeds of Constantino de Sá, a Portuguese Captain-General. Here -the poet, writing of a river that flowed through the island, calls it -“that lovely stream, the Kaluganga, which meandered as a sapphire chain -over the shoulders of the maiden Lanka.”[708] Lanka is a Cingalese name -for Ceylon. - -The depth of the coloration of sapphires and other stones was believed -to indicate their degree of “ripeness,” the pale stones being “unripe.” -As an illustration of this, Cardano instances a sapphire he had -examined, a small part of which was blue, while the rest resembled a -diamond. Specimens of this kind exist in several collections.[709] The -writer has seen many that are dark blue when viewed from above, and -almost white when viewed through the back. The Cinghalese lapidaries had -very cleverly cut a crystal that was white, with a thin coating of blue, -so that the blue was at the back, fully realizing the wonderful -dispersive power of the sapphire, and that it would appear dark blue if -viewed from above. The value was naturally only trifling compared with -that of a perfectly even-colored gem. - -Al-Berûnî (973–1048 A.D.) gives as the hues of the “red _yakut_” (ruby), -pomegranate-colored safran (henna), purple, flesh-colored, rose-colored, -and of the shade of a pomegranate blossom. Other colors of the _yakut_ -(corundum crystals) were yellow (Oriental topaz), gray, green (Oriental -emerald), white (white sapphire), and black. A henna-colored _yakut_, if -weighing one mitqal (about 24 carats), was valued at 5000 dinars -($12,500), if its weight was half as much, or about 12 carats, it was -esteemed to be worth 2000 dinars ($4500), but for one weighing as much -as 2 mitqals (48 carats) no definite price could be given, probably -because of its great rarity and costliness.[710] - -The Sanskrit name for the topaz, _pita_, signifies “the yellow stone.” -This Sanskrit word is thought by many to be the original of the Hebrew -_pitdah_, a stone of the high-priest’s breastplate. Another Sanskrit -name is pushparaga, “flower-colored.”[711] It must be borne in mind, -however, that these names refer not to our topaz but to yellow corundum, -or Oriental topaz, as it has often been called. - -A topaz of exceptional size is that known as the “Maxwell-Stuart -Topaz”[712] from the name of the owner. It was brought from Ceylon to -England with a lot of inferior rubies and sapphires for use in -watchmaking, and was believed to be simply a piece of quartz. So little -was it appreciated that when sold at auction it only brought £3 10s. -($17.50). When on closer examination its true quality became apparent, -the owner decided to have it cut in brilliant form. The operation -required twenty-eight days’ consecutive work, the diamond-wheel being -used, and resulted in the production of a fine cut stone of a pure white -hue, weighing 368³¹⁄₃₂ carats. When the cutting was partially completed, -a “feather” became apparent that would have spoiled the table, but as it -was still possible to reverse the position of table and culet, this was -done, and the “feather” removed. At this time, in 1879, this topaz could -lay claim to being the largest cut stone in existence, although its size -is considerably surpassed now by that of the largest Cullinan diamond, -516½ carats. - -The same exceptional position taken by jade among the Chinese is -occupied by turquoise among the Tibetans; these are so emphatically -primates among gem-minerals that the very name “stone” seems a -designation unworthy of them, and as a Chinese would say, “it is _jade_, -not a stone,” so would a loyal Tibetan exclaim of his favorite gem, “it -is a _turquoise_, not a stone.” Another indication of the exceptional -rank of turquoise in Tibet is that, as with the famous Oriental and -European diamonds and also with some celebrated balas-rubies, certain of -the first turquoises of Tibet have received individual names, such, for -example, as “the resplendent turquoise of the gods” and “the white -turquoise of the gods.” A tradition relates that the largest turquoise -found up to that time was discovered in the eighth century A.D. by King -Du-srong Mang-po on the summit of a mountain near the sacred Tibetan -city of Lhasa.[713] - -In 1613, Shah Abbas of Persia sent to Jehangir six bags of -“turquoise-dust,” weighing in all some 23½ pounds Troy. However, the -material proved to be of very inferior quality, for the jewellers -searched in vain through the whole mass for a single stone fit for -setting in a ring. Jehangir consoles himself with the reflection that -“probably in these days turquoise-dust is not procurable such as it was -in the time of Shah Tahmasp.”[714] - -When the Syrian monarch Antiochus XIII visited Syracuse during the -prætorship of Caius Verres, he bore with him many richly adorned -vessels, some of them being of gold set with gems after the Syrian -fashion. However, the finest of all was a wine-cup carved out of a -single piece of precious-stone material. When this had once met the gaze -of the greedy Verres, he did not rest until he had got it into his -possession. To attain his end he resorted to a most ignoble stratagem. -Professing his ardent admiration of this as well as of the other -richly-adorned and finely-wrought vessels, Verres requested that they -might be left with him for a short time so that he might contemplate -them at his leisure, and might also have an opportunity to submit them -to examination by his goldsmiths with a view to having some copies -executed. Antiochus readily acceded to this request, but when after the -lapse of a few days he wished to regain possession of his things, Verres -put him off from day to day, on one pretext or another. Finally, as -Antiochus refused to take the more than broad hints that the precious -objects should be bestowed as gifts, Verres spread the rumor that a -piratical fleet was on its way from Syria to attack Sicily, and forced -Antiochus to leave the island that very day, retaining the borrowed -vessels in spite of all remonstrances.[715] - -That precious stones should be used to decorate the teeth seems a rather -queer development of art, although the practice is not altogether -unknown at the present day, when we hear now and again of diamonds being -set in teeth to satisfy the vanity of some eccentric individual. In -pre-Colombian times, however, there is abundant evidence that this -strange form of personal adornment was by no means rare, several -examples having been unearthed from burials in Ecuador, and evidence of -the usage being offered by remains from Mexico and also from Central -America. Among the Mayans here jadeite seems to have been the stone -principally favored for this purpose, while in Mexico hematite has been -met with in Oaxaca, turquoise in Vera Cruz, and at other places in the -land, rock-crystal and obsidian.[716] For the insertion of the stones, -the primitive dental artists carefully and skilfully cut or rubbed away -the enamel from a section of the front part of the tooth to be -decorated, and then applied the precious stone, cut to the required -shape, as an inlay. The way in which this was done gives evidence of a -remarkably high degree of skill in this line of work; in many cases an -inlay of gold was used, instead of a precious stone, and it has even -been conjectured that some of these gold inlays represent a kind of gold -filling for the protection of the tooth. While this is open to question, -the undoubted fact that new teeth were occasionally inserted to take the -place of those which had fallen out or decayed, as shown in several -specimens, might be regarded as corroborative of the broader assumption. -The expert workmanship of these pre-Colombian “dental surgeons” is -clearly manifested in the good condition of the teeth whence so much of -the enamel had been removed, showing that the inlays must have been so -closely adjusted that the tooth was effectively protected from the -introduction of moisture. - -One of the latest fashionable fads, suggested by the great variety of -bright-colored costumes worn by the _mondaines_ (and others) at the -present day, is the selection and wear of jewelry set with stones of the -same color as the striking gown. Thus with a costume of glowing red, the -ruddy ruby would be chosen, a sky-blue costume would insure the wearing -of the justly popular sapphire, dress of a golden-yellow hue would call -for one of the shades of topazes, while the “new brown,” now so much in -vogue, finds its complementary stone in topaz of a slightly darker -shade. The grass-green costume would suggest one of the many beautiful -shades of the tourmaline, and jewelry of the pink tourmaline would be -appropriate to garments of this color. With their wonderful play of -color, opals would accord with all varieties of hue in costume and might -thus be worn with either of the other more especially matched stones. - -An old account of the London trades and guilds, in writing of the -jewellers’ art, makes the following statement regarding the -qualifications of a jeweller, as appropriate to our own times as to any -other.[717] - - He ought to be an elegant Designer, and have a quick Invention for new - Patterns, not only to range the stones in such manner as to give - Lustre to one another, but to create Trade; for a new Fashion takes as - much with the Ladies in Jewels as in anything else; he that can - furnish them oftenest with the newest Whim has the best Chance for - their Custom. - - - - - Index - - - A - - Aazem, great name of God, on rain-stone,5 - - Abarchiel, angel of March, 248 - - Abbott, Charles E., vii - - Abdos, St., 252 - - Abenzoar, 136 - - Abracadabra charm, 326, 327 - - Abraham, 86 - - Abrantès, Duchesse d’, 295 - - Acontus, St., 252 - - Acosta, José de, 210 - - Acrostics in jewels, 375 - - Actinolite, 29 - - Acts of the Apostles in burning of Ephesian magic books, 325 - - Adair, 107 - - _Adlerstein_, 193 - - Ægospotami, meteor of, 79, 80 - - Aepinus, Franz Ulrich Theodor, 54 - - _Ætites_, 20, 124, 173–178 - names of, in various languages, 175 - - Ætius, 174 - - Agapitus, St., 252 - - Agate, 30, 31, 291, 317, 324 - amulets of, in Spain, 368 - as Anglo-Saxon talisman, 331 - banded, stone of Benjamin, symbolical meaning of, 283 - curative use of, 129 - dog’s head amulet of, from Mexico, 351 - “eye-,” 315 - idol of red, in Kaabah, 84 - pebbles of, with natural markings, 377 - “rainbow agate,” 377, 378 - - Agatha, St., 257, 272 - - Agincourt, battle of, 259 - - “Ahnighito,” great Cape York meteorite, 97 - - Alban, St., stone in Abbey of, 151–153 - - Al-Beruni’s statement of prices of precious stones in eleventh century, - 403 - - Alcathous, 2 - - Alchemist’s gold, 14, 16 - medallion transmuted into, 15 - medal made from, 15, 16 - - Alchemy, 14–16 - - _Alectorius_, 20, 119, 160, 179, 180, 181 - - Alexander the Great, 299, 322, 324, 378 - wonderful stones found by, 70 - - Alexandra, Queen, talisman of, 362 - - Allen, Edward Heron, 116 - - Amazon stones, 143, 148, 304, 320 - symbol of Suffrage Party, 374 - - Amber, 60–64, 297, 343, 345, 358 - account of, by Tacitus, 60 - beads, 61–63 - bulls of Romans, 60 - crucifix of yellow, 295 - curative power of, 62 - electrical property of, 63 - hair, 61 - necklace of, as aid to longevity, 63 - oil of, 64 - - Ambergris, 185, 186 - - Ambrose, St., 243, 272 - - American Folk Lore Society’s exhibit in Chicago, 190, 191, 352 - - American Museum of Natural History, 32, 34, 96, 99 - - Amethyst, 58, 123, 296, 330, 335 - engraved, in Egyptian amulets, 280 - necklace of, ancient Egyptian, 317 - stone of Dan, symbolical meaning of, 283 - - Amitabha, emanation of Adi-Buddha, coral statuette of, in Royal Chapel - at Lhasa, Tibet, 303 - - Amulets and talismans, 313–376 - Abracadabra, 326, 327 - against Evil Eye, 345–347 - Babylonian, 314, 315 - Chinese jade wands as, 385 - detected by Röntgen rays, 358 - Egyptian necklace of, 317 - Egyptian, with engraved amethyst, 280 - encircled with elephant’s hair, 375 - explanations of influence of, 313, 314 - for animals, 360 - fragments of skull used as, 331–334 - from Pueblo Bonito ruins, 352 - from Russia, 308 - Gnostic, with seven vowels, 328 - _hei-tikis_ of New Zealand jade, 361 - Hindu, 330, 340 - in the Bible, 278, 322, 323, 325, 360 - in Ecuador, to arouse love, 350 - in Egypt, 317–321 - in old Italian MS., 327, 328 - in Persian grave, 324 - jade, in Panama, 349 - life preserving, story of, 366, 367 - “mummy eyes,” Peruvian, 350 - of agate and coral in Spain, 367, 368 - of Catherine de’ Medici, 334 - of hematite, 383 - of Mexican Indians, 348 - of Paris, 329 - of the Czar, 309 - Pascal’s, 337 - pearls as, 392 - Queen Elizabeth’s, 337 - set in the skin in Burma, 345 - “Talisman of Charlemagne,” 329–331 - teeth and bone used as, 368, 369 - Tibetan, 343–345 - used by Eskimos, 358, 359 - - Anatganor, angel of December, 248 - - Anaxagoras, predicts fall of meteorite, 80 - - “Angelical stone,” for visions, 16 - - Angels, 241–251 - figures of, on medieval gems, 245 - guardian, 244, 246, 248, 249, 250 - in Song of Moses, 250 - Luther’s opinion of guardian, 250 - Mohammedan, world-bearer, on ruby-rock, 248 - not to be worshipped outside the church, 244 - of months, in Sepher de-Adam Kadmah, 247, 248 - seven good, and seven bad, 246, 247 - - Anglo-Saxon “Laece Bok,” of Bald, 331 - - Anna, Santa, President of Mexico, 256 - - Anne, St., 253, 272 - de Beaupré, shrine of, 254–256 - jewel dedicated to, 256 - relics of, 255, 256 - - Antar, Persian hero, legend of, 88, 89 - - Anthony, St., of Padua, 253, 266, 272 - medallion given to church of, by Pope Paul V, 254 - - _Anthrax_, 401 - - Aphrodite, 81 - - Apollo, 3 - - Apollonia, St., of Alexandria, 272 - legend of, 257 - - Apollonius of Tyana, 81 - - Aquamarine, engraved with head of Julia, 288 - - “Aqua Tofana,” 266 - - Ariston, St., 252 - - Aristophanes, 284 - - Aristotle, pseudo-, 5, 69, 70, 163, 396 - - Arnobio, Cleandro, 140, 142 - - Arnobius, 74 - - Arphe, Enrique d’, 294 - - Aschentrekker (ash-attractor), a Dutch designation of tourmaline, 52, - 54 - - Asis Artau, Francisco d’, 295 - - _Askal_, stone said to break the diamond, 69 - - Assos, Asia Minor, stone of, 3 - - Astarte, 81, 83 - - Asteria, 291 - - _Astroites_, 199 - - _Atnongara_-stones of Australian medicine-men, 16 - - Aubrey, John, 260 - - Auspicius, St., 255 - - Autoglyphus, 196 - - “Aviator-stone,” 116, 117 - - Avicenna (Ben Sina), 90, 125, 138 - - Azaêl, angel, 246 - - - B - - Baccii, Andrea, 153 - - _Bætyli_, 76, 82 - - Bajazet II, Sultan, 291 - - Balas-ruby, 401, 404 - - Bannockburn, Battle of, 25 - - Barbara de Portugal, Queen of Spain, 295 - - Barbara, St., 273 - legend of, 258 - - Barbosa, Duarte, 401 - - Barnabas, St., 268, 273 - - Baroda, Gaikwar of, 380 - - Bartholomæus Anglicus, 147, 394, 395 - - Bartholomew, St., 271 - - Basillæ, St., 252 - - _Battê ha-nephesh_ of Hebrews, 360 - - Bauhin, Caspar, 202 - - Bausch, 175, 176 - - Belaleazar, Sebastian de, 311 - - Belemnites, 112, 161, 191 - - Bellermann, Johann Joachim, 278 - - Belucci, Prof. Giuseppe, 107, 145, 200 - - Benzinger, 78 - - Berghem, Lodowyk van, 295 - - Berlin Academy of Sciences, 54 - - Bertholin, Caspar, 139 - - Beryl, 287, 317 - curative use of, 130 - stone of Gad, symbolical meaning of, 283 - - Bezoar, 13, 17, 123, 126, 160, 170, 201–220 - American, 218, 219 - etymology of name, 203 - from monkeys, 203 - from skull of rhinoceros, 211 - genesis of, according to Peruvians, 210 - mineral, 211 - Occidental, 212–215 - prices of, 204, 208, 214, 216, 218 - Queen Elizabeth’s, 215 - Rudolph II’s, 215, 216 - test of, as poison antidote, by Ambroise Paré, 205–207 - by Emperor Rudolph II, 208, 209 - - “Black magic,” 29 - - “Black stone” of Kaabah at Mecca, 73, 84–88 - - Blaise, St., 256, 257, 267, 273 - - Blake, W. W., vii - - Bloodstone, 121, 286 - - Bomare, Valmont de, 155, 217 - - “Book of the Dead,” extracts from, 318–320 - - Boot, Anselmus de, 65, 144, 145, 151, 162, 165, 192, 199, 204, 223, 226 - - Borodino, battle of, 96 - - Borrichius, Plaus, 154 - - Boston Museum of Fine Arts, 317 - - Boulder’s, legends of, 38 _sqq._, 263 - - Boyle, Robert, 105, 125 - - Braddock, Charles, vii - - Brantôme, Seigneur de, 305, 306 - - Brereton, Sir William, 111 - - Brezina, Aristides, 90 - - British Museum, 32, 307 - - Broca, Paul, 332 - - Broichan the Druid and St. Columba, 24, 156 - - _Brontia_, 162, 197, 198 - - Browne, Sir Thomas, on amulets, 314 - - Bruce, Robert, 25 - - Brückmann, U. F. B., 127 - - _Bucardites_, 196 - - Buddha, gem on images of, 297 - jewelled pagoda over sacred footprint of, 299 - solid gold image of, 303, 304 - vases offered to, 297 - - _Bufonitis_, or “toad-stone,” 163 - - Burckhardt, 85 - - Burgarde, St., 267 - - Burton’s “Anatomy of Melancholy,” on stone charms, 336 - - - C - - Caftanzoglu, 373 - - _Callimus_, inclusion in _ætites_, 174, 175 - - Callistratus, 62 - - Callistus, St., 252 - - Caloceri, St., 251 - - Candlemas Day, 269, 272 - - Cañon Diablo meteorite, 99–101 - diamonds in, 100, 101 - - Canticles, 284, 322 - - Cantimpré, Thomas de, 12, 130, 164, 172, 180, 285, 336 - - Cape York meteorites, 96–98 - chemical composition of, 98 - - Carbuncle, 279, 387 - curative use of, 130 - luminous, story of, told by Cellini, 378 - - Cardano, Girolamo, 144, 167, 336 - - Carew, Sir George, 214 - - Carnelian, 291, 297, 300, 317, 324, 361, 368, 378 - rings, Mohammed’s good augury of, 379 - stone of Reuben, symbolical meaning of, 281 - used for amulets in ancient Egypt, 320 - - Carpoforus, St., 252 - - Carrington, Hereward, vii - - Catherine II, Empress, 387 - - Catherine, St., of Alexandria, 259, 295 - - Catlin, George, 35, 36 - - Catlinite, 35, 37 - - Cat’s-eye, 11, 29 - - Cecil, Henry, 235 - - Cecil, Sir Robert, 214 - - Cellini, Benvenuto, 20, 378 - - _Ceraunia_, 82 - - Ceylon, temple treasure in, 298, 299 - - Chalcedony, 30, 31, 123, 131, 287, 291, 296, 301, 303, 361 - - Chalchihuitl, 304, 305, 307, 348 - - Charlemagne, Emperor, 189, 255, 288, 290 - talisman of, 329–331 - - Charles V, Emperor, 294, 306 - - Charles V of France, 177 - - Charles IX of France, 294 - - Charles the Bald, 288 - - Charm in old Italian MS., 327, 328 - - _Chelidonius_, or “swallow-stone,” 119, 172 - - _Chelonia_, 170, 171, 198 - - Cheops, mummy of, decorated with precious stones, 279 - - _Chesbet_, Egyptian name of lapis lazuli, 149 - - Chicken Itzá, Sacred Well of, 307, 308 - - Chinkstone (phonolite), 2 - - Chladni, 95, 104 - - Chlorophane, 237 - - Christ, head of, engraved on emerald, 291, 292 - - Christian II of Denmark, his magic pebble, 21 - - Christian IV of Denmark, 140 - - Christopher, St., 258, 259 - - Christy collection, 309 - - Christy, David, 218 - - _Chrysocolla_, 53 - - Chrysolite (peridot), 287, 291 - a sacred stone, 379 - in Shakespeare’s Othello, 379 - - Chrysoprase, 123, 277, 287 - - _Cinædias_, 169 - - Claudian’s epigrams on rock-crystal, 32 - - Claui, St., 252 - - Clemens, St., 252 - - Clement VII, Pope, 387 - - Clerc, G. O., vii - - Clotaire II, 262 - - Cochrane, Capt. Charles Stuart, 312 - - Coligny, Gaspard de, 207 - - Color, harmony of, between gowns and jewels, 407 - - Columba, St., and white pebbles, legend of, 24, 25, 156 - - Conrad III, King of the Germans, 290 - - Constantine the Great, 329 - - Constantine XII, of Greece, star-sapphire in sword of, 372–373 - - Coral, 30, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 126, 298, 301, 304, 341, 371 - amulets of, in Spain, 368 - Crispi’s amulet of, 339 - curative use of, 131–133 - greatly favored in Tibet, 343 - in Benin, Africa, 379 - ominous change of hue, 132, 133 - selected for Dalai Lama’s incense vessel, 303 - “tincture of,” 132 - worn by Queen Helena of Italy, 380 - - _Cornu ammonis_, 197 - - Cortés, Hernan, 305, 307 - - Corundum, 133 - varieties of, 396 - - “Crab’s eye,” 167 - - “Crabstone,” 121, 122 - - Crantz, David, 359 - - _Crapaudine_, or “toad-stone,” 164, 165 - - Crescentius, St., 252 - - Crispi, Francesco, 339 - - Crispin and Crispian, SS., 259, 273 - - Cross, jewelled, of Duke of Brunswick, 289 - of Zaccaria, 290, 291 - - “Crown of the Virgin,” 287 - - Crystal, magic, of a Fijian, 364–366 - - Crystal balls as curative amulets, 25 - - Culin, Stewart, 358 - - Curative “crystals” of Australian medicine-men, 16 - of Kainugá Indians of Paraguay, 18 - of New Guinea medicine-men, 19 - - Curative use of gems, 118–159 - for “Black Death” plague, 120 - Francesco India’s opinion of, 124, 125 - in Bohemia, 121 - in Denmark, 126 - in Leyden, 126, 127 - of particular stones, 129–159 - prices of stones, 123 - Robert Boyle on, 125, 126 - - Cushing, Lieut. F. H., 310, 358 - - _Custodia_, or monstrance, examples of, in Spain, 294, 295 - - Cuthbert, St., 273 - well of, 265 - - Cybele, image of, a meteorite, 74, 75 - - Cyprianus, St., 252, 253 - - Cyriacus, St., 252 - - - D - - _Dagoba_, jewelled Buddhist reliquary, 300 - - Damigeron, 129 - - Daniel, Book of, 242, 243, 250 - - David, St., 270, 273 - - Davison, J. M., 99 - - “Dawn stones” (eoliths), 109 - - Declan, St., 273 - stone named after him, 43 - - De Foe, Daniel, 326 - - Delphi, Omphalus of, probably a meteorite, 76 - - “Depositio Martirum” of 354 A.D., 251, 252 - - “Devil’s stone,” boulder in East Prussia, 42 - - Diamond, 16, 61, 294, 300, 304, 372, 387 - curative use of, 135 - in Cañon Diablo meteorite, 99–101 - said to have been given as poison in Baroda, 380 - uncut, in “Sacred Shrine” of Chartres, 291 - with cross effect in black and white, 296, 297 - - Diana, 81 - - Diaz de Castillo, Bernal, 305 - - Didanor, Angel of June, 247 - - Dieris of Central Africa, rain-stones of the, 6 - - Dietrich of Bern, Saga of, story of “Victory Stone” from, 199, 200 - - Dioscorides, 150, 173 - - Dodge, Mrs. William E., 99 - - Dog-collars set with coral as cure for hydrophobia, 131 - - Dolmens, curative stones of, 38 - whirling stones of, 39 - - Domingo, Santo, Fiesta de, 309 - - Donato, St., amulets of, 265 - - Donne, John, 337 - - Dragons, gem-bearing, of India, 11 - - Draper, Mrs. Henry, vii - - “Druid’s glass,” 227, 228 - - - E - - “Easter stone,” 285 - - Ebers papyrus, 148, 149 - - Echinites, 192, 193 - - Egede, Hans, 359 - - Elagabalus, Emperor, 83 - - Eldred, John, 389 - - Electric gems, 51–64 - - Elephants, 299, 301 - - “Elf-stones,” 108, 109, 110, 161 - - Elizabeth, Queen, 215, 337 - - Eloy, St., 264, 273 - - “Emanism,” term used to denote influence of amulets, 313 - - Emerald, 4, 16, 29, 53, 68, 119, 120, 123, 124, 125, 131, 136, 277, - 278, 287, 291, 294, 298, 304, 310, 317, 324, 330, 343, 371, 395 - ancient, from Berenice, Egypt, 382 - cast into sacred lake of Guatavita, Colombia, 311 - curative use of, 135 - dedicated to Venus, 305 - engraved with head of Christ, 291, 292 - in cathedral of Mainz, 295 - of Hernan Cortés, 305 - of Temple of Melkarth at Tyre, 81 - stone of Levi, symbolical meaning of, 281 - - _Enastros_, 192, 194 - - Encelius, 167 - - Enimie, St., legend of, 262, 264 - - _Entrochus_, 192, 194 - - Ephesian writings for amulets, etc., 325 - - Ephesus, Temple of Diana at, 81 - - _Épreuve_, or tester, 181 - - Erasmus, 164 - - Erasmus, St., 267 - - Erman, Adolph, 149 - - Erosion of stones and pebbles, 22 - - Ethelred II, 152 - - Eugénie, Empress, 331 - - Eulalia, St., 269 - - “Evil eye,” 131, 265, 315, 320, 339, 344, 345–347, 367, 368 - - “Expanding stone,” 45 - - - F - - Fabianus, St., 251, 253 - - Fairbanks, Arthur, vii - - “Fairy stones,” 37 - - Farrington, O. C., vii - - “Fatima’s hand,” 347 - - Feavearyear, A. W., vii - - Feldspar, 30, 77, 324 - in “Book of the Dead,” 318, 319 - - Felicissimus, St., 252 - - Felicitas, St., 251, 253, 274 - - Felix, St., 252 - - Ferdinand III, Emperor, 15 - - Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, vii - - Filippus, St., 252 - - Filocalus, Furius Dionysius, calendar of, 251 - - Floating-stones, 223 - - Flower jewels, 342, 343 - - Foote, A. E., 101 - - Fossils and concretions, virtues of, 160–190 - - Fox, John, Jr.’s “Trail of the Lonesome Pine,” 37 - - Foy, Sainte, statuette of, 261, 262 - - Francis I of Austria, 89 - - Franklin, Benjamin, on tourmaline, 57 - - Frederick III of Denmark, 126 - - French Academy of Sciences, 54 - - - G - - Gabelchover, Wolfgang, 153, 158 - - Gabriel, archangel, 243, 245, 246, 250 334 - - Galactite, 3, 4 - - Galba, Emperor, 83 - - Galen, 136, 137, 146, 188, 232 - - Garcias ab Orta, 68, 204 - - Garcilasso de la Vega, 214 - - Garnet, 123, 291, 296, 309, 317, 330 - - “Gascoigne’s powder,” 127, 128 - - Gaster, 371 - - “Gem of Sovranty” or “Gem of the King of Kings,” 11 - - Gem-cutters, American Indian, 381 - - George V, King, 362 - - George, St., 261, 274 - legend of, 260 - thalers, 260 - - Gesner, Conrad, 4, 54, 73, 144 - - Gesta Romanorum, snake story from, 238 - - Giglioli, Enrico H., 364 - - Girasol, 291 - - _Glæsum_ (amber), 60 - - _Glossopetræ_, 161, 180, 188–190 - - Gnostics, magic jewels of, 328 - - “Godstones” buried with the dead, 23 - - “Golden Cacique” (El Dorado) at Lake Guatavita, 311 - - Gordian the Younger, Emperor, 326 - - Gorgonus, St., 252 - - _Grammatias_, variety of jasper, 284 - - Green, Miss Bella Da Costa, vii - - Gregory X, Pope, 119 - - Gregory XIII, Pope, 212 - - Gregory of Tours, his account of Paris talismans, 329 - - Guatavita, Lake of, treasures thrown in, 310–312 - - _Guligas_ (bezoars) artificially induced by Dayaks of Borneo, 217 - - - H - - Haberden, William, his researches on tourmaline, 56, 57 - - Hadrian, Emperor, 1 - - Hahedan, angel of October, 248 - - Hair-balls, 220, 221 - - _Hajar al-hattaf_, or “hen-stone,” 181 - - Hajar al-hayyat (“madstone”), 225 - - _Hajer al-Kelb_, “dog-stone,” 11, 12 - - _Hajer al-mathar_, Arabic rain-stone, 5 - - Hammer-Purgstall, 89 - - Harington, Sir James, 120 - - Haupt, Paul, 277 - - Haüy, Abbé, 56 - - Haye, Olivier de la, his poem on “Black Death,” 120 - - Hei-tikis, carved jades of New Zealand, 361 - - Helena, Queen, 380 - - Helena, St., 329 - - Heliotrope, 291 - - Hematite, 124, 125, 320 - American Indian artefacts of, 382, 383 - black, Abraxas gem of, 287 - curative use of, 136–138 - - He-no, Iroquois god of thunder, 107 - - Henri II, of France, 334 - - Herculanus, St., 252 - - Hermetes, St., 252 - - Herodian, 74 - - Hertz, B., 48 - - Hildburgh, W. L., 367 - - Hildegard, St., her theory of curative stones, 13 - - Hill, Sir John, 118 - - Hippocrates of Cos, 333 - - Hofmann, Johann Peter, alchemist, 15, 16 - - Hoffman’s “Fräulein von Scudéry,” 371 - - Holme, Saxe (pseudonym), 51 - - Holmes, W. H., vii - - Hope, Henry Philip, collection of, 48 - - Hortense, Queen, 330 - - Hugo, Victor, 153 - - Huntington, O. W., 101 - - Huth, Ernst, 235 - - Huxley, Thomas, 105 - - Hyacinth (sapphire?), 282 - - _Hyænia_, 169 - - Hydaspes River, stone of, 2 - - Hyde, Major, 309 - - Hydrophane, or “magic stone,” 240 - - _Hysterolithus_, 75, 195, 196 - - - I - - Ibn Al-Beithar, 11, 148, 167 - - Ibn Batoutah, 84 - - Ibn Kadho Shobah, 4 - - Ichthys, angel, 246 - - Iliad, 138 - - Inclusions in crystals, 31, 34 - - India, Francesco, 121, 124 - - “Indian stone,” 163 - - Innocent VIII, Pope, 291 - - Isabel of Bavaria, precious-stone remedy of, 177 - - Ivory, 303 - - Ixmaracdus, St., 252 - - - J - - Jacinth, 123, 124, 125, 127, 184, 291, 296 - curative use of, 138 - - Jacinti, St., 252 - - Jackson, Helen Hunt, 51 - - Jacob’s stone at Bethel, 76, 78 - - Jade, 4, 77, 121, 283, 285, 324, 348, 359, 383, 384, 404 - amulets of white, 342 - as preservative of dead body, 142 - carved amulets of, in Panama, 348, 349 - Chinese girdle pendants of, 341 - Chinese wands of, 384 - curative use of, 139–143 - disk of, in Temple of Heaven, Peking, 302 - Eskimo talismans of, 358 - _hei-tiki_ amulets of, from New Zealand, 361 - in Egypt, 319 - in New Caledonia, 363, 364 - mortuary tablets of, Chinese, 384 - of New Zealand, 362 - ornaments of, from Syria, 384 - Queen Alexandra’s, 362 - - Jadeite, 77, 304, 305 - - Jagannath, 339, 340 - - James I of England, 49, 301 - - James, St., 271, 274 - - Jargoon, 120 - - Jasper, 4, 30, 53, 124, 148, 286, 287, 296, 317, 324, 383 - curative use of, 144, 145 - Eskimo talisman of, 358 - stone of Asher, symbolical meaning of, 283 - talismanic virtue of, 284 - - Jehangir, Mogul Emperor, 92, 208, 301, 383, 405 - - Jeremiel, angel, 251 - - Jerome, St., 176, 274 - on jasper talismans, 284 - on jewels of Prince of Tyre, 280 - - Jerusalem, Temple of, 9 - stones of the New, 70 - - Jessen, Peter, vii - - Jet, 352, 386 - curative use of, 146, 147 - - Jeweller’s dictum in old London, 407 - - Job, Book of, 250 - - John XXI, Pope, 119 - - John, St., 267, 271, 274 - - John the Baptist, 290, 306 - - Joseph, St., 266 - - Josephine, Empress, 330 - - Judd, Neil M., vii - - Julianetes, St., 252 - - Julius II, Pope, 267 - - Jupiter the Thunderer, 82 - - Juvenal, 60 - - - K - - Kaabah at Mecca, black stone of, 73, 84–88 - - Kaempfer, Engelbert, 207, 209 - - Khusrau Nushirwan, 89 - - Khusrau II, 69 - - K’ien-lung, Emperor, 302 - - King, Rev. C. W., 62, 328 - - Kircher, Athanasius, his theory of _lusus naturæ_, 50 - - Koenig, 99, 100 - - Kohut, 243 - - _Krallenstein_, 193 - - Krishna, 37 - - - L - - _Lacrima cervi_, “stag’s tear,” 170 - - Laet, Johann de, 53, 54, 141, 190, 192 - - “Lake George diamonds,” 26 - - _Lamiæ_, 190 - - Lanciani, 75 - - _Languier_, or “tester,” 181 - - Lannes, Marshal, 295 - - _Lapides caymanum_, 181 - - _Lapis Armenus_, 124, 149 - curative use of, 147, 148 - - _Lapis carpionis_, 168, 169 - - _Lapis Judaicus_, 187, 194 - - _Lapis lazuli_, 78, 123, 124, 148, 149, 280, 284, 297, 298, 301, 317, - 320, 324 - in “Book of the Dead,” 318 - large mass of, found in Indian grave, 386 - religious use of, in Ecuador, 308 - stone of Issachar, symbolical meaning of, 282 - - _Lapis Malacensis_, 204 - - _Lapis manati_, 181, 182 - - _Lapis nephriticus_ (jade), 140 - - Laufer, Berthold, 304 - - Laurence, St., 267 - - Laurentus, St., 252 - - Lavoisier, 94 - - Lebour, Mrs. Nona, vii - - Lémery, M. Louis, 54 - - Leo IV, Pope, 126 - - Leo X, Pope, 386 - - Leopold, Emperor, 16 - - Liceti, Fortunio, 344 - - _Lingucs Melitenses_, 189 - - Linnæus, 54 - - “Lithica,” Orphic poem on stones, 137, 224 - - Lithomania, 19 - - “Liver-stones,” 186 - - Livia, wife of Augustus, 397 - - Loadstone, 64–68, 119, 313 - as elixir of youth, 68 - oracle, De Boot’s, 65, 66 - for the gout, 68 - of Maniolæ Islands, 64 - Robert Norman’s poem on, 66, 67 - - Loch-mo-naire in Scotland, legend of, 155, 156 - - “Loda’s stone of power,” 35 - - Los Muertos, Zuñi, jar with turquoise inlays found at, 309 - - Lough Neagh, Ireland, legend of yellow crystal there, 35 - - Louis XIV, 133 - - Louis XVI, 153 - - Louvre Museum, 280, 291, 389 - - Lucia, St., 258, 271, 275 - legend of, 257 - - “Lucky stone,” 28 - - Luminous stone of male cobra, 237 - - Lusus Naturæ, stones bearing naturally marked images, 47–51 - - Luther, Martin, 249 - - _Lychnis_ of Pliny (tourmaline?), 52 - - _Lychnites_, 176 - - Lysander, 79 - - - M - - Maccabæus, Judas, 325 - - “_Madstones_,” 225 _sqq._ - - _Mafkat_ (Egyptian for turquoise?), 316 - - Magic stones, 1–71, 109 _sqq._ - belief in, condemned by Church Councils, 38, 39 - “day-stone” and “night-stone,” 70 - of Guernsey, 40 - of Island of Arran, 40 - of Island of Fladda, 40 - stone that attracts hair, 69, 70 - - _Magnes_ (loadstone), 124 - - Magnusen, Finn, 198 - - _Main-de-gloire_, 334 - - Malachite, 148, 291 - curative use of, 150 - - “Malediction stones” in Ireland, 46, 47 - - Mallet, F. H., 233 - - Mamoun, Khalif, 279 - - Maquam Ibrahim, sacred stone in Kaabah at Mecca, 88 - - Marbodus of Rennes, 174 - - Marco Polo, 343 - - Margaret, St., 270, 275 - - Margarita, Queen of Italy, 380 - - Marguerite de Flandres, 335 - - Mariette, 279 - - Mark, St., 290 - - Marquette, Jacques, 35 - - Marriage sword, Chinese ceremony of, 384, 385 - - Marshall, J. H., 299 - - Martial, 60 - - Martin, St., 271 - and the Devil, legend of, 44 - - Mary of Scotland, 337 - - Mask, ancient Mexican, with turquoise inlays, 306, 307 - - Mas’ûdi’s “Meadows of Gold,” 321, 322 - - Matthias, St., 270 - - Meander River, magic stone of, 12 - - “Median stone,” for colic, 144, 151 - - Medici, Catherine de’, 332 - her bracelet of charms, 334 - - Medicine-men, 348, 349, 353–358 - cure by dancing and howling, 357 - in Australia, 17 - medicine-bag of, 356, 360 - of the Kainugá Indians, Paraguay, 18 - of New Guinea, 19 - - Medicine-women of Araucarian Indians, Chili, 351 - - Megara, sonorous stone at, 2 - - Megenberg, Konrad von, 12, 151 - - Memmiæ, St., 252 - - Memnon, Vocal, 1 - - Mentzel, Christian, 187 - - Mephniel, angel of January, 248 - - Mercato, Michele, 93, 212 - - _Mesticas_ of the Malays, 17, 18 - invulnerability conferred by, 18 - - Meteorites, 72–117 - accidents caused by, 102–104 - coins representing, 90, 91 - collection of, in Vienna, 90 - from Cape York, 96–98 - from Kiowa Co., Kansas, 101, 102 - from Willamette, Ore., 98, 99 - of Ægospotami, 79, 80 - of Bacubrit, Mexico, 103 - of Book of Joshua, 79 - of Cañon Diablo, 99–101 - of Castrovilarii, Calabria, 93 - of Diana Temple at Ephesus, 81 - of Eisleben, 103 - of Ensisheim, 73 - of Knyahinya, Hungary, 102 - of Lahore, India, 92 - of Luce, Dept. Marne, France, 94 - of Magdeburg, 91 - of Mecca (Black Stone), 73, 84–88 - of Paphos, 81 - of Pergamos, brought to Rome, 74 - of Radacofani, Italy, 91 - of Zanzibar, 71 - Pallas, or Krasnojarsk, 95 - _pwdre ser_, or “star-rot” of Welsh, 104–106 - Swords made of, 88–90, 92 - “Verwünschte Burggraf” of Elbogen, 89, 90 - - Michael, archangel, 243, 245, 246, 250, 334 - - Midêwiwin, or Great Medicine Society of the Ojibways, 354, 355 - magic stone of, 354 - medicine-bag used by, 356 - - Milinda, King, 11 - - Milo of Croton, wore an _alectorius_, 179 - - _Milprey_, “thousand worms,” Cornish name of a snake-stone, 227 - - “Mineral stone,” for turning pebbles into precious stones, 16 - - Mohammed, 74, 84 - - Mohammed Ben Mansur, 396, 397 - - Mohammed Ghazni, Sultan, 90 - - Moissan, Henri, 100 - - Monardes, Nicolo, in jade, 139, 201, 203 - - Montezuma’s gifts to Cortés, 305, 307, 309 - - Months, angels of the, 247 - - Moonstone, remarkable, of Pope Leo X, 386 - - Moonstone Beach, Santa Catalina Island, pebbles from, 30 - - Moore, Thomas, 250 - - Morael, angel of September, 248 - - Morgan, Henry de, 323 - - Morgan, J. Pierpont, 185 - - “Mummy eyes,” Peruvian, 352 - - Museum of University of Pennsylvania, 358 - - - N - - Napoleon I, 96, 295 - - Napoleon III, Emperor, 330 - - Nash, Thomas, 166 - - Nautilus pearls, 391 - - Nebuchadnezzar I, 78 - - Necklace of the Egyptian Princess Sat-Hathor-Ant, XII Dynasty, 317, 318 - - _Neshem_-stone, 320 - - New Caledonian stone amulets, 45 - - New Zealand jade, _punamu_ or “green-stone,” 361–363 - - Newton, Hubert A., 72, 73, 74 - - Nicholas I, Emperor, 285 - - Nicholas, St., 275 - legend of, 258 - - Nicholas, St., of Bari, “manna” of, 266 - - Nicostratus, St., 252 - - Noah’s rain-stone, 4, 5 - - Nonnus, St., 252 - - Nordenskiold, Baron N. A. E., 97 - - Norman, Robert, poem on loadstone, 66 - - _Nung-gara_, or Australian medicine-men, 17 - - - O - - _Oleum succini_, 64 - - _Ombria_, 162, 197, 198 - - Onyx, 277, 335, 369 - curative use of, 151–153 - stone of Zebulon, symbolical meaning of, 282 - wonderful cup of, belonging to Duke of Brunswick, 387 - - Opal, 372, 374, 407 - favored by Queen Victoria, 375 - parure of, for Empress Augusta, 375 - - Orchamps, Baronesse d’, 371 - - Osman, Augustin, 374 - - _Ostrea Singapora_, 391 - - _Ostrites_, 224, 225 - - Otilia, St., 267 - - Overbury, Sir Thomas, 381 - - Ovid, 131 - - _Ovum anguinum_, 162, 197, 221–224, 226 - - _Oyaron_, Indian amulet-control, 354 - - - P - - _Padparasham-gem_ (corundum) of Ceylon, 395 - - Palladius, 64 - - Paré, Ambroise, 206, 207 - - Paris, Matthew, 152 - - Paris talismans, Gregory of Tours’ account of, 329 - - Parthenus, St., 251 - - Pascal, Blaise, amulet of, 337, 338 - - _Pater de sang_, or “blood-rosary,” 133 - - Patrick, St., 43, 225 - - Paul II, Pope, 126 - - Paul V, Pope, 254 - - Paul, St., 269, 275 - at Malta, 161, 189 - - Pausanius, 2 - - “Peace Stone,” 58 - - Pearls, 20, 120, 124, 126, 127, 277, 280, 291, 294, 299, 300, 304, 305, - 330, 341, 380, 387 - Arabic theory of genesis of, 388, 394 - “cocoanut,” supposed, 391 - from Philippines, 391, 392 - immense baroque, 392 - Mme. Thiers’ necklace of, 389 - necklace of, in Persian grave, 324 - of nautilus, 391 - “powder,” 390 - Rumphius on supposed breeding of, 392 - story of a luminous, 390 - story of, thrown into Venetian canal by pearl-dealer, 393 - strange tale of, 388, 389 - - Peary, Admiral Robert E., 96 - - “Pebble-mania,” 19, 20 - among birds, 20 - - Pebbles, ornamental, 19–31 - worn by Hindus, 37 - - Penel, angel, 246 - - Pepper, George H., 352 - - Peridot (chrysolite), 281 - - Perkin Warbeck, 401 - - Perpetua, St., 251, 253 - - Persian princess, jewels in her grave, 323–325 - - Pescadero Beach, Cal., pebbles from, 30 - - Peter, St., 250, 251, 276, 290 - - Peter’s, St., in Rome, 51 - - Petrie, Flinders, 317 - - Petrograd Museum of Natural History, 95 - - Petrus Hispanus (Pope John XXI), 119 - - Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, 32 - - Philippine pearls, 391, 392 - - “Philosopher’s Stone,” 14, 16 - - Phonolite, 2 - - _Pierre de santé_, 153 - - _Pierres de foudre_, 94 - - “_Pierres tourniresses_,” or whirling stones, 39 - - _Pietre gravide_, or “pregnant stones,” 178 - - Pilatus Mountain, Lake Lucerne, galactite found on, 4 - - “Pipestone,” 35 - - _Piropholos_, stone from heart of a poisoned man, 12 - - Pitchblende, 129 - - _Pitdah_, stone of high-priest’s breastplate, 403 - - Plasma-emerald, 20 - - Plato’s Phædon, _daimon_, or guardian angel in, 246 - - Pliny, 3, 32, 52, 62, 80, 82, 129, 137, 146, 169, 170, 172, 173, 188, - 196, 221, 222, 224, 226 - - Plutarch, 80, 82 - - Pogue, Joseph E., 353 - - Point Barrow Eskimos, amulets of, 358, 359 - - Ponce de Leon, 14 - - Poncet, Charles Jacques, 210 - - Pontianus, St., 252 - - “Porcupine-stone,” 184, 185 - - Precious stones thrown up on coast of Alexandria, Egypt, 321 - - Procopius, 64 - - Protus, St., 252 - - Psellus, 129, 135 - - Ptolemy the Geographer, 382 - - _Pwdre ser_, “star-rot,” 104–106 - - Pyrite, curative use of, 153 - - - Q - - Quartz, 324 - for labrets and for nose-jewels in Africa, 398, 399 - from Indian mounds, 26 - from Lake George, 26 - from Yucatan, 26 - of large size, from North Carolina, 26 - rutilated, 32 - used by Araucarian medicine-women, 351 - with inclusions, 30–34 - - Quartz pebbles, 19 _sqq._ - in Indian skeleton’s hand, 28 - in prehistoric graves, 24 - polished by water or glacial action, 21, 22 - with inclusions, 29, 30 - - Quirinius, St., 267 - - - R - - Radium, 129 - - Raguel, angel, 245 - of May, 247 - - “Rainbow agate,” 377, 378 - - “Rainbow-disease,” 114 - - Rain-making stones, 4–7 - Arabic, 5 - from Karmania, 5 - of Africa tribes, 5, 6 - of Australian tribes, 6 - of Noah, 5 - Persian, 5 - stone crosses as, 7 - Turkish, 4 - - Raphael, archangel, 243, 245, 250 - - Raziel, angel, 247 - - Redi, Francesco, 232 - - Redondo Beach, Cal., pebbles from, 30, 31 - - Red-paint People of Maine, 28 - - Reed, Sir Charles Hercules, vii - - Reich, David, 192, 199 - - Religious use of precious stones, 277–312 - - Renouf, P. Le Page, 319 - - Revelation, Book of, 243 - - Rhodonite used for tomb of Nicholas I, 285 - as “Easter Stone,” 285 - - Rivaud, Charles, 375 - - Roch, St., 259, 267, 276 - - Rock-crystal, 123, 170, 285, 297, 317 - as a rain-stone, 6, 7 - Chinese name of, 398 - curative use of, 153–157 - immense vessels of, 398 - “perfect jewel” of Japanese, 345 - recommended in law suit by Aristophanes, 397 - See also Quartz - - Roe, Sir Thomas, 301 - - “Roland’s Foot,” stone at Toufailles, France, 43 - - Röntgen rays to detect amulets, 358 - - Rosaries, 202 - Hindu, 293 - legend of, 293 - - Rose-quartz, 384 - - Royal National Museum of Munich, 288 - - “Royal stone,” from eagle’s head, 13 - - Rubellite, 384 - - Ruby, 11, 16, 58, 123, 125, 291, 294, 296, 297, 299, 314, 343, 407 - of Pegu, 401 - on mummy of Cheops, 279 - Mohammedan Atlas stands on, 248 - origin of Burmese, 400 - stone of Judah, symbolical meaning of, 282 - “The Merchant of the,” 400 - - Rudolph II, Emperor, 208, 215 - - Rumphius, Georg Eberhard, 18, 238, 244, 392 - - - S - - Sabaoth, angel, 245 - - “Sacred shrine” of Cathedral of Chartres, 291 - - Sacred stone of Kiowa Indians, 44 - - Sadlier, Rev. Charles, vii - - Saints’ Days, alphabetical list of, 272–276 - - _Sâlagrâma_-stone of Hindus, 196–198 - emblem of Vishnu, 196 - neither Sudra nor Pariah may wear, 198 - - Sammonicus, Serenus, 326 - - Sanchoniathon, 81 - - Santa Casa of Loreto, 186, 267 - - Santos-Dumont’s loadstone, 264 - - Sapphire, 11, 16, 31, 58, 119, 123, 124, 125, 284, 285, 287, 290, 291, - 294, 299, 304, 330, 336, 343, 407 - Bartholomæus Angelicus on, 395 - carved, from India, 300 - curative use of, 157, 158, 184 - in talisman of Charlemagne, 329 - of Ceylon, 402 - stone of Joseph, symbolical meaning of, 282 - test of a, 394 - - Sarcophagus-stone, 3 - - Sard, 287 - - Sardonyx, 123, 291, 372 - engraved gem of, 288 - - Saturninus, St., 252 - - Sauvageot collection, 291 - - Scarabs, 320, 321 - - Schliemann, Heinrich, 323 - - Schola Salernitana, 120 - - Schrott, John, 230 - - _Schwindelstein_ (vertigo-stone), 153 - - Scipio Africanus, 74 - - Sebastian, St., 251, 259, 276, 290 - - Secundus, St., 252, 276 - - Seiler, Wenzel, alchemist, 15 - - Seleucia, meteorite of, 81 - - Semnes, St., 252 - - Sempronianus, St., 252 - - Seneca, 82 - - “Sepher de-Adam Kadmah,” 247 - - Serpentine, 320, 350 - - “Serpents’ eggs,” 221–224, 226 - - Seuerianus, St., 252 - - _Shahkevheren_, or “King of Jewels,” 68, 69 - - _Shah-muhra_, Persian magic stone, 13 - - Shakespeare, 162, 260, 337, 379, 391, 393 - - _Shamir_, mysterious Hebrew stone, 7–10 - Arabic legend regarding, 9 - in the Bible, 7, 8 - in Rabbinical legend, 8 - - Sharks’ teeth, fossil, 190 - - Sh’efiel, angel of April, 247 - - _Shoham_-stone, 277 - - Siamese girl’s consecration, jewels worn at, 342 - - Signatures, doctrine of, 118 - - Silanus, St., 252 - - Simon and Jude, SS., 271 - - Skulls, disks from, as talismans, 331–334 - in Buddhist legend, 332, 333 - in neolithic times, 333 - on bracelet of Catherine de’ Medici, 334 - - _Smaragdus_, 319, 320, 384 - - “Snake-stone,” 221–240 - - Snouck-Hurgronje, Dr. C., 87 - - Socrates, 397 - - Solomon, 9, 10 - - “Southern stone” in Kaabah at Mecca, 87 - - Spangenberg’s Saxon Chronicle, 103 - - “Spider-stone,” 183, 184 - anecdote of, 183 - - Spinel, 296 - - Spitzer collection, 185 - - “St. Paul’s earth,” 189 - - Star-sapphire, as Christmas gem, 286 - set in hilt of sword given King Constantine XII of Greece, 372, 373 - - Steatite, 300 - - _Steinzungen_, 189 - - Stone Age in China, 76–78 - - “Stone of the Banner,” 25 - - “Stones of the cobra,” 231, 232, 235–238 - - _Stûpra_, celestial, Hindu shrine, 298 - - Suckling, Sir John, 104 - - Suetonius, 83 - - Suffrage Party, amazon-stone as symbol of, 374 - - Sunstone, 387 - - Sutton, Edward Forrester, vii - - Swithin, St., 270, 276 - - Swords made of meteoric iron, 88–90, 92 - - Symbolic jewel composed of three keys, 375 - - Sympathetic magic, doctrine of, 366 - - - T - - Ta’anbanu, angel of July, 247 - - Tabasheer, 149, 233, 235 - - Tacitus, 60, 81 - - Talismans, see amulets - - Tan Sien Ko, vii - - Tashnedernis, angel of February, 248 - - Tasmanian rain-makers, 34 - - Taurinus, St., 252 - - Tavernier, Jean Baptiste, 110, 185, 230, 231, 235 - - _Tecolithos_, 188 - - Teeth as amulets, 368 - inlaid with precious stones, 406, 407 - - Tetragrammaton, 278 - - Thales, 63 - - Thebes, 1, 2 - - Theophrastus, 3, 53, 118, 173, 401 - - _Theriaca Andromachi_ or “Venice treacle,” 121 - - “Thesaurus Pauperum” of Pope John XXI, 119 - - “Thetis’s hair stone,” 29 - - Thevenot, M. de, 231 - - Thiers, Mme., pearl necklace of, 389 - - Thomas, St., 268, 271 - - Thoth, named “Trismegistos” by the Greeks, 320 - - “Thunder-stones,” 76, 86, 83, 92, 94, 106–116, 161, 350 - - Thurston, Sir J., 366 - - Tiberius Cæsar, 291, 292 - - Tibetan jewelry, 341 - - Tiffany and Co., 373 - - Timoteus, St., 252 - - Toad-stone, 162–167, 192 - - Tobit, Book of, 243, 250 - - Tofte, Richard, 61 - - Tohargar, angel of August, 247 - - Topaz, 11, 58, 124, 287, 290, 291, 372, 407 - curative use of, 158, 159 - etymology of name, 403 - “Maxwell-Stuart,” 404 - - Tourmaline, 51–60, 384, 407 - as Peace Stone, 58 - brought to Holland from Ceylon, 52 - experiments on, by Aepinus, 54 - by Lémery in 1717, 55 - from Mount Mica, Maine, 51 - letter of Franklin on, 57, 58 - named Aschentrekker by Dutch, 52 - story of, “My Tourmaline,” by Helen Hunt Jackson, 51, 52 - - Trallianus, Alexander, 144 - - Trephining in primitive times to obtain skull-talismans, 332, 333 - - Tribes, Hebrew, meaning of their names, 281–284 - - _Trochites_, 192, 193 - - Trowbridge, Breck, 373 - - _Tse-boum_, or incense vase, in Dalai Lama’s palace at Lhasa, 302 - - Tubuas, angel, 245 - - _Turmali_, Cinghalese name of tourmaline, 52 - - Turquoise, 20, 159, 291, 296, 310 - amulets of, from Pueblo Bonito, 352 - book on, by Dr. Joseph E. Pogue, 353 - favorite stone in Tibet, 343, 344, 404 - in ancient Egyptian tale, 316 - in ancient Persian jewels, 324 - inlays of, in Mexican masks, 306, 307 - large pendant of, on Buddha’s statue, 304 - meaning of Persian name of, 316 - offered to image of Santo Domingo, 309 - of Los Cerrillos, 309 - religious favor given to, in Tibet, 304 - set in sheep’s eyes, 316 - Shylock’s, 337 - valued by Pima Indians of Arizona, 353 - - Tycho Brahe, 179 - - - U - - Uleranen, angel of November, 248 - - _Ultunda_-stones of Australian medicine-men, 16 - - _Umbilicus marinus_, 191 - - Uriel, archangel, 243, 245, 246, 251, 334 - - Urim and Thummim, 278 - - - V - - Valentine, St., 270, 276 - - Vases offered to the Buddha, 297 - - Verres, Caius, 405, 406 - - Verus, Lucius, 397 - - Victoria, Queen, 48, 375 - - Victorini, St., 252 - - Vienna, Natural History Museum of, 90 - - Virgil, 82 - - “Virgin’s milk,” 4 - - Vishnu, double footprint of, legend regarding, 340 - - Vitus, St., 270, 276 - - Vlasto, D., 373 - - Volmar, 13 - - - W - - Wada, T., vii - - Walpole, Horace, 381 - - Walpurgis, St., Day, 21 - - Ward, W. Hayes, vii - - “Watermelon stone,” variety of tourmaline, 58 - - Weighing of the Mogul Emperor, 301 - - Wells, T. Tilestone, 373 - - Wenceslaus Chapel in St. Veit’s at Prague, adorned with precious - stones, 296 - - “Whitby jet,” 380 - - White, H. C., 239 - - “White magic,” 29 - - White quartz of Clan Donnachaidh, 24, 25 - in Indian mounds, 27 - from Pueblo region of Southwest, 27 - - White stones in burials, 23, 24, 27 - in Isle of Man, 34 - oaths taken on, 35 - - Whitfield, J. E., 98, 99 - - Wilkes, Major J. D., 218 - - Willamette meteorite, 98, 99 - chemical composition of, 99 - - Wilson, Robert, 154 - - “Witch-stones,” 200 - - Wittich, Johann, 132 - - Wolff, Johann, 126 - - Wright, Thomas, 153 - - Wundt, Wilhelm Max, 313 - - - X - - Xystus, St., 252 - - - Y - - Yeamans, Mrs. Annie, 374 - - Ypolitus, St., 252 - - - Z - - Zemzem, well of, at Mecca, 87 - ------ - -Footnote 1: - - Rosenfeld, “Singing and Speaking Stones”; Scientific American Suppl. - No. 1720, p. 395, Dec. 19, 1908. - -Footnote 2: - - Johannis Laurentii Philadelpheni Lydi quæ extant excerpta; ed. Hase, - etc., Lipsiæ et Darmstadii, 1827, p. 104. - -Footnote 3: - - “La Statue vocal de Memnon,” by M. Letronne, in Mém. de l’Institut de - France, Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, vol. i, 42, 1. - -Footnote 4: - - See Theophrasti, “De lapidibus (Peri lithôn),” ed. by John Hill, - London, 1746, pp. 15–17; cap. 10. - -Footnote 5: - - Plinii, “Naturalis historia,” Lib. xxxvii, cap. 59. - -Footnote 6: - - De Mély, in La Grande Encyclopédie; art. pierres précieuses. - -Footnote 7: - - Conradi Gesneri, “De rerum fossilium,” etc., Tiguri, 1565, fol. 49 - verso. - -Footnote 8: - - Giovanni B. Rampolli, “Annali Musulmani,” vol. ix, Milano, 1825, p. - 481, note 75. - -Footnote 9: - - “Exposition de ce qu’il y a de plus remarquable et des merveilles,” by - Abdorrashish, surnamed Yakuti, a geographical work of the fifteenth - century, transl. into French and published in Notices et Extraits des - Manuscrits de la Bibliothèque du Roi, vol. ii, pp. 452, 520, 534; - Paris, 1789. - -Footnote 10: - - F. Stuhlmann, “Mit Emin Pascha im Herz von Africa,” Berlin, 1894, p. - 588. - -Footnote 11: - - S. Gason, “The Dieyeric Tribe” in “Native Tribes of South Australia,” - pp. 276 sqq.; see also: A. W. Howitt, “The Dieri and Other Kindred - Tribes of Central Australia.” - -Footnote 12: - - H. L. P. Cameron, “Notes on Some Tribes of New South Wales.” Journ. of - Anthrop. Inst., vol. xiv (1885), p. 362. - -Footnote 13: - - J. L. van der Toorn, “Het animisme bij den Minangkabaner der - Padangsche Bovenland, Bijdragen tot de Taal-Land-en Volkerkunde van - Nederlandsch Indie,” vol. xxxix, 1890, p. 86. - -Footnote 14: - - Martin, “Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in - Pinkerton’s “Voyages and Travels,” vol. iii, p. 594. - -Footnote 15: - - See Pinder, “De adamante,” Berolini, 1829, pp. 70 sqq., where the use - of the word _adamas_ to designate iron is said to have been - conjectured by Schneider, in his “Analecta ad hist. rei met. vet.,” - pp. 5, 6. Adamas as a man’s name occurs in the “Iliad,” xii, 140 and - xiii, 560. - -Footnote 16: - - Julius Ruska, “Das Steinbuch aus der Kosmographie des Muhammad ibn - Mahmud al Kazwini,” Beilage to the Jahresbericht of the Oberrealschule - Heidelberg, 1895–96. - -Footnote 17: - - Camilli Leonardi, “Speculum lapidum,” Venetia, 1502, fol. xxix. - -Footnote 18: - - Philostrati, “Vita Apollonii,” Lib. iii, cap. 8. - -Footnote 19: - - “The Questions of King Milinda,” trans. by T. W. Rhys Davids; Sacred - Books of the East, vol. xxxvi, Oxford, 1894, pp. 14, 303. - -Footnote 20: - - Traité des Simples of Ibn Al-Beithar, in Notices et Extraits des - Manuscrits de la Bibliothèque Nationale, vol. xxiii, p. 409; Paris, - 1877. - -Footnote 21: - - De Mély, “Le traité des fleuves de Plutarche,” in Revue des Études - Grecques, vol. v (1892), p. 332. - -Footnote 22: - - Konrad von Megenberg, “Buch der Natur,” ed. by Dr. Franz Pfeiffer, - Stuttgart, 1861, p. 456. - -Footnote 23: - - Volmar, “Steinbuch,” ed. by Hans Lambel, Heilbronn, 1877, p. 24. - -Footnote 24: - - St. Hildegardæ, “Opera omnia,” in Pat. Lat., ed. J. P. Migne, vol. - cxcvii, col. 1260. - -Footnote 25: - - D’Herbelot, “Bibliothèque Orientale,” La Haye, 1778, p. 230. - -Footnote 26: - - Clouston, “A Group of Eastern Romances,” Glasgow, 1889. - -Footnote 27: - - “Nützliche Versuche und Bemerkungen aus dem Reich der Natur,” - Nürnberg, 1760; cited by Bolton. - -Footnote 28: - - Bolton, “Contributions of Alchemy to Numismatics,” New York, 1890, pp. - 17, 18. - -Footnote 29: - - Ashmole, “Theatrum chemicum Brittanicum,” London, 1652, pp. 4–6. - -Footnote 30: - - Spencer and Gillen, “The Native Tribes of Central Australia,” London, - 1899, pp. 525–529. - -Footnote 31: - - Rumphius, “D’Ambonische Rariteitskamer,” Amsterdam, 1741, p. 291. - -Footnote 32: - - Rumphius, “D’Ambonische Rariteitskamer,” Amsterdam, 1741, pp. 291, - 292. - -Footnote 33: - - Vogt, “Die Indianer des oberen Paraná,” Mitteilungen d. Anthrop. - Gesellsch. in Wien, 1904, vol. xxxiv, pp. 206, 207. - -Footnote 34: - - Hovorka and Kronfeld, “Vergleichende Volksmedizin,” vol. 11, p. 900; - communication from Dr. Rudolf Pöch. - -Footnote 35: - - Benvenuto Cellini, “Due trattati, uno intorno alle otto principali - arti dell’oreficeria,” etc., Fiorenzi, Valente Panizzi & Marco Peri, - 1568, fol. 10 recto. - -Footnote 36: - - Axel Garboe, “Kulturhistoriske Studier over Ædelstene, med særligt - Henblik paa det 17. Aarhundrede,” Kobenhavn og Kristiania, 1915, p. - 225; citing a manuscript in the Royal Library at Copenhagen. - -Footnote 37: - - See Herbert E. Gregory, “Note on the Shape of Pebbles,” in The - American Journal of Science, vol. xxxix, pp. 300–304; March, 1915; - also for two succeeding paragraphs. - -Footnote 38: - - See Herbert E. Gregory, “Note on the Shape of Pebbles,” in The - American Journal of Science, vol. xxxix, pp. 303, 304; March, 1915. - -Footnote 39: - - W. G. Wood-Martin, “Traces of the Elder Faiths of Ireland,” London, - 1902, vol. i, p. 329. - -Footnote 40: - - Ibid., 1902, vol. i, op. cit., p. 330. - -Footnote 41: - - Nona Lebour, “White Quartz Pebbles and their Archæological - Significance”; reprint from Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and - Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society, January 30, 1914, p. - 11. - -Footnote 42: - - Ibid., pp. 13 and 14, citing Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries - of Scotland, 1860–1, vol. iv, pt. i, p. 219. - -Footnote 43: - - Ibid., p. 12, citing Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of - Scotland, 1860–1, vol. iv, pt. i, p. 219. - -Footnote 44: - - William Thomas and Kate Pavitt, “The Book of Talismans, Amulets and - Zodiacal Gems,” London, 1914, p. 52. - -Footnote 45: - - From letter of Mr. Neil M. Judd, Assistant in Archæology in the United - States National Museum, communicated by Dr. W. H. Holmes, Head Curator - of the Department of Anthropology in that institution. - -Footnote 46: - - Communicated by Dr. Charles C. Abbott. - -Footnote 47: - - Warren K. Moorehead, “The Red-Paint People of Maine,” pp. 42, 43. - Reprint from the _American Anthropologist_ (N. S.), vol. xv, No. 1, - January-March, 1913. - -Footnote 48: - - See the present writer’s “Gems and Precious Stones of North America,” - New York, 1892, p. 128. - -Footnote 49: - - See N. F. Moore, “Antient Mineralogy,” 2d ed., New York, 1859, p. 190. - -Footnote 50: - - George Frederick Kunz, “Gems, Jewelers’ Materials and Ornamental - Stones of California,” California State Mining Bureau, Bulletin No. - 37, Sacramento, 1905, pp. 71–73. - -Footnote 51: - - Plinii, “Historia naturalis,” Lib. xxxvii, cap. 73. - -Footnote 52: - - Collection des auteurs Latin, ed. by M. Nazaire; vol. i, Lucain, - Silius Italicus, Claudien, text and French trans., Paris, 1850, pp. - 737, 738. - -Footnote 53: - - Torsten Kolmodin, “Lapparne och deres Land; Skildringar och Studier,” - Pt. III, Stockholm, 1914, p. 14. - -Footnote 54: - - Nona Lebour, “White Quartz Pebbles and their Archæological - Significance”; reprint from Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and - Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society, January 30, 1914, p. - 10. - -Footnote 55: - - W. G. Wood-Martin, “Traces of the Elder Faiths of Ireland,” London, - 1902, vol. i, p. 331. - -Footnote 56: - - Finn Magnussen, “Forsog til Forklaring over nogle Steder af Osian”; - Det Skandinaviske Litteraturselskabs Skrifter, 1813, Pt. II, pp. 237, - 251. - -Footnote 57: - - W. G. Wood-Martin, “Traces of the Elder Faiths of Ireland,” London, - 1902, vol. i, p. 330. - -Footnote 58: - - Kunz, “Gems and Precious Stones of North America,” New York, 1890, pp. - 206–210. - -Footnote 59: - - Basher, “Catlinite, Its Antiquity as a Material for Tobacco Pipes,” - Am. Nat., vol. xvii, p. 745, July, 1883. - -Footnote 60: - - Renel, “Les religions de la Gaule avant le Christianisme,” Paris, - 1906, p. 387. - -Footnote 61: - - Wirt Sikes, “British Goblins; Welsh Folk-Lore, Fairy Myths, Legends - and Traditions,” London, 1880, p. 362. - -Footnote 62: - - Renel, “Les religions de la Gaule avant le Christianisme,” Paris, - 1906, p. 369. - -Footnote 63: - - Ibid., 1906, p. 368. - -Footnote 64: - - Paul Sebillot, “The Worship of Stones in France,” trans. by Joseph D. - McGuire, _American Anthropologist_, Jan.-Mar., 1902, vol. iv, No. 1, - p. 98; citing Société des Antiquaires, vol. i, p. 429. - -Footnote 65: - - Martin, “Description of the Western Isles,” in Pinkerton’s “Voyages - and Travels,” vol. iii, pp. 646, 627. - -Footnote 66: - - Sir Edgar McCulloch, “Guernsey Folk Lore,” London, 1903, p. 150. - -Footnote 67: - - Ibid., p. 157; fig. on p. 156. - -Footnote 68: - - Kuhn, “Norddeutsche Sagen,” Leipzig, 1848, p. 69. - -Footnote 69: - - Hermann, “Die erratischen Blöcke im Regierungsbezirck Danzig,” Berlin, - 1911, p. 41; in vol. ii, Pt. I, “Beiträge zur Naturdenkmalpflege,” ed. - by H. Conwentz. - -Footnote 70: - - Walsh, “Curiosities of Popular Customs,” Philadelphia, 1911, p. 325. - -Footnote 71: - - Armand Viré, “Pierres à gravures et Pierres à légendes dans le Lot et - le Tarn et Garonne”; in Compte Rendu of the Ninth Session of the - Congrès Préhistorique de France, Paris, 1914, p. 349. - -Footnote 72: - - Ibid., p. 350. - -Footnote 73: - - Dr. Walter Hough in “Handbook of American Indians north of Mexico,” - ed. by Frederick Webb Hodge, Smithsonian Inst.; Bur. of Am. Ethn., - Bull. 30; Washington, 1910, Pt. 2, p. 194. - -Footnote 74: - - Wirt Sikes, “British Goblins: Welsh Folk-Lore, Fairy Myths, Legends - and Traditions,” London, 1880, p. 365. - -Footnote 75: - - Father Lambert, “Moeurs et Superstitions des Néo-Calédoniens,” Noumea, - 1900, pp. 217, 218, 222, 292–304. - -Footnote 76: - - See Scott’s “Border Minstrelsy,” vol. iv, Pt. II, p. 645. - -Footnote 77: - - Lean’s Collectanea (by Vincent Stuckey Lean), vol. ii, Pt. I, Bristol, - 1903, p. 476; see W. F. Wademan in Jour. Roy. Hist, and Arch. Assoc. - of Ireland, July, 1875. - -Footnote 78: - - Catalogue of the collection of pearls and precious stones formed by - Henry Philip Hope, Esq. Systematically arranged and described by B. - Hertz, London, 1830. - -Footnote 79: - - Op. cit., p. 106. - -Footnote 80: - - Op. cit., No. 66, p. 106. - -Footnote 81: - - Op. cit., No. 65, p. 106. - -Footnote 82: - - Valentini, “Museum Museorum, oder der Vollständige Schau-Bühne,” - Franckfurt am Mayn, 1713, Pt. II, p. 41; figured. - -Footnote 83: - - Ulyssis Aldrovandi, “Museum metallicum,” Bononiæ, 1648, p. 527; - figured on p. 528. - -Footnote 84: - - Valentini, “Museum Museorum,” p. 42; citing description by Major in - his “Tractatus de cancris et lapidibus petrifactis,” p. 64. - -Footnote 85: - - Ibid., p. 42; Pl. IX, fig. 3. - -Footnote 86: - - Ibid., p. 41; figured. From report in Miscellan. Acad. Germ. Cur., - Decur. I, Ann. I, Obs. CXIII, p. 232. - -Footnote 87: - - Athanasii Kircheri, “Mundus subterraneus,” Amstelodami, 1665, vol. ii, - pp. 42 sqq. - -Footnote 88: - - Op. cit., vol. i, p. 39; Pl. IV, fig. 6. - -Footnote 89: - - Scribner & Co., 1886. - -Footnote 90: - - The Germans called it Aschenzieher. - -Footnote 91: - - Pliny, “Naturalia historia,” Lib. xxxvii, cap. 29. In his recently - published “Curious Lore of Precious Stones” the present writer - suggested that Pliny’s _lychnis_ might have been a spinel, but while - some of these “ardent stones” may have been spinels, those displaying - the phenomenon of attraction must have been tourmalines. - -Footnote 92: - - A. C. Hamlin. - -Footnote 93: - - Theophrasti, “De lapidibus, peri tôn lithôn,” ed. by John Hill, - London, 1746, pp. 71–73 (cap. xlvi). - -Footnote 94: - - Idem, pp. 68–71 (cap. xlvi); see also Hill’s note on p. 69. - -Footnote 95: - - Johannis de Laet, Antwerpii, “De gemmis et lapidibus, libri duo,” - Lugduni Batavorum [1647], pp. 36, 40. - -Footnote 96: - - “_Curiose Speculationes_ bey schlaflosen Nächten ... von einem - _L_iebhaber der _I_mmer _G_ern _S_peculirt,” Chemnitz und Leipzig, bey - Conr. Stosseln, 1707, 857, pp. 80. - -Footnote 97: - - Johann Gustav Donndorf, “Natur und Kunst,” Leipzig, 1790, p. 516. - -Footnote 98: - - “Histoire de l’Académie Royale des Sciences et Belles Lettres,” vol. - xii, 1756; Berlin, 1758, pp. 105–121. - -Footnote 99: - - See Historie de l’Académie Royale des Sciences Année mdcccxvii Paris, - 1719, pp. 7, 8. - -Footnote 100: - - Abbé Haüy, “Trattato dei caratteri fisici delle pietre preziose,” - Ital. trans. by Luigi Configliachi, Milano, 1819, pp. 135–138; see - Plate II, fig. 49. - -Footnote 101: - - Aepinus, l. c. - -Footnote 102: - - The Complete Works of Benjamin Franklin, ed. by John Bigelow, New York - and London, 1888, vol. x, pp. 282–285. - -Footnote 103: - - See the writer’s “Gems and Precious Stones of North America,” New - York, 1890, Pl. 4, and also his “Precious Stones” in 20th Annual - Report of the U. S. Geological Survey, Pt. VI, Washington, 1899, p. - 577. - -Footnote 104: - - Cornelii Taciti, “Libri qui supersunt,” vol. ii, Lipsiæ, 1885, p. 243. - -Footnote 105: - - Sat. vi, 572; ix, 50. - -Footnote 106: - - Lib. v, 37, 9; xi, 8, 6. - -Footnote 107: - - Pfizmeier, Sitzungsbericht d. phil.-hist. Kl., Wien, 1866, vol. xliii, - p. 195. - -Footnote 108: - - Plinii, “Naturalis historia,” Lib. xxxvii, cap. 12. - -Footnote 109: - - Lean’s Collectanea, vol. ii, Pt. II, Bristol, 1903, p. 640. - -Footnote 110: - - Waver. Especially interesting as all amber changes in time. - -Footnote 111: - - Plinii, “Naturalis historia,” Lib. xxxvii, cap. 11. - -Footnote 112: - - Plinii, “Naturalis historia,” Lib. xxxvii, cap. 12. - -Footnote 113: - - Severus Sammonicus, “Preceptes médicaux,” text and French trans. by L. - Baudet, Paris, 1845, pp. 84, 85. - -Footnote 114: - - King, “Natural History of Precious Stones,” etc., London, 1865, p. - 334, note. - -Footnote 115: - - Raumer, “Historisches Taschenbuch,” I Ser., vol. vi, Leipzig, 1835, p. - 366. - -Footnote 116: - - Pyle, “The Therapeusis of Precious Stones,” in his “Medicine,” - Detroit, 1897, vol. iii, p. 115. - -Footnote 117: - - Palladii, “De gentibus Indie,” ed. Bissæus, London, 1665, p. 4. - -Footnote 118: - - Martin, “Observations et théories des anciens sur les attractions et - la repulsion magnétiques,” in Atti dell’ Accademia Pontefici dei Nuovi - Lincei, vol. xviii, p. 18 (1864–65). - -Footnote 119: - - “Gemmarum et lapidum historia,” Lug. Bat., 1636, p. 466; Lib. II, cap. - 204. - -Footnote 120: - - From Robert Norman’s “The Newe Attractive,” London, 1581. - -Footnote 121: - - Aldrovandi, “Museum metallicum,” Bononiæ, 1648, p. 566. - -Footnote 122: - - Ploss, “Das Weib,” Leipzig, 1895, vol. ii, p. 350. - -Footnote 123: - - Aldrovandi, “Museum metallicum,” Bononiæ, 1648, pp. 564, 566. - -Footnote 124: - - Garcias ab Orta, “Aromatum historia” (Latin version by Clusius), - Antverpiæ, 1579, p. 178. See also Valentine Ball in Proc. Roy. Ir. - Soc., 3d Ser., vol. i, p. 662; Colloquy xliii, of the work of Garcias, - translated from the Portuguese original. - -Footnote 125: - - William Jones, “Credulities Past and Present,” London, 1880, pp. 160, - 161; citing “Panorama,” vol. vii. - -Footnote 126: - - D’Herbelot, “Bibliothèque Orientale,” La Haye, 1778, p. 229. - -Footnote 127: - - Rose, “Aristotle de lapidibus und Arnoldus Saxo,” in Zeitsch. für D. - Alt., New Series, vol. vi. 1875. - -Footnote 128: - - Ibid., p. 358. - -Footnote 129: - - Ibid., p. 370. - -Footnote 130: - - Ibid., p. 379. - -Footnote 131: - - Nona Lebour, “Amber and Jet in Ancient Burials,” reprint from - Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and - Antiquarian Society, Nov. 27, 1914, pp. 4, 5. - -Footnote 132: - - American Journal of Science, 4th Ser., vol. iii, pp. 1–13, New Haven, - 1897. - -Footnote 133: - - Tiguri, 1565, f. 66. - -Footnote 134: - - Titi Livi, “Ab urbe condita,” lib. xxix, cap. 11. - -Footnote 135: - - “Adversus Gentes,” lib. vii. - -Footnote 136: - - Prudentius “Hymnus X,” 11, 156, 157. This writer was born in 348 A.D. - and died about 410. - -Footnote 137: - - “Dissertation sur la pierre de la Mère des Dieux,” in Mém. de l’Acad. - des Inscrip. et Belles Lettres, vol. xxxviii, p. 370; Paris, 1770. - -Footnote 138: - - Miers, “Fall of Meteorites in Ancient and Modern Times,” Science - Progress, vol. vii, No. 8, July, 1898, p. 351. - -Footnote 139: - - Laufer, “Jade: A Study in Chinese Archæology and Religion,” Chicago, - 1912, pp. 54, 55, 57, 63, 64; Field Museum of Natural History, Pub. - 154, Archæological Series, vol. x. - -Footnote 140: - - Morris Jastrow, Jr., “Die Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens,” vol. - ii, Pt. II, Giessen, 1912, pp. 689, 690. - -Footnote 141: - - Ibid., pp. 692–694. - -Footnote 142: - - Benzinger, Hebräische Archäologie, Freiburg i. B., 1894, p. 370. - -Footnote 143: - - Lenormant, “Lettres Assyriologiques,” Paris, 1872, vol. ii, p. 118. - -Footnote 144: - - Miers, “Fall of Meteorites in Ancient and Modern Times,” Science - Progress, vol. vii, No. 8, July, 1808, p. 349. - -Footnote 145: - - E. F. F. Chladni, “Verzeichniss der herabgefallenen Stein- und - Eisenmassen,” p. 5; Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, vol. 1. - -Footnote 146: - - Plutarchi, “Vitæ,” Lipsiæ, 1879, p. 394; Lysander, 12. - -Footnote 147: - - C. Plinii Secundi, “Historia naturalis,” Venetiis, 1507, fol. 8, - recto; lib. ii, cap. 60. - -Footnote 148: - - Cornelii Taciti, “Opera,” Lipsiæ, 1885, p. 52. - -Footnote 149: - - Philostratus, “Apollonius of Tyana,” trans. by Baltzer, Rudolstadt i. - Th., 1883, p. 143 (iii, 59). - -Footnote 150: - - Lenormant, in Daremberg and Saglio’s Dict., des antiq. grecques et - romaines, vol. i, Paris, 1873, p. 645. - -Footnote 151: - - F. Lenormant, in Daremberg and Saglio’s Dict. des antiq. grecques et - romaines, vol. i, p. 645, Paris, 1873. See Fig. 739. - -Footnote 152: - - Aen. ii, 692–698. - -Footnote 153: - - De Mély, “Le traité des fleuves de Plutarche”; in Revue des Etudes - Grecques, vol. v (1892), p. 334. - -Footnote 154: - - Suetonii, “Opera,” Lipsiæ, 1886, p. 203; Galba, 8. - -Footnote 155: - - This name signifies “Mountain-God” and its assumption by the emperor - marked his devotion to the worship of the divinity animating the stone - of Emesa, El Gabal, which Elagabalus had conveyed to Rome, where it - remained until 222 A.D. This stone was regarded as a miniature - representation of the sacred mountain near Emesa. The stone is figured - on the aureus of the emperor Uranius Antonius. See Ch. Lenormant, Rev. - Numismatique, 1843, p. 273, sq., Pl. IX, No. 1. - -Footnote 156: - - Lenormant, “Lettres Assyriologiques,” Paris, 1872, vol. ii, p. 123. - -Footnote 157: - - “Voyages d’Ibn Batoutah.” Translation by C. Defremery and B. R. - Sanguinette, vol. i, 3d Ed., Paris, 1893, p. 314. - -Footnote 158: - - Sale, “The Koran” (Preliminary Discourse), Phila., 1853, p. 14. - -Footnote 159: - - Burckhardt, “Travels in Arabia,” London, 1829, p. 137. - -Footnote 160: - - Burckhardt, “Travels in Arabia,” London, 1829, p. 167. - -Footnote 161: - - Chardin, “Voyage en Perse,” Amsterdam, 1735, vol. iv, p. 171. - -Footnote 162: - - Giovanni B. Rampolli, “Annali Musulmani,” vol. viii, Milano, 1824, p. - 589, note 104. - -Footnote 163: - - Dr. C. Snouck-Hurgronje, “Mekka,” Haag, 1888, vol. i, pp. 2, 4, 5. - -Footnote 164: - - Op. cit., p. 11. - -Footnote 165: - - From Hammer-Purgstall’s “Fundgrube des Orients,” vol. iv, Heft 3; - cited by E. F. F. Chladni, “Neues Verzeichniss der herabgefallenen - Stein- und Eisenmassen,” p. 55; Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, vol. 1. - -Footnote 166: - - E. F. F. Chladni, “Neues Verzeichniss der herabgefallenen Stein- und - Eisenmassen,” p. 58; Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, vol. 1. - -Footnote 167: - - Ibid., p. 5. - -Footnote 168: - - Berthelot, “Histoire des Sciences: La Chimie au Moyen-âge,” Paris, - 1893, vol. iii, p. 225. - -Footnote 169: - - Brezina, “The Arrangement of Collections of Meteorites”; Proceedings - of the American Philosophical Society, vol. xliii, Jan.