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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2af6bd1 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #66220 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/66220) diff --git a/old/66220-0.txt b/old/66220-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 2808844..0000000 --- a/old/66220-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1006 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Mancala, the National Game of Africa, by -Stewart Culin - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Mancala, the National Game of Africa - -Author: Stewart Culin - -Release Date: September 4, 2021 [eBook #66220] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: deaurider, sf2001, and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from - images generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANCALA, THE NATIONAL GAME OF -AFRICA *** - - - - - SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. - UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. - - - MANCALA, THE NATIONAL GAME OF AFRICA. - - BY - - STEWART CULIN, - -_Director of the Museum of Archæology and Palæontology, -University of Pennsylvania_. - - -From the Report of the U. S. National Museum for 1894, pages 595-607, -with plates 1-5 and figures 1-15. - - - WASHINGTON: - GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. - -1896. - - - - - MANCALA, THE NATIONAL GAME OF AFRICA. - BY - STEWART CULIN, - -_Director of the Museum of Archæology and Palæontology, -University of Pennsylvania_. - - - - -MANCALA, THE NATIONAL GAME OF AFRICA.[1] - -By Stewart Culin, - -_Director of the Museum of Archæology and Palæontology, University of -Pennsylvania_. - - -[1] Read before the Oriental Club of Philadelphia, May 10, 1894. - -The comparative study of games is one that promises an important -contribution to the history of culture. The questions involved in their -diffusion over the earth are among the vital ones that confound the -ethnologist. Their origins are lost in the unwritten history of the -childhood of man. Mancala is a game that is remarkable for its peculiar -distribution, which seems to mark the limits of Arab culture, and which -has just penetrated our own continent after having served for ages to -divert the inhabitants of nearly half the inhabited area of the globe. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1. - -MANCALA. - -From a figure by Lane.] - -The visitor to the little Syrian colony in Washington street in New -York City will often find two men intent upon this game. They call -it Mancala. The implements are a board with two rows of cup-shaped -depressions and a handful or so of pebbles or shells, which they -transfer from one hole to another with much rapidity. A lad from -Damascus described to me the methods of play. There are two principal -ways, which depend upon the manner in which the pieces are distributed -at the commencement of the game. Two persons always engage, and -ninety-eight cowrie shells (wada) or pebbles (hajdar) are used. -One game is called La’b madjnuni, or the “Crazy game.” The players -seat themselves with the board placed lengthwise between them. One -distributes the pieces in the fourteen holes, called bute, “houses,” -not less than two being placed in one hole. This player then takes all -the pieces from the hole at the right of his row, fig. 1, G, called -el ras, “the head,” and drops them one at a time into the holes on -the opposite side, commencing with _a_, _b_, _c_, and so on. If any -remain after he has put one in each of the holes on the opposite side, -he continues around on his own row A, B, C. When he has dropped -his last piece he takes all the pieces in that hole and continues -dropping them around as before. This is done until one of two things -happens--his last piece drops into an empty hole, when he stops and -his opponent plays, or it drops into a hole containing one or three -pieces, completing two or four. In that case he takes the two or four -pieces with those in the hole opposite, and if one or more of the holes -that follow contains two or four without the intervention of a hole -with any other number, he takes their contents with those opposite. -The second player takes from the hole _g_, and distributes his pieces -around A, B, C. If the head is empty, the player takes from the next -nearest hole in his row. When the board is cleared, each player -counts the number he has above his opponent as his gains. No skill is -necessary or of any avail in this game, the result being a mathematical -certainty, according to the manner in which the pieces were distributed -in the beginning. La’b hakimi, the “Rational game,” or La’b akila, the -“Intelligent game,” is so called in contrast to the preceding. Success -in it depends largely upon the skill of the players. In this game it -is customary in Syria to put seven pieces in each hole. The players, -instead of first taking from the hole on their right, may select any -hole on their side of the board as a starting place. They calculate the -hole in which the last piece will fall, and the result depends largely -upon this calculation. La’b rosëya is a variety of the first game and -is played only by children. Seven cowries are placed in each hole, and -the first player invariably wins. My Syrian friend told me that the -shells used in the game are brought from the shores of the Red Sea. -Mancala is a common game in Syrian cafés. Children frequently play the -game in holes made in the ground when they have no board, a device also -resorted to by travelers who meet by the way. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2. - -MANCALA BOARD. - -Jerusalem. - -Cat. No. 15296, Museum of Archæology and Palæontology, University of -Pennsylvania.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 3. - -MANCALA BOARD. - -From a figure by Hyde.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 4. - -BOARD FOR NARANJ (MANCALA). - -Maldive Islands. - -Cat. No. 16380, Museum of Archæology and Palæontology, University of -Pennsylvania.] - -[Illustration: - -Plate 1. - -Turkish Girls Playing Mancala. - -From an old print.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 5. - -BOARD FOR NARANJ (MANCALA). - -Maldive Islands. - -Cat. No. 16379, Museum of Archæology and Palæontology, University of -Pennsylvania.] - -A board in the Museum of Archæology, University of Pennsylvania, from -Jerusalem, is shown in fig. 2, and one from Beirut, Syria, in pl. 2, -fig. 1. - -Mancala, the name which the Syrians give to this game, is a common -Arabic word and means in this connection the “Game of transferring.” It -is not mentioned in the Koran by this name, but must have been known to -the Arabs in the Middle Ages, as it is referred to in the commentary to -the Kitab al Aghani, the “Book of Songs,” which speaks of a “game like -Mancala.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 6. - -BOARD FOR CHANKA (MANCALA). - -Ceylon. - -Cat. No. 16381, Museum of Archæology and Palæontology, University of -Pennsylvania.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 7. - -BOARD FOR CHONGKAK (MANCALA). - -Johore, Malay Peninsula. - -Cat. No. 16382, Museum of Archæology and Palæontology, University of -Pennsylvania.] - -Dr. Thomas Hyde gave a very good account of it two hundred years ago -in his treatise, “De Ludis Orientalibus” (see fig. 3), and Lane, in -his “Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians,” describes it very -fully as played in Cairo upon a board with twelve holes, quite in the -manner I have related. Seventy-two shells or pebbles are there used, -and, whether shells or pebbles, are indifferently called hasa. The -hemispherical holes in the board are called buyoot, plural of beyt. The -score of the game is sixty, and when the successive gains of a player -amount to that sum he has won. I soon found that I had learned from -my Syrian acquaintance nothing that had not been recorded, but upon -visiting the Damascus House in the Turkish village at the Columbian -Exposition at Chicago, I was enabled to engage with the Syrians in the -game, and was impressed with the peculiar distribution of the game over -the world. The Ceylon exhibit contained boards from the Maldives with -sixteen holes in two parallel rows, with a large hole at either end. -(Figs. 4 and 5.) Here the game is