diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/66356-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/66356-0.txt | 2979 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 2979 deletions
diff --git a/old/66356-0.txt b/old/66356-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 0e29823..0000000 --- a/old/66356-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2979 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Forest Trees and Forest Scenery, by G. -Frederick Schwarz - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Forest Trees and Forest Scenery - -Author: G. Frederick Schwarz - -Release Date: September 21, 2021 [eBook #66356] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOREST TREES AND FOREST -SCENERY *** - Transcriber’s Notes - -Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations -in hyphenation have been standardised but all other spelling and -punctuation remains unchanged. - -Italics are represented thus _italic_. - -The notes remain at the end of the text as in the original. - - - - - FOREST TREES AND - FOREST SCENERY - -[Illustration: A River Scene in Florida] - - - - - FOREST TREES AND - FOREST SCENERY - - BY - G. FREDERICK SCHWARZ - - ILLUSTRATED - - [Illustration: Publisher’s Device] - - NEW YORK - THE GRAFTON PRESS - 1901 - - - - - Copyright, 1901, by - G. FREDERICK SCHWARZ - - - - - PREFACE - - -In the ensuing pages I have made simple inquiries into the sources -of beauty and attractiveness in American forest trees and sylvan -scenery. In the concluding chapter, by way of contrast, I have given -a short account of the esthetic effects of the artificial forests of -Europe. The system which shaped these forests and gave them their -present appearance should, however, possess more than a comparative -interest for Americans. It has, in fact, a further connection, though -a slight one, with the subject, and therefore requires a few words of -explanation. - -It is well known that in many parts of Europe the forests have long -been subjected to a systematic treatment known as forestry. The term, -at first strange, is gradually becoming quite familiar to us Americans, -for the application of this comparatively new science has already begun -in many sections of our country. The principles of European forestry -will naturally undergo many modifications in their new environment, -and the vastness of our forest areas, as well as the long life that -naturally belongs to trees, will impose a very gradual progress. -Nevertheless, the movement for a rational use of our forests is rapidly -advancing and is certain in time to find a very wide application. - -Although the aims of forestry are utilitarian and not artistic, the -technical character of the operations which it involves impresses upon -natural forest scenery a changed aspect. Eventually the work performed -upon our forests will be manifested in a new outward appearance, a -change that cannot but be preferable to the scenes ordinarily presented -by our cut-over and abandoned timberlands, and one that will be -appreciated not only by forest lovers in general, but also by those who -are engaged in the lumber industry itself, who are often forced through -competition and prevailing methods to leave a desolate picture behind. - -In a word, forestry interests us here because, having already obtained -a foothold in our country, through it forest beauty stands on the -threshold of a new relationship. This relationship, which is to grow -more intimate with time, appears to justify a certain discrimination in -the choice of the trees and forests herein described, and an occasional -reference to some of the less technical matters of forestry that may -incidentally suggest themselves as being of some interest to the -general reader. To have attempted more than this would have detracted -from the unity of the subject. While the reader may, therefore, find in -these pages some facts that are new to him, he will notice that these -facts have been made subordinate to the leading object of the book, -an appreciation of the esthetic value of some of our commonest forest -trees. - -The illustrations have been derived from various sources. The plates -facing pages 38, 58, 62, 64, 66, 116, 120, 130, are reproductions -from original photographs that were furnished through the courtesy -of the Bureau of Forestry, United States Department of Agriculture. -My grateful acknowledgments are due Mr. Overton W. Price, Assistant -Chief of the Bureau of Forestry, for photographs chosen out of his -collection to supply the plates facing pages 69, 148, 158. The -remaining illustrations have been reproduced from photographs in my own -collection. - -Notes of reference, which are indicated by superior figures in the -text, and an index to the names of the trees that have been described -or specially referred to in these pages, will be found at the close of -the book. The index has been compiled from a well-known bulletin of the -Bureau of Forestry, United States Department of Agriculture, entitled -“Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States.” Courteous -acknowledgment is here made to the author, Mr. George B. Sudworth, -and to the Division of Publications, of the same Department, for kind -permission to make extracts from the bulletin referred to. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - I FOREST TREES 1 - - The Broadleaf Trees 3 - - The Cone-Bearers 29 - - II FOREST ADORNMENT 63 - - III DISTRIBUTION OF AMERICAN FORESTS 83 - - IV CHARACTER OF THE BROADLEAF FORESTS 97 - - V THE CONIFEROUS FORESTS 116 - - VI THE ARTIFICIAL FORESTS OF EUROPE 141 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - A River Scene in Florida _Frontispiece_ - - Facing page - - Foliage of the White Oak 8 - - Spray of the Sugar Maple 12 - - Spray of the Red Maple 12 - - The Dogwood in Bloom 22 - - Tulip Trees 26 - - Character of the White Pine 34 - - Sugar Pines 36 - - A Pinery in the South 38 - - The Bull Pine in its California Home 40 - - A Silver Fir at Middle Age 50 - - Redwood Forest in California 58 - - Devastation in the Forest 60 - - Where the Sheep Have Been 62 - - A Passageway through Granite Rocks 64 - - Shrubbery and River Birches. New Jersey 66 - - Fern Patch in a Grove of White Birch 69 - - A Yucca in the Chaparral 78 - - - Virgin Forest Scene in Florida 110 - - A Group of Conifers. Montana 116 - - Mount Rainier. Washington 120 - - A Thicket of White Firs 125 - - An Open Forest in the Southwest 130 - - A Storm-beaten Veteran 132 - - A German “Selection Forest” 148 - - A “High Forest” of Spruce in Saxony 158 - - - - - FOREST TREES AND - FOREST SCENERY - - - - - “One impulse from a vernal wood - May teach you more of man, - Of moral evil and of good, - Than all the sages can.” - WORDSWORTH. - - - - - I - - FOREST TREES - - -The beauty of a forest is not simple in character, but is due to many -separate sources. The trees contribute much; the shrubs, the rocks, the -mosses, play their part; the purity of the air, the forest silence, -the music of wind in the trees—these and other influences combine to -produce woodland beauty and charm. A first consideration, however, -should be to know the beauty that is revealed by the trees themselves. - -Here it will be wise to make a selection: to choose out of the -great variety of our forest flora those trees that most deserve -our attention. Many of our forest trees have naturally a restricted -range; others are narrowing or widening their range through human -interference; still others have already established their right to -a preëminence among the trees of the future, because, possessing to -an unusual degree the qualities that will make them amenable to the -new and improved methods of treatment known as “forestry,” they are -certain to receive special care and attention; while those that are not -so fortunate will be left to fight their own battles, or may even be -exterminated to make room for the more useful kinds. Among all these -the rarest are not necessarily the most beautiful. Those that are -commonest and most useful are often distinguished for qualities that -please the eye or appeal directly to the mind. - -In accordance with the ideas already expressed in the Preface, the -considerations that will determine what trees shall be described are -as follows: first, trees of beauty; next, those that are common and -familiar; finally, those that are important both for the present and -the future because they are useful and have an extended geographical -distribution. - -The trees selected for description will here be divided into the two -conventional groups of broadleaf species and conifers, beginning with -the former. - - - THE BROADLEAF TREES - -In the “Landscape Gardening” of Downing we read concerning the oak,— - -“When we consider its great and surpassing utility and beauty, we are -fully disposed to concede it the first rank among the denizens of the -forest. Springing up with a noble trunk, and stretching out its broad -limbs over the soil, - - ‘These monarchs of the wood, - Dark, gnarled, centennial oaks,’ - -seem proudly to bid defiance to time; and while generations of man -appear and disappear, they withstand the storms of a thousand winters, -and seem only to grow more venerable and majestic.” - -It would be difficult to say whether Downing had any particular species -of oak in mind when he wrote these words. The common white oak and the -several species of red and black oak possess in an eminent degree the -grandeur and strength which he describes and for which we commonly -admire the tree. - -Of all the oaks[1] the white oak is the most important. This tree will -impress us differently as we see it in the open field or in the dense -forest. Where it stands by itself in the full enjoyment of light, it -has a round-topped, dome-shaped crown, and is massive and well poised -in all its parts. Quite as often, however, we shall see it gathered -into little groups of three or four on the greensward of some gently -sloping hill, where it has a graceful way of keeping company. The -groups are full of expression, the effect is diversified from tree -to tree, yet harmonious in the whole. In the denser forest the white -oak often reaches noble proportions and assumes its most individual -expression. There it mounts proudly upward, contending in height at -wide intervals with sugar maples and tulip trees, its common associates -in the forest. Its lofty crown may be seen at a distance, lifted -conspicuously above the heads of its neighbors. Stand beneath it, -however, and look up at its lower branches, and there is revealed an -intricacy of branchwork and a tortuosity of limb such as is unattained -when it stands alone in the field. The boldness with which the white -oak will sometimes throw out its limbs abruptly, and twist and writhe -to the outermost twig, I have never seen quite equaled in the other -oaks. The live oak, it must be admitted, is even more abrupt where the -limb divides from the trunk, but it does not continue its vagaries to -the end. - -It is to be noted that these forms are not without a purpose and a -meaning. Under difficulties and obstacles the twigs and branches have -groped their way; often one part has been sacrificed for the good of -another, in order that all gifts of air, and moisture, and light might -be received in the fullness of their worth. Thus the entire framework -of the tree becomes infused with life and meaning, almost with sense, -and its character is reflected in its expression. - -The observer is also impressed by the character of the foliage. The -leaves are usually rather blunt and ponderous, varying a little—as, -indeed, do those of several other trees —according to the nature of -their environment. They clothe the tree in profusion, but do not hide -the beauty of the ramification of its branches. In truth, they are not -devoid of beauty themselves. It was natural for Lowell to exclaim,— - - A little of thy steadfastness, - Rounded with leafy gracefulness, - Old oak, give me. - -While the leaves of the white oak do not deflect and curve as much in -their growth as those of some of the more graceful and elegant trees, -they nevertheless fall into natural and pleasing groups, unfolding a -pretty variation as they work out their patient spiral ascent, leaf -after leaf, round the stemlet; showing a changefulness in the sizes -of the several leaves, and a choice in the spacing. In the first -weeks of leafing-time there is to be added to these features the -effects derived from transitions of color in the leaves. For the very -young leaves are not green, but of a deep rose or dusky gray. They are -velvety in texture, and lie nestling within the groups of the larger -green leaves that have preceded them. Just as it was said a little -while ago that there was expressiveness throughout the branches, it may -now be said that there is a fitness of the foliage for all parts of the -tree. - -[Illustration: Foliage of the White Oak] - -In winter, however, the beauty of the oak’s foliage is gone. The dry -leaves still hang on the boughs, sometimes even until spring, but they -look disheveled and dreary. Still, they are not without some esthetic -value, though it be through the sense of hearing instead of sight. -Thoreau says,— - -“The dry rustle of the withered oak-leaves is the voice of the wood in -winter. It sounds like the roar of the sea, and is inspirating like -that, suggesting how all the land is seacoast to the aërial ocean.” - -Deep and glorious, too, is the light that rests in the oak woods on -midsummer days. It filters, softened and subdued, through the wealth -of foliage, and wraps us in a mellow radiance. Its purity and calm -depth lift the senses to a higher level. Most limpid is the light in a -misty shower, when the sun is low and the level rays break through the -moist leaves and dampened air, while we stand within and see everything -bathed in a golden luster. - -Our common chestnut is of less economic value than the oak, but one -suggests the other, for the two are often found together and are -similar in size and habit. The chestnut is, in truth, one of our finest -deciduous trees. It has a luxuriance of healthy, dark-green foliage, -and is happy-looking in its abundance of yellow-tasseled blossoms. It -is even more beautiful in August, when the young burs mingle their even -tinge of brown with the fresh green of the glossy leaves. In old age it -has the same firmness that is so noticeable in the oak, and seems to be -just as regardless of the winds and gales. - -The character of the leaf and the manner in which the branches of a -tree divide and ramify have so much to do with certain beautiful -effects, that I shall make some remarks on these features in two of -our maples. The sugar or hard maple is the most useful member of this -genus, and may advantageously be compared with the red maple, which is -perhaps more beautiful. - -It is of great advantage to both of these trees that the sweep of -their branches, which is carried out in ample, undulating lines, is -in perfect harmony with the elegance of their foliage. In the sugar -maple the latter spreads over the boughs in soft and pleasing contours. -The leaves are a trifle larger than those of the red maple, and their -edges are wavy or flowing, while their surfaces are slightly undulating -and have less luster than those of the other tree. They are thus well -fitted to receive a flood of light without being in danger of -presenting a clotted appearance. The petioles, or little leaf-stems, -assume a more horizontal position than they do in the red maple, and -the twigs are usually shorter, which allows a denser richness in the -foliage, which every breeze plays upon and ruffles as it passes by. - -[Illustration: Spray of the Sugar Maple] - -[Illustration: Spray of the Red Maple] - -The red maple has a more airy look. This is due partly to the character -of the leaf, but primarily to that of the branchwork. The main branches -spread out in easy, flowing lines, much as they do in the sugar maple; -but they assume an ampler range, and the last divisions, the twigs, -take on decided curves, rising to right and left. On these the leaves -multiply, each leaf poised lightly upon its curved petiole. As -compared with the leaf of its congener, that of the red maple is firmer -and a shade lighter, especially underneath. It is also more agile in -the wind. The effect of the whole is more that of a shower of foliage -than of pillowed masses. The curving lines, the elastic spring of every -part, and a kind of freedom among the many leaves, make the red maple -one of the cheerfullest of trees. - -The sugar maple is the larger of the two, and seeks the intervales -and uplands, where its size is well set off in the landscape. The red -maple, which finds its natural home along riverbanks and in moist -places, is interesting at all seasons. When young it is particularly -attractive in summer where it fringes lakes and streams. In winter -its bright, red twigs present a pleasing contrast to the gray bark or -to the snow-covered earth. In the earliest days of spring the little -scarlet blossoms break out in tufts that soon ripen into brilliant -little keys, looking very pretty where they intermingle with the pale -green of the opening leaves. - -There is, in