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+
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #66246 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/66246)
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-The Project Gutenberg eBook of Our Atomic World, by C. Jackson Craven
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
-will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
-using this eBook.
-
-Title: Our Atomic World
-       The Story of Atomic Energy
-
-Author: C. Jackson Craven
-
-Release Date: September 8, 2021 [eBook #66246]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading
-             Team at https://www.pgdp.net
-
-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUR ATOMIC WORLD ***
-
-
-
-
-                            OUR ATOMIC WORLD
-
-
-                          by C. Jackson Craven
-
-
-                       THE STORY OF ATOMIC ENERGY
-
-
-                     U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION
-                   Division of Technical Information
-                    _Understanding the Atom Series_
-
-
-
-
-                   The Understanding the Atom Series
-
-
-Nuclear energy is playing a vital role in the life of every man, woman,
-and child in the United States today. In the years ahead it will affect
-increasingly all the peoples of the earth. It is essential that all
-Americans gain an understanding of this vital force if they are to
-discharge thoughtfully their responsibilities as citizens and if they
-are to realize fully the myriad benefits that nuclear energy offers
-them.
-
-The United States Atomic Energy Commission provides this booklet to help
-you achieve such understanding.
-
-                                                  {Edward J. Brunenkant}
-                                          Edward J. Brunenkant, Director
-                                       Division of Technical Information
-
-  UNITED STATES ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION
-
-  Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg, Chairman
-  James T. Ramey
-  Wilfrid E. Johnson
-  Dr. Theos J. Thompson
-  Dr. Clarence E. Larson
-
-
-
-
-                            OUR ATOMIC WORLD
-
-
-                          by C. Jackson Craven
-
-
-
-
-                                CONTENTS
-
-
-  THE GREEKS WERE CURIOUS ABOUT MATTER                                 1
-  THE ATOMIC THEORY IS CONFIRMED                                       2
-  CATHODE RAYS SHOW ATOMS CONTAIN SMALLER PARTS                        3
-  RADIOACTIVE ATOMS DISCOVERED                                         5
-  RUTHERFORD FINDS THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS                                  6
-  THE PROTON IS RECOGNIZED                                             8
-  ISOTOPES ARE DISCOVERED                                              9
-  THE ALCHEMISTS’ DREAM COMES TRUE                                    10
-  SOME PARTICLES HAVE NO ELECTRIC CHARGE                              13
-  MATTER IS ENERGY; ENERGY IS MATTER                                  14
-  NUCLEI CONTAIN ENERGY                                               15
-  CHRONOLOGY                                                          18
-  FISSION IS EXPLAINED                                                20
-  THE FISSION BOMB IS EXPLODED                                        23
-  NUCLEAR ENERGY IS NEEDED FOR THE FUTURE                             25
-  FUSION HAS POTENTIAL                                                26
-  ISOTOPES HAVE MANY USES                                             29
-  RADIOISOTOPES AT WORK                                               30
-  THE ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION                                        31
-  TOWARD AN INTERNATIONAL ATOM                                        33
-  SUGGESTED REFERENCES                                                35
-
-
-                 United States Atomic Energy Commission
-                   Division of Technical Information
-           Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 63-64918
-                           1963; 1964 (Rev.)
-
-    [Illustration: The cover is a time-exposed photograph of an animated
-    model of a uranium-235 atom. The center represents the nucleus,
-    greatly exaggerated in size. The fine lines represent the electrons
-    whirling about the nucleus.
-    Courtesy Union Carbide Corporation]
-
-C. JACKSON CRAVEN is a teacher’s teacher as well as a student’s teacher,
-and has had an active career aiding understanding of atomic energy as a
-member of the University of Tennessee faculty and on the staff of the
-Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies. He has conducted short courses
-to instruct groups of high school science teachers in nuclear energy,
-and has served in a key capacity in training Institute
-demonstration-lecturers who visit high schools throughout the nation.
-
-Dr. Craven worked during World War II for the Manhattan Project, which
-built the first atomic bomb. He earned bachelor’s and graduate degrees
-at the University of North Carolina, and later taught physics and
-mathematics at Delta State Teachers College and at Furman and Emory
-Universities.
-
-His research interests include infrared spectroscopy, gaseous diffusion
-through porous media, and the physical properties of fibers.
-
-
-
-
-                            OUR ATOMIC WORLD
-
-
-                          By C. Jackson Craven
-
-  _The story of atomic energy evolves from the curiosity of people
-  concerning the nature and structure of matter, the stuff of which all
-  material things are made._
-
-
-
-
-                  The Greeks Were Curious About Matter
-
-
-Certain philosophers of ancient Greece—Democritus for one—were
-fascinated by the question: _what is matter?_ You can imagine one of the
-philosophers saying to his pupils:
-
-“Gentlemen, let us consider a piece of cheese. With a knife we can cut
-it in two, thus obtaining smaller pieces. We can then cut one of these
-smaller pieces in two, obtaining still smaller pieces. We can _think_
-about repeating this process over and over to get smaller and smaller
-pieces of cheese. Now can this process be continued without limit, or
-will a time come when we arrive at the smallest possible piece of
-cheese? In other words, is there a piece so small that we must have at
-least that much or none, with no choice in between?”
-
-It is probable that most people who thought about this question at all
-during the next two thousand years answered the last question in the
-negative. The prevailing notion was that matter was continuous, with no
-theoretical limit as to how small a piece of cheese, or anything else,
-might be.
-
-This concept was humorously expressed by the British mathematician
-Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871) in these lines:
-
-  _Great fleas have little fleas upon their backs to bite ’em,
-  And little fleas have lesser fleas, and so, ad infinitum._
-
-
-
-
-                     The Atomic Theory Is Confirmed
-
-
-De Morgan evidently did not keep up with the latest developments in
-science, however, because two years before his birth, John Dalton, an
-English schoolteacher, had changed the atomic theory of matter from a
-philosophical speculation into a firmly established principle. The
-evidence that convinced Dalton and many other contemporary scientists of
-the reality of atoms came from quantitative chemical analysis.
-
-Dalton knew that many chemical substances could be separated into two or
-more simpler substances. Chemicals that could be separated further were
-called compounds; those that could not were called elements. Careful
-experiments by Dalton and others showed that whenever two or more
-elements combined chemically to make a compound the relative amounts of
-the elements had to be carefully adjusted to fit a definite proportion
-in order to have no elements left over after the reaction was finished.
-For example, if hydrogen and oxygen were combined to form water, the
-weight of oxygen had to be eight times the weight of hydrogen;
-otherwise, either some hydrogen or some oxygen would be left over.
-
-This fundamental truth is now called the Law of Definite Proportions.
-Another important principle, called the Law of Multiple Proportions, is
-illustrated by hydrogen peroxide, which is made up of the same two
-elements that are found in water. The weight of oxygen in hydrogen
-peroxide, however, is 16 times the weight of hydrogen or exactly twice
-the relative weight found in water.
-
-These principles of chemical combination convinced Dalton that each
-chemical element consists of small, indivisible units, all just alike,
-called atoms, and that each chemical compound also has basic units,
-called molecules, which cannot be divided without reducing the compound
-into its elements—that is, destroying it as a compound. He visualized a
-molecule of a compound as formed by the uniting of individual atoms of
-two or more elements. It was obvious to him that in any molecule of a
-compound, the weight of each atom of a component element bore a
-proportionate relationship to the weight of the entire molecule which
-was equal to the proportion, by weight, of all that element in the
-compound. And although Dalton had no idea how heavy any individual atom
-really was, he could tell how many _times_ heavier or lighter it was
-than an atom of another element.
-
-Incidentally, Dalton mistakenly thought that one atom of oxygen was
-eight times as heavy as one atom of hydrogen instead of 16 times as
-heavy. He assumed a water molecule to be HO instead of H₂O.
-
-
-
-
-             Cathode Rays Show Atoms Contain Smaller Parts
-
-
-Curiosity about the fundamental nature of matter was matched by equally
-avid curiosity about the fundamental nature of electricity. Before 1850
-much had been learned about the behavior of electric charge and electric
-currents flowing through solids and liquids. Real progress in
-understanding electric charge, however, had to wait for the development
-of highly efficient vacuum pumps.
-
-About 1854 Heinrich Geissler, a German glassblower, developed an
-improved suction pump, and also succeeded in sealing into a glass tube
-two wires attached to metal electrodes inside the tube. Experimenters
-were then able to study the flow of electricity through a near-vacuum. A
-Geissler tube is diagramed in Figure 1.
-
-By the 1890s it had become clear that the flow of electricity through a
-highly evacuated tube consisted of a negative electric charge moving at
-a very high speed along straight lines between sealed-in electrodes.
-Since it originated at the negative electrode, or cathode, the invisible
-stream of charge was named “cathode rays.”
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 1 _Geissler Tube._]
-
-  CURRENT SOURCE
-  CATHODE (-)
-    STREAM OF ELECTRONS
-    VACUUM PUMP
-  ANODE (+)
-
-Although many investigators contributed to knowledge about cathode rays,
-the experiments of Joseph J. Thomson, a British physicist, are generally
-considered to have been the most enlightening. Thomson arranged a
-cathode-ray tube so that the rays could be deflected by magnets and by
-electrically charged metal plates. By applying certain well-known
-principles of physics, he was able to confirm an impression already held
-by physical chemists, namely, that electric charge, like matter, was
-“atomized”—the stream of charge consisted of a swarm of very small
-particles, all alike. He succeeded also in determining that the speed of
-the particles was about one-tenth the speed of light.
-
-Probably Thomson’s most significant result was determining the ratio of
-the charge of each little particle to its weight. He was able to do this
-by measuring the magnetic force required to divert a stream of charged
-particles. (You can do this experiment yourself with relatively simple
-equipment.) This charge-to-weight ratio proved to be nearly 2000 times
-greater than the already known charge-to-weight ratio for a positively
-charged hydrogen atom, or ion, which until then was thought to be the
-lightest constituent of matter. It remained to be determined whether
-charge or weight caused the difference. Further experimentation showed
-that the charges were approximately the same amount in the two cases. It
-was therefore proven that the weight of the hydrogen atom, lightest of
-all the atoms, was nearly 2000 times as great as the weight of one of
-the little negative particles.
-
-The name “electron” was given to the small negative particles identified
-by Thomson. Since the electrons had come from the cathode, it was
-apparent that the atoms in the cathode must contain electrons. Thomson
-reasoned that electric current in a wire is a stream of electrons
-passing successively from atom to atom and that the difference between
-an electrically charged atom and a neutral atom is that the charged one
-has gained or lost one or more electrons.
-
-
-
-
-                      Radioactive Atoms Discovered
-
-
-    [Illustration: _Henri Becquerel_
-    Courtesy Journal of Chemical Education, Discovery of the Elements,
-    Mary Elvira Weeks.]
-
-In 1896 the French physicist Henri Becquerel was investigating the
-relation between fluorescence and X rays, a puzzling kind of penetrating
-radiation discovered a few months earlier by the German, Wilhelm
-Roentgen. Various chemical compounds fluoresce, or glow, when exposed to
-ultraviolet rays and other types of radiation. While experimenting with
-a large number of chemicals, Becquerel discovered, quite by accident,
-that a compound containing the element uranium can, without being
-exposed to any kind of radiation, darken a photographic plate completely
-wrapped in heavy black paper.
-
-Although no one realized it at the time, Becquerel had discovered that
-atoms of some elements will at random times transform themselves into
-atoms of a different element by emitting certain extremely high-speed
-charged particles. Atoms that can do this are said to be radioactive,
-and it was the radiation from transforming uranium atoms that darkened
-Becquerel’s photographic plate.
-
-
-
-
-                  Rutherford Finds the Atomic Nucleus
-
-
-    [Illustration: _Ernest Rutherford, 1871-1937_
-    Courtesy Nobelstiftelsen]
-
-We are greatly indebted to the imagination and experimental skill of the
-British physicist Ernest Rutherford for the interpretation of
-radioactivity in terms of the structure of atoms.
-
-Rutherford, born and educated in New Zealand, moved to England to work
-under Thomson at Cambridge University in 1895. Shortly afterward,
-Wilhelm Roentgen in Germany discovered X rays, Becquerel in France
-discovered radioactivity, and Thomson proved the existence of the
-electron.
-
-During the next few years, curiosity about the fundamental nature of
-radioactivity led a number of people to do a great deal of work. The
-element thorium was found to be radioactive, and Marie and Pierre Curie
-discovered two new elements, polonium and radium, that were also
-radioactive. The radiation from radioactive materials was found to be of
-three kinds called alpha rays, beta rays, and gamma rays. Alpha rays
-were first detected by Rutherford, who later identified them as
-positively charged helium atoms. Becquerel demonstrated that beta rays,
-like cathode rays, consist of negatively charged electrons. The highly
-penetrating gamma rays were proved by Rutherford and E. N. da C. Andrade
-to be electromagnetic radiation similar to X rays.
-
-Rutherford, in collaboration with the English chemist Frederick Soddy,
-brought order out of a chaos of puzzling discoveries by establishing the
-general behavior of radioactive atoms. He determined that certain
-naturally occurring atoms of high atomic weight can spontaneously emit
-an alpha or a beta particle and thereby convert themselves into new
-atoms. These new atoms, being also radioactive, sooner or later convert
-themselves into still different atoms, and so on. Each time an alpha
-particle is emitted in this sequence, the new atom is lighter by the
-weight of the alpha particle, or helium atom. The disintegration process
-proceeds from stage to stage until at last a _stable_ atom is produced.
-The end product in this “decay” process in naturally occurring
-radioactive elements is lead.
-
-One experiment by Rutherford and his co-workers had a most profound
-effect on the understanding of atomic structure. What they did was to
-direct a stream of alpha particles at a thin piece of gold foil. The
-results were astonishing. Almost all the particles passed straight
-through the foil without changing direction. Of the few particles that
-did ricochet in new directions, however, some were deflected at very
-sharp angles. (See Figure 2.)
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 2 _Rutherford’s most famous experiment, which
-    led him to the concept of the nucleus._]
-
-As a result of this experiment, Rutherford proposed a concept of the
-atom entirely different from the one which prevailed at this time. The
-prevailing notion was one advanced by Thomson which conceived of an atom
-as a blob of positive electric charge in which were imbedded, in much
-the same way as plums are in a pudding, enough electrons to neutralize
-the positive charge. Rutherford’s concept, which quickly set aside
-Thomson’s “plum pudding” model, was that an atom has all of its positive
-charge and virtually all of its mass concentrated in a tiny space at its
-center. (Collisions with this center, which came to be known thereafter
-as the nucleus, had been responsible for the sharp changes in direction
-of some of the alpha particles.) The space surrounding this nucleus is
-entirely empty except for the presence of a number of electrons (79 in
-the case of the gold atom), each about the same size as the nucleus.
-
-To illustrate Rutherford’s concept, let us imagine a gold atom magnified
-so that it is as large as a bale of cotton. The nucleus at the center of
-this large atom would be the size of a speck of black pepper. If this
-imaginary bale weighed 500 pounds, the little speck at its center would
-weigh 499¾ pounds; the surrounding cotton (corresponding to empty space
-in Rutherford’s concept) containing the 79 electrons would weigh but ¼
-pound. To express this idea another way, any object such as a gold ring,
-as dense and solid as it may seem to us, consists almost entirely of
-nothing!
-
-
-
-
-                        The Proton Is Recognized
-
-
-Rutherford’s discovery aroused intense curiosity about the nature and
-possible structure of this extremely small, but all-important, part of
-an atom. It was assumed that the positive charge carried by the nucleus
-must be a whole-number multiple of a small unit equal in size but
-opposite in sign to the charge of an electron. This conclusion was based
-on the information that all atoms contain electrons and that an
-undisturbed atom is electrically neutral. Since it was known that a
-neutral atom of hydrogen contains just one electron, it appeared that
-the charge on a hydrogen nucleus must represent the fundamental unit of
-positive charge, some multiple of which would represent the charge on
-any other nucleus. Several lines of investigation combined to establish
-quite firmly that nuclei of atoms occupying adjacent positions on the
-periodic chart of the elements differed in charge by this fundamental
-unit. Since the hydrogen nucleus seemed to play such an important role
-in making up the charges of all other nuclei, it was given the name
-proton from the Greek “protos,” which means “first.”
-
-
-
-
-                        Isotopes Are Discovered
-
-
-At a historic meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of
-Science held in Birmingham, England, in 1913, two apparently unrelated
-lines of investigation were reported, each of which showed that some
-atomic nuclei have identical electric charges but different weights.