called Naranj. Boards in the same -exhibit from Ceylon had fourteen holes with two large central cavities -(fig. 6), the game being called Chanka. An Indian gentleman informed me -that the game was common at Bombay. His Highness the Sultan of Johore -exhibited a boat-shaped board with sixteen holes (fig. 7) under the -name of Chongkak. I learned, too, that the game was common in Java, -as well as in the Philippine Islands, where a boat-shaped board with -sixteen holes is also used (pl. 2, fig. 2), the game being called -Chungcajon. It would thus appear that the game extends along the entire -coast of Asia as far as the Philippine Islands. Mancala and a kind of -draughts were the favorite amusements of the negroes from the French -settlement of Benin on the west coast of Africa in the so-called -Dahomey village at the Columbian Fair. They played on a boat-shaped -board, with twelve holes in two rows, which they called adjito, -with pebbles, adji, the game itself being called Madji. It is with -the continent of Africa that the game of Mancala seems most closely -identified. It may be regarded, so to speak, as the African national -game. In the exhibit of the State of Liberia at Chicago, there were no -less than eleven boards, comprising three different forms, said to be -from the Deys, Veys, Pesseh, Gedibo, and Queah. (Figs. 8, 9, and 10.) -They were catalogued under the name of Poo, by which name the game is -known to civilized Liberians. The game is, in fact, distributed among -the African tribes from the east to the west and from the north to the -south. In Nubia, where a board with sixteen holes is used, it is known -as Mungala. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8. - -BOARD FOR POO (MANCALA). - -Liberian Exhibit, World’s Columbian Exposition.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 9. - -BOARD FOR POO (MANCALA). - -Liberian Exhibit, World’s Columbian Exposition.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 10. - -BOARD FOR POO (MANCALA). - -Liberian Exhibit, World’s Columbian Exposition.] - - -Plate 2. - -Mancala Boards. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Mancala Board. - -Beirut, Syria. - -Cat. No. 164700, U. S. N. M. ] - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Board for Chuncajon (Mancala). - -Philippine Islands. - -Collected by Alexander R. Webb. Cat. No. 154195, U. S. N. M.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 11. - -BOARD FOR GABATTÀ (MANCALA). - -Abyssinia. - -From a figure in the “Sacred City of the Ethiopians,” by J. T. Bent.] - -In the narrative of the Portuguese embassy of Alvarez to Abyssinia -(1520-1527) reference is made to “Mancal” as an unknown game, -antiquated in the reign of Don Manuel. Bent has recently described it -as still existing in Abyssinia under the name of Gabattà.[2] (Fig. 11.) -Dr. George Schweinfurth states that it is played by the Niam-Niam, -and is constantly played by all the people of the entire Gazelle -district, although perhaps not known to the Moubuttoo. The Niam-Niam -call the board, which has sixteen cavities, with two at the end for -the reception of the cowrie shells, Abangah, (fig. 12) and the Bongo -name for the board is Toee. He also says that it is found among the -Peulhs, the Foolahs, the Toloofs, and the Mandingos in the Senegal -countries, who devote a great portion of their time to this amusement. -Rohlfs found it among the Kadje, between the Tsad and the Benue.[3] It -also occurs among the Biafren and the Kimbunda. Héli Chatelain, who -lived for some time at Angola, described the game to me under the name -Mbau, and said that cavities are cut in the rock for this game at the -stations where the porters halt. A board collected by him at Elmina, -now in the U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C., has twelve holes -in two rows, with large holes at the ends. (Pl. 3.) - -[2] Speaking of the peasants of Sallaba, he says: “These primitive -people are perfect artists in cow dung. With this material they make -big jars in which to keep their grain, drinking goblets, and boards -for the universal game, which the better class make of wood. I brought -one of these away with me to show how universal this game is among the -Abyssinians, from the chief to the peasant, and it reached the British -Museum unbroken. This game is called Gabattà, and the wooden boards -made by the better class contain eighteen holes, nine for each person. -There are three balls, called chachtma, for each hole, and the game is -played by a series of passing, which seemed to us very intricate, and -which we could not learn; the holes they call their toukouls, or huts, -and they get very excited over it. It closely resembles the game we saw -played by the negroes in Mashonaland, and is generally found in one -form or another in the countries where Arab influence has at one time -or another been felt.” (“The Sacred City of the Ethiopians,” London, -1873, pp. 72-73.) - -[3] Richard Andree, “Ethnographische Parallelen,” neue folge, Leipzig, -1889, p. 102. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12. - -BOARD FOR ABANGAH (MANCALA) USED BY THE NIAM-NIAM. - -From a figure in “Artes Africanæ,” by George Schweinfurth.] - - -[Illustration: - -Plate 3. - -Board for Mbau (Mancala). - -Elmina, Africa. - -Collected by W. H. Brown. Cat. No. 151128, U. S. N. M.] - - -Plate 4. - -Mancala Boards. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Board for Kale (Mancala). - -Falls of Gaboon River, Africa. - -Cat. No. 164869. U. S. N. M.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Óchi Board for Bau (Mancala). - -Mount Kilima-njaro, Africa. - -Collected by Dr. W. L. Abbott. Cat. No. 181805, U. S. N. M.] - -Among the Fans of the Gaboon River the game is called Kale,[4] -after the bean-like seed used in counting. (Fig. 13 and pl. 4, fig. -1.) Another board in the U. S. National Museum, collected by that -adventurous traveler, Dr. W. L. Abbott, from the Wa Chaga tribe at -Mount Kilima-njaro, has twenty-six holes arranged in four rows of six -each, with two large holes at the ends. (Pl. 4, fig. 2.) He describes -it in his catalogue, published by the Smithsonian Institution, under -the name of Óchi, used for playing Bau, a common game throughout -Africa, and says that it is played with nicker seeds and pebbles. Bent, -in his “Ruined Cities of Mashonaland,” gives the following account of -the game: “Huge trees sheltered the entrance to their village, beneath -which men were playing Isafuba, the mysterious game of the Makalangas, -with sixty holes, in rows, in the ground. Ten men can play at this -game, and it consists of removing bits of pottery or stone from one -hole to another in an unaccountable manner. We watched it scores -of times while in the country, and always gave it up as a bad job, -deciding that it must be like draughts or chess learned by them from -the former civilized race who dwelt here.” He then proceeds to identify -Isafuba with the games of Wari played on the west coast of Africa. - -[4] The collector, Rev. A. C. Good, gives the following account of the -game: “Two players seat themselves on opposite sides of the board, and -four counters are placed in each of the twelve pockets. Then one player -takes the counters out of a pocket on his own side and drops one in -each pocket around as far as they will go, going to right and back on -his opponents side in the opposite direction from that in which the -hands of the clock move. They move thus alternately until one manages -to make his last counter fall in a pocket on his opponent’s side, where -there were only one or two counters. When he has done so he has won -the counters in that pocket, including his own last counter. These he -transfers to the receptacle in the end of the board to his right. A -single counter taken from last pocket on player’s right can not win -from opponent’s first pocket opposite, even though it contains only one -or two counters. When a pocket has accumulated twelve or more counters, -so that a player drops clear around and back to where he began, he must -skip the pocket from which he started. When so few counters remain in -the pocket on the board that no more can be won, the game is ended and -each counts his winnings. The counters that remain in the board at the -end of the game are not counted by either player. The game is sometimes -varied thus: When a counter wins as above, not only the contents of -that pocket is won, but of the pocket or pockets before it on the -opponent’s side that has contained only one or two counters back until -one is reached that has been empty or had three or more counters before -the play. This last is rather the better game of the two. The Fans do -not play these games skillfully. They seem unable to count ahead to see -where the last count will fall. A white man, as soon as he understands -the game, will beat them every time.