fact, more color in the woods in the opening days of -spring than is generally admitted or noticed. Many kinds of trees -unfold their leaves in some tender shade of rose or golden brown; -while others lend a distinct color to a whole section of forest by the -opening of their early blossoms. - -The maples, however, are chiefly famous for their wonderful richness -of color in the fall of the year; particularly the sugar and the red -maple, whose brilliancy at this season it would be difficult to match. -They exhibit, in truth, a gamut of beautiful tones, from pale yellow to -deep orange, and from bright scarlet to vivid crimson. They are among -the first to change the color of their leaves, but are quickly followed -by other species of trees, whose varying hues blend together and enrich -the autumn landscape. The “scarlet” and “red” oaks now justify their -names; the flowering dogwood and the sweet gum show their soft depth -of purple; the milder tulip tree takes on a golden tint and shimmers -in the sun, mingling with ruddy hornbeams, browned beeches, variegated -sassafras trees, or the fiery foliage of the tupelos. The swamps are -aflame with the brilliancy of red maples, contrasting with the quieter -tones of alders and willows. - -We may speak of brilliancy and color in our leafy woods at the ebb-tide -of the year; but to know their beauty well we must walk among the -trees. Nor can pictures tell us all the truth about the tints of -autumn. How should we receive from them the atmospheric effects that -nature gives, and the indescribable blending and softening that comes -from innumerable rays of diffused and reflected light? The beauty also -changes from day to day and from hour to hour, for weeks. - -Some of the other broadleaf trees deserve to be noticed, though in -less detail, as objects of beauty in the forest. The honey locust, -one of our largest trees of this class, is distinguished principally -for the elegant forms of its branches. The smaller divisions, the -twigs, follow a zigzag course which in itself is not beautiful, but -the effect is so bound up with the complex spiral evolutions of the -larger divisions, the boughs and branches, that the result is only to -heighten the elegance of the latter. The foliage of this tree is very -delicate, being composed of numerous elliptically shaped leaflets, that -are gathered into sprays that hang airily among the bold and sweeping -boughs. - -Much might be said here in commendation of the sassafras tree, were -it economically more important. Its brown, sculptured bark is very -attractive, and its yellowish blossoms, that break in early spring, -are fragrant. The leaves are of several shades of green, and vary -considerably in outline. When in full leaf, the outward form of the -tree is striking in appearance, its foliage being massed into rounded -and hemispherical shapes that group themselves in the crown of the tree -in well-proportioned and tasteful outlines. - -The birches, too, are very attractive trees, especially where they -have ample room to develop. The white birch appears at its best where -it is sprinkled in moderation among open groves of other trees. To -the forester it is of some importance, as its seedlings rapidly cover -denuded or burnt areas. They also shield from excessive sunlight or -from frost the seedlings of more valuable kinds that may have sprouted -in their welcome shade; until, gaining strength, the latter after -a few years push up their tops between the open foliage of their -protecting “nurses.” The white birch may be seen performing this -good office in many a fire-scarred piece of woodland throughout the -Northeastern States. Often, too, we see it standing a little apart, as -at the edge of a forest; its slender branches drooping around the pure -white trunk and its agile leaves gleaming as they wave in the light -breeze. It is like one of those single notes in music that glide into -universal harmony with irresistible charm. - -The yellow birch, on the contrary, is most beautiful in the depth of -the forest. It is a large, useful tree. In the Adirondacks I have often -admired its tall, straight trunk as it rose above the neighboring -firs and spruces and unfolded its large, regular crown of dense -dark foliage, relieved underneath by the thin, shining, silvery to -golden-yellow bark, torn here and there into shreds that curled back -upon themselves around the stem. - -The white elm, well represented in the avenues of New England, is -widely distributed. It is a tree for the meadow, although its natural -grace and, one might almost say, inborn gentleness are preserved along -the fringes of the forest and on the banks of streams. It needs some -room to show the refinement of its closely interwoven spray. Watch its -beauty as it sways in the light wind; or look at a grove of elms after -a hoar-frost on some early morning in winter, when the leaves are gone -and all its outlines are penciled in finest silver. - -The flowering dogwood is one of our smaller trees, but is exceptionally -favored with all manner of beauty. Although it is very common in many -of the States, and is not without its special uses, it occupies a -subordinate position in the eyes of the forester, being often no more -than a mere shrub in form. And yet, while some of the larger trees by -their majestic presence lend grandeur to the forest, the dogwood brings -to it a charm not easily forgotten. In spring, when it is showered all -over with interesting, large, creamy-white flowers, it is an emblem -of purity. Its leaves, which appear very soon after the bloom, are -elegantly curved in outline, soft of texture, light-green in summer, -and of a deep crimson or rich purple-maroon in autumn.[2] In winter the -flowers are replaced by bright, red berries. Its spray of twigs and -branchlets, formed by a succession of exquisitely proportioned waves -and upward curves, is not as conspicuous, though hardly less ornamental -at this season than the fruit. - -[Illustration: The Dogwood in Bloom] - -As a shrub, being among the very first to bloom, it decorates the -forest borders in spring, or stands conspicuously within the forest. It -is found everywhere in the Appalachian region. In the coastal plain it -is associated with the longleaf pine, or may be seen among broadleaf -trees, or standing among red junipers, as tall as they and quite at -home in their company. - -Before turning to coniferous trees, the tulip tree deserves some -attention on account of its usefulness, its extended habitat, and its -beauty as a forest tree. It is closely related to the magnolias, to -which belongs the big laurel of the Gulf region, an evergreen species -that might be called the queen of all broadleaf trees. But the big -laurel must here give place to the tulip tree, because it is not -so distinctively a forest tree, and is much more restricted in its -geographical distribution. - -The first general impression of the tulip tree is, I venture to say, -one of strangeness. There is a foreign look about the heavy, truncated -leaves, and an oriental luxury in the large, greenish-yellow flowers. -These appear in May or June, while the conelike fruit ripens in -the fall. When the seeds have scattered, the open cones, upright in -position, remain for a long time on the tree, where they are strikingly -ornamental. - -Esthetically the most important feature of the tulip tree is an -expression of dignity and stateliness, which gives it a character of -its own. Its extraordinary size renders it a conspicuous object in -the forest, the more so because we usually find it associated with a -variety of other trees of quite different aspect. Michaux, who has told -us much about the forest flora of the eastern United States, could -find no tree among the deciduous kinds, except the buttonwood, that -would bear comparison with it in size, and he calls it “one of the most -magnificent vegetables of the temperate zone.” Its columnar trunk -continues with unusual straightness and regularity nearly to the summit -of the tree. Its limbs and branches divide in harmonious proportions, -reaching out as if conscious of their strength, and yet with sufficient -gracefulness to lend dignity to the tree. The lower boughs, especially, -are inclined to assume an elegant sweep, deflecting sidewise to the -earth, and ending with an upward curve and a droop at the outer -extremity. Often the crowded environment of the forest does not admit -of such ample development; yet even under such conditions the tulip -tree preserves much of its elegance and is generally well balanced. - -[Illustration: Tulip Trees] - -When young it does not appear to much advantage, being rather too -symmetrical. Nevertheless I have found it described as a tree of -“great refinement of expression” at that age. As soon as it begins -to put on a richer crown of foliage and to develop a sturdier stem -and more elegant lines in the disposition of its branches, it becomes -invested with its peculiar aspect of magnificence, increasing in -gracefulness and grandeur from year to year. Its bark, at first smooth -and gray, gradually becomes chiseled with sharp small cuts; then takes -on a corrugated appearance, becomes brown, and finally turns into -deeply furrowed ridges in the old tree. Now the foliage, too, seems -to clothe the massive boughs more fitly, being denser and in size of -leaves more in accordance with the increased dimensions of the tree. - -The foliage of the tulip tree is, in truth, one of its principal -points of beauty, and is inferior only to the stateliness of its form. -The opening leaf-buds are conical, exquisitely modeled, and of the -tenderest green. The leaves unfold from them much as do the petals in -a flower, but quickly spread apart on the stem. As they grow larger -they still preserve their light-green color, but take on a mild gloss. -They are ready to shift and tremble on their long leaf-stalks in every -breath of wind, which gives them a decided air of cheerfulness. We may -see the same thing in the aspen and in some of the poplars. Under the -tulip tree, however, the light that descends and spreads out on the -ground is far superior. It is softer and purer. We need not look up -to appreciate it, but may watch it on the soil, over which it moves in -flecks of light and dark. - - “The chequer’d earth seems restless as a flood - Brushed by the winds, so sportive is the light - Shot through the boughs; it dances, as they dance, - Shadow and sunshine intermingling quick, - And dark’ning, and enlight’ning (as the leaves - Play wanton) every part.” - - - THE CONE-BEARERS - -The cone-bearing trees are usually provided with needle-shaped or -awl-shaped leaves, in contradistinction to the broad and flat ones -that belong to the group described in the preceding section of this -chapter. Most of them preserve their foliage through the winter, and -are commonly recognized by this evergreen habit. They are much more -important to the forester than the other class. The conifers grow -on the true forest soils. They range along mountain crests or are -scattered over dry and semi-arid regions or along the sandy seashore, -while the broadleaf species usually require a better soil and a more -congenial climate. This circumstance causes many deciduous forests to -be cut down, in order that the better land on which they grow may be -utilized for agricultural purposes. Moreover, the wood of the conifers -is generally more useful, being in several of the species of great -economic importance. Lastly, in their habit of denser growth, and from -the fact that these trees are ordinarily found in the form of “pure” -forests (in contradistinction to those forests in which a number -of species grow intermingled), they furnish certain very important -conditions for practical and successful forestry. - -The common white pine well deserves to stand at the head of all the -conifers or evergreens east of the Mississippi. Though it once covered -vast areas in more or less “pure” forests it has been largely cut away, -and recurring fires have generally prevented its return; but in certain -places it could even now be restored by careful treatment. At present -the last remnants of these pineries are disappearing swiftly, and -before the methods of the forester can be applied to such extensive -areas, this valuable heritage will probably have vanished. Heretofore -it has been to us Americans in the supply of wood what bread and water -are in daily life. It has been hardly less valued by other nations, -having been planted as a forest tree in Germany a full century ago. - -I cannot say what I admire most in the white pine; whether it be the -luxuriance and purity of its foliage, or the very graceful spread of -its boughs. There is hardly a tree that can equal it for softness and -rich color. The tufts of needlelike leaves densely cover the upper -surfaces of the spreading branches, and are of a mild, uniformly -pure olive-green. Seen from beneath they appear tangled in the -beautifully interwoven twigs and stems. It is here that we first begin -to notice the exquisite manner of the white pine. The boughs reach out -horizontally, with here and there one that ascends or turns aside to -assume a position exceptionally graceful and to fill out a space that -seems specially to have been vacated for it. I speak of the white pine -at the age preceding maturity, when it is in its full strength, but -before it has attained the picturesqueness of old age. Following an -easy curve, the branch divides at right and left into dozens of finer -branchlets, all extending forward and straining, as it were, to reach -the light; and these in turn lift up hundreds of twigs and little stems -to enrich the upper surfaces with bushy tufts of lithe green needles. -The elegance of this habit in the white pine appears to advantage when -we stand a little above it on a gentle slope and see the branches -clearly defined against the surface of a lake below or some far-away -gray cloud. - -Both in middle age and when it is old the white pine is a -distinguished-looking tree. When young it is sometimes elegantly -symmetrical; but more often, owing to a crowded position, it lacks the -air of neatness that belongs to a few of the other pines and to most -of the firs. At maturity it is a very impressive tree, especially in -the dense forest, where it develops a tall, dark, stately stem. In its -declining years the branches begin to break and fall away, no longer -able to bear the weight of heavy snows. This is often the time when -it is most picturesque. - -[Illustration: Character of the White Pine.] - -The representatives of the white pine in the West are the silver pine -and the sugar pine. Though both may be easily recognized as near -relatives of the eastern species, either by the typical form of the -cones or by the plan and structure of the foliage, each of the western -trees possesses a majesty and beauty of its own. The silver pine is -more compact in its branches than the white pine, and has somewhat -denser and more rigid foliage. Its dark aspect is well suited to the -mountains and ridges of the Northwest, where it commonly abounds. -The sugar pine, which is the tallest of all pines, impresses us by -its picturesque individuality. Its great perpendicular trunk not -infrequently rises, clear of limbs, to the height of a hundred and -fifty feet, and is surmounted by an open pyramidal crown of half that -length, composed of long and slender branches that are full of motion. -While the texture of the foliage is not as delicate as in the white -pine, it is smooth and elastic, and has an even bluish tinge that shows -to great advantage when the needles are stirred by the wind. Its cones, -which are of enormous size, hang in clusters from the extremities of -the distant boughs, which droop beneath the unusual weight. Two of -these cones, which I have lying before me, measure each nineteen inches -in length. Well might Douglas, the botanist who named this tree, call -it “the most princely of the genus.” - -[Illustration: Sugar Pines -Young Bull Pines in the foreground at the right and an Incense Cedar at -the left.] - -The longleaf pines of the Southern States should be noticed for -their picturesqueness. The Cuban pine is restricted to isolated tracts -in the region of the Gulf and eastern Georgia. The loblolly pine and -the longleaf pine, near relatives of the Cuban pine, cover extensive -tracts in low, level regions of the Southern States, and are most -interesting in old age. Standing, it may be, on a sandy plain not far -from the sea, among straggling palmettos, they lift their ample crowns -well up on their tall, straight stems, and contort their branches into -surprising forms; so that, looking through their crowns at a distance -in the dry, hazy air of the South, with possibly a red sunset sky for a -background, they are extremely fantastic and entertaining. - -There are two other pines that have a similar tortuous habit in the -growth of their branches: the pitch pine of our eastern coast States -and the lodgepole pine of the Rocky Mountains. These, however, have an -esthetic value for quite a different reason. In the case of the pitch -pine it is due to a natural peculiarity otherwise rare among conifers; -for, this tree has the power of sprouting afresh from the stump that -has been left after cutting or forest fires, thus healing in time -the raggedness and devastation resulting from necessity, neglect, or -indifference. The lodgepole pine of the West performs the same patient -work over burned areas through the remarkable power of germination -belonging to its seeds, even after being scorched by fire. Thus both of -these trees not only furnish useful material, but restore health and -calmness to the forest. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry_ -A Pinery in the South] - -In connection with the longleaf pines of the Southern States, the -bull pine of the West deserves to be noticed on account of its near -botanical relationship and the somewhat similar economic position which -it occupies. It is the most widely distributed of western trees, being -found in almost every kind of soil and climate along the Pacific coast -and throughout the Rockies. Over so wide a range, growing under very -different conditions of soil, temperature, light, and moisture, it -varies greatly in form and appearance. We encounter it on dry, sterile -slopes or elevated plateaux in the interior, and walk for miles through -the monotony of these dark bull pine forests, in which the trees are -of small stature and seem to be struggling for their life. Again we -meet it on the humid western slopes of the Sierra Nevada, associated -with the sugar pine and other lofty trees. Here we scarcely recognize -it. It holds its own among the company of giants, and is full of -vitality, freedom, and strength; with brighter, redder bark and stout, -sinuous branches; with longer needles and larger cones. The sunlight -fills its ample crown spaces, and the wind murmurs in the foliage -overhead; for the pines are the master musicians of the woods. - -[Illustration: The Bull Pine in its California Home] - -The Southern States and the Gulf region furnish us with a conifer of -striking originality and great usefulness. This is the bald cypress, -which may have caught the reader’s eye in some northern park by -the elegant forms of its spirelike growth. It rises high and erect, -a narrow pyramid clothed in the lightest green foliage. The latter -is composed of delicate feathers of little elliptical leaves that -hang drooping among the finely interwoven short branches. This is in -its cultivated northern home, where it seems to thrive well on the -carefully kept greensward. But in reality it is a tree of deep swamps, -seeking the dank, flooded shores of southern rivers, or impenetrable -morasses, where few other trees can live. Here we may paddle our boat -through the strange-looking cypress knees that it sends up above the -water from the roots in the muddy soil beneath, and may admire the -straight, firm trunks that are ridged and buttressed below to form -wide, spreading bases. In this, its native home, when it has grown to -maturity, it looks far different from the trim, tall pyramid that we -see in the park. In place of the lofty spire it bears a broad, flat -crown, that is poised upon the tall, fibrous, reddish-gray trunk. Such -crowns, if the tree has had room to spread, may measure as much as a -hundred feet across; but where closely pressed at the sides by other -trees, they are contracted to much narrower dimensions. The foliage is -soft in texture as ever, and interspersed with little globular cones. -With the coming of winter, however, the sprays of foliage turn brown -and fall from the tree, the bald cypress being one of the very few -cone-bearers that shed their leaves. - -In the South, especially in Florida and along the Gulf, the cypress -trees are likely to be overloaded with streamers of gray, mosslike -tillandsia. This epiphytic plant, commonly known as “Florida moss” or -“hanging moss,” sometimes hides the entire mass of foliage, and lends a -funereal aspect to whole groves and forests of these trees, detracting -much from their beauty. - -One of the prettiest coniferous trees in the East is the hemlock. -Whatever may be the prejudice against the commercial qualities of this -tree,—for the value of its wood is not now appreciated as it should -be,—its appearance is admired by all who know it. I call it “pretty” -because it is fine and neat when young and grows to be comely and -graceful in middle age, rather than beautiful in the ordinary meaning -of that word. It is an easy, airy tree. And yet the time comes when -it loses its ease and grace, when its trunk grows darker and its -boughs become straggly and rough, when it puts on the strength of age -without its decrepitude and bears unflinchingly the weight of winter -snows. Is it now less interesting than in its youth? I think not. -It makes the woods rough and natural, and we admire its simplicity, -self-sufficiency, and endurance. - -When young there is no tree with such elegant and yet loose and pretty -effects in the foliage, unless it should be one of its western cousins. -The spray hangs delicately from the sides of the tree and the top is -gracefully pendent. The little shoots, as they peep out from hundreds -of recesses, buoyant and lifelike, and the pendent top, are in some way -suggestive of a playing fountain, especially in quite young trees. In -the forest the symmetry of the hemlock is not always preserved; yet it -fits into the scene gracefully, whether fringing the mountain stream or -grouping itself among the other trees of the forest. - -The two western hemlocks also have exceedingly graceful sprays and -majestic forms, but they are less familiar to most of us and are not as -widely distributed as the smaller eastern species. - -One of the trees of widest geographical range in America is the red -cedar, or red jumper, as it should more properly be called. This -statement remains true notwithstanding the recent discovery that the -form of red juniper common to certain parts of the Rockies is distinct -from the eastern tree. Though of small size, except in the bottom lands -of Arkansas and Texas, it possesses some excellent qualities and is -useful in many ways. It is sometimes used in cabinet work, and is one -of the best materials for fence posts. The variety that grows along the -Florida coast furnishes the wood for the indispensable lead pencil. - -The red juniper is at its best along the border of the forest or where -it strays a short distance away. Its foliage is dark and bushy, and -infinitely tender and soft in appearance. In the lower Appalachian -region it forms a fine setting for the gorgeous drifts of dogwood and -redbud that skirt the forest edges. It forms changeful and interesting -groups on the rocky knolls and ledges. On our Jersey shores it has -a tasteful way of gathering into little companies, just near enough -to the forest to belong to it, composing scenes that are pleasant to -remember. Singly, on the yellow sands, the young conical red juniper -edges off well against the sky. In its old age the same tree looks -gnarled and picturesque, but still beautiful, with its masses of small -blue-gray berries.[3] Many of us remember it so by the edge of the -ocean, and perhaps others, like myself, have allowed their imagination -to drift and have fancied that it looked solemn and thoughtful, -outlined against the pale-blue sky, listening to the swish and whisper -of the sea. - -Several cone-bearing trees of the Western States remain to be -considered. These are the firs and spruces, which belong to the same -class as the pines; and the big tree and redwood, relatives of the bald -cypress. - -The Douglas spruce, or red fir, is in reality neither a true spruce -nor a fir, though it has some of the characteristics of each. It was -discovered as long ago as 1795 by the famous explorer, Archibald -Menzies. This species and a smaller one that grows on the arid -mountains of southern California, with possibly a third that is found -in Japan, constitute together the whole genus _Pseudotsuga_. But -whatever its botanical peculiarities, the red fir is an important and -exceedingly useful tree, especially for the purposes of practical and -scientific forestry. Like the white pine it was planted long ago by -those pioneers in forestry, the Germans, and has proved itself among -them to be one of the few trees of foreign extraction that can be -called successful. - -When young, the red fir grows rapidly and symmetrically, and has a -fresh, vigorous, healthy look. It then already possesses the bluish -depth to its foliage that it preserves throughout life, a color that -is comparable in its purity only to that of the white pine. In several -of its other features, however, it changes with the lapse of years. It -gradually loses the graceful lower boughs that feather to the ground in -the young tree; its bark becomes rough and very thick; and its trunk -develops into a tall, straight shaft that bears a long, spiry crown of -striking symmetry, in which tier after tier of branches rises to the -narrowing summit, ending some two or three hundred feet in air. This -is its aspect in the favored regions of its growth, near the shores of -Puget Sound and in the moist mountains of Washington and Oregon, where -it once formed forests of extraordinary density and dark grandeur, -portions of which are still preserved over this extensive territory. - -Another important conifer is the lowland fir of the Pacific coast. -All the silver firs, to which class this tree belongs, have distinct -features in their foliage and a characteristic habit of growth, a -description of which may enable the reader to picture to himself -not only the lowland fir itself, but to form some conception of the -esthetic value of the entire genus. - -[Illustration: A Silver Fir at Middle Age] - -The leaves are narrow, flat, and linear, usually about as long as a -pin or a needle, glossy green on the upper side, and streaked with a -longitudinal whitish line underneath. They are crowded horizontally -at the right and left sides of the shoot or twig, like the hairs on -the quill of a feather. The twigs themselves, and, in turn, the boughs -and branches, have a similar tendency to assume a horizontal position; -and thus the tree is built up in neat symmetrical stages, dwindling -in size to the summit, and presenting the typical conical form of the -cone-bearers. - -Let it not be presumed, however, that there is anything awkward or -stiff in the appearance of the firs. Young firs are among the neatest -and most elegant objects in a park. The smooth gray bark, the lifelike -air in the distribution of the boughs and smaller branches, the glossy -green as seen from the side or above, varied to a blue or gray when we -stand beneath, redeem them from every charge of conventionality.[4] - -The lowland fir as a young tree, and where it is afforded sufficient -room, has more of the drooping, plume-like, graceful air than is usual -with the members of this genus. The leaves are somewhat curled and -scattered about the stem. Like most trees it becomes more expressive as -it grows older and little by little rejects the features and traces of -its earlier years. Its arms gradually bend inward, and the whole tree -becomes more cylindrical, till in its maturity it speaks freely through -its broken and twisted boughs of storms and battles and insect ravages -of long ago; yet it strives to cover its scars with luxuriant masses of -verdure and numberless purplish cones—a truly magnificent spectacle of -a hoary veteran of crisp and sturdy aspect. - -The Engelmann spruce, though a smaller tree than either the red fir -or the lowland fir, is one of the most important of the spruces. Its -home is in the elevated regions of Colorado, whence it spreads westward -and northward throughout the Rocky Mountains. Its well rounded hole is -scaly with small cinnamon-red plates, and its foliage is composed of -sharp, short, needlelike leaves, that bristle around the stem and are -bluish-green in color. Its small brown cones droop from the extremities -of the boughs and mass themselves in the top of the tree. Like most of -the spruces, this one climbs to high elevations. Many a wild mountain -slope in the West is covered by the dense ranks of these straight, -slender trees, with tapering spires that are green in summer and -frosted with snow and rime in winter. - -The glory of our western forests, however, are the sequoias, those -gigantic trees of California that have become widely famous. The two -sequoias, the big tree of the Sierra Nevada and the redwood of the -Pacific coast, constitute the last remnants of a mighty race that -covered vast areas in North America and Europe in past geological ages. -It is believed that their days are almost over, for the big tree groves -are few in number and small in extent, and even these are falling -rapidly under the ax and saw. Nor does this species appear to reproduce -itself easily; for, although numberless seeds fall from the old trees, -they rarely sprout, and therefore are slow to replace what has been -taken away. The redwoods, too, are threatened with extinction, though -they still cover considerable tracts along the northern half of the -California coast. They are coveted even more than the big trees and -are disappearing with a rapidity that only modern industry has made -possible. - -Fortunately the redwood possesses two gifts of inestimable value that -will prolong, but cannot perpetuate, its existence. The unusual amount -of moisture in its wood and the absence of pitch in the sap lessen the -danger from fire; while the same remarkable trait that we noticed in -the pitch pine, otherwise very rare in coniferous trees, of sprouting -from dormant buds at the edge of the stump will replace, for a time at -least, many of the giants that are taken away. - -The general appearance or type of the sequoias resembles that of the -cypresses and cedars. The bald cypress is their nearest relative. -The big tree often has the same spreading base, and both have the -fluted, shreddy bark, traits that may also be noticed in the common -white cedar and in arbor-vitæ. The diameter of the trunk of the big -tree is strikingly large even for its wonderful height. Both trees -lift their crowns rather high, and have comparatively short boughs, -with dense, bushy, somewhat straggly-looking foliage. In its youthful -stage the foliage of the redwood, like its congener’s, has a bluish -tinge, which with advancing years turns to a dark and somber green -that contrasts strangely with the red color of the thick, spongy -bark. But the individuality of both trees, especially that of the big -tree, is so impressive and magnificent that all these minor essences -become involved in the majesty of the whole. The mighty bole rises in -splendid proportions to where the distant fronds hang loosely down, -disappearing within their somber shadows, but still carrying upward -the masses of foliage, as if striving to reach the very clouds. As we -view their stately and incomparable forms, so masterly wrought, so -unapproachable in their magnificence, we need hardly be told that these -trees are strangers from a distant and forgotten age. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry_ -Redwood Forest in California] - -Much has been said and written concerning the sizes and ages of -these two largest trees of America—indeed, with the exception of the -Australian eucalipti, we might say of the world. It is said that some -of the latter surpass the redwood in height, though a redwood tree was -discovered within recent years on the Eel River, California, whose -stupendous height reached nearly three hundred and fifty feet, -thus surpassing in that dimension, at least, any previously recorded -measurements of the big tree. The ages of the sequoias have been more -difficult to determine, but it appears that in the beginning they -were exaggerated. The mature redwood, doubtless, is apt to be several -centuries younger than the big tree; but so excellent an authority as -Mr. John Muir has said of the latter that “these giants under the most -favorable conditions probably live five thousand years or more, though -few of even the larger trees are more than half as old.” - -The redwoods are great lovers of moisture. In the valleys and canyons -near the ocean they bathe in the ascending fog and stand dripping with -condensed vapor. We shall come upon them in dense groves, where the -day is a continuous twilight and the trees surpass in their combined -massiveness even the red firs of Oregon. At other times we shall find -them mingling in more open forest with lowland firs and hemlocks, or, -in their northern range, with the splendid Port Orford cedar. The light -enters these more open forests and calls forth much beautiful young -growth and shrubbery: the rhododendrons of California, with large and -showy purplish blossoms and evergreen leaves; western dogwoods, that -might at first glance be mistaken for the eastern species; barberries -and familiar hazels; and ferns and violets. - -[Illustration: Devastation in the Forest] - -The reader must not infer, of course, that such scenes are necessarily -of common occurrence in the forest; but they are more agreeable to -contemplate than those that have been despoiled of their attractions. -It should be remembered that if we traveled through these forests we -should often find fresh signs of human interference: sections of trees -lying prone on the ground, abandoned as useless by the lumberman; -stripped crowns that stood in the way of falling trunks, and debris -of bark and slashings. We should also notice the track of the forest -fire among the stumps and charred treetrunks, and here and there the -dying tops of standing trees that were unable to withstand the flames. -Finally, in dry and semi-arid regions, particularly in sections of the -Southwest, we should notice still another danger that threatens our -forests: the excessive or ill-timed grazing of sheep, which trample to -death the young tree seedlings as they pass over the ground in great -herds and devour the last vestiges of vegetation, thus leaving a bare -and dry forest floor, upon which the old trees subsist with difficulty -through the prolonged droughts of summer. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry_ -Where the Sheep Have Been] - - - - - II - - FOREST ADORNMENT - - -Though there can be no forest without trees, it may be asserted with -equal truth that trees alone would make but an incomplete forest.[5] -Under the old trees we find the young saplings that are in future years -to replace them and in their turn are to form a new canopy of shade. In -their company is a vast variety of shrubs, ferns, and delicate grasses -and flowers that decorate the forest floor. Vines and creepers gather -about the old trees and clamber up their furrowed trunks. In autumn the -ground is strewed with fallen leaves, motionless or hurrying along -before the wind. These gather into deep beds, soft to the tread, and -at last molder away in the moist, rich earth. In the needle-bearing -forests of the mountains brilliant green mosses replace the shrubs and -flowers and deck the bare brown earth. - -There are _lifeless_ sources of beauty in the woods, too, that are not -easy to pass by unnoticed: rocks with interesting forms and surfaces; -forms that are lifeless, yet take on distinct expression by their -different modes of cleavage, and surfaces that drape themselves in the -choicest paraphernalia of drooping moss and rare lichen; prattling -mountain streams; cascades; and glassy pools. These are “inanimate” -things with a kind of life in them, after all. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry_ -A Passageway through Granite Rocks] - -Lastly, there are the true owners of the forest: the bird that hovers -round its borders; the free, chattering squirrel; the casual butterfly -that leads us to the flowers; and the large game that inhabits the -hidden recesses and adds an element of wildness and strange attraction -to these quiet haunts. - -All this wealth of detail gives life to the forest. The shrubs, -above the rest, should here interest us somewhat more minutely. They -are often the most conspicuous objects in the embellishment of the -forest; and since our investigation was to be guided to some extent -by considerations of usefulness, it ought to be added that shrubs -not infrequently exercise a beneficial influence on the vigor and -well-being of the trees themselves. Trees, shrubs, and certain of the -smaller plants—so long as their root systems are not too dense and -intricate—are of value on account of their ameliorative effects on -temperature and moisture. This is more important in this country, so -extreme in its climatic variations, than in northern Europe. In the dry -and parching days of summer the shrubbery of the woods, by its shade, -helps to keep the earth cool and moist. This mantle of the earth, -moreover, conducts the rain more gradually to the soil, exercising an -efficient economy. In the fall and winter the shrubs, which are densest -near the forest border, help to break the force of the sweeping winds -which might otherwise carry away the fallen leaves, so useful in their -turn because they are conservators and regulators of moisture and -contain valuable chemical constituents which they return to the soil. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry_ -Shrubbery and River Birches. New Jersey] - -The pine barrens of New Jersey illustrate these principles. In close -proximity to the sea a welcome moisture enters the forest with the -ocean breezes. Penetrating farther inland, it is not so entirely -dissipated as to preclude a varied undergrowth of shrubbery, which in -turn renders a welcome aid to the forest by the protection it affords -to the porous, sandy soil, which would soon dry out under the scant -shelter of the pervious pines. Underneath these the kalmia or calico -bush, with its large and showy bunches of flowers, is abundant. In -late summer the sweet pepperbush is there, laden with its fragrant -racemes; in winter, the cheerful evergreen holly of glossy green leaf -and bright berry. In the dry and sunny places we find the wild rose, -the trailing blackberry, with its rich color traceries on the autumn -leaves, and the no less brilliant leaves of the wild strawberries -underfoot. We come upon the creeping wintergreen and the local -“flowering moss.” The fragrant “trailing arbutus,” here as elsewhere, -is an earnest of the generous returning spring. Along the creeks and -brooks are masses of honeysuckles, alder bushes, and sweet magnolias. - -[Illustration: Fern Patch in a Grove of White Birch] - -The coniferous forests of the Rocky Mountain region are either too dry -or too elevated to promote a luxuriant undergrowth; but we find it in -the humid coast region of Oregon and Washington, within the forests -of fir, pine, and spruce. In the deciduous forests, however, the -shrubbery attains its best development, for its presence depends -largely upon moisture, climate, and soil, and these conditions are -usually most favorable in our broadleaf districts. In the latter, -moreover, the shrubbery exercises its influence most efficiently, for -many of the pines will bear a considerable amount of heat and drought, -and several other conifers show their independence and a different kind -of hardihood at high and humid elevations. The varied and beautiful -forms of undergrowth in our broadleaf forests—the shrubs, the vines and -graceful large ferns, and the smaller plants that live along the forest -borders and penetrate within—may be regarded as one of the distinctive -features of American forest scenery. - -In such forests, and along their borders, the birds like to make their -home. Among the bushy thickets they find a secure shelter, and some of -them seek their food among the fruits and berries that grow there. They -all possess their individual charms, and infuse such varied elements of -life and cheer into the woods that even the most commonplace scenes are -transmuted by their presence, while those that were already beautiful -receive an added attraction. In winter there is nothing more harmonious -than a flock of snowbirds flying over frosted evergreens toward some -soft gray mist or cloud. For grace and ease of movement I have never -seen anything more airy than the Canada jay alighting on some near -bough, softly as a snowflake, to watch and wait for the scraps of the -forester’s meal. Another interesting bird to watch in his movements is -the red-winged blackbird. Out along the edges of the forest and in the -swamps and marshes lying between bits of woodland, he may be seen from -earliest spring to the last days of fall.[6] We cannot help watching -him passing restlessly to and fro by himself, or circling happily about -in the flock, returning at last to his clumps of alders and willows, -or disappearing among the hazy reeds and grasses. But if, instead of -grace and movement, we are more interested in sound, we shall find no -songbird with sweeter notes than the thrush. Whatever added name he may -bear, we are sure of a fine quality of music; music with modulating -notes, plaintive and clear, that drive away all harshness of thought. - -Let us again consider the undergrowth in the forest. Where shrubs and -tender growths abound the wintry season cannot be desolate or dreary. -When the display of summer is over they attract the eye by their -bright fruits and their habits of growth. Their branchlets are often -strikingly pretty in color and well set off against the snow. Their -intricate traceries of twig and stem are an interesting study. The -copses of brown hazels that spread along the mountain side and the -dusky alders or yellow-tinted willows are in perfect harmony with this -season of the year. - -It is by crowding into masses that our shrubs of brighter blossom -produce some of the most superb effects of spring. A multitude of -rhododendrons or great laurels covers some mountain side, carrying its -drifts of pale rose far back into the woods. A mass of redbuds and -flowering dogwoods, the former again rose-colored, the latter a creamy -white, pours out from the forest’s edge among ledges of rock and low -hills. The wild plums and thorns, with their delicate flowers, are -beautiful in the same manner, and in addition have a pretty habit of -straying out and away from the woods, much like the red juniper. - -Our shrubs are no less beautiful in their separate parts than they are -magnificent in their united profusion. The common sweet magnolia is -especially well favored. Its elegantly elliptical leaf, with smooth -surfaces, glossy and dark green above, silken and silvery below, -is one of the most attractive to be found. Its flower cannot help -being beautiful, for beauty is the heritage of all the magnolias. -Often, however, half the pure ivory cups lie hidden in the leaves, to -surprise us on a closer approach with their beauty and sweet fragrance. -Altogether this favored shrub is one of the most exquisite objects of -decoration, whether in the swamp, along brooksides, or through the damp -places of the forest. - -The hawthorns, which, like the sweet magnolia, occur both as trees and -as shrubs, combine varied forms of attractiveness, such as compound -flowers of white or pinkish hue; sharply edged, elegantly pointed -leaves; bright berries; and closely interwoven branchlets stuck about -with thorns. The redbud, which I have already mentioned, holds its -little bunches of flowers so lightly that they look as if they had been -carried there by the wind and had caught along the twigs and branches. -Very different from these, yet no less interesting in its way, is the -staghorn sumach, which is of erratic growth and bears stately pyramids -of velvety flowers of a dark crimson-maroon. There is a fine contrast, -too, where the serviceberry, with early delicate white blossoms, blooms -among the evergreens and the opening leaves of spring. - -Another word about the West. The undergrowth of the northerly portion -of the Pacific coast region has already been referred to; but there -extends throughout the Southwest, penetrating also northward and -eastward, another kind of forest growth that is so distinct in -character from all others that it should be specially described. It -is, in fact, quite opposite in its nature to the shrubbery of the more -humid forest regions in that it shows a tendency to seek the arid, -open, sunny slopes, where it forms a scrubby, though interesting, and -varied cover to the rough granite boulders and loose, gravelly soils. -This growth is everywhere conveniently known as “chaparral,” whether it -be the low, even-colored brush on the higher mountains or the dense, -scraggy, promiscuous, and impenetrable thicket of the foothills and -lower and gentler slopes. - -The impression which the chaparral makes depends largely upon the -distance at which it is viewed. If we stand in the midst of a dense -patch of it we see of how many elements it is composed; how the shrubs -of different size, shape, and character crowd each other into a -tangle of branches, some not reaching above the waist, others closing -in overhead. The ceanothus, with its dull, dark-green foliage and -bunches of small white flowers, which appear in June, stands beside -the stout-stemmed, knotty, twisted manzanita, with its strikingly -reddish-brown bark and sticky, orbicular, olive-colored leaves. Among -smaller shrubs we find the aromatic sage brush, of a light-gray, -soft appearance, and the richer, darker, small-leaved grease-wood, -or chemisal, as it is more commonly called farther north, with its -small, white-petaled flowers enclosing a greenish-yellow center. Very -plentifully scattered among all these we usually find the scrubby forms -of the canyon live oak and the California black oak. Here and there we -may see a large golden-flowered mallow, or the queenly yucca raising -its fine pyramid of cream-colored flowers out of the dense mass. - -The far view is quite different. Distance smoothes the surface and -somewhat obliterates the colors, though we may still distinguish a -variegated appearance. The eye takes in the larger outlines and the -scattered pines that sometimes occur within the chaparral. Nor is -the latter, as we now perceive, always a dense growth, but may be -separated here and there. Indeed, it is often most interesting when -interrupted by large granite boulders and jumbles of rocks, with the -clean gray shade of which it forms a fine contrast on a clear morning. - -[Illustration: A Yucca in the Chaparral] - -If we look still farther up toward some higher slopes, miles away, -we shall see only a uniform and continuous stretch of low brush that -appears at that great distance hardly otherwise than a green pasture -clothing the barren mountain. As we walk toward it the bluish-green -changes to a bronze-green, and then suddenly we recognize the broad -sweep of chemisal, with a few scattered scrubby oaks and mountain -mahogany in between. - -In the account of forest embellishment should be included those -humblest plants, the liverworts and mosses and the lichens that so -beautifully stain the rocks and color the stems of trees. A close study -of all their delicate and tender characters, both of form and color, -is always a revelation. Among these lowlier plants it is no uncommon -sight in the depth of winter to see a field of fern sending a thousand -elegant sprays through the light snow-covering; or half a dozen kinds -of mosses, all of different green, but every one pure and brilliant, -gleaming in the shadow of some dripping rock. Between the rock and its -ice cap, covered by the latter but not concealed from view, there is -a fine collection of the most delicate little liverworts and grasses, -herbs with tender leaves, and even flowers, it may be, on some earthy -speck where the sun has melted the ice—all as if held in cold crystal. - -A word also remains to be said about the vines and creepers. As far -north as Pennsylvania, and even to the States bordering the Great -Lakes, these clambering plants are a conspicuous element in the forest. -Virginia creeper, clematis, the hairy-looking poison oak, and the -wild grape, are among those that are most familiar. In the woods of -the lower Mississippi Valley the wild grapevines often make a strange -tangle among the old and twisted trees and hang in long festoons from -the boughs. They are not uncommon in some of the northerly States, -though less rank and exuberant in growth. - -The common ivy is one of the most beautiful of all creepers. It makes -a fine setting for the little wood flowers that peep from its leaves. -I like it best, however, where it clings to some old oak or other tree -and brings out the contrast between its own passiveness and weakness -and the strength of the column that gives it support. - - - - - III - - DISTRIBUTION OF AMERICAN FORESTS - - -The geographical distribution of trees has been referred to -occasionally in the preceding chapters. This distribution, gradually -accomplished during the progress of ages, has not been accidental; on -the contrary, it has been due to natural causes, and arises out of -the special needs and adaptations of each species. The geology of a -region, which determines in many respects the character of the physical -forces of both the earth and the air, is no small factor in the -development of the forest. The character of the climate, the nature -of the soil, the degree of moisture in the soil and in the atmosphere, -the amount and intensity of the sunlight—in short, the various elements -and natural forces that constitute the environment of a tree—are -the all-important conditions of its life. On these it depends, and -according to its own peculiar nature and its special needs, selects its -natural home. - -Yet the manner in which this selection is accomplished, though simple -in theory, is complicated by many circumstances. Frost, fire, insects, -and floods, by destroying the trees or their seeds, may retard the -progress of the species. The wind may be unfavorable. The seeds hang -upon the trees ready and ripe for germination, but a breeze comes -along and carries them to a place where the conditions are ill adapted -to their peculiar nature. The following year the wind is propitious -and the little trees soon start into life. But presently the seeds of -another tree, whose growth is by nature faster, are conveyed to the -same spot, and the intruders outstrip the others in rapidity of growth -and spread a canopy of foliage that screens the smaller trees from the -life-giving sun and dooms them to destruction. Thus only a few of the -numberless seeds that are produced each year live, and fewer still -are able to maintain or extend the boundaries of the parent tree. -Sometimes, too, the frugality or hardiness of a species may be the -reason for its exclusive occupation of a certain locality, since other -trees may find it impossible to live at high altitudes and on rocky -ridges or to subsist upon rough, poor soil. Consequently we shall find -some kinds of trees exclusive, gregarious only among themselves, while -others mingle freely in the general concourse. - -Through the persistency, therefore, of the vital forces of nature, -through a suitable climate or situation, through the power of -adaptation and the delicate adjustment of many details, the vast -armies of trees, like migratory races, have at last accomplished their -purpose and found their several homes; and to us the varied aspect of -the forests, as we traverse the extended territory of our country, is -in a manner explained. There are stretches of land over which the tree -growth is dense and uniform; where the forest is given over, it may -be, almost entirely to a single kind of tree. In other places the trees -may join in varied luxuriance, young and old, familiar and strange, -on some fertile, protected plain or well watered mountain side. In -still other places they may be seen struggling up the steep slopes and -maintaining a precarious existence on bleak, rocky ridges. - -While the eastern portion of the United States is, generally speaking, -the home of the broadleaf species, and the northern and western -portions are similarly occupied by the coniferous forests, these areas -may readily be subdivided into specified regions of distinct forest -growth. The latter, however, cannot be accurately delimited, since the -regions naturally penetrate into one another and overlap, on account of -the manner in which forests have extended their bounds. - -In the basin of the Great Lakes, where the glaciers of a recent -geological age have prepared a light, loose, gravelly or sandy soil, -the white pine belt extends through the States of Minnesota, Wisconsin, -and Michigan, and penetrates into portions of Pennsylvania, New -York, and New England. Once covered with dense tall forests of white -pine, interspersed in places with other northern conifers, or broken -by smaller areas of broadleaf forests, the white pine belt has now -yielded to us its richest treasures. The exacting demands of our modern -artificial civilization have drawn ceaselessly upon these resources, -and the assiduous ax and the fire that follows in its train have -invaded even the most secluded regions. The resulting barren spaces, -where they have not become cultivated land, have either reverted to -the young white pine itself or have been transformed into oak barrens -and open forests of broadleaf trees. Thus the aspect of the region has -been altered, though many a limited spot may be found in which the tall -majesty of the primeval forest still finds its full expression. - -Extending from southern New England along the entire range of the -Appalachians, sloping toward the Atlantic, and spreading far westward -to the Mississippi and beyond, the region of the eastern broadleaf -forests covers a vast territory. Not that the conifers are here -entirely absent, for several of these, including the white pine itself, -follow the mountain ranges and scatter throughout the hills and plains; -but their number dwindles in the proportion of the whole. - -Beyond this region to the southward, in the States that border the Gulf -east of the Mississippi, in Georgia, and stretching along the coast -northward, a region of pines is once more encountered. This section of -our forests, though it has already yielded generous supplies, is among -the richest in the country. From the pineries of the South is obtained -much of our construction timber; and thence, too, we derive our pitch, -tar, and turpentine from the sap of the trees. - -Finally, within the eastern forests a restricted region at the southern -end of Florida, including the Keys, may properly be separated from the -rest. For here is found a distinctively tropical vegetation, differing -entirely in character from the forest flora to the north. Many trees -indigenous to the West India Islands have established themselves upon -this small area, on which the number of species exceeds that of any -region of equal extent within the United States, not excepting even -the varied forest growth of the Mexican border line, to which alone it -might be worthily compared. - -Separating the forest floras of the western and eastern United States, -lies the broad region of prairies and plains. Though trees are found -for the greater part only along the banks of streams, this region has -a curious interest for the forester. It is believed by many that this -wide country, now waving in grain and grass and covered with extensive -farms, was at one time enriched with scattered forests; but that -these have disappeared under the ravages of repeated fires, kindled, -it is supposed, chiefly by the Indians. At present our own race is -perseveringly reclothing these prairie lands with groves and avenues -of trees, and is planting belts of them about farms and orchards for -protection from hot or frosty winds. Thus the fringed borders of the -streams are widening. The outcome of this activity is a development -that stands in marked contrast with the hurried consumption of our -other forests. - -Then, lastly, there lies beyond this region the vast territory of -the Rockies and the ranges of the Pacific coast. Extending over so -great a part of our country, the forests of this region exhibit many -transitions that reveal the intimate relations between trees and -their natural environment; yet here we cannot but notice the enormous -preponderance of the coniferous over the broadleaf trees. Indeed, it -amounts almost to an exclusion of the latter; for, while some of the -poplars and willows and several species of oaks and a few maples are -indigenous to this part of the country, the last two in particular to -portions of California, other broadleaf trees are mere stragglers in -the land. - -The forests of the West retain much more of the flavor of wildness -than do those of the East, though they likewise show many evidences -of the hand of man. It is true that paths and roads lead from many -familiar resorts into these mountain forests, that there are signs -of the lumber industry and of fires, and that there are large barren -areas where sheep have been continuously driven for pasture. Extensive -as this interference with original conditions has been, however, the -changed aspect of the forest has not always remained permanent, because -nature, where it is possible, comes back patiently to restore life and -beauty to the wasted places. Over lofty ranges and in inaccessible -places we may still find the original forest bequeathed to us from -early days; but not in such places only: for if we look closely we -shall also recognize the old character and expression in the harvested -forests that have long since been deserted and forgotten and at last -returned, like lost children, to the fostering care of their mother. - -The forests of the West may be fitly separated into two parts. The -greater part embraces the Rocky Mountain ranges, while the other -extends from the crests of the Sierra Nevada to the sea. In the former -the forests are sometimes open in character and separated by parks or -grassy plains, or they constitute a scattered tree growth on the high -altitudes of the rougher ridges. This open character is sometimes due -to devastation by fires, but generally it is the result of climatic -conditions. And yet there are wide tracts and spaces within this -region that bear dense forests, notwithstanding the barren soil and -the austere climate; forests that have been but little or in no wise -disturbed, and whose expression differs in an unmistakable manner from -the opener growth of the broadleaf forests of the East. - -Denser than these and more awe-inspiring are the forests of the States -bordering the Pacific. Here the moisture from the sea, an equable -climate, and a generous soil, have produced the tall and somber red -firs, the stately hemlocks and cedars, the redwoods of the coast, and -the consummate beauty and magnificence of those opener groves of big -trees, sugar pines, and bull pines, that have always commanded the -admiration and wonder of visitors to that region. - - - - - IV - - CHARACTER OF THE BROADLEAF FORESTS - - -If the individual trees of the two main groups that were described in -the opening chapter impress us differently as they belong to the one -or the other, it will be found that the two kinds of forests likewise -convey distinct impressions. Different in aspect, they are also -distinguished one from the other by the different atmosphere or spirit -that pervades them. Taking leave here of the trees as individuals, I -shall now examine the characteristics of woodland scenery. - -It has been said that the broadleaf trees grow naturally over a wide -extent of territory. Of the unbroken wildernesses that covered the -eastern parts of our country when it began to be colonized, only -fragments remain. A few States are still densely wooded, but in these -the forces which have caused the disappearance of similar forests in -other regions have now begun to assert themselves. Some will yield to -their old enemy, the ravaging fire that could so often be prevented; -others must ultimately recede to make way for agriculture; many will be -removed more rapidly for the sake of their material. It is confidently -to be expected, however, in view of the widening influence forestry is -exerting, that where it is desirable a provision will be made for a -future growth to replace the present one. - -Of the broadleaf forests there are many types. There are forests of oak -and chestnut, of maple and beech; dry upland forests, and the tangled -woods of the swamps. There are young thickets of birch and aspen, of -willow and alder, and scrubby oak barrens. There are second-growth -forests, and now and then even a patch of fine old virgin timber. In -size, also, there is a great difference, from the grove that covers the -hilltop to the unbroken forest that stretches over an entire mountain -range. - -It appears, therefore, that _variety_ is one of the marked -characteristics of our eastern woods. As several hundred different -kinds of trees enter into their composition under every form and -modification of circumstance, we find in these woods an endless novelty -and perennial freshness. The young swamp growth of red maple, white -birch, and alder, bedded in grass and wild flowers, is very different -from the dense young forest of birch and aspen of the northern woods -that, under the influence of ample light, has sprung into being after -some recent fire, the signs of which are still visible in the charred -stumps under the young trees. The open groves of old oak and chestnut -on the hill, with the slanting light of autumn and deep beds of dry, -rustling leaves, are likewise different from the secluded forest in -unfrequented mountains, where young and old growth mingle together: -crooked ashes and moss-covered elms with straight young hickories, -with shrubs and vines, and little seedlings sprouting among the rocks -and mosses. - -If we were to proceed in a continuous journey from the staid forests of -the North to the more diversified growth of the intermediate States, -and, going on, were to visit the complex forests of the South, we -should notice only a very gradual transition. Yet if we were to study -any particular region within these larger areas it would be found to -have certain definite characteristics. - -Let us imagine ourselves standing, for instance, on some point of -vantage in the Blue Ridge of Virginia, the season being early May. The -view extends across ranges of low, rounded mountains, which are fresh -with the new foliage of spring. On the nearest hills the individual -trees and their combinations into groups can be distinguished; but -receding into the valleys and more distant slopes the forms and colors -grow less distinct, till the tone becomes darker and at last melts -into the familiar hazy blue of the distant hills. Looking again at -the nearer hillsides, we recognize the tulip trees with their shapely -crowns, clothed in a soft green and lifted somewhat above the general -outline. The light green of the opening elms and sweet gums can be -very well distinguished beyond the more shadowy beeches, ashes, and -maples. The remaining spaces are occupied by hickories and chestnuts, -still brown and leafless, and by rusty-hued oaks, which are only just -beginning to break their buds. Within the leafless portions of the -wood an occasional dash of bright yellow or creamy white, not quite -concealed, shows where the sassafras or dogwood is in bloom. The crests -and ridges, however, are likely to be occupied by groups and bands -of pines, while the sides of the mountain brook will be studded with -cedars and hemlocks. - -In such scenery, if it be natural, there is no vulgarity and no -faultiness of design. With all the variety there is still a fitness -in form, color, and expression. It is rough, but pure in taste. For -instance, the pine groves on the mountain ridges are not sharply -defined in their margins and thus separated from the rest of the -forest, but they gradually merge with the neighboring trees in a way -that was naturally foreshadowed in the conformation of the land and the -composition of the soil. - -A feature so natural and self-evident may hardly appear worthy of -notice; but its value is appreciated as soon as we compare the outlines -referred to with the rigid forms of some of the artificial forests of -Europe. Those who have seen the checkered forests of Germany, where the -design of the planted strip of trees, like a patch upon the mountain, -is unmistakable, will readily note the contrast between the natural and -the artificial type. Neither is there any striving for effect in the -natural forest, an error not uncommon in the tree groupings of parks or -private estates. In these an effort is sometimes made to produce an -impression by contrasts in form and color, but too often the outcome is -mere conspicuousness; while nature, in some subtle way, has touched the -true chord. - -Forest scenery, however, need not be as extensive as this in order to -add appreciably to the beauty of landscape. In the valley of southern -Virginia, among the peach orchards and sheep farms, low hills lie -scattered on both sides of the valley road. The mountain ranges beyond -them recede to a great distance, and are partly hidden from view by -these intervening hills. The latter, however, are decked with bits -of woodland: groves of oak, chestnut, and beech, where the horseman -on sunny summer days finds a welcome coolness and shade. Would these -sylvan spots be missed if they were to be removed? They now exercise -a beneficial influence on the drainage and moisture conditions of the -surrounding farmlands, and they supply some of the home wants of the -farmers. But they have an esthetic value also. They are usually in neat -and healthy condition, and, viewed either from within or without, they -are balm to the eyes as they lie scattered promiscuously over the hills. - -It is hardly two hundred miles by road from that region to the high -mountains of the North Carolina and Tennessee border, where we find -broadleaf forests of the wildest and roughest kind. These happily still -possess the great charm of undisturbed nature. The small mountain towns -lie scattered far apart. The region is even bleak and dreary—at least -until the summer comes; but when everything turns green the season -is glorious. As we ride through these woods we realize the majesty -of their stillness and strength, and cannot help admiring the great -oaks and chestnuts that contend for the ground, succumbing only after -centuries in the strife. - -While the broadleaf forests of western North Carolina and eastern -Tennessee are characterized principally by grandeur, this is not -commonly a pronounced trait of the leafy forests. Rather are they -distinguished for a certain air of cheerfulness, the expression of -which will vary in different localities; but in some way it will -manifest itself almost everywhere. Thus, in the southern half of New -England woodland scenery is marked by a peculiar expression of quiet -gladness. Whether it be in small farm woods among low hills, or in -continuous forest, as in the Berkshires, there is the same happy choice -in bright and cheerful trees: maples, birches, elms, and others; some -bright with early spring blossoms, some adding to the variety of color -by their bark or shining leaves, others agile of leaf and bough in the -frequent breezes. Here we find an abundance of oaks, trees whose fresh, -glossy leaves seem to be specially well fitted to purify the air, for -there is a distinct and refreshing odor in oak forests. We find an -ample choice of tender, springy plants among the moist rocks. These -smaller woods, too, are the favored haunts of the songbirds, for here -they find the glint of sunshine that they so much delight in. - -A