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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..de879d6 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #66356 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/66356) diff --git a/old/66356-0.txt b/old/66356-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 0e29823..0000000 --- a/old/66356-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2979 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Forest Trees and Forest Scenery, by G. -Frederick Schwarz - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Forest Trees and Forest Scenery - -Author: G. Frederick Schwarz - -Release Date: September 21, 2021 [eBook #66356] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOREST TREES AND FOREST -SCENERY *** - Transcriber’s Notes - -Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations -in hyphenation have been standardised but all other spelling and -punctuation remains unchanged. - -Italics are represented thus _italic_. - -The notes remain at the end of the text as in the original. - - - - - FOREST TREES AND - FOREST SCENERY - -[Illustration: A River Scene in Florida] - - - - - FOREST TREES AND - FOREST SCENERY - - BY - G. FREDERICK SCHWARZ - - ILLUSTRATED - - [Illustration: Publisher’s Device] - - NEW YORK - THE GRAFTON PRESS - 1901 - - - - - Copyright, 1901, by - G. FREDERICK SCHWARZ - - - - - PREFACE - - -In the ensuing pages I have made simple inquiries into the sources -of beauty and attractiveness in American forest trees and sylvan -scenery. In the concluding chapter, by way of contrast, I have given -a short account of the esthetic effects of the artificial forests of -Europe. The system which shaped these forests and gave them their -present appearance should, however, possess more than a comparative -interest for Americans. It has, in fact, a further connection, though -a slight one, with the subject, and therefore requires a few words of -explanation. - -It is well known that in many parts of Europe the forests have long -been subjected to a systematic treatment known as forestry. The term, -at first strange, is gradually becoming quite familiar to us Americans, -for the application of this comparatively new science has already begun -in many sections of our country. The principles of European forestry -will naturally undergo many modifications in their new environment, -and the vastness of our forest areas, as well as the long life that -naturally belongs to trees, will impose a very gradual progress. -Nevertheless, the movement for a rational use of our forests is rapidly -advancing and is certain in time to find a very wide application. - -Although the aims of forestry are utilitarian and not artistic, the -technical character of the operations which it involves impresses upon -natural forest scenery a changed aspect. Eventually the work performed -upon our forests will be manifested in a new outward appearance, a -change that cannot but be preferable to the scenes ordinarily presented -by our cut-over and abandoned timberlands, and one that will be -appreciated not only by forest lovers in general, but also by those who -are engaged in the lumber industry itself, who are often forced through -competition and prevailing methods to leave a desolate picture behind. - -In a word, forestry interests us here because, having already obtained -a foothold in our country, through it forest beauty stands on the -threshold of a new relationship. This relationship, which is to grow -more intimate with time, appears to justify a certain discrimination in -the choice of the trees and forests herein described, and an occasional -reference to some of the less technical matters of forestry that may -incidentally suggest themselves as being of some interest to the -general reader. To have attempted more than this would have detracted -from the unity of the subject. While the reader may, therefore, find in -these pages some facts that are new to him, he will notice that these -facts have been made subordinate to the leading object of the book, -an appreciation of the esthetic value of some of our commonest forest -trees. - -The illustrations have been derived from various sources. The plates -facing pages 38, 58, 62, 64, 66, 116, 120, 130, are reproductions -from original photographs that were furnished through the courtesy -of the Bureau of Forestry, United States Department of Agriculture. -My grateful acknowledgments are due Mr. Overton W. Price, Assistant -Chief of the Bureau of Forestry, for photographs chosen out of his -collection to supply the plates facing pages 69, 148, 158. The -remaining illustrations have been reproduced from photographs in my own -collection. - -Notes of reference, which are indicated by superior figures in the -text, and an index to the names of the trees that have been described -or specially referred to in these pages, will be found at the close of -the book. The index has been compiled from a well-known bulletin of the -Bureau of Forestry, United States Department of Agriculture, entitled -“Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States.” Courteous -acknowledgment is here made to the author, Mr. George B. Sudworth, -and to the Division of Publications, of the same Department, for kind -permission to make extracts from the bulletin referred to. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - I FOREST TREES 1 - - The Broadleaf Trees 3 - - The Cone-Bearers 29 - - II FOREST ADORNMENT 63 - - III DISTRIBUTION OF AMERICAN FORESTS 83 - - IV CHARACTER OF THE BROADLEAF FORESTS 97 - - V THE CONIFEROUS FORESTS 116 - - VI THE ARTIFICIAL FORESTS OF EUROPE 141 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - A River Scene in Florida _Frontispiece_ - - Facing page - - Foliage of the White Oak 8 - - Spray of the Sugar Maple 12 - - Spray of the Red Maple 12 - - The Dogwood in Bloom 22 - - Tulip Trees 26 - - Character of the White Pine 34 - - Sugar Pines 36 - - A Pinery in the South 38 - - The Bull Pine in its California Home 40 - - A Silver Fir at Middle Age 50 - - Redwood Forest in California 58 - - Devastation in the Forest 60 - - Where the Sheep Have Been 62 - - A Passageway through Granite Rocks 64 - - Shrubbery and River Birches. New Jersey 66 - - Fern Patch in a Grove of White Birch 69 - - A Yucca in the Chaparral 78 - - - Virgin Forest Scene in Florida 110 - - A Group of Conifers. Montana 116 - - Mount Rainier. Washington 120 - - A Thicket of White Firs 125 - - An Open Forest in the Southwest 130 - - A Storm-beaten Veteran 132 - - A German “Selection Forest” 148 - - A “High Forest” of Spruce in Saxony 158 - - - - - FOREST TREES AND - FOREST SCENERY - - - - - “One impulse from a vernal wood - May teach you more of man, - Of moral evil and of good, - Than all the sages can.” - WORDSWORTH. - - - - - I - - FOREST TREES - - -The beauty of a forest is not simple in character, but is due to many -separate sources. The trees contribute much; the shrubs, the rocks, the -mosses, play their part; the purity of the air, the forest silence, -the music of wind in the trees—these and other influences combine to -produce woodland beauty and charm. A first consideration, however, -should be to know the beauty that is revealed by the trees themselves. - -Here it will be wise to make a selection: to choose out of the -great variety of our forest flora those trees that most deserve -our attention. Many of our forest trees have naturally a restricted -range; others are narrowing or widening their range through human -interference; still others have already established their right to -a preëminence among the trees of the future, because, possessing to -an unusual degree the qualities that will make them amenable to the -new and improved methods of treatment known as “forestry,” they are -certain to receive special care and attention; while those that are not -so fortunate will be left to fight their own battles, or may even be -exterminated to make room for the more useful kinds. Among all these -the rarest are not necessarily the most beautiful. Those that are -commonest and most useful are often distinguished for qualities that -please the eye or appeal directly to the mind. - -In accordance with the ideas already expressed in the Preface, the -considerations that will determine what trees shall be described are -as follows: first, trees of beauty; next, those that are common and -familiar; finally, those that are important both for the present and -the future because they are useful and have an extended geographical -distribution. - -The trees selected for description will here be divided into the two -conventional groups of broadleaf species and conifers, beginning with -the former. - - - THE BROADLEAF TREES - -In the “Landscape Gardening” of Downing we read concerning the oak,— - -“When we consider its great and surpassing utility and beauty, we are -fully disposed to concede it the first rank among the denizens of the -forest. Springing up with a noble trunk, and stretching out its broad -limbs over the soil, - - ‘These monarchs of the wood, - Dark, gnarled, centennial oaks,’ - -seem proudly to bid defiance to time; and while generations of man -appear and disappear, they withstand the storms of a thousand winters, -and seem only to grow more venerable and majestic.” - -It would be difficult to say whether Downing had any particular species -of oak in mind when he wrote these words. The common white oak and the -several species of red and black oak possess in an eminent degree the -grandeur and strength which he describes and for which we commonly -admire the tree. - -Of all the oaks[1] the white oak is the most important. This tree will -impress us differently as we see it in the open field or in the dense -forest. Where it stands by itself in the full enjoyment of light, it -has a round-topped, dome-shaped crown, and is massive and well poised -in all its parts. Quite as often, however, we shall see it gathered -into little groups of three or four on the greensward of some gently -sloping hill, where it has a graceful way of keeping company. The -groups are full of expression, the effect is diversified from tree -to tree, yet harmonious in the whole. In the denser forest the white -oak often reaches noble proportions and assumes its most individual -expression. There it mounts proudly upward, contending in height at -wide intervals with sugar maples and tulip trees, its common associates -in the forest. Its lofty crown may be seen at a distance, lifted -conspicuously above the heads of its neighbors. Stand beneath it, -however, and look up at its lower branches, and there is revealed an -intricacy of branchwork and a tortuosity of limb such as is unattained -when it stands alone in the field. The boldness with which the white -oak will sometimes throw out its limbs abruptly, and twist and writhe -to the outermost twig, I have never seen quite equaled in the other -oaks. The live oak, it must be admitted, is even more abrupt where the -limb divides from the trunk, but it does not continue its vagaries to -the end. - -It is to be noted that these forms are not without a purpose and a -meaning. Under difficulties and obstacles the twigs and branches have -groped their way; often one part has been sacrificed for the good of -another, in order that all gifts of air, and moisture, and light might -be received in the fullness of their worth. Thus the entire framework -of the tree becomes infused with life and meaning, almost with sense, -and its character is reflected in its expression. - -The observer is also impressed by the character of the foliage. The -leaves are usually rather blunt and ponderous, varying a little—as, -indeed, do those of several other trees —according to the nature of -their environment. They clothe the tree in profusion, but do not hide -the beauty of the ramification of its branches. In truth, they are not -devoid of beauty themselves. It was natural for Lowell to exclaim,— - - A little of thy steadfastness, - Rounded with leafy gracefulness, - Old oak, give me. - -While the leaves of the white oak do not deflect and curve as much in -their growth as those of some of the more graceful and elegant trees, -they nevertheless fall into natural and pleasing groups, unfolding a -pretty variation as they work out their patient spiral ascent, leaf -after leaf, round the stemlet; showing a changefulness in the sizes -of the several leaves, and a choice in the spacing. In the first -weeks of leafing-time there is to be added to these features the -effects derived from transitions of color in the leaves. For the very -young leaves are not green, but of a deep rose or dusky gray. They are -velvety in texture, and lie nestling within the groups of the larger -green leaves that have preceded them. Just as it was said a little -while ago that there was expressiveness throughout the branches, it may -now be said that there is a fitness of the foliage for all parts of the -tree. - -[Illustration: Foliage of the White Oak] - -In winter, however, the beauty of the oak’s foliage is gone. The dry -leaves still hang on the boughs, sometimes even until spring, but they -look disheveled and dreary. Still, they are not without some esthetic -value, though it be through the sense of hearing instead of sight. -Thoreau says,— - -“The dry rustle of the withered oak-leaves is the voice of the wood in -winter. It sounds like the roar of the sea, and is inspirating like -that, suggesting how all the land is seacoast to the aërial ocean.” - -Deep and glorious, too, is the light that rests in the oak woods on -midsummer days. It filters, softened and subdued, through the wealth -of foliage, and wraps us in a mellow radiance. Its purity and calm -depth lift the senses to a higher level. Most limpid is the light in a -misty shower, when the sun is low and the level rays break through the -moist leaves and dampened air, while we stand within and see everything -bathed in a golden luster. - -Our common chestnut is of less economic value than the oak, but one -suggests the other, for the two are often found together and are -similar in size and habit. The chestnut is, in truth, one of our finest -deciduous trees. It has a luxuriance of healthy, dark-green foliage, -and is happy-looking in its abundance of yellow-tasseled blossoms. It -is even more beautiful in August, when the young burs mingle their even -tinge of brown with the fresh green of the glossy leaves. In old age it -has the same firmness that is so noticeable in the oak, and seems to be -just as regardless of the winds and gales. - -The character of the leaf and the manner in which the branches of a -tree divide and ramify have so much to do with certain beautiful -effects, that I shall make some remarks on these features in two of -our maples. The sugar or hard maple is the most useful member of this -genus, and may advantageously be compared with the red maple, which is -perhaps more beautiful. - -It is of great advantage to both of these trees that the sweep of -their branches, which is carried out in ample, undulating lines, is -in perfect harmony with the elegance of their foliage. In the sugar -maple the latter spreads over the boughs in soft and pleasing contours. -The leaves are a trifle larger than those of the red maple, and their -edges are wavy or flowing, while their surfaces are slightly undulating -and have less luster than those of the other tree. They are thus well -fitted to receive a flood of light without being in danger of -presenting a clotted appearance. The petioles, or little leaf-stems, -assume a more horizontal position than they do in the red maple, and -the twigs are usually shorter, which allows a denser richness in the -foliage, which every breeze plays upon and ruffles as it passes by. - -[Illustration: Spray of the Sugar Maple] - -[Illustration: Spray of the Red Maple] - -The red maple has a more airy look. This is due partly to the character -of the leaf, but primarily to that of the branchwork. The main branches -spread out in easy, flowing lines, much as they do in the sugar maple; -but they assume an ampler range, and the last divisions, the twigs, -take on decided curves, rising to right and left. On these the leaves -multiply, each leaf poised lightly upon its curved petiole. As -compared with the leaf of its congener, that of the red maple is firmer -and a shade lighter, especially underneath. It is also more agile in -the wind. The effect of the whole is more that of a shower of foliage -than of pillowed masses. The curving lines, the elastic spring of every -part, and a kind of freedom among the many leaves, make the red maple -one of the cheerfullest of trees. - -The sugar maple is the larger of the two, and seeks the intervales -and uplands, where its size is well set off in the landscape. The red -maple, which finds its natural home along riverbanks and in moist -places, is interesting at all seasons. When young it is particularly -attractive in summer where it fringes lakes and streams. In winter -its bright, red twigs present a pleasing contrast to the gray bark or -to the snow-covered earth. In the earliest days of spring the little -scarlet blossoms break out in tufts that soon ripen into brilliant -little keys, looking very pretty where they intermingle with the pale -green of the opening leaves. - -There is, in fact, more color in the woods in the opening days of -spring than is generally admitted or noticed. Many kinds of trees -unfold their leaves in some tender shade of rose or golden brown; -while others lend a distinct color to a whole section of forest by the -opening of their early blossoms. - -The maples, however, are chiefly famous for their wonderful richness -of color in the fall of the year; particularly the sugar and the red -maple, whose brilliancy at this season it would be difficult to match. -They exhibit, in truth, a gamut of beautiful tones, from pale yellow to -deep orange, and from bright scarlet to vivid crimson. They are among -the first to change the color of their leaves, but are quickly followed -by other species of trees, whose varying hues blend together and enrich -the autumn landscape. The “scarlet” and “red” oaks now justify their -names; the flowering dogwood and the sweet gum show their soft depth -of purple; the milder tulip tree takes on a golden tint and shimmers -in the sun, mingling with ruddy hornbeams, browned beeches, variegated -sassafras trees, or the fiery foliage of the tupelos. The swamps are -aflame with the brilliancy of red maples, contrasting with the quieter -tones of alders and willows. - -We may speak of brilliancy and color in our leafy woods at the ebb-tide -of the year; but to know their beauty well we must walk among the -trees. Nor can pictures tell us all the truth about the tints of -autumn. How should we receive from them the atmospheric effects that -nature gives, and the indescribable blending and softening that comes -from innumerable rays of diffused and reflected light? The beauty also -changes from day to day and from hour to hour, for weeks. - -Some of the other broadleaf trees deserve to be noticed, though in -less detail, as objects of beauty in the forest. The honey locust, -one of our largest trees of this class, is distinguished principally -for the elegant forms of its branches. The smaller divisions, the -twigs, follow a zigzag course which in itself is not beautiful, but -the effect is so bound up with the complex spiral evolutions of the -larger divisions, the boughs and branches, that the result is only to -heighten the elegance of the latter. The foliage of this tree is very -delicate, being composed of numerous elliptically shaped leaflets, that -are gathered into sprays that hang airily among the bold and sweeping -boughs. - -Much might be said here in commendation of the sassafras tree, were -it economically more important. Its brown, sculptured bark is very -attractive, and its yellowish blossoms, that break in early spring, -are fragrant. The leaves are of several shades of green, and vary -considerably in outline. When in full leaf, the outward form of the -tree is striking in appearance, its foliage being massed into rounded -and hemispherical shapes that group themselves in the crown of the tree -in well-proportioned and tasteful outlines. - -The birches, too, are very attractive trees, especially where they -have ample room to develop. The white birch appears at its best where -it is sprinkled in moderation among open groves of other trees. To -the forester it is of some importance, as its seedlings rapidly cover -denuded or burnt areas. They also shield from excessive sunlight or -from frost the seedlings of more valuable kinds that may have sprouted -in their welcome shade; until, gaining strength, the latter after -a few years push up their tops between the open foliage of their -protecting “nurses.” The white birch may be seen performing this -good office in many a fire-scarred piece of woodland throughout the -Northeastern States. Often, too, we see it standing a little apart, as -at the edge of a forest; its slender branches drooping around the pure -white trunk and its agile leaves gleaming as they wave in the light -breeze. It is like one of those single notes in music that glide into -universal harmony with irresistible charm. - -The yellow birch, on the contrary, is most beautiful in the depth of -the forest. It is a large, useful tree. In the Adirondacks I have often -admired its tall, straight trunk as it rose above the neighboring -firs and spruces and unfolded its large, regular crown of dense -dark foliage, relieved underneath by the thin, shining, silvery to -golden-yellow bark, torn here and there into shreds that curled back -upon themselves around the stem. - -The white elm, well represented in the avenues of New England, is -widely distributed. It is a tree for the meadow, although its natural -grace and, one might almost say, inborn gentleness are preserved along -the fringes of the forest and on the banks of streams. It needs some -room to show the refinement of its closely interwoven spray. Watch its -beauty as it sways in the light wind; or look at a grove of elms after -a hoar-frost on some early morning in winter, when the leaves are gone -and all its outlines are penciled in finest silver. - -The flowering dogwood is one of our smaller trees, but is exceptionally -favored with all manner of beauty. Although it is very common in many -of the States, and is not without its special uses, it occupies a -subordinate position in the eyes of the forester, being often no more -than a mere shrub in form. And yet, while some of the larger trees by -their majestic presence lend grandeur to the forest, the dogwood brings -to it a charm not easily forgotten. In spring, when it is showered all -over with interesting, large, creamy-white flowers, it is an emblem -of purity. Its leaves, which appear very soon after the bloom, are -elegantly curved in outline, soft of texture, light-green in summer, -and of a deep crimson or rich purple-maroon in autumn.[2] In winter the -flowers are replaced by bright, red berries. Its spray of twigs and -branchlets, formed by a succession of exquisitely proportioned waves -and upward curves, is not as conspicuous, though hardly less ornamental -at this season than the fruit. - -[Illustration: The Dogwood in Bloom] - -As a shrub, being among the very first to bloom, it decorates the -forest borders in spring, or stands conspicuously within the forest. It -is found everywhere in the Appalachian region. In the coastal plain it -is associated with the longleaf pine, or may be seen among broadleaf -trees, or standing among red junipers, as tall as they and quite at -home in their company. - -Before turning to coniferous trees, the tulip tree deserves some -attention on account of its usefulness, its extended habitat, and its -beauty as a forest tree. It is closely related to the magnolias, to -which belongs the big laurel of the Gulf region, an evergreen species -that might be called the queen of all broadleaf trees. But the big -laurel must here give place to the tulip tree, because it is not -so distinctively a forest tree, and is much more restricted in its -geographical distribution. - -The first general impression of the tulip tree is, I venture to say, -one of strangeness. There is a foreign look about the heavy, truncated -leaves, and an oriental luxury in the large, greenish-yellow flowers. -These appear in May or June, while the conelike fruit ripens in -the fall. When the seeds have scattered, the open cones, upright in -position, remain for a long time on the tree, where they are strikingly -ornamental. - -Esthetically the most important feature of the tulip tree is an -expression of dignity and stateliness, which gives it a character of -its own. Its extraordinary size renders it a conspicuous object in -the forest, the more so because we usually find it associated with a -variety of other trees of quite different aspect. Michaux, who has told -us much about the forest flora of the eastern United States, could -find no tree among the deciduous kinds, except the buttonwood, that -would bear comparison with it in size, and he calls it “one of the most -magnificent vegetables of the temperate zone.” Its columnar trunk -continues with unusual straightness and regularity nearly to the summit -of the tree. Its limbs and branches divide in harmonious proportions, -reaching out as if conscious of their strength, and yet with sufficient -gracefulness to lend dignity to the tree. The lower boughs, especially, -are inclined to assume an elegant sweep, deflecting sidewise to the -earth, and ending with an upward curve and a droop at the outer -extremity. Often the crowded environment of the forest does not admit -of such ample development; yet even under such conditions the tulip -tree preserves much of its elegance and is generally well balanced. - -[Illustration: Tulip Trees] - -When young it does not appear to much advantage, being rather too -symmetrical. Nevertheless I have found it described as a tree of -“great refinement of expression” at that age. As soon as it begins -to put on a richer crown of foliage and to develop a sturdier stem -and more elegant lines in the disposition of its branches, it becomes -invested with its peculiar aspect of magnificence, increasing in -gracefulness and grandeur from year to year. Its bark, at first smooth -and gray, gradually becomes chiseled with sharp small cuts; then takes -on a corrugated appearance, becomes brown, and finally turns into -deeply furrowed ridges in the old tree. Now the foliage, too, seems -to clothe the massive boughs more fitly, being denser and in size of -leaves more in accordance with the increased dimensions of the tree. - -The foliage of the tulip tree is, in truth, one of its principal -points of beauty, and is inferior only to the stateliness of its form. -The opening leaf-buds are conical, exquisitely modeled, and of the -tenderest green. The leaves unfold from them much as do the petals in -a flower, but quickly spread apart on the stem. As they grow larger -they still preserve their light-green color, but take on a mild gloss. -They are ready to shift and tremble on their long leaf-stalks in every -breath of wind, which gives them a decided air of cheerfulness. We may -see the same thing in the aspen and in some of the poplars. Under the -tulip tree, however, the light that descends and spreads out on the -ground is far superior. It is softer and purer. We need not look up -to appreciate it, but may watch it on the soil, over which it moves in -flecks of light and dark. - - “The chequer’d earth seems restless as a flood - Brushed by the winds, so sportive is the light - Shot through the boughs; it dances, as they dance, - Shadow and sunshine intermingling quick, - And dark’ning, and enlight’ning (as the leaves - Play wanton) every part.” - - - THE CONE-BEARERS - -The cone-bearing trees are usually provided with needle-shaped or -awl-shaped leaves, in contradistinction to the broad and flat ones -that belong to the group described in the preceding section of this -chapter. Most of them preserve their foliage through the winter, and -are commonly recognized by this evergreen habit. They are much more -important to the forester than the other class. The conifers grow -on the true forest soils. They range along mountain crests or are -scattered over dry and semi-arid regions or along the sandy seashore, -while the broadleaf species usually require a better soil and a more -congenial climate. This circumstance causes many deciduous forests to -be cut down, in order that the better land on which they grow may be -utilized for agricultural purposes. Moreover, the wood of the conifers -is generally more useful, being in several of the species of great -economic importance. Lastly, in their habit of denser growth, and from -the fact that these trees are ordinarily found in the form of “pure” -forests (in contradistinction to those forests in which a number -of species grow intermingled), they furnish certain very important -conditions for practical and successful forestry. - -The common white pine well deserves to stand at the head of all the -conifers or evergreens east of the Mississippi. Though it once covered -vast areas in more or less “pure” forests it has been largely cut away, -and recurring fires have generally prevented its return; but in certain -places it could even now be restored by careful treatment. At present -the last remnants of these pineries are disappearing swiftly, and -before the methods of the forester can be applied to such extensive -areas, this valuable heritage will probably have vanished. Heretofore -it has been to us Americans in the supply of wood what bread and water -are in daily life. It has been hardly less valued by other nations, -having been planted as a forest tree in Germany a full century ago. - -I cannot say what I admire most in the white pine; whether it be the -luxuriance and purity of its foliage, or the very graceful spread of -its boughs. There is hardly a tree that can equal it for softness and -rich color. The tufts of needlelike leaves densely cover the upper -surfaces of the spreading branches, and are of a mild, uniformly -pure olive-green. Seen from beneath they appear tangled in the -beautifully interwoven twigs and stems. It is here that we first begin -to notice the exquisite manner of the white pine. The boughs reach out -horizontally, with here and there one that ascends or turns aside to -assume a position exceptionally graceful and to fill out a space that -seems specially to have been vacated for it. I speak of the white pine -at the age preceding maturity, when it is in its full strength, but -before it has attained the picturesqueness of old age. Following an -easy curve, the branch divides at right and left into dozens of finer -branchlets, all extending forward and straining, as it were, to reach -the light; and these in turn lift up hundreds of twigs and little stems -to enrich the upper surfaces with bushy tufts of lithe green needles. -The elegance of this habit in the white pine appears to advantage when -we stand a little above it on a gentle slope and see the branches -clearly defined against the surface of a lake below or some far-away -gray cloud. - -Both in middle age and when it is old the white pine is a -distinguished-looking tree. When young it is sometimes elegantly -symmetrical; but more often, owing to a crowded position, it lacks the -air of neatness that belongs to a few of the other pines and to most -of the firs. At maturity it is a very impressive tree, especially in -the dense forest, where it develops a tall, dark, stately stem. In its -declining years the branches begin to break and fall away, no longer -able to bear the weight of heavy snows. This is often the time when -it is most picturesque. - -[Illustration: Character of the White Pine.] - -The representatives of the white pine in the West are the silver pine -and the sugar pine. Though both may be easily recognized as near -relatives of the eastern species, either by the typical form of the -cones or by the plan and structure of the foliage, each of the western -trees possesses a majesty and beauty of its own. The silver pine is -more compact in its branches than the white pine, and has somewhat -denser and more rigid foliage. Its dark aspect is well suited to the -mountains and ridges of the Northwest, where it commonly abounds. -The sugar pine, which is the tallest of all pines, impresses us by -its picturesque individuality. Its great perpendicular trunk not -infrequently rises, clear of limbs, to the height of a hundred and -fifty feet, and is surmounted by an open pyramidal crown of half that -length, composed of long and slender branches that are full of motion. -While the texture of the foliage is not as delicate as in the white -pine, it is smooth and elastic, and has an even bluish tinge that shows -to great advantage when the needles are stirred by the wind. Its cones, -which are of enormous size, hang in clusters from the extremities of -the distant boughs, which droop beneath the unusual weight. Two of -these cones, which I have lying before me, measure each nineteen inches -in length. Well might Douglas, the botanist who named this tree, call -it “the most princely of the genus.” - -[Illustration: Sugar Pines -Young Bull Pines in the foreground at the right and an Incense Cedar at -the left.] - -The longleaf pines of the Southern States should be noticed for -their picturesqueness. The Cuban pine is restricted to isolated tracts -in the region of the Gulf and eastern Georgia. The loblolly pine and -the longleaf pine, near relatives of the Cuban pine, cover extensive -tracts in low, level regions of the Southern States, and are most -interesting in old age. Standing, it may be, on a sandy plain not far -from the sea, among straggling palmettos, they lift their ample crowns -well up on their tall, straight stems, and contort their branches into -surprising forms; so that, looking through their crowns at a distance -in the dry, hazy air of the South, with possibly a red sunset sky for a -background, they are extremely fantastic and entertaining. - -There are two other pines that have a similar tortuous habit in the -growth of their branches: the pitch pine of our eastern coast States -and the lodgepole pine of the Rocky Mountains. These, however, have an -esthetic value for quite a different reason. In the case of the pitch -pine it is due to a natural peculiarity otherwise rare among conifers; -for, this tree has the power of sprouting afresh from the stump that -has been left after cutting or forest fires, thus healing in time -the raggedness and devastation resulting from necessity, neglect, or -indifference. The lodgepole pine of the West performs the same patient -work over burned areas through the remarkable power of germination -belonging to its seeds, even after being scorched by fire. Thus both of -these trees not only furnish useful material, but restore health and -calmness to the forest. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry_ -A Pinery in the South] - -In connection with the longleaf pines of the Southern States, the -bull pine of the West deserves to be noticed on account of its near -botanical relationship and the somewhat similar economic position which -it occupies. It is the most widely distributed of western trees, being -found in almost every kind of soil and climate along the Pacific coast -and throughout the Rockies. Over so wide a range, growing under very -different conditions of soil, temperature, light, and moisture, it -varies greatly in form and appearance. We encounter it on dry, sterile -slopes or elevated plateaux in the interior, and walk for miles through -the monotony of these dark bull pine forests, in which the trees are -of small stature and seem to be struggling for their life. Again we -meet it on the humid western slopes of the Sierra Nevada, associated -with the sugar pine and other lofty trees. Here we scarcely recognize -it. It holds its own among the company of giants, and is full of -vitality, freedom, and strength; with brighter, redder bark and stout, -sinuous branches; with longer needles and larger cones. The sunlight -fills its ample crown spaces, and the wind murmurs in the foliage -overhead; for the pines are the master musicians of the woods. - -[Illustration: The Bull Pine in its California Home] - -The Southern States and the Gulf region furnish us with a conifer of -striking originality and great usefulness. This is the bald cypress, -which may have caught the reader’s eye in some northern park by -the elegant forms of its spirelike growth. It rises high and erect, -a narrow pyramid clothed in the lightest green foliage. The latter -is composed of delicate feathers of little elliptical leaves that -hang drooping among the finely interwoven short branches. This is in -its cultivated northern home, where it seems to thrive well on the -carefully kept greensward. But in reality it is a tree of deep swamps, -seeking the dank, flooded shores of southern rivers, or impenetrable -morasses, where few other trees can live. Here we may paddle our boat -through the strange-looking cypress knees that it sends up above the -water from the roots in the muddy soil beneath, and may admire the -straight, firm trunks that are ridged and buttressed below to form -wide, spreading bases. In this, its native home, when it has grown to -maturity, it looks far different from the trim, tall pyramid that we -see in the park. In place of the lofty spire it bears a broad, flat -crown, that is poised upon the tall, fibrous, reddish-gray trunk. Such -crowns, if the tree has had room to spread, may measure as much as a -hundred feet across; but where closely pressed at the sides by other -trees, they are contracted to much narrower dimensions. The foliage is -soft in texture as ever, and interspersed with little globular cones. -With the coming of winter, however, the sprays of foliage turn brown -and fall from the tree, the bald cypress being one of the very few -cone-bearers that shed their leaves. - -In the South, especially in Florida and along the Gulf, the cypress -trees are likely to be overloaded with streamers of gray, mosslike -tillandsia. This epiphytic plant, commonly known as “Florida moss” or -“hanging moss,” sometimes hides the entire mass of foliage, and lends a -funereal aspect to whole groves and forests of these trees, detracting -much from their beauty. - -One of the prettiest coniferous trees in the East is the hemlock. -Whatever may be the prejudice against the commercial qualities of this -tree,—for the value of its wood is not now appreciated as it should -be,—its appearance is admired by all who know it. I call it “pretty” -because it is fine and neat when young and grows to be comely and -graceful in middle age, rather than beautiful in the ordinary meaning -of that word. It is an easy, airy tree. And yet the time comes when -it loses its ease and grace, when its trunk grows darker and its -boughs become straggly and rough, when it puts on the strength of age -without its decrepitude and bears unflinchingly the weight of winter -snows. Is it now less interesting than in its youth? I think not. -It makes the woods rough and natural, and we admire its simplicity, -self-sufficiency, and endurance. - -When young there is no tree with such elegant and yet loose and pretty -effects in the foliage, unless it should be one of its western cousins. -The spray hangs delicately from the sides of the tree and the top is -gracefully pendent. The little shoots, as they peep out from hundreds -of recesses, buoyant and lifelike, and the pendent top, are in some way -suggestive of a playing fountain, especially in quite young trees. In -the forest the symmetry of the hemlock is not always preserved; yet it -fits into the scene gracefully, whether fringing the mountain stream or -grouping itself among the other trees of the forest. - -The two western hemlocks also have exceedingly graceful sprays and -majestic forms, but they are less familiar to most of us and are not as -widely distributed as the smaller eastern species. - -One of the trees of widest geographical range in America is the red -cedar, or red jumper, as it should more properly be called. This -statement remains true notwithstanding the recent discovery that the -form of red juniper common to certain parts of the Rockies is distinct -from the eastern tree. Though of small size, except in the bottom lands -of Arkansas and Texas, it possesses some excellent qualities and is -useful in many ways. It is sometimes used in cabinet work, and is one -of the best materials for fence posts. The variety that grows along the -Florida coast furnishes the wood for the indispensable lead pencil. - -The red juniper is at its best along the border of the forest or where -it strays a short distance away. Its foliage is dark and bushy, and -infinitely tender and soft in appearance. In the lower Appalachian -region it forms a fine setting for the gorgeous drifts of dogwood and -redbud that skirt the forest edges. It forms changeful and interesting -groups on the rocky knolls and ledges. On our Jersey shores it has -a tasteful way of gathering into little companies, just near enough -to the forest to belong to it, composing scenes that are pleasant to -remember. Singly, on the yellow sands, the young conical red juniper -edges off well against the sky. In its old age the same tree looks -gnarled and picturesque, but still beautiful, with its masses of small -blue-gray berries.