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 13. - -BOARD FOR KALE (MANCALA). - -Gaboon River, Africa. - -From a specimen in the Museum of Archæology and Palæontology, -University of Pennsylvania.] - -Prince Momolu Massaquoi, son of the King of the Vei tribe, described -to me the manner of playing the game among the Vei. They call the -game Kpo, a word having an explosive sound resembling a note of the -xylophone, mimicking the noise made by the seeds or ivory balls with -which the game is played when tossed into the holes on the board. The -boards, which are made with twelve holes in two rows, with large holes -at the ends, are called by the same name. The boards used by the chiefs -are often very expensive, being made of ivory and ornamented with gold. -He had seen boards which cost 20 slaves. The holes in the boards are -called kpo sing or kpo kungo, kungo meaning “cup.” The game is usually -played with sea beans, which grow on vines like the potato on the west -coast, or by the chiefs with the before-mentioned ivory balls. These -seeds are called kpo kunje, kunje meaning “seed.” He identified a board -from the Gaboon River as suitable for the game, although he said that -much more elaborate ones, like those in the Liberian exhibit, were -common. The depression in the middle of the board from the Gaboon River -is intended to catch pieces that do not fall in the hole for which they -are intended. Cheating is practiced, and to guard against it players -must raise their arms and throw the pieces upon the board with some -violence. Two, three, or four play. The game differs somewhat from -that played in Syria and Egypt. A player may commence at any hole on -his side. His play ends when the pieces first taken up are played. He -wins when the number in the last hole is increased to two or to three. -He does not take those in the hole opposite. When two play, four beans -are put in each hole, but when three or four play three beans are put -in each hole. When two play, the pieces are dropped around in the same -direction as in the Syrian game, but when three or four play they may -be dropped in either direction. When two play, each player takes one -side of the board; when three play, each takes four holes, two on -each side, dividing the board transversely into three parts, and when -four play, each takes three holes. When two play, a winner takes only -what he “kills” (fá); but when three or four play, when one completes -two or three in a hole by his play, he takes those in the next hole -forward. When a man takes a piece with one next to it, he uses his -fingers to squeeze the pieces into his hand, the operation being called -“squeezing” (boti), but this can only be done when one of the pieces is -in one of the player’s own cups and the other one or two in that of an -opponent. Players sit crosslegged upon the ground, and when the chiefs -play large numbers often assemble to watch them. I have given Prince -Momolu’s account somewhat at length, as several African travelers have -declared the game incomprehensible to a white man. - -Dr. Schweinfurth regards the Mohammedan Nubians as having received -Mancala from their original home in Central Africa, and says that -the recurrence of an object even trivial as this is an evidence, -in a degree indirect and collateral, of the essential unity that -underlies all African nations. Mr. Bent justly says that the game is -found in some form or another wherever Arabian influence is felt, -but, continuing, states that it forms for us another link in the -chain of evidence connecting the Mashonaland ruins with an Arabian -influence. Dr. Richard Andree, in his well-known work on Ethnological -Parallels,[5] in which he has brought together many accounts of the -game, says that he regards its progress from west to east, from Asia -to the coast of the Atlantic. This opinion I share. Peterman relates -that Mancala is played in Damascus with pebbles which pilgrims collect -in a certain valley on their way from Mecca. From the comparatively -early mention of the game in Arabic literature, and the retention -of its Arabic name in Africa, Arabia would appear to be the source -from which it was disseminated. Mohammed proscribed the Meiser game; -and games of hazard, although played, are regarded by Mohammedans as -prohibited by their religion. Mancala, a game of fate or calculation, -appears to be looked upon with toleration, and it is not unreasonable -to suppose that its wide diffusion is due to its having been carried by -returning pilgrims to the various parts of the Mohammedan world. If we -accept this theory of its distribution, we have yet the more difficult -question of its origin. This, I fear, is not to be determined directly, -and will only be surely known when we attain a greater knowledge of the -rules or laws which underlie the development of games, even as they do -every other phase of the development of human culture. - -[5] “Ethnographische Parallen,” neue folge, Leipzig, 1889, p. 101. - -[Illustration: - -Plate 5. - -Board For Wa-we (Mancala). - -Island of St. Lucia. - -Collected by Rev. F. Gardiner, Cat. No. 151286, U. S. N. M.] - -I have recently been informed that Mancala is a common amusement of -the negroes of San Domingo, who play upon boards scooped with holes. A -board in the U. S. National Museum (pl. 5) was collected by the Rev. F. -Gardiner, jr., in St. Lucia, where the game is played by the negroes -under the name of Wa-wee.[6] - -[6] Mr. Gardiner writes in a letter to Dr. G. Brown Goode under date -of May 2, 1895: “The game of Wa-wee was bought in St. Lucia, but I -found it in use also in Barbados and Martinique among the negroes. As -far as I could ascertain, they supposed it very old--came from their -fathers. I supposed it came from Africa; but no one seemed to know -anything about it. It is a regular gambling game.” In regard to the -method of play, he says: “As near as I can remember, each of the small -side holes has a given number of beans put in, each man taking one side -and one large hole as a goal. The beans are taken up from one hole in -the hand and dropped in a certain order in the other holes, going round -the whole circle. If the last one drops in a hole which has a certain -number of beans in it (I don’t remember the number), he picks that lot -up and goes on. The object is to land the most beans of your own and -taken from your adversary in the end holes.” - -It is not unlikely that Mancala may some day take its place among our -own fireside amusements, when this account may answer some inquiries -that may be made as to its history. - -Since the above was written I have learned that the game of Mancala -was published in the United States in 1891, under the name of Chuba, -by the Milton Bradley Company, of Springfield, Mass., who furnish the -following rules and account of the game: - - Chuba is an adaptation from a rude game of eastern Africa which is - greatly enjoyed by the natives, who squat on the ground and play in - holes scooped out of the sand, using shells, young cocoanuts, etc., - for counters, which they move from hole to hole. As now presented to - the civilized world for its diversion, Chuba is a game of skill for - two players. It is made up of a board with 4 parallel rows of holes or - pockets, 11 in each row, and 60 small beads used as men or counters. - [See fig. 14.]. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14. - -CHUBA. - -Position of men at opening of the game.] - - The board is placed between the players as usual, with the longer - sides next to them. Each one confines his playing to the two rows of - pockets nearest him. The row close to his edge of the board is his - outer row, while the other is his inner row. - - Before beginning the game each player places a single counter in each - of the pockets of his outer row and two counters in each pocket of his - inner row, except that the pocket on his extreme left in the inner row - is kept vacant and the one next to it holds but one man. The above - diagram shows the arrangement of the board at the opening of the game. - As indicated by the arrows, all moves in the inner row are from right - to left, and those in the outer row from left to right. As the players - face each other the moves in the two inner rows are necessarily in - opposite directions. - - The privilege of playing first in the first game is left to agreement - or chance, not being regarded as of any consequence. In subsequent - games the player who was victor in the last contest takes the lead. - - The first player chooses any pocket in his inner row which contains - more than one man from which to start his first move, and begins the - game by picking up all the men in that pocket and dropping one of - them in each of the consecutive pockets to his left until all the men - in his hand have been distributed. If the last counter drops into a - pocket that is occupied, the player continues the move by picking up - all the men in that pocket, including the one dropped, and disposing - of them as before. His move must continue in this same way until the - last counter in his hand falls into an empty pocket, and the move may - extend around the course, into the outer row, or even farther, as - indicated by the arrows. - - If this empty pocket into which the last man falls is in the inner - row and has opposite it a pocket in the opponent’s inner row - containing one or more men, the player captures these men and at once - removes them from the board. And if there are one or more men in the - corresponding opposite pocket of the opponent’s outer row, they must - also be taken. Furthermore, he must select another pair of opposite - pockets in his opponent’s rows from which to remove any men that they - contain. In making this choice he is at liberty to pick out any pair - of opposites, whether both are occupied or empty, or one is occupied - and the other empty. The accompanying diagram will explain the meaning - of this rule. [See fig. 15.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 15. CHUBA.] - - Suppose the player B had just finished a move by dropping a “last man” - in No. 1. He can capture all the men in 2 and 3 by his skill and also - in 4 and 5 or from any other two opposite pockets of his opponent’s - inner and outer rows. Had 2 been vacant, however, he could not have - taken any men. Had 3 been vacant, he could have taken the men from 2 - and those from 4 and 5. Had his last man fallen in the outer row, in - 6 for example, the effect would have been of no avail in capturing - anything, because the outer row is always noncombatant. - - A man in the outer row can not be moved until he has been played upon - by a man from the inner row. - - A move can not begin from a pocket holding a single man if the player - has a pocket containing more than one man. When a move does begin - from a pocket containing a single man, it can not be played into an - occupied pocket. - - When all the men which a player has become single, those remaining - in his outer row which have not been played on are forfeited to the - opponent. - - The winner is the player who captures all his opponent’s men. - - It is an advantage to a player to get his counters singled as soon as - possible, unless he sees that his opponent is doing the same thing, - when a different policy is wise. - - If he wishes to cover two or three vacant spaces in order to effect a - capture, it can often be done, provided he begins his move far enough - back from those vacant pockets. - - The loss of counters during the earlier part of the game is not - necessarily as great a disadvantage as in most games, because so - much depends on the final move, in which there is the chance for a - brilliant display of skill. - - The native players of the original Chuba say “chee” at the end of - each move, which gives notice to the opponent to proceed; and toward - the close of the game, when the moves follow in rapid succession, the - effect is very amusing. - - The natives call the counters in the inner row “man and wife,” and - those in the outer row “spinsters.” But these spinsters are married - by passing a counter over them from the inner row, till, in the - progress of the game, all the pieces become single, when they are - all called “widows.” These widows have a double advantage over the - married families, and are sure to make havoc among them. The game - is appropriately named, as the word chuba means “to extinguish” or - “eat up,” and the object of each player is to annihilate his opponent - by putting the latter’s counters in a position from which escape is - impossible. - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - -A number of typographical errors were corrected silently. - -Cover image was created from elements of the book by the transcriber and -has been donated the public domain. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANCALA, THE NATIONAL GAME OF -AFRICA *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Mancala, the National Game of Africa</p> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Stewart Culin</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: September 4, 2021 [eBook #66220]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: deaurider, sf2001, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANCALA, THE NATIONAL GAME OF AFRICA ***</div> - - <div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_cover" style="max-width: 20em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Cover" /> - </div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p class="center">SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.<br /> -UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<h1>MANCALA, THE NATIONAL GAME OF AFRICA.</h1> - -<p class="center"><small>BY</small><br /> -<big>STEWART CULIN</big>,<br /> -<i>Director of the Museum of Archæology and Palæontology,<br /> -University of Pennsylvania</i>.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="center">From the Report of the U. S. National Museum for 1894, pages 595-607, -with plates 1-5 and figures 1-15.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="center">WASHINGTON:<br /> -<small>GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.</small></p> - -<p class="center">1896. -</p> - -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p class="center">MANCALA, THE NATIONAL GAME OF AFRICA.<br /> -BY<br /> -STEWART CULIN,</p> - -<p class="center"><i>Director of the Museum of Archæology and Palæontology,<br /> -University of Pennsylvania</i>. -</p> - -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="MANCALA_THE_NATIONAL_GAME_OF_AFRICA1"> - MANCALA, THE NATIONAL GAME OF AFRICA. - <a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h2> -</div> - -<p class="center">By <span class="smcap">Stewart Culin</span>,</p> - -<p><i>Director of the Museum of Archæology and Palæontology, University of Pennsylvania</i>.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> -Read before the Oriental Club of Philadelphia, May 10, 1894.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The comparative study of games is one that promises an important -contribution to the history of culture. The questions involved in their -diffusion over the earth are among the vital ones that confound the -ethnologist. Their origins are lost in the unwritten history of the childhood -of man. Mancala is a game that is remarkable for its peculiar -distribution, which seems to mark the limits of Arab culture, and which -has just penetrated our own continent after having served for ages to -divert the inhabitants of nearly half the inhabited area of the globe.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig-1" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig-1.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="center">Fig. 1.<br /> - <span class="allsmcap">MANCALA</span>.<br /> - From a figure by Lane.