-Dec., pp. 212, - 213. - -Footnote 170: - - King, “Remarks Concerning Stones said to have Fallen from the Clouds,” - London, 1796, p. 4. - -Footnote 171: - - Megenberg, “Buch der Natur,” ed. Pfeiffer, Stuttgart, 1861, p. 92. - (This is based on Thomas de Cantimpré’s “Liber de natura rerum,” - written about 1240.) - -Footnote 172: - - E. F. F. Chladni, “Neues Verzeichniss der herabgefallenen Stein- und - Eisenmassen,” p. 17; Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, vol. 1. (From copy - having MS. notes and emendations by the author.) - -Footnote 173: - - Metallotheca Vaticana, Romæ, 1719, p. 248. - -Footnote 174: - - Ulyssis Aldrovandi, “Museum Metallicum,” pp. 528, 529. - -Footnote 175: - - Fundgruben des Orients, vol. iv, p. 282; Wien, 1814. - -Footnote 176: - - King, “Remarks Concerning Stones said to have Fallen from the Clouds,” - London, 1796, p. 26. - -Footnote 177: - - Lieut. Robert E. Peary, “Northward over the ‘Great Ice,’” New York, - 1897, vol. ii, pp. 553 sqq. - -Footnote 178: - - Edmund Otis Hovey, “The Foyer Collection of Meteorites,” American - Museum of Natural History, Guide Leaflet No. 26, December, 1907, pp. - 23–27. - -Footnote 179: - - Henry A. Ward, “Willamette Meteorite”; Proc. Rochester Acad. of Sc., - vol. iv, pp. 137–148, plates 13–18. - -Footnote 180: - - Edmund Otis Hovey, “The Foyer Collection of Meteorites,” American - Museum of Natural History, Guide Leaflet No. 26, December, 1907, pp. - 27, 28. - -Footnote 181: - - See the present writer’s “Diamond and Moissanite; Natural, Artificial - and Meteoric,” a lecture delivered at the Twelfth General Meeting of - the American Electro-chemical Society in New York City, October 18, - 1907; here the literature on this important meteor is fully given. Two - other interesting meteorites are described by George F. Kunz and - Ernest Weinschenk in the American Journal of Science, vol. xliii, May - 1892, pp. 424–426, figures. - -Footnote 182: - - See Henri Moissan, “Étude de la météorite de Cañon Diablo,” Comptes - Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, vol. cxvi (1893), pp. 288 sqq.; see - also his paper on the Ovifak meteorite, Comptes Rendus, vol. cxxi - (1895), pp. 483 sqq. - -Footnote 183: - - G. F. Kunz and O. W. Huntington, “On the Diamond in the Cañon Diablo - Meteoric Iron and on the Hardness of Carborundum,” American Journal of - Science, vol. xlvi, December, 1893. - -Footnote 184: - - George F. Kunz, “On Five American Meteorites,” American Journal of - Science, vol. xl, Oct., 1890, pp. 312–323. - -Footnote 185: - - Lazarus Fletcher, in Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed., vol. xviii, p. - 263; article Meteorites. - -Footnote 186: - - Chladni, op. cit., p. 8. - -Footnote 187: - - Petri Borelli, “Hist. et observ. phys.-med.,” 1676; cited by Chladni, - op. cit., p. 20. - -Footnote 188: - - Chladni, op. cit., p. 14; see also Gilbert’s Annalen, vol. xxix, p. - 376. - -Footnote 189: - - Chladni, op. cit., p. 19. - -Footnote 190: - - Chladni, op. cit., p. 22. - -Footnote 191: - - See “Nature” for June 23 and July 21, 1910. - -Footnote 192: - - Merrett, “Pinax rerum naturalium Britannicarum,” London, 1667, p. 219. - -Footnote 193: - - “The Works of the Hon. Robert Boyle,” vol. i, p. 244, London, 1744. - -Footnote 194: - - Vol. ii, pp. 335–7, 1820. - -Footnote 195: - - Edward E. Free in Nature, Nov. 3, 1910, No. 2140, vol. lxxxv. - -Footnote 196: - - Arnaldo Faustini, “Gli Eschimesi,” Torino, 1912, p. 41. - -Footnote 197: - - Edward M. Curr, “The Australian Races,” Melbourne and London, vol. - iii, p. 29. - -Footnote 198: - - Bellucci, “Il feticismo in Italia,” Perugia, 1907, pp. 17 sqq. - -Footnote 199: - - Harriet Maxwell Converse, “Myths and Legends of the N. Y. State - Iroquois,” edited and annotated by Arthur Caswell Parker - (Ga-wa-so-wa-neh), New York State Museum Bulletin, No. 125, Albany, - 1908, p. 40. - -Footnote 200: - - Adair, “History of the American Indians,” London, 1775, p. 425. - -Footnote 201: - - Frischbier, “Hexenspruch und Zauberbann,” Berlin, 1870, p. 19. - -Footnote 202: - - Ibid., p. 107. - -Footnote 203: - - Hartmann, “Bilder aus Westfalen,” Osnabrück, 1871, p. 144. - -Footnote 204: - - Lund, “Om de Sydamericanske Vildes Steenöxer,” Annaler for Nordisk - Oldkyndighed, Copenhagen, 1838–1839, p. 159. - -Footnote 205: - - Rath, in Globus, vol. xxvi, p. 215 (Braunschweig, 1874). - -Footnote 206: - - Koudela and Jetteles in Anthrop. Gesellsch. Wien, vol. xii, p. 159 - (1882). - -Footnote 207: - - Quoted by Sir J. E. Tennant in Notes and Queries, vol. v, 1852, p. 121 - (No. 119, Feb. 7, 1852). - -Footnote 208: - - “Les Six Voyages de Jean Baptiste Tavernier,” La Haye, 1718, vol. ii, - p. 439; liv. iii, chap. xi. - -Footnote 209: - - Magnusen, “Om en Steenring med Runeindskrift,” Annaler for Nordisk - Oldkyndighed, Copenhagen, 1838–1839, p. 133. - -Footnote 210: - - Magnusen, “Om en Steenring med Runeindskrift,” Annaler for Nordisk - Oldkyndighed, Copenhagen, 1838–1839, pp. 132–134. - -Footnote 211: - - Brereton, “Travels in Holland, the United Provinces, England, Scotland - and Ireland, 1634–1635,” Chetham Soc., London, 1844, p. 41. - -Footnote 212: - - The fossilized horny process of an extinct cuttlefish. - -Footnote 213: - - A. E. Wright and E. Lovett, “Specimens of Modern Mascots and Ancient - Amulets of the British Isles,” Folk Lore, vol. xix, 1908, p. 298; Pl. - VI, fig. 2. - -Footnote 214: - - Mooney, “The Medical Mythology of Ireland,” Am. Phil. Soc., vol. - xxxiv, p. 143, 1887. - -Footnote 215: - - Henderson, “Folk-lore of Northern England,” pp. 185, 186. - -Footnote 216: - - Nilsson, “The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia,” trans. by the - author and ed. by Sir John Lubbock, 3d ed., London, 1868, pp. 200, - 201. - -Footnote 217: - - Tournier, Bull. de la Soc. d’Anthrop., 1874, p. 386. - -Footnote 218: - - Bull. de la Soc. d’Anthrop., 1860, p. 96. - -Footnote 219: - - Morgan, “Matériaux pour l’hist. primitive,” Paris, 1885, p. 484; - Verhandl. Berl. Anthrop. Ges., 1879, p. 300; Von Rosenberg, “Der - Malayische Archipel,” Leipzig, 1878, p. 175. - -Footnote 220: - - Semper, “Die Philippinen,” Würzburg, 1869, p. 61. - -Footnote 221: - - Von Siebold, Jr., Verhandl. Berl. Anthrop. Ges., 1878, p. 431. - -Footnote 222: - - Sven Nilsson, “The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia,” trans. by - the author and ed. by Sir John Lubbock, 3d ed., London, 1868, p. 199. - -Footnote 223: - - Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, vol. x, pp. 255–259. - -Footnote 224: - - Theophrastus’s “History of Stones,” with an English version by John - Hill, London, 1746, p. 73. - -Footnote 225: - - Martius, “Unterricht von der Magiæ Naturali,” Leipzig, 1717, p. 290. - -Footnote 226: - - From a fourteenth century Italian MS. translation of the treatise in - the author’s library; see fol. 8, recto, col. 2; fol. 9, recto, col. - 1; fol. 10, recto, col. 2; fol. 14, verso, col. 1; fol. 17, verso, - col. 1; fol. 25, verso, col. 1; fol. 26, verso, col. 1; fol. 26, - verso, col. 2; fol. 29, verso, col. 2. - -Footnote 227: - - Regimen sanitatis Salernitanum, ed. Sir Alexander Cooke, Oxford, 1830, - p. 125. This edition contains reproductions of many curious woodcuts - from the old German editions of Curio, published in 1559, 1568 and - 1573. - -Footnote 228: - - Havard, “Histoire de l’orfévrerie,” Paris, 1896, p. 359; Olivier de la - Haye, “Poème sur la grande peste de 1348,” verses 3162 sqq. - -Footnote 229: - - Francisci Indiæ, “Hygiphylus sive de febre maligna dialogus,” Veronæ, - 1593, pp. 125, 126. - -Footnote 230: - - Dr. B. Jézak, “Aus dem Reiche der Edlesteine,” Prag, 1914, p. 65. - -Footnote 231: - - Kobert, “Ein Edlestein der Vorzeit,” Stuttgart, 1910, p. 36. - -Footnote 232: - - Andrea Matthiolus, “Commentaries sur Discoride,” Lyon, 1642 (written - in 1565), p. 538. - -Footnote 233: - - Fühner, “Lithotherapie,” Berlin, 1902, p. 44. - -Footnote 234: - - Braunfels, “Reformation der Apptecken,” Strassburg, 1536, fol. XIV b, - XX b. - -Footnote 235: - - Francisci Indiæ, “Hygiphylus, sive de febre maligna dialogus,” Veronæ, - 1593. - -Footnote 236: - - Op. cit. pp. 115 sqq. - -Footnote 237: - - Op. cit., p. 116. - -Footnote 238: - - Op. cit., pp. 118–122. - -Footnote 239: - - Boyle, “On the Usefulness of Experimental Philosophy,” Oxford, 1664, - p. 108. - -Footnote 240: - - Johannis Wolffii, “Curiosus amuletorum scrutator,” Francofurti et - Lipsiæ, 1692, p. 564. - -Footnote 241: - - J. B. Silvatici, “Controversiæ medicæ,” Francofurti, 1601, p. 223. - -Footnote 242: - - Axel Garboe, “Kunsthistoriske Studier over Ædelstene,” Kjbenhavn og - Kristiania, 1915, p. 254. - -Footnote 243: - - See Axel Garboe, “Kulturhistoriske Studier over Ædelstene, med særligt - Henbilk paa det 17. Aarhundrede,” Kjbenhavn og Kristiania, 1915, pp. - 141 sqq. - -Footnote 244: - - U. F. B. Brückmann, “Abhandlung von Edelsteinen,” Braunschweig, 1757, - pp. 4, 5 of preface. - -Footnote 245: - - John and Andrew Van Rymsdyk, “Museum Brittanicum,” 2 ed. revised and - corrected by P. Boyle, London, 1791, p. 51. - -Footnote 246: - - Fernie, “Precious Stones for Curative Wear,” Bristol, 1907, p. 256. - -Footnote 247: - - Von Hovorka and Kronfeld, “Vergleichende Volksmedizin,” Stuttgart, - 1908, vol. i, p. 355. Communication of Dr. Christof Hartungen, Jr. - -Footnote 248: - - Damigeron, “De lapidibus,” ed. Abel, Berol., 1881, p. 177. - -Footnote 249: - - Plinii, “Naturalis historia,” lib. xxxvi, cap. 54. - -Footnote 250: - - Orphei, “Lithica,” ed. Abel, Berol., 1881, vs. 610 sqq. - -Footnote 251: - - Pselli, “De lapidum virtutibus,” ed. Bemond, Lug. Bat., 1745, p. 10. - -Footnote 252: - - Konrad von Megenberg’s fourteenth century version, “Buch der Natur,” - ed. by Dr. Franz Pfeiffer, Stuttgart, 1861, p. 436. - -Footnote 253: - - Andreæ Baccii, “De Gemmis et Lapidibus Pretiosis” (Latin version by - Wolfgang Gabelchover of the Italian original), Francofurti, 1603, pp. - 100, 101, Note of Gabelchover. - -Footnote 254: - - Johannis Braunii, “De Vestitu Sacerdotum Hebræorum,” Amstelodami, - 1680, pp. 672–3. - -Footnote 255: - - Belucci, “Catalogue de l’Exposition de la Société d’Anthropologie” - (Ex. de 1900), pp. 278–279. - -Footnote 256: - - Severus Sammonicus, “Preceptes médicaux,” text and trans. by L. - Baudet, Paris, 1845, pp. 76, 77. - -Footnote 257: - - Gratii Falisci, “Cynegeticon”; collection des auteurs Latin, ed. - Nizard, vol. xvi, Paris, 1851, p. 786, lines 401–405. - -Footnote 258: - - Garbe, “Die indische Mineralien”; Naharari’s “Rajanighaṇṭu,” Varga - XIII, Leipzig, 1882, p. 76. - -Footnote 259: - - Lémery, “Cursus Chymicus,” Latin version by De Rebecque, Geneva, 1681, - p. 338. - -Footnote 260: - - Johannes Wittichius, “Bericht von den wunderbaren Bezoardischen - Steinen,” Leipzig, 1589, p. 56, cited in Axel Garboe’s - “Kunsthistoriske Studier over Ædelstene,” Kobenhavn og Kristiania, - 1915, p. 98. - -Footnote 261: - - “Histoire critique des practiques superstitieuses; par un prétre de - l’Oratoire,” Paris, 1702, p. 326. - -Footnote 262: - - Hovorka and Kronfeld, “Vergleichende Volksmedizin,” Stuttgart, 1908, - vol. i, p. 107. - -Footnote 263: - - Rose, “Aristoteles De lapidibus und Arnoldus Saxo,” in Zeitsch. für D. - Alt., New Series, vol. vi, pp. 378, 379. - -Footnote 264: - - Garbe, “Die indische Mineralien”; Naharari’s “Rajanighaṇṭu,” Varga - XIII, Leipzig, 1882, p. 80. - -Footnote 265: - - “Oriental Accounts of the Precious Minerals,” trans. by Raja - Kalikishan, with remarks by James Prinsep; Journ. Asiat. Soc. of - Bengal, vol. i, Calcutta, p. 354. - -Footnote 266: - - See Pinder, “De adamante,” Berolini, 1829, p. 66. - -Footnote 267: - - Johannis Braunii, “De Vestitu Sacerdotum Hebræorum,” Amstelodami, - 1680, p. 659. - -Footnote 268: - - Garbe, “Die indische Mineralien”; Naharari’s “Rajanighaṇṭu,” Varga - XIII, Leipzig, 1882, p. 76. - -Footnote 269: - - The emerald of Mexico was evidently the jade or the _piedra del - hijada_. - -Footnote 270: - - Gabriel Colin, “Avenzoar, sa vie et ses œuvres,” dissertation for - doctorate in Univ. of Paris, 1911, pp. 164, 165. - -Footnote 271: - - Claudii Galeni, “Opera omnia,” ed. Kühn, Lipsiæ, 1826, vol. xii, pp. - 195, 196; De simplic. med., lib. vii, cap. 2. - -Footnote 272: - - Plinii, “Historia Naturalis,” lib. xxxvi, cap. 38. - -Footnote 273: - - “Lithica,” lines 636 sqq. - -Footnote 274: - - Avicennæ, “Liber canonis,” Basileæ, 1556. - -Footnote 275: - - Aldrovandi, “Museum metallicum,” Bononiæ, 1648, p. 965. - -Footnote 276: - - Monardes, “Delle cose che vengono portate dall’Indie Occidentali,” - Venetia, 1575, Bk. II, chap. XIV, p. 46. - -Footnote 277: - - T’ang Jung-tso, “Yü-shuo” (a discourse on jade), trans. by Stephen W. - Bushell; Investigations and Studies in Jade, The Bishop Collection, - New York, 1900, pp. 329, 330. - -Footnote 278: - - Jacobi Wolff, “Curiosus amuletorum scrutator,” Francofurti et Lipsiæ, - 1692, pp. 218, 219; citing principally, Bartholini, “De lapide - nephritico.” - -Footnote 279: - - Axel Garboe, “Kulturhistoriske Studier over Ædelstene, med særligt - Henblik paa det 17. Aarhundrede,” Kobenhavn og Kristiania, 1915, pp. - 204, 205; citing Caspar Bertholini, “De lapide nephritico opusculum,” - 1628. - -Footnote 280: - - Johannes de Laet, “De gemmis et lapidibus libri duo,” Lugduni - Batavorum [1647], p. 84. - -Footnote 281: - - “Sammlung von Natur und Medicin-wie auch hierzu gehörigen Kunst- und - Litaratur-Geschichten,” Breslau, 1726, p. 262. - -Footnote 282: - - Cleandro Arnobio, “Tesoro delle Gioie,” Venetia, 1602, pp. 139–141. - -Footnote 283: - - “Les Lapidaires,” etc., F. de Mély, vol. i, Les lapidaires chinois, - Paris, 1896, p. 178. - -Footnote 284: - - Martius, “Beiträge zur Ethnographic und Sprachkunde Amerika’s zumal - Braziliens,” Leipzig, 1867, vol. i, p. 729. - -Footnote 285: - - Grombtchewski, Berichte der Geog. Gesellschaft zu St. Petersburg, vol. - xv, p. 454 (1889). - -Footnote 286: - - Alexandri Tralliani, “De medicamentis,” Basileæ, 1556, p. 593. - -Footnote 287: - - Revue Archêologique, 3rd ser., vol. i, pp. 299 sqq. - -Footnote 288: - - Gesneri, “De figuris lapidum,” Tiguri, 1565, fol. 113, verso. - -Footnote 289: - - “Gemmarum et lapidum historia,” Lugd. Bat., 1636, pp. 251–3. - -Footnote 290: - - Bellucci, “Il feticismo primitivo in Italia,” Perugia, 1907, pp. - 87–90. - -Footnote 291: - - Claudii Galeni, “Opera omnia,” ed. Kühn, Lipsiæ, 1826, vol. xii, p. - 207; De simplic. med., lib. vii, cap. 2. - -Footnote 292: - - Nicandri, “Theriaka,” Parisiis, 1557, p. 2. - -Footnote 293: - - Plinii, “Naturalis historia,” lib. xxxvi, cap. 34. - -Footnote 294: - - Bartholomæi Anglici, “De proprietatibus rerum,” London, Wynkyn de - Worde, 1495, lib. xvi, cap. 48; De gagate. - -Footnote 295: - - Johannis Baptistæ Portæ “Phytognomica,” Francofurti, 1591, pp. 170, - 171. - -Footnote 296: - - Ibn el Beithar, “Traité des simples;” French trans. of L. Leclerc in - “Notices et Extraits de MSS. de la Bib. Nat.,” etc., vol. xxiii, Pt. - 5, Paris, 1877, pp. 418, 419. - -Footnote 297: - - “Der Römisch Kaiserlichen Akademie der Naturforscher ... Abhandlung, - Siebenter Theil,” Nürnberg, 1759, p. 90. - -Footnote 298: - - Erman, “Zaubersprüche für Mutter und Kind,” Philosophische und - Historische Abhandlungen der König. Pr. Akad. d. Wissenschaften, 1901, - Berlin, p. 9. - -Footnote 299: - - “Papyrus Ebers, Die Maase und das Kapitel über die Augenkrankheiten,” - by Georg Ebers. In the Abhandl. d. phil. hist. Klasse der Königl. - sächs. Gesell. d. Wissenschaften, vol. xi, Leip., 1890, p. 318. - -Footnote 300: - - Dioscorides, “De materia medica,” lib. v, cap. 106. - -Footnote 301: - - Braunfels, “Von Edelsteinen,” Strassburg, 1536, fol. xlviii, a. - -Footnote 302: - - De Boot, “Gemmarum et lapidum historia,” Lug. Bat., 1636, p. 264, lib. - ii, cap. 113. - -Footnote 303: - - Ibid., loc. cit. - -Footnote 304: - - Höfler, “Volksmedizin und Aberglaube,” München, 1893, pp. 38, 39. - -Footnote 305: - - Konrad von Megenberg “Das Buch der Natur,” ed. by Dr. Franz Pfeiffer, - Stuttgart, 1861, p. 452. - -Footnote 306: - - Dugdale, “Monasticon Anglicanum,” London, 1819, vol. ii, pp. 184, 185; - also extract from Cotton MS., Nero D vii, on p. 217. - -Footnote 307: - - De vit. abbot. - -Footnote 308: - - Thomas Wright, “On Antiquarian Researches in the Middle Ages,” in - Archæologia, vol. xxx, London, 1844, pp. 444–446; cut on page 444. - -Footnote 309: - - Collin de Plancy, “Dictionnaire Infernal,” Bruxelles, 1845, p. 415. - -Footnote 310: - - Plinii, “Naturalis historia,” lib. xxxvii, cap. 10. - -Footnote 311: - - Andreæ Bacii, “De gemmis et lapidibus pretiosis” (Latin translation by - Wolfgang Gabelchover of Italian original), Francofurti, 1603, p. 103. - -Footnote 312: - - Wilson, “The Three