-
-One report was presented by Frederick Soddy, who had collaborated with
-Rutherford in explaining the pattern of natural radioactivity. Soddy
-knew that the nucleus of a radioactive atom loses both weight and
-positive charge when it throws out an alpha particle (helium nucleus).
-On the other hand, when a nucleus emits a beta particle (negative
-electron), its positive charge increases, but its weight is practically
-unchanged. Thus Soddy could deduce the weights and nuclear charges of
-many radioactive products. In several cases the products of two
-different kinds of radioactivity had the same nuclear charge but
-different weights. Since it is the positive charge carried by the
-nucleus of an atom which fixes the number of negative electrons needed
-to complete the atom, the nuclear charge is really responsible for the
-exterior appearance, or chemical properties, of the atom.
-
-This conclusion was confirmed by unsuccessful efforts to separate by
-chemical means different radioactive products having the same nuclear
-charge but different weights. The products might have had quite
-different rates of radioactive disintegration, but they appeared to
-consist of chemically identical atoms of the same chemical element and
-hence to belong at the _same place_ on the periodic chart of the
-elements. Soddy suggested that such atoms be called _isotopes_, from a
-Greek word meaning “same place.”
-
-At the same meeting, Francis W. Aston, an assistant of Thomson,
-described what happened when charged atoms, or ions, of neon gas were
-accelerated in a discharge tube similar to the cathode-ray tube in which
-Thomson had discovered the electron. The rapidly moving neon ions were
-deflected by a magnet. Since light objects are more easily deflected
-than heavy objects, the amount of deflection indicated the weight. By
-making a comparison with a familiar gas like oxygen, Thomson and Aston
-were actually able to measure the atomic weight of neon. To their
-surprise they found two kinds of neon. About nine-tenths of the neon
-atoms had an atomic weight of 20, and the remainder an atomic weight of
-22.
-
-What Thomson and Aston had done was to show that the stable element neon
-is a mixture of two isotopes. A device that can do what their apparatus
-did is called a mass spectrograph. (See Figure 3.) Since their time,
-instruments of this type have shown that more than three-fourths of the
-stable chemical elements are mixtures of two or more stable isotopes; in
-fact, there are about 300 such isotopes in all. The number of known
-unstable radioactive isotopes (radioisotopes), natural or man-made, is
-greater than 1000 and is still growing!
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 3 _Mass spectrograph as used by Thomson and
-    Aston to measure the atomic weight of neon._]
-
-  NEON 20
-  NEON 22
-
-
-
-
-                    The Alchemists’ Dream Comes True
-
-
-During the Middle Ages the desire to find a way to convert a base metal
-like lead into gold was the outstanding incentive for research in
-chemistry. When the important role of the nucleus in determining the
-chemical properties of an atom became clear and the natural
-transmutation accompanying radioactivity was understood, the fascinating
-idea occurred to many people that perhaps man would soon be able to
-alter the nucleus of a stable atom and thus deliberately convert one
-element into another. In a historic lecture delivered in Washington, D.
-C., in April 1914, Rutherford said, “It is possible that the nucleus of
-an atom may be altered by direct collision of the nucleus with very
-swift electrons or atoms of helium (i.e., beta or alpha particles) such
-as are ejected from radioactive matter.... Under favorable conditions,
-these particles must pass very close to the nucleus and may either lead
-to a disruption of the nucleus or to a combination with it.”
-
-    [Illustration: _Medieval Alchemist_
-    Courtesy Fisher Scientific Company]
-
-World War I began shortly after Rutherford made this statement, and
-preoccupation with war work stopped his experiments with nuclei. In
-1919, however, he published a paper describing what happens when alpha
-particles pass through nitrogen gas. Very fast protons, or hydrogen
-nuclei, appear to originate along the paths of the alpha particles. The
-following is from Rutherford’s paper:
-
-“If this be the case, we must conclude that the nitrogen atom is
-disintegrated under the intense forces developed in a close collision
-with a swift alpha particle, and that the hydrogen atom which is
-liberated formed a constituent part of the nitrogen nucleus.... The
-results as a whole suggest that, if alpha particles or similar
-projectiles of still greater energy were available for experiment, we
-might expect to break down the nuclear structure of many of the lighter
-atoms.”
-
-This prediction has certainly been verified through the use of the
-atomic artillery provided by extremely powerful particle accelerators,
-or “atom smashers.”[1]
-
-    [Illustration: _The Bevatron accelerator at the University of
-    California’s Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, California,
-    shown after recent remodeling in which it was enclosed in concrete
-    shielding._
-    Courtesy Lawrence Radiation Laboratory]
-
-Patrick Blackett in England and W. D. Harkins in the United States soon
-proved independently that, during the nuclear event reported by
-Rutherford in his 1919 paper, an alpha particle combines with a nitrogen
-nucleus and that the resulting unstable combination immediately emits a
-proton and ends up as one of the isotopes of oxygen. This was the first
-instance of deliberate transmutation of one stable chemical element into
-another. Since that time practically every known element has been
-transmuted by bombardment. The dream of the alchemists has been
-partially fulfilled in that mercury has been changed into gold. We say
-“partially fulfilled” because the process is much too expensive to be
-economically profitable.
-
-
-
-
-                 Some Particles Have No Electric Charge
-
-
-During the early 1920s a number of investigators, including Harkins in
-the United States, Orme Masson in Australia, and Rutherford and his
-assistant James Chadwick in England, seriously considered the
-possibility that a neutral particle might exist in nature, possibly
-formed by the very close association of a proton and an electron.
-However, strenuous efforts to produce such particles by combining
-protons and electrons were unsuccessful.
-
-During these years the new technique of bombarding all kinds of matter
-with alpha particles to see what would happen was widely exploited, and
-it gradually became clear that in a few instances a peculiar and highly
-penetrating kind of radiation was produced. In 1932, Chadwick succeeded
-in showing that the peculiar radiation must consist of a stream of
-particles, each weighing about the same as a proton but having no
-electrical charge.
-
-The name “neutron” for a possible neutral particle of this type was
-suggested by Harkins in the United States in 1921. Much evidence now
-exists that the neutron is a fundamental particle in its own right and
-that it should not be thought of merely as a particle formed by a very
-close association between a proton and an electron.
-
-The new particle discovered by Chadwick was destined to play a totally
-unexpected role, not only in the history of atomic science but also in
-the fate of nations. It immediately outmoded a previous concept of the
-nucleus that pictured it as a cluster of protons approximately half of
-which were neutralized by electrons crowded into the nucleus. A nucleus
-is now thought of as containing just protons and neutrons.
-
-The neutron was also greeted by nuclear workers as a practically perfect
-kind of bullet. Unlike charged alpha particles, uncharged neutrons can
-approach a charged nucleus completely unopposed. It is physically
-impossible for any kind of container to hold a swarm of free neutrons;
-they seep right through its walls.
-
-
-
-
-                   Matter Is Energy; Energy Is Matter
-
-
-So far, in the story about man’s curiosity concerning the fundamental
-nature and structure of matter, the development of ideas about
-_structure_ has been emphasized. We will now take a brief look at a
-development which strongly influenced our ideas about the fundamental
-_nature_ of matter.
-
-In 1887 reports appeared on a famous study, often referred to as the
-Michelson-Morley experiment, which was aimed at determining the earth’s
-speed through absolute space. The entirely unexpected results of the
-experiment had a great impact on the concepts of space and time. We will
-here concern ourselves with just one outcome of the experiment.
-
-In 1905, a young German-born physics student named Albert Einstein, who
-was working as a patent examiner in Switzerland, published three papers,
-each of which had a profound effect on a different field of physics.
-
-One of the papers dealt with some peculiar speculations about space and
-time which began to interest him when he was studying the
-Michelson-Morley experiment. The contents of the paper are now referred
-to as the Special Theory of Relativity. This paper contains several
-predictions that seemed incredible to the average physicist of that day.
-These predictions have, however, long since been proved valid.
-
-    [Illustration: _Albert Einstein in 1905._
-    Courtesy Lotte Jacobi, Hillsboro, New Hampshire]
-
-One of Einstein’s predictions had to do with the equivalence of matter
-and energy. Until 1905 _matter_ had been considered as something that
-has mass or inertia; _energy_, on the other hand, had been regarded as
-the ability to do work. It was believed that the two were as different
-from each other as, say, a square yard is different from an hour.
-Einstein’s theory, however, implies that matter and energy are merely
-two different manifestations of the same fundamental physical reality,
-and that each may be converted into the other according to the famous
-equation:
-
-                                  E = MC²
-
-  where
-      E = quantity of energy,
-      M = quantity of matter, and
-      C = speed of light in a vacuum.
-
-
-
-
-                         Nuclei Contain Energy
-
-
-One more piece of information must be fitted into the story of the atom
-before it becomes clear why some people began to realize during the
-1920s that atomic nuclei contain vast stores of energy that might some
-day revolutionize civilization. This last item has to do with a nuclear
-phenomenon known as the packing fraction.
-
-Since any nucleus consists of a certain number of protons and neutrons,
-it seems logical that the total weight of the nucleus could be
-determined by adding together the individual weights of the particles in
-it. When mass spectrographs of sufficiently high accuracy became
-available, however, it was found that in the case of nuclear weights,
-the whole was not equal to the sum of its parts! All nuclei (except
-hydrogen) weigh less than the sum of the weights of the particles in
-them.
-
-For example, the atomic weight of a proton is 1.00812 and that of a
-neutron is 1.00893. (These are relative weights based on an
-internationally accepted scale.) It would seem then that a nucleus of
-helium containing two protons and two neutrons should have an atomic
-weight of 2 × 1.00812 plus 2 × 1.00893 or 4.0341. Actually the atomic
-weight of helium as measured by the mass spectrograph is only 4.0039.
-(See Figure 4.)
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 4 _A case where the whole is not equal to the
-    sum of its parts. Two protons and two neutrons are distinctly
-    heavier than a helium nucleus, which also consists of two protons
-    and two neutrons. Energy makes up the difference._]
-
-  HELIUM NUCLEUS
-  TWO PROTONS AND TWO NEUTRONS
-
-What happens to the missing atomic weight of 0.0302? Physicists now
-realize that, as postulated in Einstein’s formula, it must be converted
-into energy! The conversion occurs when the protons and neutrons are
-drawn together into a helium nucleus by the powerful nuclear forces
-between them.
-
-When the missing atomic weight 0.0302 is multiplied by the square of the
-velocity of light according to Einstein’s theory, it is found to
-represent a tremendous amount of energy. Indeed, the energy released in
-forming a helium nucleus from two protons and two neutrons turns out to
-be seven million times that released when a carbon atom combines with an
-oxygen molecule to produce a molecule of carbon dioxide in the familiar
-process of combustion.
-
-The general behavior of such losses in atomic weight for atoms
-throughout the periodic table had been determined as early as 1927,
-largely through the work of Aston, the English scientist who developed
-the first mass spectrograph. His results show that, in general, if two
-light nuclei combine to form a heavier one, the new nucleus does not
-weigh as much as the sum of the original ones. This behavior continues
-up to the level of the so-called “transition metals”—iron, nickel, and
-cobalt—in the periodic table. But if two nuclei heavier than iron are
-coalesced into a single very heavy nucleus found near the end of the
-periodic table (such as uranium), the new nucleus weighs more than the
-sum of the two nuclei that formed it.
-
-Thus, if a very heavy nucleus could be divided into parts, energy would
-be released, and the sum of the weights of the fragments would be less
-than that of the original nucleus.
-
-In these two types of nuclear reactions, a small amount of matter would
-actually vanish! Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity states that the
-vanished matter would reappear as an enormous quantity of energy.
-
-During the late 1920s scientists began saying that a small amount of
-matter could supply enough energy to drive a large ship across the
-ocean. As we know, this prediction has since been borne out by the
-performance of nuclear submarines and surface vessels.
-
-    [Illustration: _The NS_ Savannah _was the first cargo-passenger ship
-    to be driven by nuclear power_.
-    Courtesy States Marine Lines]
-
-    [Illustration: _The_ Nautilus _was the Navy’s first atomic-powered
-    submarine_.
-    Courtesy U. S. Navy]
-
-
-
-
-                               CHRONOLOGY
-
-
-  1800          Dalton firmly establishes atomic theory of matter.
-  1890-1900     Thomson’s experiments with cathode rays prove the
-                existence of electrons. Atoms are found to contain
-                negative electrons and positive electric charge.
-                Becquerel discovers unstable (radioactive) atoms.
-  1905          Einstein postulates the equivalence of mass and energy.
-  1911          Rutherford recognizes nucleus.
-  1919          Rutherford achieves transmutation of one stable chemical
-                element (nitrogen) into another (oxygen).
-  1920-1925     Improved mass spectrographs show that changes in mass per
-                nuclear particle accompanying transmutation account for
-                energy released by nucleus.
-  1932          Chadwick identifies neutrons.
-  1939          Discovery of uranium fission by German scientists.
-  1940          Discovery of neptunium by Edwin M. McMillan and Philip H.
-                Abelson and of plutonium by Glenn T. Seaborg and
-                associates at the University of California.
-  1942          Achievement of first self-sustaining nuclear reaction,
-                University of Chicago.
-  1945          First successful test of an atomic device, near
-                Alamagordo, New Mexico, followed by the dropping of
-                atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan.
-  1946          U. S. Atomic Energy Commission established by Act of
-                Congress.
-                First shipment of radioisotopes from Oak Ridge goes to
-                hospital in St. Louis, Missouri.
-  1951          First significant amount of electricity (100 kilowatts)
-                produced from atomic energy at testing station in Idaho.
-  1952          First detonation of a thermonuclear bomb, Eniwetok Atoll,
-                Pacific Ocean.
-  1953          President Eisenhower announces U. S. Atoms-for-Peace
-                program and proposes establishment of an international
-                atomic energy agency.
-  1954          First nuclear-powered submarine, _Nautilus_, commissioned.
-  1955          First United Nations International Conference on Peaceful
-                Uses of Atomic Energy held in Geneva, Switzerland.
-  1957          First commercial use of power from a civilian reactor
-                takes place in California.
-                Shippingport Atomic Power Plant in Pennsylvania reaches
-                full power of 60,000 kilowatts.
-                International Atomic Energy Agency formally established.
-  1959          First nuclear-powered merchant ship, the _Savannah_,
-                launched at Camden, New Jersey.
-                Commissioning of first nuclear-powered Polaris
-                missile-launching submarine _George Washington_.
-  1961          A radioisotope-powered electric power generator placed in
-                orbit, the first use of nuclear power in space.
-  1962          Nuclear power plant in the Antarctic becomes operational.
-  1963          President Kennedy ratified the Limited Test Ban Treaty
-                for the United States on October 7.
-  1964          President Johnson signed law permitting private ownership
-                of certain nuclear materials.
-
-
-
-
-                          Fission is Explained
-
-
-    [Illustration: _Enrico Fermi 1901-1954_
-    Courtesy Chemical and Engineering News]
-
-Physicists welcomed the neutron as a bullet that could strike any
-nucleus, unopposed by electric repulsion. During the middle 1930s, a
-number of investigators, chief among them the Italian physicist Enrico
-Fermi, exposed many different isotopes of the chemical elements to beams
-of neutrons to see what would happen.
-
-What usually happened was that the bombarded nuclei would absorb
-neutrons, emit alpha, beta, or gamma rays, and change into different
-isotopes. The identification of the extremely small quantities of
-isotopes produced required the development of a fantastic new branch of
-chemistry known as radiochemistry, or, as one chemist put it, “phantom
-chemistry.”
-
-In some cases the absorption of a neutron by a nucleus was followed by
-the emission of a negative electron (beta particle). This produced an
-atom whose nuclear positive charge had been increased by one unit and
-which therefore belonged at the next higher place on the periodic table.
-Fermi and others then considered the fascinating possibility of doing
-the same thing to uranium, the last-known element on the periodic table,
-to create previously unknown chemical elements. The results of
-bombarding uranium with neutrons turned out to be extremely complex, but
-it eventually became clear that “transuranic” elements (those heavier
-than uranium) could actually be made in this way.[2]
-
-Some of the complex results of bombarding uranium with neutrons formed
-an intriguing puzzle that kept various investigators busy for several
-years. In 1939 the German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann and
-the physicists Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch were able to announce a
-solution. The absorption of a neutron by a certain uranium nucleus
-(later shown to be that of the relatively rare isotope uranium-235) can
-result in a splitting, or _fission_, of the nucleus into two parts with
-separate weights that place them somewhere near the middle of the
-periodic table.
-
-    [Illustration: _Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn in their laboratory in
-    the 1930s._
-    Courtesy Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.]
-
-The announcement of this discovery created quite a stir among physicists
-because a nuclear process of this nature must release a very large
-amount of energy.
-
-    [Illustration: _Scale model of the CP-1 (Chicago Pile No. 1) used by
-    Enrico Fermi and his associates on December 2, 1942, to achieve the
-    first self-sustaining nuclear reaction. Alternate layers of
-    graphite, containing uranium metal and/or uranium oxide, were
-    separated by layers of solid graphite blocks. Graphite was used to
-    slow down neutrons to increase the likelihood of fissions._]
-
-The excitement among physicists became even greater when it was realized
-that this newly discovered process of fission was accompanied by the
-release of several free neutrons from the splitting nucleus. Each new
-neutron could, if properly slowed down by a moderating material, cause
-another nucleus to split and release more energy and still more
-neutrons, and so on, as illustrated in Figure 5. (A moderator is
-necessary because fast, newly released neutrons are too readily absorbed
-by uranium-238 nuclei, which rarely split.) Apparently all that was
-needed to achieve this spectacular kind of a chain reaction was to
-assemble enough uranium in one place so that the released neutrons would
-have a good chance of finding another ²³⁵U nucleus before escaping from
-the pile. The amount of fissionable material required to sustain a chain
-reaction is termed the “critical mass.” A team of scientists led by
-Fermi achieved the first self-sustaining nuclear reaction on December 2,
-1942, under the grandstand at the University of Chicago’s athletic
-field. This date is often referred to as the beginning of the Nuclear
-Age.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 5 _This diagram shows what happens in a chain
-    reaction resulting from fission of uranium-235 atoms._]
-
-  STRAY NEUTRON
-  ²³⁵U
-  ORIGINAL FISSION
-    FISSION FRAGMENTS
-    One to three neutrons from fission process
-    A NEUTRON SOMETIMES LOST
-  ²³⁸U
-    CHANGES TO PLUTONIUM
-  ²³⁵U
-    ONE NEW FISSION
-    FISSION FRAGMENT
-    One to three neutrons again
-  ²³⁵U
-  ²³⁵U
-    TWO NEW FISSIONS
-    FISSION FRAGMENTS
-
-
-
-
-                      The Fission Bomb Is Exploded
-
-
-The American scientists present on that historic December day were part
-of the tremendous super-secret scientific and industrial complex that
-bore the unrevealing title Manhattan District. The United States had
-been at war almost a year. An uncontrolled fission reaction gave promise
-of producing an explosion of untold proportions. This promise, coupled
-with the possibility that enemy scientists might be nearing such a goal,
-had launched a vast Allied effort.
-
-The Manhattan Project, as it was commonly known, included a variety of
-“hush-hush” facilities. Each of these installations, in New York,
-Illinois, Tennessee, New Mexico, California, and Washington, had its own
-experts working night and day to solve the baffling problems surrounding
-development of a fission weapon.
-
-Ordinary uranium as found in nature was not suitable for an atomic bomb
-because less than one percent of the atoms in it are fissionable isotope
-²³⁵U.[3] It therefore became necessary to find some means for separating
-the rare ²³⁵U from the large quantity of ²³⁸U. Chemistry could not do it
-since the two isotopes are identical chemically.
-
-Several methods of achieving large-scale separation were tried. The most
-successful and economical, known as “gaseous diffusion,” involves
-compressing normal uranium, in the form of uranium hexafluoride gas,
-against a porous barrier containing millions of holes, each smaller than
-two-millionths of an inch. Since the ²³⁵U molecules are slightly lighter
-than the ²³⁸U, they bounce against the barrier more frequently and have
-a greater chance of penetrating. Thus, although the gas at first
-contains only 0.7% ²³⁵U, the process of compression is repeated several
-thousand times, and the proportion gradually increases until the
-necessary concentration is reached.
-
-For this operation an enormous plant containing a very large barrier
-area, miles of piping, and countless pumps was built at Oak Ridge,
-Tennessee.
-
-At the same time that vast efforts were being made to produce a ²³⁵U
-bomb, another project of equal importance was being pursued to develop a
-different kind of fission bomb. Uncertainty as to whether it would be
-possible to separate usable amounts of ²³⁵U led to a decision to exploit
-a highly significant discovery about one of the transuranic elements.
-
-By 1941 Glenn T. Seaborg, Edwin M. McMillan, Philip H. Abelson, and
-others at the Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, California, had identified
-isotopes of two new transuranic elements developed when they bombarded
-²³⁸U nuclei with neutrons. The new elements were named neptunium and
-plutonium after the planets Neptune and Pluto, which lie beyond Uranus
-in the solar system.[4] One isotope of plutonium, plutonium-239, which
-resulted from the absorption of a neutron by a ²³⁸U nucleus and the
-emission of two beta particles, was discovered to be as fissionable as
-²³⁵U and hence theoretically just as feasible for a bomb. Since
-plutonium is chemically different from uranium, it offered the
-tremendous advantage that it could readily be concentrated by
-conventional chemical techniques.
-
-The way to manufacture usable amounts of plutonium, an element that had
-never before been detected on earth, is to expose uranium to a very
-intense neutron bombardment. The best-known place to find a rich supply
-of neutrons was the heart of a self-sustaining chain-reacting pile of
-uranium. Accordingly, very large piles, or _reactors_, were rushed to
-completion near the Columbia River at Hanford, Washington, to make
-plutonium.
-
-    [Illustration: _First atomic bomb explosion at Alamagordo, New
-    Mexico, at 5:30 a.m. on July 16, 1945._
-    Courtesy U. S. Army]
-
-On July 16, 1945, a plutonium bomb, carefully assembled by another group
-of scientists at “Project Y,” Los Alamos, New Mexico, was successfully
-tested in the New Mexico desert. The heat from that first man-made
-nuclear explosion completely vaporized a tall steel tower and melted
-several acres of surrounding surface sand. The flash of light was the
-brightest the earth had ever witnessed.
-
-A ²³⁵U bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, Japan, on August 6, 1945. Three
-days later a plutonium bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan. Hostilities
-ended on August 14, 1945.
-
-
-
-
-                Nuclear Energy Is Needed for the Future
-
-
-The chief source of the enormous quantities of energy used daily by
-modern civilization is fossil fuels in the form of coal, petroleum, and
-natural gas. Concentrated sources of these fuels, though large, are far
-from inexhaustible, and it has been said that future historians may
-refer to the brief time when they were used as “the fossil-fuel
-incident.”
-
-    [Illustration: _These lights of downtown Pittsburgh are symbolic of
-    the generation of electricity by atomic power from Shippingport,
-    Pennsylvania, the site of the world’s first full-scale
-    atomic-electric generation station exclusively for civilian needs.
-    Homes and factories of the greater Pittsburgh area are receiving the
-    electricity produced at the plant and transmitted through the
-    Duquesne Light Company system. The Shippingport plant is a joint
-    project of Westinghouse Electric Corporation, U. S. Atomic Energy
-    Commission, and the Duquesne Light Company._
-    Courtesy Westinghouse Electric Corporation]
-
-The next great source of energy will probably be nuclear reactors, in
-which controlled chain reactions release energy from the large store of
-fissionable materials in the world.[5]
-
-The accomplishments of nuclear power in the propulsion of ships have
-already been noted. In addition, there is now going on in industrialized
-countries in different parts of the world a large-scale development of
-nuclear power plants for production of electricity. Nuclear electric
-power is approaching the point where it will be economically competitive
-with power from hydroelectric plants or those burning coal, oil, or gas
-as fuels. Improvements in nuclear power technology are rapidly being
-made, and it is now widely predicted that before the end of this century
-most new electric power plants will be nuclear.
-
-
-
-
-                          Fusion Has Potential
-
-
-One of the greatest puzzles to be solved by physicists arose from the
-work of geologists. When it became clear that coal and other fossil
-remains of living things date from many hundreds of millions of years
-ago, it was obvious that the earth’s sun had been shining at a quite
-steady rate for an extremely long time.
-
-How does it manage to do it? What is its source of energy? Chemical
-energy supplied by combustion and gravitational potential energy
-supplied by contraction are thousands of times too small to have kept
-the sun going for such a long time.
-
-The principle illustrated by Figure 4 suggests the most probable source
-of energy for the sun and all the other stars as well. It is known that
-the sun consists chiefly of hydrogen and that it has a temperature of
-about 40,000,000 degrees Fahrenheit near its center. Several kinds of
-nuclear reactions produced in atom smashers have demonstrated that
-hydrogen nuclei, if energized by being heated to a very high
-temperature, can actually combine, or fuse, to form helium nuclei.
-
-The accompanying loss of weight per particle indicated by Figure 4 must
-result in the appearance of sufficient energy to balance Einstein’s
-famous equation. In fact, calculations by the German-born American
-physicist Hans A. Bethe and others show that, based on reasonable
-estimates of the conditions within the sun, familiar nuclear reactions
-account for its energy. The calculations predict, furthermore, that the
-sun can continue to operate at its present level for many billions of
-years.
-
-    [Illustration: _Large loop prominences on the sun, caused by a
-    locally intense magnetic field. Project Sherwood, the U. S. program
-    in controlled fusion, is devoted to research on fusion reactions
-    similar to those from which the sun derives its energy._
-    Courtesy Sacramento Peak Observatory, AFCRL]
-
-Since fusion of light nuclei is produced by extremely high temperatures,
-fusion events are called _thermonuclear reactions_. The possibility of
-bringing about thermonuclear reactions on earth to serve as a source of
-energy has naturally attracted much attention.
-
-In spite of the fact that fusion of ordinary hydrogen atoms (each of
-which has one proton as its nucleus) supports the activity of the sun,
-this particular reaction seems to occur much too slowly to be usable on
-earth. Other isotopes of hydrogen, called deuterium and tritium,
-however, which contain one and two neutrons in their nuclei,
-respectively, fuse much more rapidly and seem to be potential earthly
-sources of controlled thermonuclear energy.
-
-    [Illustration: _An early phase of a nuclear detonation at Eniwetok
-    Atoll during the 1951 tests._
-    Courtesy Joint Task Force Three]
-
-The first large-scale application of thermonuclear energy was the
-so-called hydrogen bomb, or “H-bomb.” For a brief time an exploding
-fission bomb develops a temperature of hundreds of millions of degrees
-Fahrenheit, hot enough to cause some light nuclei to fuse. In the
-hydrogen bomb, light nuclei of deuterium and/or tritium are exposed to
-this temperature during such a fission explosion. The resulting fusion
-of these nuclei causes the explosion to be hundreds of times more
-powerful than that of the fission device alone. In 1952 the Atomic
-Energy Commission test-fired such a thermonuclear device at Eniwetok
-Atoll in the Pacific Ocean. The energy released by the highly efficient
-device produced an explosion that completely destroyed the coral islet
-where it was detonated.
-
-At such extreme temperatures all atoms are stripped of electrons; the
-resulting mixture of nuclei and free electrons is called a _plasma_.
-Several laboratories are now working on the problems connected with
-creating and containing plasma. Ordinary solid containers cannot be
-used. On contact with plasma they would instantly vaporize and would
-cool the plasma below the temperature necessary for fusion to occur.
-Fortunately, however, the particles that make up a plasma, being charged
-electrically, respond to forces in a magnetic field. A strong magnetic
-field of proper shape exerts a large confining pressure on a body of
-plasma in a high-vacuum chamber. Thus plasma can be contained in a small
-volume well removed from the walls of the chamber by surrounding the
-chamber with suitably designed large magnets or solenoids to create a
-“magnetic bottle.” In addition, a sudden increase in the intensity of
-the field can compress the plasma; this compression raises the
-temperature of the plasma to near that required for fusion.
-
-    [Illustration: _This plasma is being pushed outward by an internal
-    magnetic field as instabilities grow on its internal surface. The
-    photo was taken by means of fast-shutter photography permitting
-    photo sequences at intervals of 3 to 5 millionths of a second._
-    Courtesy General Atomic Division, General Dynamics Corporation]
-
-Fusion of light nuclei would be a much “cleaner” source of energy for
-peaceful purposes than fission of heavy ones, because the “ashes” of
-fission reactions are radioactive while those of fusion (helium atoms)
-are not. Great technical difficulties must be overcome, however, before
-a controlled thermonuclear reaction is possible. Fusionable material
-must be heated to a temperature of over 100 million degrees Fahrenheit
-and must be contained long enough for an appreciable amount of fusion to
-occur.
-
-The greatest problem encountered to date is the extreme instability of
-the plasma and the corresponding difficulty of maintaining it at the
-proper temperature longer than a few millionths of a second. Many
-physicists now think that the successful exploitation of thermonuclear
-energy will not occur for many years. When and if it is achieved,
-however, the deuterium present in the oceans of the earth will represent
-an almost inexhaustible source of energy.
-
-
-
-
-                        Isotopes Have Many Uses
-
-
-The ability to produce and control nuclear reactions is affecting, and
-will doubtless continue to affect, human life in two outstanding ways.
-One way is by making tremendous amounts of energy available, either as
-explosions or as energy released from controlled reactions for peacetime
-use. The other way is by producing a vast variety of radioactive
-isotopes, first in the particle accelerators (“atom smashers”) mentioned
-earlier, and now in large quantities in nuclear reactors.
-
-The presence of a radioactive isotope can be detected by instruments
-like the familiar Geiger counter; for this reason isotopes make
-wonderful tracers. These telltale atoms, which, in effect, continually
-cry “Here I am,” can trace the course of a chemical element through any
-kind of chemical reaction. Chemists are taking advantage of this new way
-of tagging atoms to study reaction patterns that, heretofore, have been
-obscure.
-
-As a consequence, a scientist’s ability to synthesize scarce chemicals
-is being increased. The exact role of numerous essential trace elements
-in the growth and metabolism of living things, including people, is
-being studied by the use of tagged atoms.
-
-
-
-
-                         Radioisotopes at Work
-
-
-    [Illustration: IN MEDICINE: _Iodine-131 reveals spread of thyroid
-    cancer in patient’s body._]
-
-    [Illustration: IN SPACE: _Plutonium-238 is the fuel for the atomic
-    generator powering this TRANSIT satellite._
-    Courtesy The Martin Company]
-
-    [Illustration: IN FOOD PRESERVATION: _Potatoes stored for 18 months
-    at 47°F. Potato at right had been irradiated, that on left had
-    not._]
-
-    [Illustration: IN INDUSTRY: _Radioactive iridium was used to inspect
-    the hull of the carrier_ Independence.
-    Courtesy Technical Operations, Inc.]
-
-As sources of radiation, radioactive isotopes are frequently replacing
-more expensive and less convenient sources such as radium and X-ray
-machines. The medical treatment of diseased tissue has been greatly
-expedited by the new sources. In industry many applications of radiation
-sources have been made. They are used, for example, in thickness gauging
-and in making radiographs to check the quality of large castings. The
-sterilization and preservation of food is another promising use for
-inexpensive radioactive sources.
-
-As a controllable means for inducing genetic mutations, radioactive
-isotopes are speeding up the process of selecting and developing
-superior agricultural products. Practically every agricultural research
-center in the world has one or more projects under way which involve the
-use of isotopes.
-
-Small devices have also been constructed which produce electricity from
-heat generated by decay of radioisotopes. Such devices have been used to
-power instruments in a remotely located unmanned weather station, a
-navigational buoy, a lighthouse, an underwater navigational beacon, and
-space satellites. Many additional uses are foreseen for these isotopic
-power generators.
-
-
-
-
-                      The Atomic Energy Commission
-
-
-Following the end of World War II a vigorous controversy developed as to
-whether atomic energy development in the United States should continue
-under military control or be transferred to civilian control. The
-proponents of civilian control won out, and a civilian Atomic Energy
-Commission was established by the Atomic Energy Act of 1946. Under this
-Act, which was amended in 1954, the AEC manufactures nuclear weapons for
-the armed services; produces fissionable materials for both military and
-civilian purposes; fosters research and development in the basic
-sciences underlying atomic energy and in applications such as power
-production and uses of radioisotopes; regulates the activities of
-private organizations using atomic energy; and distributes information
-about atomic energy. (This booklet is a small example; most of the
-information distributed is much more detailed and technical.)
-
-    [Illustration: _President Truman signs the bill creating the U. S.
-    Atomic Energy Commission on August 1, 1946. Behind the President,
-    left to right: Senators Tom Connally, Eugene D. Millikin, Edwin C.
-    Johnson, Thomas C. Hart, Brien McMahon, Warren R. Austin, and
-    Richard B. Russell._
-    Courtesy United Press International]
-
-Almost all of the AEC’s materials production and research and
-development activities are carried out under contract by other
-organizations. American industry, universities, and research
-organizations also are engaged in widespread atomic energy activities of
-their own, subject only to such government regulations as are needed to
-protect national security and public health and safety. For example, the
-largest atomic electric power plants now in operation in this country
-are privately owned, as are numerous small atomic reactors used for
-research. At the end of 1962 some 7000 firms, institutions or
-individuals in the United States held federal or state licenses giving
-them permission to use radioisotopes. The number of persons employed in
-atomic energy work in the United States is estimated to be about
-140,000, of which only 8000 work for the Federal Government.
-
-
-
-
-                      Toward an International Atom
-
-
-In December 1953, President Eisenhower, in a memorable address to the
-General Assembly of the United Nations, proposed the establishment under
-the aegis of the United Nations of an International Atomic Energy Agency
-“to serve the peaceful pursuits of mankind.” This proposal captured the
-imagination of people everywhere, and negotiations soon began as to the
-purpose, structure, scope, and program of such an organization. In
-October 1956 an 81-nation United Nations conference unanimously adopted
-a statute for the agency, which came into existence a year later with
-headquarters in Vienna, Austria. By the end of 1962 the IAEA had 78
-member countries. Its most important work has been assisting some of the
-less developed nations of the world to begin programs for peaceful use
-of atomic energy.
-
-    [Illustration: _On December 8, 1953, President Dwight D. Eisenhower
-    proposed before the United Nations General Assembly that an
-    International Atomic Energy Agency be established through which all
-    nations could share knowledge and materials to develop the peaceful
-    uses of atomic energy for the benefit of all mankind. Seated on the
-    presidential platform are, left to right, Mr. Dag Hammarskjöld,
-    Secretary-General of the U. N., Madame Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit of
-    India, President of the General Assembly, and Mr. Andrew Cordier,
-    Executive Assistant to the Secretary-General._
-    Courtesy United Nations]
-
-    [Illustration: _This 150,000-kilowatt, dual-cycle, boiling-water
-    reactor, located 35 miles north of Naples, Italy, on the Garigliano
-    River, was built by General Electric under the United States-Euratom
-    Joint Program. It achieved criticality on June 5, 1963._]
-
-Even before the international agency became an accomplished fact, the
-United States sought on its own to implement the spirit of President
-Eisenhower’s proposal. It initiated in 1955 an Atoms-for-Peace Program
-under which the United States has made bilateral agreements with some 40
-nations for the sharing of information on peaceful uses of atomic energy
-and under which the United States has helped other nations to acquire
-nuclear reactors and materials for peaceful use.
-
-Mention should also be made of the International Conferences on Peaceful
-Uses of Atomic Energy which the United Nations held in Geneva,
-Switzerland, in 1955, 1958, and 1964. The 1955 conference was
-particularly noteworthy in that it marked the first time that scientists
-had met on a worldwide basis to discuss atomic energy. At and following
-this meeting much information previously kept secret was made public.
-
-
-
-
-                          Suggested References
-
-
-Books
-
-_Atomic Energy_, Irene D. Jaworski and Alexander Joseph, Harcourt, Brace
-      and World, Inc., New York 10017, 1961, 218 pp., $4.95.
-
-_Atompower_, Joseph M. Dukert, Coward-McCann, Inc., New York 10016,
-      1962, 127 pp., $3.50.
-
-_Atoms Today and Tomorrow_ (revised edition), Margaret O. Hyde,
-      McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York 10036, 1966, 160 pp., $3.25.
-
-_Basic Laws of Matter_ (revised edition), Harrie S. W. Massey and Arthur
-      R. Quinton, Herald Books, Bronxville, New York 10710, 1965, 178
-      pp., $3.75.
-
-_Building Blocks of the Universe_ (revised edition), Isaac Asimov,
-      Abelard-Schuman, Ltd., New York 10019, 1961, 380 pp., $3.50
-      (hardback); $2.70 (paperback) from E. M. Hale and Company, Eau
-      Claire, Wisconsin 54701.
-
-_Elements of the Universe_, Glenn T. Seaborg and Evans G. Valens, E. P.
-      Dutton and Company, Inc., New York 10003, 1958, 253 pp., $4.95
-      (hardback); $2.15 (paperback).
-
-_Inside the Atom_ (revised edition), Isaac Asimov, Abelard-Schuman,
-      Ltd., New York 10019, 1966, 197 pp., $4.00.
-
-_Introducing the Atom_, Roslyn Leeds, Harper and Row, Publishers, New
-      York 10016, 1967, 224 pp., $3.95.
-
-_Peacetime Uses of Atomic Energy_ (revised edition), Martin Mann, The
-      Viking Press, New York 10022, 1961, 191 pp., $5.00 (hardback);
-      $1.65 (paperback).
-
-_The Useful Atom_, William R. Anderson and Vernon Pizer, The World
-      Publishing Company, Cleveland, Ohio 44102, 1966, 185 pp., $5.75.
-
-_Secret of the Mysterious Rays: The Discovery of Nuclear Energy_, Vivian
-      Grey, Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, New York 10016, 1966, 120
-      pp., $3.95.
-
-_The Heart of the Atom: The Structure of the Atomic Nucleus_, Bernard L.
-      Cohen, Doubleday and Company, Inc., New York 10017, 1967, 120 pp.,
-      $3.95 (hardback); $1.25 (paperback).
-
-_The Questioners: Physicists and the Quantum Theory_, Barbara L. Cline,
-      Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York 10003, 1965, 274 pp., $5.00.
-
-_The Atom and Its Nucleus_, George Gamow, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood
-      Cliffs, New Jersey 07632, 1961, 153 pp., $1.95.
-
-_The Atomic Energy Deskbook_, John F. Hogerton, Reinhold Publishing
-      Corporation, New York 10022, 1963, 673 pp., $11.00.
-
-_Atomic Energy Encyclopedia in the Life Sciences_, Charles W. Shilling
-      (Ed.), W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19105,
-      1964, 474 pp., $10.50.
-
-_Atoms for Peace_ (revised edition), David O. Woodbury, Dodd, Mead and
-      Company, New York 10016, 1965, 275 pp., $4.50.
-
-_Manhattan Project_, Stephane Groueff, Little, Brown and Company,
-      Boston, Massachusetts 02106, 1967, 372 pp., $6.95.
-
-_The New World, 1939/1946_, Volume 1—History of the United States Atomic
-      Energy Commission, Richard G. Hewlett and Oscar E. Anderson, Jr.,
-      The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park,
-      Pennsylvania 16802, 1962, 766 pp., $5.50.
-
-_Sourcebook on Atomic Energy_ (third edition), Samuel Glasstone, D. Van
-      Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton, New Jersey 08540, 1967, 883
-      pp., $9.25.
-
-_The World of the Atom_, 2 volumes, Henry A. Boorse and Lloyd Matz
-      (Eds.), Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, New York 10016, 1966, 1873
-      pp., $35.00.
-
-
-Motion Pictures
-
-Available for loan without charge from the AEC Headquarters Film
-Library, Division of Public Information, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission,
-Washington, D. C., and from other AEC film libraries.
-
-Each of the following motion pictures explains atomic structure,
-fission, and the chain reaction. Additional contents are listed below
-with the film.
-
-_A Is for Atom_, 15 minutes, sound, color, 1964. Produced by the General
-      Electric Company. This film discusses natural and artificially
-      produced elements, stable and unstable atoms, principles and
-      applications of nuclear reactors, and the benefits of atomic
-      radiation to biology, medicine, industry, and agriculture. (Level:
-      elementary through high school.)
-
-_Atomic Energy_, 10 minutes, sound, black and white, 1950. Produced by
-      Encyclopedia Britannica Films, Inc. The film explains nuclear
-      synthesis and shows how, through photosynthesis, the sun’s energy
-      is stored on earth and released through combustion. (Level:
-      intermediate through high school.)
-
-_Controlling Atomic Energy_, 13½ minutes, sound, color, 1961. Produced
-      by United World Films, Inc. This film gives a summary explanation
-      of the following: radioactive atoms, radioactivity measurement,
-      nuclear reactors, and the production and application of
-      radioisotopes in biology, medicine, industry, agriculture, and
-      research. (Level: 5th through 8th grades.)
-
-_Introducing Atoms and Nuclear Energy_, 11 minutes, sound, color, 1963.
-      Produced by Coronet Instructional Films. This film discusses
-      nuclear fusion in the sun and, very briefly, the uses of nuclear
-      energy. (Level: 4th through 9th grades.)
-
-_Atomic Physics_, 90 minutes, sound, black and white, 1948. Produced by
-      the J. Arthur Rank Organisation, Inc. This film discusses in
-      detail the history and development of atomic energy with emphasis
-      on nuclear physics. Dalton’s basic atomic theory, Faraday’s early
-      electrolysis experiments, and Mendeleev’s periodic table, the
-      investigation of cathode rays, discovery of the electron, how the
-      nature of positive rays was established, and the discovery of X
-      rays are among the historical highlights. Explanation is presented
-      of the work of the Joliot-Curie’s and Chadwick in the discovery of
-      the neutron, and the splitting of the lithium atom by Cockcroft
-      and Walton. Einstein tells how their work illustrates his theory
-      of equivalence of mass and energy. (Level: high school.)
-
-_Unlocking the Atom_, 20 minutes, sound, black and white, 1950. Produced
-      by United World Films, Inc. This film explains the properties of
-      alpha, beta, and gamma rays, cyclotrons, and the contributions of
-      various scientists. (Level: junior and senior high school.)
-
-
-This “Understanding the Atom” series of semi-technical lecture films is
-designed for inclusion in a high school senior-level chemistry or
-physics course, or it could be used as an introductional unit in nuclear
-science at the college level. The films all have sound and are in black
-and white.
-
-  _Alpha, Beta, and Gamma_, 44 minutes, 1962.
-  _Radiation and Matter_, 44 minutes, 1962.
-  _Radiation Detection by Ionization_, 30 minutes, 1962.
-  _Radiation Detection by Scintillation_, 30 minutes, 1963.
-  _Properties of Radiation_, 30 minutes, 1962.
-  _Nuclear Reactions_, 29½ minutes, 1963.
-  _Radiological Safety_, 30 minutes, 1963.
-
-
-
-
-                               FOOTNOTES
-
-
-[1]For more information about these devices, see _Accelerators_, a
-    companion booklet in this Understanding the Atom series.
-
-[2]For more information, see _Synthetic Transuranium Elements_, another
-    booklet in this series.
-
-[3]The designation ²³⁵U is a new format, now in international usage, for
-    the more familiar style, U²³⁵, to designate isotopes.
-
-[4]For more about plutonium, see _Plutonium_, a companion booklet in
-    this series.
-
-[5]For more information on reactors, see _Nuclear Reactors_, another
-    booklet in this series.
-
-
-
-
-                          Transcriber’s Notes
-
-
-—Silently corrected a few typos.
-
-—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook
-  is public-domain in the country of publication.
-
-—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by
-  _underscores_.
-
-
-
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-<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Our Atomic World, by C. Jackson Craven</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
-at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
-are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
-country where you are located before using this eBook.
-</div>
-
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Our Atomic World</p>
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0;'>The Story of Atomic Energy</p>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: C. Jackson Craven</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: September 8, 2021 [eBook #66246]</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net</div>
-
-<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUR ATOMIC WORLD ***</div>
-<div id="cover" class="img">
-<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Our Atomic World" width="1000" height="1592" />
-</div>
-<div class="box">
-<h1>OUR ATOMIC WORLD</h1>
-<p class="center"><span class="ss">by C. Jackson Craven</span></p>
-<p class="tbcenter"><span class="ss large">THE STORY OF ATOMIC ENERGY</span></p>
-<p class="tbcenter"><span class="ss">U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION
-<br />Division of Technical Information</span>
-<br /><i>Understanding the Atom Series</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_i">i</div>
-<h2><span class="small">The Understanding the Atom Series</span></h2>
-<p>Nuclear energy is playing a vital role in the life of every
-man, woman, and child in the United States today. In the
-years ahead it will affect increasingly all the peoples of the
-earth. It is essential that all Americans gain an understanding
-of this vital force if they are to discharge thoughtfully their
-responsibilities as citizens and if they are to realize fully the
-myriad benefits that nuclear energy offers them.</p>
-<p>The United States Atomic Energy Commission provides
-this booklet to help you achieve such understanding.</p>
-<p class="jr1"><img class="inline" src="images/ejb.jpg" alt="Edward J. Brunenkant" width="300" height="98" />
-<br />Edward J. Brunenkant, Director
-<br />Division of Technical Information</p>
-<div class="verse">
-<p class="t0"><span class="ss">UNITED STATES ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="verse">
-<p class="t0"><span class="ssn">Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg, Chairman</span></p>
-<p class="t0"><span class="ssn">James T. Ramey</span></p>
-<p class="t0"><span class="ssn">Wilfrid E. Johnson</span></p>
-<p class="t0"><span class="ssn">Dr. Theos J. Thompson</span></p>
-<p class="t0"><span class="ssn">Dr. Clarence E. Larson</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_ii">ii</div>
-<h1 title="">OUR ATOMIC WORLD</h1>
-<p class="center"><span class="ss">by C. Jackson Craven</span></p>
-<h2 id="toc" class="center">CONTENTS</h2>
-<dl class="toc">
-<dt><a href="#c1">THE GREEKS WERE CURIOUS ABOUT MATTER</a> 1</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c2">THE ATOMIC THEORY IS CONFIRMED</a> 2</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c3">CATHODE RAYS SHOW ATOMS CONTAIN SMALLER PARTS</a> 3</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c4">RADIOACTIVE ATOMS DISCOVERED</a> 5</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c5">RUTHERFORD FINDS THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS</a> 6</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c6">THE PROTON IS RECOGNIZED</a> 8</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c7">ISOTOPES ARE DISCOVERED</a> 9</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c8">THE ALCHEMISTS&rsquo; DREAM COMES TRUE</a> 10</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c9">SOME PARTICLES HAVE NO ELECTRIC CHARGE</a> 13</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c10">MATTER IS ENERGY; ENERGY IS MATTER</a> 14</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c11">NUCLEI CONTAIN ENERGY</a> 15</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c12">CHRONOLOGY</a> 18</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c13">FISSION IS EXPLAINED</a> 20</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c14">THE FISSION BOMB IS EXPLODED</a> 23</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c15">NUCLEAR ENERGY IS NEEDED FOR THE FUTURE</a> 25</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c16">FUSION HAS POTENTIAL</a> 26</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c17">ISOTOPES HAVE MANY USES</a> 29</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c18">RADIOISOTOPES AT WORK</a> 30</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c19">THE ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION</a> 31</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c20">TOWARD AN INTERNATIONAL ATOM</a> 33</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c21">SUGGESTED REFERENCES</a> 35</dt>
-</dl>
-<p class="tbcenter"><span class="ss">United States Atomic Energy Commission</span>
-<br /><span class="ss">Division of Technical Information</span>
-<br /><span class="small">Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 63-64918</span>
-<br /><span class="small">1963; 1964 (Rev.)</span></p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_iii">iii</div>
-<div class="img" id="imgx1">
-<img src="images/p02.jpg" alt="" width="401" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap">The cover is a time-exposed photograph
-of an animated model of a uranium-235
-atom. The center represents the nucleus,
-greatly exaggerated in size. The fine
-lines represent the electrons whirling
-about the nucleus.