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The visitor to the little Syrian colony in Washington street in New -York City will often find two men intent upon this game. They call -it Mancala. The implements are a board with two rows of cup-shaped -depressions and a handful or so of pebbles or shells, which they transfer -from one hole to another with much rapidity. A lad from Damascus -described to me -the methods -of play. There -are two principal -ways, which -depend upon -the manner in -which the pieces -are distributed -at the commencement of the game. Two persons always engage, and -ninety-eight cowrie shells (wada) or pebbles (hajdar) are used. One -game is called La’b madjnuni, or the “Crazy game.” The players seat -themselves with the board placed lengthwise between them. One distributes -the pieces in the fourteen holes, called bute, “houses,” not less -than two being placed in one hole. This player then takes all the -pieces from the hole at the right of his row, <a href="#fig-1">fig. 1</a>, <span class="allsmcap">G</span>, called el ras, “the -head,” and drops them one at a time into the holes on the opposite side, -commencing with <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, and so on. If any remain after he has put -one in each of the holes on the opposite side, he continues around on -his own row <span class="allsmcap">A</span>, <span class="allsmcap">B</span>, <span class="allsmcap">C</span>. When he has dropped his last piece he takes all -the pieces in that hole and continues dropping them around as before. -This is done until one of two things happens—his last piece drops -into an empty hole, when he stops and his opponent plays, or it drops -into a hole containing one or three pieces, completing two or four. In -that case he takes the two or four pieces with those in the hole opposite, -and if one or more of the holes that follow contains two or four without -the intervention of a -hole with any other number, -he takes their contents -with those opposite. -The second player takes -from the hole <i>g</i>, and distributes -his pieces around -<span class="allsmcap">A</span>, <span class="allsmcap">B</span>, <span class="allsmcap">C</span>. If the head is -empty, the player takes -from the next nearest hole -in his row. When the -board is cleared, each player counts the number he has above his opponent -as his gains. No skill is necessary or of any avail in this game, -the result being a mathematical certainty, according to the manner in -which the pieces were distributed in the beginning. La’b hakimi, the -“Rational game,” or La’b akila, the “Intelligent game,” is so called in -contrast to the preceding. Success in it depends largely upon the skill -of the players. In this game it is customary in Syria to put seven -pieces in each hole. The players, instead of first taking from the hole -on their right, may select any hole on their side of the board as a starting -place. They calculate the hole in which the last piece will fall, and -the result depends largely upon this calculation. La’b rosëya is a variety -of the first game and is played only by children. Seven cowries -are placed in each hole, and the first player invariably wins. My -Syrian friend told me that the shells used in the game are brought -from the shores of the Red Sea. Mancala is a common game in Syrian -cafés. Children frequently play the game in holes made in the ground -when they have no board, a device also resorted to by travelers who -meet by the way.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig-2" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig-2.jpg" alt="" /> - - <div class="caption"> - <p>Fig. 2.<br /> - <span class="allsmcap">MANCALA BOARD.</span><br /> - Jerusalem.<br /> - <small>Cat. No. 15296, Museum of Archæology and Palæontology, University of Pennsylvania.</small> - </p> - </div> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp52" id="fig-3" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig-3.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p>Fig. 3.<br /> - <span class="allsmcap">MANCALA BOARD.</span><br /> - From a figure by Hyde.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig-4" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig-4.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p>Fig. 4.<br /> - <span class="allsmcap">BOARD FOR NARANJ (MANCALA).</span><br /> - Maldive Islands.<br /> - <small>Cat. No. 16380, Museum of Archæology and Palæontology, University of Pennsylvania.</small></p></div> -</div> - -<div class="chapter bbox figcenter illowp52" id="plate-1" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <p class="right"> - <span class="smcap">Plate 1.</span><br /> - </p> - - <img class="w100" src="images/plate-1.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p><span class="smcap">Turkish Girls Playing Mancala.</span><br /> - From an old print.</p></div> - </div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig-5" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig-5.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p>Fig. 5.<br /> - <span class="allsmcap">BOARD FOR NARANJ (MANCALA).</span><br /> - Maldive Islands.<br /> - <small>Cat. No. 16379, Museum of Archæology and Palæontology, University of Pennsylvania.</small> - </p></div> -</div> - -<p>A board in the Museum of Archæology, University of Pennsylvania, -from Jerusalem, is shown in <a href="#fig-2">fig. 2</a>, and one from Beirut, Syria, in <a href="#plate-2-fig-1">pl. 2, -fig. 1.</a></p> - -<p>Mancala, the name which the Syrians give to this game, is a common -Arabic word and means in this connection the “Game of transferring.” -It is not mentioned in the Koran by this name, but must have been -known to the Arabs in the Middle Ages, as it is referred to in the commentary -to the Kitab al Aghani, the “Book of Songs,” which speaks -of a “game like Mancala.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig-6" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig-6.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p>Fig. 6.<br /> - <span class="allsmcap">BOARD FOR CHANKA (MANCALA).</span><br /> - Ceylon.<br /> - <small>Cat. No. 16381, Museum of Archæology and Palæontology, University of Pennsylvania.</small> - </p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig-7" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig-7.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p>Fig. 7.<br /> - <span class="allsmcap">BOARD FOR CHONGKAK (MANCALA).</span><br /> - Johore, Malay Peninsula. - <small>Cat. No. 16382, Museum of Archæology and Palæontology, University of Pennsylvania</small>. - </p></div> -</div> - -<p>Dr. Thomas Hyde gave a very good account of it two hundred years -ago in his treatise, “De Ludis Orientalibus” (see <a href="#fig-3">fig. 3</a>), and Lane, in his -“Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians,” describes it very fully -as played in Cairo upon a board with twelve holes, quite in the manner -I have related. Seventy-two shells or pebbles are there used, and, -whether shells or pebbles, are indifferently called hasa. The hemispherical -holes in the board are called buyoot, plural of beyt. The -score of the game is sixty, and when the successive gains of a player -amount to that sum he has won. I soon found that I had learned from -my Syrian acquaintance nothing that had not been recorded, but upon -visiting the Damascus House in the Turkish village at the Columbian -Exposition at Chicago, I was enabled to engage with the Syrians in -the game, and was impressed with the peculiar distribution of the game -over the world. The Ceylon exhibit contained boards from the Maldives -with sixteen holes in two parallel rows, with a large hole at either -end. (Figs. <a href="#fig-5">4</a> and -<a href="#fig-5">5</a>.) Here the game -is called Naranj. -Boards in the same -exhibit from Ceylon -had fourteen holes -with two large central -cavities (<a href="#fig-6">fig. 6</a>), -the game being -called Chanka. An -Indian gentleman informed me that the game was common at Bombay. -His Highness the Sultan of Johore exhibited a boat-shaped board with -sixteen holes (<a href="#fig-7">fig. 7</a>) under the name of Chongkak. I learned, too, that -the game was common in Java, as well as in the Philippine Islands, -where a boat-shaped board with sixteen holes is also used (<a href="#plate-2-fig-2">pl. 2, fig. 2</a>), -the game being called Chungcajon. It would thus appear that the game -extends along the entire coast of Asia as far as the Philippine Islands. -Mancala and a kind of draughts were the favorite amusements of the -negroes from the French settlement of Benin on the west coast of -Africa in the so-called Dahomey village at the Columbian Fair. They -played on a boat-shaped board, with twelve holes in two rows, which -they called adjito, with pebbles, adji, the game itself being called Madji. -It is with the continent of Africa that the game of Mancala seems -most closely identified. It may be regarded, so to speak, as the African -national game. In the exhibit of the State of Liberia at Chicago, -there were no less than eleven boards, comprising three different forms, -said to be from the Deys, Veys, Pesseh, Gedibo, and Queah. (Figs. <a href="#fig-8">8</a>, -<a href="#fig-9">9</a>, and <a href="#fig-10">10</a>.) They were catalogued under the name of Poo, by which -name the game is known to civilized Liberians. The game is, in fact, -distributed among the African tribes from the east to the west and -from the north to the south. In Nubia, where a board with sixteen -holes is used, it is known as Mungala.