[3] Many of us remember it so by the edge of the -ocean, and perhaps others, like myself, have allowed their imagination -to drift and have fancied that it looked solemn and thoughtful, -outlined against the pale-blue sky, listening to the swish and whisper -of the sea. - -Several cone-bearing trees of the Western States remain to be -considered. These are the firs and spruces, which belong to the same -class as the pines; and the big tree and redwood, relatives of the bald -cypress. - -The Douglas spruce, or red fir, is in reality neither a true spruce -nor a fir, though it has some of the characteristics of each. It was -discovered as long ago as 1795 by the famous explorer, Archibald -Menzies. This species and a smaller one that grows on the arid -mountains of southern California, with possibly a third that is found -in Japan, constitute together the whole genus _Pseudotsuga_. But -whatever its botanical peculiarities, the red fir is an important and -exceedingly useful tree, especially for the purposes of practical and -scientific forestry. Like the white pine it was planted long ago by -those pioneers in forestry, the Germans, and has proved itself among -them to be one of the few trees of foreign extraction that can be -called successful. - -When young, the red fir grows rapidly and symmetrically, and has a -fresh, vigorous, healthy look. It then already possesses the bluish -depth to its foliage that it preserves throughout life, a color that -is comparable in its purity only to that of the white pine. In several -of its other features, however, it changes with the lapse of years. It -gradually loses the graceful lower boughs that feather to the ground in -the young tree; its bark becomes rough and very thick; and its trunk -develops into a tall, straight shaft that bears a long, spiry crown of -striking symmetry, in which tier after tier of branches rises to the -narrowing summit, ending some two or three hundred feet in air. This -is its aspect in the favored regions of its growth, near the shores of -Puget Sound and in the moist mountains of Washington and Oregon, where -it once formed forests of extraordinary density and dark grandeur, -portions of which are still preserved over this extensive territory. - -Another important conifer is the lowland fir of the Pacific coast. -All the silver firs, to which class this tree belongs, have distinct -features in their foliage and a characteristic habit of growth, a -description of which may enable the reader to picture to himself -not only the lowland fir itself, but to form some conception of the -esthetic value of the entire genus. - -[Illustration: A Silver Fir at Middle Age] - -The leaves are narrow, flat, and linear, usually about as long as a -pin or a needle, glossy green on the upper side, and streaked with a -longitudinal whitish line underneath. They are crowded horizontally -at the right and left sides of the shoot or twig, like the hairs on -the quill of a feather. The twigs themselves, and, in turn, the boughs -and branches, have a similar tendency to assume a horizontal position; -and thus the tree is built up in neat symmetrical stages, dwindling -in size to the summit, and presenting the typical conical form of the -cone-bearers. - -Let it not be presumed, however, that there is anything awkward or -stiff in the appearance of the firs. Young firs are among the neatest -and most elegant objects in a park. The smooth gray bark, the lifelike -air in the distribution of the boughs and smaller branches, the glossy -green as seen from the side or above, varied to a blue or gray when we -stand beneath, redeem them from every charge of conventionality.[4] - -The lowland fir as a young tree, and where it is afforded sufficient -room, has more of the drooping, plume-like, graceful air than is usual -with the members of this genus. The leaves are somewhat curled and -scattered about the stem. Like most trees it becomes more expressive as -it grows older and little by little rejects the features and traces of -its earlier years. Its arms gradually bend inward, and the whole tree -becomes more cylindrical, till in its maturity it speaks freely through -its broken and twisted boughs of storms and battles and insect ravages -of long ago; yet it strives to cover its scars with luxuriant masses of -verdure and numberless purplish cones—a truly magnificent spectacle of -a hoary veteran of crisp and sturdy aspect. - -The Engelmann spruce, though a smaller tree than either the red fir -or the lowland fir, is one of the most important of the spruces. Its -home is in the elevated regions of Colorado, whence it spreads westward -and northward throughout the Rocky Mountains. Its well rounded hole is -scaly with small cinnamon-red plates, and its foliage is composed of -sharp, short, needlelike leaves, that bristle around the stem and are -bluish-green in color. Its small brown cones droop from the extremities -of the boughs and mass themselves in the top of the tree. Like most of -the spruces, this one climbs to high elevations. Many a wild mountain -slope in the West is covered by the dense ranks of these straight, -slender trees, with tapering spires that are green in summer and -frosted with snow and rime in winter. - -The glory of our western forests, however, are the sequoias, those -gigantic trees of California that have become widely famous. The two -sequoias, the big tree of the Sierra Nevada and the redwood of the -Pacific coast, constitute the last remnants of a mighty race that -covered vast areas in North America and Europe in past geological ages. -It is believed that their days are almost over, for the big tree groves -are few in number and small in extent, and even these are falling -rapidly under the ax and saw. Nor does this species appear to reproduce -itself easily; for, although numberless seeds fall from the old trees, -they rarely sprout, and therefore are slow to replace what has been -taken away. The redwoods, too, are threatened with extinction, though -they still cover considerable tracts along the northern half of the -California coast. They are coveted even more than the big trees and -are disappearing with a rapidity that only modern industry has made -possible. - -Fortunately the redwood possesses two gifts of inestimable value that -will prolong, but cannot perpetuate, its existence. The unusual amount -of moisture in its wood and the absence of pitch in the sap lessen the -danger from fire; while the same remarkable trait that we noticed in -the pitch pine, otherwise very rare in coniferous trees, of sprouting -from dormant buds at the edge of the stump will replace, for a time at -least, many of the giants that are taken away. - -The general appearance or type of the sequoias resembles that of the -cypresses and cedars. The bald cypress is their nearest relative. -The big tree often has the same spreading base, and both have the -fluted, shreddy bark, traits that may also be noticed in the common -white cedar and in arbor-vitæ. The diameter of the trunk of the big -tree is strikingly large even for its wonderful height. Both trees -lift their crowns rather high, and have comparatively short boughs, -with dense, bushy, somewhat straggly-looking foliage. In its youthful -stage the foliage of the redwood, like its congener’s, has a bluish -tinge, which with advancing years turns to a dark and somber green -that contrasts strangely with the red color of the thick, spongy -bark. But the individuality of both trees, especially that of the big -tree, is so impressive and magnificent that all these minor essences -become involved in the majesty of the whole. The mighty bole rises in -splendid proportions to where the distant fronds hang loosely down, -disappearing within their somber shadows, but still carrying upward -the masses of foliage, as if striving to reach the very clouds. As we -view their stately and incomparable forms, so masterly wrought, so -unapproachable in their magnificence, we need hardly be told that these -trees are strangers from a distant and forgotten age. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry_ -Redwood Forest in California] - -Much has been said and written concerning the sizes and ages of -these two largest trees of America—indeed, with the exception of the -Australian eucalipti, we might say of the world. It is said that some -of the latter surpass the redwood in height, though a redwood tree was -discovered within recent years on the Eel River, California, whose -stupendous height reached nearly three hundred and fifty feet, -thus surpassing in that dimension, at least, any previously recorded -measurements of the big tree. The ages of the sequoias have been more -difficult to determine, but it appears that in the beginning they -were exaggerated. The mature redwood, doubtless, is apt to be several -centuries younger than the big tree; but so excellent an authority as -Mr. John Muir has said of the latter that “these giants under the most -favorable conditions probably live five thousand years or more, though -few of even the larger trees are more than half as old.” - -The redwoods are great lovers of moisture. In the valleys and canyons -near the ocean they bathe in the ascending fog and stand dripping with -condensed vapor. We shall come upon them in dense groves, where the -day is a continuous twilight and the trees surpass in their combined -massiveness even the red firs of Oregon. At other times we shall find -them mingling in more open forest with lowland firs and hemlocks, or, -in their northern range, with the splendid Port Orford cedar. The light -enters these more open forests and calls forth much beautiful young -growth and shrubbery: the rhododendrons of California, with large and -showy purplish blossoms and evergreen leaves; western dogwoods, that -might at first glance be mistaken for the eastern species; barberries -and familiar hazels; and ferns and violets. - -[Illustration: Devastation in the Forest] - -The reader must not infer, of course, that such scenes are necessarily -of common occurrence in the forest; but they are more agreeable to -contemplate than those that have been despoiled of their attractions. -It should be remembered that if we traveled through these forests we -should often find fresh signs of human interference: sections of trees -lying prone on the ground, abandoned as useless by the lumberman; -stripped crowns that stood in the way of falling trunks, and debris -of bark and slashings. We should also notice the track of the forest -fire among the stumps and charred treetrunks, and here and there the -dying tops of standing trees that were unable to withstand the flames. -Finally, in dry and semi-arid regions, particularly in sections of the -Southwest, we should notice still another danger that threatens our -forests: the excessive or ill-timed grazing of sheep, which trample to -death the young tree seedlings as they pass over the ground in great -herds and devour the last vestiges of vegetation, thus leaving a bare -and dry forest floor, upon which the old trees subsist with difficulty -through the prolonged droughts of summer. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry_ -Where the Sheep Have Been] - - - - - II - - FOREST ADORNMENT - - -Though there can be no forest without trees, it may be asserted with -equal truth that trees alone would make but an incomplete forest.[5] -Under the old trees we find the young saplings that are in future years -to replace them and in their turn are to form a new canopy of shade. In -their company is a vast variety of shrubs, ferns, and delicate grasses -and flowers that decorate the forest floor. Vines and creepers gather -about the old trees and clamber up their furrowed trunks. In autumn the -ground is strewed with fallen leaves, motionless or hurrying along -before the wind. These gather into deep beds, soft to the tread, and -at last molder away in the moist, rich earth. In the needle-bearing -forests of the mountains brilliant green mosses replace the shrubs and -flowers and deck the bare brown earth. - -There are _lifeless_ sources of beauty in the woods, too, that are not -easy to pass by unnoticed: rocks with interesting forms and surfaces; -forms that are lifeless, yet take on distinct expression by their -different modes of cleavage, and surfaces that drape themselves in the -choicest paraphernalia of drooping moss and rare lichen; prattling -mountain streams; cascades; and glassy pools. These are “inanimate” -things with a kind of life in them, after all. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry_ -A Passageway through Granite Rocks] - -Lastly, there are the true owners of the forest: the bird that hovers -round its borders; the free, chattering squirrel; the casual butterfly -that leads us to the flowers; and the large game that inhabits the -hidden recesses and adds an element of wildness and strange attraction -to these quiet haunts. - -All this wealth of detail gives life to the forest. The shrubs, -above the rest, should here interest us somewhat more minutely. They -are often the most conspicuous objects in the embellishment of the -forest; and since our investigation was to be guided to some extent -by considerations of usefulness, it ought to be added that shrubs -not infrequently exercise a beneficial influence on the vigor and -well-being of the trees themselves. Trees, shrubs, and certain of the -smaller plants—so long as their root systems are not too dense and -intricate—are of value on account of their ameliorative effects on -temperature and moisture. This is more important in this country, so -extreme in its climatic variations, than in northern Europe. In the dry -and parching days of summer the shrubbery of the woods, by its shade, -helps to keep the earth cool and moist. This mantle of the earth, -moreover, conducts the rain more gradually to the soil, exercising an -efficient economy. In the fall and winter the shrubs, which are densest -near the forest border, help to break the force of the sweeping winds -which might otherwise carry away the fallen leaves, so useful in their -turn because they are conservators and regulators of moisture and -contain valuable chemical constituents which they return to the soil. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry_ -Shrubbery and River Birches. New Jersey] - -The pine barrens of New Jersey illustrate these principles. In close -proximity to the sea a welcome moisture enters the forest with the -ocean breezes. Penetrating farther inland, it is not so entirely -dissipated as to preclude a varied undergrowth of shrubbery, which in -turn renders a welcome aid to the forest by the protection it affords -to the porous, sandy soil, which would soon dry out under the scant -shelter of the pervious pines. Underneath these the kalmia or calico -bush, with its large and showy bunches of flowers, is abundant. In -late summer the sweet pepperbush is there, laden with its fragrant -racemes; in winter, the cheerful evergreen holly of glossy green leaf -and bright berry. In the dry and sunny places we find the wild rose, -the trailing blackberry, with its rich color traceries on the autumn -leaves, and the no less brilliant leaves of the wild strawberries -underfoot. We come upon the creeping wintergreen and the local -“flowering moss.” The fragrant “trailing arbutus,” here as elsewhere, -is an earnest of the generous returning spring. Along the creeks and -brooks are masses of honeysuckles, alder bushes, and sweet magnolias. - -[Illustration: Fern Patch in a Grove of White Birch] - -The coniferous forests of the Rocky Mountain region are either too dry -or too elevated to promote a luxuriant undergrowth; but we find it in -the humid coast region of Oregon and Washington, within the forests -of fir, pine, and spruce. In the deciduous forests, however, the -shrubbery attains its best development, for its presence depends -largely upon moisture, climate, and soil, and these conditions are -usually most favorable in our broadleaf districts. In the latter, -moreover, the shrubbery exercises its influence most efficiently, for -many of the pines will bear a considerable amount of heat and drought, -and several other conifers show their independence and a different kind -of hardihood at high and humid elevations. The varied and beautiful -forms of undergrowth in our broadleaf forests—the shrubs, the vines and -graceful large ferns, and the smaller plants that live along the forest -borders and penetrate within—may be regarded as one of the distinctive -features of American forest scenery. - -In such forests, and along their borders, the birds like to make their -home. Among the bushy thickets they find a secure shelter, and some of -them seek their food among the fruits and berries that grow there. They -all possess their individual charms, and infuse such varied elements of -life and cheer into the woods that even the most commonplace scenes are -transmuted by their presence, while those that were already beautiful -receive an added attraction. In winter there is nothing more harmonious -than a flock of snowbirds flying over frosted evergreens toward some -soft gray mist or cloud. For grace and ease of movement I have never -seen anything more airy than the Canada jay alighting on some near -bough, softly as a snowflake, to watch and wait for the scraps of the -forester’s meal. Another interesting bird to watch in his movements is -the red-winged blackbird. Out along the edges of the forest and in the -swamps and marshes lying between bits of woodland, he may be seen from -earliest spring to the last days of fall.[6] We cannot help watching -him passing restlessly to and fro by himself, or circling happily about -in the flock, returning at last to his clumps of alders and willows, -or disappearing among the hazy reeds and grasses. But if, instead of -grace and movement, we are more interested in sound, we shall find no -songbird with sweeter notes than the thrush. Whatever added name he may -bear, we are sure of a fine quality of music; music with modulating -notes, plaintive and clear, that drive away all harshness of thought. - -Let us again consider the undergrowth in the forest. Where shrubs and -tender growths abound the wintry season cannot be desolate or dreary. -When the display of summer is over they attract the eye by their -bright fruits and their habits of growth. Their branchlets are often -strikingly pretty in color and well set off against the snow. Their -intricate traceries of twig and stem are an interesting study. The -copses of brown hazels that spread along the mountain side and the -dusky alders or yellow-tinted willows are in perfect harmony with this -season of the year. - -It is by crowding into masses that our shrubs of brighter blossom -produce some of the most superb effects of spring. A multitude of -rhododendrons or great laurels covers some mountain side, carrying its -drifts of pale rose far back into the woods. A mass of redbuds and -flowering dogwoods, the former again rose-colored, the latter a creamy -white, pours out from the forest’s edge among ledges of rock and low -hills. The wild plums and thorns, with their delicate flowers, are -beautiful in the same manner, and in addition have a pretty habit of -straying out and away from the woods, much like the red juniper. - -Our shrubs are no less beautiful in their separate parts than they are -magnificent in their united profusion. The common sweet magnolia is -especially well favored. Its elegantly elliptical leaf, with smooth -surfaces, glossy and dark green above, silken and silvery below, -is one of the most attractive to be found. Its flower cannot help -being beautiful, for beauty is the heritage of all the magnolias. -Often, however, half the pure ivory cups lie hidden in the leaves, to -surprise us on a closer approach with their beauty and sweet fragrance. -Altogether this favored shrub is one of the most exquisite objects of -decoration, whether in the swamp, along brooksides, or through the damp -places of the forest. - -The hawthorns, which, like the sweet magnolia, occur both as trees and -as shrubs, combine varied forms of attractiveness, such as compound -flowers of white or pinkish hue; sharply edged, elegantly pointed -leaves; bright berries; and closely interwoven branchlets stuck about -with thorns. The redbud, which I have already mentioned, holds its -little bunches of flowers so lightly that they look as if they had been -carried there by the wind and had caught along the twigs and branches. -Very different from these, yet no less interesting in its way, is the -staghorn sumach, which is of erratic growth and bears stately pyramids -of velvety flowers of a dark crimson-maroon. There is a fine contrast, -too, where the serviceberry, with early delicate white blossoms, blooms -among the evergreens and the opening leaves of spring. - -Another word about the West. The undergrowth of the northerly portion -of the Pacific coast region has already been referred to; but there -extends throughout the Southwest, penetrating also northward and -eastward, another kind of forest growth that is so distinct in -character from all others that it should be specially described. It -is, in fact, quite opposite in its nature to the shrubbery of the more -humid forest regions in that it shows a tendency to seek the arid, -open, sunny slopes, where it forms a scrubby, though interesting, and -varied cover to the rough granite boulders and loose, gravelly soils. -This growth is everywhere conveniently known as “chaparral,” whether it -be the low, even-colored brush on the higher mountains or the dense, -scraggy, promiscuous, and impenetrable thicket of the foothills and -lower and gentler slopes. - -The impression which the chaparral makes depends largely upon the -distance at which it is viewed. If we stand in the midst of a dense -patch of it we see of how many elements it is composed; how the shrubs -of different size, shape, and character crowd each other into a -tangle of branches, some not reaching above the waist, others closing -in overhead. The ceanothus, with its dull, dark-green foliage and -bunches of small white flowers, which appear in June, stands beside -the stout-stemmed, knotty, twisted manzanita, with its strikingly -reddish-brown bark and sticky, orbicular, olive-colored leaves. Among -smaller shrubs we find the aromatic sage brush, of a light-gray, -soft appearance, and the richer, darker, small-leaved grease-wood, -or chemisal, as it is more commonly called farther north, with its -small, white-petaled flowers enclosing a greenish-yellow center. Very -plentifully scattered among all these we usually find the scrubby forms -of the canyon live oak and the California black oak. Here and there we -may see a large golden-flowered mallow, or the queenly yucca raising -its fine pyramid of cream-colored flowers out of the dense mass. - -The far view is quite different. Distance smoothes the surface and -somewhat obliterates the colors, though we may still distinguish a -variegated appearance. The eye takes in the larger outlines and the -scattered pines that sometimes occur within the chaparral. Nor is -the latter, as we now perceive, always a dense growth, but may be -separated here and there. Indeed, it is often most interesting when -interrupted by large granite boulders and jumbles of rocks, with the -clean gray shade of which it forms a fine contrast on a clear morning. - -[Illustration: A Yucca in the Chaparral] - -If we look still farther up toward some higher slopes, miles away, -we shall see only a uniform and continuous stretch of low brush that -appears at that great distance hardly otherwise than a green pasture -clothing the barren mountain. As we walk toward it the bluish-green -changes to a bronze-green, and then suddenly we recognize the broad -sweep of chemisal, with a few scattered scrubby oaks and mountain -mahogany in between. - -In the account of forest embellishment should be included those -humblest plants, the liverworts and mosses and the lichens that so -beautifully stain the rocks and color the stems of trees. A close study -of all their delicate and tender characters, both of form and color, -is always a revelation. Among these lowlier plants it is no uncommon -sight in the depth of winter to see a field of fern sending a thousand -elegant sprays through the light snow-covering; or half a dozen kinds -of mosses, all of different green, but every one pure and brilliant, -gleaming in the shadow of some dripping rock. Between the rock and its -ice cap, covered by the latter but not concealed from view, there is -a fine collection of the most delicate little liverworts and grasses, -herbs with tender leaves, and even flowers, it may be, on some earthy -speck where the sun has melted the ice—all as if held in cold crystal. - -A word also remains to be said about the vines and creepers. As far -north as Pennsylvania, and even to the States bordering the Great -Lakes, these clambering plants are a conspicuous element in the forest. -Virginia creeper, clematis, the hairy-looking poison oak, and the -wild grape, are among those that are most familiar. In the woods of -the lower Mississippi Valley the wild grapevines often make a strange -tangle among the old and twisted trees and hang in long festoons from -the boughs. They are not uncommon in some of the northerly States, -though less rank and exuberant in growth. - -The common ivy is one of the most beautiful of all creepers. It makes -a fine setting for the little wood flowers that peep from its leaves. -I like it best, however, where it clings to some old oak or other tree -and brings out the contrast between its own passiveness and weakness -and the strength of the column that gives it support. - - - - - III - - DISTRIBUTION OF AMERICAN FORESTS - - -The geographical distribution of trees has been referred to -occasionally in the preceding chapters. This distribution, gradually -accomplished during the progress of ages, has not been accidental; on -the contrary, it has been due to natural causes, and arises out of -the special needs and adaptations of each species. The geology of a -region, which determines in many respects the character of the physical -forces of both the earth and the air, is no small factor in the -development of the forest. The character of the climate, the nature -of the soil, the degree of moisture in the soil and in the atmosphere, -the amount and intensity of the sunlight—in short, the various elements -and natural forces that constitute the environment of a tree—are -the all-important conditions of its life. On these it depends, and -according to its own peculiar nature and its special needs, selects its -natural home. - -Yet the manner in which this selection is accomplished, though simple -in theory, is complicated by many circumstances. Frost, fire, insects, -and floods, by destroying the trees or their seeds, may retard the -progress of the species. The wind may be unfavorable. The seeds hang -upon the trees ready and ripe for germination, but a breeze comes -along and carries them to a place where the conditions are ill adapted -to their peculiar nature. The following year the wind is propitious -and the little trees soon start into life. But presently the seeds of -another tree, whose growth is by nature faster, are conveyed to the -same spot, and the intruders outstrip the others in rapidity of growth -and spread a canopy of foliage that screens the smaller trees from the -life-giving sun and dooms them to destruction. Thus only a few of the -numberless seeds that are produced each year live, and fewer still -are able to maintain or extend the boundaries of the parent tree. -Sometimes, too, the frugality or hardiness of a species may be the -reason for its exclusive occupation of a certain locality, since other -trees may find it impossible to live at high altitudes and on rocky -ridges or to subsist upon rough, poor soil. Consequently we shall find -some kinds of trees exclusive, gregarious only among themselves, while -others mingle freely in the general concourse. - -Through the persistency, therefore, of the vital forces of nature, -through a suitable climate or situation, through the power of -adaptation and the delicate adjustment of many details, the vast -armies of trees, like migratory races, have at last accomplished their -purpose and found their several homes; and to us the varied aspect of -the forests, as we traverse the extended territory of our country, is -in a manner explained. There are stretches of land over which the tree -growth is dense and uniform; where the forest is given over, it may -be, almost entirely to a single kind of tree. In other places the trees -may join in varied luxuriance, young and old, familiar and strange, -on some fertile, protected plain or well watered mountain side. In -still other places they may be seen struggling up the steep slopes and -maintaining a precarious existence on bleak, rocky ridges. - -While the eastern portion of the United States is, generally speaking, -the home of the broadleaf species, and the northern and western -portions are similarly occupied by the coniferous forests, these areas -may readily be subdivided into specified regions of distinct forest -growth. The latter, however, cannot be accurately delimited, since the -regions naturally penetrate into one another and overlap, on account of -the manner in which forests have extended their bounds. - -In the basin of the Great Lakes, where the glaciers of a recent -geological age have prepared a light, loose, gravelly or sandy soil, -the white pine belt extends through the States of Minnesota, Wisconsin, -and Michigan, and penetrates into portions of Pennsylvania, New -York, and New England. Once covered with dense tall forests of white -pine, interspersed in places with other northern conifers, or broken -by smaller areas of broadleaf forests, the white pine belt has now -yielded to us its richest treasures. The exacting demands of our modern -artificial civilization have drawn ceaselessly upon these resources, -and the assiduous ax and the fire that follows in its train have -invaded even the most secluded regions. The resulting barren spaces, -where they have not become cultivated land, have either reverted to -the young white pine itself or have been transformed into oak barrens -and open forests of broadleaf trees. Thus the aspect of the region has -been altered, though many a limited spot may be found in which the tall -majesty of the primeval forest still finds its full expression. - -Extending from southern New England along the entire range of the -Appalachians, sloping toward the Atlantic, and spreading far westward -to the Mississippi and beyond, the region of the eastern broadleaf -forests covers a vast territory. Not that the conifers are here -entirely absent, for several of these, including the white pine itself, -follow the mountain ranges and scatter throughout the hills and plains; -but their number dwindles in the proportion of the whole. - -Beyond this region to the southward, in the States that border the Gulf -east of the Mississippi, in Georgia, and stretching along the coast -northward, a region of pines is once more encountered. This section of -our forests, though it has already yielded generous supplies, is among -the richest in the country. From the pineries of the South is obtained -much of our construction timber; and thence, too, we derive our pitch, -tar, and turpentine from the sap of the trees. - -Finally, within the eastern forests a restricted region at the southern -end of Florida, including the Keys, may properly be separated from the -rest. For here is found a distinctively tropical vegetation, differing -entirely in character from the forest flora to the north. Many trees -indigenous to the West India Islands have established themselves upon -this small area, on which the number of species exceeds that of any -region of equal extent within the United States, not excepting even -the varied forest growth of the Mexican border line, to which alone it -might be worthily compared. - -Separating the forest floras of the western and eastern United States, -lies the broad region of prairies and plains. Though trees are found -for the greater part only along the banks of streams, this region has -a curious interest for the forester. It is believed by many that this -wide country, now waving in grain and grass and covered with extensive -farms, was at one time enriched with scattered forests; but that -these have disappeared under the ravages of repeated fires, kindled, -it is supposed, chiefly by the Indians. At present our own race is -perseveringly reclothing these prairie lands with groves and avenues -of trees, and is planting belts of them about farms and orchards for -protection from hot or frosty winds. Thus the fringed borders of the -streams are widening. The outcome of this activity is a development -that stands in marked contrast with the hurried consumption of our -other forests. - -Then, lastly, there lies beyond this region the vast territory of -the Rockies and the ranges of the Pacific coast. Extending over so -great a part of our country, the forests of this region exhibit many -transitions that reveal the intimate relations between trees and -their natural environment; yet here we cannot but notice the enormous -preponderance of the coniferous over the broadleaf trees. Indeed, it -amounts almost to an exclusion of the latter; for, while some of the -poplars and willows and several species of oaks and a few maples are -indigenous to this part of the country, the last two in particular to -portions of California, other broadleaf trees are mere stragglers in -the land. - -The forests of the West retain much more of the flavor of wildness -than do those of the East, though they likewise show many evidences -of the hand of man. It is true that paths and roads lead from many -familiar resorts into these mountain forests, that there are signs -of the lumber industry and of fires, and that there are large barren -areas where sheep have been continuously driven for pasture. Extensive -as this interference with original conditions has been, however, the -changed aspect of the forest has not always remained permanent, because -nature, where it is possible, comes back patiently to restore life and -beauty to the wasted places. Over lofty ranges and in inaccessible -places we may still find the original forest bequeathed to us from -early days; but not in such places only: for if we look closely we -shall also recognize the old character and expression in the harvested -forests that have long since been deserted and forgotten and at last -returned, like lost children, to the fostering care of their mother. - -The forests of the West may be fitly separated into two parts. The -greater part embraces the Rocky Mountain ranges, while the other -extends from the crests of the Sierra Nevada to the sea. In the former -the forests are sometimes open in character and separated by parks or -grassy plains, or they constitute a scattered tree growth on the high -altitudes of the rougher ridges. This open character is sometimes due -to devastation by fires, but generally it is the result of climatic -conditions. And yet there are wide tracts and spaces within this -region that bear dense forests, notwithstanding the barren soil and -the austere climate; forests that have been but little or in no wise -disturbed, and whose expression differs in an unmistakable manner from -the opener growth of the broadleaf forests of the East. - -Denser than these and more awe-inspiring are the forests of the States -bordering the Pacific. Here the moisture from the sea, an equable -climate, and a generous soil, have produced the tall and somber red -firs, the stately hemlocks and cedars, the redwoods of the coast, and -the consummate beauty and magnificence of those opener groves of big -trees, sugar pines, and bull pines, that have always commanded the -admiration and wonder of visitors to that region. - - - - - IV - - CHARACTER OF THE BROADLEAF FORESTS - - -If the individual trees of the two main groups that were described in -the opening chapter impress us differently as they belong to the one -or the other, it will be found that the two kinds of forests likewise -convey distinct impressions. Different in aspect, they are also -distinguished one from the other by the different atmosphere or spirit -that pervades them. Taking leave here of the trees as individuals, I -shall now examine the characteristics of woodland scenery. - -It has been said that the broadleaf trees grow