-<br /><span class="smaller">Courtesy Union Carbide Corporation</span></p>
-</div>
-<p><span class="ss">C. JACKSON CRAVEN</span> is a teacher&rsquo;s teacher as well as a student&rsquo;s
-teacher, and has had an active career aiding understanding of
-atomic energy as a member of the University of Tennessee faculty
-and on the staff of the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies. He
-has conducted short courses to instruct groups of high school science
-teachers in nuclear energy, and has served in a key capacity
-in training Institute demonstration-lecturers who visit high schools
-throughout the nation.</p>
-<p>Dr. Craven worked during World War II for the Manhattan Project,
-which built the first atomic bomb. He earned bachelor&rsquo;s and
-graduate degrees at the University of North Carolina, and later
-taught physics and mathematics at Delta State Teachers College
-and at Furman and Emory Universities.</p>
-<p>His research interests include infrared spectroscopy, gaseous
-diffusion through porous media, and the physical properties of
-fibers.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_1">1</div>
-<h1 title="">OUR ATOMIC WORLD</h1>
-<p class="center">By C. Jackson Craven</p>
-<blockquote>
-<p><i>The story of atomic energy evolves from the
-curiosity of people concerning the nature and
-structure of matter, the stuff of which all
-material things are made.</i></p>
-</blockquote>
-<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">The Greeks Were Curious About Matter</span></h2>
-<p>Certain philosophers of ancient Greece&mdash;Democritus for
-one&mdash;were fascinated by the question: <i>what is matter?</i> You
-can imagine one of the philosophers saying to his pupils:</p>
-<p>&ldquo;Gentlemen, let us consider a piece of cheese. With a
-knife we can cut it in two, thus obtaining smaller pieces.
-We can then cut one of these smaller pieces in two, obtaining
-still smaller pieces. We can <i>think</i> about repeating this
-process over and over to get smaller and smaller pieces of
-cheese. Now can this process be continued without limit,
-or will a time come when we arrive at the smallest possible
-piece of cheese? In other words, is there a piece so
-small that we must have at least that much or none, with
-no choice in between?&rdquo;</p>
-<p>It is probable that most people who thought about this
-question at all during the next two thousand years answered
-the last question in the negative. The prevailing notion was
-that matter was continuous, with no theoretical limit as to
-how small a piece of cheese, or anything else, might be.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_2">2</div>
-<p>This concept was humorously expressed by the British
-mathematician Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871) in these
-lines:</p>
-<div class="verse">
-<p class="t0"><i>Great fleas have little fleas upon their backs to bite &rsquo;em,</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>And little fleas have lesser fleas, and so, ad infinitum.</i></p>
-</div>
-<h2 id="c2"><span class="small">The Atomic Theory Is Confirmed</span></h2>
-<p>De Morgan evidently did not keep up with the latest developments
-in science, however, because two years before
-his birth, John Dalton, an English schoolteacher, had changed
-the atomic theory of matter from a philosophical speculation
-into a firmly established principle. The evidence that
-convinced Dalton and many other contemporary scientists
-of the reality of atoms came from quantitative chemical
-analysis.</p>
-<p>Dalton knew that many chemical substances could be
-separated into two or more simpler substances. Chemicals
-that could be separated further were called compounds;
-those that could not were called elements. Careful experiments
-by Dalton and others showed that whenever two or
-more elements combined chemically to make a compound
-the relative amounts of the elements had to be carefully adjusted
-to fit a definite proportion in order to have no elements
-left over after the reaction was finished. For example,
-if hydrogen and oxygen were combined to form
-water, the weight of oxygen had to be eight times the weight
-of hydrogen; otherwise, either some hydrogen or some
-oxygen would be left over.</p>
-<p>This fundamental truth is now called the Law of Definite
-Proportions. Another important principle, called the Law
-of Multiple Proportions, is illustrated by hydrogen peroxide,
-which is made up of the same two elements that are found
-in water. The weight of oxygen in hydrogen peroxide, however,
-is 16 times the weight of hydrogen or exactly twice
-the relative weight found in water.</p>
-<p>These principles of chemical combination convinced
-Dalton that each chemical element consists of small,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_3">3</span>
-indivisible units, all just alike, called atoms, and that each
-chemical compound also has basic units, called molecules,
-which cannot be divided without reducing the compound
-into its elements&mdash;that is, destroying it as a compound.
-He visualized a molecule of a compound as formed by the
-uniting of individual atoms of two or more elements. It was
-obvious to him that in any molecule of a compound, the
-weight of each atom of a component element bore a proportionate
-relationship to the weight of the entire molecule
-which was equal to the proportion, by weight, of all that
-element in the compound. And although Dalton had no idea
-how heavy any individual atom really was, he could tell
-how many <i>times</i> heavier or lighter it was than an atom of
-another element.</p>
-<p>Incidentally, Dalton mistakenly thought that one atom of
-oxygen was eight times as heavy as one atom of hydrogen
-instead of 16 times as heavy. He assumed a water molecule
-to be HO instead of H&#8322;O.</p>
-<h2 id="c3"><span class="small">Cathode Rays Show Atoms Contain Smaller Parts</span></h2>
-<p>Curiosity about the fundamental nature of matter was
-matched by equally avid curiosity about the fundamental
-nature of electricity. Before 1850 much had been learned
-about the behavior of electric charge and electric currents
-flowing through solids and liquids. Real progress in understanding
-electric charge, however, had to wait for the development
-of highly efficient vacuum pumps.</p>
-<p>About 1854 Heinrich Geissler, a German glassblower,
-developed an improved suction pump, and also succeeded
-in sealing into a glass tube two wires attached to metal
-electrodes inside the tube. Experimenters were then able to
-study the flow of electricity through a near-vacuum. A
-Geissler tube is diagramed in <a href="#fig1">Figure 1</a>.</p>
-<p>By the 1890s it had become clear that the flow of electricity
-through a highly evacuated tube consisted of a negative
-electric charge moving at a very high speed along
-straight lines between sealed-in electrodes. Since it originated
-at the negative electrode, or cathode, the invisible
-stream of charge was named &ldquo;cathode rays.&rdquo;</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_4">4</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig1">
-<img src="images/p03.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="475" />
-<p class="pcap"><b>Figure 1</b> <i>Geissler Tube.</i></p>
-</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>CURRENT SOURCE</dt>
-<dt>CATHODE (-)</dt>
-<dd>STREAM OF ELECTRONS</dd>
-<dd>VACUUM PUMP</dd>
-<dt>ANODE (+)</dt></dl>
-<p>Although many investigators contributed to knowledge
-about cathode rays, the experiments of Joseph J. Thomson,
-a British physicist, are generally considered to have been
-the most enlightening. Thomson arranged a cathode-ray
-tube so that the rays could be deflected by magnets and by
-electrically charged metal plates. By applying certain well-known
-principles of physics, he was able to confirm an
-impression already held by physical chemists, namely, that
-electric charge, like matter, was &ldquo;atomized&rdquo;&mdash;the stream
-of charge consisted of a swarm of very small particles, all
-alike. He succeeded also in determining that the speed of
-the particles was about one-tenth the speed of light.</p>
-<p>Probably Thomson&rsquo;s most significant result was determining
-the ratio of the charge of each little particle to its
-weight. He was able to do this by measuring the magnetic
-force required to divert a stream of charged particles.
-(You can do this experiment yourself with relatively simple
-equipment.) This charge-to-weight ratio proved to be nearly
-2000 times greater than the already known charge-to-weight
-ratio for a positively charged hydrogen atom, or ion, which
-until then was thought to be the lightest constituent of
-matter. It remained to be determined whether charge or
-weight caused the difference. Further experimentation
-showed that the charges were approximately the same
-amount in the two cases. It was therefore proven that the
-weight of the hydrogen atom, lightest of all the atoms, was
-nearly 2000 times as great as the weight of one of the little
-negative particles.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div>
-<p>The name &ldquo;electron&rdquo; was given to the small negative
-particles identified by Thomson. Since the electrons had
-come from the cathode, it was apparent that the atoms in
-the cathode must contain electrons. Thomson reasoned that
-electric current in a wire is a stream of electrons passing
-successively from atom to atom and that the difference
-between an electrically charged atom and a neutral atom
-is that the charged one has gained or lost one or more
-electrons.</p>
-<h2 id="c4"><span class="small">Radioactive Atoms Discovered</span></h2>
-<div class="img" id="imgx2">
-<img src="images/p03a.jpg" alt="" width="504" height="608" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Henri Becquerel</i>
-<br /><span class="smaller">Courtesy Journal of Chemical Education, <span class="u">Discovery of the Elements</span>, Mary Elvira Weeks.</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>In 1896 the French physicist Henri Becquerel was investigating
-the relation between fluorescence and X rays, a
-puzzling kind of penetrating radiation discovered a few
-months earlier by the German, Wilhelm Roentgen. Various
-chemical compounds fluoresce, or glow, when exposed to
-ultraviolet rays and other types of radiation. While experimenting
-with a large number of chemicals, Becquerel
-discovered, quite by accident, that a compound containing
-the element uranium can, without being exposed to any kind
-of radiation, darken a photographic plate completely wrapped
-in heavy black paper.</p>
-<p>Although no one realized it at the time, Becquerel had
-discovered that atoms of some elements will at random
-times transform themselves into atoms of a different element
-by emitting certain extremely high-speed charged
-particles. Atoms that can do this are said to be radioactive,
-and it was the radiation from transforming uranium atoms
-that darkened Becquerel&rsquo;s photographic plate.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_6">6</div>
-<h2 id="c5"><span class="small">Rutherford Finds the Atomic Nucleus</span></h2>
-<div class="img" id="imgx3">
-<img src="images/p04.jpg" alt="" width="466" height="599" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Ernest Rutherford,
-1871-1937</i>
-<br /><span class="smaller">Courtesy Nobelstiftelsen</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>We are greatly indebted to the imagination and experimental
-skill of the British physicist Ernest Rutherford for
-the interpretation of radioactivity in terms of the structure
-of atoms.</p>
-<p>Rutherford, born and educated in New Zealand, moved to
-England to work under Thomson at Cambridge University
-in 1895. Shortly afterward, Wilhelm Roentgen in Germany
-discovered X rays, Becquerel in France discovered radioactivity,
-and Thomson proved the existence of the electron.</p>
-<p>During the next few years, curiosity about the fundamental
-nature of radioactivity led a number of people to do
-a great deal of work. The element thorium was found to be
-radioactive, and Marie and Pierre Curie discovered two
-new elements, polonium and radium, that were also radioactive.
-The radiation from radioactive materials was found
-to be of three kinds called alpha rays, beta rays, and gamma
-rays. Alpha rays were first detected by Rutherford, who
-later identified them as positively charged helium atoms.
-Becquerel demonstrated that beta rays, like cathode rays,
-consist of negatively charged electrons. The highly penetrating
-gamma rays were proved by Rutherford and E. N. da
-C. Andrade to be electromagnetic radiation similar to X
-rays.</p>
-<p>Rutherford, in collaboration with the English chemist
-Frederick Soddy, brought order out of a chaos of puzzling
-discoveries by establishing the general behavior of radioactive
-atoms. He determined that certain naturally occurring
-atoms of high atomic weight can spontaneously emit
-an alpha or a beta particle and thereby convert themselves
-<span class="pb" id="Page_7">7</span>
-into new atoms. These new atoms, being also radioactive,
-sooner or later convert themselves into still different
-atoms, and so on. Each time an alpha particle is emitted
-in this sequence, the new atom is lighter by the weight of
-the alpha particle, or helium atom. The disintegration
-process proceeds from stage to stage until at last a <i>stable</i>
-atom is produced. The end product in this &ldquo;decay&rdquo; process
-in naturally occurring radioactive elements is lead.</p>
-<p>One experiment by Rutherford and his co-workers had a
-most profound effect on the understanding of atomic structure.
-What they did was to direct a stream of alpha particles
-at a thin piece of gold foil. The results were astonishing.
-Almost all the particles passed straight through
-the foil without changing direction. Of the few particles
-that did ricochet in new directions, however, some were
-deflected at very sharp angles. (See <a href="#fig2">Figure 2</a>.)</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig2">
-<img src="images/p04a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="408" />
-<p class="pcap"><b>Figure 2</b> <i>Rutherford&rsquo;s most famous experiment, which led him to
-the concept of the nucleus.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>As a result of this experiment, Rutherford proposed a
-concept of the atom entirely different from the one which
-prevailed at this time. The prevailing notion was one advanced
-by Thomson which conceived of an atom as a blob
-of positive electric charge in which were imbedded, in much
-the same way as plums are in a pudding, enough electrons
-to neutralize the positive charge. Rutherford&rsquo;s concept,
-which quickly set aside Thomson&rsquo;s &ldquo;plum pudding&rdquo; model,
-was that an atom has all of its positive charge and virtually
-all of its mass concentrated in a tiny space at its center.
-<span class="pb" id="Page_8">8</span>
-(Collisions with this center, which came to be known
-thereafter as the nucleus, had been responsible for the
-sharp changes in direction of some of the alpha particles.)
-The space surrounding this nucleus is entirely empty
-except for the presence of a number of electrons (79 in the
-case of the gold atom), each about the same size as the
-nucleus.</p>
-<p>To illustrate Rutherford&rsquo;s concept, let us imagine a gold
-atom magnified so that it is as large as a bale of cotton.
-The nucleus at the center of this large atom would be the
-size of a speck of black pepper. If this imaginary bale
-weighed 500 pounds, the little speck at its center would
-weigh 499&frac34; pounds; the surrounding cotton (corresponding
-to empty space in Rutherford&rsquo;s concept) containing the 79
-electrons would weigh but &frac14; pound. To express this idea
-another way, any object such as a gold ring, as dense and
-solid as it may seem to us, consists almost entirely of
-nothing!</p>
-<h2 id="c6"><span class="small">The Proton Is Recognized</span></h2>
-<p>Rutherford&rsquo;s discovery aroused intense curiosity about
-the nature and possible structure of this extremely small,
-but all-important, part of an atom. It was assumed that the
-positive charge carried by the nucleus must be a whole-number
-multiple of a small unit equal in size but opposite
-in sign to the charge of an electron. This conclusion was
-based on the information that all atoms contain electrons
-and that an undisturbed atom is electrically neutral. Since
-it was known that a neutral atom of hydrogen contains just
-one electron, it appeared that the charge on a hydrogen
-nucleus must represent the fundamental unit of positive
-charge, some multiple of which would represent the charge
-on any other nucleus. Several lines of investigation combined
-to establish quite firmly that nuclei of atoms occupying
-adjacent positions on the periodic chart of the elements
-differed in charge by this fundamental unit. Since the
-hydrogen nucleus seemed to play such an important role in
-making up the charges of all other nuclei, it was given the
-name proton from the Greek &ldquo;protos,&rdquo; which means &ldquo;first.&rdquo;</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_9">9</div>
-<h2 id="c7"><span class="small">Isotopes Are Discovered</span></h2>
-<p>At a historic meeting of the British Association for the
-Advancement of Science held in Birmingham, England, in
-1913, two apparently unrelated lines of investigation were
-reported, each of which showed that some atomic nuclei
-have identical electric charges but different weights.</p>
-<p>One report was presented by Frederick Soddy, who had
-collaborated with Rutherford in explaining the pattern of
-natural radioactivity. Soddy knew that the nucleus of a radioactive
-atom loses both weight and positive charge when
-it throws out an alpha particle (helium nucleus). On the
-other hand, when a nucleus emits a beta particle (negative
-electron), its positive charge increases, but its weight is
-practically unchanged. Thus Soddy could deduce the weights
-and nuclear charges of many radioactive products. In several
-cases the products of two different kinds of radioactivity
-had the same nuclear charge but different weights.
-Since it is the positive charge carried by the nucleus of an
-atom which fixes the number of negative electrons needed
-to complete the atom, the nuclear charge is really responsible
-for the exterior appearance, or chemical properties,
-of the atom.</p>
-<p>This conclusion was confirmed by unsuccessful efforts to
-separate by chemical means different radioactive products
-having the same nuclear charge but different weights. The
-products might have had quite different rates of radioactive
-disintegration, but they appeared to consist of chemically
-identical atoms of the same chemical element and hence to
-belong at the <i>same place</i> on the periodic chart of the elements.
-Soddy suggested that such atoms be called <i>isotopes</i>,
-from a Greek word meaning &ldquo;same place.&rdquo;</p>
-<p>At the same meeting, Francis W. Aston, an assistant of
-Thomson, described what happened when charged atoms, or
-ions, of neon gas were accelerated in a discharge tube
-similar to the cathode-ray tube in which Thomson had
-discovered the electron. The rapidly moving neon ions
-were deflected by a magnet. Since light objects are more
-easily deflected than heavy objects, the amount of deflection
-indicated the weight. By making a comparison with a
-familiar gas like oxygen, Thomson and Aston were actually
-<span class="pb" id="Page_10">10</span>
-able to measure the atomic weight of neon. To their surprise
-they found two kinds of neon. About nine-tenths of the
-neon atoms had an atomic weight of 20, and the remainder
-an atomic weight of 22.</p>
-<p>What Thomson and Aston had done was to show that the
-stable element neon is a mixture of two isotopes. A device
-that can do what their apparatus did is called a mass
-spectrograph. (See <a href="#fig3">Figure 3</a>.) Since their time, instruments
-of this type have shown that more than three-fourths
-of the stable chemical elements are mixtures of two or
-more stable isotopes; in fact, there are about 300 such
-isotopes in all. The number of known unstable radioactive
-isotopes (radioisotopes), natural or man-made, is greater
-than 1000 and is still growing!</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig3">
-<img src="images/p05.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="519" />
-<p class="pcap"><b>Figure 3</b> <i>Mass spectrograph as used by Thomson and Aston to
-measure the atomic weight of neon.</i></p>
-</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>NEON 20</dt>
-<dt>NEON 22</dt></dl>
-<h2 id="c8"><span class="small">The Alchemists&rsquo; Dream Comes True</span></h2>
-<p>During the Middle Ages the desire to find a way to convert
-a base metal like lead into gold was the outstanding incentive
-for research in chemistry. When the important role of
-the nucleus in determining the chemical properties of an
-atom became clear and the natural transmutation accompanying
-<span class="pb" id="Page_11">11</span>
-radioactivity was understood, the fascinating idea
-occurred to many people that perhaps man would soon be
-able to alter the nucleus of a stable atom and thus deliberately
-convert one element into another. In a historic lecture
-delivered in Washington, D. C., in April 1914, Rutherford
-said, &ldquo;It is possible that the nucleus of an atom may be altered
-by direct collision of the nucleus with very swift electrons
-or atoms of helium (i.e., beta or alpha particles) such
-as are ejected from radioactive
-matter.... Under favorable
-conditions, these particles
-must pass very close to
-the nucleus and may either
-lead to a disruption of the
-nucleus or to a combination
-with it.&rdquo;</p>
-<div class="img" id="imgx4">
-<img src="images/p05a.jpg" alt="" width="407" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Medieval Alchemist</i>
-<br /><span class="smaller">Courtesy Fisher Scientific Company</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>World War I began shortly after Rutherford made this
-statement, and preoccupation with war work stopped his
-experiments with nuclei. In 1919, however, he published a
-paper describing what happens when alpha particles pass
-through nitrogen gas. Very fast protons, or hydrogen nuclei,
-appear to originate along the paths of the alpha particles.
-The following is from Rutherford&rsquo;s paper:</p>
-<p>&ldquo;If this be the case, we must conclude that the nitrogen
-atom is disintegrated under the intense forces developed
-in a close collision with a swift alpha particle, and that the
-hydrogen atom which is liberated formed a constituent part
-of the nitrogen nucleus.... The results as a whole suggest
-that, if alpha particles or similar projectiles of still greater
-energy were available for experiment, we might expect to
-break down the nuclear structure of many of the lighter
-atoms.&rdquo;</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_12">12</div>
-<p>This prediction has certainly been verified through the
-use of the atomic artillery provided by extremely powerful
-particle accelerators, or &ldquo;atom smashers.&rdquo;<a class="fn" id="fr_1" href="#fn_1">[1]</a></p>
-<div class="img" id="imgx5">
-<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="605" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>The Bevatron accelerator at the University of California&rsquo;s Lawrence
-Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, California, shown after
-recent remodeling in which it was enclosed in concrete shielding.</i>
-<br /><span class="smaller">Courtesy Lawrence Radiation Laboratory</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Patrick Blackett in England and W. D. Harkins in the
-United States soon proved independently that, during the
-nuclear event reported by Rutherford in his 1919 paper, an
-alpha particle combines with a nitrogen nucleus and that
-the resulting unstable combination immediately emits a
-proton and ends up as one of the isotopes of oxygen. This
-was the first instance of deliberate transmutation of one
-stable chemical element into another. Since that time practically
-every known element has been transmuted by bombardment.
-The dream of the alchemists has been partially
-fulfilled in that mercury has been changed into gold. We
-say &ldquo;partially fulfilled&rdquo; because the process is much too
-expensive to be economically profitable.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_13">13</div>
-<h2 id="c9"><span class="small">Some Particles Have No Electric Charge</span></h2>
-<p>During the early 1920s a number of investigators, including
-Harkins in the United States, Orme Masson in
-Australia, and Rutherford and his assistant James Chadwick
-in England, seriously considered the possibility that a
-neutral particle might exist in nature, possibly formed by
-the very close association of a proton and an electron.
-However, strenuous efforts to produce such particles by
-combining protons and electrons were unsuccessful.</p>
-<p>During these years the new technique of bombarding all
-kinds of matter with alpha particles to see what would
-happen was widely exploited, and it gradually became clear
-that in a few instances a peculiar and highly penetrating
-kind of radiation was produced. In 1932, Chadwick succeeded
-in showing that the peculiar radiation must consist
-of a stream of particles, each weighing about the same as
-a proton but having no electrical charge.</p>
-<p>The name &ldquo;neutron&rdquo; for a possible neutral particle of
-this type was suggested by Harkins in the United States in
-1921. Much evidence now exists that the neutron is a fundamental
-particle in its own right and that it should not be
-thought of merely as a particle formed by a very close
-association between a proton and an electron.</p>
-<p>The new particle discovered by Chadwick was destined to
-play a totally unexpected role, not only in the history of
-atomic science but also in the fate of nations. It immediately
-outmoded a previous concept of the nucleus that
-pictured it as a cluster of protons approximately half of
-which were neutralized by electrons crowded into the
-nucleus. A nucleus is now thought of as containing just
-protons and neutrons.</p>
-<p>The neutron was also greeted by nuclear workers as a
-practically perfect kind of bullet. Unlike charged alpha
-particles, uncharged neutrons can approach a charged
-nucleus completely unopposed. It is physically impossible
-for any kind of container to hold a swarm of free neutrons;
-they seep right through its walls.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div>
-<h2 id="c10"><span class="small">Matter Is Energy; Energy Is Matter</span></h2>
-<p>So far, in the story about man&rsquo;s curiosity concerning the
-fundamental nature and structure of matter, the development
-of ideas about <i>structure</i> has been emphasized. We will now
-take a brief look at a development which strongly influenced
-our ideas about the fundamental <i>nature</i> of matter.</p>
-<p>In 1887 reports appeared on a famous study, often referred
-to as the Michelson-Morley experiment, which was
-aimed at determining the earth&rsquo;s speed through absolute
-space. The entirely unexpected results of the experiment
-had a great impact on the concepts of space and time. We
-will here concern ourselves with just one outcome of the
-experiment.</p>
-<p>In 1905, a young German-born
-physics student named
-Albert Einstein, who was
-working as a patent examiner
-in Switzerland, published
-three papers, each of which
-had a profound effect on a
-different field of physics.</p>
-<p>One of the papers dealt with
-some peculiar speculations
-about space and time which
-began to interest him when he
-was studying the Michelson-Morley
-experiment. The contents
-of the paper are now
-referred to as the Special
-Theory of Relativity. This
-paper contains several predictions
-that seemed incredible
-to the average physicist of
-that day. These predictions
-have, however, long since been
-proved valid.</p>
-<div class="img" id="imgx6">
-<img src="images/p07.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Albert Einstein in 1905.</i>
-<br /><span class="smaller">Courtesy Lotte Jacobi, Hillsboro, New Hampshire</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>One of Einstein&rsquo;s predictions had to do with the equivalence
-of matter and energy. Until 1905 <i>matter</i> had been
-considered as something that has mass or inertia; <i>energy</i>,
-on the other hand, had been regarded as the ability to do
-<span class="pb" id="Page_15">15</span>
-work. It was believed that the two were as different from
-each other as, say, a square yard is different from an hour.
-Einstein&rsquo;s theory, however, implies that matter and energy
-are merely two different manifestations of the same fundamental
-physical reality, and that each may be converted into
-the other according to the famous equation:</p>
-<div class="verse">
-<p class="lc">E = MC&sup2;</p>
-</div>
-<div class="verse">
-<p class="t0">where</p>
-<p class="t2">E = quantity of energy,</p>
-<p class="t2">M = quantity of matter, and</p>
-<p class="t2">C = speed of light in a vacuum.</p>
-</div>
-<h2 id="c11"><span class="small">Nuclei Contain Energy</span></h2>
-<p>One more piece of information must be fitted into the
-story of the atom before it becomes clear why some people
-began to realize during the 1920s that atomic nuclei contain
-vast stores of energy that might some day revolutionize
-civilization. This last item has to do with a nuclear phenomenon
-known as the packing fraction.</p>
-<p>Since any nucleus consists of a certain number of protons
-and neutrons, it seems logical that the total weight of the
-nucleus could be determined by adding together the individual
-weights of the particles in it. When mass spectrographs
-of sufficiently high accuracy became available, however, it
-was found that in the case of nuclear weights, the whole was
-not equal to the sum of its parts! All nuclei (except hydrogen)
-weigh less than the sum of the weights of the particles
-in them.</p>
-<p>For example, the atomic weight of a proton is 1.00812
-and that of a neutron is 1.00893. (These are relative
-weights based on an internationally accepted scale.) It
-would seem then that a nucleus of helium containing two
-protons and two neutrons should have an atomic weight of
-2 &times; 1.00812 plus 2 &times; 1.00893 or 4.0341. Actually the atomic
-weight of helium as measured by the mass spectrograph is
-only 4.0039. (See <a href="#fig4">Figure 4</a>.)</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_16">16</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig4">
-<img src="images/p08.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="727" />
-<p class="pcap"><b>Figure 4</b> <i>A case where the whole is not equal to the sum of its parts.
-Two protons and two neutrons are distinctly heavier than a helium
-nucleus, which also consists of two protons and two neutrons. Energy
-makes up the difference.</i></p>
-</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>HELIUM NUCLEUS</dt>
-<dt>TWO PROTONS AND TWO NEUTRONS</dt></dl>
-<p>What happens to the missing atomic weight of 0.0302?
-Physicists now realize that, as postulated in Einstein&rsquo;s
-formula, it must be converted into energy! The conversion
-occurs when the protons and neutrons are drawn together
-into a helium nucleus by the powerful nuclear forces between
-them.</p>
-<p>When the missing atomic weight 0.0302 is multiplied by
-the square of the velocity of light according to Einstein&rsquo;s
-theory, it is found to represent a tremendous amount of
-energy. Indeed, the energy released in forming a helium
-nucleus from two protons and two neutrons turns out to be
-seven million times that released when a carbon atom
-combines with an oxygen molecule to produce a molecule
-of carbon dioxide in the familiar process of combustion.</p>
-<p>The general behavior of such losses in atomic weight for
-atoms throughout the periodic table had been determined as
-early as 1927, largely through the work of Aston, the English
-scientist who developed the first mass spectrograph. His
-results show that, in general, if two light nuclei combine to
-form a heavier one, the new nucleus does not weigh as
-much as the sum of the original ones. This behavior continues
-up to the level of the so-called &ldquo;transition metals&rdquo;&mdash;iron,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_17">17</span>
-nickel, and cobalt&mdash;in the periodic table. But if two
-nuclei heavier than iron are coalesced into a single very
-heavy nucleus found near the end of the periodic table (such
-as uranium), the new nucleus weighs more than the sum of
-the two nuclei that formed it.</p>
-<p>Thus, if a very heavy nucleus could be divided into parts,
-energy would be released, and the sum of the weights of the
-fragments would be less than that of the original nucleus.</p>
-<p>In these two types of nuclear reactions, a small amount
-of matter would actually vanish! Einstein&rsquo;s Special Theory
-of Relativity states that the vanished matter would reappear
-as an enormous quantity of energy.</p>
-<p>During the late 1920s scientists began saying that a small
-amount of matter could supply enough energy to drive a
-large ship across the ocean. As we know, this prediction
-has since been borne out by the performance of nuclear
-submarines and surface vessels.</p>
-<div class="img" id="imgx7">
-<img src="images/p08b.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="382" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>The NS</i> Savannah <i>was the first cargo-passenger ship to be driven
-by nuclear power</i>.
-<br /><span class="smaller">Courtesy States Marine Lines</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="imgx8">
-<img src="images/p08c.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="384" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>The</i> Nautilus <i>was the Navy&rsquo;s first atomic-powered submarine</i>.
-<br /><span class="smaller">Courtesy U. S. Navy</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_18">18</div>
-<h2 id="c12"><span class="small">CHRONOLOGY</span></h2>
-<table class="center">
-<tr><td class="l">1800 </td><td class="l">Dalton firmly establishes atomic theory of matter.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1890-1900 </td><td class="l">Thomson&rsquo;s experiments with cathode rays prove the existence of electrons. Atoms are found to contain negative electrons and positive electric charge. Becquerel discovers unstable (radioactive) atoms.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1905 </td><td class="l">Einstein postulates the equivalence of mass and energy.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1911 </td><td class="l">Rutherford recognizes nucleus.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1919 </td><td class="l">Rutherford achieves transmutation of one stable chemical element (nitrogen) into another (oxygen).</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1920-1925 </td><td class="l">Improved mass spectrographs show that changes in mass per nuclear particle accompanying transmutation account for energy released by nucleus.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1932 </td><td class="l">Chadwick identifies neutrons.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1939 </td><td class="l">Discovery of uranium fission by German scientists.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1940 </td><td class="l">Discovery of neptunium by Edwin M. McMillan and Philip H. Abelson and of plutonium by Glenn T. Seaborg and associates at the University of California.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1942 </td><td class="l">Achievement of first self-sustaining nuclear reaction, University of Chicago.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1945 </td><td class="l">First successful test of an atomic device, near Alamagordo, New Mexico, followed by the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1946 </td><td class="l">U. S. Atomic Energy Commission established by Act of Congress.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">First shipment of radioisotopes from Oak Ridge goes to hospital in St. Louis, Missouri.</td></tr>
-<tr class="pbtr"><td colspan="2">
-<span class="pb" id="Page_19">19</span>
-</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1951 </td><td class="l">First significant amount of electricity (100 kilowatts) produced from atomic energy at testing station in Idaho.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1952 </td><td class="l">First detonation of a thermonuclear bomb, Eniwetok Atoll, Pacific Ocean.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1953 </td><td class="l">President Eisenhower announces U. S. Atoms-for-Peace program and proposes establishment of an international atomic energy agency.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1954 </td><td class="l">First nuclear-powered submarine, <i>Nautilus</i>, commissioned.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1955 </td><td class="l">First United Nations International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy held in Geneva, Switzerland.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1957 </td><td class="l">First commercial use of power from a civilian reactor takes place in California.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Shippingport Atomic Power Plant in Pennsylvania reaches full power of 60,000 kilowatts.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">International Atomic Energy Agency formally established.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1959 </td><td class="l">First nuclear-powered merchant ship, the <i>Savannah</i>, launched at Camden, New Jersey.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Commissioning of first nuclear-powered Polaris missile-launching submarine <i>George Washington</i>.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1961 </td><td class="l">A radioisotope-powered electric power generator placed in orbit, the first use of nuclear power in space.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1962 </td><td class="l">Nuclear power plant in the Antarctic becomes operational.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1963 </td><td class="l">President Kennedy ratified the Limited Test Ban Treaty for the United States on October 7.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">1964 </td><td class="l">President Johnson signed law permitting private ownership of certain nuclear materials.</td></tr>
-</table>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_20">20</div>
-<h2 id="c13"><span class="small">Fission is Explained</span></h2>
-<div class="img" id="imgx9">
-<img src="images/p09.jpg" alt="" width="543" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Enrico Fermi
-1901-1954</i>
-<br /><span class="smaller">Courtesy Chemical and Engineering News</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Physicists welcomed the neutron as a bullet that could
-strike any nucleus, unopposed by electric repulsion. During
-the middle 1930s, a number of investigators, chief among
-them the Italian physicist Enrico Fermi, exposed many
-different isotopes of the chemical elements to beams of
-neutrons to see what would happen.</p>
-<p>What usually happened was that the bombarded nuclei
-would absorb neutrons, emit alpha, beta, or gamma rays,
-and change into different isotopes. The identification of
-the extremely small quantities of isotopes produced required
-the development of a fantastic new branch of chemistry
-known as radiochemistry, or, as one chemist put it,
-&ldquo;phantom chemistry.&rdquo;</p>
-<p>In some cases the absorption of a neutron by a nucleus
-was followed by the emission of a negative electron (beta
-particle). This produced an atom whose nuclear positive
-charge had been increased by one unit and which therefore
-belonged at the next higher place on the periodic table.