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig-8" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig-8.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p>Fig. 8.<br /> - <span class="allsmcap">BOARD FOR POO (MANCALA).</span><br /> - <small>Liberian Exhibit, World’s Columbian Exposition.</small> - </p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig-9" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig-9.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p>Fig. 9.<br /> - <span class="allsmcap">BOARD FOR POO (MANCALA).</span><br /> - <small>Liberian Exhibit, World’s Columbian Exposition.</small> - </p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig-10" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig-10.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p>Fig. 10.<br /> - <span class="allsmcap">BOARD FOR POO (MANCALA).</span><br /> - <small>Liberian Exhibit, World’s Columbian Exposition.</small></p></div> -</div> - -<div class="bbox chapter"> - <p class="right smcap">Plate 2.</p> - <p class="center smcap">Mancala Boards.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate-2-fig-1" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate-2-fig-1.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.—Mancala Board.</span><br /> - Beirut, Syria.<br /> - Cat. No. 164700, U. S. N. M. - </p> - </div> - </div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate-2-fig-2" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate-2-fig-2.jpg" alt="" /> - - <div class="caption"> - <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.—Board for Chuncajon (Mancala).</span><br /> - Philippine Islands.<br /> - Collected by Alexander R. Webb. Cat. - No. 154195, U. S. N. M.</p></div> - </div> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig-11" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig-11.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p>Fig. 11.<br /> - <span class="allsmcap">BOARD FOR GABATTÀ (MANCALA).</span><br /> - Abyssinia.<br /> - <small>From a figure in the “Sacred City of the Ethiopians,” by J. T. Bent.</small> - </p></div> -</div> - -<p>In the narrative of the Portuguese embassy of Alvarez to Abyssinia -(1520-1527) reference is made to “Mancal” as an unknown game, antiquated -in the reign of Don Manuel. Bent has recently described it as -still existing in Abyssinia under the name of Gabattà.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> (<a href="#fig-11">Fig. 11</a>.) Dr. -George Schweinfurth states that it is played by the Niam-Niam, and -is constantly played by all the people of the entire Gazelle district, -although perhaps not known to the Moubuttoo. The Niam-Niam call the -board, which has sixteen cavities, with two at the end for the reception -of the cowrie shells, Abangah, (<a href="#fig-12">fig. 12</a>) and the Bongo name for the board -is Toee. He also says that it is found among the Peulhs, the Foolahs, -the Toloofs, and the Mandingos in the Senegal countries, who devote a -great portion of their time to this amusement. Rohlfs found it among -the Kadje, between the Tsad and the Benue.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> It also occurs among the -Biafren and the Kimbunda. Héli Chatelain, who lived for some time at -Angola, described the game to me under the name Mbau, and said that -cavities are cut in the rock for this game at the stations where the -porters halt. A board collected by him at Elmina, now in the U. S. -National Museum, Washington, D. C., has twelve holes in two rows, -with large holes at the ends. (<a href="#plate-3">Pl. 3.</a>)</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Speaking of the peasants of Sallaba, he says: “These primitive people are perfect -artists in cow dung. With this material they make big jars in which to keep -their grain, drinking goblets, and boards for the universal game, which the better -class make of wood. I brought one of these away with me to show how universal -this game is among the Abyssinians, from the chief to the peasant, and it reached -the British Museum unbroken. This game is called Gabattà, and the wooden boards -made by the better class contain eighteen holes, nine for each person. There are -three balls, called chachtma, for each hole, and the game is played by a series of -passing, which seemed to us very intricate, and which we could not learn; the holes -they call their toukouls, or huts, and they get very excited over it. It closely resembles -the game we saw played by the negroes in Mashonaland, and is generally found -in one form or another in the countries where Arab influence has at one time or -another been felt.” (“The Sacred City of the Ethiopians,” London, 1873, pp. 72-73.)</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> -Richard Andree, “Ethnographische Parallelen,” neue folge, Leipzig, 1889, p. 102.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig-12" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig-12.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p>Fig. 12.<br /> - <span class="allsmcap">BOARD FOR ABANGAH (MANCALA) USED BY THE NIAM-NIAM.</span><br /> - <small>From a figure in “Artes Africanæ,” by George Schweinfurth.</small> - </p></div> -</div> - -<div class="bbox figcenter illowp100" id="plate-3" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <p class="right"> - <span class="smcap">Plate 3.</span><br /> - </p> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate-3.jpg" alt="" /> - - <div class="caption"> - <p><span class="smcap">Board for Mbau (Mancala).</span><br /> - Elmina, Africa.<br /> - Collected by W. H. Brown. Cat. No. 151128, U. S. N. M.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="bbox"> -<p class="right"> -<span class="smcap">Plate 4.</span></p> -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Mancala Boards.</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate-4-fig-1" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate-4-fig-1.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.—Board for Kale (Mancala).</span><br /> - Falls of Gaboon River, Africa.<br /> - Cat. No. 164869. U. S. N. M.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="plate-4-fig-2" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate-4-fig-2.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.—Óchi Board for Bau (Mancala).</span><br /> - Mount Kilima-njaro, Africa.<br /> - Collected by Dr. W. L. Abbott. Cat. No. - 181805, U. S. N. M.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Among the Fans of the Gaboon River the game is called Kale,<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> -after the bean-like seed used in counting. (<a href="#fig-13">Fig. 13</a> and <a href="#plate-4-fig-1">pl. 4, fig. 1</a>.) -Another board in the U. S. National Museum, collected by that adventurous -traveler, Dr. W. L. Abbott, from the Wa Chaga tribe at Mount -Kilima-njaro, has twenty-six holes arranged in four rows of six each, -with two large holes at the ends. (<a href="#plate-4-fig-2">Pl. 4, fig. 2.</a>) He describes it in his -catalogue, published by the Smithsonian Institution, under the name -of Óchi, used for playing Bau, a common game throughout Africa, and -says that it is played with nicker seeds and pebbles. Bent, in his -“Ruined Cities of Mashonaland,” gives the following account of the -game: “Huge trees sheltered the entrance to their village, beneath -which men were playing Isafuba, the mysterious game of the Makalangas, -with sixty holes, in rows, in the ground. Ten men can play at -this game, and it consists of removing bits of pottery or stone from one -hole to another in an unaccountable manner. We watched it scores of -times while in the country, and always gave it up as a bad job, deciding -that it must be like draughts or chess learned by them from the former -civilized race who dwelt here.” He then proceeds to identify Isafuba -with the games of Wari played on the west coast of Africa.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> -The collector, Rev. A. C. Good, gives the following account of the game: “Two -players seat themselves on opposite sides of the board, and four counters are placed -in each of the twelve pockets. Then one player takes the counters out of a pocket -on his own side and drops one in each pocket around as far as they will go, going to -right and back on his opponents side in the opposite direction from that in which -the hands of the clock move. They move thus alternately until one manages to -make his last counter fall in a pocket on his opponent’s side, where there were only -one or two counters. When he has done so he has won the counters in that pocket, -including his own last counter. These he transfers to the receptacle in the end of -the board to his right. A single counter taken from last pocket on player’s right -can not win from opponent’s first pocket opposite, even though it contains only one -or two counters. When a pocket has accumulated twelve or more counters, so that -a player drops clear around and back to where he began, he must skip the pocket -from which he started. When so few counters remain in the pocket on the board -that no more can be won, the game is ended and each counts his winnings. The -counters that remain in the board at the end of the game are not counted by either -player. The game is sometimes varied thus: When a counter wins as above, not -only the contents of that pocket is won, but of the pocket or pockets before it on -the opponent’s side that has contained only one or two counters back until one is -reached that has been empty or had three or more counters before the play. This -last is rather the better game of the two. The Fans do not play these games skillfully. -They seem unable to count ahead to see where the last count will fall. A -white man, as soon as he understands the game, will beat them every time.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig-13" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig-13.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p>Fig. 13.<br /> - <span class="allsmcap">BOARD FOR KALE (MANCALA).</span><br /> - Gaboon River, Africa.<br /> - <small>From a specimen in the Museum of Archæology and Palæontology, University of Pennsylvania.</small> - </p></div> -</div> - -<p>Prince Momolu Massaquoi, son of the King of the Vei tribe, described -to me the manner of playing the game among the Vei. They call the -game Kpo, a word having an explosive sound resembling a note of the -xylophone, mimicking the noise made by the seeds or ivory balls with -which the game is played when tossed into the holes on the board. The -boards, which are made with twelve holes in two rows, with large holes -at the ends, are called by the same name. The boards used by the -chiefs are often very expensive, being made of ivory and ornamented -with gold. He had seen boards which cost 20 slaves. The holes in -the boards are called kpo sing or kpo kungo, kungo meaning “cup.” -The game is usually played with sea beans, which grow on vines like -the potato on the west coast, or by the chiefs with the before-mentioned -ivory balls. These seeds are called kpo kunje, kunje meaning -“seed.” He identified a board from the Gaboon River as suitable for -the game, although he said that much more elaborate ones, like those -in the Liberian exhibit, were common. The depression in the middle -of the board from the Gaboon River is intended to catch pieces that -do not fall in the hole for which they are intended. Cheating is practiced, -and to guard against it players must raise their arms and throw -the pieces upon the board with some violence. Two, three, or four -play. The game differs somewhat from that played in Syria and -Egypt. A player may commence at any hole on his side. His play -ends when the pieces first taken up are played. He wins when the -number in the last hole is increased to two or to three. He does not -take those in the hole opposite. When two play, four beans are put in -each hole, but when three or four play three beans are put in each -hole. When two play, the pieces are dropped around in the same direction -as in the Syrian game, but when three or four play they may -be dropped in either direction. When two play, each player takes one -side of the board; when three play, each takes four holes, two on each -side, dividing the board transversely into three parts, and when four -play, each takes three holes. When two play, a winner takes only -what he “kills” (fá); but when three or four play, when one completes -two or three in a hole by his play, he takes those in the next hole forward. -When a man takes a piece with one next to it, he uses his -fingers to squeeze the pieces into his hand, the operation being called -“squeezing” (boti), but this can only be done when one of the pieces is -in one of the player’s own cups and the other one or two in that of an -opponent. Players sit crosslegged upon the ground, and when the -chiefs play large numbers often assemble to watch them. I have given -Prince Momolu’s account somewhat at length, as several African travelers -have declared the game incomprehensible to a white man.</p> - -<p>Dr. Schweinfurth regards the Mohammedan Nubians as having received -Mancala from their original home in Central Africa, and says -that the recurrence of an object even trivial as this is an evidence, in -a degree indirect and collateral, of the essential unity that underlies all -African nations. Mr. Bent justly says that the game is found in some -form or another wherever Arabian influence is felt, but, continuing, -states that it forms for us another link in the chain of evidence connecting -the Mashonaland ruins with an Arabian influence. Dr. Richard -Andree, in his well-known work on Ethnological Parallels,<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> in -which he has brought together many accounts of the game, says that -he regards its progress from west to east, from Asia to the coast of the -Atlantic. This opinion I share. Peterman relates that Mancala is -played in Damascus with pebbles which pilgrims collect in a certain -valley on their way from Mecca. From the comparatively early mention -of the game in Arabic literature, and the retention of its Arabic name -in Africa, Arabia would appear to be the source from which it was -disseminated. Mohammed proscribed the Meiser game; and games of -hazard, although played, are regarded by Mohammedans as prohibited -by their religion. Mancala, a game of fate or calculation, appears to -be looked upon with toleration, and it is not unreasonable to suppose -that its wide diffusion is due to its having been carried by returning -pilgrims to the various parts of the Mohammedan world. If we accept -this theory of its distribution, we have yet the more difficult question -of its origin. This, I fear, is not to be determined directly, and will -only be surely known when we attain a greater knowledge of the rules -or laws which underlie the development of games, even as they do -every other phase of the development of human culture.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> -“Ethnographische Parallen,” neue folge, Leipzig, 1889, p. 101.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100 bbox" id="plate-5" style="max-width: 28em;"> - -<p class="right"> - <span class="smcap">Plate 5.</span> - </p> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate-5.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p><span class="smcap">Board For Wa-we (Mancala).</span><br /> - Island of St. Lucia.<br /> - Collected by Rev. F. Gardiner, Cat. No. 151286, U. S. N. M.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>I have recently been informed that Mancala is a common amusement -of the negroes of San Domingo, who play upon boards scooped with -holes. A board in the U. S. National Museum (<a href="#plate-5">pl. 5</a>) was collected by -the Rev. F. Gardiner, jr., in St. Lucia, where the game is played by the -negroes under the name of Wa-wee.