similar warmth of expression belongs to the leafy woods of other -regions. If we compare New England with Pennsylvania, we shall -find that the broadleaf forests of the latter are denser and more -continuous, while they are at the same time richer in the variety of -trees, shrubs, and other forms of embellishment, which find here a -milder air and a richer soil. Springtime is more luxuriant and replete -with happy surprise and change. But while these forests are perhaps -more elaborate than those of southern New England, I cannot say that -they impress me as being so homelike and engaging. - -Along the Gulf and in Florida the dank forests of the swamps and -river bottoms, finding all the conditions favorable to a luxuriant -vegetation, are characterized by extraordinary complexity of growth. -Perhaps we enter some secluded patch of virgin forest, and sit down for -a while in its dense shade, impressed by the strangeness and solitude -of the place. Our curiosity is aroused by the multifarious assemblage -of trees, vines, and shrubbery, and we wonder how many ages it has -been thus, and how far back some of the oldest trees may date in their -history. But they seem rather to have no age at all; only to be linked -in some mysterious way with the dim past out of which they have arisen. - -[Illustration: Virgin Forest Scene in Florida] - -A mighty live oak leans across the scene, moist and green with -moss; another is noticed farther away among slender palmettos, whose -spear-edged leaves catch the sunlight. Vines and climbers hang about -the stems or droop lazily from the boughs. In the nearby sluggish -water, where the soil is deep and moldy, stands a sweet gum with -curiously chiseled bark, as if some patient artist had been at work; -and a little beyond, some cypresses are roofed by the delicate web of -their own foliage. - -We may sit dreaming away a full hour thus, with only the hum of a few -insects and perhaps a stray scarlet tanager flitting by to disturb our -meditations. - -It has been indicated in a former chapter that the broadleaf woods, -taken as a whole, are decidedly richer in shrubs and small plants than -the evergreen or coniferous forests. This adventitious source of beauty -has much to do with their general character, because the gay show of -blossom and fruit, bright stem, and diverse habits of growth of these -lesser plants, contributes appreciably to the liveliness of sylvan -scenery. But the effect derived from the blossoms and fruits of many -of the trees themselves should not be overlooked. In this respect the -broadleaf trees are superior to the evergreens. The poplars and willows -ripen their woolly and silvery tassels when the snow has scarcely -disappeared. The bright tufts of the red maple, the little yellow -flowers of the sassafras, the snowy white ones of the serviceberry -and flowering dogwood, the latter’s red berries in fall, the brilliant -fruit of the mountain ash, the perfect flowers of the magnolias, the -heavily clustered locusts, honey locusts, and black cherries, and the -basswoods with fragrant little creamy flowers, alike do their part in -lending character to the forest wherever they may have their range. - -Then, in addition to the beauty that appeals to us through the outward -senses, there is a quality in the forests that is dear to us through -an inward sense. It is the influence of a temperament that seems to -belong to the place itself: the pure and health-giving atmosphere, the -quiet and rest that binds up the wounded spirit and brings peace to the -troubled mind. - -We leave the turmoil of the city and the thousand little cares of daily -life and seek refuge for a while in sylvan retreats, in some pleasant -leafy forest with murmuring water and sunbeams; and presently the -ruffled concerns of yesterday are smoothed away and the forest, like -sleep, “knits up the raveled sleeve of care.” - -In the woods there is harmony in all things; all things are -subordinated to one purpose and desire: that the best may be made out -of life, however small the means. There is a kind of honesty and truth -here, and a self-sufficiency in everything. Shakspere says, in the -words of Duke Senior, who stands surrounded by his followers in the -Forest of Arden (“As You Like it,” act ii, scene 1):— - - Are not these woods - More free from peril than the envious court? - Here feel we but the penalty of Adam, - The seasons’ difference; as, the icy fang - And churlish chiding of the winter’s wind, - Which, when it bites and blows upon my body, - Even till I shrink with cold, I smile, and say, - “This is no flattery: these are counselors - That feelingly persuade me what I am.” - - * * * * * - - And this our life, exempt from public haunt, - Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, - Sermons in stones, and good in everything. - - - - - V - - THE CONIFEROUS FORESTS - - -It has already been said (page 31) that the evergreen or coniferous -forests differ from those described in the foregoing chapter by -a denser community of growth and by their frequent occurrence as -“pure” forests. Their gregariousness makes it proper to apply such -expressions as the “pine forests of Michigan” and the “spruce forests -of Maine.” It will be seen presently that these special characteristics -are esthetically important. Moreover, it is a fact that they borrow -much grandeur and beauty from the atmospheric conditions of their -environment, which, if we except certain large tracts of pine forests, -is commonly placed among mountains and at considerable elevations -above the sea. To these several sources must be ascribed many of the -qualities that have invested the evergreen forests with a peculiar -magnificence and beauty. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry_ -A Group of Conifers. Montana] - -The reader may be surprised at the statement that coniferous forests -are distinguished for a “dense community of growth,” for it must have -been noticed that many of our Rocky Mountain forests do not bear -evidence of this fact. And yet it is true that the typical habit, so to -speak, of the conifers is a close huddling together of individuals. It -is shown in the massive red fir forests of western Washington and the -redwoods of California, which are probably the densest and heaviest in -the world; in the crowded Engelmann spruce and alpine fir groves common -to certain soils and situations in Colorado; and in the dense tracts -of lodgepole pine scattered throughout the mountains of the West. In -the East the same tendency is illustrated by the better sections of the -Adirondack spruce forests and the splendid pineries that once covered -the Great Lake region. If we call to mind these extensive examples, we -realize how the conifers ever strive to build a dense and impenetrable -forest. That they are capable of a like growth in other parts of the -world also, will be attested by those who have seen the spruce and fir -forests of Germany and France. - -While the regions that have just been mentioned exhibit the health -and vigor of coniferous forests under favorable natural conditions, -there are certain portions of the Rocky Mountains where the climate is -too dry and the topography and soil are too austere and rocky to suit -even that hardy class of trees. So here, under circumstances that may -almost be pronounced abnormal for forest growth, the evergreens fight -a harder battle, while the broadleaf trees, with the exception of the -poplar tribe, are scarce indeed. We must, therefore, turn to the more -typical coniferous forests that have enjoyed at least a fair share of -nature’s gifts—whether it be within the range of the Rocky Mountains or -elsewhere—to understand those peculiar qualities that are connected -with their surroundings or their characteristic habits of growth. - -One of the commonest attributes of such forests is their grandeur; -partly inherent and in part also derived from the sublimity of their -surroundings. Their situation is often in the midst of wild and -picturesque mountain scenery, where they find a proper setting for -their own majestic forms among crags and precipices and on the great -shoulders of mountains; where powerful winds and severe snows test -their endurance and strength. It is here that we chiefly find those -awe-inspiring distant views that harmonize so well with the evergreen -forests. The trees spread over the mountains for miles and miles in -closely fledged masses, and become more impressive with distance as -the color changes from a continuity of dark green to shades of blue and -soft, distant purple. In form and color the trees blend together and -seem to move up the dangerous slopes and difficult passes in mighty -multitudes. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry_ -Mount Rainier. Washington] - -Contributing to the same impression of grandeur, we have the -possibility in these lofty regions of certain glorious effects in -sunlight and shade. At sunrise the first rays flash on the pointed -tops of the uppermost trees, and with the advancing hours descend the -dark slopes on their golden errand. Meanwhile the western sides lie in -shadow. At noon a soft haze spreads through the valleys, and in the -twilight hours the intense depth of purple in the distant ranges, where -stratus clouds catch the last rays of the sun, obscures the contours -of the forests and makes them even more sublime. This, too, were not -possible without great mass and uniformity of aspect. - -The interchange between lights and shadows cast by the moving clouds is -nowhere so effectively exhibited as in higher altitudes and over the -surfaces of evergreen forests. A wide expanse enables us to follow with -our eyes the interesting chase of the cloud shadows, as they fly up the -slopes, the steeper the faster, and glide noiselessly but swiftly over -outstretched areas of endless green. The clouds seem to move faster -over mountain ranges, as a rule, than they do over the low valleys. Or -is it only because now we see them nearer by and can gage the rapidity -of their flight? - -Suppose, instead of a restless day, it should be calm, with cloud -masses heaped in the sky and the sun sinking low. There has been a -loose snowfall in the afternoon, and every twig, branch, and spray -hangs muffled in snow. The rocks are capped with a light cover and -ribbed with snowy lines along their sides. The air is pure and -breathless. The disappearing sun sends back a rosy light to the canopy -of clouds overhead, and the reflection falls upon masses of frosted, -whitened evergreens, lending them a breath of color that deepens as the -sun sinks lower still; and the rays enter the openings of the hills and -flood the opposite slopes, till they glow with a fiery red. - -Thus the grandeur of these forests may be due to expanse and volume, -depth of color, sunlight and shade, or to effects borrowed from the -clouds. Finally, we notice another kind of grandeur when coniferous -forests are visited by storms. First comes the moaning of the wind, -mysterious and unsearchable, and different from the roar and rush -that sweeps through the broadleaf woods. Then follows the uneasy -communication from tree to tree, a trembling that spreads from section -to section. When the rush of the wind finally strikes the tall, -straight forms they do not sway their arms about as wildly as do the -maples, elms, or tulip trees, but bend and sway throughout their length -and rock majestically. - -[Illustration: A Thicket of White Firs] - -Not in outward aspect alone are these forests noble and stately. -A nobleness lies in the nature of the living trees themselves; for, -though we may call them unconscious, it is life still, and they are -expressive with meaning. Far simpler in their habits and requirements -than the broadleaf trees, they are, nevertheless, more generous to -man. Endurance and hardship is their lot, but noble form of trunk and -crown and useful soft wood are the products of their life. There is no -forest mantle like theirs to shield from the blast, especially when it -is formed of young thickets of the simple but refined spruces and firs. -When, at the last, they yield their life to man, it seems to me there -is something exalted even in the manner of their fall. The tree hardly -quivers under the blows of the ax; a mere trembling in the outermost -twigs, and then, hardly as if cut off from the source of life, the -tall, straight form sinks slowly to the earth. - -Another common attribute of evergreen forests is their characteristic -_silence_. Birds do not frequent them as much as the leafy forests. -In these solitudes, far removed from village and farm, there is often -no sound but the ring of the distant ax and the sough of the wind. In -winter, as we push through the thickets of small spruces or hemlocks, -or stand for a while beneath lofty pines, while all around is muffled -in snow, the silence seems sanctified and vaster than elsewhere. - -In addition to their grandeur and sublimity, and their silence, they -are distinguished for an element of _softness_. This is seen in the -delicate texture and pure color of their foliage, the effect of which -is heightened by being massed in the dense forest. We have already -noticed the mild olive shade of the eastern white pine. When the wind -blows through it, it seems as if the foliage were melting away. It -would be difficult, also, to match the green color of the red fir, -especially as it looks in winter; or the luxuriant bluish-gray of the -western blue spruce. - -A further softening in the general effect of evergreen forests is -produced by the manner in which the trees intermingle in the dense -mass, merging their sharp, individual outlines in the rounded contours -and upper surfaces of the combined view. Near at hand, of course, -we cannot but notice the attenuated forms and jagged edges of the -trees, which, indeed, are interesting enough in themselves; but on -looking gradually into the distance we find them thatching into one -another, closing up interstices and smoothing away irregularities in a -remarkable way. This is particularly true of the spruces and firs; but -in some of the opener pine forests, as, for example, in the longleaf -pines of the South, the boughs and crowns themselves are rounded into -masses and pleasing contours. It should be remembered, also, that these -effects are present in winter as well as in summer. - -The element of softness is sometimes brought into very beautiful -association with certain effects of mists and clouds. The indistinct -contours and delicate lights of the drifting vapors and cloud forms, -as they wander across the trees, blend with the serene aspect of the -forest. At other times the clouds gather into banks and lie motionless -in some valley or rest like a veil upon the mountain tops. Wordsworth -has described these effects in his graphic way by saying,— - - Far-stretched beneath the many-tinted hills, - A mighty waste of mist the valley fills, - A solemn sea! whose billows wide around - Stand motionless, to awful silence bound: - Pines, on the coast, through mist their tops uprear - That like to leaning masts of stranded ships appear. - -In spring or summer just before sunrise it is very beautiful to see how -these banks of vapor are lifted by the stirring airs of the dawn, how -the draperies of mist draw apart and open up vistas of the trees, which -drip with moisture, and are presently illumined by the broad shafts of -sunlight that pour down upon them. - -Lest it be thought that only the dense coniferous forests possess -superior qualities, I desire to put in a plea for the open ones also. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry_ -An Open Forest in the Southwest] - -It is a universal truth in nature that when a living thing has made the -best possible use of its environment, when the power within has been -sacrificed and united to the circumstances without, there is evolved a -dignity of character and a resulting expression of fitness and beauty. -This principle is exemplified in the very open forests of the -Southwest. In the mountain ranges of New Mexico, Arizona, and southern -California the forests have a hard struggle for existence. The winter -months at the higher elevations are severe; in the summer rain is -scarce, or entirely absent, and the sun beats down upon the dry earth -through the rarefied atmosphere with intense and desiccating power. -Naturally the forest trees are scattered, and on the steep, crumbly -slopes, dry and rocky, they hug the soil and cling to it with uncertain -footing. But in a sheltered ravine, or on the back of a rounded ridge, -or in a slight swale or hollow of the mountain—repeatedly, in fact, -among those rugged slopes—we meet with the dignity, the beauty, and the -peculiar expressiveness of the open coniferous forest, with its fine -definition and stereoscopic effects and the depth and perspective of -its long vistas. - -On the crest of the mountain, where, from the valley below, the -early sunlight is first seen to break through, the trees, standing -apart, do not appear so much like a forest as like a congregation of -individuals, each with an identity of its own. Indeed, there among -the fierce gales of autumn and winter each shapes its own life in a -glorious independence, expressive in the knotty, twisted boles and -the picturesque crowns. But in summer the breezes strain through the -foliage with the lethargic sound of the ocean surge; or a halcyon -stillness reigns under a deep blue, cloudless sky. - -[Illustration: A Storm-beaten Veteran] - -Large old trees, these, with a history, that have braved life -together. They have seen companion veterans fall by their side, long -ago, into the deep, closely matted needle-mold. Thence arose out of the -moister hollows beneath the rotting trunk and boughs a new generation, -and the greater number of these have disappeared, too, for some reason -or another; only the strongest at last leading, to take the place of -the departed. How dignified, how simple are these old, stalwart trees -on the exposed ridge of the mountain. - -Thus the coniferous forests, by virtue of their inherent qualities and -by means of the effects they borrow from their environment, possess a -tone that is as original and distinct as the character of the forests -belonging to the other class. It has already been intimated that the -two are not always strictly separable, but that individual trees, or -groups, or whole stretches of woods of the one will sometimes mingle -with the other, a fact that has probably been noticed by the most -casual observer. While the cone-bearers, however, not infrequently -descend into the lower altitudes, the leafy forest trees are not so -apt to be found at the high elevations at which many of the former -find their natural home. Where the cone-bearers are merely an addition -to the broadleaf woods they do not quite preserve their identity, but -rather impress us as being merely a part in the general adornment and -composition of the forest to which they belong. Where they remain -“pure,” however, as they do, for instance, in the pineries of the -coastal plain in the South, they never fail to express, in one or -another manner, their individuality as a forest; as by their uniformity -in size and color, by their odor, or by the scenic character of the -region of their occurrence. - -All the preceding qualities of coniferous forests practically address -themselves in some manner to our physical senses. But, like the -broadleaf forests, these also possess a trait that rather addresses -itself to our mood or personal temperament. A characteristic air of -loneliness and wild seclusion belongs to them that contrasts strikingly -with the cheerful tone of the other class. It has been commonly -remarked that to some kinds of people the coniferous forests are -oppressive, at least on first acquaintance. Such natures feel the -weight of their gloom and lose their own buoyancy of spirit if they -stay too long within their confines; and it is noticeable that even the -inhabitants of these lonely retreats are not infrequently affected with -a reticence and a kind of melancholy that impresses the stranger almost -like a feeling of resignation. This peculiar temperament, however, -may be judged too hastily, and is understood better after a time. It -is probably true that the familiar and accessible woods of valley and -plain, where trails and wood-roads give us a feeling of security, are -more attractive and agreeable to most of us; yet there is a wonderful -charm about those dark forests of the mountains that have grown up in -undisturbed simplicity. After the first feeling of strangeness wears -off, as it soon will, they grow companionable and interesting. There -is a virtue in the sturdy forms that have grown to maturity without -aid or interference by man. We would not change them in that place for -the most beautiful trees in a park. Even the woodsman, whose days are -spent here in the hardest toil, feels a longing for the forest, his -home, when his short respite in the summer is over. So we, too, though -we may long for civilization after a few months in the forest, will -yet feel the desire to return to it after once thoroughly making its -acquaintance. - -The attitude of the woodsman toward the forest is much like the -affection which the sailor has for the ocean. There is, indeed, a -similarity between their callings, and even the elements in which they -pass their lives are not so dissimilar in reality as may appear on the -surface. In his vast domain of evergreen trees that cover mountain and -valley, the woodsman, too, is shut out from the busier haunts of men. -He lives for months in his sequestered camp or cabin, where his bed is -often only a narrow bunk of boughs or straw. His food is simple and his -clothing rough and plain, to suit the conditions of his life. A large -part of the time he is out in snow and rain, tramping over rough rock -and soil. The camps that are scattered through the forest are to him -like islands, where he can turn aside for food and rest when on some -longer journey than usual. - -Like the sailor he also has learned some of the secrets of nature. He -does not usually possess a compass, but he can tell its points by more -familiar signs: by the pendent tops of the hemlocks, which usually -bend toward the east, or by the mossy sides of the trees, which are -generally in the direction of the coolest and moistest quarter of the -heavens. In an extreme case he will even mount one of the tallest of -the trees to find his bearings in his oceanlike forest. If well judged, -the sighing of the wind in the boughs, I have been told, says much -about the coming weather; just as the sickly wash of the waves means -something to the sailor. Withal, both he and the woodsman are natural -and generally honest fellows, hard workers at perilous callings, and -less apt to speak than to commune with their own thoughts. - - - - - VI - - THE ARTIFICIAL FORESTS OF EUROPE - - -To some of us, in this age of travel, the forests of Europe have become -as familiar as our own. As scenic objects they have their faults and -their excellences. While we appreciate their order and neatness, and -the beautiful effects that may arise out of the subordination of all -components of the forest to one main purpose, we Americans always miss -in them the freshness of nature. - -These forests, as they now stand, are the result of a long-continued -application of the scientific principles of forestry, under special -conditions, to the European forests of old. Having referred repeatedly -to forestry itself, I now purpose, to the extent which a single chapter -will permit, to explain the sources of beauty, or the absence of it, -in these artificial forests. I shall thus place in contrast with our -own, which are just beginning to undergo a new process of development, -those of Europe, which have long been subjected to one in many respects -similar. - -The importance of forests had long been understood by the people -of Europe. The relation which they held to civilized life, both in -a material way and otherwise, led, more than a century ago, to a -systematic and scientific treatment. It was realized that these -forests might be made perpetual, and so might furnish a constant -supply of useful material; that they economized and regulated the -flow of mountain streams, which are always of great importance to the -agricultural lands of subjacent regions; that they held in place the -loose soil of the slopes, thus averting avalanches and ruinous floods; -that they broke the force of the winds, tempered and purified the air, -and I may add, inspired man with better and happier thoughts. - -For these reasons the people of Europe determined to guard their -forests well, and to aid nature, if possible, in becoming still more -useful to man. To this end they made a careful study of the life -history of the forest, and investigated the requirements of the trees -and their rates of growth under varying conditions of soil, heat, -light, and moisture. They also studied the numerous dangers to which -the forest is exposed, and invented means and established laws for its -protection. In short, they effected an ingenious adjustment between the -needs of the forest and the requirements of man, and in course of time -laid the foundations for a new system that was destined to be of great -importance to the economic interests of nations. - -Many sciences were involved in the solution of these questions. -With the progress in means and methods the aims and objects of the -new profession gradually grew to be more and more clearly defined, -and knowledge and experience ultimately evolved the new science of -forestry. To the forester were finally intrusted the reëstablishment, -protection and preservation, the improvement, the regulation, the -management and administration, as well as the final cutting, of the -forest. - -Such interference with the work of nature ultimately affected its -aspect. In the long life of the forest the changes were slow, but in -course of time the stamp of artificiality was impressed upon it, and -the imprint of nature’s own countenance was taken away. To an American, -if he has seen a little of our wildness, a great charm is wanting -in the artificial forests of Europe. The sun does not seem to set -naturally, but to hide behind roads and houses. It may be a lifelike -and harmonious scene, but it does not speak as deeply and expressively -as our wilder woods. The necessity of it is thrust upon you. It seems, -at times, as if the free will and perfect liberty of the air and rain, -of the wind, were wanting. - -These forests are crossed by roads and are often divided into sections -of distinct age, kind, and appearance. Shrubs, if any, are few. -The deer’s track is known. The history of these trees is known and -recorded, and even their doom is fixed for a near or distant day. - -There is, however, another side to this question. Through their very -design and fitness for an intended object the effects that are produced -are often decidedly pleasing. What these effects are will now appear -from an examination of the four different types or classes that -constitute at present the artificial forests of Europe. - -The type of artificial forest that differs least from our own eastern -woods is one that has received the name of “selection forest.” It -constitutes a transition to the more complex forms. As in our own case, -trees of different kinds and of various sizes are intermingled in the -forest; but the European forest has more uniformity than ours, and -expresses a conceived purpose. This is readily explained by the fact -that from the beginning of the new method the trees were never removed -indiscriminately from the wooded area, but that a careful selection -was made from time to time of certain kinds, according to size and -usefulness. Useful material, however, was not the sole consideration. -The cutting was intended also to improve the conditions of growth for -the trees that remained standing, and to increase the proportion of the -species that were most useful or desirable. Finally, by opening up the -forest to a proper degree of sunlight, the way was prepared for the -germination of seeds that might fall from the old trees, in order to -provide early for a new generation in the forest. - -[Illustration: A German “Selection Forest”] - -It will be readily understood, I believe, that in course of time such -a forest would betray to the eye a certain gradation in the sizes of -the trees, and a fixed proportion in the number of those belonging to -one or another species. To this extent the selection forests differ -from our second-growth woods of the East; and yet, as compared to the -other three European types, their principal merit, esthetically, is -their naturalness. Though very different from our virgin forests, they -nevertheless possess the variety, cheerfulness, and interesting play of -light and shade that have been noted in an earlier chapter. In Germany -they are usually somewhat precise and trim in appearance; but in France -and elsewhere they look a little wilder, and are often enlivened with -holly or ivy, some sportive raspberry, or other gay shrub or vine. In -European countries where forestry has become thoroughly established -this type of forest has gradually disappeared, or has diminished -greatly in proportion, in order to make way for the other more highly -developed forms. - -The young forest growth that goes by the name of “coppice” is linked -to the preceding kind by the association of time, for it is also one -of the old forms. The sound of the word brings to mind the copses of -England, those sportive little thickets that we may have read about, -or seen running along the streams, or straggling over the hills. But -the coppice of Germany or France is not quite the same as the copse -of England. It is a young forest of businesslike aspect, in which a -design for usefulness is unmistakable. The purpose in it is to reap an -approximately equal harvest each year, such as firewood from beeches, -hornbeams, or the like, withes from willows, charcoal from chestnut, or -tanbark from oak. - -The means to accomplish the end are very simple. Only one kind of tree -composes the coppice, and the forest is graded in sections, each a year -older than the preceding. It is like a series of blocks, in which each -is a little taller than the last. The tallest falls by the ax, and the -next the following year, and so through the series till the cycle is -completed, when it may be resumed as before. The repetition is possible -because a tree is chosen for this kind of forest that will renew itself -by naturally sprouting from the stump that is always left after cutting. - -The coppice woods must be seen to appreciate their charm. They have -a distinct flavor and a character that one easily remembers after a -first acquaintance. Not too far removed from the town or village, -yet often hidden in some secluded part of the hills, we find the -coppice a neat-looking place. The small wood that has been cut is -carefully stacked along the roadside in bundles or cords. Within one -of the sections we see the wood-cutters at work with their axes and -bill-hooks, and can fancy them trudging home contentedly at the close -of day. We find the rabbits taking the coppice for their own, sporting -about and wearing tracks in the thickets. A quiet place, and homelike -withal. We can look out above the thicket of young trees at the sky -and the older environing woods. The sounds come mellowed through the -distance to this open spot, as of the heavy ax in the large woods, or -the song of some woman in the far valley. - -We have no coppice woods just like these in America. Our willow farms -are the only ones that have been subjected to a system like the one -described, and these are entirely too low to be called woods. They -are graded in size and age from one to four years, and separated into -blocks, just like the willow coppices of Germany. At a distance the -lithe stems with diminutive tufts of foliage at the top, standing in -straight rows, almost as dense as grain, have more the appearance of an -agricultural product than a tree farm. - -The Christmas tree plantations, a kind of forest gardening, as it were, -remind us of the coppice in appearance, but cannot truly be called -such. As the conifers that furnish us with Christmas trees are not -capable of sprouting from the stump, the growers must depend upon -planting for their propagation, which is a principle directly opposed -to the idea of coppice. - -Throughout the Eastern States there is an abundance of broadleaf -stump-sprout thickets, which have come by inheritance to the ground -from which their progenitors were removed by the wood-cutter’s ax. -While some of these approach nearly to the European coppices in -intention, they do not bear out the resemblance sufficiently for a -comparison. They lack their system and structure, though they depend -upon the same power of reproduction for their existence. Nevertheless, -they have their own charm. I remember one, at the edge of a tall -forest, in which the sprouts were composed of oak, beech, hickory, -tulip tree, dogwood, haw, and a few pine saplings, all of which formed -a dense thicket of young trees. In summer it was pleasant to thread -one’s way through this place, quite concealed by the straight young -growth, or to lie down there and listen for a whole morning to the -twitterings and songs of birds, shut in by a wealth of foliage. - -There is another type of European forest known as “coppice under -standards.” This is no more than a coppice growing underneath a -selection forest somewhat different in aspect from the one already -described. In the present case the selection forest is opener, the -trees being fewer in number. Ample light is thus admitted for the -growth of the coppice beneath. The appearance of the whole is that of -an open forest into which the younger thickets have penetrated. - -The esthetic effect of this combination may be described in very few -words. While the coppice loses much of its charm, the overspreading -forest gains something by this sacrifice. The former keeps the soil -in fair and fresh condition, thus insuring a healthy growth to the -large trees. It also shades the lower portions of their trunks, in -consequence of which many of them develop into clean specimens, with -strong, well-rounded stems, and graceful, wide-spreading crowns. - -The last of the four types, the “high forest,” is the most