-Fermi and others then considered the fascinating possibility
-of doing the same thing to uranium, the last-known
-element on the periodic table, to create previously unknown
-chemical elements. The results of bombarding uranium
-with neutrons turned out to be extremely complex, but it
-eventually became clear that &ldquo;transuranic&rdquo; elements (those
-heavier than uranium) could actually be made in this way.<a class="fn" id="fr_2" href="#fn_2">[2]</a></p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_21">21</div>
-<p>Some of the complex results
-of bombarding uranium with
-neutrons formed an intriguing
-puzzle that kept various investigators
-busy for several
-years. In 1939 the German
-chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz
-Strassmann and the physicists
-Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch
-were able to announce a solution.
-The absorption of a neutron
-by a certain uranium
-nucleus (later shown to be
-that of the relatively rare isotope
-uranium-235) can result
-in a splitting, or <i>fission</i>, of
-the nucleus into two parts with separate weights that place
-them somewhere near the middle of the periodic table.</p>
-<div class="img" id="imgx10">
-<img src="images/p09a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="671" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn in
-their laboratory in the 1930s.</i>
-<br /><span class="smaller">Courtesy Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>The announcement of this discovery created quite a stir
-among physicists because a nuclear process of this nature
-must release a very large amount of energy.</p>
-<div class="img" id="imgx11">
-<img src="images/p09c.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="658" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Scale model of the CP-1 (Chicago Pile No. 1) used by Enrico Fermi
-and his associates on December 2, 1942, to achieve the first self-sustaining
-nuclear reaction. Alternate layers of graphite, containing
-uranium metal and/or uranium oxide, were separated by layers
-of solid graphite blocks. Graphite was used to slow down neutrons
-to increase the likelihood of fissions.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>The excitement among physicists became even greater
-when it was realized that this newly discovered process of
-<span class="pb" id="Page_22">22</span>
-fission was accompanied by the release of several free
-neutrons from the splitting nucleus. Each new neutron
-could, if properly slowed down by a moderating material,
-cause another nucleus to split and release more energy and
-still more neutrons, and so on, as illustrated in <a href="#fig5">Figure 5</a>.
-(A moderator is necessary because fast, newly released
-neutrons are too readily absorbed by uranium-238 nuclei,
-which rarely split.) Apparently all that was needed to
-achieve this spectacular kind of a chain reaction was to
-assemble enough uranium in one place so that the released
-neutrons would have a good chance of finding another &sup2;&sup3;&#8309;U
-nucleus before escaping from the pile. The amount of fissionable
-material required to sustain a chain reaction is
-termed the &ldquo;critical mass.&rdquo; A team of scientists led by
-Fermi achieved the first self-sustaining nuclear reaction on
-December 2, 1942, under the grandstand at the University
-of Chicago&rsquo;s athletic field. This date is often referred to
-as the beginning of the Nuclear Age.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig5">
-<img src="images/p10.jpg" alt="" width="959" height="1000" />
-<p class="pcap"><b>Figure 5</b> <i>This diagram
-shows what happens in a
-chain reaction resulting
-from fission of uranium-235
-atoms.</i></p>
-</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>STRAY NEUTRON</dt>
-<dt>&sup2;&sup3;&#8309;U</dt>
-<dt><b>ORIGINAL FISSION</b></dt>
-<dd>FISSION FRAGMENTS</dd>
-<dd>One to three neutrons from fission process</dd>
-<dd>A NEUTRON SOMETIMES LOST</dd>
-<dt>&sup2;&sup3;&#8312;U</dt>
-<dd>CHANGES TO PLUTONIUM</dd>
-<dt>&sup2;&sup3;&#8309;U</dt>
-<dd><b>ONE NEW FISSION</b></dd>
-<dd>FISSION FRAGMENT</dd>
-<dd>One to three neutrons again</dd>
-<dt>&sup2;&sup3;&#8309;U</dt>
-<dt>&sup2;&sup3;&#8309;U</dt>
-<dd><b>TWO NEW FISSIONS</b></dd>
-<dd>FISSION FRAGMENTS</dd></dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_23">23</div>
-<h2 id="c14"><span class="small">The Fission Bomb Is Exploded</span></h2>
-<p>The American scientists present on that historic December
-day were part of the tremendous super-secret scientific
-and industrial complex that bore the unrevealing title
-Manhattan District. The United States had been at war almost
-a year. An uncontrolled fission reaction gave promise
-of producing an explosion of untold proportions. This promise,
-coupled with the possibility that enemy scientists
-might be nearing such a goal, had launched a vast Allied
-effort.</p>
-<p>The Manhattan Project, as it was commonly known, included
-a variety of &ldquo;hush-hush&rdquo; facilities. Each of these installations,
-in New York, Illinois, Tennessee, New Mexico,
-California, and Washington, had its own experts working
-night and day to solve the baffling problems surrounding
-development of a fission weapon.</p>
-<p>Ordinary uranium as found in nature was not suitable for
-an atomic bomb because less than one percent of the atoms
-in it are fissionable isotope &sup2;&sup3;&#8309;U.<a class="fn" id="fr_3" href="#fn_3">[3]</a> It therefore became
-necessary to find some means for separating the rare &sup2;&sup3;&#8309;U
-from the large quantity of &sup2;&sup3;&#8312;U. Chemistry could not do it
-since the two isotopes are identical chemically.</p>
-<p>Several methods of achieving large-scale separation were
-tried. The most successful and economical, known as &ldquo;gaseous
-diffusion,&rdquo; involves compressing normal uranium, in
-the form of uranium hexafluoride gas, against a porous
-barrier containing millions of holes, each smaller than two-millionths
-of an inch. Since the &sup2;&sup3;&#8309;U molecules are slightly
-lighter than the &sup2;&sup3;&#8312;U, they bounce against the barrier more
-frequently and have a greater chance of penetrating. Thus,
-although the gas at first contains only 0.7% &sup2;&sup3;&#8309;U, the process
-of compression is repeated several thousand times, and the
-proportion gradually increases until the necessary concentration
-is reached.</p>
-<p>For this operation an enormous plant containing a very
-large barrier area, miles of piping, and countless pumps
-was built at Oak Ridge, Tennessee.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_24">24</div>
-<p>At the same time that vast efforts were being made to
-produce a &sup2;&sup3;&#8309;U bomb, another project of equal importance
-was being pursued to develop a different kind of fission
-bomb. Uncertainty as to whether it would be possible to
-separate usable amounts of &sup2;&sup3;&#8309;U led to a decision to exploit
-a highly significant discovery about one of the transuranic
-elements.</p>
-<p>By 1941 Glenn T. Seaborg, Edwin M. McMillan, Philip H.
-Abelson, and others at the Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley,
-California, had identified isotopes of two new transuranic
-elements developed when they bombarded &sup2;&sup3;&#8312;U nuclei with
-neutrons. The new elements were named neptunium and
-plutonium after the planets Neptune and Pluto, which lie
-beyond Uranus in the solar system.<a class="fn" id="fr_4" href="#fn_4">[4]</a> One isotope of plutonium,
-plutonium-239, which resulted from the absorption
-of a neutron by a &sup2;&sup3;&#8312;U nucleus and the emission of two beta
-particles, was discovered to be as fissionable as &sup2;&sup3;&#8309;U and
-hence theoretically just as feasible for a bomb. Since plutonium
-is chemically different from uranium, it offered the
-tremendous advantage that it could readily be concentrated
-by conventional chemical techniques.</p>
-<p>The way to manufacture usable amounts of plutonium, an
-element that had never before been detected on earth, is to
-expose uranium to a very intense neutron bombardment.
-The best-known place to find a rich supply of neutrons
-was the heart of a self-sustaining chain-reacting pile of
-uranium. Accordingly, very
-large piles, or <i>reactors</i>, were
-rushed to completion near the
-Columbia River at Hanford,
-Washington, to make plutonium.</p>
-<div class="img" id="imgx12">
-<img src="images/p11.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="463" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>First atomic bomb explosion
-at Alamagordo, New Mexico,
-at 5:30 a.m. on July 16, 1945.</i>
-<br /><span class="smaller">Courtesy U. S. Army</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>On July 16, 1945, a plutonium
-bomb, carefully assembled
-by another group of
-scientists at &ldquo;Project Y,&rdquo; Los
-Alamos, New Mexico, was
-successfully tested in the New
-<span class="pb" id="Page_25">25</span>
-Mexico desert. The heat from that first man-made nuclear
-explosion completely vaporized a tall steel tower and
-melted several acres of surrounding surface sand. The
-flash of light was the brightest the earth had ever witnessed.</p>
-<p>A &sup2;&sup3;&#8309;U bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, Japan, on
-August 6, 1945. Three days later a plutonium bomb was
-dropped on Nagasaki, Japan. Hostilities ended on August 14,
-1945.</p>
-<h2 id="c15"><span class="small">Nuclear Energy Is Needed for the Future</span></h2>
-<p>The chief source of the enormous quantities of energy
-used daily by modern civilization is fossil fuels in the form
-of coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Concentrated sources
-of these fuels, though large, are far from inexhaustible, and
-it has been said that future historians may refer to the
-brief time when they were used as &ldquo;the fossil-fuel incident.&rdquo;</p>
-<div class="img" id="imgx13">
-<img src="images/p11a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="890" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>These lights of downtown Pittsburgh
-are symbolic of the generation
-of electricity by atomic
-power from Shippingport, Pennsylvania,
-the site of the world&rsquo;s
-first full-scale atomic-electric
-generation station exclusively for
-civilian needs. Homes and factories
-of the greater Pittsburgh
-area are receiving the electricity
-produced at the plant and transmitted
-through the Duquesne Light
-Company system. The Shippingport
-plant is a joint project of
-Westinghouse Electric Corporation,
-U. S. Atomic Energy Commission,
-and the Duquesne Light
-Company.</i>
-<br /><span class="smaller">Courtesy Westinghouse Electric Corporation</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>The next great source of energy will probably be nuclear
-reactors, in which controlled chain reactions release energy
-from the large store of fissionable materials in the world.<a class="fn" id="fr_5" href="#fn_5">[5]</a></p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_26">26</div>
-<p>The accomplishments of nuclear power in the propulsion
-of ships have already been noted. In addition, there is now
-going on in industrialized countries in different parts of the
-world a large-scale development of nuclear power plants
-for production of electricity. Nuclear electric power is
-approaching the point where it will be economically competitive
-with power from hydroelectric plants or those
-burning coal, oil, or gas as fuels. Improvements in nuclear
-power technology are rapidly being made, and it is now
-widely predicted that before the end of this century most
-new electric power plants will be nuclear.</p>
-<h2 id="c16"><span class="small">Fusion Has Potential</span></h2>
-<p>One of the greatest puzzles to be solved by physicists
-arose from the work of geologists. When it became clear
-that coal and other fossil remains of living things date from
-many hundreds of millions of years ago, it was obvious
-that the earth&rsquo;s sun had been shining at a quite steady rate
-for an extremely long time.</p>
-<p>How does it manage to do it? What is its source of energy?
-Chemical energy supplied by combustion and gravitational
-potential energy supplied by contraction are thousands
-of times too small to have kept the sun going for such
-a long time.</p>
-<p>The principle illustrated by <a href="#fig4">Figure 4</a> suggests the most
-probable source of energy for the sun and all the other stars
-as well. It is known that the sun consists chiefly of hydrogen
-and that it has a temperature of about 40,000,000 degrees
-Fahrenheit near its center. Several kinds of nuclear
-reactions produced in atom smashers have demonstrated
-that hydrogen nuclei, if energized by being heated to a very
-high temperature, can actually combine, or fuse, to form
-helium nuclei.</p>
-<p>The accompanying loss of weight per particle indicated
-by <a href="#fig4">Figure 4</a> must result in the appearance of sufficient energy
-to balance Einstein&rsquo;s famous equation. In fact, calculations
-by the German-born American physicist Hans A.
-Bethe and others show that, based on reasonable estimates
-<span class="pb" id="Page_27">27</span>
-of the conditions within the sun, familiar nuclear reactions
-account for its energy. The calculations predict, furthermore,
-that the sun can continue to operate at its present
-level for many billions of years.</p>
-<div class="img" id="imgx14">
-<img src="images/p12.jpg" alt="" width="658" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Large loop prominences on the
-sun, caused by a locally intense
-magnetic field. Project Sherwood,
-the U. S. program in controlled
-fusion, is devoted to research on
-fusion reactions similar to those
-from which the sun derives its
-energy.</i>
-<br /><span class="smaller">Courtesy Sacramento Peak Observatory, AFCRL</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Since fusion of light nuclei is produced by extremely high
-temperatures, fusion events are called <i>thermonuclear reactions</i>.
-The possibility of bringing about thermonuclear reactions
-on earth to serve as a source of energy has naturally
-attracted much attention.</p>
-<p>In spite of the fact that fusion of ordinary hydrogen atoms
-(each of which has one proton as its nucleus) supports the
-activity of the sun, this particular reaction seems to occur
-much too slowly to be usable on earth. Other isotopes of
-hydrogen, called deuterium and tritium, however, which
-contain one and two neutrons in their nuclei, respectively,
-fuse much more rapidly and seem to be potential earthly
-sources of controlled thermonuclear energy.</p>
-<div class="img" id="imgx15">
-<img src="images/p12a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="707" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>An early phase of a nuclear detonation
-at Eniwetok Atoll during
-the 1951 tests.</i>
-<br /><span class="smaller">Courtesy Joint Task Force Three</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>The first large-scale application
-of thermonuclear energy
-was the so-called hydrogen
-bomb, or &ldquo;H-bomb.&rdquo; For
-a brief time an exploding fission
-bomb develops a temperature
-<span class="pb" id="Page_28">28</span>
-of hundreds of millions of degrees Fahrenheit, hot
-enough to cause some light nuclei to fuse. In the hydrogen
-bomb, light nuclei of deuterium and/or tritium are
-exposed to this temperature during such a fission explosion.
-The resulting fusion of these nuclei causes the explosion to
-be hundreds of times more powerful than that of the fission
-device alone. In 1952 the Atomic Energy Commission test-fired
-such a thermonuclear device at Eniwetok Atoll in the
-Pacific Ocean. The energy released by the highly efficient
-device produced an explosion that completely destroyed the
-coral islet where it was detonated.</p>
-<p>At such extreme temperatures
-all atoms are stripped
-of electrons; the resulting
-mixture of nuclei and free
-electrons is called a <i>plasma</i>.
-Several laboratories are now
-working on the problems connected
-with creating and containing
-plasma. Ordinary solid
-containers cannot be used. On
-contact with plasma they would
-instantly vaporize and would
-cool the plasma below the
-temperature necessary for
-fusion to occur. Fortunately,
-however, the particles that
-make up a plasma, being
-charged electrically, respond
-to forces in a magnetic field. A strong magnetic field of
-proper shape exerts a large confining pressure on a body of
-plasma in a high-vacuum chamber. Thus plasma can be
-contained in a small volume well removed from the walls of
-the chamber by surrounding the chamber with suitably designed
-large magnets or solenoids to create a &ldquo;magnetic
-bottle.&rdquo; In addition, a sudden increase in the intensity of the
-field can compress the plasma; this compression raises the
-temperature of the plasma to near that required for fusion.</p>
-<div class="img" id="imgx16">
-<img src="images/p13.jpg" alt="" width="598" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>This plasma is being pushed
-outward by an internal magnetic
-field as instabilities
-grow on its internal surface.