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> -Mr. Gardiner writes in a letter to Dr. G. Brown Goode under date of May 2, 1895: -“The game of Wa-wee was bought in St. Lucia, but I found it in use also in Barbados -and Martinique among the negroes. As far as I could ascertain, they supposed -it very old—came from their fathers. I supposed it came from Africa; but no one -seemed to know anything about it. It is a regular gambling game.” In regard to -the method of play, he says: “As near as I can remember, each of the small side -holes has a given number of beans put in, each man taking one side and one large -hole as a goal. The beans are taken up from one hole in the hand and dropped in a -certain order in the other holes, going round the whole circle. If the last one drops -in a hole which has a certain number of beans in it (I don’t remember the number), -he picks that lot up and goes on. The object is to land the most beans of your own -and taken from your adversary in the end holes.”</p> - -</div> - -<p>It is not unlikely that Mancala may some day take its place among -our own fireside amusements, when this account may answer some -inquiries that may be made as to its history.</p> - -<p>Since the above was written I have learned that the game of Mancala -was published in the United States in 1891, under the name of Chuba, -by the Milton Bradley Company, of Springfield, Mass., who furnish the -following rules and account of the game:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Chuba is an adaptation from a rude game of eastern Africa which is greatly enjoyed -by the natives, who squat on the ground and play in holes scooped out of the sand, -using shells, young cocoanuts, etc., for counters, which they move from hole to hole. -As now presented to the civilized world for its diversion, Chuba is a game of skill -for two players. It is made up of a board with 4 parallel rows of holes or pockets, -11 in each row, and 60 small beads used as men or counters. [See <a href="#fig-14">fig. 14</a>.].</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig-14" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig-14.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p>Fig. 14.<br /> - <span class="allsmcap">CHUBA.</span><br /> - <small>Position of men at opening of the game.</small> - </p></div> -</div> - -<p>The board is placed between the players as usual, with the longer sides next to -them. Each one confines his playing to the two rows of pockets nearest him. The -row close to his edge of the board is his outer row, while the other is his inner row.</p> - -<p>Before beginning the game each player places a single counter in each of the -pockets of his outer row and two counters in each pocket of his inner row, except -that the pocket on his extreme left in the inner row is kept vacant and the one next -to it holds but one man. The above diagram shows the arrangement of the board -at the opening of the game. As indicated by the arrows, all moves in the inner row -are from right to left, and those in the outer row from left to right. As the players -face each other the moves in the two inner rows are necessarily in opposite directions.</p> - -<p>The privilege of playing first in the first game is left to agreement or chance, not -being regarded as of any consequence. In subsequent games the player who was -victor in the last contest takes the lead.</p> - -<p>The first player chooses any pocket in his inner row which contains more than one -man from which to start his first move, and begins the game by picking up all the -men in that pocket and dropping one of them in each of the consecutive pockets to -his left until all the men in his hand have been distributed. If the last counter -drops into a pocket that is occupied, the player continues the move by picking up -all the men in that pocket, including the one dropped, and disposing of them as -before. His move must continue in this same way until the last counter in his hand -falls into an empty pocket, and the move may extend around the course, into the -outer row, or even farther, as indicated by the arrows.</p> - -<p>If this empty pocket into which the last man falls is in the inner row and has -opposite it a pocket in the opponent’s inner row containing one or more men, the -player captures these men and at once removes them from the board. And if there -are one or more men in the corresponding opposite pocket of the opponent’s outer -row, they must also be taken. Furthermore, he must select another pair of opposite -pockets in his opponent’s rows from which to remove any men that they contain. In -making this choice he is at liberty to pick out any pair of opposites, whether both -are occupied or empty, or one is occupied and the other empty. The accompanying -diagram will explain the meaning of this rule. [See <a href="#fig-15">fig. 15</a>.]</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig-15" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig-15.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p>Fig. 15.<br /> - <span class="allsmcap">CHUBA.</span></p></div> -</div> - -<p>Suppose the player B had just finished a move by dropping a “last man” in No. 1. -He can capture all the men in 2 and 3 by his skill and also in 4 and 5 or from any -other two opposite pockets of his opponent’s inner and outer rows. Had 2 been -vacant, however, he could not have taken any men. Had 3 been vacant, he could -have taken the men from 2 and those from 4 and 5. Had his last man fallen in the -outer row, in 6 for example, the effect would have been of no avail in capturing anything, -because the outer row is always noncombatant.</p> - -<p>A man in the outer row can not be moved until he has been played upon by a man -from the inner row.</p> - -<p>A move can not begin from a pocket holding a single man if the player has a -pocket containing more than one man. When a move does begin from a pocket containing -a single man, it can not be played into an occupied pocket.</p> - -<p>When all the men which a player has become single, those remaining in his outer -row which have not been played on are forfeited to the opponent.</p> - -<p>The winner is the player who captures all his opponent’s men.</p> - -<p>It is an advantage to a player to get his counters singled as soon as possible, unless -he sees that his opponent is doing the same thing, when a different policy is wise.</p> - -<p>If he wishes to cover two or three vacant spaces in order to effect a capture, it can -often be done, provided he begins his move far enough back from those vacant -pockets.</p> - -<p>The loss of counters during the earlier part of the game is not necessarily as great -a disadvantage as in most games, because so much depends on the final move, in -which there is the chance for a brilliant display of skill.</p> - -<p>The native players of the original Chuba say “chee” at the end of each move, -which gives notice to the opponent to proceed; and toward the close of the game, -when the moves follow in rapid succession, the effect is very amusing.</p> - -<p>The natives call the counters in the inner row “man and wife,” and those in the -outer row “spinsters.” But these spinsters are married by passing a counter over -them from the inner row, till, in the progress of the game, all the pieces become -single, when they are all called “widows.” These widows have a double advantage -over the married families, and are sure to make havoc among them. The game is -appropriately named, as the word chuba means “to extinguish” or “eat up,” and -the object of each player is to annihilate his opponent by putting the latter’s -counters in a position from which escape is impossible.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter transnote"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Transcribers_Notes"> -Transcriber’s Notes -</h2> - -<p>A number of typographical errors were corrected silently.</p> - -<p>Cover image was created from elements of the book by the transcriber and -has been donated the public domain.</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANCALA, THE NATIONAL GAME OF AFRICA ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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