Ladies of London,” 1584. The three female - characters are symbolical or allegorical and are named respectively, - Lucre, Love, and Conscience. - -Footnote 313: - - From MS. of Borch’s lectures of 1685, in the Royal Library at - Copenhagen, Thottske Collection, 744; cited in Axel Garboe’s - “Kulturhistoriske Studier over Ædelstene,” Kobenhavn og Kristiania, - 1915, p. 215. - -Footnote 314: - - “Der Römisch Kaiserlichen Akademie der Naturforscher ... Abhandlungen, - Siebenter Theil,” Nürnberg, 1759, pp. 162, 163. - -Footnote 315: - - Valmont de Bomare, “Dictionnaire raisonné universel,” Paris, 1775, - vol. iii, p. 118. - -Footnote 316: - - Walsh, “Curiosities of Popular Customs,” Philadelphia, 1911, p. 624. - -Footnote 317: - - MacCulloch, “Religion of the Ancient Celts,” Edinburgh, 1911, p. 332. - -Footnote 318: - - Garbe, “Die indische Mineralien”; Naharari’s “Rajanighaṇṭu,” Varga - XIII, Leipzig, 1882, p. 83. - -Footnote 319: - - Johannis Braunii, “De vestitu sacerdotum Hebræorum,” Amstelodami, - 1680, p. 659; citing pseudo-Dioscorides. - -Footnote 320: - - Aldrovandi, “Museum metallicum,” Bononiæ, 1648, p. 972. - -Footnote 321: - - Andræ Baccii, “De gemmis et lapidibus pretiosis,” Francofurti, 1603, - p. 68. Note of Gabelchover to his Latin version of the original - Italian. - -Footnote 322: - - Frederici Jacobi Schallingi, “ΟΦΘΑΛΜΙΑ sive disquisitio - hermetico-galenica de natura oculorum,” Erffurdt, 1615, p. 125. - -Footnote 323: - - Garbe, “Die indische Mineralien”; Naharari’s “Rajanighaṇṭu,” Varga - XIII, Leipzig, 1882, p. 79. - -Footnote 324: - - See Chapter II, pp. 106–116. - -Footnote 325: - - Anselmi Bœtii de Boodt, “Gemmarum historia,” Hanoviæ, 1609, p. 52. - -Footnote 326: - - Rose, “Aristoteles de lapidibus und Arnoldus Saxo,” Zeitschr. für d. - Alt., New Series, vol. vi, 1875, pp. 373, 374. - -Footnote 327: - - Petra, “Specilegium Solesmense,” Parisiis, 1855, p. 370. - -Footnote 328: - - “Le Grand Lapidaire de Jean de Mandeville.” From the edition of 1561, - ed. by J. S. del Sotto, Vienne, 1862, p. 90. - -Footnote 329: - - In Konrad von Megenberg’s “Buch der Natur,” ed. by Dr. Franz Pfeiffer, - Stuttgart, 1861, p. 437. - -Footnote 330: - - Erasmi, “Colloquia,” Lipsiæ, 1713, p. 596. - -Footnote 331: - - Aldrovandi, “Museum metallicum,” Bononiæ, 1648, p. 814. - -Footnote 332: - - Lemnii, “De miraculis occultis naturæ,” Francofurti, 1611, pp. 212, - 213. - -Footnote 333: - - Mizauld, “Hundert curieuse Kunst-stücke,” in Martius’ “Unterricht von - der Magiæ Naturali,” Leipzig, 1717, p. 290. - -Footnote 334: - - Smith, “Jewellery,” London, 1908, p. 151. - -Footnote 335: - - “Anatomy of absurditie,” 1589; p. 40 of Collier’s reprint. Lean’s - Collectanes, vol. ii, Pt. II, Bristol, 1903, p. 643. - -Footnote 336: - - Lupton, “One Thousand Notable Things.” - -Footnote 337: - - Encelii, “De re metallica,” Francofurti, 1557, pp. 219, 220. - -Footnote 338: - - Idem, pp. 218, 219. See also p. 121 of the present book. - -Footnote 339: - - Cardani, “De subtilitate,” Basilæ, 1554; lib. vii, p. 211. - -Footnote 340: - - Traité des Simples of Ibn Al-Beithar in “Notices et Extraits des - Manuscrits de la Bibliothèque Nationale,” vol. xxiii, pp. 416–417; - Paris, 1877. - -Footnote 341: - - Plinii, “Naturalis historia,” lib. xi, cap. 79. - -Footnote 342: - - Encelii, “De re metallica,” Francofurti, 1557, p. 218. - -Footnote 343: - - Lemnii, “De miraculis naturæ,” Francofurti, 1611, p. 213. - -Footnote 344: - - Ibid., lib. xxxvii, cap. 56. - -Footnote 345: - - Ibid., lib. xxix, cap. 38. - -Footnote 346: - - Ibid., lib. xxxvii, cap. 60. - -Footnote 347: - - Danielis Sennarti, “Epitome naturalis scientiæ,” Francofurti, 1650, - lib. v, cap. 4, pp. 438, 439; citing Scaliger, Exercit. 112. - -Footnote 348: - - G. Rollenhagen, “Wahrhaffte Lügen von Geistlichen und Naturalichen - Dingen,” Wahrenberg, 1680, p. 93. - -Footnote 349: - - Plinii, “Naturalis historia,” lib. xxxvii, cap. 56. - -Footnote 350: - - Leonardi, “Speculum lapidum,” Venetia, 1502, fol. xxviii. - -Footnote 351: - - Ibid., fol. xxiv. - -Footnote 352: - - C. Plinii Secundi, “Naturalis historia,” ed. Janus, Lipsiæ, 1880, p. - 249, lib. xxx, cap. 11. - -Footnote 353: - - In Konrad von Megenberg’s version “Buch der Natur,” ed. Pfeiffer, - Stuttgart, 1861, p. 440. - -Footnote 354: - - Rev. Oswald Cockayne, “Leechdoms, Wortcunning and Starcraft of Early - England,” London, 1865, vol. ii, p. 307 (Bk. iii, cap. i, of “Laece - Boc”). - -Footnote 355: - - “Naturalis historia,” lib. x, cap. 4, and lib. xxx, cap. 44. - -Footnote 356: - - Theophrasti, “De lapidibus” (Peri lithôn), ed. by John Hill, London, - 1746, p. 16; cap. 10; see Hill’s note, pp. 16–19. - -Footnote 357: - - Marbodei, loc. cit. - -Footnote 358: - - Aëtii, Tetrabiblos, Basileæ, 1542, p. 77. - -Footnote 359: - - Conradi Gesneri, “De figuris lapidum,” Tiguri, 1565, pp. 142, 143; - with figures of ring. Pliny already mentions the callimus, “Naturalis - historia,” lib. xxxvi, cap. 39. - -Footnote 360: - - Bauschii, “De lapide ætite,” Lipsiæ, 1665, p. 64. - -Footnote 361: - - Ibid., p. 9. - -Footnote 362: - - Ibid., pp. 9, 10. - -Footnote 363: - - Ibid., pp. 11, 12. - -Footnote 364: - - Albert Hartshorne, F.S.A., in Proceedings of Society of Antiquaries of - London, Sec. Series, vol. xxii, p. 517, May 27, 1909. - -Footnote 365: - - MS. 8356 of the Bibliothèque Nationale, f. LXXII, verso. - -Footnote 366: - - F. de Mély La Grande Encyclopédie, vol. xxvi, p. 884. - -Footnote 367: - - Julius Ruska, “Das Steinbuch des Aristoteles,” Heidelberg, 1912, p. 4, - citing Petermann, “Reisen im Orient,” vol. ii, p. 132. - -Footnote 368: - - Bellucci, “Il feticismo in Italia,” Perugia, 1907, p. 94, note. - (Figures on pp. 94 and 95.) - -Footnote 369: - - Lacroix, “Minéralogie de la France,” Paris, 1893–1910, vol. iii, p. - 399. - -Footnote 370: - - Lemnii, “De miraculis naturæ,” Francofurti, 1611, p. 213. - -Footnote 371: - - In Konrad Von Megenberg’s version, “Buch der Natur,” ed. by Dr. Franz - Pfeiffer, Stuttgart, 1861, p. 435. - -Footnote 372: - - The writer erroneously derives the name from the Latin verb - _allectare_, the true derivation being from the Greek ἀλέκτωρ, a cock. - -Footnote 373: - - Guiffrey, “Inventaires du Duc de Berry,” vol. i, p. 166. - -Footnote 374: - - Julius Ruska, “Das Steinbuch aus der Kosmographie des Muhammad ibn - Mahmud al-Kazwînî,” Beilage to the Jahresbericht of the - Oberrealschule, Heidelberg, 1895–96, p. 15. - -Footnote 375: - - Chabœuf, “Charles le Téméraire à Dijon,” 1474; in Mém. de la Soc. - burg. géog. et hist., vol. xviii, p. 137. - -Footnote 376: - - Monardes, “Semplicium medicamentorum ex novo orbe delatorum historia” - (Latin version by Clusius), Antverpiæ, 1579, p. 51. - -Footnote 377: - - Valentini, “Museum museorum, oder Vollständige Schau-Bühne,” Frankfurt - am Main, 1714, Bk. III, cap. 27, §§ 1, 4. - -Footnote 378: - - W. L. Hildburgh, “Further Notes on Spanish Amulets,” in Folk Lore, - vol. xxiv, No. 1, p. 70, March 31, 1913. Sec. Plate I, Fig. 27. - -Footnote 379: - - Encelii, “De re metallica,” Francofurti, 1557, p. 219. - -Footnote 380: - - See text in Axel Garboe’s “Kulturhistoriske Studier over Ædelstene,” - Kjbenhavn og Kristiana, 1915, p. 56, note from Simon Paulli, - “Quadripartitum botanicum,” Argentorati, 1667, p. 163. - -Footnote 381: - - Oswaldus Crollius, “Basilica chymica,” Frankfurt, 1623, p. 213. - -Footnote 382: - - “Les six voyages de Jean Baptiste Tavernier,” Pt. II, Paris, 1678, p. - 470; liv. ii, chap. 24. - -Footnote 383: - - Williamson, “Catalogue of the Collection of Jewels and Precious Works - of Art, the Property of J. Pierpont Morgan,” London, 1910, pp. 12–14. - -Footnote 384: - - Caspar Neumann, “Disquisitio de ambra grysea,” Dresden, 1736, pp. 80, - 81. - -Footnote 385: - - Gimma, “Della storia naturale delle gemme,” Napoli, 1730, vol. i, p. - 479. - -Footnote 386: - - Christiani Mentzelii, “Lapis Bononensis,” Bilefeldiæ, 1675, p. 47. - -Footnote 387: - - Mercati, “Metallotheca Vaticana,” Romæ, 1719, p. 227. - -Footnote 388: - - Plinii, “Historia Naturalis,” lib. xxxvii, cap. 68. - -Footnote 389: - - Ibid., lib. xxxvi, cap. 35. See also Dioscorides V, 155; Ætius II, 19. - -Footnote 390: - - Claudii Galeni, “Opera Omnia,” ed. Kuhn, Lipsiæ, 1826, vol. xii, p. - 199. De simplic. med., lib. vii, cap. 2. - -Footnote 391: - - Valentini, “Museum museorum, oder Vollständige Schau-Bühne,” Frankfurt - am Main, 1714, lib. i, cap. 24, § 2. - -Footnote 392: - - “Museum Wormianum,” Lug. Bat., 1655, pp. 7–9. - -Footnote 393: - - Aldrovandi, “Museum metallicum,” Bononiæ, 1648, lib. iv, cap. 10, p. - 600. - -Footnote 394: - - “Museum Wormianum,” Lug. Bat., 1655, p. 65. - -Footnote 395: - - This is the fossilized horny part of the tail of an extinct - cuttlefish, and numerous specimens have been found in the marl of New - Jersey as well as in many other places. - -Footnote 396: - - Gesneri, “De figuris lapidum,” Tiguri, 1565, fol. 89, verso, 90, - recto. - -Footnote 397: - - Mercati, “Metallotheca Vaticana,” Romæ, 1719, pp. 138–139. Figure on - p. 138. - -Footnote 398: - - Andree, “Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche,” New Ser., - Leipzig, 1889, p. 33. - -Footnote 399: - - Reichii, “Medicina Universalis” [Vratislaviæ, 1691], p. 76. See Fig. - 4, opp. p. 72. - -Footnote 400: - - De Boot, “Gemmarum et lapidum historia,” ed. Toll, Lug. Bat., 1647, p. - 410; lib. ii, cap. ccxxvii, and also De Laet, “De gemmis et - lapidibus,” Lug. Bat., 1647, p. 138. - -Footnote 401: - - Ibid., p. 300; lib. ii, cap. cxlviii. - -Footnote 402: - - Valentini, “Museum museorum, oder Vollständige Schau-Bühne,” Frankfurt - am Main, 1714, vol. ii, p. 11. - -Footnote 403: - - See, in regard to this stone, Oppert, “Der Salâgrâma-Stein,” - Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, XXXIV Jahrgang, Berlin, 1902, pp. 131–137. - -Footnote 404: - - Magnusen, “Om en Steenring med Runeindskrift,” Annaler for Nordisk - Oldkyndighed, Copenhagen, 1838–1839, p. 133. - -Footnote 405: - - Valentini, “Museum museorum, oder die vollständige Schau-Bühne,” - Frankfurt am Main, 1714, vol. ii, p. 12. - -Footnote 406: - - Reichii, “Medicina universalis” [Vratislaviæ, 1691], p. 75. See Fig. - 3, opp. p. 72. - -Footnote 407: - - Peringskiold, “Wilkina Saga eller historia on Konung Diedrich of - Bern,” Stockholmis, 1715, pp. 57, 58. - -Footnote 408: - - Bellucci, “Il feticismo in Italia,” Perugia, 1907, pp. 100–104. - -Footnote 409: - - Nicolo Monardes, “Delle cose que vengono portate dall’Indie - occidentali,” Venetia, 1575, pp. 95–6. - -Footnote 410: - - Ibid., pp. 104–5. - -Footnote 411: - - Caspar Bauhini, “De lapidis bezaaris ortu natura,” etc., Basileæ, - 1625, p. 3. - -Footnote 412: - - Museum Brittanicum, John and Andrew van Rymsdyk, London, pp. 50–51. - -Footnote 413: - - De Boot, “De lapidibus,” ed. Toll, Lug. Bat., 1636, p. 367. - -Footnote 414: - - “De lapidibus,” Lug. Bat., 1636, p. 370. See also Mercati, - “Metallotheca Vaticana,” Romæ, 1719, p. 179, with figure of stone from - hedgehog. - -Footnote 415: - - Aldrovandi, “Museum metallicum,” Bononiæ, 1648, p. 809. - -Footnote 416: - - Ibid., p. 809. - -Footnote 417: - - Ambroise Paré, “Œuvres Complètes,” Paris, 1841, vol. iii, pp. 341, - 342. - -Footnote 418: - - Engelberti Kaempferi, “Amœnitatum exoticarum fasc. V,” Lemgoviæ, 1712, - pp. 402, 403. - -Footnote 419: - - Andreæ Baccii, “De gemmis et lapidibus pretiosis,” Francofurti, 1603, - p. 193; Latin version by Wolfgang Gabelchover of the original Italian. - -Footnote 420: - - Kaempferi, “Amœnitatum exoticarum fasciculi V,” Lemgoviæ, 1712, pp. - 400, 401. - -Footnote 421: - - The Tûzuk-i-Jahangiri or memoirs of Jehangir trans. by Alexander - Rogers, London, 1909, p. 240; Orient. Trans. Fund, N. S., vol. xix. - -Footnote 422: - - “Voyage d’Ethiopie”; in Lettres édiflantes et curieuses, IV Recueil, - Paris, 1713, p. 103. - -Footnote 423: - - De Acosta, “Histoire Naturelle et Morale des Indes,” tr. by Cauxois, - Paris, 1600, f. 206 r. and v. - -Footnote 424: - - Von Hammer, “Auszüge aus dem persischen Werke, Buch der Edelsteine, - von Mohammed ben Manssur,” in Fundgruben des Orients, vol. vi, p. 134; - Wien, 1818. - -Footnote 425: - - Boccone, “Recherches et observations naturelles,” Amsterdam, 1674, pp. - 238, 239. - -Footnote 426: - - F. Nix, in Tijdschrift voor Ind. Taal, Land en Volk, vol. v, p. 151. - -Footnote 427: - - Julii Reichelti, “De Amuletis,” Argentorati, 1676, p. 75. - -Footnote 428: - - Mercati, “Metallotheca Vaticana,” Romæ, 1719, p. 175. - -Footnote 429: - - Valentini, “Museum museorum, oder Vollständige Schau-Bühne,” Frankfurt - am Main, 1714, bk. iii, cap. 13, §§ 1, 2, p. 446. - -Footnote 430: - - Pancirollus, “The History of Many Memorable Things,” London, 1715, p. - 288. - -Footnote 431: - - Ibid., loc. cit. - -Footnote 432: - - R. Verneau and P. Rivet, “Ethnologie ancienne de l’Equateur,” Paris, - 1912; vol. vi of Mission du service géologique de l’armée pour la - mesure d’un arc de méridien équatorial en Amérique du Sud, 1899–1906, - pp. 235, 236; figure (nat. size) on p. 235. - -Footnote 433: - - Historical Manuscripts Commission, MSS. of the Marquis of Salisbury, - Pt. V, London, 1894, p. 3. - -Footnote 434: - - Archæologia, vol. xxi, p. 153, London, 1837. From Warrant of Indemnity - given by King James I to the guardians of the crown jewels. - -Footnote 435: - - Jahrbuch der kunsthistorischen Sammlungen des allerhöchsten - Kaiserhauses, vol. xx, Pt. II, pp. lxv, xcvii, Wien, 1899. - -Footnote 436: - - Figured in Jeweler’s Circular Weekly, Dec. 17, 1913, p. 53; Charles A. - Brassler, “Gold Mounted Specimens of Bezoar.” - -Footnote 437: - - Skeat, “Malay Magic,” London, 1900, pp. 274 sqq. - -Footnote 438: - - Chau Ju-Kua, “Chu-fan-chi” (“A Description of Barbarous Peoples”), - trans. by Friedrich Hirth and W. W. Rockhill, St. Petersburg, 1911, p. - 16, and p. 90, note 7. - -Footnote 439: - - Von Dewall, “Aanteekeningen omtrent de Noordoostkust van Borneo;” - Tijdschrift voor Ind. Taal. Land en Volk, vol. iv, p. 436. - -Footnote 440: - - Valmont de Bomare, “Dictionnaire raisonné universel,” Paris, 1773, p. - 556. - -Footnote 441: - - Edwards, “History and Poetry of Finger Rings,” New York, 1855, pp. - 110, 111. - -Footnote 442: - - “Scientific American,” vol. xv, No. 19, p. 299; November 3, 1866. - -Footnote 443: - - Dr. Learned, “Morocco and the Moors,” 1876, p. 281. - -Footnote 444: - - S. de Vries, “Curieuse Aenmerkingen der byzonderste Oost en - West-Indische Verwonderens-waerdige Dingen,” Utrecht, 1682, Pt. II, - pp. 912, 913. - -Footnote 445: - - See Ledra Hazlit, M.D., “Hair-balls of the Stomach and Intestines,” - Jour. A. M. A., vol. lxii, No. 2, pp. 107–110, with illustration; and - G. A. Moore, “Hair Cast of the Stomach with Respect of a Case,” Boston - Medical and Surgical Journal, Jan. 1, 1914. - -Footnote 446: - - Plinii, “Naturalis Historia,” lib. xxix, cap. 12. - -Footnote 447: - - Kunz, Dept. of Mining Statistics. - -Footnote 448: - - Johann Turi, “Muittalus samid birra; en bog om Lappernas liv.”; text, - and Danish trans. by Emilie Demnant, Kjøbenhavn, 1911, p. 184 (p. 62 - of text). - -Footnote 449: - - Tertulliani, “Opera Omnia,” Parisiis, 1879, vol. i, col. 1425, De - cultu feminarum. - -Footnote 450: - - “Lithica,” lines 336 sqq. - -Footnote 451: - - The fyrste boke of the introduction of Knowledge made by Andrew Borde - of Psysycke Doctore. Ed. by Furnival, London, 1870, p. 121. Early - English Text Soc., Extra Series No. X. - -Footnote 452: - - Wirt Sikes, “British Goblins: Welsh Folk-lore, Fairy Myths, Legends - and Traditions,” London, 1880, p. 366. - -Footnote 453: - - Julius Ruska, “Das Steinbuch aus der Kosmographie des Muḥammad ibn - Mahmud al-Kazwînî,” Beilage to the Jahresberichte of the - Oberrealschule, Heidelberg, 1895–96, p. 15. - -Footnote 454: - - Edmond Doutté, “Magie et Religion,” Alger, 1909, p. 145; quoting - Largeau, “La Sahara algérienne,” p. 80. - -Footnote 455: - - “Gemmarum et lapidum historia,” Lug. Bat., 1636, pp. 347–349. - -Footnote 456: - - Daniel Wilson, “The Archæology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland,” - Edinburgh, 1851, pp. 303, 304. Two specimens figured on p. 304. - -Footnote 457: - - John Brand, “Observations on the Popular Antiquities of Great - Britain,” London, 1849, vol. iii, p. 371. - -Footnote 458: - - Wirt Sikes, “British Goblins: Welsh Folk-Lore, Fairy Myths, Legends - and Traditions.” London, 1880, p. 360. - -Footnote 459: - - J. G. Frazer, “Balder the Beautiful,” London, 1913, vol. i, p. 16. - -Footnote 460: - - Arakel, “Livre d’histoire,” chap. liii; in Collection d’historiens - armeniens, French transl. by M. Brosset, St. Petersburg, 1874, vol. i, - p. 545. - -Footnote 461: - - F. de Mély, “Les lapidaires de l’antiquité et du moyen âge,” vol. i, - “Les lapidaires chinois,” Paris, 1896, pp. 237–238. - -Footnote 462: - - “Account of the Snake Stone,” in Lancet, vol. 177, London, July-Dec. - 1909, p. 1478. - -Footnote 463: - - “Les six voyages de Jean Baptiste Tavernier,” Pt. II, Paris, 1678, pp. - 410, 411; Bk. II, ch. xxiv. - -Footnote 464: - - “The Travels of M. de Thevenot into the Levant,” London, 1686, Pt. - III, p. 32; Bk. I, chap. 18. - -Footnote 465: - - Davy, “An Analysis of the Snake-stone,” Asiatic Researches, vol. xiii, - p. 318; Kaempfer, “Amoen. Exit.,” pp. 395–397; cited in Yule-Burnell, - “A Glossary of Anglo-Indian Colloquial Words and Other Phrases,” - London, 1886, pp. 643, 644. - -Footnote 466: - - “Jungle Life in India,” p. 83. - -Footnote 467: - - Redi, “Experimenta,” Amstelodami, 1675, pp. 4–8. - -Footnote 468: - - Edinburgh Philos. Journal, No. 1, p. 147; Philos. Trans., cix, p. 283; - and “The Natural History and Properties of Tabersheer,” 1828; - Edinburgh Journal, viii, p. 288. - -Footnote 469: - - Jour. de Pharmacies, xxvii, pp. 81, 161, 252; and Phil. Mag., x, p. - 229. - -Footnote 470: - - Nature, xxxv, p. 437. - -Footnote 471: - - “Der Tabixir in seiner Bedeutung für die Botanik, Mineralogie, und - Physik”; X. Sammlung. Naturwissenschaftlicher Vorträge, Berlin, 1887. - -Footnote 472: - - Tavernier, “Voyages en Turquie, en Perse, et aux Indes,” Paris, 1718, - vol. ii, p. 392; liv. ii, chap. 24. - -Footnote 473: - - Engelberti Kaempferi, “Amœnitatum exoticarum fasciculi V,” Lemgoviæ, - 1712, pp. 395, 396. - -Footnote 474: - - Kunz, “Gems and Precious Stones of North America,” 2d ed., New York, - 1892, p. 183. - -Footnote 475: - - Rumphius, “D’Amboinsche Rariteitskamer,” Amsterdam, 1741, pp. 303–305. - -Footnote 476: - - “Die Gesta Romanorum,” ed. Wilhelm Dick, Erlangen, 1890, p. 127. - -Footnote 477: - - Dr. H. C. White, “The Chemical and Physical Characters of the - So-called ‘Mad-Stones,’” British Association for the Advancement of - Science, 73d Report, Meeting of 1903 at Smithfield, London, 1904, p. - 605. - -Footnote 478: - - “Lancet,” vol. 164, Jan.