-The photo was taken by means
-of fast-shutter photography
-permitting photo sequences
-at intervals of 3 to 5 millionths
-of a second.</i>
-<br /><span class="smaller">Courtesy General Atomic Division, General Dynamics Corporation</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Fusion of light nuclei would be a much &ldquo;cleaner&rdquo; source
-of energy for peaceful purposes than fission of heavy ones,
-because the &ldquo;ashes&rdquo; of fission reactions are radioactive
-while those of fusion (helium atoms) are not. Great technical
-difficulties must be overcome, however, before a
-controlled thermonuclear reaction is possible. Fusionable
-material must be heated to a
-temperature of over 100 million
-degrees Fahrenheit and
-must be contained long enough
-for an appreciable amount of
-fusion to occur.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_29">29</div>
-<p>The greatest problem encountered to date is the extreme
-instability of the plasma and the corresponding difficulty of
-maintaining it at the proper temperature longer than a few
-millionths of a second. Many physicists now think that the
-successful exploitation of thermonuclear energy will not
-occur for many years. When and if it is achieved, however,
-the deuterium present in the oceans of the earth will
-represent an almost inexhaustible source of energy.</p>
-<h2 id="c17"><span class="small">Isotopes Have Many Uses</span></h2>
-<p>The ability to produce and control nuclear reactions is
-affecting, and will doubtless continue to affect, human life
-in two outstanding ways. One way is by making tremendous
-amounts of energy available, either as explosions or as
-energy released from controlled reactions for peacetime
-use. The other way is by producing a vast variety of radioactive
-isotopes, first in the particle accelerators (&ldquo;atom
-smashers&rdquo;) mentioned earlier, and now in large quantities
-in nuclear reactors.</p>
-<p>The presence of a radioactive isotope can be detected by
-instruments like the familiar Geiger counter; for this reason
-isotopes make wonderful tracers. These telltale atoms,
-which, in effect, continually cry &ldquo;Here I am,&rdquo; can trace
-the course of a chemical element through any kind of chemical
-reaction. Chemists are taking advantage of this new
-way of tagging atoms to study reaction patterns that, heretofore,
-have been obscure.</p>
-<p>As a consequence, a scientist&rsquo;s ability to synthesize
-scarce chemicals is being increased. The exact role of
-numerous essential trace elements in the growth and
-metabolism of living things, including people, is being
-studied by the use of tagged atoms.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_30">30</div>
-<h2 id="c18"><span class="small">Radioisotopes at Work</span></h2>
-<div class="img" id="imgx17">
-<img src="images/p14.jpg" alt="" width="609" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap"><b>IN MEDICINE:</b> <i>Iodine-131 reveals
-spread of thyroid cancer
-in patient&rsquo;s body.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="imgx18">
-<img src="images/p14c.jpg" alt="" width="796" height="786" />
-<p class="pcap"><b>IN SPACE:</b> <i>Plutonium-238 is the
-fuel for the atomic generator
-powering this TRANSIT satellite.</i>
-<br /><span class="smaller">Courtesy The Martin Company</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="imgx19">
-<img src="images/p14d.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="562" />
-<p class="pcap"><b>IN FOOD PRESERVATION:</b> <i>Potatoes stored
-for 18 months at 47&deg;F. Potato at right had
-been irradiated, that on left had not.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="imgx20">
-<img src="images/p14e.jpg" alt="" width="382" height="801" />
-<p class="pcap"><b>IN INDUSTRY:</b> <i>Radioactive iridium
-was used to inspect the hull of the
-carrier</i> Independence.
-<br /><span class="smaller">Courtesy Technical Operations, Inc.</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_31">31</div>
-<p>As sources of radiation, radioactive isotopes are frequently
-replacing more expensive and less convenient
-sources such as radium and X-ray machines. The medical
-treatment of diseased tissue has been greatly expedited by
-the new sources. In industry many applications of radiation
-sources have been made. They are used, for example, in
-thickness gauging and in making radiographs to check the
-quality of large castings. The sterilization and preservation
-of food is another promising use for inexpensive
-radioactive sources.</p>
-<p>As a controllable means for inducing genetic mutations,
-radioactive isotopes are speeding up the process of selecting
-and developing superior agricultural products. Practically
-every agricultural research center in the world has
-one or more projects under way which involve the use of
-isotopes.</p>
-<p>Small devices have also been constructed which produce
-electricity from heat generated by decay of radioisotopes.
-Such devices have been used to power instruments in a
-remotely located unmanned weather station, a navigational
-buoy, a lighthouse, an underwater navigational beacon, and
-space satellites. Many additional uses are foreseen for
-these isotopic power generators.</p>
-<h2 id="c19"><span class="small">The Atomic Energy Commission</span></h2>
-<p>Following the end of World War II a vigorous controversy
-developed as to whether atomic energy development in the
-United States should continue under military control or be
-transferred to civilian control. The proponents of civilian
-control won out, and a civilian Atomic Energy Commission
-was established by the Atomic Energy Act of 1946. Under
-this Act, which was amended in 1954, the AEC manufactures
-nuclear weapons for the armed services; produces fissionable
-materials for both military and civilian purposes;
-fosters research and development in the basic sciences
-underlying atomic energy and in applications such as power
-<span class="pb" id="Page_32">32</span>
-production and uses of radioisotopes; regulates the activities
-of private organizations using atomic energy; and
-distributes information about atomic energy. (This booklet
-is a small example; most of the information distributed is
-much more detailed and technical.)</p>
-<div class="img" id="imgx21">
-<img src="images/p15.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="741" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>President Truman signs the bill creating the U. S. Atomic Energy
-Commission on August 1, 1946. Behind the President, left to right:
-Senators Tom Connally, Eugene D. Millikin, Edwin C. Johnson,
-Thomas C. Hart, Brien McMahon, Warren R. Austin, and Richard B.
-Russell.</i>
-<br /><span class="smaller">Courtesy United Press International</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Almost all of the AEC&rsquo;s materials production and research
-and development activities are carried out under
-contract by other organizations. American industry, universities,
-and research organizations also are engaged in
-widespread atomic energy activities of their own, subject
-only to such government regulations as are needed to protect
-national security and public health and safety. For
-example, the largest atomic electric power plants now in
-operation in this country are privately owned, as are
-numerous small atomic reactors used for research. At the
-end of 1962 some 7000 firms, institutions or individuals in
-the United States held federal or state licenses giving them
-permission to use radioisotopes. The number of persons
-employed in atomic energy work in the United States is
-estimated to be about 140,000, of which only 8000 work for
-the Federal Government.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_33">33</div>
-<h2 id="c20"><span class="small">Toward an International Atom</span></h2>
-<p>In December 1953, President Eisenhower, in a memorable
-address to the General Assembly of the United Nations,
-proposed the establishment under the aegis of the
-United Nations of an International Atomic Energy Agency
-&ldquo;to serve the peaceful pursuits of mankind.&rdquo; This proposal
-captured the imagination of people everywhere, and negotiations
-soon began as to the purpose, structure, scope, and
-program of such an organization. In October 1956 an 81-nation
-United Nations conference unanimously adopted a
-statute for the agency, which came into existence a year
-later with headquarters in Vienna, Austria. By the end of
-1962 the IAEA had 78 member countries. Its most important
-work has been assisting some of the less developed
-nations of the world to begin programs for peaceful use of
-atomic energy.</p>
-<div class="img" id="imgx22">
-<img src="images/p15a.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="660" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>On December 8, 1953, President Dwight D. Eisenhower proposed
-before the United Nations General Assembly that an International
-Atomic Energy Agency be established through which all nations
-could share knowledge and materials to develop the peaceful uses
-of atomic energy for the benefit of all mankind. Seated on the
-presidential platform are, left to right, Mr. Dag Hammarskj&ouml;ld,
-Secretary-General of the U. N., Madame Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit of
-India, President of the General Assembly, and Mr. Andrew Cordier,
-Executive Assistant to the Secretary-General.</i>
-<br /><span class="smaller">Courtesy United Nations</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_34">34</div>
-<div class="img" id="imgx23">
-<img src="images/p16.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="784" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>This 150,000-kilowatt, dual-cycle, boiling-water reactor, located
-35 miles north of Naples, Italy, on the Garigliano River, was built
-by General Electric under the United States-Euratom Joint Program.
-It achieved criticality on June 5, 1963.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>Even before the international agency became an accomplished
-fact, the United States sought on its own to implement
-the spirit of President Eisenhower&rsquo;s proposal. It
-initiated in 1955 an Atoms-for-Peace Program under which
-the United States has made bilateral agreements with some
-40 nations for the sharing of information on peaceful uses
-of atomic energy and under which the United States has
-helped other nations to acquire nuclear reactors and materials
-for peaceful use.</p>
-<p>Mention should also be made of the International Conferences
-on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy which the United
-Nations held in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1955, 1958, and
-1964. The 1955 conference was particularly noteworthy in
-that it marked the first time that scientists had met on a
-worldwide basis to discuss atomic energy. At and following
-this meeting much information previously kept secret
-was made public.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_35">35</div>
-<h2 id="c21"><span class="small">Suggested References</span></h2>
-<h3 id="c22">Books</h3>
-<p class="revint"><i>Atomic Energy</i>, Irene D. Jaworski and Alexander Joseph, Harcourt,
-Brace and World, Inc., New York 10017, 1961, 218 pp., $4.95.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Atompower</i>, Joseph M. Dukert, Coward-McCann, Inc., New York
-10016, 1962, 127 pp., $3.50.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Atoms Today and Tomorrow</i> (revised edition), Margaret O. Hyde,
-McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York 10036, 1966, 160 pp.,
-$3.25.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Basic Laws of Matter</i> (revised edition), Harrie S. W. Massey and
-Arthur R. Quinton, Herald Books, Bronxville, New York 10710,
-1965, 178 pp., $3.75.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Building Blocks of the Universe</i> (revised edition), Isaac Asimov,
-Abelard-Schuman, Ltd., New York 10019, 1961, 380 pp., $3.50
-(hardback); $2.70 (paperback) from E. M. Hale and Company,
-Eau Claire, Wisconsin 54701.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Elements of the Universe</i>, Glenn T. Seaborg and Evans G. Valens,
-E. P. Dutton and Company, Inc., New York 10003, 1958, 253 pp.,
-$4.95 (hardback); $2.15 (paperback).</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Inside the Atom</i> (revised edition), Isaac Asimov, Abelard-Schuman,
-Ltd., New York 10019, 1966, 197 pp., $4.00.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Introducing the Atom</i>, Roslyn Leeds, Harper and Row, Publishers,
-New York 10016, 1967, 224 pp., $3.95.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Peacetime Uses of Atomic Energy</i> (revised edition), Martin Mann,
-The Viking Press, New York 10022, 1961, 191 pp., $5.00 (hardback);
-$1.65 (paperback).</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>The Useful Atom</i>, William R. Anderson and Vernon Pizer, The
-World Publishing Company, Cleveland, Ohio 44102, 1966, 185 pp.,
-$5.75.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Secret of the Mysterious Rays: The Discovery of Nuclear Energy</i>,
-Vivian Grey, Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, New York 10016,
-1966, 120 pp., $3.95.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>The Heart of the Atom: The Structure of the Atomic Nucleus</i>,
-Bernard L. Cohen, Doubleday and Company, Inc., New York
-10017, 1967, 120 pp., $3.95 (hardback); $1.25 (paperback).</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>The Questioners: Physicists and the Quantum Theory</i>, Barbara L.
-Cline, Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York 10003, 1965,
-274 pp., $5.00.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>The Atom and Its Nucleus</i>, George Gamow, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
-Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632, 1961, 153 pp., $1.95.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>The Atomic Energy Deskbook</i>, John F. Hogerton, Reinhold Publishing
-Corporation, New York 10022, 1963, 673 pp., $11.00.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Atomic Energy Encyclopedia in the Life Sciences</i>, Charles W.
-Shilling (Ed.), W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
-19105, 1964, 474 pp., $10.50.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Atoms for Peace</i> (revised edition), David O. Woodbury, Dodd,
-Mead and Company, New York 10016, 1965, 275 pp., $4.50.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Manhattan Project</i>, Stephane Groueff, Little, Brown and Company,
-Boston, Massachusetts 02106, 1967, 372 pp., $6.95.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_36">36</div>
-<p class="revint"><i>The New World, 1939/1946</i>, Volume 1&mdash;History of the United States
-Atomic Energy Commission, Richard G. Hewlett and Oscar E.
-Anderson, Jr., The Pennsylvania State University Press, University
-Park, Pennsylvania 16802, 1962, 766 pp., $5.50.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Sourcebook on Atomic Energy</i> (third edition), Samuel Glasstone,
-D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton, New Jersey 08540,
-1967, 883 pp., $9.25.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>The World of the Atom</i>, 2 volumes, Henry A. Boorse and Lloyd
-Matz (Eds.), Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, New York 10016,
-1966, 1873 pp., $35.00.</p>
-<h3 id="c23">Motion Pictures</h3>
-<p>Available for loan without charge from the AEC Headquarters Film
-Library, Division of Public Information, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission,
-Washington, D. C., and from other AEC film libraries.</p>
-<p>Each of the following motion pictures explains atomic structure,
-fission, and the chain reaction. Additional contents are listed below
-with the film.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>A Is for Atom</i>, 15 minutes, sound, color, 1964. Produced by the
-General Electric Company. This film discusses natural and
-artificially produced elements, stable and unstable atoms, principles
-and applications of nuclear reactors, and the benefits of
-atomic radiation to biology, medicine, industry, and agriculture.
-(Level: elementary through high school.)</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Atomic Energy</i>, 10 minutes, sound, black and white, 1950. Produced
-by Encyclopedia Britannica Films, Inc. The film explains
-nuclear synthesis and shows how, through photosynthesis, the
-sun&rsquo;s energy is stored on earth and released through combustion.
-(Level: intermediate through high school.)</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Controlling Atomic Energy</i>, 13&frac12; minutes, sound, color, 1961. Produced
-by United World Films, Inc. This film gives a summary
-explanation of the following: radioactive atoms, radioactivity
-measurement, nuclear reactors, and the production and application
-of radioisotopes in biology, medicine, industry, agriculture,
-and research. (Level: 5th through 8th grades.)</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Introducing Atoms and Nuclear Energy</i>, 11 minutes, sound, color,
-1963. Produced by Coronet Instructional Films. This film discusses
-nuclear fusion in the sun and, very briefly, the uses of
-nuclear energy. (Level: 4th through 9th grades.)</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Atomic Physics</i>, 90 minutes, sound, black and white, 1948. Produced
-by the J. Arthur Rank Organisation, Inc. This film discusses
-in detail the history and development of atomic energy
-with emphasis on nuclear physics. Dalton&rsquo;s basic atomic theory,
-Faraday&rsquo;s early electrolysis experiments, and Mendeleev&rsquo;s
-<span class="pb" id="Page_37">37</span>
-periodic table, the investigation of cathode rays, discovery of
-the electron, how the nature of positive rays was established,
-and the discovery of X rays are among the historical highlights.
-Explanation is presented of the work of the Joliot-Curie&rsquo;s and
-Chadwick in the discovery of the neutron, and the splitting of the
-lithium atom by Cockcroft and Walton. Einstein tells how their
-work illustrates his theory of equivalence of mass and energy.
-(Level: high school.)</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Unlocking the Atom</i>, 20 minutes, sound, black and white, 1950. Produced
-by United World Films, Inc. This film explains the properties
-of alpha, beta, and gamma rays, cyclotrons, and the contributions
-of various scientists. (Level: junior and senior high
-school.)</p>
-<p class="tb">This &ldquo;Understanding the Atom&rdquo; series of semi-technical lecture
-films is designed for inclusion in a high school senior-level chemistry
-or physics course, or it could be used as an introductional
-unit in nuclear science at the college level. The films all have
-sound and are in black and white.</p>
-<div class="verse">
-<p class="t0"><i>Alpha, Beta, and Gamma</i>, 44 minutes, 1962.</p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Radiation and Matter</i>, 44 minutes, 1962.</p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Radiation Detection by Ionization</i>, 30 minutes, 1962.</p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Radiation Detection by Scintillation</i>, 30 minutes, 1963.</p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Properties of Radiation</i>, 30 minutes, 1962.</p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Nuclear Reactions</i>, 29&frac12; minutes, 1963.</p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Radiological Safety</i>, 30 minutes, 1963.</p>
-</div>
-<h2 id="c24"><span class="small">FOOTNOTES</span></h2>
-<div class="fnblock"><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_1" href="#fr_1">[1]</a>For more information about these devices, see <i>Accelerators</i>, a
-companion booklet in this Understanding the Atom series.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_2" href="#fr_2">[2]</a>For more information, see <i>Synthetic Transuranium Elements</i>,
-another booklet in this series.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_3" href="#fr_3">[3]</a>The designation &sup2;&sup3;&#8309;U is a new format, now in international usage,
-for the more familiar style, U&sup2;&sup3;&#8309;, to designate isotopes.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_4" href="#fr_4">[4]</a>For more about plutonium, see <i>Plutonium</i>, a companion booklet
-in this series.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_5" href="#fr_5">[5]</a>For more information on reactors, see <i>Nuclear Reactors</i>, another
-booklet in this series.
-</div>
-</div>
-<h2 id="trnotes">Transcriber&rsquo;s Notes</h2>
-<ul>
-<li>Silently corrected a few typos.</li>
-<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li>
-<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li>
-</ul>
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUR ATOMIC WORLD ***</div>
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