naturally over a wide -extent of territory. Of the unbroken wildernesses that covered the -eastern parts of our country when it began to be colonized, only -fragments remain. A few States are still densely wooded, but in these -the forces which have caused the disappearance of similar forests in -other regions have now begun to assert themselves. Some will yield to -their old enemy, the ravaging fire that could so often be prevented; -others must ultimately recede to make way for agriculture; many will be -removed more rapidly for the sake of their material. It is confidently -to be expected, however, in view of the widening influence forestry is -exerting, that where it is desirable a provision will be made for a -future growth to replace the present one. - -Of the broadleaf forests there are many types. There are forests of oak -and chestnut, of maple and beech; dry upland forests, and the tangled -woods of the swamps. There are young thickets of birch and aspen, of -willow and alder, and scrubby oak barrens. There are second-growth -forests, and now and then even a patch of fine old virgin timber. In -size, also, there is a great difference, from the grove that covers the -hilltop to the unbroken forest that stretches over an entire mountain -range. - -It appears, therefore, that _variety_ is one of the marked -characteristics of our eastern woods. As several hundred different -kinds of trees enter into their composition under every form and -modification of circumstance, we find in these woods an endless novelty -and perennial freshness. The young swamp growth of red maple, white -birch, and alder, bedded in grass and wild flowers, is very different -from the dense young forest of birch and aspen of the northern woods -that, under the influence of ample light, has sprung into being after -some recent fire, the signs of which are still visible in the charred -stumps under the young trees. The open groves of old oak and chestnut -on the hill, with the slanting light of autumn and deep beds of dry, -rustling leaves, are likewise different from the secluded forest in -unfrequented mountains, where young and old growth mingle together: -crooked ashes and moss-covered elms with straight young hickories, -with shrubs and vines, and little seedlings sprouting among the rocks -and mosses. - -If we were to proceed in a continuous journey from the staid forests of -the North to the more diversified growth of the intermediate States, -and, going on, were to visit the complex forests of the South, we -should notice only a very gradual transition. Yet if we were to study -any particular region within these larger areas it would be found to -have certain definite characteristics. - -Let us imagine ourselves standing, for instance, on some point of -vantage in the Blue Ridge of Virginia, the season being early May. The -view extends across ranges of low, rounded mountains, which are fresh -with the new foliage of spring. On the nearest hills the individual -trees and their combinations into groups can be distinguished; but -receding into the valleys and more distant slopes the forms and colors -grow less distinct, till the tone becomes darker and at last melts -into the familiar hazy blue of the distant hills. Looking again at -the nearer hillsides, we recognize the tulip trees with their shapely -crowns, clothed in a soft green and lifted somewhat above the general -outline. The light green of the opening elms and sweet gums can be -very well distinguished beyond the more shadowy beeches, ashes, and -maples. The remaining spaces are occupied by hickories and chestnuts, -still brown and leafless, and by rusty-hued oaks, which are only just -beginning to break their buds. Within the leafless portions of the -wood an occasional dash of bright yellow or creamy white, not quite -concealed, shows where the sassafras or dogwood is in bloom. The crests -and ridges, however, are likely to be occupied by groups and bands -of pines, while the sides of the mountain brook will be studded with -cedars and hemlocks. - -In such scenery, if it be natural, there is no vulgarity and no -faultiness of design. With all the variety there is still a fitness -in form, color, and expression. It is rough, but pure in taste. For -instance, the pine groves on the mountain ridges are not sharply -defined in their margins and thus separated from the rest of the -forest, but they gradually merge with the neighboring trees in a way -that was naturally foreshadowed in the conformation of the land and the -composition of the soil. - -A feature so natural and self-evident may hardly appear worthy of -notice; but its value is appreciated as soon as we compare the outlines -referred to with the rigid forms of some of the artificial forests of -Europe. Those who have seen the checkered forests of Germany, where the -design of the planted strip of trees, like a patch upon the mountain, -is unmistakable, will readily note the contrast between the natural and -the artificial type. Neither is there any striving for effect in the -natural forest, an error not uncommon in the tree groupings of parks or -private estates. In these an effort is sometimes made to produce an -impression by contrasts in form and color, but too often the outcome is -mere conspicuousness; while nature, in some subtle way, has touched the -true chord. - -Forest scenery, however, need not be as extensive as this in order to -add appreciably to the beauty of landscape. In the valley of southern -Virginia, among the peach orchards and sheep farms, low hills lie -scattered on both sides of the valley road. The mountain ranges beyond -them recede to a great distance, and are partly hidden from view by -these intervening hills. The latter, however, are decked with bits -of woodland: groves of oak, chestnut, and beech, where the horseman -on sunny summer days finds a welcome coolness and shade. Would these -sylvan spots be missed if they were to be removed? They now exercise -a beneficial influence on the drainage and moisture conditions of the -surrounding farmlands, and they supply some of the home wants of the -farmers. But they have an esthetic value also. They are usually in neat -and healthy condition, and, viewed either from within or without, they -are balm to the eyes as they lie scattered promiscuously over the hills. - -It is hardly two hundred miles by road from that region to the high -mountains of the North Carolina and Tennessee border, where we find -broadleaf forests of the wildest and roughest kind. These happily still -possess the great charm of undisturbed nature. The small mountain towns -lie scattered far apart. The region is even bleak and dreary—at least -until the summer comes; but when everything turns green the season -is glorious. As we ride through these woods we realize the majesty -of their stillness and strength, and cannot help admiring the great -oaks and chestnuts that contend for the ground, succumbing only after -centuries in the strife. - -While the broadleaf forests of western North Carolina and eastern -Tennessee are characterized principally by grandeur, this is not -commonly a pronounced trait of the leafy forests. Rather are they -distinguished for a certain air of cheerfulness, the expression of -which will vary in different localities; but in some way it will -manifest itself almost everywhere. Thus, in the southern half of New -England woodland scenery is marked by a peculiar expression of quiet -gladness. Whether it be in small farm woods among low hills, or in -continuous forest, as in the Berkshires, there is the same happy choice -in bright and cheerful trees: maples, birches, elms, and others; some -bright with early spring blossoms, some adding to the variety of color -by their bark or shining leaves, others agile of leaf and bough in the -frequent breezes. Here we find an abundance of oaks, trees whose fresh, -glossy leaves seem to be specially well fitted to purify the air, for -there is a distinct and refreshing odor in oak forests. We find an -ample choice of tender, springy plants among the moist rocks. These -smaller woods, too, are the favored haunts of the songbirds, for here -they find the glint of sunshine that they so much delight in. - -A similar warmth of expression belongs to the leafy woods of other -regions. If we compare New England with Pennsylvania, we shall -find that the broadleaf forests of the latter are denser and more -continuous, while they are at the same time richer in the variety of -trees, shrubs, and other forms of embellishment, which find here a -milder air and a richer soil. Springtime is more luxuriant and replete -with happy surprise and change. But while these forests are perhaps -more elaborate than those of southern New England, I cannot say that -they impress me as being so homelike and engaging. - -Along the Gulf and in Florida the dank forests of the swamps and -river bottoms, finding all the conditions favorable to a luxuriant -vegetation, are characterized by extraordinary complexity of growth. -Perhaps we enter some secluded patch of virgin forest, and sit down for -a while in its dense shade, impressed by the strangeness and solitude -of the place. Our curiosity is aroused by the multifarious assemblage -of trees, vines, and shrubbery, and we wonder how many ages it has -been thus, and how far back some of the oldest trees may date in their -history. But they seem rather to have no age at all; only to be linked -in some mysterious way with the dim past out of which they have arisen. - -[Illustration: Virgin Forest Scene in Florida] - -A mighty live oak leans across the scene, moist and green with -moss; another is noticed farther away among slender palmettos, whose -spear-edged leaves catch the sunlight. Vines and climbers hang about -the stems or droop lazily from the boughs. In the nearby sluggish -water, where the soil is deep and moldy, stands a sweet gum with -curiously chiseled bark, as if some patient artist had been at work; -and a little beyond, some cypresses are roofed by the delicate web of -their own foliage. - -We may sit dreaming away a full hour thus, with only the hum of a few -insects and perhaps a stray scarlet tanager flitting by to disturb our -meditations. - -It has been indicated in a former chapter that the broadleaf woods, -taken as a whole, are decidedly richer in shrubs and small plants than -the evergreen or coniferous forests. This adventitious source of beauty -has much to do with their general character, because the gay show of -blossom and fruit, bright stem, and diverse habits of growth of these -lesser plants, contributes appreciably to the liveliness of sylvan -scenery. But the effect derived from the blossoms and fruits of many -of the trees themselves should not be overlooked. In this respect the -broadleaf trees are superior to the evergreens. The poplars and willows -ripen their woolly and silvery tassels when the snow has scarcely -disappeared. The bright tufts of the red maple, the little yellow -flowers of the sassafras, the snowy white ones of the serviceberry -and flowering dogwood, the latter’s red berries in fall, the brilliant -fruit of the mountain ash, the perfect flowers of the magnolias, the -heavily clustered locusts, honey locusts, and black cherries, and the -basswoods with fragrant little creamy flowers, alike do their part in -lending character to the forest wherever they may have their range. - -Then, in addition to the beauty that appeals to us through the outward -senses, there is a quality in the forests that is dear to us through -an inward sense. It is the influence of a temperament that seems to -belong to the place itself: the pure and health-giving atmosphere, the -quiet and rest that binds up the wounded spirit and brings peace to the -troubled mind. - -We leave the turmoil of the city and the thousand little cares of daily -life and seek refuge for a while in sylvan retreats, in some pleasant -leafy forest with murmuring water and sunbeams; and presently the -ruffled concerns of yesterday are smoothed away and the forest, like -sleep, “knits up the raveled sleeve of care.” - -In the woods there is harmony in all things; all things are -subordinated to one purpose and desire: that the best may be made out -of life, however small the means. There is a kind of honesty and truth -here, and a self-sufficiency in everything. Shakspere says, in the -words of Duke Senior, who stands surrounded by his followers in the -Forest of Arden (“As You Like it,” act ii, scene 1):— - - Are not these woods - More free from peril than the envious court? - Here feel we but the penalty of Adam, - The seasons’ difference; as, the icy fang - And churlish chiding of the winter’s wind, - Which, when it bites and blows upon my body, - Even till I shrink with cold, I smile, and say, - “This is no flattery: these are counselors - That feelingly persuade me what I am.” - - * * * * * - - And this our life, exempt from public haunt, - Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, - Sermons in stones, and good in everything. - - - - - V - - THE CONIFEROUS FORESTS - - -It has already been said (page 31) that the evergreen or coniferous -forests differ from those described in the foregoing chapter by -a denser community of growth and by their frequent occurrence as -“pure” forests. Their gregariousness makes it proper to apply such -expressions as the “pine forests of Michigan” and the “spruce forests -of Maine.” It will be seen presently that these special characteristics -are esthetically important. Moreover, it is a fact that they borrow -much grandeur and beauty from the atmospheric conditions of their -environment, which, if we except certain large tracts of pine forests, -is commonly placed among mountains and at considerable elevations -above the sea. To these several sources must be ascribed many of the -qualities that have invested the evergreen forests with a peculiar -magnificence and beauty. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry_ -A Group of Conifers. Montana] - -The reader may be surprised at the statement that coniferous forests -are distinguished for a “dense community of growth,” for it must have -been noticed that many of our Rocky Mountain forests do not bear -evidence of this fact. And yet it is true that the typical habit, so to -speak, of the conifers is a close huddling together of individuals. It -is shown in the massive red fir forests of western Washington and the -redwoods of California, which are probably the densest and heaviest in -the world; in the crowded Engelmann spruce and alpine fir groves common -to certain soils and situations in Colorado; and in the dense tracts -of lodgepole pine scattered throughout the mountains of the West. In -the East the same tendency is illustrated by the better sections of the -Adirondack spruce forests and the splendid pineries that once covered -the Great Lake region. If we call to mind these extensive examples, we -realize how the conifers ever strive to build a dense and impenetrable -forest. That they are capable of a like growth in other parts of the -world also, will be attested by those who have seen the spruce and fir -forests of Germany and France. - -While the regions that have just been mentioned exhibit the health -and vigor of coniferous forests under favorable natural conditions, -there are certain portions of the Rocky Mountains where the climate is -too dry and the topography and soil are too austere and rocky to suit -even that hardy class of trees. So here, under circumstances that may -almost be pronounced abnormal for forest growth, the evergreens fight -a harder battle, while the broadleaf trees, with the exception of the -poplar tribe, are scarce indeed. We must, therefore, turn to the more -typical coniferous forests that have enjoyed at least a fair share of -nature’s gifts—whether it be within the range of the Rocky Mountains or -elsewhere—to understand those peculiar qualities that are connected -with their surroundings or their characteristic habits of growth. - -One of the commonest attributes of such forests is their grandeur; -partly inherent and in part also derived from the sublimity of their -surroundings. Their situation is often in the midst of wild and -picturesque mountain scenery, where they find a proper setting for -their own majestic forms among crags and precipices and on the great -shoulders of mountains; where powerful winds and severe snows test -their endurance and strength. It is here that we chiefly find those -awe-inspiring distant views that harmonize so well with the evergreen -forests. The trees spread over the mountains for miles and miles in -closely fledged masses, and become more impressive with distance as -the color changes from a continuity of dark green to shades of blue and -soft, distant purple. In form and color the trees blend together and -seem to move up the dangerous slopes and difficult passes in mighty -multitudes. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry_ -Mount Rainier. Washington] - -Contributing to the same impression of grandeur, we have the -possibility in these lofty regions of certain glorious effects in -sunlight and shade. At sunrise the first rays flash on the pointed -tops of the uppermost trees, and with the advancing hours descend the -dark slopes on their golden errand. Meanwhile the western sides lie in -shadow. At noon a soft haze spreads through the valleys, and in the -twilight hours the intense depth of purple in the distant ranges, where -stratus clouds catch the last rays of the sun, obscures the contours -of the forests and makes them even more sublime. This, too, were not -possible without great mass and uniformity of aspect. - -The interchange between lights and shadows cast by the moving clouds is -nowhere so effectively exhibited as in higher altitudes and over the -surfaces of evergreen forests. A wide expanse enables us to follow with -our eyes the interesting chase of the cloud shadows, as they fly up the -slopes, the steeper the faster, and glide noiselessly but swiftly over -outstretched areas of endless green. The clouds seem to move faster -over mountain ranges, as a rule, than they do over the low valleys. Or -is it only because now we see them nearer by and can gage the rapidity -of their flight? - -Suppose, instead of a restless day, it should be calm, with cloud -masses heaped in the sky and the sun sinking low. There has been a -loose snowfall in the afternoon, and every twig, branch, and spray -hangs muffled in snow. The rocks are capped with a light cover and -ribbed with snowy lines along their sides. The air is pure and -breathless. The disappearing sun sends back a rosy light to the canopy -of clouds overhead, and the reflection falls upon masses of frosted, -whitened evergreens, lending them a breath of color that deepens as the -sun sinks lower still; and the rays enter the openings of the hills and -flood the opposite slopes, till they glow with a fiery red. - -Thus the grandeur of these forests may be due to expanse and volume, -depth of color, sunlight and shade, or to effects borrowed from the -clouds. Finally, we notice another kind of grandeur when coniferous -forests are visited by storms. First comes the moaning of the wind, -mysterious and unsearchable, and different from the roar and rush -that sweeps through the broadleaf woods. Then follows the uneasy -communication from tree to tree, a trembling that spreads from section -to section. When the rush of the wind finally strikes the tall, -straight forms they do not sway their arms about as wildly as do the -maples, elms, or tulip trees, but bend and sway throughout their length -and rock majestically. - -[Illustration: A Thicket of White Firs] - -Not in outward aspect alone are these forests noble and stately. -A nobleness lies in the nature of the living trees themselves; for, -though we may call them unconscious, it is life still, and they are -expressive with meaning. Far simpler in their habits and requirements -than the broadleaf trees, they are, nevertheless, more generous to -man. Endurance and hardship is their lot, but noble form of trunk and -crown and useful soft wood are the products of their life. There is no -forest mantle like theirs to shield from the blast, especially when it -is formed of young thickets of the simple but refined spruces and firs. -When, at the last, they yield their life to man, it seems to me there -is something exalted even in the manner of their fall. The tree hardly -quivers under the blows of the ax; a mere trembling in the outermost -twigs, and then, hardly as if cut off from the source of life, the -tall, straight form sinks slowly to the earth. - -Another common attribute of evergreen forests is their characteristic -_silence_. Birds do not frequent them as much as the leafy forests. -In these solitudes, far removed from village and farm, there is often -no sound but the ring of the distant ax and the sough of the wind. In -winter, as we push through the thickets of small spruces or hemlocks, -or stand for a while beneath lofty pines, while all around is muffled -in snow, the silence seems sanctified and vaster than elsewhere. - -In addition to their grandeur and sublimity, and their silence, they -are distinguished for an element of _softness_. This is seen in the -delicate texture and pure color of their foliage, the effect of which -is heightened by being massed in the dense forest. We have already -noticed the mild olive shade of the eastern white pine. When the wind -blows through it, it seems as if the foliage were melting away. It -would be difficult, also, to match the green color of the red fir, -especially as it looks in winter; or the luxuriant bluish-gray of the -western blue spruce. - -A further softening in the general effect of evergreen forests is -produced by the manner in which the trees intermingle in the dense -mass, merging their sharp, individual outlines in the rounded contours -and upper surfaces of the combined view. Near at hand, of course, -we cannot but notice the attenuated forms and jagged edges of the -trees, which, indeed, are interesting enough in themselves; but on -looking gradually into the distance we find them thatching into one -another, closing up interstices and smoothing away irregularities in a -remarkable way. This is particularly true of the spruces and firs; but -in some of the opener pine forests, as, for example, in the longleaf -pines of the South, the boughs and crowns themselves are rounded into -masses and pleasing contours. It should be remembered, also, that these -effects are present in winter as well as in summer. - -The element of softness is sometimes brought into very beautiful -association with certain effects of mists and clouds. The indistinct -contours and delicate lights of the drifting vapors and cloud forms, -as they wander across the trees, blend with the serene aspect of the -forest. At other times the clouds gather into banks and lie motionless -in some valley or rest like a veil upon the mountain tops. Wordsworth -has described these effects in his graphic way by saying,— - - Far-stretched beneath the many-tinted hills, - A mighty waste of mist the valley fills, - A solemn sea! whose billows wide around - Stand motionless, to awful silence bound: - Pines, on the coast, through mist their tops uprear - That like to leaning masts of stranded ships appear. - -In spring or summer just before sunrise it is very beautiful to see how -these banks of vapor are lifted by the stirring airs of the dawn, how -the draperies of mist draw apart and open up vistas of the trees, which -drip with moisture, and are presently illumined by the broad shafts of -sunlight that pour down upon them. - -Lest it be thought that only the dense coniferous forests possess -superior qualities, I desire to put in a plea for the open ones also. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry_ -An Open Forest in the Southwest] - -It is a universal truth in nature that when a living thing has made the -best possible use of its environment, when the power within has been -sacrificed and united to the circumstances without, there is evolved a -dignity of character and a resulting expression of fitness and beauty. -This principle is exemplified in the very open forests of the -Southwest. In the mountain ranges of New Mexico, Arizona, and southern -California the forests have a hard struggle for existence. The winter -months at the higher elevations are severe; in the summer rain is -scarce, or entirely absent, and the sun beats down upon the dry earth -through the rarefied atmosphere with intense and desiccating power. -Naturally the forest trees are scattered, and on the steep, crumbly -slopes, dry and rocky, they hug the soil and cling to it with uncertain -footing. But in a sheltered ravine, or on the back of a rounded ridge, -or in a slight swale or hollow of the mountain—repeatedly, in fact, -among those rugged slopes—we meet with the dignity, the beauty, and the -peculiar expressiveness of the open coniferous forest, with its fine -definition and stereoscopic effects and the depth and perspective of -its long vistas. - -On the crest of the mountain, where, from the valley below, the -early sunlight is first seen to break through, the trees, standing -apart, do not appear so much like a forest as like a congregation of -individuals, each with an identity of its own. Indeed, there among -the fierce gales of autumn and winter each shapes its own life in a -glorious independence, expressive in the knotty, twisted boles and -the picturesque crowns. But in summer the breezes strain through the -foliage with the lethargic sound of the ocean surge; or a halcyon -stillness reigns under a deep blue, cloudless sky. - -[Illustration: A Storm-beaten Veteran] - -Large old trees, these, with a history, that have braved life -together. They have seen companion veterans fall by their side, long -ago, into the deep, closely matted needle-mold. Thence arose out of the -moister hollows beneath the rotting trunk and boughs a new generation, -and the greater number of these have disappeared, too, for some reason -or another; only the strongest at last leading, to take the place of -the departed. How dignified, how simple are these old, stalwart trees -on the exposed ridge of the mountain. - -Thus the coniferous forests, by virtue of their inherent qualities and -by means of the effects they borrow from their environment, possess a -tone that is as original and distinct as the character of the forests -belonging to the other class. It has already been intimated that the -two are not always strictly separable, but that individual trees, or -groups, or whole stretches of woods of the one will sometimes mingle -with the other, a fact that has probably been noticed by the most -casual observer. While the cone-bearers, however, not infrequently -descend into the lower altitudes, the leafy forest trees are not so -apt to be found at the high elevations at which many of the former -find their natural home. Where the cone-bearers are merely an addition -to the broadleaf woods they do not quite preserve their identity, but -rather impress us as being merely a part in the general adornment and -composition of the forest to which they belong. Where they remain -“pure,” however, as they do, for instance, in the pineries of the -coastal plain in the South, they never fail to express, in one or -another manner, their individuality as a forest; as by their uniformity -in size and color, by their odor, or by the scenic character of the -region of their occurrence. - -All the preceding qualities of coniferous forests practically address -themselves in some manner to our physical senses. But, like the -broadleaf forests, these also possess a trait that rather addresses -itself to our mood or personal temperament. A characteristic air of -loneliness and wild seclusion belongs to them that contrasts strikingly -with the cheerful tone of the other class. It has been commonly -remarked that to some kinds of people the coniferous forests are -oppressive, at least on first acquaintance. Such natures feel the -weight of their gloom and lose their own buoyancy of spirit if they -stay too long within their confines; and it is noticeable that even the -inhabitants of these lonely retreats are not infrequently affected with -a reticence and a kind of melancholy that impresses the stranger almost -like a feeling of resignation. This peculiar temperament, however, -may be judged too hastily, and is understood better after a time. It -is probably true that the familiar and accessible woods of valley and -plain, where trails and wood-roads give us a feeling of security, are -more attractive and agreeable to most of us; yet there is a wonderful -charm about those dark forests of the mountains that have grown up in -undisturbed simplicity. After the first feeling of strangeness wears -off, as it soon will, they grow companionable and interesting. There -is a virtue in the sturdy forms that have grown to maturity without -aid or interference by man. We would not change them in that place for -the most beautiful trees in a park. Even the woodsman, whose days are -spent here in the hardest toil, feels a longing for the forest, his -home, when his short respite in the summer is over. So we, too, though -we may long for civilization after a few months in the forest, will -yet feel the desire to return to it after once thoroughly making its -acquaintance. - -The attitude of the woodsman toward the forest is much like the -affection which the sailor has for the ocean. There is, indeed, a -similarity between their callings, and even the elements in which they -pass their lives are not so dissimilar in reality as may appear on the -surface. In his vast domain of evergreen trees that cover mountain and -valley, the woodsman, too, is shut out from the busier haunts of men. -He lives for months in his sequestered camp or cabin, where his bed is -often only a narrow bunk of boughs or straw. His food is simple and his -clothing rough and plain, to suit the conditions of his life. A large -part of the time he is out in snow and rain, tramping over rough rock -and soil. The camps that are scattered through the forest are to him -like islands, where he can turn aside for food and rest when on some -longer journey than usual. - -Like the sailor he also has learned some of the secrets of nature. He -does not usually possess a compass, but he can tell its points by more -familiar signs: by the pendent tops of the hemlocks, which usually -bend toward the east, or by the mossy sides of the trees, which are -generally in the direction of the coolest and moistest quarter of the -heavens. In an extreme case he will even mount one of the tallest of -the trees to find his bearings in his oceanlike forest. If well judged, -the sighing of the wind in the boughs, I have been told, says much -about the coming weather; just as the sickly wash of the waves means -something to the sailor. Withal, both he and the woodsman are natural -and generally honest fellows, hard workers at perilous callings, and -less apt to speak than to commune with their own thoughts. - - - - - VI - - THE ARTIFICIAL FORESTS OF EUROPE - - -To some of us, in this age of travel, the forests of Europe have become -as familiar as our own. As scenic objects they have their faults and -their excellences. While we appreciate their order and neatness, and -the beautiful effects that may arise out of the subordination of all -components of the forest to one main purpose, we Americans always miss -in them the freshness of nature. - -These forests, as they now stand, are the result of a long-continued -application of the scientific principles of forestry, under special -conditions, to the European forests of old. Having referred repeatedly -to forestry itself, I now purpose, to the extent which a single chapter -will permit, to explain the sources of beauty, or the absence of it, -in these artificial forests. I shall thus place in contrast with our -own, which are just beginning to undergo a new process of development, -those of Europe, which have long been subjected to one in many respects -similar. - -The importance of forests had long been understood by the people -of Europe. The relation which they held to civilized life, both in -a material way and otherwise, led, more than a century ago, to a -systematic and scientific treatment. It was realized that these -forests might be made perpetual, and so might furnish a constant -supply of useful material; that they economized and regulated the -flow of mountain streams, which are always of great importance to the -agricultural lands of subjacent regions; that they held in place the -loose soil of the slopes, thus averting avalanches and ruinous floods; -that they broke the force of the winds, tempered and purified the air, -and I may add, inspired man with better and happier thoughts. - -For these reasons the people of Europe determined to guard their -forests well, and to aid nature, if possible, in becoming still more -useful to man. To this end they made a careful study of the life -history of the forest, and investigated the requirements of the trees -and their rates of growth under varying conditions of soil, heat, -light, and moisture. They also studied the numerous dangers to which -the forest is exposed, and invented means and established laws for its -protection. In short, they effected an ingenious adjustment between the -needs of the forest and the requirements of man, and in course of time -laid the foundations for a new system that was destined to be of great -importance to the economic interests of nations. - -Many sciences were involved in the solution of these questions. -With the progress in means and methods the aims and objects of the -new profession gradually grew to be more and more clearly defined, -and knowledge and experience ultimately evolved the new science of -forestry. To the forester were finally intrusted the reëstablishment, -protection and preservation, the improvement, the regulation, the -management and administration, as well as the final cutting, of the -forest. - -Such interference with the work of nature ultimately affected its -aspect. In the long life of the forest the changes were slow, but in -course of time the stamp of artificiality was impressed upon it, and -the imprint of nature’s own countenance was taken away. To an American, -if he has seen a little of our wildness, a great charm is wanting -in the artificial forests of Europe. The sun does not seem to set -naturally, but to hide behind roads and houses. It may be a lifelike -and harmonious scene, but it does not speak as deeply and expressively -as our wilder woods. The necessity of it is thrust upon you. It seems, -at times, as if the free will and perfect liberty of the air and rain, -of the wind, were wanting. - -These forests are crossed by roads and are often divided into sections -of distinct age, kind, and appearance. Shrubs, if any, are few. -The deer’s track is known. The history of these trees is known and -recorded, and even their doom is fixed for a near or distant day. - -There is, however, another side to this question. Through their very -design and fitness for an intended object the effects that are produced -are often decidedly pleasing. What these effects are will now appear -from an examination of the four different types or classes that -constitute at present the artificial forests of Europe. - -The type of artificial forest that differs least from our own eastern -woods is one that has received the name of “selection forest.” It -constitutes a transition to the more complex forms. As in our own case, -trees of different kinds and of various sizes are intermingled in the -forest; but the European forest has more uniformity than ours, and -expresses a conceived purpose. This is readily explained by the fact -that from the beginning of the new method the trees were never removed -indiscriminately from the wooded area, but that a careful selection -was made from time to time of certain kinds, according to size and -usefulness. Useful material, however, was not the sole consideration. -The cutting was intended also to improve the conditions of growth for -the trees that remained standing, and to increase the proportion of the -species that were most useful or desirable. Finally, by opening up the -forest to a proper degree of sunlight, the way was prepared for the -germination of seeds that might fall from the old trees, in order to -provide early for a new generation in the forest. - -[Illustration: A German “Selection Forest”] - -It will be readily understood, I believe, that in course of time such -a forest would betray to the eye a certain gradation in the sizes of -the trees, and a fixed proportion in the number of those belonging to -one or another species. To this extent the selection forests differ -from our second-growth woods of the East; and yet, as compared to the -other three European types, their principal merit, esthetically, is -their naturalness. Though very different from our virgin forests, they -nevertheless possess the variety, cheerfulness, and interesting play of -light and shade that have been noted in an earlier chapter. In Germany -they are usually somewhat precise and trim in appearance; but in France -and elsewhere they look a little wilder, and are often enlivened with -holly or ivy, some sportive raspberry, or other gay shrub or vine. In -European countries where forestry has become thoroughly established -this type of forest has gradually disappeared, or has diminished -greatly in proportion, in order to make way for the other more highly -developed forms. - -The young forest growth that goes by the name of “coppice” is linked -to the preceding kind by the association of time, for it is also one -of the old forms. The sound of the word brings to mind the copses of -England, those sportive little thickets that we may have read about, -or seen running along the streams, or straggling over the hills. But -the coppice of Germany or France is not quite the same as the copse -of England. It is a young forest of businesslike aspect, in which a -design for usefulness is unmistakable. The purpose in it is to reap an -approximately equal harvest each year, such as firewood from beeches, -hornbeams, or the like, withes from willows, charcoal from chestnut, or -tanbark from oak. - -The means to accomplish the end are very simple. Only one kind of tree -composes the coppice, and the forest is graded in sections, each a year -older than the preceding. It is like a series of blocks, in which each -is a little taller than the last. The tallest falls by the ax, and the -next the following year, and so through the series till the cycle is -completed, when it may be resumed as before. The repetition is possible -because a tree is chosen for this kind of forest that will renew itself -by naturally sprouting from the stump that is always left after cutting. - -The coppice woods must be seen to appreciate their charm. They have -a distinct flavor and a character that one easily remembers after a -first acquaintance. Not too far removed from the town or village, -yet often hidden in some secluded part of the hills, we find the -coppice a neat-looking place. The small wood that has been cut is -carefully stacked along the roadside in bundles or cords. Within one -of the sections we see the wood-cutters at work with their axes and -bill-hooks, and can fancy them trudging home contentedly at the close -of day. We find the rabbits taking the coppice for their own, sporting -about and wearing tracks in the thickets. A quiet place, and homelike -withal. We can look out above the thicket of young trees at the sky -and the older environing woods. The sounds come mellowed through the -distance to this open spot, as of the heavy ax in the large woods, or -the song of some woman in the far valley. - -We have no coppice woods just like these in America. Our willow farms -are the only ones that have been subjected to a system like the one -described, and these are entirely too low to be called woods. They -are graded in size and age from one to four years, and separated into -blocks, just like the willow coppices of Germany. At a distance the -lithe stems with diminutive tufts of foliage at the top, standing in -straight rows, almost as dense as grain, have more the appearance of an -agricultural product than a tree farm. - -The Christmas tree plantations, a kind of forest gardening, as it were, -remind us of the coppice in appearance, but cannot truly be called -such. As the conifers that furnish us with Christmas trees are not -capable of sprouting from the stump, the growers must depend upon -planting for their propagation, which is a principle directly opposed -to the idea of coppice. - -Throughout the Eastern States there is an abundance of broadleaf -stump-sprout thickets, which have come by inheritance to the ground -from which their progenitors were removed by the wood-cutter’s ax. -While some of these approach nearly to the European coppices in -intention, they do not bear out the resemblance sufficiently for a -comparison. They lack their system and structure, though they depend -upon the same power of reproduction for their existence. Nevertheless, -they have their own charm. I remember one, at the edge of a tall -forest, in which the sprouts were composed of oak, beech, hickory, -tulip tree, dogwood, haw, and a few pine saplings, all of which formed -a dense thicket of young trees. In summer it was pleasant to thread -one’s way through this place, quite concealed by the straight young -growth, or to lie down there and listen for a whole morning to the -twitterings and songs of birds, shut in by a wealth of foliage. - -There is another type of European forest known as “coppice under -standards.” This is no more than a coppice growing underneath a -selection forest somewhat different in aspect from the one already -described. In the present case the selection forest is opener, the -trees being fewer in number. Ample light is thus admitted for the -growth of the coppice beneath. The appearance of the whole is that of -an open forest into which the younger thickets have penetrated. - -The esthetic effect of this combination may be described in very few -words. While the coppice loses much of its charm, the overspreading -forest gains something by this sacrifice. The former keeps the soil -in fair and fresh condition, thus insuring a healthy growth to the -large trees. It also shades the lower portions of their trunks, in -consequence of which many of them develop into clean specimens, with -strong, well-rounded stems, and graceful, wide-spreading crowns. - -The last of the four types, the “high forest,” is the most artificial -and highly developed of the series. In its construction it is in some -respects like the coppice; for, as in that type, there is a uniformity -of size in the trees on restricted areas, and the species that compose -the entire forest are very limited in number. Coniferous high forests, -which are the most common, are often composed of only a single kind of -tree, and broadleaf forests of the same type rarely contain more than -two or three species. These forests, like the coppice, comprise a full -complement of sizes and ages, each confined to a separate section; but -the steps are not single years, as in the coppice, but periods of ten -or twenty years, or even more; so that the high forest, above all, is a -much taller and older one. The sections that compose it are not regular -in outline, except in certain forests on flats and levels, nor do they -necessarily lie side by side in the consecutive order of size and age. -Finally, the high forest also differs from the coppice in the manner of -its origin; for, while the former owes its existence to seedlings that -have grown up spontaneously, or been sown or planted, the coppice is a -young forest that has sprouted from the stumps of trees that have been -cut. - -[Illustration: A “High Forest” of Spruce in Saxony] - -Thus the high forest, while it may be compared with the coppice in -its construction, is yet in certain respects so different from it as -to convey a very distinct impression. I here disregard the younger -portions of the forest, for, in the light of the present discussion, -they are merely preparatory to the mature forest, destined to be -useful only after the completeness of age. In the older portions -the one distinguishing characteristic is simple dignity. To this one -quality all other points of excellence or beauty conform and adjust -themselves. The young tree or the casual shrub that may have found its -way into the company of the centenarians, is welcome; but the absorbing -interest lies in the noble grandeur of the old trees that have grown -up together. Some, under the influence of better soil or more light, -have done better than others; but they are all sound and stately trees, -and together represent the best product of the forest. Long ago other -trees that grew in their midst, but were less promising, were removed -for the sake of these. Under their continuous roof of foliage there -is a cool, deep shade. The ground is scattered with fern, or covered -with deep beds of leaves, or with the glossy needles of the conifers. -If the forest has originated from seeds borne by a generation of trees -that previously occupied the same spot, and the seeds germinated here -and there and sprouted into a new forest upon the removal of the old, -we shall now find the trees distributed in natural positions. Where, -however, the new forest has been planted, which is often the case with -the conifers, the trees stand in close rank and file, and we walk among -their columns as in natural aisles and corridors. Here there is hardly -a shrub to shut out the gloomy distance, and only at intervals a stray -intruder with exceptional powers of shade endurance, a dwarfed yew -tree, or a beech with refined, fan-like spray, comes into notice in the -vista. - - * * * * * - -If these are some of the changes that are wrought in forests through -the application of a new science, if, through forestry in Europe, -one kind of beauty has passed away and another kind has been called -forth, will our own forests, it may be asked, undergo in time similar -alterations? We cannot doubt that they will grow more artificial; but -under the modified application of the science of forestry to our own -conditions, so different from those of Europe, the esthetic changes to -be looked for would be difficult to predict. Nor would these changes -be predetermined, but, on the contrary, would depend very largely -upon chance. It should be noted that forestry and landscape art are -distinct; that the former, ordinarily, is not affected by the latter, -and has its own ends and aims—those of material usefulness. I say -_ordinarily_, because there are circumstances under which forestry -_might_, with slight modifications and without a compromise to its -own interests, adjust itself to some of the principles of landscape -art. Indeed, this possible adjustment has been a subject of interest -in Germany for more than twenty years, and the feasibility of a -relationship between landscape art and forestry has been practically -demonstrated by a noted German forester, Herr Heinrich von Salisch, -on his own estates. This gentleman has applied to them the practical -methods of approved forestry under such modifications as his experience -and taste suggested, and has thereby not only made his forest -profitable, but also more beautiful than it was before.[7] - -With respect to our own forests it may be asserted that most of the -private forest holdings of the United States, and probably all our -national forest reserves,[8] as such, are destined primarily to serve -purposes of utility, and very often to serve such purposes only. There -are, however, a number of large forest estates owned by individuals, -and some belonging to commonwealths and municipalities, which are -esteemed as highly for their scenic character as for their material -value, and pass in the public mind as emphatically under the name of -parks as they occur to it in the light of financial investments. Such, -for instance, are the Adirondack State Park and several large private -forest estates in the same region, as well as certain large tracts of -exceptionally beautiful forest in the western part of North Carolina -and about the head waters of the Mississippi, which have now for some -time attracted wide attention as desirable public possessions. - -In such forests as these, esthetic considerations might suggest -certain departures from the ordinary methods of forestry. Some people -apparently wish to go further, and believe that certain portions of -these tracts should remain entirely undisturbed, in order that their -primeval character may be preserved for the enjoyment of all future -generations. - -The idea of a forest park, intact and inviolable, calls to mind our -national parks of the West, which were actually established by Congress -for that very purpose. Possessing, as they do, wonders of nature -and exceptional scenery, these parks have been thought worthy of -preservation solely for their own sakes. This difference in intention -chiefly distinguishes them from the national reserves; so that, while -the latter stand for the material benefit of the nation—whether it -be directly, in the value of the timber, or indirectly, through the -influence of the forest on the flow of streams—the value of the parks, -on the other hand, speaks out of their own countenance. Their merit -consists in the influence of beauty and sublime scenery on the moral -state of man. They are healthful, vigorous breathing-places, where -noise and smoke and harassing cares are laid aside. - -It is well to bear this distinction in mind, because it appears not to -be clearly recognized. While the reserves do not necessarily exclude -some of the special advantages of the parks, their value lies, above -all, in their stores of wealth. In this connection it may be said, for -instance, that the designation “Adirondack Park,” that is currently -applied to the State forest of northern New York, is a somewhat -misleading expression; for, although its beauty is well known and -appreciated and the State Constitution at present even forbids any -cutting within its limits, yet the most competent judges believe that -the Adirondack forest is exceedingly well fitted for the purposes of -practical forestry. Indeed, several private tracts within that region -already constitute the best known examples of practical forestry -in our country. If, however, it is intended to separate certain -portions from the remainder, either within this region or that of the -proposed Minnesota reserve, and to preserve these for their unique or -exceptional character, these segregated tracts are parks in themselves, -and should so be called. - -But the identity of our five national parks in the farther West is -unmistakable; and these would appear to suggest neither forestry -proper, nor landscape forestry, nor even landscape art. In them nature -speaks for herself. The tasteful and well judged construction of roads -and trails that shall be in harmony with the scenes through which they -pass, or, better still, that shall be as unobtrusive as possible, is -evidently a necessity if the parks are to be enjoyed by large numbers -of people. In exceptional cases the ax may be needed for the very -preservation of the forest. But the principal care should be to protect -these forests from fire, defacement, and spoliation. For to us and -future generations the parks stand, above all, as examples of the glory -of our primeval forests. - -The groves of big trees in the national parks of California, the -geologic wonders of Yellowstone, and the specimens of arctic fauna -still living among the matchless glaciers of Mount Rainier, are -national possessions of great interest, for whose preservation not only -Americans, but distinguished Europeans also, have pleaded. These, then, -are ours for their own sakes; but most of our other national forest -possessions will undoubtedly have to submit to further development and -to the dictates of a sterner necessity. - - - - - NOTES - - - Note 1, page 5. There are about fifty distinct species of oak - indigenous to the United States. - - Note 2, page 23. The bloom of the dogwood begins to wither and fall - with the appearance of the leaves. In the illustration facing page 22 - several leaves are seen among the bloom, but they belong to the bough - of a neighboring tulip tree. - - Note 3, page 47. The juniper berries are in reality transformed cones. - - Note 4, page 52. The habit of the firs in early life is shown in the - plate facing page 125. - - Note 5, page 63. Curiously enough, the old English conception of a - forest was chiefly that of a hunting ground, irrespective of the trees - growing there. Consequently some forests were very open stretches of - ground. - - Note 6, page 71. The red-winged blackbird lingers in the Southern - States through the winter. - - Note 7, page 163. German forestry—and, in a less degree, European - forestry also—is indebted to Herr von Salisch for elaborating the idea - that forest art can be united with practical, utilitarian forestry. - His book on “Forest Esthetics,” which fills a unique place in the - literature of forestry, is an exposition of this interesting subject, - based upon mature knowledge and experience. - - Note 8, page 163. To the reader who is not familiar with the origin - of our forest reserves it may be of interest to know how they became - established. By an act of Congress of March 3rd, 1891, the President - was empowered to segregate from time to time, and for the benefit - of the American people, forest areas situated within the limits of - the public lands of the United States. In accordance with this act - proclamations were issued by Presidents Cleveland, Harrison, and - McKinley, reserving forest areas amounting thus far (September 1st, - 1901) to 46,398,369 acres, or approximately 72,500 square miles. - There are, however, within these areas numerous _bona fide_ holdings - of private ownership, in which the owners are carrying on extensive - cutting of timber. - -The reserves have been placed under the authority of the Commissioner -of the General Land Office, Department of the Interior, and are -entrusted to the care of specially appointed superintendents, -supervisors, and rangers. Some of these forest tracts are now -undergoing a careful study by experts in forestry, with the aim of -subjecting them to methods of treatment specially adapted to them, in -order that they may yield both useful material and a constant revenue, -without impairing the productive power or vitality of the forest. -The objects will thereby be fulfilled for which these reserves were -established. - - - - - INDEX TO THE NAMES OF TREES - and the Synonyms in Common Use - -By special permission of the Division of Publications, U. S. Department -of Agriculture - - -NOTE.—_Only the trees that have been specially described or compared -are included in the index_ - - COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME PAGE - - BROADLEAF TREES - - Basswood _Tilia americana_ Linn. 113 - Syn. American Linden - ” Limetree - ” Whitewood - ” Beetree - - Beech _Fagus atropunicea_ (Marsh.) Sudworth 16 - Syn. Red Beech Syn. _Fagus ferruginea_ Ait. - ” White Beech - - Big Laurel _Magnolia fœtida_ (Linn.) Sargent 24 - Syn. Magnolia Syn. _Magnolia grandiflora_ Linn. - ” Bull Bay - - Black Cherry _Prunus serotina_ Ehrh. 113 - Syn. Wild Black Cherry - ” Wild Cherry - ” Rum Cherry - - California Black Oak _Quercus californica_ (Torr.) Coop. 78 - Syn. Black Oak - - Canyon Live Oak _Quercus chrysolepis_ Liebm. 78 - Syn. Live Oak - - Chestnut _Castanea dentata_ (Marsh.) Borkh. 11 - Syn. _Castanea vesca β americana_ Michx. - _Castanea vulgaris ν americana _ A. de C. - - Flowering Dogwood _Cornus florida_ Linn. 16, 22, 73 - Syn. Dogwood - ” Boxwood - - Honey Locust _Gleditsia triacanthos_ Linn. 17, 113 - Syn. Black Locust - ” Sweet Locust - ” Thorn Locust - ” Three-thorned Acacia - - Hornbeam _Carpinus caroliniana_ Walt. 16 - Syn. Blue Beech - ” Water Beech - ” Iron wood - - Live Oak _Quercus virginiana_ Mill. 6, 110 - Syn. _Quercus virens_ Ait. - - Locust _Robinia pseudacacia_ Linn. 113 - Syn. Black Locust - ” Yellow Locust - - Mountain Ash _Pyrus americana_ (Marsh.) de C. 113 - - Redbud _Cercis canadensis_ Linn. 73, 75 - Syn. Judas Tree - - Red Maple _Acer rubrum_ Linn. 12, 15, 112 - Syn. Swamp Maple - ” Soft Maple - ” Water Maple - - Red Oak _Quercus rubra_ Linn. 16 - Syn. Black Oak - - Sassafras _Sassafras sassafras_ (Linn.) Karst. 18, 112 - Syn. _Sassafras officinale_ Nees & Eberm. - - Scarlet Oak _Quercus coccinea_ Muenchh. 16 - Syn. Red Oak - ” Black Oak - - Serviceberry _Amelanchier canadensis_ (Linn.) 75, 112 - Syn. Juneberry Medic. - ” Shad Bush - - Sugar Maple _Acer saccharum_ Marsh. 12, 15 - Syn. Hard Maple Syn. _Acer saccharinum_ Wang. - ” Rock Maple - ” Sugar Tree - - Sweet Gum _Liquidambar styraciflua_ Linn. 16, 111 - Syn. Red Gum - ” Liquidamber - - Sweet Magnolia _Magnolia glauca_ Linn. 73 - Syn. Sweet Bay - ” White Bay - ” Swamp Laurel - ” Swamp Magnolia - - Tulip Tree _Liriodendron tulipifera_ Linn. 16, 24 - Syn. Whitewood - ” Sour Gum - ” Pepperidge - - Tupelo _Nyssa sylvatica_ Marsh. 16 - Syn. Black Gum Syn. _Nyssa multiflora_ Wang. - ” Sour Gum - ” Pepperidge - - White Birch _Betula populifolia_ Marsh. 19 - Syn. Gray Birch - - White Elm _Ulmus americana_ Linn. 21 - Syn. American Elm - ” Water Elm - ” Elm - - White Oak _Quercus alba_ Linn. 5 - - Yellow Birch _Betula lutea Michx._ f. 20 - Syn. Gray Birch - - - CONIFERS - - Arborvitæ _Thuja occidentalis_ Linn. 57 - Syn. White Cedar - ” Cedar - - Bald Cypress _Taxodium distichum_ (Linn.) Rich. 40, 111 - Syn. White Cypress - ” Black Cypress - ” Red Cypress - ” Cypress - - Big Tree _Sequoia washingtoniana_ (Winsl.) Sudworth 54 - Syn. Sequoia - Syn. _Sequoia gigantea_ Decaisne. - - Black Hemlock _Tsuga mertensiana_ (Bong.) Carr. 45 - Syn. _Tsuga pattoniana_ (Jeffr.) - Engelm. - - Blue Spruce _Picea parryana_ (André) Parry 127 - Syn. _Picea pungens_ Engelm. - - Bull Pine _Pinus ponderosa_ Laws. 39 - Syn. Yellow Pine - - Cuban Pine _Pinus heterophylla_ (Ell.) Sudworth 37 - Syn. Slash Pine Syn. _Pinus cubensis_ Grieseb. - ” Swamp Pine - - Douglas Spruce _Pseudotsuga taxifolia_ (Lam.) Britton 48 - Syn. Red Fir Syn. _Pseudotsuga douglasii_ Carr. - ” Douglas Fir - ” Yellow Fir - ” Oregon Pine - - Engelmann Spruce _Picea engelmanni_ Engelm. 53 - Syn. White Spruce - - Hemlock _Tsuga canadensis_ (Linn.) Carr. 43 - Syn. Spruce - ” Spruce Pine - - Loblolly Pine _Pinus tæda_ Linn. 37 - Syn. Oldfield Pine - ” Shortleaf Pine - - Lodgepole Pine _Pinus murrayana_ “Oreg. Com.” 38 - Syn. Tamarack - ” Spruce Pine - - Longleaf Pine _Pinus palustris_ Mill. 37 - Syn. Longleaved Pine - ” Georgia Pine - ” Yellow Pine - ” Longstraw Pine - - Lowland Fir _Abies grandis_ Lindl. 50, 52 - Syn. White Fir - - Pitch Pine _Pinus rigida_ Mill. 38 - - Red Fir.—See Douglas Spruce. - - Red Juniper _Juniperus virginiana_ Linn. 45 - Syn. Red Cedar - ” Cedar - ” Savin - - Redwood _Sequoia sempervirens_ (Lamb.) Endl. 54 - Syn. Sequoia - - Silver Pine _Pinus monticola_ Dougl. 35 - Syn. White Pine - - Sugar Pine _Pinus lambertiana_ Dougl. 35 - - - Western Hemlock _Tsuga heterophylla_ (Raf.) Sargent 45 - Syn. Hemlock Syn. _Tsuga mertensiana_ of authors. - (Not Carr.) - - White Cedar _Chamæcyparis thyoides_ (L.) B. S. P. 57 - Syn. Juniper Syn. _Chamæcyparis sphæroidea_ - Spach. - - White Pine _Pinus strobus_ Linn. 31, 127 - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOREST TREES AND FOREST SCENERY *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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Frederick Schwarz</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Forest Trees and Forest Scenery</p> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: G. Frederick Schwarz</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: September 21, 2021 [eBook #66356]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOREST TREES AND FOREST SCENERY ***</div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="transnote"> -<h3>Transcriber’s Notes</h3> - -<p>Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations -in hyphenation have been standardised but all other spelling and -punctuation remains unchanged.</p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</span></p> - -<p class="half-title"> -FOREST TREES AND<br /> -FOREST SCENERY -</p> - -<p><a id="frontispiece"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i004" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i004.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">A River Scene in Florida</div> -</div> - - -<h1> -FOREST TREES AND<br /> -FOREST SCENERY</h1> - -<p class="center"><small>BY</small><br /> -G. FREDERICK SCHWARZ</p> - -<p class="center spaced"><small>ILLUSTRATED</small></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp10" id="i005" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> - <img src="images/i005.jpg" alt="Publisher’s device" /> -</div> - - -<p class="center">NEW YORK<br /> -THE GRAFTON PRESS<br /> -1901</p> - - - - -<p class="center spaced"> -<span class="xs">Copyright, 1901, by<br /> -<span class="smcap">G. Frederick Schwarz</span></span></p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>In the ensuing pages I have made simple -inquiries into the sources of beauty and attractiveness -in American forest trees and -sylvan scenery. In the concluding chapter, -by way of contrast, I have given a short account -of the esthetic effects of the artificial -forests of Europe. The system which shaped -these forests and gave them their present appearance -should, however, possess more than -a comparative interest for Americans. It -has, in fact, a further connection, though a -slight one, with the subject, and therefore -requires a few words of explanation.</p> - -<p>It is well known that in many parts of -Europe the forests have long been subjected -to a systematic treatment known as forestry. -The term, at first strange, is gradually becoming -quite familiar to us Americans, for -the application of this comparatively new -science has already begun in many sections<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</span> -of our country. The principles of European -forestry will naturally undergo many modifications -in their new environment, and the -vastness of our forest areas, as well as the -long life that naturally belongs to trees, will -impose a very gradual progress. Nevertheless, -the movement for a rational use of our -forests is rapidly advancing and is certain -in time to find a very wide application.</p> - -<p>Although the aims of forestry are utilitarian -and not artistic, the technical character -of the operations which it involves impresses -upon natural forest scenery a changed -aspect. Eventually the work performed upon -our forests will be manifested in a new outward -appearance, a change that cannot but be preferable -to the scenes ordinarily presented by -our cut-over and abandoned timberlands, and -one that will be appreciated not only by forest -lovers in general, but also by those who are engaged -in the lumber industry itself, who are -often forced through competition and prevailing -methods to leave a desolate picture behind.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</span></p> - -<p>In a word, forestry interests us here because, -having already obtained a foothold in -our country, through it forest beauty stands -on the threshold of a new relationship. This -relationship, which is to grow more intimate -with time, appears to justify a certain discrimination -in the choice of the trees and -forests herein described, and an occasional -reference to some of the less technical matters -of forestry that may incidentally suggest -themselves as being of some interest to the -general reader. To have attempted more than -this would have detracted from the unity of -the subject. While the reader may, therefore, -find in these pages some facts that are -new to him, he will notice that these facts have -been made subordinate to the leading object -of the book, an appreciation of the esthetic -value of some of our commonest forest trees.</p> - -<p>The illustrations have been derived from -various sources. The plates facing pages 38, -58, 62, 64, 66, 116, 120, 130, are reproductions -from original photographs that were furnished<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</span> -through the courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry, -United States Department of Agriculture. -My grateful acknowledgments are due Mr. -Overton W. Price, Assistant Chief of the -Bureau of Forestry, for photographs chosen -out of his collection to supply the plates -facing pages 69, 148, 158. The remaining -illustrations have been reproduced from photographs -in my own collection.</p> - -<p>Notes of reference, which are indicated by -superior figures in the text, and an index to -the names of the trees that have been described -or specially referred to in these pages, -will be found at the close of the book. The -index has been compiled from a well-known -bulletin of the Bureau of Forestry, United -States Department of Agriculture, entitled -“Check List of the Forest Trees of the United -States.” Courteous acknowledgment is here -made to the author, Mr. George B. Sudworth, -and to the Division of Publications, of the -same Department, for kind permission to -make extracts from the bulletin referred to.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#I">I</a></td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Forest Trees</span></td> -<td class="tdr">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"><small><a href="#THE_BROADLEAF_TREES">The Broadleaf Trees</a></small></td> -<td class="tdr">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"><small><a href="#THE_CONE-BEARERS">The Cone-Bearers</a></small></td> -<td class="tdr">29</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#II">II</a></td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Forest Adornment</span></td> -<td class="tdr">63</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#III">III</a></td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Distribution of American Forests</span></td> -<td class="tdr">83</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#IV">IV</a></td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Character of the Broadleaf Forests</span></td> -<td class="tdr">97</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#V">V</a></td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Coniferous Forests</span></td> -<td class="tdr">116</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#VI">VI</a></td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Artificial Forests of Europe</span></td> -<td class="tdr">141</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> -</div> - - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">A River Scene in Florida</td> -<td class="tdlb"><small><i><a href="#frontispiece">Frontispiece</a></i></small></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tdlb"><small>Facing page</small></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Foliage of the White Oak</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image1">8</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Spray of the Sugar Maple</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image2">12</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Spray of the Red Maple</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image3">12</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">The Dogwood in Bloom</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image4">22</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Tulip Trees</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image5">26</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Character of the White Pine</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image6">34</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Sugar Pines</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image7">36</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">A Pinery in the South</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image8">38</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">The Bull Pine in its California Home</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image9">40</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">A Silver Fir at Middle Age</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image10">50</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Redwood Forest in California</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image11">58</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Devastation in the Forest</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image12">60</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Where the Sheep Have Been</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image13">62</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">A Passageway through Granite Rocks</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image14">64</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Shrubbery and River Birches. New Jersey</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image15">66</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Fern Patch in a Grove of White Birch</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image16">69</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">A Yucca in the Chaparral</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image17">78</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Virgin Forest Scene in Florida</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image18">110</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">A Group of Conifers. Montana</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image19">116</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Mount Rainier. Washington</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image20">120</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">A Thicket of White Firs</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image21">125</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">An Open Forest in the Southwest</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image22">130</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">A Storm-beaten Veteran</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image23">132</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">A German “Selection Forest”</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image24">148</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">A “High Forest” of Spruce in Saxony</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Image25">158</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</span></p> - - - - -<p class="half-title">FOREST TREES AND<br /> -FOREST SCENERY</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</span></p> - - - - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“One impulse from a vernal wood</div> - <div class="verse indent2">May teach you more of man,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Of moral evil and of good,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Than all the sages can.”</div> - <div class="verse indent24"><span class="smcap">Wordsworth.</span></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="I">I<br /> - -FOREST TREES</h2></div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> beauty of a forest is not simple -in character, but is due to many -separate sources. The trees contribute -much; the shrubs, the rocks, the mosses, -play their part; the purity of the air, -the forest silence, the music of wind in -the trees—these and other influences -combine to produce woodland beauty -and charm. A first consideration, however, -should be to know the beauty that -is revealed by the trees themselves.</p> - -<p>Here it will be wise to make a selection: -to choose out of the great variety -of our forest flora those trees that most<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</span> -deserve our attention. Many of our -forest trees have naturally a restricted -range; others are narrowing or widening -their range through human interference; -still others have already established -their right to a preëminence -among the trees of the future, because, -possessing to an unusual degree the -qualities that will make them amenable -to the new and improved methods of -treatment known as “forestry,” they -are certain to receive special care and -attention; while those that are not so -fortunate will be left to fight their own -battles, or may even be exterminated -to make room for the more useful -kinds. Among all these the rarest are -not necessarily the most beautiful. -Those that are commonest and most -useful are often distinguished for qual<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span>ities -that please the eye or appeal directly -to the mind.</p> - -<p>In accordance with the ideas already -expressed in the Preface, the considerations -that will determine what trees shall -be described are as follows: first, trees -of beauty; next, those that are common -and familiar; finally, those that are important -both for the present and the future -because they are useful and have -an extended geographical distribution.</p> - -<p>The trees selected for description -will here be divided into the two conventional -groups of broadleaf species -and conifers, beginning with the former.</p> - - -<h3><a id="THE_BROADLEAF_TREES"></a>THE BROADLEAF TREES</h3> - -<p>In the “Landscape Gardening” of -Downing we read concerning the oak,—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span></p> - -<p>“When we consider its great and -surpassing utility and beauty, we are -fully disposed to concede it the first -rank among the denizens of the forest. -Springing up with a noble trunk, and -stretching out its broad limbs over the -soil,</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">‘These monarchs of the wood,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Dark, gnarled, centennial oaks,’</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="pnind">seem proudly to bid defiance to time; -and while generations of man appear -and disappear, they withstand the -storms of a thousand winters, and seem -only to grow more venerable and -majestic.”</p> - -<p>It would be difficult to say whether -Downing had any particular species of -oak in mind when he wrote these words. -The common white oak and the several -species of red and black oak possess in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span> -an eminent degree the grandeur and -strength which he describes and for -which we commonly admire the tree.</p> - -<p>Of all the oaks<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> the white oak is -the most important. This tree will -impress us differently as we see it -in the open field or in the dense forest. -Where it stands by itself in the full -enjoyment of light, it has a round-topped, -dome-shaped crown, and is -massive and well poised in all its parts. -Quite as often, however, we shall see -it gathered into little groups of three or -four on the greensward of some gently -sloping hill, where it has a graceful -way of keeping company. The groups -are full of expression, the effect is diversified -from tree to tree, yet harmonious -in the whole. In the denser forest -the white oak often reaches noble pro<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span>portions -and assumes its most individual -expression. There it mounts -proudly upward, contending in height -at wide intervals with sugar maples -and tulip trees, its common associates -in the forest. Its lofty crown may be -seen at a distance, lifted conspicuously -above the heads of its neighbors. Stand -beneath it, however, and look up at its -lower branches, and there is revealed -an intricacy of branchwork and a tortuosity -of limb such as is unattained -when it stands alone in the field. The -boldness with which the white oak will -sometimes throw out its limbs abruptly, -and twist and writhe to the outermost -twig, I have never seen quite equaled in -the other oaks. The live oak, it must -be admitted, is even more abrupt where -the limb divides from the trunk, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span> -it does not continue its vagaries to -the end.</p> - -<p>It is to be noted that these forms are -not without a purpose and a meaning. -Under difficulties and obstacles the -twigs and branches have groped their -way; often one part has been sacrificed -for the good of another, in order that -all gifts of air, and moisture, and light -might be received in the fullness of -their worth. Thus the entire framework -of the tree becomes infused -with life and meaning, almost with -sense, and its character is reflected in -its expression.</p> - -<p>The observer is also impressed by -the character of the foliage. The -leaves are usually rather blunt and -ponderous, varying a little—as, indeed, -do those of several other trees<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span> -—according to the nature of their environment. -They clothe the tree in -profusion, but do not hide the beauty -of the ramification of its branches. In -truth, they are not devoid of beauty -themselves. It was natural for Lowell -to exclaim,—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">A little of thy steadfastness,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Rounded with leafy gracefulness,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Old oak, give me.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>While the leaves of the white oak do -not deflect and curve as much in their -growth as those of some of the more -graceful and elegant trees, they nevertheless -fall into natural and pleasing -groups, unfolding a pretty variation as -they work out their patient spiral ascent, -leaf after leaf, round the stemlet; -showing a changefulness in the sizes of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span> -the several leaves, and a choice in the -spacing. In the first weeks of leafing-time -there is to be added to these -features the effects derived from transitions -of color in the leaves. For the -very young leaves are not green, but -of a deep rose or dusky gray. They -are velvety in texture, and lie nestling -within the groups of the larger green -leaves that have preceded them. Just -as it was said a little while ago that -there was expressiveness throughout -the branches, it may now be said that -there is a fitness of the foliage for all -parts of the tree.</p> - -<p><a id="Image1"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i025" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i025.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Foliage of the White Oak</div> -</div> - -<p>In winter, however, the beauty of the -oak’s foliage is gone. The dry leaves -still hang on the boughs, sometimes -even until spring, but they look disheveled -and dreary. Still, they are not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> -without some esthetic value, though it -be through the sense of hearing instead -of sight. Thoreau says,—</p> - -<p>“The dry rustle of the withered oak-leaves -is the voice of the wood in winter. -It sounds like the roar of the sea, and is -inspirating like that, suggesting how all -the land is seacoast to the aërial ocean.”</p> - -<p>Deep and glorious, too, is the light -that rests in the oak woods on midsummer -days. It filters, softened and -subdued, through the wealth of foliage, -and wraps us in a mellow radiance. Its -purity and calm depth lift the senses to -a higher level. Most limpid is the light -in a misty shower, when the sun is low -and the level rays break through the -moist leaves and dampened air, while -we stand within and see everything -bathed in a golden luster.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span></p> - -<p>Our common chestnut is of less -economic value than the oak, but one -suggests the other, for the two are -often found together and are similar in -size and habit. The chestnut is, in -truth, one of our finest deciduous trees. -It has a luxuriance of healthy, dark-green -foliage, and is happy-looking in -its abundance of yellow-tasseled blossoms. -It is even more beautiful in -August, when the young burs mingle -their even tinge of brown with the -fresh green of the glossy leaves. In -old age it has the same firmness that -is so noticeable in the oak, and seems -to be just as regardless of the winds -and gales.</p> - -<p>The character of the leaf and the -manner in which the branches of a tree -divide and ramify have so much to do<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span> -with certain beautiful effects, that I -shall make some remarks on these features -in two of our maples. The sugar -or hard maple is the most useful -member of this genus, and may advantageously -be compared with the red -maple, which is perhaps more beautiful.</p> - -<p>It is of great advantage to both of -these trees that the sweep of their -branches, which is carried out in ample, -undulating lines, is in perfect harmony -with the elegance of their foliage. In the -sugar maple the latter spreads over the -boughs in soft and pleasing contours. -The leaves are a trifle larger than those -of the red maple, and their edges are -wavy or flowing, while their surfaces -are slightly undulating and have less -luster than those of the other tree. -They are thus well fitted to receive a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span> -flood of light without being in danger -of presenting a clotted appearance. -The petioles, or little leaf-stems, assume -a more horizontal position than -they do in the red maple, and the twigs -are usually shorter, which allows a -denser richness in the foliage, which -every breeze plays upon and ruffles as -it passes by.</p> - -<p><a id="Image2"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="i031" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i031.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Spray of the Sugar Maple</div> -</div> - -<p><a id="Image3"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i031a" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> - <img src="images/i031a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Spray of the Red Maple</div> -</div> - -<p>The red maple has a more airy look. -This is due partly to the character -of the leaf, but primarily to that of -the branchwork. The main branches -spread out in easy, flowing lines, much -as they do in the sugar maple; but -they assume an ampler range, and the -last divisions, the twigs, take on decided -curves, rising to right and left. -On these the leaves multiply, each leaf -poised lightly upon its curved petiole.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> -As compared with the leaf of its congener, -that of the red maple is firmer -and a shade lighter, especially underneath. -It is also more agile in the -wind. The effect of the whole is -more that of a shower of foliage than -of pillowed masses. The curving lines, -the elastic spring of every part, and a -kind of freedom among the many leaves, -make the red maple one of the cheerfullest -of trees.</p> - -<p>The sugar maple is the larger of the -two, and seeks the intervales and uplands, -where its size is well set off in -the landscape. The red maple, which -finds its natural home along riverbanks -and in moist places, is interesting -at all seasons. When young it is -particularly attractive in summer where -it fringes lakes and streams. In winter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> -its bright, red twigs present a pleasing -contrast to the gray bark or to the -snow-covered earth. In the earliest -days of spring the little scarlet blossoms -break out in tufts that soon ripen -into brilliant little keys, looking very -pretty where they intermingle with the -pale green of the opening leaves.</p> - -<p>There is, in fact, more color in the -woods in the opening days of spring -than is generally admitted or noticed. -Many kinds of trees unfold their leaves -in some tender shade of rose or golden -brown; while others lend a distinct -color to a whole section of forest by -the opening of their early blossoms.</p> - -<p>The maples, however, are chiefly -famous for their wonderful richness of -color in the fall of the year; particularly -the sugar and the red maple, whose<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span> -brilliancy at this season it would be -difficult to match. They exhibit, in -truth, a gamut of beautiful tones, from -pale yellow to deep orange, and from -bright scarlet to vivid crimson. They -are among the first to change the -color of their leaves, but are quickly -followed by other species of trees, -whose varying hues blend together and -enrich the autumn landscape. The -“scarlet” and “red” oaks now justify -their names; the flowering dogwood -and the sweet gum show their soft -depth of purple; the milder tulip tree -takes on a golden tint and shimmers -in the sun, mingling with ruddy hornbeams, -browned beeches, variegated -sassafras trees, or the fiery foliage of -the tupelos. The swamps are aflame -with the brilliancy of red maples, con<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span>trasting -with the quieter tones of alders -and willows.</p> - -<p>We may speak of brilliancy and -color in our leafy woods at the ebb-tide -of the year; but to know their -beauty well we must walk among the -trees. Nor can pictures tell us all the -truth about the tints of autumn. How -should we receive from them the atmospheric -effects that nature gives, -and the indescribable blending and -softening that comes from innumerable -rays of diffused and reflected light? -The beauty also changes from day to -day and from hour to hour, for weeks.</p> - -<p>Some of the other broadleaf trees -deserve to be noticed, though in less -detail, as objects of beauty in the forest. -The honey locust, one of our largest -trees of this class, is distinguished<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> -principally for the elegant forms of -its branches. The smaller divisions, -the twigs, follow a zigzag course which -in itself is not beautiful, but the effect -is so bound up with the complex spiral -evolutions of the larger divisions, the -boughs and branches, that the result is -only to heighten the elegance of the -latter. The foliage of this tree is very -delicate, being composed of numerous -elliptically shaped leaflets, that are -gathered into sprays that hang airily -among the bold and sweeping boughs.</p> - -<p>Much might be said here in commendation -of the sassafras tree, were -it economically more important. Its -brown, sculptured bark is very attractive, -and its yellowish blossoms, that -break in early spring, are fragrant. -The leaves are of several shades of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> -green, and vary considerably in outline. -When in full leaf, the outward -form of the tree is striking in appearance, -its foliage being massed into -rounded and hemispherical shapes that -group themselves in the crown of the -tree in well-proportioned and tasteful -outlines.</p> - -<p>The birches, too, are very attractive -trees, especially where they have ample -room to develop. The white birch appears -at its best where it is sprinkled -in moderation among open groves of -other trees. To the forester it is of -some importance, as its seedlings rapidly -cover denuded or burnt areas. -They also shield from excessive sunlight -or from frost the seedlings of -more valuable kinds that may have -sprouted in their welcome shade; until,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> -gaining strength, the latter after a -few years push up their tops between -the open foliage of their protecting -“nurses.” The white birch may be seen -performing this good office in many a -fire-scarred piece of woodland throughout -the Northeastern States. Often, -too, we see it standing a little apart, -as at the edge of a forest; its slender -branches drooping around the pure -white trunk and its agile leaves gleaming -as they wave in the light breeze. -It is like one of those single notes in -music that glide into universal harmony -with irresistible charm.</p> - -<p>The yellow birch, on the contrary, is -most beautiful in the depth of the forest. -It is a large, useful tree. In the -Adirondacks I have often admired -its tall, straight trunk as it rose above<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span> -the neighboring firs and spruces and -unfolded its large, regular crown of -dense dark foliage, relieved underneath -by the thin, shining, silvery to golden-yellow -bark, torn here and there into -shreds that curled back upon themselves -around the stem.</p> - -<p>The white elm, well represented in -the avenues of New England, is widely -distributed. It is a tree for the meadow, -although its natural grace and, -one might almost say, inborn gentleness -are preserved along the fringes -of the forest and on the banks of -streams. It needs some room to show -the refinement of its closely interwoven -spray. Watch its beauty as it sways -in the light wind; or look at a grove of -elms after a hoar-frost on some early -morning in winter, when the leaves are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span> -gone and all its outlines are penciled -in finest silver.</p> - -<p>The flowering dogwood is one of our -smaller trees, but is exceptionally favored -with all manner of beauty. Although -it is very common in many -of the States, and is not without its -special uses, it occupies a subordinate -position in the eyes of the forester, being -often no more than a mere shrub -in form. And yet, while some of the -larger trees by their majestic presence -lend grandeur to the forest, the dogwood -brings to it a charm not easily -forgotten. In spring, when it is showered -all over with interesting, large, -creamy-white flowers, it is an emblem -of purity. Its leaves, which appear -very soon after the bloom, are elegantly -curved in outline, soft of tex<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span>ture, -light-green in summer, and of a -deep crimson or rich purple-maroon in -autumn.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> In winter the flowers are -replaced by bright, red berries. Its -spray of twigs and branchlets, formed -by a succession of exquisitely proportioned -waves and upward curves, is -not as conspicuous, though hardly less -ornamental at this season than the -fruit.</p> - -<p><a id="Image4"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i043" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i043.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">The Dogwood in Bloom</div> -</div> - -<p>As a shrub, being among the very -first to bloom, it decorates the forest -borders in spring, or stands conspicuously -within the forest. It is found -everywhere in the Appalachian region. -In the coastal plain it is associated -with the longleaf pine, or may be seen -among broadleaf trees, or standing -among red junipers, as tall as they and -quite at home in their company.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span></p> - -<p>Before turning to coniferous trees, -the tulip tree deserves some attention -on account of its usefulness, its extended -habitat, and its beauty as a -forest tree. It is closely related to the -magnolias, to which belongs the big -laurel of the Gulf region, an evergreen -species that might be called the queen -of all broadleaf trees. But the big -laurel must here give place to the tulip -tree, because it is not so distinctively a -forest tree, and is much more restricted -in its geographical distribution.</p> - -<p>The first general impression of the -tulip tree is, I venture to say, one of -strangeness. There is a foreign look -about the heavy, truncated leaves, and -an oriental luxury in the large, greenish-yellow -flowers. These appear in -May or June, while the conelike fruit<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span> -ripens in the fall. When the seeds -have scattered, the open cones, upright -in position, remain for a long time on -the tree, where they are strikingly -ornamental.</p> - -<p>Esthetically the most important feature -of the tulip tree is an expression of -dignity and stateliness, which gives it -a character of its own. Its extraordinary -size renders it a conspicuous object -in the forest, the more so because -we usually find it associated with a variety -of other trees of quite different -aspect. Michaux, who has told us -much about the forest flora of the eastern -United States, could find no tree -among the deciduous kinds, except the -buttonwood, that would bear comparison -with it in size, and he calls it “one -of the most magnificent vegetables of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> -the temperate zone.” Its columnar -trunk continues with unusual straightness -and regularity nearly to the summit -of the tree. Its limbs and branches -divide in harmonious proportions, reaching -out as if conscious of their strength, -and yet with sufficient gracefulness to -lend dignity to the tree. The lower -boughs, especially, are inclined to assume -an elegant sweep, deflecting sidewise -to the earth, and ending with an -upward curve and a droop at the outer -extremity. Often the crowded environment -of the forest does not admit of -such ample development; yet even under -such conditions the tulip tree preserves -much of its elegance and is generally -well balanced.</p> - -<p><a id="Image5"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i049" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i049.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Tulip Trees</div> -</div> - -<p>When young it does not appear to -much advantage, being rather too sym<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span>metrical. -Nevertheless I have found -it described as a tree of “great refinement -of expression” at that age. As -soon as it begins to put on a richer -crown of foliage and to develop a sturdier -stem and more elegant lines in the -disposition of its branches, it becomes -invested with its peculiar aspect of -magnificence, increasing in gracefulness -and grandeur from year to year. -Its bark, at first smooth and gray, gradually -becomes chiseled with sharp small -cuts; then takes on a corrugated appearance, -becomes brown, and finally -turns into deeply furrowed ridges in -the old tree. Now the foliage, too, -seems to clothe the massive boughs -more fitly, being denser and in size of -leaves more in accordance with the -increased dimensions of the tree.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span></p> - -<p>The foliage of the tulip tree is, in -truth, one of its principal points of -beauty, and is inferior only to the stateliness -of its form. The opening leaf-buds -are conical, exquisitely modeled, -and of the tenderest green. The -leaves unfold from them much as do -the petals in a flower, but quickly -spread apart on the stem. As they -grow larger they still preserve their -light-green color, but take on a mild -gloss. They are ready to shift and -tremble on their long leaf-stalks in -every breath of wind, which gives -them a decided air of cheerfulness. -We may see the same thing in the -aspen and in some of the poplars. Under -the tulip tree, however, the light -that descends and spreads out on the -ground is far superior. It is softer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> -and purer. We need not look up to -appreciate it, but may watch it on the -soil, over which it moves in flecks of -light and dark.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“The chequer’d earth seems restless as a flood</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Brushed by the winds, so sportive is the light</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Shot through the boughs; it dances, as they dance,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Shadow and sunshine intermingling quick,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And dark’ning, and enlight’ning (as the leaves</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Play wanton) every part.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - - -<h3><a id="THE_CONE-BEARERS"></a>THE CONE-BEARERS</h3> - -<p>The cone-bearing trees are usually -provided with needle-shaped or awl-shaped -leaves, in contradistinction to -the broad and flat ones that belong<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span> -to the group described in the preceding -section of this chapter. Most of -them preserve their foliage through -the winter, and are commonly recognized -by this evergreen habit. They -are much more important to the forester -than the other class. The conifers -grow on the true forest soils. -They range along mountain crests or -are scattered over dry and semi-arid -regions or along the sandy seashore, -while the broadleaf species usually -require a better soil and a more -congenial climate. This circumstance -causes many deciduous forests to be -cut down, in order that the better land -on which they grow may be utilized -for agricultural purposes. Moreover, -the wood of the conifers is generally -more useful, being in several of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span> -species of great economic importance. -Lastly, in their habit of denser growth, -and from the fact that these trees are -ordinarily found in the form of “pure” -forests (in contradistinction to those -forests in which a number of species -grow intermingled), they furnish certain -very important conditions for practical -and successful forestry.</p> - -<p>The common white pine well deserves -to stand at the head of all the -conifers or evergreens east of the Mississippi. -Though it once covered vast -areas in more or less “pure” forests -it has been largely cut away, and recurring -fires have generally prevented -its return; but in certain places it could -even now be restored by careful treatment. -At present the last remnants of -these pineries are disappearing swiftly,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> -and before the methods of the forester -can be applied to such extensive areas, -this valuable heritage will probably -have vanished. Heretofore it has been -to us Americans in the supply of wood -what bread and water are in daily life. -It has been hardly less valued by other -nations, having been planted as a forest -tree in Germany a full century ago.</p> - -<p>I cannot say what I admire most in -the white pine; whether it be the luxuriance -and purity of its foliage, or the -very graceful spread of its boughs. -There is hardly a tree that can equal -it for softness and rich color. The -tufts of needlelike leaves densely -cover the upper surfaces of the spreading -branches, and are of a mild, uniformly -pure olive-green. Seen from -beneath they appear tangled in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> -beautifully interwoven twigs and -stems. It is here that we first begin -to notice the exquisite manner of the -white pine. The boughs reach out -horizontally, with here and there one -that ascends or turns aside to assume -a position exceptionally graceful and -to fill out a space that seems specially -to have been vacated for it. I speak -of the white pine at the age preceding -maturity, when it is in its full strength, -but before it has attained the picturesqueness -of old age. Following an -easy curve, the branch divides at right -and left into dozens of finer branchlets, -all extending forward and straining, -as it were, to reach the light; and -these in turn lift up hundreds of twigs -and little stems to enrich the upper surfaces -with bushy tufts of lithe green<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> -needles. The elegance of this habit -in the white pine appears to advantage -when we stand a little above it on a -gentle slope and see the branches -clearly defined against the surface of -a lake below or some far-away gray -cloud.</p> - -<p>Both in middle age and when it is -old the white pine is a distinguished-looking -tree. When young it is sometimes -elegantly symmetrical; but more -often, owing to a crowded position, it -lacks the air of neatness that belongs -to a few of the other pines and to most -of the firs. At maturity it is a very -impressive tree, especially in the dense -forest, where it develops a tall, dark, -stately stem. In its declining years -the branches begin to break and fall -away, no longer able to bear the weight<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> -of heavy snows. This is often the -time when it is most picturesque.</p> - -<p><a id="Image6"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i059" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i059.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Character of the White Pine.</div> -</div> - -<p>The representatives of the white pine -in the West are the silver pine and -the sugar pine. Though both may be -easily recognized as near relatives of -the eastern species, either by the typical -form of the cones or by the plan and -structure of the foliage, each of the -western trees possesses a majesty and -beauty of its own. The silver pine is -more compact in its branches than the -white pine, and has somewhat denser and -more rigid foliage. Its dark aspect is -well suited to the mountains and ridges -of the Northwest, where it commonly -abounds. The sugar pine, which is the -tallest of all pines, impresses us by its -picturesque individuality. Its great -perpendicular trunk not infrequently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> -rises, clear of limbs, to the height of -a hundred and fifty feet, and is surmounted -by an open pyramidal crown -of half that length, composed of long -and slender branches that are full of -motion. While the texture of the foliage -is not as delicate as in the white -pine, it is smooth and elastic, and has -an even bluish tinge that shows to great -advantage when the needles are stirred -by the wind. Its cones, which are of -enormous size, hang in clusters from -the extremities of the distant boughs, -which droop beneath the unusual weight. -Two of these cones, which I have lying -before me, measure each nineteen inches -in length. Well might Douglas, the -botanist who named this tree, call it -“the most princely of the genus.”</p> - -<p><a id="Image7"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i063" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i063.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Sugar Pines</div> -<p>Young Bull Pines in the foreground at the right -and an Incense Cedar at the left.</p></div> - -<p class="center">The longleaf pines of the Southern<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span> -States should be noticed for their picturesqueness. -The Cuban pine is restricted -to isolated tracts in the region -of the Gulf and eastern Georgia. The -loblolly pine and the longleaf pine, near -relatives of the Cuban pine, cover extensive -tracts in low, level regions of -the Southern States, and are most interesting -in old age. Standing, it may -be, on a sandy plain not far from the -sea, among straggling palmettos, they -lift their ample crowns well up on their -tall, straight stems, and contort their -branches into surprising forms; so that, -looking through their crowns at a distance -in the dry, hazy air of the South, -with possibly a red sunset sky for a -background, they are extremely fantastic -and entertaining.</p> - -<p>There are two other pines that have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> -a similar tortuous habit in the growth -of their branches: the pitch pine of -our eastern coast States and the lodgepole -pine of the Rocky Mountains. -These, however, have an esthetic value -for quite a different reason. In the -case of the pitch pine it is due to -a natural peculiarity otherwise rare -among conifers; for, this tree has the -power of sprouting afresh from the -stump that has been left after cutting -or forest fires, thus healing in time the -raggedness and devastation resulting -from necessity, neglect, or indifference. -The lodgepole pine of the West performs -the same patient work over burned -areas through the remarkable power -of germination belonging to its seeds, -even after being scorched by fire. -Thus both of these trees not only fur<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span>nish -useful material, but restore health -and calmness to the forest.</p> - -<p><a id="Image8"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i067" style="max-width: 87.5em;"> - <img src="images/i067.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> -<p><small><i>Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry</i></small></p> -<p class="center">A Pinery in the South</p></div> -</div> - -<p>In connection with the longleaf pines -of the Southern States, the bull pine -of the West deserves to be noticed on -account of its near botanical relationship -and the somewhat similar economic -position which it occupies. It is the -most widely distributed of western -trees, being found in almost every kind -of soil and climate along the Pacific -coast and throughout the Rockies. -Over so wide a range, growing under -very different conditions of soil, temperature, -light, and moisture, it varies -greatly in form and appearance. We -encounter it on dry, sterile slopes or -elevated plateaux in the interior, and -walk for miles through the monotony -of these dark bull pine forests, in which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span> -the trees are of small stature and seem -to be struggling for their life. Again -we meet it on the humid western slopes -of the Sierra Nevada, associated with -the sugar pine and other lofty trees. -Here we scarcely recognize it. It holds -its own among the company of giants, -and is full of vitality, freedom, and -strength; with brighter, redder bark -and stout, sinuous branches; with -longer needles and larger cones. The -sunlight fills its ample crown spaces, -and the wind murmurs in the foliage -overhead; for the pines are the master -musicians of the woods.</p> - -<p><a id="Image9"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i071" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i071.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">The Bull Pine in its California Home</div> -</div> - -<p>The Southern States and the Gulf -region furnish us with a conifer of -striking originality and great usefulness. -This is the bald cypress, which -may have caught the reader’s eye in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> -some northern park by the elegant -forms of its spirelike growth. It rises -high and erect, a narrow pyramid -clothed in the lightest green foliage. -The latter is composed of delicate feathers -of little elliptical leaves that hang -drooping among the finely interwoven -short branches. This is in its cultivated -northern home, where it seems to -thrive well on the carefully kept greensward. -But in reality it is a tree of -deep swamps, seeking the dank, flooded -shores of southern rivers, or impenetrable -morasses, where few other trees -can live. Here we may paddle our -boat through the strange-looking cypress -knees that it sends up above the -water from the roots in the muddy soil -beneath, and may admire the straight, -firm trunks that are ridged and but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span>tressed -below to form wide, spreading -bases. In this, its native home, when -it has grown to maturity, it looks far -different from the trim, tall pyramid -that we see in the park. In place of the -lofty spire it bears a broad, flat crown, -that is poised upon the tall, fibrous, -reddish-gray trunk. Such crowns, -if the tree has had room to spread, -may measure as much as a hundred -feet across; but where closely pressed -at the sides by other trees, they are -contracted to much narrower dimensions. -The foliage is soft in texture -as ever, and interspersed with little -globular cones. With the coming of -winter, however, the sprays of foliage -turn brown and fall from the tree, the -bald cypress being one of the very few -cone-bearers that shed their leaves.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span></p> - -<p>In the South, especially in Florida -and along the Gulf, the cypress trees -are likely to be overloaded with streamers -of gray, mosslike tillandsia. This -epiphytic plant, commonly known as -“Florida moss” or “hanging moss,” -sometimes hides the entire mass of -foliage, and lends a funereal aspect -to whole groves and forests of these -trees, detracting much from their -beauty.</p> - -<p>One of the prettiest coniferous trees -in the East is the hemlock. Whatever -may be the prejudice against the commercial -qualities of this tree,—for the -value of its wood is not now appreciated -as it should be,—its appearance -is admired by all who know it. I -call it “pretty” because it is fine and -neat when young and grows to be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> -comely and graceful in middle age, -rather than beautiful in the ordinary -meaning of that word. It is an easy, -airy tree. And yet the time comes -when it loses its ease and grace, when -its trunk grows darker and its boughs -become straggly and rough, when it -puts on the strength of age without its -decrepitude and bears unflinchingly the -weight of winter snows. Is it now less -interesting than in its youth? I think -not. It makes the woods rough and -natural, and we admire its simplicity, -self-sufficiency, and endurance.</p> - -<p>When young there is no tree with -such elegant and yet loose and pretty -effects in the foliage, unless it should -be one of its western cousins. The -spray hangs delicately from the sides -of the tree and the top is gracefully<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span> -pendent. The little shoots, as they -peep out from hundreds of recesses, -buoyant and lifelike, and the pendent -top, are in some way suggestive of a -playing fountain, especially in quite -young trees. In the forest the symmetry -of the hemlock is not always preserved; -yet it fits into the scene gracefully, -whether fringing the mountain -stream or grouping itself among the -other trees of the forest.</p> - -<p>The two western hemlocks also have -exceedingly graceful sprays and majestic -forms, but they are less familiar -to most of us and are not as widely -distributed as the smaller eastern -species.</p> - -<p>One of the trees of widest geographical -range in America is the red cedar, -or red jumper, as it should more prop<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span>erly -be called. This statement remains -true notwithstanding the recent discovery -that the form of red juniper -common to certain parts of the Rockies -is distinct from the eastern tree. -Though of small size, except in the -bottom lands of Arkansas and Texas, -it possesses some excellent qualities -and is useful in many ways. It is -sometimes used in cabinet work, and -is one of the best materials for fence -posts. The variety that grows along -the Florida coast furnishes the wood -for the indispensable lead pencil.</p> - -<p>The red juniper is at its best along -the border of the forest or where it -strays a short distance away. Its foliage -is dark and bushy, and infinitely -tender and soft in appearance. In the -lower Appalachian region it forms a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> -fine setting for the gorgeous drifts of -dogwood and redbud that skirt the forest -edges. It forms changeful and -interesting groups on the rocky knolls -and ledges. On our Jersey shores -it has a tasteful way of gathering -into little companies, just near enough -to the forest to belong to it, composing -scenes that are pleasant to remember. -Singly, on the yellow sands, -the young conical red juniper edges -off well against the sky. In its old -age the same tree looks gnarled and -picturesque, but still beautiful, with its -masses of small blue-gray berries.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> -Many of us remember it so by the edge -of the ocean, and perhaps others, like -myself, have allowed their imagination -to drift and have fancied that it looked -solemn and thoughtful, outlined against<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span> -the pale-blue sky, listening to the swish -and whisper of the sea.</p> - -<p>Several cone-bearing trees of the -Western States remain to be considered. -These are the firs and spruces, -which belong to the same class as the -pines; and the big tree and redwood, -relatives of the bald cypress.</p> - -<p>The Douglas spruce, or red fir, is in -reality neither a true spruce nor a fir, -though it has some of the characteristics -of each. It was discovered as -long ago as 1795 by the famous explorer, -Archibald Menzies. This species -and a smaller one that grows on -the arid mountains of southern California, -with possibly a third that is -found in Japan, constitute together -the whole genus <i>Pseudotsuga</i>. But -whatever its botanical peculiarities, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> -red fir is an important and exceedingly -useful tree, especially for the purposes -of practical and scientific forestry. Like -the white pine it was planted long ago -by those pioneers in forestry, the Germans, -and has proved itself among them -to be one of the few trees of foreign -extraction that can be called successful.</p> - -<p>When young, the red fir grows rapidly -and symmetrically, and has a -fresh, vigorous, healthy look. It then -already possesses the bluish depth to -its foliage that it preserves throughout -life, a color that is comparable in its -purity only to that of the white pine. -In several of its other features, however, -it changes with the lapse of -years. It gradually loses the graceful -lower boughs that feather to the -ground in the young tree; its bark<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span> -becomes rough and very thick; and its -trunk develops into a tall, straight -shaft that bears a long, spiry crown of -striking symmetry, in which tier after -tier of branches rises to the narrowing -summit, ending some two or three hundred -feet in air. This is its aspect in -the favored regions of its growth, near -the shores of Puget Sound and in the -moist mountains of Washington and -Oregon, where it once formed forests -of extraordinary density and dark -grandeur, portions of which are still -preserved over this extensive territory.</p> - -<p>Another important conifer is the -lowland fir of the Pacific coast. All -the silver firs, to which class this tree -belongs, have distinct features in their -foliage and a characteristic habit of -growth, a description of which may<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> -enable the reader to picture to himself -not only the lowland fir itself, but to -form some conception of the esthetic -value of the entire genus.</p> - -<p><a id="Image10"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i083" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i083.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">A Silver Fir at Middle Age</div> -</div> - -<p>The leaves are narrow, flat, and -linear, usually about as long as a pin -or a needle, glossy green on the upper -side, and streaked with a longitudinal -whitish line underneath. They are -crowded horizontally at the right and -left sides of the shoot or twig, like the -hairs on the quill of a feather. The -twigs themselves, and, in turn, the -boughs and branches, have a similar -tendency to assume a horizontal position; -and thus the tree is built up in -neat symmetrical stages, dwindling in -size to the summit, and presenting the -typical conical form of the cone-bearers.</p> - -<p>Let it not be presumed, however,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span> -that there is anything awkward or -stiff in the appearance of the firs. -Young firs are among the neatest -and most elegant objects in a park. -The smooth gray bark, the lifelike air -in the distribution of the boughs and -smaller branches, the glossy green as -seen from the side or above, varied to -a blue or gray when we stand beneath, -redeem them from every charge of -conventionality.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> - -<p>The lowland fir as a young tree, -and where it is afforded sufficient -room, has more of the drooping, plume-like, -graceful air than is usual with -the members of this genus. The -leaves are somewhat curled and scattered -about the stem. Like most trees -it becomes more expressive as it grows -older and little by little rejects the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> -features and traces of its earlier years. -Its arms gradually bend inward, and -the whole tree becomes more cylindrical, -till in its maturity it speaks -freely through its broken and twisted -boughs of storms and battles and insect -ravages of long ago; yet it strives -to cover its scars with luxuriant masses -of verdure and numberless purplish -cones—a truly magnificent spectacle -of a hoary veteran of crisp and sturdy -aspect.</p> - -<p>The Engelmann spruce, though a -smaller tree than either the red fir or -the lowland fir, is one of the most important -of the spruces. Its home is -in the elevated regions of Colorado, -whence it spreads westward and northward -throughout the Rocky Mountains. -Its well rounded hole is scaly with small<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span> -cinnamon-red plates, and its foliage is -composed of sharp, short, needlelike -leaves, that bristle around the stem -and are bluish-green in color. Its -small brown cones droop from the extremities -of the boughs and mass -themselves in the top of the tree. -Like most of the spruces, this one -climbs to high elevations. Many a -wild mountain slope in the West is -covered by the dense ranks of these -straight, slender trees, with tapering -spires that are green in summer and -frosted with snow and rime in winter.</p> - -<p>The glory of our western forests, -however, are the sequoias, those gigantic -trees of California that have become -widely famous. The two sequoias, the -big tree of the Sierra Nevada and -the redwood of the Pacific coast, con<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span>stitute -the last remnants of a mighty -race that covered vast areas in North -America and Europe in past geological -ages. It is believed that their -days are almost over, for the big tree -groves are few in number and small in -extent, and even these are falling rapidly -under the ax and saw. Nor does -this species appear to reproduce itself -easily; for, although numberless seeds -fall from the old trees, they rarely -sprout, and therefore are slow to replace -what has been taken away. The -redwoods, too, are threatened with extinction, -though they still cover considerable -tracts along the northern half of -the California coast. They are coveted -even more than the big trees and are -disappearing with a rapidity that only -modern industry has made possible.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span></p> - -<p>Fortunately the redwood possesses -two gifts of inestimable value that will -prolong, but cannot perpetuate, its existence. -The unusual amount of moisture -in its wood and the absence of -pitch in the sap lessen the danger from -fire; while the same remarkable trait -that we noticed in the pitch pine, otherwise -very rare in coniferous trees, of -sprouting from dormant buds at the -edge of the stump will replace, for a -time at least, many of the giants that -are taken away.</p> - -<p>The general appearance or type of -the sequoias resembles that of the -cypresses and cedars. The bald cypress -is their nearest relative. The -big tree often has the same spreading -base, and both have the fluted, shreddy -bark, traits that may also be noticed in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span> -the common white cedar and in arbor-vitæ. -The diameter of the trunk of -the big tree is strikingly large even for -its wonderful height. Both trees lift -their crowns rather high, and have -comparatively short boughs, with dense, -bushy, somewhat straggly-looking foliage. -In its youthful stage the foliage -of the redwood, like its congener’s, has -a bluish tinge, which with advancing -years turns to a dark and somber green -that contrasts strangely with the red -color of the thick, spongy bark. But -the individuality of both trees, especially -that of the big tree, is so impressive -and magnificent that all these minor -essences become involved in the majesty -of the whole. The mighty bole -rises in splendid proportions to where -the distant fronds hang loosely down,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span> -disappearing within their somber shadows, -but still carrying upward the -masses of foliage, as if striving to reach -the very clouds. As we view their -stately and incomparable forms, so masterly -wrought, so unapproachable in -their magnificence, we need hardly be -told that these trees are strangers from -a distant and forgotten age.</p> - -<p><a id="Image11"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i093" style="max-width: 87.5em;"> - <img src="images/i093.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><small><i>Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry</i></small></p> -<p class="center">Redwood Forest in California</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Much has been said and written concerning -the sizes and ages of these two -largest trees of America—indeed, with -the exception of the Australian eucalipti, -we might say of the world. It is -said that some of the latter surpass the -redwood in height, though a redwood -tree was discovered within recent -years on the Eel River, California, -whose stupendous height reached -nearly three hundred and fifty feet,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> -thus surpassing in that dimension, at -least, any previously recorded measurements -of the big tree. The ages of the -sequoias have been more difficult to -determine, but it appears that in the -beginning they were exaggerated. The -mature redwood, doubtless, is apt to be -several centuries younger than the big -tree; but so excellent an authority as -Mr. John Muir has said of the latter -that “these giants under the most favorable -conditions probably live five -thousand years or more, though few of -even the larger trees are more than -half as old.”</p> - -<p>The redwoods are great lovers of -moisture. In the valleys and canyons -near the ocean they bathe in the ascending -fog and stand dripping with condensed -vapor. We shall come upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span> -them in dense groves, where the day is -a continuous twilight and the trees -surpass in their combined massiveness -even the red firs of Oregon. At other -times we shall find them mingling in -more open forest with lowland firs and -hemlocks, or, in their northern range, -with the splendid Port Orford cedar. -The light enters these more open forests -and calls forth much beautiful -young growth and shrubbery: the -rhododendrons of California, with large -and showy purplish blossoms and evergreen -leaves; western dogwoods, that -might at first glance be mistaken for -the eastern species; barberries and -familiar hazels; and ferns and violets.</p> - -<p><a id="Image12"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i097" style="max-width: 87.5em;"> - <img src="images/i097.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Devastation in the Forest</div> -</div> - -<p>The reader must not infer, of course, -that such scenes are necessarily of -common occurrence in the forest; but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span> -they are more agreeable to contemplate -than those that have been despoiled of -their attractions. It should be remembered -that if we traveled through -these forests we should often find fresh -signs of human interference: sections -of trees lying prone on the ground, -abandoned as useless by the lumberman; -stripped crowns that stood in the -way of falling trunks, and debris of -bark and slashings. We should also -notice the track of the forest fire -among the stumps and charred treetrunks, -and here and there the dying -tops of standing trees that were unable -to withstand the flames. Finally, -in dry and semi-arid regions, -particularly in sections of the Southwest, -we should notice still another -danger that threatens our forests:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span> -the excessive or ill-timed grazing of -sheep, which trample to death the -young tree seedlings as they pass over -the ground in great herds and devour -the last vestiges of vegetation, thus -leaving a bare and dry forest floor, -upon which the old trees subsist -with difficulty through the prolonged -droughts of summer.</p> - -<p><a id="Image13"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i101" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i101.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><small><i>Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry</i></small></p> -<p class="center">Where the Sheep Have Been</p></div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="II">II<br /> - -FOREST ADORNMENT</h2></div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Though</span> there can be no forest -without trees, it may be asserted -with equal truth that trees alone would -make but an incomplete forest.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Under -the old trees we find the young saplings -that are in future years to replace -them and in their turn are to form a -new canopy of shade. In their company -is a vast variety of shrubs, ferns, -and delicate grasses and flowers that -decorate the forest floor. Vines and -creepers gather about the old trees -and clamber up their furrowed trunks. -In autumn the ground is strewed with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span> -fallen leaves, motionless or hurrying -along before the wind. These gather -into deep beds, soft to the tread, and -at last molder away in the moist, rich -earth. In the needle-bearing forests -of the mountains brilliant green mosses -replace the shrubs and flowers and deck -the bare brown earth.</p> - -<p>There are <i>lifeless</i> sources of beauty in -the woods, too, that are not easy to -pass by unnoticed: rocks with interesting -forms and surfaces; forms that are -lifeless, yet take on distinct expression -by their different modes of cleavage, -and surfaces that drape themselves in -the choicest paraphernalia of drooping -moss and rare lichen; prattling mountain -streams; cascades; and glassy -pools. These are “inanimate” things -with a kind of life in them, after all.</p> - -<p><a id="Image14"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i105" style="max-width: 87.5em;"> - <img src="images/i105.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><small><i>Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry</i></small></p> -<p class="center">A Passageway through Granite Rocks</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span></p> - -<p>Lastly, there are the true owners of -the forest: the bird that hovers round -its borders; the free, chattering squirrel; -the casual butterfly that leads us to -the flowers; and the large game that inhabits -the hidden recesses and adds an -element of wildness and strange attraction -to these quiet haunts.</p> - -<p>All this wealth of detail gives life to -the forest. The shrubs, above the rest, -should here interest us somewhat more -minutely. They are often the most conspicuous -objects in the embellishment of -the forest; and since our investigation -was to be guided to some extent by considerations -of usefulness, it ought to be -added that shrubs not infrequently exercise -a beneficial influence on the vigor -and well-being of the trees themselves. -Trees, shrubs, and certain of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span> -smaller plants—so long as their root -systems are not too dense and intricate—are -of value on account of their ameliorative -effects on temperature and -moisture. This is more important in -this country, so extreme in its climatic -variations, than in northern Europe. -In the dry and parching days of summer -the shrubbery of the woods, by -its shade, helps to keep the earth cool -and moist. This mantle of the earth, -moreover, conducts the rain more gradually -to the soil, exercising an efficient -economy. In the fall and winter the -shrubs, which are densest near the forest -border, help to break the force of -the sweeping winds which might otherwise -carry away the fallen leaves, so -useful in their turn because they are -conservators and regulators of mois<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span>ture -and contain valuable chemical constituents -which they return to the soil.</p> - -<p><a id="Image15"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i109" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i109.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><small><i>Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry</i></small></p> -<p class="center">Shrubbery and River Birches. New Jersey</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The pine barrens of New Jersey -illustrate these principles. In close -proximity to the sea a welcome moisture -enters the forest with the ocean -breezes. Penetrating farther inland, it -is not so entirely dissipated as to preclude -a varied undergrowth of shrubbery, -which in turn renders a welcome -aid to the forest by the protection it affords -to the porous, sandy soil, which -would soon dry out under the scant -shelter of the pervious pines. Underneath -these the kalmia or calico bush, -with its large and showy bunches of -flowers, is abundant. In late summer -the sweet pepperbush is there, laden -with its fragrant racemes; in winter, the -cheerful evergreen holly of glossy green<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> -leaf and bright berry. In the dry and -sunny places we find the wild rose, the -trailing blackberry, with its rich color -traceries on the autumn leaves, and the -no less brilliant leaves of the wild strawberries -underfoot. We come upon the -creeping wintergreen and the local -“flowering moss.” The fragrant “trailing -arbutus,” here as elsewhere, is -an earnest of the generous returning -spring. Along the creeks and brooks -are masses of honeysuckles, alder -bushes, and sweet magnolias.</p> - -<p><a id="Image16"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i114" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i114.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fern Patch in a Grove of White Birch</div> -</div> - -<p>The coniferous forests of the Rocky -Mountain region are either too dry or -too elevated to promote a luxuriant -undergrowth; but we find it in the -humid coast region of Oregon and -Washington, within the forests of fir, -pine, and spruce. In the deciduous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span> -forests, however, the shrubbery attains -its best development, for its presence -depends largely upon moisture, climate, -and soil, and these conditions are usually -most favorable in our broadleaf -districts. In the latter, moreover, the -shrubbery exercises its influence most -efficiently, for many of the pines will -bear a considerable amount of heat and -drought, and several other conifers -show their independence and a different -kind of hardihood at high and -humid elevations. The varied and -beautiful forms of undergrowth in our -broadleaf forests—the shrubs, the -vines and graceful large ferns, and the -smaller plants that live along the forest -borders and penetrate within—may be -regarded as one of the distinctive features -of American forest scenery.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span></p> - -<p>In such forests, and along their borders, -the birds like to make their home. -Among the bushy thickets they find a -secure shelter, and some of them seek -their food among the fruits and berries -that grow there. They all possess their -individual charms, and infuse such -varied elements of life and cheer into -the woods that even the most commonplace -scenes are transmuted by their -presence, while those that were already -beautiful receive an added attraction. -In winter there is nothing more harmonious -than a flock of snowbirds flying -over frosted evergreens toward -some soft gray mist or cloud. For -grace and ease of movement I have -never seen anything more airy than the -Canada jay alighting on some near -bough, softly as a snowflake, to watch<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span> -and wait for the scraps of the forester’s -meal. Another interesting bird -to watch in his movements is the red-winged -blackbird. Out along the -edges of the forest and in the swamps -and marshes lying between bits of -woodland, he may be seen from earliest -spring to the last days of fall.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> We -cannot help watching him passing -restlessly to and fro by himself, or circling -happily about in the flock, returning -at last to his clumps of alders -and willows, or disappearing among the -hazy reeds and grasses. But if, instead -of grace and movement, we are -more interested in sound, we shall find -no songbird with sweeter notes than -the thrush. Whatever added name he -may bear, we are sure of a fine quality -of music; music with modulating notes,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span> -plaintive and clear, that drive away all -harshness of thought.</p> - -<p>Let us again consider the undergrowth -in the forest. Where shrubs -and tender growths abound the wintry -season cannot be desolate or dreary. -When the display of summer is over -they attract the eye by their bright -fruits and their habits of growth. Their -branchlets are often strikingly pretty in -color and well set off against the snow. -Their intricate traceries of twig and -stem are an interesting study. The -copses of brown hazels that spread -along the mountain side and the dusky -alders or yellow-tinted willows are in -perfect harmony with this season of -the year.</p> - -<p>It is by crowding into masses that -our shrubs of brighter blossom produce<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span> -some of the most superb effects of -spring. A multitude of rhododendrons -or great laurels covers some -mountain side, carrying its drifts of pale -rose far back into the woods. A mass -of redbuds and flowering dogwoods, -the former again rose-colored, the latter -a creamy white, pours out from the -forest’s edge among ledges of rock and -low hills. The wild plums and thorns, -with their delicate flowers, are beautiful -in the same manner, and in addition -have a pretty habit of straying out and -away from the woods, much like the -red juniper.</p> - -<p>Our shrubs are no less beautiful in -their separate parts than they are magnificent -in their united profusion. The -common sweet magnolia is especially -well favored. Its elegantly elliptical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span> -leaf, with smooth surfaces, glossy and -dark green above, silken and silvery -below, is one of the most attractive to -be found. Its flower cannot help being -beautiful, for beauty is the heritage of -all the magnolias. Often, however, -half the pure ivory cups lie hidden in -the leaves, to surprise us on a closer -approach with their beauty and sweet -fragrance. Altogether this favored -shrub is one of the most exquisite objects -of decoration, whether in the -swamp, along brooksides, or through -the damp places of the forest.</p> - -<p>The hawthorns, which, like the -sweet magnolia, occur both as trees -and as shrubs, combine varied forms -of attractiveness, such as compound -flowers of white or pinkish hue; sharply -edged, elegantly pointed leaves; bright<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span> -berries; and closely interwoven branchlets -stuck about with thorns. The redbud, -which I have already mentioned, -holds its little bunches of flowers so -lightly that they look as if they had -been carried there by the wind and had -caught along the twigs and branches. -Very different from these, yet no less -interesting in its way, is the staghorn -sumach, which is of erratic growth -and bears stately pyramids of velvety -flowers of a dark crimson-maroon. -There is a fine contrast, too, where the -serviceberry, with early delicate white -blossoms, blooms among the evergreens -and the opening leaves of spring.</p> - -<p>Another word about the West. The -undergrowth of the northerly portion -of the Pacific coast region has already -been referred to; but there ex<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span>tends -throughout the Southwest, penetrating -also northward and eastward, -another kind of forest growth that is -so distinct in character from all others -that it should be specially described. -It is, in fact, quite opposite in its nature -to the shrubbery of the more humid -forest regions in that it shows a tendency -to seek the arid, open, sunny -slopes, where it forms a scrubby, though -interesting, and varied cover to the -rough granite boulders and loose, -gravelly soils. This growth is everywhere -conveniently known as “chaparral,” -whether it be the low, even-colored -brush on the higher mountains -or the dense, scraggy, promiscuous, -and impenetrable thicket of the foothills -and lower and gentler slopes.</p> - -<p>The impression which the chaparral<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span> -makes depends largely upon the distance -at which it is viewed. If we -stand in the midst of a dense patch of -it we see of how many elements it is -composed; how the shrubs of different -size, shape, and character crowd each -other into a tangle of branches, some -not reaching above the waist, others -closing in overhead. The ceanothus, -with its dull, dark-green foliage -and bunches of small white flowers, -which appear in June, stands beside -the stout-stemmed, knotty, twisted -manzanita, with its strikingly reddish-brown -bark and sticky, orbicular, olive-colored -leaves. Among smaller shrubs -we find the aromatic sage brush, of a -light-gray, soft appearance, and the -richer, darker, small-leaved grease-wood, -or chemisal, as it is more com<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span>monly -called farther north, with its -small, white-petaled flowers enclosing -a greenish-yellow center. Very plentifully -scattered among all these we -usually find the scrubby forms of the -canyon live oak and the California -black oak. Here and there we may -see a large golden-flowered mallow, or -the queenly yucca raising its fine pyramid -of cream-colored flowers out of -the dense mass.</p> - -<p>The far view is quite different. -Distance smoothes the surface and -somewhat obliterates the colors, though -we may still distinguish a variegated -appearance. The eye takes in the -larger outlines and the scattered pines -that sometimes occur within the chaparral. -Nor is the latter, as we now perceive, -always a dense growth, but may<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span> -be separated here and there. Indeed, -it is often most interesting when interrupted -by large granite boulders and -jumbles of rocks, with the clean gray -shade of which it forms a fine contrast -on a clear morning.</p> - -<p><a id="Image17"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i125" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i125.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">A Yucca in the Chaparral</div> -</div> - -<p>If we look still farther up toward -some higher slopes, miles away, we -shall see only a uniform and continuous -stretch of low brush that appears -at that great distance hardly otherwise -than a green pasture clothing the barren -mountain. As we walk toward it -the bluish-green changes to a bronze-green, -and then suddenly we recognize -the broad sweep of chemisal, with a -few scattered scrubby oaks and mountain -mahogany in between.</p> - -<p>In the account of forest embellishment -should be included those hum<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span>blest -plants, the liverworts and mosses -and the lichens that so beautifully -stain the rocks and color the stems of -trees. A close study of all their delicate -and tender characters, both of -form and color, is always a revelation. -Among these lowlier plants it is no -uncommon sight in the depth of winter -to see a field of fern sending a -thousand elegant sprays through the -light snow-covering; or half a dozen -kinds of mosses, all of different green, -but every one pure and brilliant, -gleaming in the shadow of some dripping -rock. Between the rock and -its ice cap, covered by the latter but -not concealed from view, there is a -fine collection of the most delicate -little liverworts and grasses, herbs with -tender leaves, and even flowers, it may<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span> -be, on some earthy speck where the sun -has melted the ice—all as if held in -cold crystal.</p> - -<p>A word also remains to be said -about the vines and creepers. As far -north as Pennsylvania, and even to the -States bordering the Great Lakes, -these clambering plants are a conspicuous -element in the forest. Virginia -creeper, clematis, the hairy-looking -poison oak, and the wild grape, are -among those that are most familiar. -In the woods of the lower Mississippi -Valley the wild grapevines often make -a strange tangle among the old and -twisted trees and hang in long festoons -from the boughs. They are not -uncommon in some of the northerly -States, though less rank and exuberant -in growth.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span></p> - -<p>The common ivy is one of the most -beautiful of all creepers. It makes a -fine setting for the little wood flowers -that peep from its leaves. I like it -best, however, where it clings to some -old oak or other tree and brings out the -contrast between its own passiveness -and weakness and the strength of the -column that gives it support.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="III">III<br /> - - -DISTRIBUTION OF AMERICAN -FORESTS</h2></div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> geographical distribution of -trees has been referred to occasionally -in the preceding chapters. -This distribution, gradually accomplished -during the progress of ages, -has not been accidental; on the contrary, -it has been due to natural causes, -and arises out of the special needs and -adaptations of each species. The geology -of a region, which determines in -many respects the character of the physical -forces of both the earth and the air, -is no small factor in the development<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span> -of the forest. The character of the -climate, the nature of the soil, the degree -of moisture in the soil and in the -atmosphere, the amount and intensity -of the sunlight—in short, the various -elements and natural forces that constitute -the environment of a tree—are -the all-important conditions of its life. -On these it depends, and according to -its own peculiar nature and its special -needs, selects its natural home.</p> - -<p>Yet the manner in which this selection -is accomplished, though simple in -theory, is complicated by many circumstances. -Frost, fire, insects, and floods, -by destroying the trees or their seeds, -may retard the progress of the species. -The wind may be unfavorable. The -seeds hang upon the trees ready and -ripe for germination, but a breeze comes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span> -along and carries them to a place where -the conditions are ill adapted to their -peculiar nature. The following year -the wind is propitious and the little -trees soon start into life. But presently -the seeds of another tree, whose growth -is by nature faster, are conveyed to the -same spot, and the intruders outstrip -the others in rapidity of growth and -spread a canopy of foliage that screens -the smaller trees from the life-giving -sun and dooms them to destruction. -Thus only a few of the numberless -seeds that are produced each year live, -and fewer still are able to maintain or -extend the boundaries of the parent -tree. Sometimes, too, the frugality or -hardiness of a species may be the reason -for its exclusive occupation of a -certain locality, since other trees may<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span> -find it impossible to live at high altitudes -and on rocky ridges or to subsist -upon rough, poor soil. Consequently -we shall find some kinds of trees exclusive, -gregarious only among themselves, -while others mingle freely in -the general concourse.</p> - -<p>Through the persistency, therefore, -of the vital forces of nature, through -a suitable climate or situation, through -the power of adaptation and the delicate -adjustment of many details, the -vast armies of trees, like migratory -races, have at last accomplished their -purpose and found their several homes; -and to us the varied aspect of the forests, -as we traverse the extended territory -of our country, is in a manner -explained. There are stretches of land -over which the tree growth is dense<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span> -and uniform; where the forest is given -over, it may be, almost entirely to a -single kind of tree. In other places -the trees may join in varied luxuriance, -young and old, familiar and strange, on -some fertile, protected plain or well -watered mountain side. In still other -places they may be seen struggling up -the steep slopes and maintaining a -precarious existence on bleak, rocky -ridges.</p> - -<p>While the eastern portion of the -United States is, generally speaking, -the home of the broadleaf species, and -the northern and western portions are -similarly occupied by the coniferous -forests, these areas may readily be subdivided -into specified regions of distinct -forest growth. The latter, however, -cannot be accurately delimited, since<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span> -the regions naturally penetrate into one -another and overlap, on account of the -manner in which forests have extended -their bounds.</p> - -<p>In the basin of the Great Lakes, -where the glaciers of a recent geological -age have prepared a light, loose, -gravelly or sandy soil, the white pine -belt extends through the States of Minnesota, -Wisconsin, and Michigan, and -penetrates into portions of Pennsylvania, -New York, and New England. -Once covered with dense tall forests -of white pine, interspersed in places -with other northern conifers, or broken -by smaller areas of broadleaf forests, -the white pine belt has now yielded -to us its richest treasures. The exacting -demands of our modern artificial -civilization have drawn ceaselessly upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span> -these resources, and the assiduous ax -and the fire that follows in its train -have invaded even the most secluded -regions. The resulting barren spaces, -where they have not become cultivated -land, have either reverted to the young -white pine itself or have been transformed -into oak barrens and open -forests of broadleaf trees. Thus the -aspect of the region has been altered, -though many a limited spot may be -found in which the tall majesty of the -primeval forest still finds its full expression.</p> - -<p>Extending from southern New England -along the entire range of the -Appalachians, sloping toward the Atlantic, -and spreading far westward to -the Mississippi and beyond, the region -of the eastern broadleaf forests covers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span> -a vast territory. Not that the conifers -are here entirely absent, for several of -these, including the white pine itself, -follow the mountain ranges and scatter -throughout the hills and plains; -but their number dwindles in the proportion -of the whole.</p> - -<p>Beyond this region to the southward, -in the States that border the Gulf -east of the Mississippi, in Georgia, -and stretching along the coast northward, -a region of pines is once more -encountered. This section of our -forests, though it has already yielded -generous supplies, is among the richest -in the country. From the pineries of -the South is obtained much of our construction -timber; and thence, too, we -derive our pitch, tar, and turpentine -from the sap of the trees.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span></p> - -<p>Finally, within the eastern forests a -restricted region at the southern end of -Florida, including the Keys, may properly -be separated from the rest. For -here is found a distinctively tropical -vegetation, differing entirely in character -from the forest flora to the north. -Many trees indigenous to the West -India Islands have established themselves -upon this small area, on which -the number of species exceeds that of -any region of equal extent within the -United States, not excepting even the -varied forest growth of the Mexican -border line, to which alone it might be -worthily compared.</p> - -<p>Separating the forest floras of the -western and eastern United States, lies -the broad region of prairies and plains. -Though trees are found for the greater<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span> -part only along the banks of streams, -this region has a curious interest for -the forester. It is believed by many -that this wide country, now waving in -grain and grass and covered with extensive -farms, was at one time enriched -with scattered forests; but that these -have disappeared under the ravages -of repeated fires, kindled, it is supposed, -chiefly by the Indians. At -present our own race is perseveringly -reclothing these prairie lands with -groves and avenues of trees, and -is planting belts of them about farms -and orchards for protection from hot or -frosty winds. Thus the fringed borders -of the streams are widening. The -outcome of this activity is a development -that stands in marked contrast with the -hurried consumption of our other forests.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span></p> - -<p>Then, lastly, there lies beyond this -region the vast territory of the Rockies -and the ranges of the Pacific coast. -Extending over so great a part of -our country, the forests of this region -exhibit many transitions that reveal -the intimate relations between trees -and their natural environment; yet -here we cannot but notice the enormous -preponderance of the coniferous -over the broadleaf trees. Indeed, it -amounts almost to an exclusion of the -latter; for, while some of the poplars -and willows and several species of -oaks and a few maples are indigenous -to this part of the country, the last -two in particular to portions of California, -other broadleaf trees are mere -stragglers in the land.</p> - -<p>The forests of the West retain much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span> -more of the flavor of wildness than do -those of the East, though they likewise -show many evidences of the hand of -man. It is true that paths and roads -lead from many familiar resorts into -these mountain forests, that there are -signs of the lumber industry and of -fires, and that there are large barren -areas where sheep have been continuously -driven for pasture. Extensive -as this interference with original conditions -has been, however, the changed -aspect of the forest has not always -remained permanent, because nature, -where it is possible, comes back patiently -to restore life and beauty to the -wasted places. Over lofty ranges and -in inaccessible places we may still find -the original forest bequeathed to us -from early days; but not in such places<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span> -only: for if we look closely we shall also -recognize the old character and expression -in the harvested forests that have -long since been deserted and forgotten -and at last returned, like lost children, -to the fostering care of their mother.</p> - -<p>The forests of the West may be fitly -separated into two parts. The greater -part embraces the Rocky Mountain -ranges, while the other extends from -the crests of the Sierra Nevada to the -sea. In the former the forests are -sometimes open in character and separated -by parks or grassy plains, or they -constitute a scattered tree growth on -the high altitudes of the rougher ridges. -This open character is sometimes due -to devastation by fires, but generally it -is the result of climatic conditions. -And yet there are wide tracts and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span> -spaces within this region that bear -dense forests, notwithstanding the barren -soil and the austere climate; forests -that have been but little or in no -wise disturbed, and whose expression -differs in an unmistakable manner -from the opener growth of the broadleaf -forests of the East.</p> - -<p>Denser than these and more awe-inspiring -are the forests of the States -bordering the Pacific. Here the moisture -from the sea, an equable climate, and -a generous soil, have produced the tall -and somber red firs, the stately hemlocks -and cedars, the redwoods of the coast, -and the consummate beauty and magnificence -of those opener groves of big -trees, sugar pines, and bull pines, that -have always commanded the admiration -and wonder of visitors to that region.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="IV">IV<br /> - - -CHARACTER OF THE BROADLEAF -FORESTS</h2></div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">If</span> the individual trees of the two -main groups that were described in -the opening chapter impress us differently -as they belong to the one or the -other, it will be found that the two -kinds of forests likewise convey distinct -impressions. Different in aspect, -they are also distinguished one from -the other by the different atmosphere -or spirit that pervades them. Taking -leave here of the trees as individuals, I -shall now examine the characteristics -of woodland scenery.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span></p> - -<p>It has been said that the broadleaf -trees grow naturally over a wide extent -of territory. Of the unbroken wildernesses -that covered the eastern parts of -our country when it began to be colonized, -only fragments remain. A few -States are still densely wooded, but in -these the forces which have caused -the disappearance of similar forests in -other regions have now begun to assert -themselves. Some will yield to their -old enemy, the ravaging fire that could -so often be prevented; others must ultimately -recede to make way for agriculture; -many will be removed more -rapidly for the sake of their material. -It is confidently to be expected, however, -in view of the widening influence -forestry is exerting, that where -it is desirable a provision will be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span> -made for a future growth to replace -the present one.</p> - -<p>Of the broadleaf forests there are -many types. There are forests of oak -and chestnut, of maple and beech; dry -upland forests, and the tangled woods -of the swamps. There are young thickets -of birch and aspen, of willow and -alder, and scrubby oak barrens. There -are second-growth forests, and now -and then even a patch of fine old virgin -timber. In size, also, there is a great -difference, from the grove that covers -the hilltop to the unbroken forest that -stretches over an entire mountain -range.</p> - -<p>It appears, therefore, that <i>variety</i> is -one of the marked characteristics of -our eastern woods. As several hundred -different kinds of trees enter into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span> -their composition under every form and -modification of circumstance, we find -in these woods an endless novelty -and perennial freshness. The young -swamp growth of red maple, white -birch, and alder, bedded in grass and -wild flowers, is very different from the -dense young forest of birch and aspen -of the northern woods that, under the -influence of ample light, has sprung -into being after some recent fire, the -signs of which are still visible in the -charred stumps under the young trees. -The open groves of old oak and chestnut -on the hill, with the slanting light of -autumn and deep beds of dry, rustling -leaves, are likewise different from the -secluded forest in unfrequented mountains, -where young and old growth -mingle together: crooked ashes and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span> -moss-covered elms with straight young -hickories, with shrubs and vines, and -little seedlings sprouting among the -rocks and mosses.</p> - -<p>If we were to proceed in a continuous -journey from the staid forests of the -North to the more diversified growth -of the intermediate States, and, going -on, were to visit the complex forests -of the South, we should notice only a -very gradual transition. Yet if we -were to study any particular region -within these larger areas it would be -found to have certain definite characteristics.</p> - -<p>Let us imagine ourselves standing, -for instance, on some point of vantage -in the Blue Ridge of Virginia, -the season being early May. The -view extends across ranges of low,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span> -rounded mountains, which are fresh -with the new foliage of spring. On the -nearest hills the individual trees and -their combinations into groups can be -distinguished; but receding into the -valleys and more distant slopes the -forms and colors grow less distinct, till -the tone becomes darker and at last -melts into the familiar hazy blue of -the distant hills. Looking again at the -nearer hillsides, we recognize the tulip -trees with their shapely crowns, clothed -in a soft green and lifted somewhat -above the general outline. The light -green of the opening elms and sweet -gums can be very well distinguished -beyond the more shadowy beeches, -ashes, and maples. The remaining -spaces are occupied by hickories and -chestnuts, still brown and leafless, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span> -by rusty-hued oaks, which are only -just beginning to break their buds. -Within the leafless portions of the wood -an occasional dash of bright yellow or -creamy white, not quite concealed, -shows where the sassafras or dogwood -is in bloom. The crests and ridges, -however, are likely to be occupied by -groups and bands of pines, while the -sides of the mountain brook will be -studded with cedars and hemlocks.</p> - -<p>In such scenery, if it be natural, -there is no vulgarity and no faultiness -of design. With all the variety there -is still a fitness in form, color, and expression. -It is rough, but pure in -taste. For instance, the pine groves -on the mountain ridges are not sharply -defined in their margins and thus separated -from the rest of the forest, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span> -they gradually merge with the neighboring -trees in a way that was naturally -foreshadowed in the conformation of -the land and the composition of the soil.</p> - -<p>A feature so natural and self-evident -may hardly appear worthy of notice; -but its value is appreciated as soon -as we compare the outlines referred -to with the rigid forms of some of the -artificial forests of Europe. Those -who have seen the checkered forests -of Germany, where the design of the -planted strip of trees, like a patch -upon the mountain, is unmistakable, -will readily note the contrast between -the natural and the artificial type. -Neither is there any striving for effect -in the natural forest, an error not uncommon -in the tree groupings of parks -or private estates. In these an effort<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span> -is sometimes made to produce an impression -by contrasts in form and color, -but too often the outcome is mere conspicuousness; -while nature, in some -subtle way, has touched the true chord.</p> - -<p>Forest scenery, however, need not be -as extensive as this in order to add appreciably -to the beauty of landscape. In -the valley of southern Virginia, among -the peach orchards and sheep farms, -low hills lie scattered on both sides of -the valley road. The mountain ranges -beyond them recede to a great distance, -and are partly hidden from view by -these intervening hills. The latter, -however, are decked with bits of woodland: -groves of oak, chestnut, and -beech, where the horseman on sunny -summer days finds a welcome coolness -and shade. Would these sylvan spots<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span> -be missed if they were to be removed? -They now exercise a beneficial influence -on the drainage and moisture -conditions of the surrounding farmlands, -and they supply some of the -home wants of the farmers. But they -have an esthetic value also. They are -usually in neat and healthy condition, -and, viewed either from within or -without, they are balm to the eyes as -they lie scattered promiscuously over -the hills.</p> - -<p>It is hardly two hundred miles by -road from that region to the high -mountains of the North Carolina and -Tennessee border, where we find broadleaf -forests of the wildest and roughest -kind. These happily still possess the -great charm of undisturbed nature. -The small mountain towns lie scat<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span>tered -far apart. The region is even -bleak and dreary—at least until the -summer comes; but when everything -turns green the season is glorious. As -we ride through these woods we realize -the majesty of their stillness and -strength, and cannot help admiring the -great oaks and chestnuts that contend -for the ground, succumbing only after -centuries in the strife.</p> - -<p>While the broadleaf forests of -western North Carolina and eastern -Tennessee are characterized principally -by grandeur, this is not commonly -a pronounced trait of the leafy -forests. Rather are they distinguished -for a certain air of cheerfulness, the -expression of which will vary in different -localities; but in some way it -will manifest itself almost everywhere.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span> -Thus, in the southern half of New -England woodland scenery is marked -by a peculiar expression of quiet -gladness. Whether it be in small -farm woods among low hills, or in -continuous forest, as in the Berkshires, -there is the same happy choice in -bright and cheerful trees: maples, -birches, elms, and others; some bright -with early spring blossoms, some adding -to the variety of color by their bark -or shining leaves, others agile of leaf -and bough in the frequent breezes. -Here we find an abundance of oaks, -trees whose fresh, glossy leaves seem -to be specially well fitted to purify the -air, for there is a distinct and refreshing -odor in oak forests. We find an -ample choice of tender, springy plants -among the moist rocks. These smaller<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span> -woods, too, are the favored haunts of -the songbirds, for here they find the -glint of sunshine that they so much -delight in.</p> - -<p>A similar warmth of expression belongs -to the leafy woods of other -regions. If we compare New England -with Pennsylvania, we shall find -that the broadleaf forests of the latter -are denser and more continuous, while -they are at the same time richer in the -variety of trees, shrubs, and other -forms of embellishment, which find here -a milder air and a richer soil. Springtime -is more luxuriant and replete with -happy surprise and change. But while -these forests are perhaps more elaborate -than those of southern New England, -I cannot say that they impress -me as being so homelike and engaging.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span></p> - -<p>Along the Gulf and in Florida the -dank forests of the swamps and river -bottoms, finding all the conditions favorable -to a luxuriant vegetation, are -characterized by extraordinary complexity -of growth. Perhaps we enter some -secluded patch of virgin forest, and sit -down for a while in its dense shade, -impressed by the strangeness and solitude -of the place. Our curiosity is -aroused by the multifarious assemblage -of trees, vines, and shrubbery, -and we wonder how many ages it has -been thus, and how far back some of -the oldest trees may date in their history. -But they seem rather to have -no age at all; only to be linked in -some mysterious way with the dim -past out of which they have arisen.</p> - -<p><a id="Image18"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i159" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i159.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Virgin Forest Scene in Florida</div> -</div> - -<p>A mighty live oak leans across the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span> -scene, moist and green with moss; another -is noticed farther away among -slender palmettos, whose spear-edged -leaves catch the sunlight. Vines and -climbers hang about the stems or -droop lazily from the boughs. In the -nearby sluggish water, where the soil -is deep and moldy, stands a sweet -gum with curiously chiseled bark, as if -some patient artist had been at work; -and a little beyond, some cypresses are -roofed by the delicate web of their own -foliage.</p> - -<p>We may sit dreaming away a full -hour thus, with only the hum of a few -insects and perhaps a stray scarlet -tanager flitting by to disturb our meditations.</p> - -<p>It has been indicated in a former -chapter that the broadleaf woods,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span> -taken as a whole, are decidedly richer -in shrubs and small plants than the -evergreen or coniferous forests. This -adventitious source of beauty has much -to do with their general character, because -the gay show of blossom and -fruit, bright stem, and diverse habits -of growth of these lesser plants, contributes -appreciably to the liveliness of -sylvan scenery. But the effect derived -from the blossoms and fruits of many -of the trees themselves should not be -overlooked. In this respect the broadleaf -trees are superior to the evergreens. -The poplars and willows ripen their -woolly and silvery tassels when the -snow has scarcely disappeared. The -bright tufts of the red maple, the little -yellow flowers of the sassafras, the -snowy white ones of the serviceberry<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span> -and flowering dogwood, the latter’s -red berries in fall, the brilliant fruit -of the mountain ash, the perfect flowers -of the magnolias, the heavily clustered -locusts, honey locusts, and black -cherries, and the basswoods with -fragrant little creamy flowers, alike -do their part in lending character to -the forest wherever they may have -their range.</p> - -<p>Then, in addition to the beauty -that appeals to us through the outward -senses, there is a quality in the forests -that is dear to us through an inward -sense. It is the influence of a temperament -that seems to belong to the place -itself: the pure and health-giving atmosphere, -the quiet and rest that binds up -the wounded spirit and brings peace -to the troubled mind.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span></p> - -<p>We leave the turmoil of the city and -the thousand little cares of daily life -and seek refuge for a while in sylvan -retreats, in some pleasant leafy forest -with murmuring water and sunbeams; -and presently the ruffled concerns of -yesterday are smoothed away and the -forest, like sleep, “knits up the raveled -sleeve of care.”</p> - -<p>In the woods there is harmony in all -things; all things are subordinated to -one purpose and desire: that the best -may be made out of life, however small -the means. There is a kind of honesty -and truth here, and a self-sufficiency -in everything. Shakspere says, in the -words of Duke Senior, who stands surrounded -by his followers in the Forest -of Arden (“As You Like it,” act ii, -scene 1):—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent16">Are not these woods</div> - <div class="verse indent0">More free from peril than the envious court?</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Here feel we but the penalty of Adam,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The seasons’ difference; as, the icy fang</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And churlish chiding of the winter’s wind,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Which, when it bites and blows upon my body,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Even till I shrink with cold, I smile, and say,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">“This is no flattery: these are counselors</div> - <div class="verse indent0">That feelingly persuade me what I am.”</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent4">* * * * * * - </div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">And this our life, exempt from public haunt,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Sermons in stones, and good in everything.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="V">V<br /> - - -THE CONIFEROUS FORESTS</h2></div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">It</span> has already been said (<a href="#Page_31">page 31</a>) -that the evergreen or coniferous -forests differ from those described in -the foregoing chapter by a denser community -of growth and by their frequent -occurrence as “pure” forests. Their -gregariousness makes it proper to apply -such expressions as the “pine forests -of Michigan” and the “spruce forests -of Maine.” It will be seen presently -that these special characteristics are -esthetically important. Moreover, it is -a fact that they borrow much grandeur -and beauty from the atmospheric con<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span>ditions -of their environment, which, if -we except certain large tracts of pine -forests, is commonly placed among -mountains and at considerable elevations -above the sea. To these several -sources must be ascribed many of the -qualities that have invested the evergreen -forests with a peculiar magnificence -and beauty.</p> - -<p><a id="Image19"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp70" id="i167" style="max-width: 53.125em;"> - <img src="images/i167.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><small><i>Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry</i></small></p> -<p class="center">A Group of Conifers. Montana</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The reader may be surprised at the -statement that coniferous forests are -distinguished for a “dense community -of growth,” for it must have -been noticed that many of our Rocky -Mountain forests do not bear evidence -of this fact. And yet it is true that -the typical habit, so to speak, of the -conifers is a close huddling together of -individuals. It is shown in the massive -red fir forests of western Wash<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span>ington -and the redwoods of California, -which are probably the densest and -heaviest in the world; in the crowded -Engelmann spruce and alpine fir groves -common to certain soils and situations -in Colorado; and in the dense tracts of -lodgepole pine scattered throughout -the mountains of the West. In the -East the same tendency is illustrated -by the better sections of the Adirondack -spruce forests and the splendid pineries -that once covered the Great Lake region. -If we call to mind these extensive -examples, we realize how the conifers -ever strive to build a dense and -impenetrable forest. That they are capable -of a like growth in other parts -of the world also, will be attested by -those who have seen the spruce and fir -forests of Germany and France.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span></p> - -<p>While the regions that have just -been mentioned exhibit the health and -vigor of coniferous forests under favorable -natural conditions, there are certain -portions of the Rocky Mountains -where the climate is too dry and the -topography and soil are too austere -and rocky to suit even that hardy class -of trees. So here, under circumstances -that may almost be pronounced abnormal -for forest growth, the evergreens -fight a harder battle, while the broadleaf -trees, with the exception of the -poplar tribe, are scarce indeed. We -must, therefore, turn to the more typical -coniferous forests that have enjoyed -at least a fair share of nature’s -gifts—whether it be within the range -of the Rocky Mountains or elsewhere—to -understand those peculiar quali<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span>ties -that are connected with their surroundings -or their characteristic habits -of growth.</p> - -<p>One of the commonest attributes of -such forests is their grandeur; partly -inherent and in part also derived from -the sublimity of their surroundings. -Their situation is often in the midst of -wild and picturesque mountain scenery, -where they find a proper setting for -their own majestic forms among crags -and precipices and on the great shoulders -of mountains; where powerful -winds and severe snows test their endurance -and strength. It is here that -we chiefly find those awe-inspiring distant -views that harmonize so well with -the evergreen forests. The trees spread -over the mountains for miles and miles -in closely fledged masses, and become<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span> -more impressive with distance as the -color changes from a continuity of dark -green to shades of blue and soft, distant -purple. In form and color the -trees blend together and seem to move -up the dangerous slopes and difficult -passes in mighty multitudes.</p> - -<p><a id="Image20"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i173" style="max-width: 87.5em;"> - <img src="images/i173.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><small><i>Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry</i></small></p> -<p class="center">Mount Rainier. Washington</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Contributing to the same impression -of grandeur, we have the possibility in -these lofty regions of certain glorious -effects in sunlight and shade. At sunrise -the first rays flash on the pointed -tops of the uppermost trees, and with -the advancing hours descend the dark -slopes on their golden errand. Meanwhile -the western sides lie in shadow. -At noon a soft haze spreads through -the valleys, and in the twilight hours -the intense depth of purple in the distant -ranges, where stratus clouds catch<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</span> -the last rays of the sun, obscures the -contours of the forests and makes -them even more sublime. This, too, -were not possible without great mass -and uniformity of aspect.</p> - -<p>The interchange between lights and -shadows cast by the moving clouds is -nowhere so effectively exhibited as in -higher altitudes and over the surfaces of -evergreen forests. A wide expanse enables -us to follow with our eyes the interesting -chase of the cloud shadows, as -they fly up the slopes, the steeper the -faster, and glide noiselessly but swiftly -over outstretched areas of endless green. -The clouds seem to move faster over -mountain ranges, as a rule, than they -do over the low valleys. Or is it only -because now we see them nearer by and -can gage the rapidity of their flight?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</span></p> - -<p>Suppose, instead of a restless day, -it should be calm, with cloud masses -heaped in the sky and the sun sinking -low. There has been a loose snowfall -in the afternoon, and every twig, -branch, and spray hangs muffled in -snow. The rocks are capped with a -light cover and ribbed with snowy -lines along their sides. The air is -pure and breathless. The disappearing -sun sends back a rosy light to the -canopy of clouds overhead, and the -reflection falls upon masses of frosted, -whitened evergreens, lending them a -breath of color that deepens as the sun -sinks lower still; and the rays enter -the openings of the hills and flood the -opposite slopes, till they glow with a -fiery red.</p> - -<p>Thus the grandeur of these forests<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span> -may be due to expanse and volume, -depth of color, sunlight and shade, or -to effects borrowed from the clouds. -Finally, we notice another kind of -grandeur when coniferous forests are -visited by storms. First comes the -moaning of the wind, mysterious and -unsearchable, and different from the -roar and rush that sweeps through -the broadleaf woods. Then follows -the uneasy communication from tree -to tree, a trembling that spreads from -section to section. When the rush -of the wind finally strikes the tall, -straight forms they do not sway their -arms about as wildly as do the maples, -elms, or tulip trees, but bend and sway -throughout their length and rock majestically.</p> - -<p><a id="Image21"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i180" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i180.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">A Thicket of White Firs</div> -</div> - -<p>Not in outward aspect alone are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span> -these forests noble and stately. A -nobleness lies in the nature of the -living trees themselves; for, though -we may call them unconscious, it is -life still, and they are expressive with -meaning. Far simpler in their habits -and requirements than the broadleaf -trees, they are, nevertheless, more generous -to man. Endurance and hardship -is their lot, but noble form of -trunk and crown and useful soft wood -are the products of their life. There is -no forest mantle like theirs to shield -from the blast, especially when it is -formed of young thickets of the simple -but refined spruces and firs. -When, at the last, they yield their life -to man, it seems to me there is something -exalted even in the manner of -their fall. The tree hardly quivers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</span> -under the blows of the ax; a mere -trembling in the outermost twigs, and -then, hardly as if cut off from the -source of life, the tall, straight form -sinks slowly to the earth.</p> - -<p>Another common attribute of evergreen -forests is their characteristic -<i>silence</i>. Birds do not frequent them as -much as the leafy forests. In these -solitudes, far removed from village and -farm, there is often no sound but the -ring of the distant ax and the sough -of the wind. In winter, as we push -through the thickets of small spruces -or hemlocks, or stand for a while beneath -lofty pines, while all around is -muffled in snow, the silence seems sanctified -and vaster than elsewhere.</p> - -<p>In addition to their grandeur and -sublimity, and their silence, they are dis<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</span>tinguished -for an element of <i>softness</i>. -This is seen in the delicate texture and -pure color of their foliage, the effect of -which is heightened by being massed -in the dense forest. We have already -noticed the mild olive shade of the -eastern white pine. When the wind -blows through it, it seems as if the -foliage were melting away. It would -be difficult, also, to match the green -color of the red fir, especially as it -looks in winter; or the luxuriant bluish-gray -of the western blue spruce.</p> - -<p>A further softening in the general -effect of evergreen forests is produced -by the manner in which the trees intermingle -in the dense mass, merging -their sharp, individual outlines in the -rounded contours and upper surfaces of -the combined view. Near at hand, of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</span> -course, we cannot but notice the attenuated -forms and jagged edges of the -trees, which, indeed, are interesting -enough in themselves; but on looking -gradually into the distance we -find them thatching into one another, -closing up interstices and smoothing -away irregularities in a remarkable -way. This is particularly true of the -spruces and firs; but in some of the -opener pine forests, as, for example, in -the longleaf pines of the South, the -boughs and crowns themselves are -rounded into masses and pleasing -contours. It should be remembered, -also, that these effects are present in -winter as well as in summer.</p> - -<p>The element of softness is sometimes -brought into very beautiful association -with certain effects of mists and clouds.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span> -The indistinct contours and delicate -lights of the drifting vapors and cloud -forms, as they wander across the trees, -blend with the serene aspect of the -forest. At other times the clouds -gather into banks and lie motionless in -some valley or rest like a veil upon the -mountain tops. Wordsworth has described -these effects in his graphic -way by saying,—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Far-stretched beneath the many-tinted hills,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">A mighty waste of mist the valley fills,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">A solemn sea! whose billows wide around</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Stand motionless, to awful silence bound:</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Pines, on the coast, through mist their tops uprear</div> - <div class="verse indent0">That like to leaning masts of stranded ships appear.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>In spring or summer just before sunrise -it is very beautiful to see how these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span> -banks of vapor are lifted by the stirring -airs of the dawn, how the draperies of -mist draw apart and open up vistas of -the trees, which drip with moisture, -and are presently illumined by the -broad shafts of sunlight that pour down -upon them.</p> - -<p>Lest it be thought that only the -dense coniferous forests possess superior -qualities, I desire to put in a plea -for the open ones also.</p> - -<p><a id="Image22"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i187" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i187.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><small><i>Courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry</i></small></p> -<p class="center">An Open Forest in the Southwest</p></div> -</div> - -<p>It is a universal truth in nature that -when a living thing has made the best -possible use of its environment, when -the power within has been sacrificed -and united to the circumstances without, -there is evolved a dignity of character -and a resulting expression of fitness -and beauty. This principle is exemplified -in the very open forests of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span> -Southwest. In the mountain ranges of -New Mexico, Arizona, and southern -California the forests have a hard -struggle for existence. The winter -months at the higher elevations are severe; -in the summer rain is scarce, or -entirely absent, and the sun beats down -upon the dry earth through the rarefied -atmosphere with intense and desiccating -power. Naturally the forest trees are -scattered, and on the steep, crumbly -slopes, dry and rocky, they hug the -soil and cling to it with uncertain footing. -But in a sheltered ravine, or on -the back of a rounded ridge, or in a -slight swale or hollow of the mountain—repeatedly, -in fact, among those rugged -slopes—we meet with the dignity, -the beauty, and the peculiar expressiveness -of the open coniferous forest, with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span> -its fine definition and stereoscopic effects -and the depth and perspective of -its long vistas.</p> - -<p>On the crest of the mountain, where, -from the valley below, the early sunlight -is first seen to break through, the -trees, standing apart, do not appear so -much like a forest as like a congregation -of individuals, each with an identity -of its own. Indeed, there among the -fierce gales of autumn and winter each -shapes its own life in a glorious independence, -expressive in the knotty, -twisted boles and the picturesque -crowns. But in summer the breezes -strain through the foliage with the -lethargic sound of the ocean surge; or -a halcyon stillness reigns under a deep -blue, cloudless sky.</p> - -<p><a id="Image23"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i191" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i191.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">A Storm-beaten Veteran</div> -</div> - -<p>Large old trees, these, with a history,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span> -that have braved life together. They -have seen companion veterans fall by -their side, long ago, into the deep, -closely matted needle-mold. Thence -arose out of the moister hollows beneath -the rotting trunk and boughs a -new generation, and the greater number -of these have disappeared, too, -for some reason or another; only the -strongest at last leading, to take the -place of the departed. How dignified, -how simple are these old, stalwart -trees on the exposed ridge of the -mountain.</p> - -<p>Thus the coniferous forests, by virtue -of their inherent qualities and by -means of the effects they borrow from -their environment, possess a tone that -is as original and distinct as the character -of the forests belonging to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span> -other class. It has already been intimated -that the two are not always -strictly separable, but that individual -trees, or groups, or whole stretches of -woods of the one will sometimes mingle -with the other, a fact that has -probably been noticed by the most -casual observer. While the cone-bearers, -however, not infrequently descend -into the lower altitudes, the -leafy forest trees are not so apt to -be found at the high elevations at -which many of the former find their -natural home. Where the cone-bearers -are merely an addition to the broadleaf -woods they do not quite preserve their -identity, but rather impress us as being -merely a part in the general adornment -and composition of the forest to which -they belong. Where they remain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span> -“pure,” however, as they do, for instance, -in the pineries of the coastal -plain in the South, they never fail to -express, in one or another manner, -their individuality as a forest; as by -their uniformity in size and color, by -their odor, or by the scenic character -of the region of their occurrence.</p> - -<p>All the preceding qualities of coniferous -forests practically address themselves -in some manner to our physical -senses. But, like the broadleaf -forests, these also possess a trait that -rather addresses itself to our mood or -personal temperament. A characteristic -air of loneliness and wild seclusion -belongs to them that contrasts -strikingly with the cheerful tone of -the other class. It has been commonly -remarked that to some kinds of people<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span> -the coniferous forests are oppressive, at -least on first acquaintance. Such natures -feel the weight of their gloom and -lose their own buoyancy of spirit if they -stay too long within their confines; and -it is noticeable that even the inhabitants -of these lonely retreats are not -infrequently affected with a reticence -and a kind of melancholy that impresses -the stranger almost like a feeling -of resignation. This peculiar temperament, -however, may be judged too -hastily, and is understood better after -a time. It is probably true that the -familiar and accessible woods of valley -and plain, where trails and wood-roads -give us a feeling of security, are more -attractive and agreeable to most of us; -yet there is a wonderful charm about -those dark forests of the mountains<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span> -that have grown up in undisturbed -simplicity. After the first feeling of -strangeness wears off, as it soon will, -they grow companionable and interesting. -There is a virtue in the sturdy -forms that have grown to maturity -without aid or interference by man. -We would not change them in that -place for the most beautiful trees in a -park. Even the woodsman, whose -days are spent here in the hardest toil, -feels a longing for the forest, his home, -when his short respite in the summer -is over. So we, too, though we may -long for civilization after a few months -in the forest, will yet feel the desire to -return to it after once thoroughly making -its acquaintance.</p> - -<p>The attitude of the woodsman toward -the forest is much like the af<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span>fection -which the sailor has for the -ocean. There is, indeed, a similarity -between their callings, and even the elements -in which they pass their lives -are not so dissimilar in reality as may -appear on the surface. In his vast -domain of evergreen trees that cover -mountain and valley, the woodsman, -too, is shut out from the busier haunts -of men. He lives for months in his -sequestered camp or cabin, where his -bed is often only a narrow bunk of -boughs or straw. His food is simple -and his clothing rough and plain, to -suit the conditions of his life. A -large part of the time he is out in -snow and rain, tramping over rough -rock and soil. The camps that are -scattered through the forest are to him -like islands, where he can turn aside<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span> -for food and rest when on some longer -journey than usual.</p> - -<p>Like the sailor he also has learned -some of the secrets of nature. He -does not usually possess a compass, -but he can tell its points by more -familiar signs: by the pendent tops -of the hemlocks, which usually bend -toward the east, or by the mossy sides -of the trees, which are generally -in the direction of the coolest and -moistest quarter of the heavens. In -an extreme case he will even mount -one of the tallest of the trees to find -his bearings in his oceanlike forest. -If well judged, the sighing of the -wind in the boughs, I have been told, -says much about the coming weather; -just as the sickly wash of the waves -means something to the sailor. Withal,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span> -both he and the woodsman are natural -and generally honest fellows, hard -workers at perilous callings, and less -apt to speak than to commune with -their own thoughts.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="VI">VI<br /> - - -THE ARTIFICIAL FORESTS OF EUROPE</h2></div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">To</span> some of us, in this age of travel, -the forests of Europe have become -as familiar as our own. As -scenic objects they have their faults -and their excellences. While we appreciate -their order and neatness, and -the beautiful effects that may arise out -of the subordination of all components -of the forest to one main purpose, we -Americans always miss in them the -freshness of nature.</p> - -<p>These forests, as they now stand, -are the result of a long-continued ap<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</span>plication -of the scientific principles of -forestry, under special conditions, to -the European forests of old. Having -referred repeatedly to forestry itself, -I now purpose, to the extent which a -single chapter will permit, to explain -the sources of beauty, or the absence of -it, in these artificial forests. I shall -thus place in contrast with our own, -which are just beginning to undergo -a new process of development, those of -Europe, which have long been subjected -to one in many respects similar.</p> - -<p>The importance of forests had long -been understood by the people of -Europe. The relation which they held -to civilized life, both in a material way -and otherwise, led, more than a century -ago, to a systematic and scientific -treatment. It was realized that these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span> -forests might be made perpetual, and -so might furnish a constant supply of -useful material; that they economized -and regulated the flow of mountain -streams, which are always of great -importance to the agricultural lands of -subjacent regions; that they held in -place the loose soil of the slopes, thus -averting avalanches and ruinous floods; -that they broke the force of the winds, -tempered and purified the air, and I -may add, inspired man with better and -happier thoughts.</p> - -<p>For these reasons the people of Europe -determined to guard their forests -well, and to aid nature, if possible, in -becoming still more useful to man. -To this end they made a careful study -of the life history of the forest, and -investigated the requirements of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</span> -trees and their rates of growth under -varying conditions of soil, heat, light, -and moisture. They also studied the -numerous dangers to which the forest -is exposed, and invented means and -established laws for its protection. In -short, they effected an ingenious adjustment -between the needs of the -forest and the requirements of man, -and in course of time laid the foundations -for a new system that was destined -to be of great importance to the -economic interests of nations.</p> - -<p>Many sciences were involved in the -solution of these questions. With -the progress in means and methods the -aims and objects of the new profession -gradually grew to be more and -more clearly defined, and knowledge -and experience ultimately evolved the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</span> -new science of forestry. To the forester -were finally intrusted the reëstablishment, -protection and preservation, -the improvement, the regulation, the -management and administration, as -well as the final cutting, of the forest.</p> - -<p>Such interference with the work of -nature ultimately affected its aspect. -In the long life of the forest the -changes were slow, but in course of -time the stamp of artificiality was impressed -upon it, and the imprint of -nature’s own countenance was taken -away. To an American, if he has -seen a little of our wildness, a great -charm is wanting in the artificial forests -of Europe. The sun does not seem -to set naturally, but to hide behind -roads and houses. It may be a lifelike -and harmonious scene, but it does<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</span> -not speak as deeply and expressively -as our wilder woods. The necessity -of it is thrust upon you. It seems, at -times, as if the free will and perfect -liberty of the air and rain, of the wind, -were wanting.</p> - -<p>These forests are crossed by roads -and are often divided into sections of -distinct age, kind, and appearance. -Shrubs, if any, are few. The deer’s -track is known. The history of these -trees is known and recorded, and even -their doom is fixed for a near or distant -day.</p> - -<p>There is, however, another side to -this question. Through their very design -and fitness for an intended object -the effects that are produced are often -decidedly pleasing. What these effects -are will now appear from an examina<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span>tion -of the four different types or -classes that constitute at present the -artificial forests of Europe.</p> - -<p>The type of artificial forest that -differs least from our own eastern -woods is one that has received the -name of “selection forest.” It constitutes -a transition to the more complex -forms. As in our own case, trees of -different kinds and of various sizes -are intermingled in the forest; but the -European forest has more uniformity -than ours, and expresses a conceived -purpose. This is readily explained by -the fact that from the beginning of -the new method the trees were never -removed indiscriminately from the -wooded area, but that a careful selection -was made from time to time of -certain kinds, according to size and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</span> -usefulness. Useful material, however, -was not the sole consideration. The -cutting was intended also to improve -the conditions of growth for the trees -that remained standing, and to increase -the proportion of the species that were -most useful or desirable. Finally, by -opening up the forest to a proper degree -of sunlight, the way was prepared -for the germination of seeds that might -fall from the old trees, in order to provide -early for a new generation in the -forest.</p> - -<p><a id="Image24"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i209" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i209.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">A German “Selection Forest”</div> -</div> - -<p>It will be readily understood, I believe, -that in course of time such a -forest would betray to the eye a certain -gradation in the sizes of the trees, -and a fixed proportion in the number -of those belonging to one or another -species. To this extent the selection<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</span> -forests differ from our second-growth -woods of the East; and yet, as compared -to the other three European -types, their principal merit, esthetically, -is their naturalness. Though -very different from our virgin forests, -they nevertheless possess the variety, -cheerfulness, and interesting play of -light and shade that have been noted -in an earlier chapter. In Germany -they are usually somewhat precise and -trim in appearance; but in France and -elsewhere they look a little wilder, and -are often enlivened with holly or ivy, -some sportive raspberry, or other gay -shrub or vine. In European countries -where forestry has become thoroughly -established this type of forest has gradually -disappeared, or has diminished -greatly in proportion, in order to make<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</span> -way for the other more highly developed -forms.</p> - -<p>The young forest growth that goes -by the name of “coppice” is linked to -the preceding kind by the association of -time, for it is also one of the old forms. -The sound of the word brings to mind -the copses of England, those sportive -little thickets that we may have -read about, or seen running along the -streams, or straggling over the hills. -But the coppice of Germany or France -is not quite the same as the copse of -England. It is a young forest of businesslike -aspect, in which a design for -usefulness is unmistakable. The purpose -in it is to reap an approximately -equal harvest each year, such as firewood -from beeches, hornbeams, or the -like, withes from willows, charcoal from -chestnut, or tanbark from oak.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</span></p> - -<p>The means to accomplish the end are -very simple. Only one kind of tree -composes the coppice, and the forest is -graded in sections, each a year older -than the preceding. It is like a series -of blocks, in which each is a little taller -than the last. The tallest falls by the -ax, and the next the following year, -and so through the series till the cycle -is completed, when it may be resumed -as before. The repetition is possible -because a tree is chosen for this kind -of forest that will renew itself by naturally -sprouting from the stump that is -always left after cutting.</p> - -<p>The coppice woods must be seen to -appreciate their charm. They have a -distinct flavor and a character that one -easily remembers after a first acquaintance. -Not too far removed from the -town or village, yet often hidden in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</span> -some secluded part of the hills, we find -the coppice a neat-looking place. The -small wood that has been cut is carefully -stacked along the roadside in -bundles or cords. Within one of the -sections we see the wood-cutters at -work with their axes and bill-hooks, -and can fancy them trudging home -contentedly at the close of day. We -find the rabbits taking the coppice for -their own, sporting about and wearing -tracks in the thickets. A quiet place, -and homelike withal. We can look -out above the thicket of young trees -at the sky and the older environing -woods. The sounds come mellowed -through the distance to this open spot, -as of the heavy ax in the large woods, -or the song of some woman in the far -valley.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</span></p> - -<p>We have no coppice woods just like -these in America. Our willow farms -are the only ones that have been subjected -to a system like the one described, -and these are entirely too -low to be called woods. They are -graded in size and age from one to -four years, and separated into blocks, -just like the willow coppices of Germany. -At a distance the lithe stems -with diminutive tufts of foliage at the -top, standing in straight rows, almost -as dense as grain, have more the appearance -of an agricultural product -than a tree farm.</p> - -<p>The Christmas tree plantations, a -kind of forest gardening, as it were, -remind us of the coppice in appearance, -but cannot truly be called such. -As the conifers that furnish us with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</span> -Christmas trees are not capable of -sprouting from the stump, the growers -must depend upon planting for their -propagation, which is a principle directly -opposed to the idea of coppice.</p> - -<p>Throughout the Eastern States there -is an abundance of broadleaf stump-sprout -thickets, which have come by -inheritance to the ground from which -their progenitors were removed by the -wood-cutter’s ax. While some of these -approach nearly to the European coppices -in intention, they do not bear out -the resemblance sufficiently for a comparison. -They lack their system and -structure, though they depend upon -the same power of reproduction for -their existence. Nevertheless, they -have their own charm. I remember -one, at the edge of a tall forest, in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</span> -which the sprouts were composed of -oak, beech, hickory, tulip tree, dogwood, -haw, and a few pine saplings, -all of which formed a dense thicket of -young trees. In summer it was pleasant -to thread one’s way through this -place, quite concealed by the straight -young growth, or to lie down there -and listen for a whole morning to the -twitterings and songs of birds, shut in -by a wealth of foliage.</p> - -<p>There is another type of European -forest known as “coppice under standards.” -This is no more than a coppice -growing underneath a selection forest -somewhat different in aspect from the -one already described. In the present -case the selection forest is opener, the -trees being fewer in number. Ample -light is thus admitted for the growth of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</span> -the coppice beneath. The appearance -of the whole is that of an open forest -into which the younger thickets have -penetrated.</p> - -<p>The esthetic effect of this combination -may be described in very few -words. While the coppice loses much -of its charm, the overspreading forest -gains something by this sacrifice. The -former keeps the soil in fair and fresh -condition, thus insuring a healthy -growth to the large trees. It also -shades the lower portions of their -trunks, in consequence of which many -of them develop into clean specimens, -with strong, well-rounded stems, and -graceful, wide-spreading crowns.</p> - -<p>The last of the four types, the “high -forest,” is the most artificial and highly -developed of the series. In its construc<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</span>tion -it is in some respects like the coppice; -for, as in that type, there is a -uniformity of size in the trees on restricted -areas, and the species that -compose the entire forest are very limited -in number. Coniferous high forests, -which are the most common, are -often composed of only a single kind -of tree, and broadleaf forests of the -same type rarely contain more than -two or three species. These forests, -like the coppice, comprise a full complement -of sizes and ages, each confined -to a separate section; but the -steps are not single years, as in the -coppice, but periods of ten or twenty -years, or even more; so that the high -forest, above all, is a much taller and -older one. The sections that compose -it are not regular in outline, ex<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</span>cept -in certain forests on flats and -levels, nor do they necessarily lie -side by side in the consecutive order of -size and age. Finally, the high forest -also differs from the coppice in the -manner of its origin; for, while the -former owes its existence to seedlings -that have grown up spontaneously, or -been sown or planted, the coppice is a -young forest that has sprouted from -the stumps of trees that have been cut.</p> - -<p><a id="Image25"></a></p> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i221" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i221.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">A “High Forest” of Spruce in Saxony</div> -</div> - -<p>Thus the high forest, while it may -be compared with the coppice in its -construction, is yet in certain respects -so different from it as to convey a very -distinct impression. I here disregard -the younger portions of the forest, for, -in the light of the present discussion, -they are merely preparatory to the -mature forest, destined to be useful<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</span> -only after the completeness of age. In -the older portions the one distinguishing -characteristic is simple dignity. -To this one quality all other points of -excellence or beauty conform and adjust -themselves. The young tree or -the casual shrub that may have found -its way into the company of the centenarians, -is welcome; but the absorbing -interest lies in the noble grandeur -of the old trees that have grown up -together. Some, under the influence -of better soil or more light, have done -better than others; but they are all -sound and stately trees, and together -represent the best product of the forest. -Long ago other trees that grew in -their midst, but were less promising, -were removed for the sake of these. -Under their continuous roof of foliage<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</span> -there is a cool, deep shade. The -ground is scattered with fern, or covered -with deep beds of leaves, or with -the glossy needles of the conifers. If -the forest has originated from seeds -borne by a generation of trees that -previously occupied the same spot, and -the seeds germinated here and there -and sprouted into a new forest upon -the removal of the old, we shall now -find the trees distributed in natural -positions. Where, however, the new -forest has been planted, which is often -the case with the conifers, the trees -stand in close rank and file, and we -walk among their columns as in natural -aisles and corridors. Here there -is hardly a shrub to shut out the -gloomy distance, and only at intervals -a stray intruder with exceptional<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</span> -powers of shade endurance, a dwarfed -yew tree, or a beech with refined, fan-like -spray, comes into notice in the -vista.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>If these are some of the changes -that are wrought in forests through -the application of a new science, if, -through forestry in Europe, one kind -of beauty has passed away and another -kind has been called forth, will our -own forests, it may be asked, undergo -in time similar alterations? -We cannot doubt that they will grow -more artificial; but under the modified -application of the science of forestry -to our own conditions, so different -from those of Europe, the esthetic -changes to be looked for would be -difficult to predict. Nor would these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</span> -changes be predetermined, but, on the -contrary, would depend very largely -upon chance. It should be noted -that forestry and landscape art are distinct; -that the former, ordinarily, is -not affected by the latter, and has its -own ends and aims—those of material -usefulness. I say <i>ordinarily</i>, because -there are circumstances under which -forestry <i>might</i>, with slight modifications -and without a compromise to its -own interests, adjust itself to some of -the principles of landscape art. Indeed, -this possible adjustment has been -a subject of interest in Germany for -more than twenty years, and the feasibility -of a relationship between landscape -art and forestry has been practically -demonstrated by a noted German -forester, Herr Heinrich von Salisch, on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</span> -his own estates. This gentleman has -applied to them the practical methods -of approved forestry under such modifications -as his experience and taste -suggested, and has thereby not only -made his forest profitable, but also -more beautiful than it was before.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> - -<p>With respect to our own forests it -may be asserted that most of the private -forest holdings of the United -States, and probably all our national -forest reserves,<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> as such, are destined -primarily to serve purposes of utility, -and very often to serve such purposes -only. There are, however, a number -of large forest estates owned by individuals, -and some belonging to commonwealths -and municipalities, which -are esteemed as highly for their scenic -character as for their material value,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</span> -and pass in the public mind as emphatically -under the name of parks as they -occur to it in the light of financial -investments. Such, for instance, are -the Adirondack State Park and several -large private forest estates in the -same region, as well as certain large -tracts of exceptionally beautiful forest -in the western part of North Carolina -and about the head waters of the Mississippi, -which have now for some time -attracted wide attention as desirable -public possessions.</p> - -<p>In such forests as these, esthetic -considerations might suggest certain -departures from the ordinary methods -of forestry. Some people apparently -wish to go further, and believe that -certain portions of these tracts should -remain entirely undisturbed, in order<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</span> -that their primeval character may be -preserved for the enjoyment of all -future generations.</p> - -<p>The idea of a forest park, intact -and inviolable, calls to mind our national -parks of the West, which were -actually established by Congress for -that very purpose. Possessing, as they -do, wonders of nature and exceptional -scenery, these parks have been thought -worthy of preservation solely for their -own sakes. This difference in intention -chiefly distinguishes them from -the national reserves; so that, while -the latter stand for the material benefit -of the nation—whether it be directly, -in the value of the timber, or indirectly, -through the influence of the forest on -the flow of streams—the value of the -parks, on the other hand, speaks out of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</span> -their own countenance. Their merit -consists in the influence of beauty and -sublime scenery on the moral state of -man. They are healthful, vigorous -breathing-places, where noise and -smoke and harassing cares are laid -aside.</p> - -<p>It is well to bear this distinction in -mind, because it appears not to be -clearly recognized. While the reserves -do not necessarily exclude some -of the special advantages of the parks, -their value lies, above all, in their -stores of wealth. In this connection -it may be said, for instance, that the -designation “Adirondack Park,” that -is currently applied to the State forest -of northern New York, is a somewhat -misleading expression; for, although -its beauty is well known and appreci<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</span>ated -and the State Constitution at -present even forbids any cutting within -its limits, yet the most competent -judges believe that the Adirondack -forest is exceedingly well fitted for the -purposes of practical forestry. Indeed, -several private tracts within that region -already constitute the best known examples -of practical forestry in our -country. If, however, it is intended -to separate certain portions from the -remainder, either within this region or -that of the proposed Minnesota reserve, -and to preserve these for their unique -or exceptional character, these segregated -tracts are parks in themselves, -and should so be called.</p> - -<p>But the identity of our five national -parks in the farther West is unmistakable; -and these would appear to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</span> -suggest neither forestry proper, nor -landscape forestry, nor even landscape -art. In them nature speaks for -herself. The tasteful and well judged -construction of roads and trails that -shall be in harmony with the scenes -through which they pass, or, better -still, that shall be as unobtrusive as -possible, is evidently a necessity if the -parks are to be enjoyed by large numbers -of people. In exceptional cases -the ax may be needed for the very -preservation of the forest. But the -principal care should be to protect -these forests from fire, defacement, -and spoliation. For to us and future -generations the parks stand, above -all, as examples of the glory of our -primeval forests.</p> - -<p>The groves of big trees in the na<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</span>tional -parks of California, the geologic -wonders of Yellowstone, and the specimens -of arctic fauna still living among -the matchless glaciers of Mount Rainier, -are national possessions of great -interest, for whose preservation not -only Americans, but distinguished Europeans -also, have pleaded. These, -then, are ours for their own sakes; -but most of our other national forest -possessions will undoubtedly have to -submit to further development and to -the dictates of a sterner necessity.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="NOTES">NOTES</h2> -</div> - -<div class="hangsection"> - -<p class="pnb"><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a></p> -<p>Note 1, page 5. There are about fifty distinct species -of oak indigenous to the United States.</p> - - -<p class="pnb"><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a></p> -<p>Note 2, page 23. The bloom of the dogwood begins -to wither and fall with the appearance of -the leaves. In the illustration facing page 22 several -leaves are seen among the bloom, but they -belong to the bough of a neighboring tulip tree.</p> - - -<p class="pnb"><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a></p> -<p>Note 3, page 47. The juniper berries are in reality -transformed cones.</p> - - -<p class="pnb"><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a></p> -<p>Note 4, page 52. The habit of the firs in early life -is shown in the plate facing page 125.</p> - - -<p class="pnb"><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a></p> -<p>Note 5, page 63. Curiously enough, the old English -conception of a forest was chiefly that of a -hunting ground, irrespective of the trees growing -there. Consequently some forests were very -open stretches of ground.</p> - - -<p class="pnb"><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a></p> -<p>Note 6, page 71. The red-winged blackbird lingers -in the Southern States through the winter.</p> - - -<p class="pnb"><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a></p> -<p>Note 7, page 163. German forestry—and, in a less -degree, European forestry also—is indebted to -Herr von Salisch for elaborating the idea that -forest art can be united with practical, utilitarian -forestry. His book on “Forest Esthetics,” which -fills a unique place in the literature of forestry, -is an exposition of this interesting subject, based -upon mature knowledge and experience. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</span></p> - - -<p class="pnb"><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a></p> -<p>Note 8, page 163. To the reader who is not familiar -with the origin of our forest reserves it may -be of interest to know how they became established. -By an act of Congress of March 3rd, 1891, -the President was empowered to segregate from -time to time, and for the benefit of the American -people, forest areas situated within the limits -of the public lands of the United States. In accordance -with this act proclamations were issued -by Presidents Cleveland, Harrison, and McKinley, -reserving forest areas amounting thus far (September -1st, 1901) to 46,398,369 acres, or approximately -72,500 square miles. There are, however, -within these areas numerous <i>bona fide</i> holdings -of private ownership, in which the owners are -carrying on extensive cutting of timber.</p> - -<p>The reserves have been placed under the authority -of the Commissioner of the General Land -Office, Department of the Interior, and are entrusted -to the care of specially appointed superintendents, -supervisors, and rangers. Some of -these forest tracts are now undergoing a careful -study by experts in forestry, with the aim of subjecting -them to methods of treatment specially -adapted to them, in order that they may yield -both useful material and a constant revenue, -without impairing the productive power or vitality -of the forest. The objects will thereby be fulfilled -for which these reserves were established.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</span></p> - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<h2> -INDEX TO THE NAMES OF TREES<br /> -<small>and the Synonyms in Common Use</small> -</h2> - -<p class="center"><small>By special permission of the Division of Publications, U. S. Department of Agriculture</small></p> -<hr class="small" /> - -<p class="center"><small><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—<i>Only the trees that have been specially described or compared are included in the index</i></small></p> - -<table class="standard" summary="index"> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">COMMON NAME</td> -<td class="tdlb">SCIENTIFIC NAME</td> -<td class="tdrb">PAGE</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3">BROADLEAF TREES</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Basswood</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Tilia americana</i> Linn.</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. American Linden</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Limetree</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Whitewood</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Beetree</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Beech</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Fagus atropunicea</i> (Marsh.) Sudworth</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Red Beech</td> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. <i>Fagus ferruginea</i> Ait.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. White Beech -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Big Laurel</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Magnolia fœtida</i> (Linn.) Sargent</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Magnolia</td> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. <i>Magnolia grandiflora</i> Linn.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Bull Bay</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Black Cherry</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Prunus serotina</i> Ehrh.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Wild Black Cherry</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Wild Cherry</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Rum Cherry</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">California Black Oak</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Quercus californica</i> (Torr.) Coop.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Black Oak</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Canyon Live Oak</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Quercus chrysolepis</i> Liebm.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Live Oak</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Chestnut</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Castanea dentata</i> (Marsh.) Borkh.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. <i>Castanea vesca β americana</i> Michx.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb"></td> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. <i>Castanea vulgaris ν americana</i> A. de C. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Flowering Dogwood</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Cornus florida</i> Linn.</td> -<td class="tdrb">16, 22, 73</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Dogwood</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Boxwood</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Honey Locust</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Gleditsia triacanthos</i> Linn.</td> -<td class="tdrb">17, 113</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Black Locust</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Sweet Locust</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Thorn Locust</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Three-thorned Acacia</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Hornbeam</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Carpinus caroliniana</i> Walt.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Blue Beech</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Water Beech</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Iron wood</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Live Oak</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Quercus virginiana</i> Mill.</td> -<td class="tdrb">6, 110</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. <i>Quercus virens</i> Ait.</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Locust</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Robinia pseudacacia</i> Linn.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Black Locust</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Yellow Locust -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Mountain Ash</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Pyrus americana</i> (Marsh.) de C.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Redbud</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Cercis canadensis</i> Linn.</td> -<td class="tdrb">73, 75</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Judas Tree</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Red Maple</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Acer rubrum</i> Linn.</td> -<td class="tdrb">12, 15, 112</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Swamp Maple</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Soft Maple</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Water Maple</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Red Oak</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Quercus rubra</i> Linn.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Black Oak</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Sassafras</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Sassafras sassafras</i> (Linn.) Karst.</td> -<td class="tdrb">18, 112</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. <i>Sassafras officinale</i> Nees & Eberm.</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Scarlet Oak</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Quercus coccinea</i> Muenchh.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Red Oak</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Black Oak -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Serviceberry</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Amelanchier canadensis</i> (Linn.)</td> -<td class="tdlb">75, 112</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Juneberry</td> -<td class="tdlb">Medic.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Shad Bush</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Sugar Maple</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Acer saccharum</i> Marsh.</td> -<td class="tdlb">12, 15</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Hard Maple</td> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. <i>Acer saccharinum</i> Wang.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Rock Maple</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Sugar Tree</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Sweet Gum</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Liquidambar styraciflua</i> Linn.</td> -<td class="tdrb">16, 111</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Red Gum</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Liquidamber</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Sweet Magnolia</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Magnolia glauca</i> Linn.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Sweet Bay</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. White Bay</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Swamp Laurel</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Swamp Magnolia -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Tulip Tree</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Liriodendron tulipifera</i> Linn.</td> -<td class="tdrb">16, 24</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Whitewood</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Sour Gum</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Pepperidge</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Tupelo</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Nyssa sylvatica</i> Marsh.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Black Gum</td> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. <i>Nyssa multiflora</i> Wang.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Sour Gum</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Pepperidge</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">White Birch</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Betula populifolia</i> Marsh.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Gray Birch</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">White Elm</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Ulmus americana</i> Linn.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. American Elm</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Water Elm</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Elm</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">White Oak</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Quercus alba</i> Linn.</td> -<td class="tdrb">5 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Yellow Birch</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Betula lutea Michx.</i> f.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Gray Birch</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3">CONIFERS</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Arborvitæ</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Thuja occidentalis</i> Linn.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. White Cedar</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Cedar</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Bald Cypress</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Taxodium distichum</i> (Linn.) Rich.</td> -<td class="tdrb">40, 111</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. White Cypress</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Black Cypress</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Red Cypress</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Cypress</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Big Tree</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Sequoia washingtoniana</i> (Winsl.) Sudworth</td> -<td class="tdlb"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Sequoia</td> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. <i>Sequoia gigantea</i> Decaisne. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Black Hemlock</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Tsuga mertensiana</i> (Bong.) Carr.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. <i>Tsuga pattoniana</i> (Jeffr.) Engelm.</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Blue Spruce</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Picea parryana</i> (André) Parry</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. <i>Picea pungens</i> Engelm.</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Bull Pine</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Pinus ponderosa</i> Laws.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Yellow Pine</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Cuban Pine</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Pinus heterophylla</i> (Ell.) Sudworth</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Slash Pine</td> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. <i>Pinus cubensis</i> Grieseb.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Swamp Pine</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Douglas Spruce</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Pseudotsuga taxifolia</i> (Lam.) Britton</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Red Fir</td> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. <i>Pseudotsuga douglasii</i> Carr.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Douglas Fir</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Yellow Fir</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Oregon Pine -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Engelmann Spruce</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Picea engelmanni</i> Engelm.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. White Spruce</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Hemlock</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Tsuga canadensis</i> (Linn.) Carr.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Spruce</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Spruce Pine</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Loblolly Pine</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Pinus tæda</i> Linn.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Oldfield Pine</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Shortleaf Pine</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Lodgepole Pine</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Pinus murrayana</i> “Oreg. Com.”</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Tamarack</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Spruce Pine</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Longleaf Pine</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Pinus palustris</i> Mill.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Longleaved Pine</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Georgia Pine</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Yellow Pine</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Longstraw Pine -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Lowland Fir</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Abies grandis</i> Lindl.</td> -<td class="tdrb">50, 52</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. White Fir</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Pitch Pine</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Pinus rigida</i> Mill.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Red Fir.—See Douglas Spruce.</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Red Juniper</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Juniperus virginiana</i> Linn.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Red Cedar</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Cedar</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Savin</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Redwood</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Sequoia sempervirens</i> (Lamb.) Endl.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Sequoia</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Silver Pine</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Pinus monticola</i> Dougl.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. White Pine</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Sugar Pine</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Pinus lambertiana</i> Dougl.</td> -<td class="tdrb">35 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">Western Hemlock</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Tsuga heterophylla</i> (Raf.) Sargent</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Syn. Hemlock</td> -<td class="tdl">Syn. <i>Tsuga mertensiana</i> of authors.(Not Carr.)</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">White Cedar</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Chamæcyparis thyoides</i> (L.) B. S. P.</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. Juniper</td> -<td class="tdlb">Syn. <i>Chamæcyparis sphæroidea</i> Spach.</td> -</tr> -<tr class="trh"> -<td class="tdlb">White Pine</td> -<td class="tdlb"><i>Pinus strobus</i> Linn.</td> -<td class="tdrb">31, 127</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOREST TREES AND FOREST SCENERY ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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