-June, 1903, p. 343. - -Footnote 479: - - American Journal of Science, vol. xxxiv, Dec., 1887. See also Kunz, - “Gems and Precious Stones of North America,” New York, 1892, p. 144. - -Footnote 480: - - Leipsic, 1866. - -Footnote 481: - - Kohut, loc. cit., p. 25. - -Footnote 482: - - Dictionnaire d’Archéologie Chrétienne, ed. by Dom Fernand Cabrol and - Dom H. Leclercq, vol. i, Pt. II, Paris, 1907, col. 2088. - -Footnote 483: - - Ibid., col. 2089. - -Footnote 484: - - Dictionnaire d’Archéologie Chrétienne, ed. by Dom Fernand Cabrol and - Dom H. Leclercq, vol. i, Pt. II, Paris, 1907, cols. 2089, 2090. - -Footnote 485: - - Dictionnaire d’Archéologie Chrétienne, ed. by Dom Fernand Cabrol and - Dom H. Leclercq, vol. i, Pt. II, Paris, 1907, cols. 2088, 2089. - -Footnote 486: - - Macarius (L’Heureux), “Abraxus seu Apistopistus,” Antwerp, 1657, Plate - XIX, No. 78 (Gorlæus, 1695, Pl. CCXVIII, No. 430). - -Footnote 487: - - Zunz, “Die gottesdienstliche Vorträge der Juden,” Berlin, 1832, p. - 167. Zunz conjectures that Eleazar of Worms (1176–1238) may have - written a portion of this work. - -Footnote 488: - - “Sepher de-Adam Kadmah,” Amsterdam, 1701, fol. 34 verso. The - interpretations of the several names are from Schwab’s “Vocabulaire de - l’angélologie,” Paris, 1897, except in the case of Ragael, where - Schwab gives “angel of the moment.” - -Footnote 489: - - Barrett, “The Magus,” London, 1801, p. 138. - -Footnote 490: - - Weber, “Jüdische Theologie,” 2d ed., Leipzig, 1897. - -Footnote 491: - - Lane, “Arabian Society in the Middle Ages,” ed. by Stanley Lane-Poole, - London, 1883, p. 106. - -Footnote 492: - - Schindler, “Der Aberglaube des Mittelalters,” Breslau, 1858, p. 4. - -Footnote 493: - - Peschel, “Völkerkunde,” Leipzig, 1885, p. 272. Quoted from Winwood - Reade’s “Savage Africa.” - -Footnote 494: - - Achelis, “Die Martyrologien,” p. 8. - -Footnote 495: - - Parmele, “Tothe-Lore,” reprint from the International Dental Journal, - January, 1899, p. 14. - -Footnote 496: - - Symeonis Logothetæ, cognomento Metaphrastæ, “Opera Omnia,” ed. Migne, - Parisiis, 1864, vol. iii, col. 315. - -Footnote 497: - - Aldrovandi, “Museum metallicum, Bononiæ,” 1648, p. 653. - -Footnote 498: - - Thoms, “Anecdotes and Traditions,” London, 1839, p. 103 (Camden Soc. - Pub.). - -Footnote 499: - - See plate in the present writer’s “Curious Lore of Precious Stones,” - J. B. Lippincott Company, 1913, opp. p. 356. - -Footnote 500: - - Mlle. Marie König, “Poupées et légendes de France,” Paris, n. d., pp. - 77–80. - -Footnote 501: - - St. Louis Democrat, 1905. - -Footnote 502: - - De Lespinasse, “Les métiers et corporations de la ville de Paris,” - Paris, 1892, p. 11. - -Footnote 503: - - Nature, vol. lxxxvi, p. 429; Oct. 6, 1910. - -Footnote 504: - - Bellucci, “Il feticismo in Italia,” Perugia, 1907, pp. 113–119. - Figures. - -Footnote 505: - - Pettigrew, “On Superstitions Connected with the History and Practice - of Medicine and Surgery,” p. 36. (Quotation from Melton, - “Astrologaster,” p. 20.) - -Footnote 506: - - Notes and Queries, 2d Series, vol. viii, London, 1859, p. 242. - -Footnote 507: - - Wehrenfels, “A Dissertation on Superstition,” p. 36; prefixed to - “Occasional Thoughts on the Power of Curing the King’s-Evil,” London, - 1748. - -Footnote 508: - - Lean’s Collectanea, vol. i, Bristol, 1902, pp. 373–384. - -Footnote 509: - - Johann Joachim Bellermann, “Die Urim und Thummim, die ältesten - Gemmen,” Berlin, 1824, pp. 21, 22. For a full account of the - breastplate see the present writer’s “The Curious Lore of Precious - Stones,” Philadelphia and London, 1913, chap. viii, pp. 275–306. - -Footnote 510: - - Wallace-Dunlop, “Glass in the Old World,” London, n. d., p. 6. - -Footnote 511: - - From “Jewellers’ Circular Weekly,” Nov. 12, 1913. - -Footnote 512: - - Sancti Eusebii Hieronymi “Opera Omnia,” ed. Migne, vol. iv, Parisiis, - 1865, cols 543, 544. - -Footnote 513: - - Sometimes believed to be rock-crystal. - -Footnote 514: - - Sancti Eusebii Hieronymi “Opera Omnia,” ed. Migne, vol. iv, Parisiis, - 1865, col. 544. - -Footnote 515: - - A stained or colored massive quartz. - -Footnote 516: - - Sancti Eusebii Hieronymi “Opera Omnia,” ed. Migne, vol. iv, Parisiis, - 1865, col. 545. - -Footnote 517: - - Ibid. col. 544. - -Footnote 518: - - Konrad von Megenberg’s version, “Buch der Natur,” ed. by Dr. Franz - Pfeiffer, Stuttgart, 1861, p. 459. - -Footnote 519: - - The Complete Ceremonies and Procedures Observed at the Coronation of - the Kings and Queens of England, London, n. d., p. 28. - -Footnote 520: - - Sanctorum Hildefonsi, Leodegarii, Juliani, “Opera Omnia,” ed. Migne, - Parisiis, 1882, coll. 283–318. - -Footnote 521: - - Adolf Furtwängler, “Die Antiken Gemmen,” Berlin, 1900; vol. i, Plate - LXVII, Nos. 5, 2; described in vol. ii, p. 309. - -Footnote 522: - - Ibid., vol. i, Plate LXVIII, fig. 8; described in vol. ii, p. 307. - -Footnote 523: - - Op. cit., vol. i, Plate LXVII, in No. 7; described in vol. ii, p. 307. - -Footnote 524: - - Op. cit., vol. I, Plate LXVII, No. 3; described in vol. ii, p. 307. - -Footnote 525: - - Op. cit., vol. i, Plate LXVII, No. 1; described in vol. ii, p. 307. - -Footnote 526: - - Handbuch der Königlichen Museum zu Berlin, Kunstgewerbe Museum, by - Julius Lessing, Berlin, 1892, p. 14. - -Footnote 527: - - The Jewellers’ Circular, Wednesday, December 16, 1914, vol. lxix, No. - 20, p. 43. - -Footnote 528: - - F. de Mély, “Le Trésor de Chartres 1314–1793,” Paris, 1886, pp. 16–21, - 30. - -Footnote 529: - - See C. W. King, “Early Christian Numismatics,” London, 1873, pp. - 95–112; “The Emerald Vernicle of the Vatican.” - -Footnote 530: - - Thurston, “History of the Rosary in all Countries,” Journal of the - Society of Arts, vol. 1, p. 271; London, 1902. - -Footnote 531: - - Leumann, “Rosaries Mentioned in Indian Literature;” in Trans. of the - Ninth Cong. of Orient; (1892), London, 1893, pp. 883–889. - -Footnote 532: - - Inventory of royal treasures in the Château de Fontainebleau, Bibl. - Nat. MS. franc. 4732; fol. 3 of transcript in author’s library from - the collection of M. E. Molinier. - -Footnote 533: - - Carlos Justi, “Los Arfe”; in España Moderna, vol. 299, November, 1913, - pp. 83, 87. - -Footnote 534: - - Mémoires de Madame la Duchesse d’Abrantès, Paris, n. d., vol. 7, p. - 447. - -Footnote 535: - - Robert de Berquen, “Les Merveilles des Indes,” Paris, 1661, pp. 87, - 32. - -Footnote 536: - - Dr. B. Ježek, “Aus dem Reiche der Edelsteinen,” Prag, 1913, pp. - 128–131. - -Footnote 537: - - See G. F. Kunz, “Five Brazilian Diamonds,” Science, vol. iii, p. 649, - No. 69, May 30, 1884. - -Footnote 538: - - Heuen Tsang, “Mémoires sur les contrées occidentales,” French trans. - by Stanislas Julien, Paris, 1857, vol. i, p. 482. - -Footnote 539: - - “The Saddharma-Pundarîka, or the Lotus of the True Law,” trans. by H. - Kern, Oxford, 1884, p. 228. - -Footnote 540: - - See J. Ribeyro, “Histoire de l’Isle de Ceylon,” French trans. of Abbé - le Grand, Amsterdam, 1701, pp. 184, 185. - -Footnote 541: - - An account of King Kirti Sri’s embassy to Siam in 1672, Saka (1750 - A.D.), trans. from Sinhalese by P. E. Pieris. Extract from Jour. Roy. - As. Soc., vol. xviii, No. 54 (1903). - -Footnote 542: - - Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London, vol. xvii, p. - 168, illustration. - -Footnote 543: - - Surindro Mohun Tagore, “Mani Mala,” Pt. II, Calcutta, 1881, pp. 573, - 601, 703. - -Footnote 544: - - Hendley, “Indian Jewellery,” London, 1909, p. 106; see Major H. H. - Cole, “Preservation of the Natural Monuments of India,” Pl. 52. - -Footnote 545: - - “Journal of Sir Thomas Roe, Ambassador of James I to Shah Jehangir, - Mogul Emperor of Hindoostan”; in Kerr’s Collection of Voyages and - Travels, Edinburgh, 1824, vol. ix, p. 288. - -Footnote 546: - - Von Hammer, “Auszüge aus dem persischen Werke, Buch der Edelsteine, - von Mohammed Ben Manssur”; in Fundgruben des Orients, vol. vi, p. 138; - Wien, 1818. - -Footnote 547: - - Berthold Laufer, “Jade, a Study in Chinese Archæology and Religion,” - Chicago, 1912, p. 157. - -Footnote 548: - - J. Deniker, “The Dalai Lama’s new Tse-boum from Paris,” Century - Magazine, vol. lxvii, No. 4, Feb., 1904, pp. 582–583, with - illustration. - -Footnote 549: - - Berthold Laufer, “Notes on Turquois in the East,” Field Museum of - Natural History, Anthropological Series, vol. xiii, No. 1, Chicago, - July, 1913, p. 11. - -Footnote 550: - - “Verdadera historia de los sucesos de la conquista de la Nueva - España,” Bib. de Aut. Esp., vol. xxvi, Madrid, 1866, p. 35. - -Footnote 551: - - Dr. Eduard Seler, “Similarity of Design of Some Teotihuacan Frescoes - and Certain Mexican Pottery Objects,” in Proceedings of the - International Congress of Americanists, XVIII Session, London, 1912; - Pt. II, London, 1913, p. 200. - -Footnote 552: - - “Among them that are born of woman there hath not arisen a greater.” - Matt. xi, 11. - -Footnote 553: - - “Œuvres du Seigneur de Brantôme,” Londres, 1779, vol. v, pp. 35, 36. - -Footnote 554: - - W. H. Holmes, “Masterpieces of Aboriginal American Art,” II, Mosaic - Work; reprint from Art and Archæology, vol. I, no. 3, Nov., 1914; see - pp. 96, 97, and Figs. 2 and 3, pp. 92, 93. - -Footnote 555: - - Edward H. Thompson, “The Home of a Forgotten Race”; in The National - Geographic Magazine, vol. xxv, No. 6, pp. 585–608; June, 1914. - -Footnote 556: - - Fewkes, “Archæological Investigations on the Island of La Plata, - Ecuador,” Field Columbian Museum Pub. No. 56; Anthrop. Ser., vol. ii, - No. 5, Chicago, 1901, pp. 266 sqq. - -Footnote 557: - - George F. Kunz, “Gems and Precious Stones of North America,” New York, - 1890, pp. 61, 62. - -Footnote 558: - - Karutz, “Der Emanismus,” in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 45th Jahrgang, - 1913, Heft III, Berlin, 1913, pp. 559, 560. - -Footnote 559: - - Browne, “Pseudodoxia Epidemica,” London, 1650, Bk. II, chap. 5, p. 65. - -Footnote 560: - - Scientific American, June 28, 1913, p. 575. - -Footnote 561: - - Morris Jastrow, Jr., “Die Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens,” vol. I, - Giessen, 1905, pp. 335–339. - -Footnote 562: - - Pogue, “The Turquois,” Washington, 1915, citing an article by Sikes, - In “Folk-lore,” vol. xii, p. 268, London, 1901. - -Footnote 563: - - Cited by Joseph E. Pogue, in “The Turquois”; Memoirs of the National - Academy of Sciences, vol. xii, pt. ii, Third Memoir, Washington, 1915, - p. 13. From Ouseley, “Travels in Various Countries of the East, more - Particularly Persia,” London, 1819, vol. i, pp. 210–212. - -Footnote 564: - - Pogue, “The Turquois,” Washington, 1915, citing Petrie “Egyptian - Tales, First Series, Fourth to Twelfth Dynasty,” London, 1895, pp. - 16–22. - -Footnote 565: - - Budge, “The Mummy,” Cambridge, 1894, pp. 330–331. - -Footnote 566: - - Communicated by Dr. Arthur Fairbanks, Director of the Boston Museum of - Fine Arts. - -Footnote 567: - - “Life Work of Sir Peter Le Page Renouf,” vol. vi, Paris, 1907. - -Footnote 568: - - “The Life Work of Sir Peter Le Page Renouf,” vol. iv, Paris, 1907, p. - 71. - -Footnote 569: - - Flinders Petrie, “The Arts and Crafts of Ancient Egypt,” Edinburgh and - London, 1909, p. 79. - -Footnote 570: - - Carlo Landberg, “Proverbes et dictons de la province de Syrie, Section - de Sayda,” Leyden, 1883, pp. 313, 314. - -Footnote 571: - - Oskar Schneider, “Ueber Anschwemmung von antiken Arbeitsmaterial an - der Alexandriner Küste,” in “Naturwissenschaftliche Beiträge zur - Geographie und Kulturgeschichte,” Dresden, 1883, pp. 4, 5, 6. - -Footnote 572: - - Maçoudi, “Les Prairies d’Or,” text and French trans. by Barbier de - Meynard and Pavet de Courteille, vol. ii, Paris, 1863, pp. 436, 437, - chap, xxxii. - -Footnote 573: - - Gesenius in his Hebrew Dictionary even conjectures that the lehâshîm - may have been shells, which when held to the ear gave forth sounds - believed to have an ominous significance. - -Footnote 574: - - Delegation en Perse, vol. viii, Recherches Archéoligiques 3 ème Série, - Paris, 1905, pp. 36–58. - -Footnote 575: - - “Curieuse Kunst und Werck-Schul,” Nürnberg, 1705, p. 994. - -Footnote 576: - - Préceptes Médicaux de Serenus Sammonicus, text and trans. by L. - Baudet, Paris, 1845, pp. 74–77. - -Footnote 577: - - De Foe, “A Journal of the Plague Year,” London, 1895, p. 38 (vol. ix - of Works ed. by Aitken). - -Footnote 578: - - Ms. Gr. No. 2411, fol. 60. See C. Werscher, Bull. de la Soc. Nat. des - antiq. de la France, 1874, vol. xxxv, pp. 153 sqq. - -Footnote 579: - - King, “Early Christian Numismatics,” London, 1873, p. 187. - -Footnote 580: - - In the author’s library. - -Footnote 581: - - King, “Early Christian Numismatics,” London, 1873, pp. 229, 230. - -Footnote 582: - - Gregorii Episcopi Turonensis, “Historia Francorum,” ed. Arndt, and - Krusch, Para I, Hannoveræ, 1884, p. 349, lib. viii, cap. 33. - -Footnote 583: - - Dictionnaire d’Archéologie Chrétienne, ed. by Dom Fernand Cabrol and - Dom H. Leclercq, Fasc. xxv, Paris, 1911, cols. 696–698, with cuts of - the talisman taken from those given by E. Aus’m Weertht to illustrate - a paper in the Jahrb. des Vereins der Alterthumsfreunde im Rheinlande, - vols. xxxix-xl, p. 265–272, Plates IV, V, VI, Bonn, 1866. The original - photographs were taken by express permission of Napoleon III. - -Footnote 584: - - Emile Ollivier, “L’Empire Libérale,” Paris, 1897, vol. ii, p. 55. - -Footnote 585: - - Rev. Oswald Cockayne, “Leechdoms, Wortcunning and Starcraft of Early - England,” London, 1865, vol. ii, p. 299 (Bk. II, cap. 66 of the “Laece - Boc”). - -Footnote 586: - - Renel, “Les religions de la Gaule avant le Christianisme,” Paris, - 1906, p. 97. - -Footnote 587: - - See Paul Broca, “Sur la trépanation du crâne et les amulettes - crâniennes de l’époque néolitique,” Revue d’Anthropologie, vol. vi, - 1877, pp. 1–42, 193–225; and also his “Amulettes crâniennes et - trépanation préhistorique” in the same Revue, vol. v, 1876, pp. 106, - 107. - -Footnote 588: - - Kumagusu Minakata, “Trepanning among Ancient Peoples,” Nature, Jan. - 15, 1914, pp. 555, 556; citing Encyclopædia Britannica, 1910, vol. - xiii, p. 518, and E. A. Schiefner, “Tibetan Tales,” trans. Ralston, - 1906, p. 98. - -Footnote 589: - - Pierre Lacroix, “Sciences et Lettres au Moyen Age,” Paris, 1877, p. - 250. - -Footnote 590: - - Martin, “Histoire de France,” vol. x, Paris, 1844, p. 451, note. From - a communication of Pierre Lacroix, citing as authority: “Catalogue des - tableaux, antiquités, pierres gravées, etc., etc., du cabinet de feu - M. d’Ennery, écuyer,” by Remi and Miliotti, Paris, 1786. - -Footnote 591: - - Birlinger, “Kleinere deutsche Sprachdenkmäler”; in Germania, vol. iii - (1863), p. 303. - -Footnote 592: - - Cardani, “De subtilitate,” lib. vii, Basileæ, 1560, p. 473. - -Footnote 593: - - Inventaire des biens de Marguerite de Flandres Duchesse de Bourgogne, - Bibl. Nat., coll. Moreau, 1727; on fol. 96 of transcription in - author’s library, from the collection of M. E. Molinier. - -Footnote 594: - - Konrad von Megenberg’s old German version “Buch der Natur,” ed. by Dr. - Franz Pfeiffer, Stuttgart, 1861, p. 449. - -Footnote 595: - - Cardani, “De rerum varietate,” lib. v, Basileæ, 1557, p. 100. - -Footnote 596: - - Cardani, “Philosophi opera quædam,” Basileæ, 1585, p. 330. - -Footnote 597: - - “Anatomy of Melancholy,” Bk. II, § 4, i, 4. - -Footnote 598: - - Agnes Strickland, “Lives of the Queens of England,” vol. vii, pp. 770, - 778. - -Footnote 599: - - Alex. Nicholes, “A Discourse of Marriage and Wiveing,” 1615, Hasl. - Misc. II, 180; cited in Lean’s Collectanea, vol. ii, Pt. II, Bristol, - 1903, p. 641. - -Footnote 600: - - F. Lalut, “L’amulet de Pascal,” in Annales méd. psych., I ser., vol. - v, pp. 157–180; and P. E. Littré, “Médecine et médecins,” Paris, 1872, - pp. 95–97. - -Footnote 601: - - “Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart,” ed. by Friedrich Michael - Schiele, vol. i, Tübingen, 1909, col. 455. - -Footnote 602: - - Enrico H. Giglioli, “Di alcuni ex-voto amuleti, ed altri oggetti - litici adoperati nel culto di Krishna, sotto la forma di Jagan-natha a - Puri in Orissa,” Archivio per l’Antropologia, vol. xxiii, pp. 87–89; - Firanzi, 1893. - -Footnote 603: - - Berthold Laufer, “Notes on Turquois in the East,” Field Museum of - Natural History, Publication 169; Anthropological Series, vol. xiii, - No. 1. Chicago, July, 1913; see text opposite frontispiece plate. - -Footnote 604: - - Berthold Laufer, “Jade, a Study in Chinese Archæology and Religion,” - Chicago, 1912, pp. 194 sqq. - -Footnote 605: - - Communicated by Dr. Charles S. Braddock, formerly physician to the - court of Siam, under date of February 13, 1903. - -Footnote 606: - - Hendley, “Indian Jewellery,” London, 1909, p. 27; Plate XV, Figs. 112, - 113. - -Footnote 607: - - L. Austine Waddell, “Lhasa and its Mysteries, with a Record of the - Expedition of 1903–1904,” London, 1905, pp. 347, 348. - -Footnote 608: - - Ibid., pp. 348, 349. - -Footnote 609: - - Fortunio Liceti, De annulis, cap. 19. - -Footnote 610: - - Hendley, “Indian Jewellery,” London, 1909, p. 59. - -Footnote 611: - - H. Shway Yoe, “The Burman: His Life and Nations,” in “Indian - Jewellery,” by T. H. Hendley. The Journal of Indian Art and Industry, - Jan., 1909, vol. xii, No. 105, p. 143. - -Footnote 612: - - Edmond Doutté, “Magie et Religion,” Alger, 1909, pp. 320 sqq. - -Footnote 613: - - Alois Musil, “Arabia Petræa,” Wien, 1908, vol. iii, pp. 314, 315. - -Footnote 614: - - Lean’s Collectanea (by Vincent Stuckey Lean), vol. ii, Pt. I, Bristol, - 1903, p. 468. - -Footnote 615: - - Professora Isabel Ramirez Castañeda, “El Folk-Lore de Milpa Alta, D. - F., Mexico,” in Proceedings of the International Congress of - Americanists, XVIII Session, London, 1912, Pt. II, London, 1913, pp. - 352–354. - -Footnote 616: - - Ibid., pp. 356, 357. - -Footnote 617: - - George Grant McCurdy, Ph.D., “A Study of Chiriquian Antiquities,” New - Haven, Conn., 1911, p. 42, figs. 45 and 49; Mem. of the Conn. Acad, of - Arts and Sciences, vol. iii, March, 1911. - -Footnote 618: - - R. Verneau and P. Rivet, “Ethnologie ancienne de l’Equateur,” Paris, - 1912, vol. vi of Mission du service Géologique de l’armée pour la - mesure d’un arc de méridien equatorial en Amérique du Sud, 1899–1900, - pp. 222, 223, Plate XIII, fig. 4. - -Footnote 619: - - George Frederick Kunz, “Folk-lore of Precious Stones,” Chicago, 1894; - reprint from Memoirs of the International Congress of Anthropology; - see p. 269. - -Footnote 620: - - George H. Pepper, “The Exploration of a Burial-room in Pueblo Bonito, - New Mexico,” Putnam Anniversary Volume, New York, 1909, pp. 229, 230, - 236, 237. - -Footnote 621: - - George H. Pepper. The plate is from the “American Anthropologist,” New - Series, vol. vii, pl. xvii. - -Footnote 622: - - “The Turquois. A Study of its History, Mineralogy, Geology, Ethnology, - Archæology, Mythology, Folklore and Technology.” By Joseph E. Pogue. - Third Memoir, vol. xii, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. - C., 1915, 162 p., plates 22, 4to. - -Footnote 623: - - Pogue, “The Turquois,” citing Russell, “The Pima Indians,” in 26th - Annual Report of the Bureau of Amer. Ethnology, 1904–1905, p. 112. - -Footnote 624: - - “Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico,” ed. by Frederick Webb - Hodge; Smithsonian Inst., Bur. of Am. Ethn., Bull. 30, Pt. II, p. 178; - Washington, 1910. - -Footnote 625: - - W. J. Hoffman, “The Midêwiwin, or Grand Medicine Society of the - Ojibway”; 7th Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1885–86, Washington, - 1891, pp. 149–300, with many illustrations. - -Footnote 626: - - Loc. cit., Pl. XI, fig. 7, opp. 220. - -Footnote 627: - - W. J. Hoffman, “The Midêwiwin, or Grand Medicine Society of the - Ojibway”; 7th Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1885–86, Washington, - 1891, p. 277. - -Footnote 628: - - L’Abbé Banier and l’Abbé Mascrier, “Histoire générale des cérémonies, - mœurs, et coutumes religieuses de tous les peuples du monde,” Paris, - 1741, p. 101. - -Footnote 629: - - Free Museum of Science and Art, Bulletin No. 4, Jan., 1898, p. 183 - (with figures). - -Footnote 630: - - John Murdoch, “The Point Barrow Eskimo,” 9th Report of the Bureau of - Ethnology, 1887–88, Washington, 1892, p. 435. - -Footnote 631: - - Ibid., p. 439, fig. 426. - -Footnote 632: - - Ibid., p. 438; see fig. 425. - -Footnote 633: - - Ibid., p. 439. - -Footnote 634: - - Hans Egede, “A Description of Greenland,” London, 1745, p. 194 (Eng. - trans.). - -Footnote 635: - - David Crantz, “The History of Greenland”: London, 1767, vol. i, p. 216 - (Eng. trans.). - -Footnote 636: - - Rasmussen, “The People of the Polar North,” Philadelphia, 1908, p. - 139. - -Footnote 637: - - Ibid., p. 139. - -Footnote 638: - - J. G. Frazer, “Balder the Beautiful,” London, 1913, vol. ii, p. 155. - See also by the same writer, “Folk-lore in the Old-Testament,” in - Anthropological Essays, presented to E. B. Tyler, Oxford, 1907, pp. - 148 sqq. - -Footnote 639: - - Sir George Grey, “Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery,” London, - 1841, vol. ii, pp. 340, 341. - -Footnote 640: - - Bonney, Journ. of the Anthrop, Inst., vol. xiii, p. 130. - -Footnote 641: - - For further details concerning these strange ornaments, see the - writer’s “Curious Lore of Precious Stones,” J. B. Lippincott Company, - Philadelphia and London, 1913, pp. 87–90. - -Footnote 642: - - Fernie, “Precious Stones for Curative Wear,” Bristol, 1907, p. 39. - -Footnote 643: - - A. E. Wright and E. Lovett, “Specimens of Modern Mascots and Ancient - Amulets of the British Isles,” Folk Lore, vol. xix, 1908, p. 293. - -Footnote 644: - - Grey, “Polynesian Mythology,” London, 1855, p. 132. - -Footnote 645: - - Elsdon Best, “The Stone Implements of the Maori,” Dominion Museum - Bulletin, No. 4, Wellington, New Zealand, 1912. - -Footnote 646: - - Giglioli, “Materiali per lo studio della Età della Pietra,” Archivio - per l’Antropologia e l’Etnologia, vol. xxxi, pp. 79, 80; Firenze, - 1901. - -Footnote 647: - - Ibid., pp. 82, 83. - -Footnote 648: - - “Folk Lore,” vol. xxiv, No. 2, July, 1913, Story sent to R. R. Marett - by Mr. D. Jenness of Baliol College, Oxford. - -Footnote 649: - - Fraser, “The Golden Bough,” Pt. I, “The Magic Art,” London, 1911, vol. - i, p. 164. - -Footnote 650: - - J. G. Frazer, “Balder the Beautiful,” London, 1913, vol. ii, p. 142; - citing B. Julg, “Kalmückische Märchen,” Leipzig, 1866, No. 12, pp. 58 - sqq. - -Footnote 651: - - W. L. Hildburgh, “Further Notes in Spanish Amulets,” in Folk Lore, - vol. xxiv. No. 1, March 31, 1913, pp. 63–74; 2 plates. - -Footnote 652: - - W. L. Hildburgh, “Notes on Spanish Amulets,” Folk Lore, vol. xvii, - 1906, pp. 454–472. See Plate VIII, fig. 29, opp. p. 462. - -Footnote 653: - - W. L. Hildburgh, “Further Notes on Spanish Amulets,” in Folk Lore, - vol. xxiv, No. 1, p. 66, March 31, 1913; one of those amulets is shown - in Plate I, fig. 4, p. 64. - -Footnote 654: - - S. Weissenberg, “Südrussische Amulette,” in Zeitschrift für - Ethnologie, 1897, pp. 367–369. - -Footnote 655: - - From Jewellers’ Circular Weekly, Feb. 5, 1913, p. 153. - -Footnote 656: - - A. E. Wright and E. Lovett, “Specimens of Modern Mascots and Ancient - Amulets of the British Isles,” Folk Lore, vol. xix, p. 295, Plate V, - fig. 1. - -Footnote 657: - - See A. E. Wright and E. Lovett, “Specimens of Modern Mascots and - Ancient Amulets of the British Isles,” Folk Lore, vol. xix, 1904, pp. - 288–303; citing Bratly, “The Power of Gems and Charms,” London, 1907. - -Footnote 658: - - A, E. Wright and E. Lovett, “Specimens of Modern Mascots and Ancient - Amulets of the British Isles,” Folk Lore, vol. xix, p. 303. - -Footnote 659: - - St. Louis Democrat, 1905. - -Footnote 660: - - See the writer’s “The Curious Lore of Precious Stones,” J. B. - Lippincott Company, Philadelphia and London, 1913, p. 125; also pp. - 68, 96. - -Footnote 661: - - Wilhelmus Parisiensis, quoted in Pancirollus, “History of Many - Memorable Things,” London, 1715, vol. i, p. 42. - -Footnote 662: - - Benvenuto Cellini, “Due trattati, uno intorno alle otto principali - arti dell’ oreficeria,” etc., Fiorenzi, Valenti Panizzi & Marco Peri, - 1568, fol. 10. - -Footnote 663: - - Edmond Doutté, “Magie et Religion,” Alger, 1909, pp. 83, 84. - -Footnote 664: - - Berthelot, “Collection des anciens alchemistes grecs,” Paris, 1888, - 1889, vol. i, p. 9 of text. - -Footnote 665: - - Roth, “Great Benin, Its Customs, Art and Horrors,” Halifax, England, - 1903, p. 95. - -Footnote 666: - - See Wilt’s “History of India,” vol. ii, p. 197. Cited in Lean’s - Collectanea, vol. ii, Pt. II, Bristol, 1903, p. 641. - -Footnote 667: - - C. G. Jentsch, “Dissertatio physico-historica de gemmis,” Lipaiæ, - 1706, p. 19. See also the present writer’s “The Curious Lore of - Precious Stones,” Philadelphia and London, 1913, p. 41. - -Footnote 668: - - Ulloa’s Voyage to South America, trans. of John Adams, in Pinkerton’s - Voyages and Travels, vol. xiv, London, 1813, p. 546. - -Footnote 669: - - Pocock’s “Travels in Egypt,” Pinkerton’s “Voyages and Travels,” vol. - xv, London, 1814, p. 238. - -Footnote 670: - - See Warren K. Moorehead, “Hematite Implements of the United States,” - Bulletin VI of the Department of Archæology, Phillips Academy, - Andover, Mass., Andover, 1912. - -Footnote 671: - - Ibid., p. 81, Fig. 41. - -Footnote 672: - - Ibid., p. 91, Fig. 47. - -Footnote 673: - - Note on jade copied from the Tûzuk-i-Jâhangiri, or memoirs of - Jahangir, trans. by Alexander Rogers, London, 1909, p. 146; Orient. - Trans. Fund, N. S., vol. xix. - -Footnote 674: - - See The Morgan-Whitney Collection of Chinese Jades and other Hard - Stones, donated to the Isaac Delgado Museum of Art, City Park, New - Orleans, 1914, p. 32; plate opp. p. 33. - -Footnote 675: - - Communicated by Dr. O. C. Farrington. - -Footnote 676: - - See in praise of the moonstone the poem autographed for this work by - the poet, Edward Forrester Sutton. - -Footnote 677: - - Petri Servii, “Dissertatio de unguento armario,” Romæ, 1643, p. 43. - -Footnote 678: - - Johann August Donndorf, “Natur und Kunst,” Leipzig, 1790, vol. ii, p. - 497. - -Footnote 679: - - Berthold Laufer, “Notes on Turquois in the East,” Chicago, 1913, p. - 50, vol. xiii, No. 1, of Anthropological Series of Field Museum of - Natural History; citing a translation by MM. Chavannes and Pelliot - entitled: “Un traité manichéen retrouvé en Chine,” pub. in Journal - Asiatique, 1912. - -Footnote 680: - - “Ancient Accounts of India and China by Two Mohammedan Travellers,” - trans. by Abbé Renaudot, London, 1733, p. 96. - -Footnote 681: - - “Ancient Accounts of India and China by Two Mohammedan Travellers,” - trans. by Abbé Renaudot, London, 1733, pp. 97, 98. - -Footnote 682: - - See Hakluyt, “The Principal Navigations, Voyages and Discoveries of - the English Nation,” London, 1589. - -Footnote 683: - - H. Lyster Jameson, in “Nature,” Oct. 7, 1912. - -Footnote 684: - - See “Nature,” Oct. 24, 1912, p. 220. - -Footnote 685: - - Rumphius, “D’Amboinische Rariteitskamer,” Amsterdam, 1741, p. 62. - -Footnote 686: - - Schiller’s “Werke,” ed. by R. Boxberger, vol. iv, Berlin and - Stuttgart, n. d., pp. 179, 180, note; from a communication to the - editor by Dr. R. Köhler of Weimar, in illustration of the following - lines of Schiller’s “Don Karlos,” Act II, Sc. 8: - - Dem grossen Kaufmann gleich - Der, ungerührt von des Rialto’s Gold, - Und Königen zum Schimpfe, seine Perle - Dem reichen Meere wiedergab, zu stoltz - Sie unter ihrem Werte loszuschlagen. - -Footnote 687: - - G. W. Freytag, “Arabum proverbia,” Bonnæ ad Rhenam, 1843, vol. iii, - Pt. 1, p. 495. - -Footnote 688: - - Helvetius, “De l’esprit,” vol. ii, p. 17. - -Footnote 689: - - Johannis Braunii, “De Vestitu Sacerdotum Hebræorum,” Amatelodami, - 1680, p. 683. - -Footnote 690: - - From a XIII century MS. of his work, “De Proprietatibus Rerum,” fol. - clxi, recto and verso. This vellum MS. was originally in the - possession of the Carthusian Monastery of the Holy Trinity at Dijon. - Now the property of I. Martini of New York. - -Footnote 691: - - Leopold Claremont, “Singhalese Gems,” in The Jeweler and Metalworker, - pp. 1936a–1936g, December 15, 1913. - -Footnote 692: - - Abridgment by Von Hammer in the “Fundgruben des Orients,” Wien, 1818, - vol. vi. - -Footnote 693: - - Ibid., p. 129. - -Footnote 694: - - Rose, “Aristoteles de lapidibus und Arnoldus Saxo,” in Zeitschr. für - Deutsches Altertum, New Series, vol. vi, p. 386. - -Footnote 695: - - Aristophanes, “Clouds,” lines 768 sqq. - -Footnote 696: - - A. R. Tutton, in Society of Arts, London. - -Footnote 697: - - Chalfant, “Early Chinese Writing,” Mem. of Carnegie Museum, vol. iv, - No. 1, Pittsburgh, 1906, Pl. VI, No. 75. - -Footnote 698: - - De Mély, “Les lapidaires chinois,” Paris, 1896, p. lxiv. - -Footnote 699: - - Lacroix, “Sur le travail de la pierre polie dans le Haut-Oubangi”; La - Géographie, bulletin of the Société de Géographie, Paris, Oct. 15, - 1909, pp. 201–206; figures. - -Footnote 700: - - “Sur le travail de la pierre polie dans le Haut-Oubanghi,” Comptes - Rendus de l’Acad. d. Sc., vol. cxlviii, 1909, p. 1725. - -Footnote 701: - - Giglioli, “Materiale per lo studio della Età della Pietra,” Archivio - per l’Antropologia e l’Etnologia, vol. xxxi, p. 85, Firenze, 1901. - -Footnote 702: - - Communication from Taw Sein Ko. - -Footnote 703: - - Archæologia, vol. xxvii, pp. 175, 207. London, 1838. - -Footnote 704: - - “A Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar in the - Beginning of the Sixteenth Century, by Duarte Barbosa, a Portuguese,” - trans. by Henry E. Staney, London, 1866, p. 208; Hakluyt Soc. Pub., - vol. xxxv. - -Footnote 705: - - Theophrasti, “De lapidibus (Peri lithôn),” ed. by John Hill, London, - 1746; cap. 31. - -Footnote 706: - - Garcias ab Orta, “Aromatum historia” (Lat. version by Clusius), - Antverpiæ, 1579, lib. i, p. 175. - -Footnote 707: - - Finot, “Les lapidaires indiens,” Paris, 1896, p. 39, from the - “Ratnaparikha” of Buddhabhatta. - -Footnote 708: - - Ribeiro’s “History of Ceylon,” tr. by P. E. Pieris, Galle, n. d., Pt. - II, p. 317. - -Footnote 709: - - Cardani, “Philosophi opera quædam lectu digna,” Basileæ, 1585, p. 329. - -Footnote 710: - - Eilhard Wiedmann, “Ueber den Wert von Edelsteinen bei den Muslimen,” - in “Der Islam,” vol. ii, 1911, pp. 347 sqq. - -Footnote 711: - - Garbe, “Die indische Mineralien; Naharari’s Rajanighantu, Varga XIII,” - Leipzig, 1882, p. 79. - -Footnote 712: - - J. H. Collins, “The History of a Remarkable Gem. The Maxwell-Stuart - Topaz.” Mineralogical Magazine No. 13, 1879. - -Footnote 713: - - Berthold Laufer, “Notes on Turquois in the East.” Field Museum of - Natural History, Anthropological Series, vol. xiii, No. 1, Chicago, - July, 1913, pp. 5, 8. - -Footnote 714: - - The Tûzuk-i-Jâhangîrî, or memoirs of Jahangir, trans. by Alexander - Rogers, London, 1909, p. 238; Orient. Trans. Fund, N. S., vol. xix. - -Footnote 715: - - M. Tullii Ciceronis, “In Verrem,” lib. iv, Oratio nona, cap. 27. - -Footnote 716: - - Marshall H. Saville in the American Anthropologist, vol. xv, No. 3, - July-September, 1913. - -Footnote 717: - - R. Campbell, “The London Tradesman,” London, 1747, p. 143. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES - - - 1. Silently corrected obvious typographical errors and variations in - spelling. - 2. Retained archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings as printed. - 3. 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