artificial -and highly developed of the series. In its construction it is in some -respects like the coppice; for, as in that type, there is a uniformity -of size in the trees on restricted areas, and the species that compose -the entire forest are very limited in number. Coniferous high forests, -which are the most common, are often composed of only a single kind of -tree, and broadleaf forests of the same type rarely contain more than -two or three species. These forests, like the coppice, comprise a full -complement of sizes and ages, each confined to a separate section; but -the steps are not single years, as in the coppice, but periods of ten -or twenty years, or even more; so that the high forest, above all, is a -much taller and older one. The sections that compose it are not regular -in outline, except in certain forests on flats and levels, nor do they -necessarily lie side by side in the consecutive order of size and age. -Finally, the high forest also differs from the coppice in the manner of -its origin; for, while the former owes its existence to seedlings that -have grown up spontaneously, or been sown or planted, the coppice is a -young forest that has sprouted from the stumps of trees that have been -cut. - -[Illustration: A “High Forest” of Spruce in Saxony] - -Thus the high forest, while it may be compared with the coppice in -its construction, is yet in certain respects so different from it as -to convey a very distinct impression. I here disregard the younger -portions of the forest, for, in the light of the present discussion, -they are merely preparatory to the mature forest, destined to be -useful only after the completeness of age. In the older portions -the one distinguishing characteristic is simple dignity. To this one -quality all other points of excellence or beauty conform and adjust -themselves. The young tree or the casual shrub that may have found its -way into the company of the centenarians, is welcome; but the absorbing -interest lies in the noble grandeur of the old trees that have grown -up together. Some, under the influence of better soil or more light, -have done better than others; but they are all sound and stately trees, -and together represent the best product of the forest. Long ago other -trees that grew in their midst, but were less promising, were removed -for the sake of these. Under their continuous roof of foliage there -is a cool, deep shade. The ground is scattered with fern, or covered -with deep beds of leaves, or with the glossy needles of the conifers. -If the forest has originated from seeds borne by a generation of trees -that previously occupied the same spot, and the seeds germinated here -and there and sprouted into a new forest upon the removal of the old, -we shall now find the trees distributed in natural positions. Where, -however, the new forest has been planted, which is often the case with -the conifers, the trees stand in close rank and file, and we walk among -their columns as in natural aisles and corridors. Here there is hardly -a shrub to shut out the gloomy distance, and only at intervals a stray -intruder with exceptional powers of shade endurance, a dwarfed yew -tree, or a beech with refined, fan-like spray, comes into notice in the -vista. - - * * * * * - -If these are some of the changes that are wrought in forests through -the application of a new science, if, through forestry in Europe, -one kind of beauty has passed away and another kind has been called -forth, will our own forests, it may be asked, undergo in time similar -alterations? We cannot doubt that they will grow more artificial; but -under the modified application of the science of forestry to our own -conditions, so different from those of Europe, the esthetic changes to -be looked for would be difficult to predict. Nor would these changes -be predetermined, but, on the contrary, would depend very largely -upon chance. It should be noted that forestry and landscape art are -distinct; that the former, ordinarily, is not affected by the latter, -and has its own ends and aims—those of material usefulness. I say -_ordinarily_, because there are circumstances under which forestry -_might_, with slight modifications and without a compromise to its -own interests, adjust itself to some of the principles of landscape -art. Indeed, this possible adjustment has been a subject of interest -in Germany for more than twenty years, and the feasibility of a -relationship between landscape art and forestry has been practically -demonstrated by a noted German forester, Herr Heinrich von Salisch, -on his own estates. This gentleman has applied to them the practical -methods of approved forestry under such modifications as his experience -and taste suggested, and has thereby not only made his forest -profitable, but also more beautiful than it was before.[7] - -With respect to our own forests it may be asserted that most of the -private forest holdings of the United States, and probably all our -national forest reserves,[8] as such, are destined primarily to serve -purposes of utility, and very often to serve such purposes only. There -are, however, a number of large forest estates owned by individuals, -and some belonging to commonwealths and municipalities, which are -esteemed as highly for their scenic character as for their material -value, and pass in the public mind as emphatically under the name of -parks as they occur to it in the light of financial investments. Such, -for instance, are the Adirondack State Park and several large private -forest estates in the same region, as well as certain large tracts of -exceptionally beautiful forest in the western part of North Carolina -and about the head waters of the Mississippi, which have now for some -time attracted wide attention as desirable public possessions. - -In such forests as these, esthetic considerations might suggest -certain departures from the ordinary methods of forestry. Some people -apparently wish to go further, and believe that certain portions of -these tracts should remain entirely undisturbed, in order that their -primeval character may be preserved for the enjoyment of all future -generations. - -The idea of a forest park, intact and inviolable, calls to mind our -national parks of the West, which were actually established by Congress -for that very purpose. Possessing, as they do, wonders of nature -and exceptional scenery, these parks have been thought worthy of -preservation solely for their own sakes. This difference in intention -chiefly distinguishes them from the national reserves; so that, while -the latter stand for the material benefit of the nation—whether it -be directly, in the value of the timber, or indirectly, through the -influence of the forest on the flow of streams—the value of the parks, -on the other hand, speaks out of their own countenance. Their merit -consists in the influence of beauty and sublime scenery on the moral -state of man. They are healthful, vigorous breathing-places, where -noise and smoke and harassing cares are laid aside. - -It is well to bear this distinction in mind, because it appears not to -be clearly recognized. While the reserves do not necessarily exclude -some of the special advantages of the parks, their value lies, above -all, in their stores of wealth. In this connection it may be said, for -instance, that the designation “Adirondack Park,” that is currently -applied to the State forest of northern New York, is a somewhat -misleading expression; for, although its beauty is well known and -appreciated and the State Constitution at present even forbids any -cutting within its limits, yet the most competent judges believe that -the Adirondack forest is exceedingly well fitted for the purposes of -practical forestry. Indeed, several private tracts within that region -already constitute the best known examples of practical forestry -in our country. If, however, it is intended to separate certain -portions from the remainder, either within this region or that of the -proposed Minnesota reserve, and to preserve these for their unique or -exceptional character, these segregated tracts are parks in themselves, -and should so be called. - -But the identity of our five national parks in the farther West is -unmistakable; and these would appear to suggest neither forestry -proper, nor landscape forestry, nor even landscape art. In them nature -speaks for herself. The tasteful and well judged construction of roads -and trails that shall be in harmony with the scenes through which they -pass, or, better still, that shall be as unobtrusive as possible, is -evidently a necessity if the parks are to be enjoyed by large numbers -of people. In exceptional cases the ax may be needed for the very -preservation of the forest. But the principal care should be to protect -these forests from fire, defacement, and spoliation. For to us and -future generations the parks stand, above all, as examples of the glory -of our primeval forests. - -The groves of big trees in the national parks of California, the -geologic wonders of Yellowstone, and the specimens of arctic fauna -still living among the matchless glaciers of Mount Rainier, are -national possessions of great interest, for whose preservation not only -Americans, but distinguished Europeans also, have pleaded. These, then, -are ours for their own sakes; but most of our other national forest -possessions will undoubtedly have to submit to further development and -to the dictates of a sterner necessity. - - - - - NOTES - - - Note 1, page 5. There are about fifty distinct species of oak - indigenous to the United States. - - Note 2, page 23. The bloom of the dogwood begins to wither and fall - with the appearance of the leaves. In the illustration facing page 22 - several leaves are seen among the bloom, but they belong to the bough - of a neighboring tulip tree. - - Note 3, page 47. The juniper berries are in reality transformed cones. - - Note 4, page 52. The habit of the firs in early life is shown in the - plate facing page 125. - - Note 5, page 63. Curiously enough, the old English conception of a - forest was chiefly that of a hunting ground, irrespective of the trees - growing there. Consequently some forests were very open stretches of - ground. - - Note 6, page 71. The red-winged blackbird lingers in the Southern - States through the winter. - - Note 7, page 163. German forestry—and, in a less degree, European - forestry also—is indebted to Herr von Salisch for elaborating the idea - that forest art can be united with practical, utilitarian forestry. - His book on “Forest Esthetics,” which fills a unique place in the - literature of forestry, is an exposition of this interesting subject, - based upon mature knowledge and experience. - - Note 8, page 163. To the reader who is not familiar with the origin - of our forest reserves it may be of interest to know how they became - established. By an act of Congress of March 3rd, 1891, the President - was empowered to segregate from time to time, and for the benefit - of the American people, forest areas situated within the limits of - the public lands of the United States. In accordance with this act - proclamations were issued by Presidents Cleveland, Harrison, and - McKinley, reserving forest areas amounting thus far (September 1st, - 1901) to 46,398,369 acres, or approximately 72,500 square miles. - There are, however, within these areas numerous _bona fide_ holdings - of private ownership, in which the owners are carrying on extensive - cutting of timber. - -The reserves have been placed under the authority of the Commissioner -of the General Land Office, Department of the Interior, and are -entrusted to the care of specially appointed superintendents, -supervisors, and rangers. Some of these forest tracts are now -undergoing a careful study by experts in forestry, with the aim of -subjecting them to methods of treatment specially adapted to them, in -order that they may yield both useful material and a constant revenue, -without impairing the productive power or vitality of the forest. -The objects will thereby be fulfilled for which these reserves were -established. - - - - - INDEX TO THE NAMES OF TREES - and the Synonyms in Common Use - -By special permission of the Division of Publications, U. S. Department -of Agriculture - - -NOTE.—_Only the trees that have been specially described or compared -are included in the index_ - - COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME PAGE - - BROADLEAF TREES - - Basswood _Tilia americana_ Linn. 113 - Syn. American Linden - ” Limetree - ” Whitewood - ” Beetree - - Beech _Fagus atropunicea_ (Marsh.) Sudworth 16 - Syn. Red Beech Syn. _Fagus ferruginea_ Ait. - ” White Beech - - Big Laurel _Magnolia fœtida_ (Linn.) Sargent 24 - Syn. Magnolia Syn. _Magnolia grandiflora_ Linn. - ” Bull Bay - - Black Cherry _Prunus serotina_ Ehrh. 113 - Syn. Wild Black Cherry - ” Wild Cherry - ” Rum Cherry - - California Black Oak _Quercus californica_ (Torr.) Coop. 78 - Syn. Black Oak - - Canyon Live Oak _Quercus chrysolepis_ Liebm. 78 - Syn. Live Oak - - Chestnut _Castanea dentata_ (Marsh.) Borkh. 11 - Syn. _Castanea vesca β americana_ Michx. - _Castanea vulgaris ν americana _ A. de C. - - Flowering Dogwood _Cornus florida_ Linn. 16, 22, 73 - Syn. Dogwood - ” Boxwood - - Honey Locust _Gleditsia triacanthos_ Linn. 17, 113 - Syn. Black Locust - ” Sweet Locust - ” Thorn Locust - ” Three-thorned Acacia - - Hornbeam _Carpinus caroliniana_ Walt. 16 - Syn. Blue Beech - ” Water Beech - ” Iron wood - - Live Oak _Quercus virginiana_ Mill. 6, 110 - Syn. _Quercus virens_ Ait. - - Locust _Robinia pseudacacia_ Linn. 113 - Syn. Black Locust - ” Yellow Locust - - Mountain Ash _Pyrus americana_ (Marsh.) de C. 113 - - Redbud _Cercis canadensis_ Linn. 73, 75 - Syn. Judas Tree - - Red Maple _Acer rubrum_ Linn. 12, 15, 112 - Syn. Swamp Maple - ” Soft Maple - ” Water Maple - - Red Oak _Quercus rubra_ Linn. 16 - Syn. Black Oak - - Sassafras _Sassafras sassafras_ (Linn.) Karst. 18, 112 - Syn. _Sassafras officinale_ Nees & Eberm. - - Scarlet Oak _Quercus coccinea_ Muenchh. 16 - Syn. Red Oak - ” Black Oak - - Serviceberry _Amelanchier canadensis_ (Linn.) 75, 112 - Syn. Juneberry Medic. - ” Shad Bush - - Sugar Maple _Acer saccharum_ Marsh. 12, 15 - Syn. Hard Maple Syn. _Acer saccharinum_ Wang. - ” Rock Maple - ” Sugar Tree - - Sweet Gum _Liquidambar styraciflua_ Linn. 16, 111 - Syn. Red Gum - ” Liquidamber - - Sweet Magnolia _Magnolia glauca_ Linn. 73 - Syn. Sweet Bay - ” White Bay - ” Swamp Laurel - ” Swamp Magnolia - - Tulip Tree _Liriodendron tulipifera_ Linn. 16, 24 - Syn. Whitewood - ” Sour Gum - ” Pepperidge - - Tupelo _Nyssa sylvatica_ Marsh. 16 - Syn. Black Gum Syn. _Nyssa multiflora_ Wang. - ” Sour Gum - ” Pepperidge - - White Birch _Betula populifolia_ Marsh. 19 - Syn. Gray Birch - - White Elm _Ulmus americana_ Linn. 21 - Syn. American Elm - ” Water Elm - ” Elm - - White Oak _Quercus alba_ Linn. 5 - - Yellow Birch _Betula lutea Michx._ f. 20 - Syn. Gray Birch - - - CONIFERS - - Arborvitæ _Thuja occidentalis_ Linn. 57 - Syn. White Cedar - ” Cedar - - Bald Cypress _Taxodium distichum_ (Linn.) Rich. 40, 111 - Syn. White Cypress - ” Black Cypress - ” Red Cypress - ” Cypress - - Big Tree _Sequoia washingtoniana_ (Winsl.) Sudworth 54 - Syn. Sequoia - Syn. _Sequoia gigantea_ Decaisne. - - Black Hemlock _Tsuga mertensiana_ (Bong.) Carr. 45 - Syn. _Tsuga pattoniana_ (Jeffr.) - Engelm. - - Blue Spruce _Picea parryana_ (André) Parry 127 - Syn. _Picea pungens_ Engelm. - - Bull Pine _Pinus ponderosa_ Laws. 39 - Syn. Yellow Pine - - Cuban Pine _Pinus heterophylla_ (Ell.) Sudworth 37 - Syn. Slash Pine Syn. _Pinus cubensis_ Grieseb. - ” Swamp Pine - - Douglas Spruce _Pseudotsuga taxifolia_ (Lam.) Britton 48 - Syn. Red Fir Syn. _Pseudotsuga douglasii_ Carr. - ” Douglas Fir - ” Yellow Fir - ” Oregon Pine - - Engelmann Spruce _Picea engelmanni_ Engelm. 53 - Syn. White Spruce - - Hemlock _Tsuga canadensis_ (Linn.) Carr. 43 - Syn. Spruce - ” Spruce Pine - - Loblolly Pine _Pinus tæda_ Linn. 37 - Syn. Oldfield Pine - ” Shortleaf Pine - - Lodgepole Pine _Pinus murrayana_ “Oreg. Com.” 38 - Syn. Tamarack - ” Spruce Pine - - Longleaf Pine _Pinus palustris_ Mill. 37 - Syn. Longleaved Pine - ” Georgia Pine - ” Yellow Pine - ” Longstraw Pine - - Lowland Fir _Abies grandis_ Lindl. 50, 52 - Syn. White Fir - - Pitch Pine _Pinus rigida_ Mill. 38 - - Red Fir.—See Douglas Spruce. - - Red Juniper _Juniperus virginiana_ Linn. 45 - Syn. Red Cedar - ” Cedar - ” Savin - - Redwood _Sequoia sempervirens_ (Lamb.) Endl. 54 - Syn. Sequoia - - Silver Pine _Pinus monticola_ Dougl. 35 - Syn. White Pine - - Sugar Pine _Pinus lambertiana_ Dougl. 35 - - - Western Hemlock _Tsuga heterophylla_ (Raf.) Sargent 45 - Syn. Hemlock Syn. _Tsuga mertensiana_ of authors. - (Not Carr.) - - White Cedar _Chamæcyparis thyoides_ (L.) B. S. P. 57 - Syn. Juniper Syn. _Chamæcyparis sphæroidea_ - Spach. - - White Pine _Pinus strobus_ Linn. 31, 127 - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOREST TREES AND FOREST SCENERY *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where - you are located before using this eBook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that: - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without -widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |