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diff --git a/old/66216-0.txt b/old/66216-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f3d1515..0000000 --- a/old/66216-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10474 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Curiosities of Music, by Louis C. -Elson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Curiosities of Music - A Collection of Facts not generally known, regarding the Music of - Ancient and Savage Nations - -Author: Louis C. Elson - -Release Date: September 4, 2021 [eBook #66216] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Turgut Dincer, Stephen Hutcheson, and the Online - Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This - file was produced from images generously made available by - The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CURIOSITIES OF MUSIC *** - - - - - - Curiosities of Music - - - A Collection of Facts, not generally known, regarding the Music of - Ancient and Savage Nations - - By - LOUIS C. ELSON - - [Illustration: publisher logo] - - OLIVER DITSON COMPANY - BOSTON - - New York Chicago - CHAS. H. DITSON & CO. LYON & HEALY - - Copyright, MDCCCLXXX, by J. M. STODDART & CO. - Copyright, MCMVIII, by OLIVER DITSON COMPANY - - - TO MY ESTEEMED FRIEND, - Dr. C. Annette Buckei, - THIS LITTLE WORK IS DEDICATED. - - - - - PREFACE. - - -In this work, I have endeavored to bring together the most curious -points in the music of many nations, ancient and modern. As the work -originally appeared in a magazine (“The Vox Humana”) I was obliged to -avoid any extended research into disputed points, such as Hebrew music, -Greek music, water organs, etc., as being too abstruse for periodical -reading. Yet many of the facts contained in its columns have not yet -found their way into English literature. This was so entirely the case -with Chinese music, that I was tempted to somewhat transgress my limits -on this subject, it being, apparently, a neglected one. In all the other -chapters I have merely sought out such facts as would interest, and -present a comprehensive idea to the general reader, whether musical or -not. - -My hearty thanks are due to Col. Henry Ware, and Mr. J. Norton, of -Boston, for many facilities afforded and suggestions offered, in the -course of compiling this book. If it fills an unoccupied niche, however -small, in musical literature, it will have fulfilled the desire of - - The Author. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - I Introduction 7 - The Hindoos 8 - II Ancient Egyptian 15 - III Biblical and Hebrew 26 - IV Ancient Greek Music 35 - V The Public Games of Greece 39 - VI The Philosophers, and Greek Social Music 53 - VII Greek Theatre and Chorus 67 - VII The Dances of Ancient Greece 79 - VIII Ancient Roman Music 85 - IX Music of the Roman Theatre 95 - X Music of the Roman Empire 99 - XI History of Chinese Music 114 - XII Chinese Music and Musical Instruments 142 - Of the Sound of Stone 145 - Of the Sound of Metal 148 - Of the Sound of Baked Clay 149 - Of the Sound of Silk 149 - The Sound of Wood 151 - The Sound of Bamboo 153 - The Sound of Calabash 155 - Miscellaneous Instruments 156 - The Sound of the Voice 158 - XIII Chinese Musical Compositions and Ceremonies 162 - Hymn to the Ancestors 164 - XVI The Chinese Theatre and Dances 176 - XVII Music of Japan 201 - XVIII Music of Savage Nations 229 - XIX African Music 251 - Praise of Dingan, A Very Celebrated Chief 254 - XX Music of the Early Christian Church 280 - Greek Church 288 - Syrian Church 290 - The Armenian Church 292 - The Churches of Africa 293 - General Synopsis of Early Christian Music 296 - XXI The Ambrosian and Gregorian Chant 299 - XXII Music in Europe from the Fifth Century 308 - XXIII The Ancient Bards 323 - XXIV The Troubadours and Minne-Singers 329 - XXV Curiosities of the Opera. Modern Composers, and Conclusion 352 - Footnotes 364 - Index. 365 - - - - - CURIOSITIES OF MUSIC. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - INTRODUCTION. - - -Music has been broadly defined by Fetis as “the art of moving the -feelings by combinations of sounds;” taken in this broad sense it may be -considered as coeval with the human race. - -Vocal music, in a crude form, is as natural in man, to express feelings, -as it is for a cat to purr or a lion to roar; as regards instrumental -music, the primitive man might have found in every hollow tree a -reverberating drum, and in every conchshell or horn of cattle, the -natural beginnings of instrumental music; we shall find later that many -nations ascribe the discovery of their music to the accidental appliance -of some natural instrument; our surest guide in watching the rise of the -art, should be the manner in which savage peoples, yet in a state of -nature, produce music, and we shall find too, that even the lowest in -the scale, even those beings who make the monkey tribe nearer and dearer -to us, as possible relatives (the bushmen of Australia for example), -have still a method of “moving the feelings by means of combinations of -sounds.” - -It is therefore, really in barbarous nations, that we may, reasoning by -analogy, find in what state music existed when our own ancestors were in -a state of nature; but in order to give a more chronological character -to our sketches we will begin with the _Music and Musical Mythology of -the Ancients_. - - - THE HINDOOS. - -With this people, and the Egyptians we find proofs of the existence of a -musical system at a time which far antedates the earliest reliable -Scriptural records. - -Among the Hindoos especially, as far back as history extends, music has -been treated not only as a fine art, but philosophically and -mathematically. According to the oldest Brahminical records, in their -all-embracing “Temple of Science,” it belongs to the 2d chief division -of Lesser Sciences, but its natural and philosophic elements, are, with -a nice distinction, admitted into their holiest and oldest book, the -_Veda_.[1] Of course it has a divine origin ascribed to it, in fact the -entire realm of Indian music is one tale of Mythology. - -According to Brahminical accounts, when Brahma had lain in the egg three -thousand billion, four hundred million of years (3,000,400,000,000) he -split it by the force of his thought and made Heaven and Earth from the -two pieces; then Manu brought forth ten great forces, which made Gods, -Goddesses, good and evil spirits and Gandharbas (Genii of music), and -Apsarasas (Genii of Dance), and these became the musicians of the Gods, -before man knew of the art. Then Sarisvati, Goddess of Speech and -Oratory, consort of Brahma, at Brahma’s command brought the art to man -and gave him also his finest musical instrument, the Vina, of which -hereafter. Music then found a protector in the demi-god Nared, one of -the chief Indian musical deities, while Maheda Chrishna helped it along -by allowing five keys, or modes, to spring from his head (_a la_ -Minerva) in the shape of Nymphs, and his wife Parbuti, added one more; -then Brahma added thirty lesser keys, or modes, and all these modes were -also Nymphs. - -The Hindoo scale has seven chief tones and these tones are represented -as so many heavenly sisters. - -In the Indian legends, music is represented as of immense might. All -men, all animals, all inanimate nature listened to the singing of Maheda -and Parbuti with ecstasy. - -Some modes were never to be sung by mortals, as they were so fiery that -the singer would be consumed by them. In the time of Akber, it is -related, that ruler commanded Naik Gobaul, a famous singer, to sing the -Raagni[2] of Fire; the poor singer entreated in vain, to be allowed to -sing a less dangerous strain; then he plunged up to his neck in the -river Djumna, and began: he had not finished more than half of his lay -when the water around him began to boil; he paused (at boiling point) -but the relentless, or curious Akber, demanded the rest, and with the -end of the song the singer burst into flames and was consumed. Another -melody caused clouds to rise and rain to fall; a female singer is said -once to have saved Bengal from famine and drought in this manner. -Another lay caused the sun to disappear and night to come at midday, or -another could change winter to spring or rain to sunshine. All these -typify beautifully the might of music with this race. Of the four chief -tone systems, two also have divine origin, from Iswara and from Hanuman -(the Indian Pan), the others come from Bharata Muni who invented the -drama with music and dance, and from Calinath. - -When Chrishna was upon the earth as a shepherd, there were sixteen -thousand pastoral Nymphs or Shepherdesses who fell in love with -him.—They all tried to win his heart by music, and each one sang him a -song, and each one sang in a _different key_, (let us hope not all at -once). Thence sprang the sixteen thousand keys, which according to -tradition once existed in India. - -In order that the full extent of Hindoo Musical Mythology may be -conceived, we will now sketch the tones which are employed. - -We have stated that there are seven chief tones; these tones have short -monosyllabic names; as we give to our notes the syllables, _do_, _re_, -_mi_, etc., the Hindoos call their scale tones _sa_, _ri_, _ga_, _ma_, -_pa_, _dha_, _ni_, _sa_, which are certainly as easy to vocalise upon as -our _solfeggi_; in fact the language is very well adapted to music, as -it has all the softness, elegance and clearness of the Italian. Von -Dalberg says that Sanscrit unites the splendor of the Spanish, the -strength of the German, and the singableness of the Italian. - -With the resemblance of seven chief tones, however, the similarity ends, -for while our scale has only half tones as smallest interval, the -Hindoos have quarter tones, and not equally distributed either; thus: - - whole small half whole whole small half - tone whole tone tone tone whole tone - Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa - ¼¼¼¼ ¼¼¼ ¼¼ ¼¼¼¼ ¼¼¼¼ ¼¼¼ ¼¼ - -In theory it will be seen that the octave is always a half tone flat, -but practically they correct this by singing it on its proper pitch. On -six of the above intervals they found their chief modes but they form -various lesser modes on each interval, i. e., they could give ten -different modes, or scales, starting from C alone. - -These six chief styles, are, of course, six Genii, corresponding to the -six Hindoo divisions of the year, these are each married to five Nymphs, -the thirty lesser styles; each Genii has eight sons, who are each -wedded, also to Nymphs, one apiece. There seem to be few celibates in -Hindoo Mythology, therefore an exact census gives to this interesting -family six fathers, thirty mothers, forty-eight sons, forty-eight -daughters-in-law, or one hundred thirty-two in all, each of them being -the God or Goddess of some particular key, and each of them, of course, -having a distinctive name; we shall not give the various names, but to -illustrate the relationship among them, the following will suffice; the -four 1-4 tones beginning on the fifth tone of the scale, _Panchama_ (or -_Pa_) are the Nymphs _Malina_, _Chapala_, _Lola_ and _Serveretna_, while -the next full tone (_Dha_) is owned by Santa and her sisters; if _Dha_ -should be flatted 1-4 tone which would give it the same pitch as the -highest 1-4 tone of _Pa_, (called Serveretna), the poetical Hindoo would -not say “_Dha_ is flat,” but “_Serveretna_ has been introduced to the -family of _Santa_ and her sisters.”[3] - -Although the musical art of the Hindoos had such an early existence, it -seems not to have developed or receded much since ancient days; they -possess airs to which the European ear instantly, and involuntarily -attaches harmony, (auxiliary voices), and yet they have not the -slightest craving for harmony. They are completely satisfied to express -all emotion by melody, sometimes combined with the dance, and yet do not -feel the monotony, which would be obviated by additional voices. - -But it must be said that, so far as melody goes, they have great taste -and discrimination; the music often approaches the European in form and -rhythm, and the Hindoo seems to feel instinctively the importance of the -tonic, and dominant, and often finishes the phrases of a melody with a -half cadence.[4] - -Of the Hindoo instruments the Vina takes the lead; as before mentioned, -they ascribe to it a divine origin; it has four strings and is -incorrectly defined as a lyre by many commentators, but it is rather a -guitar than lyre, and is made of a large hollow bamboo pipe, about 3½ -feet long, at each end of which are two large hollow gourds, to increase -the resonance: it may be roughly compared to a drum major’s _baton_, -with a ball at _both_ ends, while the strings extend along the stick; it -has a finger-board like a guitar, and the frets are not fastened -permanently on it, but stuck on by the performer with wax. - -The tone is both full and delicate, sometimes metallic and clear and -very pleasant. The music composed for it is usually brilliant and rapid, -and the Hindoos seem to have their Liszts and Rubinsteins; in the last -century Djivan Shah was known throughout all India as a _virtuoso_, on -the Vina. - -They ornament their Vinas sometimes very richly and there are paintings -of their chief performers, sitting with magnificent Vinas leaning -against their bodies, this being the attitude of the player. They also -have possessed from time immemorial, a three-stringed violin, so that -Raphael and Tintoretto may not have committed an anachronism in painting -Apollo with a violin.[5] - -A Guitar called Magoudi, finishes the list of characteristic stringed -instruments. - -The instruments of percussion and wind instruments are more numerous. -They possess four kinds of drums, and their popular, secular dances are -usually accompanied by the Vina, for the melody, and drums, bells and -cymbals. - -Flutes they have possessed from remotest antiquity, and a muffled drum -called Tare for funeral occasions, and they also have a double flute -with a single mouth piece. We will not dwell further upon their -instruments; there is but one, the _Vina_, which is really fitted to -produce beautiful music. - -The Hindoos complain that their old music is deteriorating and such -singers as Chanan or Dhilcook, two vocal celebrities of the last -centuries, have passed away. When one inquires for the miracle-working -Ragas, (improvised songs) in Bengal, the people say there are singers -probably left in Cashmere who can give them; and should you inquire in -Cashmere they would send you to Bengal for them, but in reality there -seems to have been comparatively little change in the style of Hindoo -music from its earliest days. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - ANCIENT EGYPTIAN. - - -The ancient Egyptians ascribed the origin of music to opposite causes, -some legends giving its invention to beneficent Deities, while other -legends are interpreted to give its origin to Satan, the evil principle, -or at least the principle of sensuality, as represented by the buck -Mendes. Hermes (or Mercury) is accredited with first having observed the -harmony of the spheres, and the lyre also is represented as being his -invention, in the following legend: - -A heavy inundation of the Nile had taken place, and when the waters -receded, there was left upon the banks a tortoise, who went the way of -all tortoises, and after a time was completely dried up by the sun; the -tendons however, which were attached to the shell, remained, and became -tightly drawn by the expansion of the shell. Hermes, wandering upon the -bank, accidentally struck his foot against it; the tendons resounded, -and Hermes thus found a natural lyre. - -This legend is however found also in Hindoo and Greek Mythology, and may -be one of those tales, springing from Arian root, which belong to almost -every race. We also find an Egyptian Apollo and Muses in other musical -legends, according to Diodorus Siculus. - -“When Osiris was in Ethiopia,—the Egyptian God Osiris was a sort of -blending of Bacchus and Apollo—he met a troupe of revelling satyrs, and -being a lover of pleasure and taking delight in choruses of music, he -admitted them to his already numerous train of musicians. In the midst -of these satyrs were nine young maidens, skilled in music and divers -sciences.” - -The Egyptians also considered Horus, brother of Osiris, (equivalent to -the Greek Apollo) as God of Harmony. - -Thus three Gods have the honor of fostering Egyptian music, Osiris, -Horus, and Hermes. - -Hermes, or (by his Egyptian name) Thoth, was the especial God of many -sciences, and is said to have written two books of song, or works -relating to the song-art. According to Diodorus, the Lyre which he had -invented had three strings, which represented the three seasons of -Egypt; the deepest string was the wet season, the middle one the growing -season, the highest the harvest season: the tones of Egyptian music seem -to be taken from the seven heavenly planets, as known to the ancients, -and from this circumstance Ambros hazards the conjecture that the -diatonic scale was known to them. - -Among the mythical musical personages of the earliest Egyptian music, -may be mentioned Maneros, who was son of the first king of Egypt, who -succeeded the second dynasty of demi-gods. - -He seems to be analogous to the Linus, (son of Apollo), of the Greeks; -he died young, and the _first_ song of the Egyptian music[6] was in his -honor; it was a lament over his untimely end, the swift passing away of -Youth, Spring, etc. The song was sung under various guises, for Maneros, -Linus, Adonis, etc., among various ancient nations, and Herodotus was -surprised at hearing it in Egypt. But in course of time the song itself, -and not the king’s son was called Maneros, and gradually diffused its -influence, (the warning of the passing away of Joy) through Egyptian -social life; at their banquets a perfectly painted statue of a _corpse_ -was borne round and shown to each guest, and there was sung the -following warning: - - “Cast your eyes upon this corpse - You will be like this after Death, - Therefore drink and be merry now.”[7] - -The song also from being a mournful one, became in time joyous and -lively,[8] Plutarch thinks that the words Maneros, became synonymous -with “Good Health.” The fashion was after the conquest of Egypt, -imitated in Rome.[9] The ancient Egyptian music was really a twofold -affair and is well symbolized in being attributed by some to good, by -others to evil gods; for it was used in the religious services of the -highest gods, (except, according to Strabo, in the services of Osiris, -at Abydos) and on the other hand was degraded as a pastime for the -lowest orders. - -The musicians were not held in any respect, and were not allowed to -change their occupation, but were obliged to transmit it from father to -son and were also probably compelled to live in a certain quarter of the -cities wherein they dwelt.[10] - -Of course there were celebrated singers and performers, and also leaders -of the chants, and royal singers, who were exceptions to the foregoing -rule, but according to Diodorus Siculus, the Egyptians not only -considered music a useless art, but even a hurtful one, as it enervated -the soul and made man effeminate. Yet for all this there are found among -ancient sculptures many representations of singers and musicians -evidently belonging to the higher classes, though we cannot but believe -that these exceptions only prove the rule, and even to-day music is -considered a sensuous and rather unmanly art, by Eastern nations. - -Among the most ancient songs of Egypt there seem to have been little -refrains sung by the working classes while at labor; there is here not -conjecture but absolute certainty, for the words of part of one of these -songs are preserved, on an ancient picture of threshers of grain, oxen, -etc.; the threshers sing, according to Champollion’s learned -deciphering, - - “Thresh for yourselves, oh oxen, - Thresh for yourselves; - Measures for your masters, - Measures for yourselves.” - -In a grotto at _El bersheh_ there is also a painting of the -transportation of a colossal statue from the quarry, and here also while -one hundred and seventy-two men are laboring at the ropes, one is -perched upon the statue and is giving the time of a refrain, which all -are to sing. - -The custom of singing while at work still exists in Egypt, as, for -example, sailors sing a particular song when starting on a voyage, -another when there is danger of a collision, another when the danger is -past. - -Music was a chief portion of the Egyptian funeral ceremonies, and on the -walls of nearly all the tombs of ancient days, are found paintings of -the funeral ceremonies; the greater part of what is known of their -instruments comes from this source; the best singers and players were -engaged for the purpose by the richer classes, and sang mournful chants, -being similar to the professional mourners at present found in the East. -The music was probably chiefly melodic, or one-voiced, though this -subject has some ambiguity attached to it, our only guide as to their -music being the representations in the tombs, etc., as not a scrap of -actual music has been left to us; but when we consider the furious -controversy about, and the different interpretations of the fragments of -Greek music which time has left us, this may be an _advantage_ rather -than otherwise. There is one painting[11] left, which seems to confirm -the idea that the Egyptians knew something of the effect of harmony. -This painting represents two harpers at one side and three flute players -at the other, while between them are two singers, one of whom seems to -be following with his voice the melody of the harpers, while the other -sings with the flutes; this seems to intimate that the Egyptians -possessed, at least _two-voiced_ harmony. - -Chappell, in his admirable History of Music, says that it is -mathematically impossible, that all of the instruments represented in -their paintings should have been played in unison. - -The music of Egypt was for a long time regulated by the Government, that -is all innovations were punishable by law; probably this referred only -to religious music, and did not affect popular music. - -In all ages there seem to have been two distinct schools of music, the -scientific, and popular. There is no doubt that while the early European -theorists held that _only consecutive fifths and fourths_ were musical, -the populace had a less forced and more beautiful style, and it is more -than probable that in Egypt the popular music was totally different from -the sacred. - -All the songs appear to have been accompanied by a clapping of hands, -and therefore the rhythm was probably strongly marked. The effect of -this clapping of hands is by no means unpleasant, and is still used by -the negroes of America in some songs and dances, and among various -barbarous nations. It seems curious to think, that in witnessing these -lively dances, one may be beholding a counterpart of the enjoyments of -four thousand years ago, or that in witnessing the _pirouettes_ of a -ballet dancer, we are amusing ourselves in the ancient Egyptian manner; -the latter fact is proved by ancient paintings, however. Other ancient -Egyptian dances were similar to the modern jigs, clog dances and -breakdowns, as is amply shown by figures found both in Upper and Lower -Egypt. - -The Egyptians had also dances with regular figures, forward and back, -swing, etc.; these dances were restricted to the lower orders, the upper -classes being forbidden to indulge in them. - -If we could transport ourselves back to Thebes in its days of grandeur, -we should be somewhat astonished at the slight change, in comparison -with what is usually supposed, from our own times. Imagine the time of a -great religious festival. The Nile is crowded with boats, loaded to -their utmost capacity, with passengers, offerings, etc. Sometimes -hundreds of thousands came to Thebes or Memphis, and especially to -Bubastis, on such occasions. From each boat is heard playing and -singing. Within the city all the streets are full; here march by a troop -of Pharaoh’s soldiers, all the privates uniformed alike, their marching -regular, and their drill well attended to; at their head is a military -band, (picture found at Thebes) of trumpeters, drummers beating the drum -with their _hands_, and other performers; along that mighty avenue of -Sphinxes is marching a procession to one of the temples: here also -musical instruments, particularly flutes, head the column, and a -processional hymn is being sung, to which the white-robed priests keep -time while marching, as they carry the sacred golden barge of the God, -full of treasure of various kinds. - -Here is passing along, a deputation from some far off tributary prince -in the heart of Æthiopia, carrying presents for the king, and all around -is life, bustle, and enjoyment. In some of the temples music is -sounding, (the temple of Osiris, at Abydos, being the only exception,) -and the clang of the sistrum is often heard. Truly the life of ancient -Egypt was as joyous and varied as that of more modern times. - -The sistrum was, until the Napoleonic expedition to Egypt, which gave to -the world the wonders of this store house of antiquity, considered the -representative of Egyptian music. It was merely a short, oval hand frame -which held three or four metal bars; sometimes bells were hung upon -these bars, and by shaking the instrument, as a baby shakes a rattle, -which it really in principle resembles, a jingling of the bars or bells -was produced. - -Latterly it has been thought that the sistrum was not a musical -instrument at all; but, like the bell sounded at the elevation of the -Host in Catholic churches, was used as a means of riveting and -impressing the minds of the worshippers. At all events the sistrum takes -no rank among Egyptian musical instruments. The harp was really the -instrument on which they lavished the most attention; paintings, and -fragments of harps have been found, in the so-called “Harpers’ Tomb,” -which caused Bruce to exclaim that no modern maker could manufacture a -more beautiful piece of workmanship. - -The ancient Egyptian harps look very modern indeed, except for the fact -that they have no front board or “Pole,” and it seems strange that they -could bear the tension without its support; the pitch could not have -been at all high. There was a species of harp, of the compass of about -two octaves, with catgut strings, (wire strings the Egyptians had not), -found in a tomb hewn in the solid rock at Thebes, so entirely preserved -that it was played upon by the discoverer, and gave out its tones _after -being buried 3000 years_. Of course the strings perished after exposure -to the air. - -Fetis, to whom musical history owes so much, has here fallen into a -singular mistake. He says “it would scarcely be believed that the -ancient Egyptians with whom the cat was a sacred animal, should have -used _cat-gut_ strings on their instruments, but the fact is proved -beyond a doubt.” This is all very true, but M. Fetis seems not to have -known the fact that cat-gut has not its origin in the _cat_, but is -almost always, in reality _sheep-gut_. - -The list of instruments of ancient Egypt embraces harps of various -numbers of strings, Nabla, from which come the Roman _Nablium_ and -Hebrew _Nebel_, a sort of Guitar; Flutes, single and double, (a flute -player often headed the sacred processions, and Isis is said to have -invented the flute.) Tambourines and hand drums; sometimes the Egyptians -danced to a rhythmic accompaniment of these alone.[12] The flute was -generally played by men, and the tambourines by women. Lyres, of various -shapes, often played with the hand, but sometimes also with a plectrum, -(a short, black stick, with which the strings were struck,) trumpets, -cymbals, and some metal instruments of percussion. There are many -paintings in which entire orchestras of these instruments are playing -together, but probably all in unison. - -There exists an excellent painting from a Theban tomb,[13] in which we -see an Egyptian musical party in a private house. Two principal figures -are smelling of small nosegays, while two females offer to them -refreshments; three females are dancing and singing for the amusement of -the guests, who sit around, apparently having a very enjoyable time; -below are seen slaves preparing a banquet, which is to follow the music. -The Egyptians often had music before dinner. - -Another application of music is pictured in a very ancient painting, -given by Rosellini,[14] in his great work; in it is seen a woman nursing -an infant, while a harper and singer are furnishing music, possibly to -lull the child to sleep; in almost all these paintings the singers are -represented with one hand to their ear in order to catch the pitch of -the instruments more readily. - -But the most interesting painting has been copied, in the folios of -Lepsius,[15] from a tomb of great antiquity; it represents a course of -_musical instruction_ in the department of the singers and players of -King Amenhotep IV. (18th Dynasty). We see several large and small rooms, -connecting with each other; furniture, musical instruments and -implements are seen all around, especially in the small rooms or -closets. In the large rooms are the musicians, engaged in practising and -teaching; one teacher is sitting, listening to the singing of a young -girl, while another pupil is accompanying her on the harp; another girl -stands attentively listening to the teacher’s instructions, (_class -system_ evidently); in another part two girls are practising a dance, -while a harper accompanies; other musicians are variously engaged. In -one room is a young lady having her hair dressed, and in another, a -young miss has leant her harp against the wall, and is sitting down with -a companion to lunch. This certainly gives a fair insight into the music -life of old, and we leave Egyptian music, of which _as music_ we know -nothing, with more satisfaction after this glance at the _Royal Egyptian -Conservatory of Music_. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - BIBLICAL AND HEBREW. - - -The earliest scriptural mention of music is in Genesis, Chapter IV. -where Jubal is spoken of as “Father of those who handle the harp and -organ.” But harp and organ must by no means be confounded with our -modern instruments of the same name. The harp was probably an instrument -of three strings, while all the very ancient references to an organ, -simply mean a “Syrinx” or Pan’s pipes. The music of Biblical History is, -as is almost all the music of ancient nations, combined to a great -extent with the dance; the dances of the ancients were what to-day would -be called pantomimes, expressing joy, sorrow, fear, or anger, by the -motions and expressions of face and body, rather than by the feet. - -The real character of the ancient Hebrew music, as well as of many of -the musical instruments, is involved in utter obscurity, and no clues to -enlighten the investigator, remain in the modern music of this usually -most conservative of peoples; much of their musical system was borrowed, -until David’s time certainly, from the Egyptians. - -The music of the modern Jews is tinged in almost every instance with the -character of the music of the people around them; thus the same psalms -are sung in a different manner by German, Polish, Spanish, or Portuguese -Jews. - -One little trace of their primitive music remains; on the occasion of -their New Year, a ram’s horn is blown, and between the blasts on this -excruciating instrument the following phrases are addressed to the -performer,— - - _Tahkee-oo, Schivoorim, Taru-o._ - -These words, which also have a reverential meaning, may possibly at one -time have been addressed to the ancient musicians, to give to them the -order of the music. Strong presumptive proof that this blowing of the -trumpet is the same as it was in King David’s time is found in the fact -that it is blown in the same rhythm, by the Jews _all over the world_. -It certainly requires no forced interpretation to call the Ram’s horn -(Schofer) one of their early instruments, as it would be their most -natural signal-call both in peace and war. - -In all the Jewish theocracy, the music naturally took a theosophical -character, and is seldom detached from religious rites; we shall find -the same spirit running through other of the ancient civilizations, even -barbarians seeming to share in the almost universal impulse to praise -the Deity with this art, and this should prove to supercilious critics -that however ill-sounding the music of other races may appear to our -ears, to _them_ it was a highly considered art, and as such, merits our -attention. - -David may be regarded as the real founder of Hebrew music. He must have -possessed great skill even in his youth, as the instance of his being -able to soothe Saul’s crazed mind with his music, proves. This may be -regarded as one of the earliest notices of the effects of music in -mental disease. What the nature of his inventions and reforms in music -afterwards were, and how far he remodelled the style which had been -brought from Egypt, cannot now be known, as Jerusalem has been pillaged -nearly twenty times since his reign, and every monument, or inscription -which might solve the enigma, has long been destroyed. - -There are still marks and inflections in the Hebrew Scriptures which are -evidently intended to show the style in which they were to be chanted. - -Regarding the instruments spoken of in Scripture as being used in the -Temple there is also no certainty. In the Talmud there is mention of an -organ which had but ten pipes, yet gave one hundred different tones; -this instrument is placed about the beginning of the Christian Era, and -is called _Magrepha_; it is said of it, that its tones were so powerful -that when it was played, the people in Jerusalem could not hear each -other talk. Pfeiffer conjectures that it was probably not an organ, but -a very loud drum. There are other authorities who have endeavored to -prove that the _Magrepha_ was simply a _fire shovel_; they contend that -it was used at the sacrifices of the Temple to build up the fire, and -was then thrown down, with a loud noise, to inform people outside how -far the services had progressed. The reader has liberty to make his own -choice, for the authorities are pretty evenly balanced,—_organ_, _drum_, -or _fire shovel_. - -We must make some allowance for Oriental exaggeration in musical -matters, for when Josephus speaks of a performance by 200,000 singers, -40,000 sistrums, 40,000 harps, and 200,000 trumpets, we must imagine -that either Josephus’ tale, or the ears of the Hebrews, were tough. All -these statements only enlarge a fruitless field, for in it all is -conjecture. - -The flute was a favorite instrument both for joy and sorrow: the Talmud -contains a saying that “flutes are suited either to the bride or to the -dead.” - -The performance of all these instruments seems to have been always in -unison, and often in the most _fortissimo_ style. - -Calmet gives a list of Hebrew instruments including viols, trumpets, -drums, bells, Pan’s pipes, flutes, cymbals, etc., and it is possible -that these have existed among them in a primitive form. - -The abbé de la Molette gives the number of the chief Jewish instruments -as twelve, and states that they borrowed three newer ones from the -Chaldeans, during the Babylonian captivity. - -According to records of the Rabbins, given by Forkel, the Jews possessed -in David’s time, thirty-six instruments. - -Some of the instruments named in the Scriptures are as -follows:—_Kinnor_, usually mentioned in the English translation as a -harp, so often alluded to in the Psalms, (“Praise the Lord with harp,” -etc., xxxiii:2,) was probably a lyre, or a small harp, of triangular -shape: that the Hebrews possessed a larger harp is more than probable, -for they were in communication with Assyria and Egypt, where the harp, -in a highly developed state, was the national instrument, but it is a -matter of much dispute, as to which of the musical terms used in the -Scriptures was intended to apply to this larger harp. - -The _Nebel_, or _Psaltery_, was a species of Dulcimer. - -The _Asor_;—When David sang of an “instrument of ten strings,” he -referred to the asor, which is supposed to have been a species of lyre, -with ten strings, and played with a _plectrum_, a short stick of wood, -or bone, usually black, with which the strings were struck. - -The _Timbrel_ or _Taboret_, was a small hand drum, or tambourine, -probably of varying shapes and sizes; the hand drum was derived from -Egypt, for it was customary for women to dance in that country entirely -to the rhythm of drums and tambourines; the military hand drum had the -shape of a small keg with parchment over the ends; that is to say, the -diameter at the middle was greatest. - -_The Organ_;—as before stated this was simply a set of pandean pipes. - -_Cymbals_;—there seems to be no doubt that the Hebrews possessed various -instruments of percussion of divers shapes. - -_Trumpets_;—apart from the ram’s horn, and other curved horns which were -called trumpets, there also existed a straight trumpet of more -artificial construction. “Make thee, two trumpets of silver: of one -piece shalt thou make them.” Numbers ix:2. - -It is probable that the sistrum, the guitar, and pipes, were also -possessed by this nation; about nineteen instruments are mentioned in -the scriptures, but some of the meanings are so dubious that they have -been translated by the general terms, harp, lute, psaltery, timbrel, -etc. - -How many different opinions are held, upon Hebrew music may be judged -from the fact that the word “_Selah_,” which was probably a musical -term, and is found in so many of the psalms, has given rise to the most -vehement and fruitless controversy. Hesychius says that it means a -charge of rhythm, in the chanting; Alberti denies this, as it sometimes -occurs at the end of a psalm, where certainly no change is possible: -some have suggested that it meant a modulation from one key to another; -Forkel, however, thinks that the Hebrews were not so far advanced in the -science of music as to understand modulation, but Fetis upsets Forkel by -remarking that the modulations, though not harmonic, might have been -purely melodic, by the introduction of tones, foreign to the key, as -occurs in many eastern melodies. - -Herder says also “the Orientals even of our day, love monotonous chants, -which Europeans find doleful, and which at certain passages or phrases, -change totally and abruptly their mode and time: the word _Selah_ was -without doubt an indication of such a change.” The last part of this -opinion, Fetis sets down as pure hypothesis. - -Two ancient Greek versions of the Old Testament give the meaning of the -word as “forever,” and as “for all ages.” - -Alberti thinks the word is a recapitulation of the chords of the psalm: -Rosenmüller proves that this is impossible in some cases. - -Augusti thinks it is an expression of joy similar to “Hallelujah.” - -David Kimchi thinks it a sign of elevation of the voice; Mattheson and -Pfeiffer agree in the opinion that it signifies a _ritornella_, or short -symphony between the verses, to be played by the instruments alone. - -Eichhorn thinks it means _Da Capo_, but Rosenmüller and Gesenius, (the -latter treats the matter with great erudition, and his opinion is -entitled to respect,) both think that it signifies a rest in the song -part, as we might write _Tacet_. - -Gesenius has found almost the only corroborative testimony of the whole -controversy in the fact that the grammatical root of the word Selah, is -repose, or silence. - -La Borde has boldly, not to say audaciously, given a unique -interpretation. He says “David invented the art of shading the sounds; -the word _Selah_ is equivalent to the Italian word _smorzando_, -extinguished, dying away.” And then he gives a highly colored picture of -the beauty and grace of the effects produced, though all that he proves -is that he has a little stronger imagination than the others. We must -also give the curious opinion of Wolff, who thinks that “_Selah_” has no -sense whatever, and was only added to fill up the metre of a verse. - -Several other eminent writers, including Fetis, who gives a full account -of this war of opinions,[16] decline to hazard an opinion in so dark a -matter. - -Another conjectural description of the mode of singing among the ancient -Hebrews, is the commentary of Herder on the song of Deborah and Barak, -Judges v.; he says, “probably verses 1-11 were interrupted by the shouts -of the populace; verses 12-27 were a picture of the battle with a naming -of the leaders with praise or blame, and mimicking each one as named; -verses 28-30 were mockery of the triumph of Sissera, and the last verse -was given as chorus by the whole people.” - -One cannot fail to observe some resemblance between this music and the -slave music of some sections of the southern states: in the -camp-meetings, and religious services, a tune which is well known to all -is chosen, and as the spirit moves, often a whole song appropriate to -the occasion is improvised. Of some such description must have been -Miriam’s song, after the downfall of Pharaoh’s host; she probably chose -a tune which was familiar to the people, and improvised, while the -people kept the rhythm, or sang refrains. - -Of course the element of poetry was immeasurably greater among the -Israelites than among the Negroes, but the similarity of improvisation -and religious fervor is noticeable. - -When Miriam sang, there was as yet no distinctive style of Hebrew music; -we must remember that she had obtained an Egyptian education, and that -up to David’s time the music was an imitation of the Egyptian school. - -The raptures of some commentators as to the exceeding beauty of the -music of David, are quite safe, for it is easy to affirm where no one -can bring rebutting evidence, but if it partook of the loudness of most -ancient and barbarous music,—“Play skillfully, and with a loud noise,” -Psalms xxxiii:2—our modern music may after all be some compensation for -its utter loss and oblivion. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - ANCIENT GREEK MUSIC. - - -The mythology of Greek music is too well known, for us to go into any -details upon the subject; with this people every thing relating to -music, was ennobled and enriched by an applicable legend, or a finely -conceived poem. In fact music (mousiké), meant with the Greeks, all the -æsthetics, and culture that were used in education of youth, and the -strictly _musical_ part of the above training had special names, as -_harmonia_, etc., to designate it. - -The subject of Greek music has given rise to more commentary and -dispute, than any other in the entire realm of musical history. - -The mode of notation employed was peculiar; it consisted in placing the -letters of the alphabet in various positions, straight, sideways, etc., -and sometimes even, fragments of letters were used. - -There are in existence but three authentic Greek hymns[17] with music, -viz: hymn to Calliope, to Apollo, and to Nemesis; there is also in -existence, some music to the first eight verses of the first Pythian of -Pindar, which Athanasius Kircher claimed to have discovered in a -monastery near Messina, but the best authorities reject this as -spurious. The copies of the above hymns are not older than the fifteenth -century, and have probably been much perverted by the ignorance, or -half-knowledge of the transcribers, who seeing a fragment of a letter, -would restore the whole letter, or change its position, thereby greatly -altering the character of the music. - -To this fact is to be attributed the dense fog, which has prevented us -from fully understanding the ancient Greek music. - -On this slight foundation however, learned writers have built an edifice -of erudition which consists of countless volumes of pedantry and -ingenuity, mixed with a large amount of abuse for those who did not -agree with their solution. - -As we intend to deal, in these articles, more with curious musical facts -than with musical systems, we will dismiss this branch of the subject -entirely by referring the reader to the best representative works of -this monument of research, which are Chappell’s History of Music, vol. -I., Ambros’ Geschichte der Musik, vol. I., pp. 218-513, Fetis’ Histoire -Generale de la Musique, vol. III., pp. 1-418. Kiesewetter, and Drieberg -also have written profoundly on the subject. These will give the -different opinions held in the matter. - -The _scale_ of the Greeks, is however, definitely known, and was similar -to our minor scale, although it contained no sharp seventh. Play on any -pianoforte the notes, A B C D E F G, and you have played the Greek one -octave diatonic scale. - -The nomenclature was however different, and some commentators have -forgotten to explain the fact, that what the Greeks called the _highest -note_, meant the longest string of the instrument, and consequently the -_lowest_ tone. - -Another fact which has given rise to much controversy is the pitch of -the lyre or phorminx; it seems that the mode of tuning this instrument -varied in Greece at different epochs, and even in different localities -at the same epoch.[18] - -The word harmony (harmonikē) has also been misunderstood, as it does not -mean harmony in our sense of the word, but the arrangement and rhythm of -a melody. Whether the Greeks understood harmony or not, in the modern -sense, has been the chief cause of the before-mentioned “Battle of the -Books.” - -The lowest note of the scale was called Proslambanomenos, and had not -the importance of the middle note, called Mese, which really became the -principal note of the scale. - -The Greek music practically, was very like our present minor modes, and -the singing of some young Greek of two thousand years ago, would -probably have sounded pleasantly to modern ears. - -The earliest Greek scale had but four tones, and was probably used to -accompany hymns. It might still suffice for many church chants.[19] -People seldom think how much music can be manufactured from three or -four notes; Rousseau gave a practical illustration of it in the last -century, by writing a not very monotonous tune, on three notes. But an -instrument founded on so few notes might also have been used to give the -pitch to the voice in reciting, or half-singing a poem. We must remember -that the poems of Greece were chanted in public; and even in modern -days, orators pitch their voices higher than in conversation, when -addressing an assembly. - -Early Grecian music experienced its first real onward movement, when -Egypt was thrown open to foreigners. Up to the reign of Psammetichus I., -(664 B. C.) Egypt was closed to aliens, exactly as China has been closed -in days not long gone by. Psammetichus first opened his kingdom to the -Greeks, and Pythagoras learned enough in Egypt to greatly change the -character of Greek music. Though some Greek writers with an excess of -zeal, have made the statement that he taught the Egyptians, by bringing -to them the seven-stringed lyre. Considering the fact that the Egyptians -had as many as twenty-two strings, the claim is rather audacious. - -But what placed the Greeks in advance of all other ancient nations, in -music, was the fact that they early recognized its rank as a _fine art_. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - THE PUBLIC GAMES OF GREECE. - - -The public games of Greece in which music and musical contests were a -feature, gave to the art a decided impetus, for when competition began, -musical study must have preceded. - -The Olympic games were celebrated at Olympia every fifth year, in July, -and lasted five days. They were dedicated to Zeus (Jupiter), and were -established (according to some re-established, having existed in -Mythical ages) by Iphitos, king of Elis, in the ninth century before the -Christian era. - -For a long time none but Grecians were allowed to compete in them. If -there existed internal war in Greece at the time, an armistice was -effected during the games. The contestants were trained for ten months -previous to the contest. The prizes awarded to the victors were wreaths -of wild olive twigs, cut from a sacred tree which grew in the -consecrated grove of Olympia, and the victors were presented to the -spectators, while a herald proclaimed the name of each, his father, and -his country. - -The first day opened with a sacrifice to Zeus, after which a contest of -trumpeters took place. This contest was not regularly instituted until -396 B. C., but after that period it was not interrupted. There are still -annals left of the most celebrated contestants; Archias of Hybla, gained -the prize for three successive Olympiads; and Athenæus says that -Herodorus of Megara, a most famous trumpeter, gained the prize _ten -times in succession_. Pollux says he gained _seventeen_ victories, which -is well-nigh incredible, but both agree in saying that this remarkable -performer was in one year crowned in the four great sacred games, the -Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian. His music was so loud that the -audience were sometimes stunned by the concussion. Other anecdotes of -this wonderful trumpeter remain. He was of giant stature, and slept upon -a bear skin, in imitation of Hercules and the lion skin. He could play -upon two trumpets at the same time, and when he did so, the audience had -to sit farther away than usual, on account of the immense sound. His -performances were of great use in military affairs. Once at the siege of -Argos, the troops were giving way when Herodorus began to sound his two -trumpets, which so inspired the warriors of Demetrius, that they -returned to the fight and won the victory. - -The trumpet cannot really be classed among Grecian musical instruments, -as it was rather a signal than any thing else. It was blown when heralds -made any proclamation, in military movements, etc., and seems to have -been appreciated only by the loudness with which it was blown. - -It was also frequently played at the Olympic games during the -horse-races, to inspirit the animals.[20] - -In fact at the public games the music had a most noisy character, and -trumpeters were proud of bursting a blood vessel, or otherwise injuring -themselves by excess of zeal. - -The contest of trumpeters was the only musical (?) one of these games, -though flute-playing took place on the fourth day, when according to -Krause,[21] the _pentathlon_ took place. This was a set of five athletic -games; leaping, running, throwing spear, throwing _discus_, and -wrestling. Here flute-playing also served to animate the contestants. -The flutes too, considering the purpose for which they were used, must -have been played in a violent manner. - -Harmonides, a young flute-player, on his first appearance at the games -wishing to _astonish_ the audience, began by giving such a tremendous -blast on his instrument, that he expired on the spot, probably having -burst a blood vessel, and having literally blown himself out with his -first note. The audience was probably astonished. - -The sacred games next in importance, were the Pythian. These games were -at first celebrated by the Delphians, every ninth year, but about 590 B. -C., the Amphyctions (another Grecian tribe) obtained the control of -them, and instituted them every fifth year. They took place on a plain -near Delphi, and were in honor of Apollo, commemorating his victory over -the serpent Python; the good principle defeating the evil principle, as -in Egyptian, and most other mythologies. Pindar’s odes have celebrated -the victories at some of these games. Being dedicated to Apollo, it was -but natural that music, (under this head, the Greeks understood most of -the accomplishments of the muses,) should play the most important part. - -Religious poems were chanted, with an accompaniment upon the lyre or -phorminx. The first poet-musicians who gained the prize were -Chrysothemis,[22] Philammon, an earlier poet-musician than Homer, and -Thamyris. According to Pausanius, all these singers were probably -priests of Apollo. The Amphyctions first established prizes for songs -with flute accompaniment, and for flute _solos_. Cephallon obtained a -prize for songs accompanied by Kithara, a small lyre, and Echembrotus -one for songs with flute, while Sacadas of Argos took the prize three -consecutive times for his flute solos. After him came Pythocritus of -Sicyon, who won the prize at these games six consecutive times, which -covers an interval of _thirty years_ of triumphs. - -Athletic sports also were introduced later. The prizes were, as at -Olympia, wreaths only. - -The use of the flute both as solo instrument, and as accompaniment, was -however, soon abolished, it being used as funeral music, and for dirge -playing among the Amphyctions, and therefore having too many melancholy -associations to allow of its use in these festive games. Finally _solos_ -on the small lyre (kithara) were allowed prizes. - -It is said that at one of these contests a flute player gained the prize -in a singular manner. He was playing the straight flute, when the reed -in the mouth-piece became closed by accident, on which he instantly -changed the position of his instrument, and played it as an _oblique_ -flute; his presence of mind was rewarded, by winning the prize. - -The Nemean games were commemorative of the slaying of the Nemean lion, -by Hercules. There was no musical contest in the games, but flutes were -used, to stimulate the athletes, and were probably allowed prizes. - -The Isthmian games celebrated upon the Isthmus of Corinth, whence their -name, were similar to the Nemean; music not being of any importance in -them. - -In Chios there has been found a stone on which the names of the victors -in the musical contests are inscribed. From it we learn that prizes were -given for reading music at sight, rhapsodizing, accompanying the voice -with a small harp played with the hand, and accompanying with kithara -played partially with the fingers of the left hand, and partially with a -_plectrum_ held in the right hand. - -The lesser games of Greece were also not inconsiderable. The great -festival of Athens was the Panathenæa, held in honor of Athene the -patron goddess of the city. It was established according to tradition, -about 1521 B. C., and was at first intended for the citizens of Athens -only. It took place about the middle of July. - -At the later Panathenæa, the people of all Attica used to attend. There -seem to have been two divisions of this festival, a greater and lesser -Panathenæa, the former being celebrated every four years, the latter -every year. The lesser Panathenæa consisted of recitations, gymnastics, -musical competitions, and a torch race in the evening, the whole -concluding with the sacrifice of an ox. The greater, was even more -extensive. The Homeric poems were sung, dramatic representation took -place, magnificient processions marched to the temple of Athene Polias, -and the whole city was full of mirth and gayety. The prizes were jars of -oil made from the sacred tree on the Acropolis. - -Pericles, (fifth century B. C.,) gave to music a greater prominence than -ever before in these games, by erecting a structure especially for -musical entertainments and contests, the Odeum, in the street of the -Tripod; this edifice was very well adapted in its acoustical properties, -for according to Plutarch’s description, the roof was dome-shaped, or -nearly so, and vast audiences could hear solos distinctly. - -In Sparta, in the month of August (Carneios) there were celebrated the -great Carneian games, which lasted nine days. In these games musical -contests also took place, and dances of men, youths, and maidens, as -well as gymnastic exercises. Sparta also had a special building for -musical purposes. Theodore of Samos erected the Skias, a building for -musical uses, in the market place. Sparta was in fact, the cradle of -Grecian music. - -In the early days, songs were learned and transmitted down, from mouth -to mouth. Homer’s poems were preserved in this manner for five hundred -years. In Sparta however, they first began to crystallize into form and -regularity. Yet strange to say, Sparta gave birth to no musicians of -eminence, even though she was so long the arbiter, and director of -Grecian musical taste.[23] - -Terpander of Lesbos, one of the founders of Greek music, came early to -Sparta. He is reported to have gained the prize at the first musical -contest of the Carneian games, B. C. 676, and is said to have studied in -Egypt, but he certainly could not have done so before his first advent -in Sparta, for Egypt was at that date still closed to foreigners, and -had even guards set to prevent the landing of strangers by the sea.[24] - -Terpander gained the Pythian crown four times in succession, and was the -most famous poet-musician of his time. His fame spread through all -Greece, but it was especially in Sparta that he won renown, for his -high, manly and earnest strains awoke a sturdy and manly response in the -bosoms of the rugged Spartans. It is probable however that at the first -visit to Sparta, his songs were not so powerful. At that time, (676 B. -C.) he probably sang chiefly the poems of Homer. We say _sang_, but it -is not even sure that they had, what we should call a tune, attached to -them; they were possibly recited in a musical pitch of voice, which -could not be called even a chant. - -There was at this time, little music among the Spartans, and that of -rather martial, or else of religious character; as for example we learn -that the Spartans marched into battle to the sound of many kitharas, as -did also the Cretans, and it was supposed to have been in honor of the -Gods, that they did so; though Thucydides, more practically, says that -it was only that they might move forward regularly and in time. On -Terpander’s second visit to Sparta, he changed the entire mode of -Spartan music, and enlarged it. The return happened in this wise:— - -At the beginning of the second Messenian war Sparta was in great -perplexity. Messenia by alliances with other tribes threatened -destruction from without. Within all was dissension; agriculture -prostrate, antagonism between those who had lost their lands through the -wars and those who possessed them, a demand for a new distribution of -land, and prospective anarchy. At this juncture, the Oracle of Delphi -was consulted, and gave reply that “discord would be quelled in Sparta -when the sound of Terpander’s harp was heard there,” and told the -Spartans, also to call the counsellor from Athens. So Terpander was sent -for, and also the counsellor Tyrtaeus from Athens. - -The effect of Terpander’s songs upon the populace on this occasion is -described as something remarkable; men burst into tears, enemies -embraced each other, and all internal dissension was at an end.[25] - -It is recorded therefore, that Terpander with his harp had quelled all -dissension in Sparta, but by this anecdote we may see that in what the -ancient Greeks called music, the words really played the most important -part. To show this yet more clearly, we will here give an instance from -later Athenian history where the same power was exerted for a similar -purpose. A war between Athens and Megara, for the possession of the -island of Salamis, had resulted in such continued disaster to Athens, -that the Athenians had left the island to its fate, and it was forbidden -upon penalty of death to broach the subject to the public again. Solon -however, attired himself as a messenger from the island to the -Athenians, and in this character sang a song which roused such a martial -spirit, that on the instant a large body of volunteers was formed, who, -under Solon, effected its reconquest. - -Terpander and Tyrtæus composed most of their songs in march rhythm, and -after this the Spartans sang hymns, while marching into battle to the -sound of many kitharas, which were afterwards displaced by the more -penetrating flute. - -Terpander also composed love songs, and banquet songs as well as nomes -or hymns, and his choruses were sung at all Spartan festivals and -sacrifices, they were taught to Spartan youths and maidens, and all -seemed to vie in doing him honor. He had really helped the music of -Greece to a higher plane, for it is said that he enlarged the lyre or -phorminx from four strings, to seven, and also made improvements in the -scale. - -Contemporary with this poet-musician was Olympus, who must not however -be confounded with an Olympus who lived six hundred years previously, -that is, about 1250 B. C. Plato says that the music of Olympus was -especially adapted to animate the hearers. Plutarch says that it -surpassed in simplicity and effect, all other music. He is said to have -composed the air which caused Alexander to seize his arms, when it was -sung to him; according to Aristotle his music filled all hearers with -enthusiasm. Much relating to Olympus must however be relegated to the -land of myths. It has even been doubted whether he ever really existed, -though that is carrying scepticism too far. - -Among the other characters which existed on the borderland of Greek -musical history, may be mentioned Polynestos, and Alcman who brought to -Sparta in its full glow, the love song, (Lydian measure). Alcman seems -to have been easily aroused to sing of female beauty, and composed some -choruses especially for the - - “Honey-voiced, lovely singing maidens,” - -which were sung by female voices only. - -The fragments which remain of Alcman’s verses do not justify the immense -fame which he seems to have enjoyed in Greece. Alcman was preceded by -Thaletas of Crete, who was sent for by the Spartans 620 B. C. to sing to -the Gods, in order that Sparta might be freed from a severe plague, -which was then ravaging the state. The plague ceased, and Thaletas for a -time stood at the head of all Spartan music. That country as above -mentioned, either would not, or could not encourage home talent. - -Sacadas of Argos came soon after with a yet more luxurious style, and -introduced the flute as an accompaniment to chorus music. - -To this foggy period of history, also belongs Tisias of Himera, who made -an indelible impression on Greek music. He was the first who regulated -the motions of the chorus, and who reduced chorus singing to a settled -system; from the fact that at one period of the song, (the _epode_, or -_finale_) he made the chorus stand quiet, instead of dancing he received -the nickname of “Stesichorus.” In some of the works of Stesichorus, one -can easily see the germ of the choruses of Æschylus or Sophocles.[26] - -If in the ancient Grecian music, the composer, poet, and performer seem -to be spoken of in common, the reader must recollect that in those days, -_all three_ branches of the art were united in one individual. It will -also aid some readers, if we define here what the functions of the Greek -chorus were. In the earliest days, the whole chorus simply sang refrains -after the solo of some cultivated singer; gradually whole compositions -were entrusted to their charge. Pantomimic action probably always -existed in connection with their songs, as with almost all ancient -singing. Stesichorus first gave them different historical or -mythological subjects to act, in a dramatic manner. At a later epoch the -chorus entered in a peculiar manner into the action of the drama. They -stood upon the stage as interested spectators of the various events; -they advised the Protagonist or only individual character[27] as to his -course of action, and when some startling incident, a murder for -example, had taken place, they would strongly express their feelings, -horror, dismay or fear, and thereby intensify the effect upon the -audience. - -An imitation of the Greek chorus may be found in Schiller’s “Bride of -Messina.” - -Stesichorus was deservedly honored as the founder of Greek chorus music, -and a statue was erected to his memory. Among those next following his -era we find Ibycus, a poet-musician attached to the court of Polycrates, -tyrant of Samos. This mighty sea king and despot had a considerable -liking for music; for we learn also that he kept a choir of beautiful -boys, whose duty it was to sing sweet Lydian melodies during his meals. -About 580-70 B. C. Alcæus and Sappho became leaders in Grecian musical -culture, or poetry, for the two are inseparable. The two poets seem to -have formed a mutual friendship. Of Sappho we have remaining an ode to -Aphrodite which makes it a matter of regret that the remains of her -poetry are so fragmentary.[28] At Mytilene she seems to have gathered -around her a large and elegant circle, composed entirely of females to -whom she taught poetry and music; in fact her house must have been a -musical university for her list of scholars embraces names from all -parts of Greece. Ottfried Müller[29] compares her life, surrounded by -all these fair followers, with that of Socrates surrounded by the flower -of Athenian youth. - -Sappho’s career is the more wonderful from the fact, that among the -ancient Greeks, the entire mission of woman was supposed to consist in -rearing her family, attending to the first education of her sons, who at -an early age passed into the hands of their teachers, teaching -housewife’s duties to her daughters, and attending to them herself; -according to Pericles, that woman was most to be prized of whom no one -spoke, either in praise or blame. - -Sappho’s poetry had great effect even on the rough character of Solon, -the law giver; hearing for the first time one of her songs, which his -nephew sang to him, he vehemently expressed the wish that he might not -die before he had committed to memory so beautiful a song. - -Sappho’s name is almost the only female one in the whole realm of -ancient Greek music, which was pure, noble, and uncontaminated. -Latterly, even her character has been assailed, but the accusation has -been refuted by Herr Welcker, of Bonn, (in the _Rheinisches Museum_,) -Ottfried Müller and other learned writers. After her, music as practiced -by the female sex, was handed over to the most degraded, (the _Hetarae_) -and seems to have borrowed from Egypt many lowering qualities,[30] -including dancing girls and ribald songs. - -Anacreon of Teos, introduced into Greece the light, airy songs, in -praise of woman, wine, etc., “It is no great stretch of fancy,” says a -thoughtful writer,[31] “to imagine his songs as expressing our modern -_Allegretto Grazioso_, _Andante Scherzoso_, etc.” - -From precisely this point however (the lack of signs of expression in -all Greek music) another writer[32] deduces the opinion that Greek music -must always have been in a crude state, and by no means of the beauty -which some enthusiasts ascribe to it. - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - THE PHILOSOPHERS, AND GREEK SOCIAL MUSIC. - - -From the sixth century B. C., music may date its entrance into the -positive sciences, for Pythagoras, born about 570 B. C., first began to -analyze music from a scientific point of view, and to ascertain how far -it rested upon natural laws. Pythagoras is said to have been the son of -a wealthy merchant. He was as before mentioned, one of the earliest -Greeks in Egypt, and after having been instructed for some time by the -priests, had at last the honor of being admitted into the Egyptian -college of priesthood. - -After remaining in Egypt twenty-two years, he spent some time among the -Chaldeans, and at last returned, full of wisdom, to his native Samos. -But here the sensuality of the court of Polycrates was so little to his -taste, that he departed to the city of Croton in southern Italy, where -he founded the order of Pythagoreans. - -With the order itself, we have little to do, but when we consider that -its founder was the pioneer of scientific musical research, its -proceedings become in some degree interesting. - -“All is number and harmony” was the fundamental maxim of this -philosopher,[33] and he sought for the laws in music, therefore, in -nature. This led to some mistakes of course, for the laws of nature had -not been made clear enough for thorough guidance, in that era. It is -said that Pythagoras one day, passing by a blacksmith’s shop heard the -blows of different hammers sound the fundamental, fourth, fifth, and -octave, and entering, he weighed the different hammers, thereby -obtaining the proportion of these intervals to each other. - -This story has been proved to be a silly myth, for the proportions given -are wrong. He should have weighed the anvils not the hammers, and anvils -of such difference in size as would be requisite to produce these -intervals would not be seen in blacksmiths’ shops. - -Pythagoras taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide -in music. He held that the universe was constructed on a musical plan, -and was probably the first to introduce among the Greeks the theory of -the music of the spheres. The fact that man could not hear this -music,[34] was explained by the statement that the sounds were either -too deep or too high for our ears. The reasoning was plausible enough, -and has been confirmed by science, for sounds of less than sixteen -vibrations in a second are inaudible on account of their depth, and -those exceeding 38,100 vibrations in a second are too high for the human -ear to perceive.[35] Starting from this premise Pythagoras formed a -scale founded on the seven planets, as known to the astronomers of that -time. This was its form: - - Moon. Mercury. Venus. Sun. Mars. Jupiter. Saturn. - E F G A B C D - -The sun was Mese, the controlling middle note, around which all the -others circled. - -The order of Pythagoreans were held together by the firmest ties, and -Pythagoras has been, not inaptly, compared in this capacity with -Ignatius Loyola. His adherents, who numbered about three hundred were, -in most cases, wealthy and noble, and the power of the society was -always upon the side of aristocracy. - -Pythagoras was very select in the admission of members, exercising great -vigilance lest improper or undesirable persons should be allowed to -enter; in this he was guided not a little by his skill in Physiognomy. -The initiates had, it is said, to pass through a most rigorous and -lengthy period of probation, they were obliged to maintain silence for -five years,[36] and in other ways had their powers of endurance, -severely tested. After entering the brotherhood,[37] the mode of life -was entirely dictated by Pythagoras. The members were clothed in pure -white. They were forbidden all animal food, and beans. They had -different grades of advancement among themselves, the highest being -undoubtedly instructed in a purer religion than that which obtained -around them, though outwardly they conformed with the religion of the -populace. Mathematics, music, and astronomy were studied, and gymnastics -regularly practised. - -Playing upon the lyre was obligatory, and none of the order went to -sleep at night, without having previously purified his soul, and set it -in harmony through music; and at rising in the morning, the strength for -the day’s labors and duties, was sought for in the same manner. -Pythagoras wrote many songs as correctives to undue excitement and -passion; he is said once to have brought to reason a young man beside -himself with jealousy and wine, by the power of a song. - -Clinias, a Pythagorean, took up his harp and played whenever any passion -arose in his breast; to a person who asked him the reason of the action, -he replied, “I play to compose myself.” - -While the music of Terpander, Olympus, etc., was intended for high state -and religious purposes, that of Pythagoras was intended to bring the art -into domestic and inner life. Choruses were, however, also chanted by -his followers, and were adapted to various occasions, as for example, at -the opening of Spring, the scholars would gather in a circle around the -harper, who played the accompaniment, and sing pæans of welcome to the -opening season. Other philosophers also allowed music to enter into -their teachings, though not to so great a degree, but almost all of them -understood enough of music to form an opinion. - -Plato seemed decidedly to object to instrumental music, for he says “the -using of instruments without the voice is barbarism and -charlatanry.”[38] - -Aristotle was disposed to allow more freedom, for he spoke of music as a -delicious pleasure, either alone (instrumental) or accompanied with -voice; but in instrumental solos he admitted the lyre and kithara only, -and rejected the flute, which he thought not to be a moral instrument, -and only capable of inflaming the passions. - -The philosophers as a class were really not very advantageous to musical -progress, for they fought tooth and nail for the old school of music. - -They sought only moral effects by the means of great simplicity, and any -intricate innovations displeased them; but in spite of their resistance -the art began to improve. - -The Skolion, or banquet song had a great influence on the music of -Athens. At the banquet, or symposium, the harp was passed from hand to -hand, and each person who made any pretence to education or good -breeding was expected to be able to improvise or at least to sing a good -_skolion_. - -There was certainly in the time of Pericles, music enough to choose -from, for there is much evidence that the Athenians of that day -possessed an extensive library of music;[39] and it was in this era, the -early part of the fifth century B. C., that the social music reached its -height. - -Themistocles once being present at a banquet had the harp (kithara) -presented to him, and was desired to sing his _skolion_; full of -confusion and shame he was obliged to acknowledge his ignorance of -music, and we can judge of the value in which the art was held, by the -sneers and jests which were pointed at him. At last stung to the quick -by the sharp witticisms, he retorted, “it is true I do not know how to -play the kithara, but I know how to raise an insignificant city to a -position of glory.” - -The _skolion_ was a really poetical and worthy song, and must not be -confounded with those lower and vulgar songs which were sung to the -guests by hired jesters and buffoons.[40] - -The subjects of the _skolion_ were sometimes of rather a lofty style; -praise of heroes,[41] calls to the gods, rules of life, often joyous, -sometimes sedate; but in all of them a less exact rhythm and style were -allowed than in other compositions. A few have been preserved to our -day; one begins, “my kingdom is my spear and sword,” another composed by -Chilon contains the following beautiful thought; “Gold is rubbed upon -the touchstone, and thus is tested, but the soul of man is tested by the -gold, if it be good or evil.” But the kithara, although used in the -_skolion_, was not the only instrument of the fashionable young men of -ancient Athens, for the flute found great favor among them; in fact -flute playing grew to be quite a mania for a time. It was part of the -musical education of youth. Most of the teachers of the instrument came -from Bœotia. - -Flute players of ability were held in high honor; the art of flute -playing received such an impetus that different flute schools were -established in Athens; even rival methods of playing and teaching -existed.[42] - -Flutes were played in almost every place where music was required, to -accompany hymns, at worship, and even sometimes the Greeks represented -the combat of Apollo and the Python on this instrument, with kithara -accompaniment; this may be considered as the earliest “song without -words” in existence. - -The ancients had some other attempts at tone pictures. Once an Athenian -kitharist played to Dorian, a representation of a storm at sea; on being -asked how he liked it, that ancient wit answered, “I have seen a better -storm in a pot of boiling water.” This would make the origin of the -phrase “a tempest in a teapot,” over two-thousand years old. - -Sometimes all Athens was divided into cliques for this or that flute -player; and the price paid for flutes were appalling, some being sold as -high as three thousand dollars, many flute-makers becoming immensely -wealthy. - -It received a slight check however, when Alcibiades, about 409 B. C., -declined to play it, alleging as a reason, that it spoilt the shape of -the mouth. Alcibiades stood at the head of the fashion as well as of the -state, and after such a _dictum_ the _beau monde_ of Athens laid aside -the flute; but some ingenious flute maker took alarm, and invented a -mouth-piece which obviated the difficulty, and which Alcibiades found -more to his taste, on which it resumed its place in popular favor. - -In Sparta it led the chorus, and was the military instrument, but the -Spartans disdained to make it a study, and only felt bound, at this era, -to discriminate between good and bad music. - -In some Ionian cities, the human victims were led to the sacrifice, or -to their execution to the sound of flutes; and this dead march (called -the Nome of Kradias) was said to be peculiarly depressing. - -Plutarch makes a warm defence of the flute, against the criticisms of -Plato and Aristotle. “The flute” he says “cannot be spared from the -banquet, leads the hymns to the gods, and with its rich and full tones -spreads peace and tranquillity throughout the soul;” but we must -remember that this was written at a much later epoch, when flute playing -became more universal than in the days of Pericles, and when the -instrument had probably been altered and improved. - -Flute players sometimes made large fortunes. Nicomachus was known for -his wealth in jewels acquired by his skill on the instrument. - -Lamia was one of the most famous of Athenian flutists. This female was -celebrated through Greece and Egypt for her skill, as well as for her -wit and beauty. The latter was not overrated, for a portrait of her has -been discovered in a signet, which amply confirms the accounts of her -charms. Although born in Athens, she went early to Alexandria, in Egypt, -to study her art; somewhat as our modern musicians go to Italy or -Germany. She was received with open arms at the Egyptian court, and was -detained for a long time. Captured by Demetrius Polyorcetes, she soon -succeeded in conquering her conqueror, and on her return to Athens, a -temple was built to her, and she was worshipped under the name of _Venus -Lamia_. Her powerful “friend” Demetrius, may have had something to do -with this deification, but at all events, there were still left some -Greeks (Lysimachus for example) who had the manliness to protest against -the desecration, for the character of Lamia was far different from that -of Sappho. - -It was not flute players only who earned immense salaries, for we learn -that Amabœus the kitharist, received nearly one thousand dollars for -each performance, and all flute-players, and kitharists, were welcomed -and honored at the courts of Greece, Egypt and Asia. - -Ptolemy Philadelphus gave a large musical festival in Alexandria, Egypt, -about 280 B. C., at which six hundred skilled singers, kitharists and -flutists assisted; there have been larger festivals in point of numbers -in ancient times, but few, where so much educated talent assisted. -Ptolemy Physcon[43], an amiable Egyptian ruler, 146 B. C., who married -his brother’s wife, killed his baby nephew, or step-son on the wedding -day and afterwards married his niece, or step-daughter (for he made the -relationship very mixed) winding up by killing all the progeny as -_finale_, seems to have patronized and enjoyed music, in spite of his -family troubles. - -Ptolemy Auletes, 80 B. C., was known as the “flute lover,” and though -king of Egypt was yet a very skilful virtuoso on this instrument. - -We must not omit here to mention a species of Greek music which was an -outgrowth of the sacred games. - -We have already stated how great the honor of achieving a victory at -these games was considered; and it was very natural that when a whole -city celebrated with joy the triumph of one of its sons, the poets would -also sing in high strains, the praises of the successful hero. These -poems soon became a necessary adjunct to the festivities, and may be -said to form a school of their own. They were chanted by a chorus under -the direction of the composer; and although at first they may have been -spontaneous, yet afterwards they became entirely a matter of purchase. - -When a young man had carried off the victor’s wreath, he would -frequently send word at once to some famous poet-musician, to write a -chorus in his honor. Sometimes the city itself would order the poem, and -in Athens about 540 B. C., statues began to be erected to the victors -who were natives of that city.[44] Simonides, born about 556 B. C., may -be regarded as the founder of this style of composition, and he -certainly was the founder of the custom of receiving pay for laudatory -verses. - -His contemporaries sneered greatly at him for this, and Pindar proves -him to have been very avaricious, but it really seems to have been no -more than just that the poet should have been compensated for his -exertions, as he not only had to write the poetry and music for the -occasion, but also to drill the chorus and lead the singing. - -The ceremony of praise to the victor was either celebrated at the -conclusion of the games, upon the spot, or upon his return home; -sometimes also in after years, to keep alive the remembrance of past -triumphs. - -The festivities were both religious and social. They began with a -procession to the temple, after which sacrifices were offered, either in -the temple, or in the victor’s house; this was followed by a banquet, to -which came the poet with his chorus, and intoned the triumphal ode, the -latter being considered the greatest event of the occasion.[45] - -Simonides seems to have been in the market for all kinds of Epinikia, or -triumphal odes. Leophron of Rhegion, having won a race with mules at one -of these games, ordered a chorus on the subject from the poet; Simonides -felt a little indignant at the proposal and replied, curtly “I don’t -sing about mules,” but Leophron being very anxious in the matter, -offered a large price, upon which Simonides reconsidered his -determination, and wrote the ode. It began by saluting the mules in an -ingenious manner, only noticing one side of their ancestry,—“Hail! oh ye -daughters of the stormy footed horse.” - -Simonides was not wholly, however, in this lower line of poetry; he -often competed in public musical, or poetical contests, and won -fifty-six oxen and tripods by such means. Even at eighty years of age he -added another to his lengthy list of victories. He was also considered -as very learned, and was sometimes reckoned among the philosophers. - -One of his chief competitors at Athens, was Lasus of Hermione, who was a -practical and theoretical musician of some eminence. - -Among the works of Lasus, there are some which are curiously -constructed. In his hymn to Diana, and in the Centaurs, the letter S -(sigma) is entirely avoided. The flute-players who accompanied the -choruses greatly disliked the hissing sound of S. as it did not blend -easily with their playing, and it was this fact which probably led Lasus -to so curious a style of poetry. - -Among the scholars of Lasus was Pindar, (born in the spring of 522 B. -C.,) who came from a noble Theban family. Pindar’s parents were musical, -and there were several flute-players in his family, but he soon became -far more than a mere flute-player. He came to Athens, to study music, at -a very early age, for after his return to Thebes he began a further -course of studies under Corinna and Myrtis, two famous poetesses, then -in Bœotia, all of which was done before his twentieth year. - -He strove in public contests with the two latter, but always -unsuccessfully; Corinna defeated him five times, which result, Pausanius -thinks, may have been partly due to her personal charms. - -Corinna once offered to beautify Pindar’s early efforts with -mythological allusions, but on his bringing her a poem, the first six -verses of which touched on every part of Theban Mythology, she smiled -and said: “One must sow seed by handsfull, not by bagsfull.” - -Pindar’s poetic career began very early, for at twenty years old he -wrote his first Epinikion (triumphal ode), in honor of a youth of the -tribe of Aleuads.[46] His services were soon sought for throughout all -Hellas; for although he imitated Simonides in writing for hire, yet his -muse was unquestionably a nobler one, and his _Epinikia_ bear an air of -heartiness which seems to be unfeigned. His songs were bolder and truer, -and not altogether composed of flattery, and he seems to have been an -eye-witness of many of the triumphs which he describes. - -He also was engaged as poet to Hiero, of Syracuse, Alexander, (son of -Amyntas of Macedonia,) Theron of Agrigentum, Arcesilaus, King of Cyrene, -and for several free states; with the two former he was an especial -favorite, and yet his position never seemed that of a parasite, or a -courtier, for he told them the truth bluntly when occasion demanded. His -life was chiefly spent in the courts of his various royal friends. He -once resided at the court of Hiero, at Syracuse, for the space of four -years. - -He died at the advanced age of eighty years. - -The names of Simonides and Pindar may be considered as the greatest in -this branch of Greek music and poetry; and although the subjects were of -local interest only, yet Pindar has invested them with such beautiful -imagery that he has shown us (to alter the phrase of an ancient,) that -it is better to be a great man in a small art, than a small man in a -great one. - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - GREEK THEATRE AND CHORUS. - - -Among the many institutions which contributed to that polished -civilization which was the glory of ancient Greece, none were higher in -aspirations, or more prolific in results, than the Tragedies and -Comedies which were at certain intervals presented in the Theatre at -Athens. The Athenians were by this agency, brought to a cultivated -discrimination in music and poetry, and as we shall see later, the -choruses being chosen from the body of the people, and demanding an -amount of musical ability in the members, caused the study of music to -become almost a necessity to all.[47] - -In its early days the Drama, (if it be worthy of the name,) must have -been a mere masquerading on any raised platform. It had its origin in -the festivities of Dionysius (Bacchus), for at the earliest Dionysian -festivals, the populace smeared their faces in wine lees, and thus -disguised, sang choruses in honor of this god of mirth. - -In later times, linen masks were substituted, but only in the days of -Thespis, did the art assume some regular shape. - -Comedy may be said to have arisen about 562 B. C., when Susarion and -Dolon travelled around, caricaturing the vices and follies of their -time, from a rude scaffold. - -The first Tragedy was acted in Athens, by Thespis, from a wagon, in the -year 535 B. C. In the same year Thespis received a goat as reward for -playing “Alcestis” at Athens. Goats were frequently given as rewards for -this kind of composition, and the word Tragedy is derived by some, from -the words Tragos, a goat, Odé, a song, literally a “goat-song.” - -The earliest attempt at dramatic action, with a plot, or incident to -give it connection, was the representation of the gift of the grape to -mankind, by Dionysius; this required three _dramatis personae_, -therefore Thespis changed his linen mask three times. - -Solon was not well pleased with the new art; striking his stick upon the -ground he said: “If this sort of thing were allowed and praised, it -would soon be found in the market-place;” and to Thespis who was singing -a recitation in the character which he was acting, he said: “Are you not -ashamed to lie so?” - -Solon had probably forgotten that when he aroused the Athenians to the -reconquest of Salamis, he had assumed the character of a herald from the -island. Solon had predicted right however, the drama became the most -cherished institution of Greece; even in its earliest stages, the state -fostered it, and it always attracted the peons for it was both a -religious, and popular enjoyment. - -The sons of Pisistratus did much in these days to encourage and -stimulate it. They arranged contests, rewards, etc., with profusion. - -The tragedies of Thespis which he both wrote and acted himself, had but -one performer, who, rapidly changing his mask, assumed various different -characters in the play. The monotony was soon felt, and in order that -dialogues might be used, a chorus was introduced, and then much of the -action consisted of duets between the solitary performer, or -_protagonist_, and the chorus. - -Phrynicus, a few years later, allowed this single actor to take both -male and female characters; but the first thorough representation of -tragedy, with its properties carefully attended to, is due to the great -tragic poet Æschylus, who instructed the actor and the chorus carefully, -and gave attention to thoroughness in its every department so far as -then known. - -The platform and auditorium were still uncouth wooden structures, until -a poetical contest took place between Phrynicus and others, when the -benches were so crowded that the whole structure gave way and many were -injured; after this the theatres were built of stone. - -The performances were still regarded as belonging to religious rites; -the seats were at first built in a semi-circle around the altar of -Dionysius, and the theatre never became, as with us, an every-day -matter, but was only used at certain Dionysian festivals, which occurred -about three times each year. Æschylus aimed very much at the terrible in -his tragedies, and the poets of this era never sought to “hold the -mirror up to nature,” but rather to represent something awe-inspiring -and supernatural; therefore the actors had to prepare themselves in many -peculiar ways for the stage. - -The characters of tragedy were represented as much larger than human -beings; to effect this the tragedian wore a kind of stilt-shoes with -very high heels, called _cothurne_, padded out his body in proportion to -his height, lengthened his arms by adding an artificial hand, and wore a -mask of large size, over his face. The stage upon which he appeared, was -also elevated above that on which the chorus stood, and the latter not -being artificially enlarged, must have appeared as pigmies, beside these -gigantic heroes. - -The voice was pitched in a style corresponding to the magnitude of the -body; it has been suggested[48] that the large tragic mask may have -concealed some contrivance for strengthening the voice; however this may -be, it is certain that the voice of the tragedian needed to be metallic, -solemn and majestic, and that this, though partly a natural gift, had to -be strengthened by long and severe practice, and a vast amount of -physical strength was also required to move about naturally when so -extremely bundled up. - -Lucian in his “_De saltatione_,” ridicules the tragic actor’s equipment. -He says: “What a ridiculous thing it is, to see a fellow stalking around -upon a pair of high heeled boots, with a terrible mask on, and a wide -gaping mouth, as if he intended to swallow the audience,[49] not to -mention the unseemly thickness of breast and body, all of which is done -to hide the disproportion between his extravagant height, and his meagre -body. Bawling aloud, and writhing his body in a thousand odd gestures;” -and then he alludes to the better singing and acting of previous time, -“but all sense of fitness is lost,” he concludes, “when Hercules enters -singing a mournful ditty, without either lion’s skin or club.” - -With regard to the immovable mask, Ottfried Müller supposes that the -picture is overdrawn, for facial expression had far less to do with the -action of the drama of that day than we imagine; the character had not -so many changing emotions to depict, as in modern plays; he says[50] “we -can imagine an Orestes, or a Medea, with a set countenance, but never a -Hamlet or Tasso.” - -We must also remember that the vast extent of the Athenian Theatre, made -it next to impossible to distinguish much play of feature, and that the -same masks were not worn throughout the play, but changed at any great -change of emotion. Oedipus in the tragedy by Sophocles, after -misfortunes came upon him, wore a different mask from the one worn in -his days of prosperity. - -The first plays represented were relative to the history of the gods, -and demi-gods, but Phrynicus made a bold innovation by representing -contemporaneous events upon the stage. He once ventured to represent the -conquest of Miletus, from the Athenians; the effect, according to -Herodotus, was startling, the whole audience burst into tears, and the -Athenian government forbade any further plays on that subject, -prohibited the piece from ever being represented again, and fined the -poet heavily. - -The contests between rival writers, by simultaneous production of their -pieces was a fruitful source of jealousy. Æchylus upon being vanquished -in one of these by Sophocles, took his defeat so much to heart, that he -left Athens for some years, and took up his residence in Sicily. - -In the plays of Thespis and Phrynicus, one actor only was employed; -Æchylus enriched his works by adding a second performer, called the -_Deuteragonist_. Sophocles went beyond by adding the third, or -_Tritagonist_, and desired even more, for in his Oedipus in Colonus, he -found that four players were a necessity, and wrote the tragedy for that -number, but dared not publicly make the innovation, and therefore this -great work remained unperformed until after his death. - -The above mentioned three performers, had their distinct lines of duty, -as we to-day have upon the stage, actors for each kind of character, but -the distinction was carried to great height on the ancient stage, for -the first actor always came on the stage from the right entrance, the -second from the left, and the third from the centre. - -The stage of the Athenian theatre was very wide but not deep, and the -scenery was very simple; sometimes the house of the chief character was -represented, sometimes the tent of a hero, but oftenest the entrance of -a palace, before which the entire action of some dramas could take -place. They were always exterior views, and no scenes of the interior -parts of a dwelling were ever used. The whole active life of the Greek -was passed in the open air, so that it seemed more natural to him to -represent his characters as living similarly. The female characters were -often personated by boys. - -There were many expedients to make the following of the action of the -play easier to the spectators, in such a vast space; programmes they had -not, opera glasses did not exist, so certain formulae took the place of -both; when standing on the stage of the Athenian theatre, and facing the -audience, the harbor and city of Athens were on the left hand, and -Attica on the right; a person entering from the right hand, was -therefore presumed to be a stranger who had come over land; and from the -left as coming from the city. - -The stage also possessed some mechanical effects, such as chariots -descending from the skies, birds or even immense beetles soaring aloft -carrying persons with them, forms arising from the deep, thunder, -lightning, etc. The chorus was an immense help to the audience in -following the events of the piece, and we must now describe this -characteristic part of Greek tragedy. - -The dramatic chorus probably appeared first as Satyrs, the natural -attendants of the jolly god Dionysius, in the plays of Thespis, and were -then numerous and ill disciplined. - -Æchylus lessened the part of the chorus in his tragedies, and they no -longer sang an unceasing duet with the Protagonist, for the addition of -a second actor, made dialogues possible without their assistance. - -The number of _Choryeutes_ (chorus players) in Æchylus’s tragedies was -twelve; Sophocles, and Euripides had usually fifteen. - -In the tragedy of the “Eumenides” there was a special chorus of fifty -members; these were apparelled as the hideous furies of that name, all -in black, with angry countenances, snakes twining in their hair, and -blood dripping from their eyes; and suddenly these frightful apparitions -appeared on the stage: the effect was terrible, women shrieked, and fell -in convulsions, and several children died of fright. This event proves -that the stage effects were rather realistic in those days. - -The chorus was felt as an inconvenience by Euripides, who yet could not -break the shackles of custom sufficiently to do away with it. - -The arrangement of the chorus was changed when it was transplanted from -lyric to dramatic use. The dithyrambic chorus stood around an altar -singing hymns, and was wholly occupied with its music: the dramatic -chorus stood in the shape of a square, the director taking good care to -place the best dressed and handsomest choryeutes in front. - -The songs were accompanied with well regulated movements, usually of a -stately and dignified character, such as befitted the characters which -they were representing, the parts which they performed usually being -those of Matrons or Patriarchs, who were best suited to give counsel, -comfort, or admonition to the acting characters of the drama. - -The formation of choruses, was a matter of legislation. The archon of -the city, gave the task of forming the choruses, to some of the wealthy -citizens, who had the title of _Choregus_. This person was not the -chorus leader, but the founder of it. He had authority from the archon -to receive and select able singers; when he had the organization formed, -he engaged a _choryphaeus_ or director, to instruct the members in -singing and dancing; he engaged flute-players[51] to accompany them, and -paid a regular salary to them all, that of the flute-players being -higher than that of the singers. He had to board and lodge them; to -supply them with good beverages during rehearsals; to see that they -received nutritious food, and such as was good for their voices; to -supply them with masks, and costumes for their parts, and other duties -all tending to the well being of the chorus. The choregus received no -pay for this, but if in a dramatic contest his chorus was adjudged to be -the best, he received a wreath as a reward. - -Expensive as this honor was, yet it was sought after by all the richer -class of Athens, as it was an ostentatious manner of showing their -munificence, for the tragic choruses vied with each other in the -splendor of their attire, their costumes being superb mantles of gold, -and purple. So costly was it that the saying became a well known jest, -that the way to ruin a man, was to get him appointed choregus. - -The costume of the actors was also rich, without much reference to the -part they were playing. Hercules came on the stage in purple and gold -instead of with a lion’s skin. - -The poet who had just completed a tragedy, and succeeded in obtaining a -hearing for it, applied to the Archon for a chorus; that functionary, if -he had confidence in the applicant, would assign him one of the choruses -which had already been formed and on receiving the permission from the -_choregus_, the composer would set to work, drilling them in their -various songs, attitudes, and movements. The director did not use a -stick for this purpose, as in modern days, but beat the time with a -heavy pair of iron shoes which he put on for the purpose.[52] The chorus -of comedy was a less expensive and smaller affair. The music which it -sang was also less difficult and grand. - -The comedy chorus consisted of twenty-four members, who came on the -stage in detachments of six each. - -The comedy costumes of both actors and chorus were something like what -we are accustomed to see in farce or pantomime; there was something -comical and exaggerated about them, which occasioned mirth of itself. -The masks were decidedly comic, and usually caricatured the countenance -of some public person well known to the audience. The comedy, especially -in the older days that of Aristophanes sought to teach the people by -holding up to ridicule, all such persons or measures as seemed to the -poet worthy of censure; therefore it dealt almost exclusively with the -events of the day, and such characters as Alcibiades, Socrates, Cleon, -etc., are constantly appearing, and in the most mirth-provoking manner. - -It is a matter of regret, however, that Aristophanes wielded so much -influence, for he brought it to bear against Socrates, whom he was -narrow-minded enough to take as the representative of Sophistry, and -raised a popular feeling against him by his comedy of “The Clouds,” in -which he attributed the most interested motives to that grand -philosopher. - -It is unfortunate for Cleon that the caricature of Aristophanes was -accepted as a portrait, and he has come down to us only as the noisy -impudent demagogue, as portrayed in “The Knights;” yet Cleon must have -been a rough and sturdy leader of the populace, to have attained so much -power.[53] - -Aristophanes was aristocratic in his tendencies, and could not forgive -the tanner, for having risen from his humble sphere. - -It required much courage however to attack the leader of the democracy, -with such boldness. Even the mask makers refused to make the comic mask -of Cleon; and when the mask was obtained no actor dared to play the -character, so that Aristophanes was obliged to act it himself. Cleon -embroiled Aristophanes in three lawsuits in consequence of his audacity. - -The choruses of these comedies had sometimes to assume very odd parts, -as in the two comedies of the “Birds,” and the “Wasps,” where they -represented those creatures. The masks were made to correspond to the -character assumed, and in “The Wasps” each man had a short spear or -sting, which they sometimes thrust out, or drew in, and the whole chorus -would sometimes move about quickly with a buzzing noise. The wasps were -a satire upon the swarm of Athenian magistrates.[54] - -One is forcibly reminded in these plays of the recent inventions of the -French _Opera Bouffe_. - -In the later comedies, private intrigues began to form the plot, and -there was no great difference between these and the plays of modern -times. - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - THE DANCES OF ANCIENT GREECE. - - -The dances of Greece were of considerable variety, and seem to have been -both refined and coarse in their character. The earliest were probable -merely military manœuvres, which were performed to songs, or to -accompaniment of flute or kithara: or festival dances at the -Bacchanalian or Dionysian revels. The chief dances may be classed as the -Pyrrhic, the Cordax, and the Emmeleia. - -The chorus itself, in very early times, was, in some parts of Greece -only used to heighten the effect of a solo song, by its pantomimic -dancing. - -In Crete, youths and maidens joined hands and danced in a circle; in the -centre of such a circle sat the musician, who sang to the accompaniment -of a kithara, while the chorus expressed by their actions, _not by -singing_, the various emotions which he chanted. - -The Pyrrhic, or war dance, was the pride of all Greece, and all young -men studied it. - -In Sparta there was a law that all parents should send their sons, above -the age of five years, to the public place, to have them instructed in -the armed dance; on these occasions they were led by the teachers who -made them sing hymns, etc., as they danced. The Pyrrhic was in fact, a -mock battle, in four parts, representing the pursuit, overtaking, -combat, and capture of the enemy, and was used as drill, to make young -men proficient in the use of their weapons; it was accompanied by flute, -which instrument was the one which the Greeks thought aroused the -energies most. - -The origin of the Pyrrhic is given as follows,—When Zeus, (Jupiter) was -born, his father Kronos, (Saturn) knowing that he should be dethroned by -him sought his life; he was hidden by the Corybantes, who on Kronos’ -coming near, fearing that the child would be discovered by its crying, -began to dance about, and clashed their swords and shields, thus -drowning its voice and saving its life. - -Dancing was equal, and often combined, with singing, and was held in the -highest estimation by the upper classes, and even the philosophers of -ancient Greece; though of course only in its higher branches, the lower -being usually abandoned to paid performers, as we to-day draw a wide -distinction between a fashionable ball-room dance, and a ballet, though -both are called dancing. - -Skill in dancing, was a most envied accomplishment, for it meant both -grace, and the talent of expressing all emotions without words. - -Lucian[55] says the real art of the dance is to express an action, and -gives a long list of mythological and historical deeds which were suited -to representation. “The dancer” he says “must understand history, -mythology, rhetoric,” etc. - -One person performed the whole dance, no matter how many characters were -included in the action, and therefore he had to change his dress -sometimes with much rapidity. The Proteus of the fables, is imagined to -have been only a dancer skilled in sudden changes. - -The philosophers not only praised, but practised the art. Plato led a -chorus of dancing boys; and considered those to be rough, uncouth churls -who disliked so pleasant a gift of the gods.[56] - -Alcibiades danced in public, arrayed in great splendor. Sophocles was a -celebrated dancer, and leader of dancing; while yet a boy, after the -Greek victory at Salamis, he is said to have danced (according to some, -naked) before the trophies. - -Socrates often entertained his guests with dancing, and studied it -himself at an advanced age.[57] - -Exact information respecting the dance is lacking, some commentators -deeming it to have been very like our modern ballet, others maintaining -that there was a vast difference; Czerwinski and Wieland hold the former -opinion, and to all appearance justly. Some erudite writers have -endeavored to give the most circumstantial accounts of the ancient -manner of dancing. - -Meibomius, one of the earliest writers on this subject, endeavored to -dance an ancient Greek dance to an ancient Greek tune, before the court -of Sweden, and Scaliger in the sixteenth century danced the Pyrrhic -dance fully armed, before the Emperor Maximilian;[58] both assumed far -too much knowledge in the matter. - -There were undoubtedly numerous dancing schools, and possibly also some -set figures prescribed in certain dances, but these figures had no names -attached to them, and cannot be determined with certainty. The time was -marked as in chorus, by a leader, tapping on the floor with heavy iron -shoes. There are indications that a dance similar to the Virginia reel, -and other contra dances were known to them; also a dance which resembled -the game of “follow-my-leader,” where all imitated the postures and -gestures of a leader. - -Many variations were allowed; Cleisthenes having promised the hand of -his daughter to the most successful dancer among her lovers, -Hippoclides, of Athens, tried an innovation on the usual style; having -danced the Emmeleia, or tragic dance successfully, he ordered the -attendants to bring him a table, upon which he sprang, and standing on -his head gesticulated with _his legs_. Cleisthenes indignant at this new -departure, exclaimed “Oh son of Tisander you have undanced your -marriage;” Cleisthenes caring more for his skill than for his marriage, -replied “that is perfectly immaterial to me.” - -The Emmeleia, was the stately dance belonging to tragedy, and was the -one most practised by the poets of that time, as they were often obliged -to teach it to the chorus, thus adding the business of dancing master, -to their already numerous duties. - -The Sicinis was a dance of demi-gods, and was suited to the immense -figure of the heroes of tragedy, already described. There was also a -dance representing Theseus wandering about in the labyrinth, the figures -of which must have been very twisted and irregular. - -There was a species of dancing at banquets and revels, by paid female -performers, at which the shape and form of the dancer were as lavishly -displayed as in the modern ballet.[59] - -The Cordax, or comic dance was throughout vulgar and unseemly, and no -Athenian could dance it unmasked, without bringing down upon himself the -reproach of the greatest impudence and immodesty. It was so outrageous -that the comic poets often tried to do without it. Aristophanes, in “The -Clouds” prides himself that he does not use it in that comedy. The -_cordax_ was a dance wherein the utmost vulgarity was not only allowed -but _demanded_.[60] - -Lucian in his treatise “_de Saltatione_” intimates the existence of -various other dances which in his day had fallen into desuetude, as the -dance of the _Cranes_; also the Phrygian dance, which was only to be -danced when the performers were drunk, and jumped about, with uncouth -irregular leaps to the music of the flute. - -Lucian also gives a specimen of the raillery of the people, when the -dancer was not suited to the part; when a small person undertook to act -Hector, they would call out, “we want Hector, not Astyanax.” To a fat -dancer, on making a leap they called “be careful, you’ll break the -stage;” and to a lean, sickly looking dancer they cried “go home, and -nurse yourself, never mind dancing.” Such little remarks are not -unsuited to the _gamins_ of the New York or London theatres. - -We have dwelt rather long upon Greek Music, Theatre Chorus, and Dancing, -but the subject has more than usual interest, as in the Greek art, of -all descriptions, we find the seeds from whence has sprung our own. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII. - ANCIENT ROMAN MUSIC. - - -Art-love was not a distinguishing characteristic of the ancient Romans, -and we are not astonished therefore, to find them borrowing music from -Etruria, Greece, and Egypt; originating nothing, and (although the study -was pursued by the Emperors) never finding anything higher in its -practice than a sensuous gratification. - -In the earliest days of Rome, the inhabitants were exclusively farmers, -or warriors, and their first temples were raised to Ceres, or to Mars. - -The priests of Ceres came originally from Asia Minor, and were called -the Arval Brotherhood; flute-playing was a prominent feature in their -rites, and they were all proficient upon that instrument. Their number -was limited to twelve. - -The worship of Mars was conducted by the Salian priests, whom Numa -summoned to Rome, from Etruria. These also used the flute as an -accessory to their sacrificial rites. In these primitive days of Rome, -much was borrowed from the Etruscans, in style and instruments of music. - -The earliest songs of Rome were in praise of Romulus, and told the story -of the twin brothers, and the divine origin of the city. They were sung -by choruses of boys. Similar songs were sung during meals by the elders, -with an accompaniment of flutes; these latter songs being especially -directed to the young men and inciting them to be worthy of the deeds of -their ancestors.[61] - -Under the rule of the Emperors, all these worthy compositions went to -decay, and were replaced by a much more degrading school of music. At no -time, however, was music considered a necessary part of the education of -Roman youth. - -There existed in the later days of ancient Rome, some music schools, but -the study was far less universally pursued, than in Greece, at the same -epoch. The musical course, has been given by Quintilian, as follows,— - - Theoretical - 1st - Arithmetic - Physics - 2nd - Harmony - Rhythm - Metrics - Practical - Composition - Rhythm - Melody - Poetry - Execution - Playing Instruments - Singing - Dramatic Action - -Which makes a rather formidable array, even to modern eyes. - -Among the Roman musical instruments, the flute was the most popular, and -essentially national. We have already stated, that it was used in the -worship of their two chief deities; it was in secular use to a yet -greater extent. - -This flute (Tibia) was hooped with brass bands, and had an immense -resonance. It was used by both sexes, but in public, and on most -religious occasions, was played by men. - -The frequency with which it was used, made the art of playing it, a most -remunerative one, and the flute-players soon formed themselves into a -guild, or protective society. This guild had many privileges accorded to -it, and existed for a period of some centuries. The “Guild of Dionysian -Artists” was a society of later date, and was a Musical Conservatory, -Academy, and Agency all in one. It flourished greatly under the -patronage of various Roman Emperors, and for a long time supplied -singers and actors to the Roman world. - -Valerius Maximus[62] has given an anecdote which shows how powerful, and -exacting the Guild of flute-players could afford to be. - -They were one day excluded from the Temple of Jupiter, where they had -been allowed, by ancient custom, to take their meals; upon which the -entire Guild left Rome, and went to the village of Tibur near by. This -caused great embarrassment, no religious services could be held, and -scarce any state ceremony properly conducted. The senate thereupon sent -an embassy to induce them to return; in vain, the angry musicians were -inflexible. The wily embassadors then called the inhabitants of Tibur to -their aid, and these pretended to give a great feast, to welcome the -flute-players. At this feast, the musicians were all made very drunk, -and while asleep from the effects of their liquor, they were bundled -into chariots and driven back to Rome, where all their old privileges -were restored, and newer, and greater ones added. - -They received the right to give public representations, and spectacles, -in Rome; but at these they were always masked, the reason given, being -their shame at the manner of their inglorious return to the city. - -Flutes were used at funerals, and it appears that at one time the luxury -and pomp of Roman obsequies grew so excessive that a law was passed -limiting the number of flute-players on such occasions to ten. - -Only at one time did the flute disappear from any public worship, and -that was when the worship of Bacchus was introduced into Rome. To this -rite the kithara was used; but this worship which was somewhat refined, -though jovial, among the Greeks, became among the Romans so debauched -and uxorious, that it was soon prohibited by law. - -The flute was used in combination with other instruments at times. -Apuleius speaks of a concert of flutes, kitharas and chorus, and -mentioned its deliciously sweet effect. It was also used as a pitch -pipe, to give orators a guide in modulating their voices when addressing -an assembly; thus Caius Gracchus always on such occasions, had a slave -behind him, whose duty it was to aid him to commence his orations in a -proper pitch, and when his voice sank too low, or became too shrill, to -call him to better intonation by the sounds of the flute. - -Although the flute was the favorite Roman instrument, it was by no means -the only one. Trumpets were used to a great extent. A one-toned trumpet -of very loud voice, was used for battle signals. These were of very -large size, usually of brass, and their sound is described as -“terrible.” There was also a smaller, shepherd’s trumpet of mellower -tone. - -Another much used instrument, of peculiar character, was the -_sumphonium_ which did not differ materially from the modern -bag-pipe.[63] - -Instruments of percussion, were few, and not indigenous to the Romans; -such as were used came from the East, and were chiefly used in the -worship of Eastern deities, at Rome. When the worship of Bacchus was -prohibited, they passed away, with that licentious rite. The most -complicated instrument of the ancient world, appeared in Rome during the -first century of our era. It was an _Organ_, not as in the scriptural -days a mere syrinx, or Pans-pipes, but an undoubted organ somewhat -similar in its effect to our modern instrument. - -The instrument is said to have been invented by Ctesebius of Alexandria, -in Egypt, who lived about 250 B. C. They did not appear extensively in -Rome however, until nearly 300 years later. This organ has given rise to -much fruitless discussion. In the field of musical history especially, -“a little knowledge” has proved “a dangerous thing,” for where slight -descriptions exist of instruments or music, latitude is left for every -writer to form his own theory, to fight for it, and denunciate those who -differ from it. - -We have seen what a battle was fought over the three little manuscripts -of Greek music, what a host of differing opinions were held about the -Scriptural word “Selah,” and now about this hydraulic organ, each writer -mounts his hobby horse, and careers over the field of conjecture. -Vitruvius, has given a full description of the instrument from personal -inspection, but as his technical terms have lost all significance to -modern readers, and have been translated in various ways, and as his -work contained no diagrams, or illustrations of the various parts, it is -useless. - -Some writers[64] imagine the organ to have had seven or eight stops, -that is, so many different _kinds_ of tones, which would place them -nearly on a par with our own. Others[65] think that they possessed seven -or eight _keys_, that is so many _tones_ only. It has been a point of -dispute as to what function the water performed in working it. Vitruvius -is rather hazy on this point, saying only that it is “suspended” in the -instrument. The water, when the organ was played was in a state of -agitation, as if boiling. - -There are medals still in existence, which were awarded to victors in -organ contests, on which this instrument is represented, with two boys -blowing or pumping, but the representation is too small to clear up any -doubtful points. - -So much is certain, the organs were very powerful in tone, being -therefore the instruments best adapted to the large amphitheatres of -Rome, and were extremely popular, for it was complained that young men -forsook their other studies to learn to play them. The only possibility -yet remaining that their construction may be known to us, is in the -chance of discovering one in Pompeii.[66] - -The functions of music in Rome were similar, though in a less degree, to -its uses in Greece. At the sacrifice, the banquet, the contest, and the -theatre, music was always an important adjunct. Prophets sometimes -inspired themselves by it, as in the east. - -There were various games, public and private, at which competition in -music took place. But it was not, as in Greece, an art of simplicity and -feeling; the love of the extraordinary, the colossal and _outre_, the -desire for the most vulgar modes and excess of obscenity, soon degraded -the art from the rude simplicity it possessed in the days of the -republic.[67] - -This desire for colossal effects was apparent in the Roman games. Seneca -says that in Nero’s time, the chorus was more numerous than formerly the -whole audience. Hosts of trumpeters, flute-players, etc., crowded the -stage. It is also well illustrated in the splendor of the Triumph. - -Triumphs were of two kinds, the lesser of which was called _Ovatio_, and -was decreed for unimportant or easily-gained victories. - -The grand Triumph (for important victories) was the highest military -honor that could be bestowed. - -When it had been decreed by the Senate, the victorious General entered -Rome by the triumphal gate, where he was met by a procession of the -entire Senate; here he gave an oration in praise of the valor of his -army, and entering his triumphal chariot, the procession began. The -order was as follows:— - -Musicians, singing and playing. These were chiefly trumpeters, and the -singers chanted triumphal songs. - -The Senate and Magistrates. - -The animals for the sacrifice, usually oxen, with their horns gilt, and -decked with garlands, accompanied by the priests. - -Music, flute players, to assist at the sacrificial rites. - -Wagons, filled with statues, plate, armor, ensigns, etc., the spoil -captured from the enemy. - -The tribute from various countries, usually golden crowns, or ornaments -sent to grace the occasion. - -The captive leaders, kings, or generals, with their wives, in chains. - -Lictors with the fasces twined with laurel. - -Musicians and dancers dressed as Satyrs, crowned with gold. In the midst -of these was a mimic, dressed as a female, who by his performance and -gestures, insulted and burlesqued the captives. - -Persons sprinkling perfumes. - -The victorious general, dressed in purple and gold, crowned with laurel; -he was seated in a circular chariot, drawn by four white horses. In his -right hand he held a branch of laurel, in his left an ivory sceptre, -surmounted by an eagle. His face was painted of a vermilion color, and a -golden _bulla_ hung from his neck. - -Sometimes the chariot was drawn by elephants. - -The children of the victor were allowed to ride with him, and he was -attended by many relatives and citizens dressed in white. Behind him -stood a slave carrying a richly gemmed crown, whose duty it was to -admonish him constantly during the triumph, by whispering in his ear, -“Remember that thou art a man.” - -The Military Tribunes followed, and the procession closed with,— - -The whole army, horse and foot, crowned with laurel, and carrying -various ornaments which they had won in the war. - -They sang as they marched, the praises of their general, and of their -own bravery; but sometimes (for it was a day of license and carnival) -they sang the coarsest ribaldry and jokes concerning their leader; thus -the army of Julius Cæsar, sang some very personal and vulgar verses -about him, at his triumph. - -The procession moved from the _Porta Triumphalis_, along the _Via Sacra_ -to the capitol. - -All the shops were closed, the temples all open. The buildings along the -route were decorated. Stands and scaffoldings were erected for the -convenience of spectators. Banquets were spread before every house, to -which all comers were welcome. It was in short a perfect carnival, but -far exceeding in its proportions that of modern Rome. - -When the procession arrived at the Temple of Jupiter at the Capitol, -several of the captive leaders were taken from the ranks, and put to -death, for ancient Rome was cruel even in her rejoicings; the oxen were -also sacrificed, and the wreaths, with which their horns were decorated, -were thrown into the lap of Jupiter’s statue. - -In the evening there was a grand banquet to the victorious General -(Imperator), after which he was escorted to his home with music and -song. - -Nothing better illustrates the cruel, coarse, and sensual character of -Roman music than that employed at such a triumph. Loud trumpet tones, a -vile and ungenerous musical pantomime, the sacrificial music, and rude -impromptu songs of the soldiery were the chief musical accessories of -the greatest popular festival. - - - - - CHAPTER IX. - MUSIC OF THE ROMAN THEATRE. - - -In Rome as in ancient Greece there was a school of music, which was -devoted to the stage; but it was not held in such high esteem, nor was -it the work of the poet to supply it. - -In the French _operas bouffes_ of our day we find the libretto and music -to be the work of different persons, and in this respect the Roman -comedies resembled them, save that while we rank the music above the -text, the Romans valued the words far more than the music; but in other -respects there was also much resemblance between the Roman tragedies and -modern _Opera Seria_. They divided the music into parts, such as -dialogues or duets, solos, and choruses. - -Cicero says that a connoisseur could instantly determine by the style of -the music alone, what tragedy was being performed; this would indicate -an amount of tone-painting, which justifies our comparison of the Roman -with the modern stage. - -The theatres were, as usual, of immense size. The Emperor Trajan built -an Odeum, or music hall, of which Apollodorus was the architect, which -was capable of seating twelve thousand spectators. These structures were -usually built of stone, and in the most thorough manner; there is -however one notable exception to the rule. In the reign of Tiberius an -amphitheatre erected by Atilius at Fidenæ, fell in during a gladiatorial -contest, and twenty thousand persons lost their lives.[68] - -The music of the stage, tended rather to virtuosity than to real beauty, -the natural result being, that while Rome possessed many skillful -performers, she had no musical composers of eminence.[69] The names of -the composers of music to the comedies of Terence and Plautus are still -extant, but they seem to have enjoyed no special renown. - -Quintilian speaks of the weak and womanish music of the stage, and -Martial in satirizing the Gaditanian female singers which were so much -sought for in the later days of ancient Rome, says, that it was the -surest sign of a fashionable dandy, to hear a young man trilling out the -latest Gaditanian ditties. - -Many of the theatrical performers and singers were slaves, who were -bought for the purpose, and the most stringent and cruel measures were -taken to prevent them from ruining their voices by any kind of -debauchery. Theatrical factions also existed for this or that singer, in -which at times many lives were lost.[70] Laws were afterwards enacted, -to guard against such riots. - -Another and less tolerable branch of Roman public musical diversion was -the dance, which although most skillfully performed by talented -pantomimists, was so indecent in its general character, and choice of -subjects, that it received strong condemnation from many writers of that -day. - -Many anecdotes remain, showing how well acted this art must have been. - -Demetrius, the cynic (in the reign of Nero) having reproached a dancer, -that his art was but an adjunct to music, the performer caused the -musical accompanists to cease playing, and enacted the subject of Mars -and Venus without music, and in such a manner that Demetrius was obliged -to retract, and said, “Even your hands seem to speak.”[71] - -The professional dancers, or musical pantomimists, were most appreciated -under the luxurious reign of the Cæsars. A prince of Pontus once came to -the court of Nero, where he was royally entertained; as he did not -understand the Latin language, he could not appreciate theatrical -representations, but a celebrated dancer appearing, he was able to -understand his actions from beginning to end. On his departure, when -Nero had given him presents, he said “If instead, you would give me this -dancer, it would be the greatest favor of all;” on being asked the -reason, he replied that he had many barbarian neighbors, whose language -he did not understand, and that such an unfailing interpreter would be -of incalculable value to him.[72] - -We can learn how much these performers entered into their acting by the -following anecdote. A dancer once acting the part of Ajax, in a double -character dance, became so frenzied, that he tore the clothes off from -the time-beater, (or conductor of music) seized the flute of the -accompanist and broke it over the head of Ulysses. The better class of -spectators condemned such a novel exhibition, but the lower orders -applauded vociferously. The performer afterwards became calm again, but, -on being desired to repeat the performance, he replied that it was -sufficient for a man to make a fool of himself _once_.[73] - -The dance in Rome was esteemed only as an amusement and sensual -enjoyment, and was not studied by the respectable classes, save -sometimes in connection with singing, in which case it was not driven to -such excess as the pantomime dance described above; but neither song, -instruments, or dance were studied to any large extent among the masses -of the Roman people. - - - - - CHAPTER X. - MUSIC OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. - - -Under the luxurious reign of the Cæsars, music attained unusual -prominence in Rome, but it was still the music of virtuosity, rather -than true art. Skillful performers multiplied, while talented composers -did not exist. The choruses were augmented to the utmost, their numbers -exceeding all previous extent.[74] New instruments began also to appear, -the sumphonia, the hydraulic organ, and others. The study of music began -to be fashionable (in some at least of its branches) and the emperors -themselves did not disdain to practise the art. It is a singular fact, -however, that exactly those emperors who were the greatest rascals, took -the greatest interest in music. Domitian founded games in honor of -Jupiter, in which he introduced Kithara playing and other musical -contests to amuse the populace. Heliogabalus sang, danced, played the -flute, organ, and pandura, and was proficient in giving musical -recitations with flute accompaniment. Caligula studied singing and -dancing, and was so fond of the former, that when at the theatre, he -could scarcely ever refrain from following the melodies which the -tragedians sang, by humming along with them. It is related of him,[75] -that during the height of his power and tyranny, he sent, one night, a -summons to three men of consular rank, to attend him at once at his -palace; in fear and terror, the three hastened to obey, scarcely -doubting that the night was to be their last on earth; on arriving, they -were most agreeably surprised to hear the sound of flutes, and the -emperor himself suddenly burst out before them, arrayed in full -theatrical costume, and sang them a song, after which he bowed and -retired, upon which they were dismissed, and returned to their anxious -families; we can imagine that, under the circumstances, Caligula -received very hearty applause that night. - -Vespasian established musical games, and gave large sums to actors and -singers.[76] - -Titus was a good singer and player. - -In the later days of paganism, when the music of the Christian church -had already manifested its power and superiority, the Emperor Julian -endeavored to bolster up the religion of the ancestors, and fight the -church with one of its own weapons. He therefore sought to make an -extensive reform in the religious and sacrificial music. He endeavored -to form music schools at Alexandria, in Egypt, where a new school of -singing and composition might be inculcated, and whence Rome might draw -the material for a better religious music than had formerly obtained. In -one of his letters, he says: “I deem no study more worthy of attention -than good music. I desire that you select from among the population of -Alexandria certain well born lads, who shall be supplied each with two -Egyptian artabai per month, besides rations of corn, wine and oil, and -be provided also with clothes by the comptroller of the treasury. The -boys are to be chosen for a definite time according to their voice. -Should any give promise of further abilities to reach a high degree in -the science of music, let them be informed that we propose to offer to -such, very substantial rewards. That the minds of these lads will, -independently of our encouragement, be benefited by that cleansing power -which perfect music exerts, we may rest assured on the authority of -those who in past times have laid down excellent regulations on the -subject. So much for the new choristers. As for those now under the -instruction of the music master Dioscurus, make them act here all the -more diligently to their practice. Since we are prepared to assist them -in whatever way they may choose.”[77] - -This beautiful scheme was frustrated by the death of its great -originator, about two years afterward. - -But among all the Roman Emperors, none was a more passionate virtuoso, -and devotee of skillful music than that incomprehensible monster, Nero. -We shall enter into considerable detail regarding this curious emperor, -as he may stand as a type (although an exaggerated one) of the soulless -and sensual musical _virtuosi_ of his era. In giving his history (so far -as it relates to music) we follow mainly the version of Suetonius. - -He studied music in his early youth, and first appeared publicly in the -games of the Roman youth, entitled the _Juvenalia_;[78] here he seems to -have made no remarkable impression, either by his voice or dramatic -action. Immediately on his accession to the throne, he sent for the -famous harper Terpnus, and took the greatest pleasure in his -performances; it was his habit to sit with him after supper till late -into the night. At last he began to practice upon the instrument -himself; and at the same time he began to apply himself assiduously to -the cultivation of his voice, although it is the testimony of all his -historians, that his voice was rather thin and husky. - -The care he lavished upon the preservation of his voice, far out-does -that of any modern _prima donna_; he would lie on his back during part -of each day, with a sheet of lead on his stomach, or chest; he used -emetics and clysters copiously when it seemed at all out of order; his -food was always regulated with reference to its effect upon his voice, -and he forbore from eating many fruits and pickles, because they were -prejudicial to it. - -He never delivered any addresses to his army because he feared that he -might thereby strain it; all his speeches to the soldiers were delivered -by proxy, even though he were present. On all occasions, he had his -voice-master by him, to caution him whenever he should be in danger of -over-straining, and this instructor was ordered, if the warning should -by any cause be unheeded, to clap a napkin upon his mouth by way of -enforcing his advice. Through the whole reign of this emperor however, -there was never less misery than while he was applying himself to his -musical education, or was upon his musical tours. - -Encouraged by the improvement (real or imagined) in his voice, he became -desirous of appearing upon the public stage. The unjust valuation which -he placed upon the art, being apparent by his remark that “music -unheard, was valueless and unregarded.” - -His first public appearance took place at Naples, A. D. 63; while -singing, the theatre was shaken by an earthquake, but Nero was not to be -checked, even by the elements, and sang to the end of his song.[79] -After the theatre had been vacated, it fell in; and Nero composed -lengthy hymns to the gods for his escape.[80] - -On his return to Rome he was desirous of showing his skill in that -metropolis; at first he only sang to select audiences of friends at his -own palace, but infatuated with the applause of this flattering circle, -he was only too glad to follow their suggestion that such a fine voice -should not be hidden. - -He instituted games in his own honor, entitled the _Neronia_, which were -celebrated in imitation of the Greek sacred games, every fifth year; at -these games he had introduced contests of flute and organ-players; he -was too impatient to wait until the allotted interval should have -expired, but ordered that the games should be celebrated in advance of -their accustomed time, and placed his name on the list of musical -competitors;[81] the Senate sought to avert such a disgrace, by offering -to decree the victory to him, without requiring him to compete, but Nero -answered, that he stood in no need of favor or protection; that he -depended entirely upon himself and upon his own merits; that he would -fairly enter the lists, and that the decision should come from the -judges.[82] When his name was called, he came on in his regular turn, -attended by a suite of high military officials, one of whom bore his -harp. After taking his place he announced that he would sing the story -of Niobe; this he did, and kept it up for hours, but at the conclusion -he (suddenly changing from singer to emperor) deferred the awards of the -judges for one year, as this afforded him an opportunity to appear again -in that time. - -The people gave on this occasion immense applause, but whether they were -most pleased by the music, or by the novelty of the whole affair, is -doubtful. - -But Nero could not wait even the exceptionally short time which he had -set, and appeared at numerous private shows, which were given from time -to time by private individuals of wealth and station. For these -performances he was glad to be offered compensation, not from any -avaricious motive, but because it stamped him as a thorough and -professional artist; of course many courtiers took advantage of this -foible and were very glad to pay him a princely _honorarium_. He was -offered on one occasion 1,000,000 sesterces for one appearance; this sum -being equivalent to $37,500 puts the enormous salaries of the modern -prima donna to the blush. - -He sometimes sang for two or three days in the same place, only pausing -occasionally to take refreshments and recuperate, and seldom was any -song of his less than a day in length. - -This in itself might have been an easily-avoided bore under ordinary -circumstances, but he prevented the possibility of a decreasing -audience, by posting sentinels at the doors, and forbidding all egress. -We can judge of the terrible dullness of these occasions by the fact -that some spectators, at times, jumped from the windows, at the risk of -their limbs, while others feigned death and were carried out for -burial.[83] - -There were spies scattered through the audience, and any inattention to -the emperor’s singing was dangerous. The soldiers chastised every one -who did not applaud properly. If any of the lower classes presumed to -give adverse criticism, they were summarily dealt with, while those of -the upper rank who showed their weariness, were marked out for future -vengeance. The emperor had in reality the life of any subject in his -power, while seemingly only exerting legal authority; for he had -hundreds of informers, spies and perjurers about his court who could -fasten any charge on any person however high in station, and the -awe-struck senate was always ready to condemn. Many when charged with -any crime by the emperor’s minions, at once committed suicide as the -shortest way out of the scrape. - -Among those who fell under Nero’s displeasure for not appreciating his -music, was the future emperor Vespasian, who during one of the songs, -fell fast asleep. Nero was with difficulty persuaded to spare his life, -but finally contented himself with banishing him from the court. The -scene must have been to some extent, ludicrous, when these poor, bored -victims of the emperor-musician, applauding vehemently, cried out for -more. Yet the applause did not always fall in the right place, and to -obviate this difficulty, the emperor formed a corps of _claquers_ or -professional applauders, whose duty it was to lead, and direct the -applause at the proper moments. This army of _claquers_ consisted of -many fashionable young men, and five thousand commoners. They could -easily be distinguished by their elegant attire and curled locks. - -The system pursued was similar to that at present used in some of the -Parisian theatres; there was one chief, or leader, and several deputy -commanders; the force was divided into small parties, and mingled among -the _bona fide_ audience, and at a signal from their chief, there would -be applause of the required kind. - -Nero lavished large sums on this _corps_, and was ever susceptible of -flattery to his musical talents: on some Alexandrians singing some -verses in his praise, he was so elated that he sent to Alexandria for -more singers and conferred many benefits upon them. - -Once while singing in the Roman theatre, in the character of Orestes, -the murderer of his mother (which he certainly ought to have acted well, -for Nero killed his own mother) he came on the stage loaded with chains, -on which a young soldier rushed on the stage to deliver him; this -compliment to the reality of his acting was specially grateful to Nero. - -The passion for acting and singing were with him almost monomania; -during the immense conflagration of Rome, which he himself had kindled, -(and which burned for six days and seven nights) he stood upon the tower -of Mecaenas, and was so impressed with the spectacle, that he hastened -to his theatre, put on the appropriate costume, and sang “The -Destruction of Troy:” hence the proverb “Nero fiddled while Rome was -burning,” which might run more appropriately “Nero sang because Rome was -burning,” for it was not callousness, as has been implied, but rather -the reverse of it; a venting of the emotions caused by the grandeur of -the spectacle. - -That he had implicit belief in his musical powers, there can be no -manner of doubt, for he had thoughts of possibly using it as a -profession; it had been foretold that the time should come when he would -be forsaken by all; on which he replied to the soothsayer “an artist can -gain his livelihood in any country.” - -In Greece at the public games, the musical contests were still an -important feature,[84] and the cities where they were celebrated, -hearing of Nero’s vanity in music, sent envoys to him with several -golden crowns, as tribute to his abilities in the art; Nero was -gratified beyond measure, and said that the Greeks had the only proper -appreciation of music. He gave a sumptuous supper to the envoys, after -which they begged that they might be permitted to hear that divine -voice; Nero, nothing loth, consented, and as might be expected the -Greeks went into ecstasies of applause. This determined Nero to make a -musical tour through Greece, and attend the sacred games there. - -He started on his journey with a vast retinue, among which were the -entire force of _claquers_. Arriving in Greece he ordered the games -which did not fall in that year, to be celebrated out of course, and -also, contrary to all precedent, established musical contests at the -Olympic games, that he might have the honor of appearing in them.[85] - -At these games, he appeared with all his enforced boredom, none being -allowed to leave the theatre, during his performances. The anxiety and -earnestness he displayed in these contests are almost incredible. He -bribed better artists to allow him to win, and he would address the -judges, telling them that he had made all study and preparation, and -taken all the care necessary for so important a contest, but the issue -was in their hands, he hoped therefore they would not regard any purely -accidental mishaps. The judges would thereupon mildly encourage the -timid contestant. - -He always adhered strictly to the rules imposed upon the contestants; he -would never spit, or wipe the perspiration from his forehead; once on -dropping his staff, he was greatly alarmed lest the accident should lose -him the prize, but was reassured by one of the contestants who told him -that he was sure that the judges had not perceived the occurrence; after -the conclusion of his song, he fell on his knees, stretching out his -hands in humble supplication for the verdict of the judges. But when the -victory was awarded to him, (as it was always sure to be) his humility -was thrown to the winds; he then caused his own heralds to proclaim him -as the victor, and soon set up statues of himself in the various cities, -with laudatory inscriptions, according to the custom of Greece. Not -content however, with this, he also caused the statues of all previous -victors to be pulled down and thrown in the sewers. - -He took the prize (of course) in every Greek contest in which he -participated. Competition was freely invited, though not as freely -tolerated. - -In one of the Grecian contests a musician entered the lists against him, -who was very proud of his skill, and could not be bought; he contested -the prize so obstinately and skilfully, that Nero’s soldiers also -entered the contest by driving him to the wall, and killing him in sight -of the audience;[86] the prize was awarded to Nero. - -His return from the tour was made with grand pomp; on reaching Naples, -he had a breach made in the walls (according to Greek custom) and made -his triumphal entry into the city, through it. In the same manner he -entered Rome and Antium. In Rome he arrogated to himself a full triumph, -and entered in state; all his prizes to the number of eighteen hundred -were placed in chariots, and appeared in the procession, each one -bearing an inscription as to where and when it was won. Statues were set -up, and medals struck in honor of his unprecedented musical success. -From this time forward, until his death he did not abate in his musical -studies or ardor. - -Towards the close of his reign, he took much interest in the water -organ, of which we have previously given a description. - -When his affairs were at a crisis, soon to be followed by his death, he -still gave most of his time to his favorite study. One day when -messengers first brought to him the tidings of a new rebellion, it is -related that he spent a few moments in consultation about these -momentous state affairs, and the rest of the day in showing to his -courtiers some new organs which he said he intended shortly to introduce -into the theatre. - -When apprised of the fact that the legions of Julius Vindex had -mutinied, and that that able general had also declared against him, he -was sufficiently aroused to march against him, but, ever a maniac on the -subject of music, he declared that he intended to do nothing but appear -in the camp of the rebellious legions, and weep and sing to them -pathetic songs, which should so affect them that they would at once -return to their allegiance; the next day after the bloodless victory he -promised to appear and sing songs of triumph in the theatre; and he -thought it well that composers should begin to write the triumphal odes -at once. - -In preparing for the expedition, his chief care was not for instruments -of war, but to provide safe carriage for his musical instruments; many -wagons were filled with these, as he took along several water organs. -But the expedition never took place, and he never had the chance of -testing the effects of pathetic music upon the Roman legions, for all -the army declared against him and he suddenly found himself deserted by -his court, and proscribed by the senate. In his downfall nothing hurt -him more than that his enemies spoke of him as “that pitiful harper,” -and he constantly appealed to his attendants if any could excel him in -the art. - -He at this crisis made a vow that, if his reign continued peaceably, he -would appear in the games he intended to give in honor of his success -against the insurgents, and play the water organ, flute and sumphonia, -as well as enact a play, and dance; but these inflictions the Roman -people were spared. - -In one night his seemingly strong power vanished, and he was compelled -to fly for his life, attended only by three or four persons. Having made -his way to the suburban residence of Phaon, one of his freedmen, it was -soon apparent that he could not escape, and that he must die, either by -the hands of the infuriated Romans, or by his own. Weeping and sobbing, -while his attendants prepared his grave, almost his last words before -his suicide were “Alas! what an artist the world is now to lose,” thus -in his latest moments, keeping up that egotism and infatuation for music -which had been one of his ruling characteristics through life. - -The musical side of Nero’s character is certainly to some extent -ludicrous, but there were other and far darker sides to his hideous -character. These of course are not within our province to dwell upon, -but we have chosen to give a full description of his musical life that -the reader may clearly see how little of true art, or love of art could -have existed in so oppressive an atmosphere. - - - - - CHAPTER XI. - HISTORY OF CHINESE MUSIC.[87] - - -In Brande’s dictionary of arts and sciences, under the head of “Chinese -music,” the whole fabric of Chinese music is swept away in one short -sentence, at the close of which, the compiler curtly says,—“We ought, -perhaps to apologize for saying _so much_ of it.” - -No right minded and just reader will echo so flippant an opinion; a -nation which more than four thousand years ago, had studied music as an -abstract science and which understood the laws of musical proportion -centuries before Pythagoras was born, certainly deserves more than a -passing notice from the musical historian, no matter how barbarous its -present music may seem. - -The Chinese life and character, while apparently full of fancy, is in -reality quite emptily rational and pragmatic. In all the scientific -facts relating to music, the Chinese made early and thorough -investigations, but in that inventive inspiration which is the soul of -art, they seem to have been deficient. They possess a very full account -of their music both of modern and ancient days. Their musical history -teems with facts, and anecdotes, dating back far beyond every other -nation except the Egyptian. Their literature contains a vast number of -treatises and comments on the musical art, many of which are, however, -couched in very mystical and ambiguous language. In the Imperial library -at Pekin, there are four hundred and eighty-two books on this subject -exclusively.[88] - -The invention of music, is ascribed by the Chinese to supernatural -beings. - -The emperor Chi-hoang-che, who reigned in the time of the spirits, is -said to have invented the rules of pronunciation, the written characters -of the Chinese language, and finally music.[89] A mythological character -named Tong-how composed the earliest songs. - -Kai-tien-chi, the ninth emperor of this spiritual dynasty, is credited -with many of the earliest songs. He also invented eight kinds of -instruments (which will be described later) the names of which are -certainly poetical enough,— - -1. Love the people. 2. The black bird. 3. Don’t cut the trees. 4. -Cultivate the eight different grains. 5. Chant the celestial doctrines. -6. Celebrate the merits of the sovereign. 7. Imitate the virtues of the -earth. 8. Recall the memory of all existing things. - -These names were probably given to the instruments from the special -songs which each accompanied. - -Tcho-yung, a successor of the preceding emperor, is said once to have -listened to the songs of the birds, while the empire was in a state of -profound peace, and their singing caused him to invent a music which -penetrated every where, speaking to the intelligence, calming the -passions of the heart, causing perfect equilibrium in the emotions, -facilitating and improving the use of all the senses, and prolonging the -life of man. - -The name of this music was _Tsie-ven_—“Temperance and mercy.” - -This beautiful legend of the birds, seems almost Greek in its poetry, -but there exists yet another mythological bird in the Chinese tales, -which is extraordinarily like the Egyptian Phœnix. The _Foang-hoang_ was -a bird whose nest and abiding-place was wrapt up in mystery; it appeared -in China only at the birth of a good ruler, and its coming was always a -happy presage to the nation. The Chinese mythology, so far as it relates -to music, is evidently a traditional history, and poetically relates -actual occurrences, showing that, in all probability, their music -existed, and was highly esteemed in pre-historic times. - -The authentic history of Chinese music may be said to begin with Fo-hi, -the first of the Ty dynasty, and the founder of the Chinese empire. He -reigned about 2950 B. C.[90] All good qualities seem to have been united -in this beneficent ruler; in all ways he sought to benefit his race. - -It was not as an amusement, but as a means of popularizing his thoughts -on all sciences, that he regulated and arranged the system of music. His -first song celebrated his triumph over ignorance and barbarism; soon -after he composed the “Fisher’s song” in which he relates how he had -taught modes of fishing to the natives. He invented the kin, a stringed -instrument in the style of the modern zither, but with cords of silk, -and in it he symbolized all manner of things. - -He rounded the upper part to represent Heaven; he flattened the lower -part to resemble the earth; one part of the instrument was called “The -abode of the dragon” (representing the breezes of Heaven); another part -was entitled “The nest of the Foang-hoang” (to betoken the seasons of -the year). By means of this instrument he could regulate his heart, and -curb his passions.[91] - -“Those who would play the Kin,” says the Chinese commentator, “and draw -sounds from it which can charm, must have a grave countenance and well -regulated interior, they should pick it lightly, and give a tone neither -too high, nor low.”[92] - -Many Chinese writers attribute some of the inventions which are credited -to Fo-hi, to his wife Niu-va, a supernatural personage who was regarded -as a holy and miraculous virgin in the Chinese annals.[93] The truth -about Fo-hi seems to be that he was a remarkably good man and a -benefactor to his race, and therefore many useful inventions, and -wonderful adventures are attached to his name, which cannot be -authenticated. Some writers consider him a myth, which is scarcely a -tenable position; others have endeavored to prove him to be neither more -nor less than the Noah of the Bible. There is little doubt that he made -improvements in Chinese music, and, by exaggeration, was called its -inventor. A Chinese writer in giving to the invention a greater -antiquity, beautifully says “Music had its cradle in the heart of man.” - -Chin-noung, successor of Fo-hi, was also a good ruler; his chief works -in music seem to have been some alterations in the _Che_ (a sort of -_Kin_) and he was able by his playing to turn the heart of man, from -intemperate life, to celestial truth. - -Hoang-ti, the next emperor, had music scientifically investigated and -established natural rules to the art. The reign of Hoang-ti is supposed -to have been about 2,600 B. C. In his day music though practised, was -not understood in its natural elements. - -The Chinese even at that day, based all other sciences on music, and -sought to make this art (in a mystical and hyperbolical way) the -foundation of all others. The emperor therefore ordered Ling-lun to give -his attention to the development of the laws of music. The fables on the -subject of his researches are innumerable; he travelled to the -north-western part of China and took up his abode on a high mountain, -near which was a large growth of bamboos. Ling-lun took a bamboo, which -he cut between two knots; he removed the pith, and blowing in the tube, -a sound resulted which was of the exact pitch of the human voice when in -its normal state. Not far off was the source of the Hoang-ho, and -Ling-lun found that the tone of his tube was similar to the sound given -by the waters of that river in bubbling from the earth; thus was -discovered the first _Lu_, (or Li) the fundamental tone. - -Ling-lun was pursuing his investigations further, when the Foang-hoang -appeared with its mate and perched upon a neighboring tree. The male -bird sang in six different tones, while the female also used six, but -different from the preceding. The first note of the mystical -Foang-hoang, was precisely in unison with the reed which Ling-lun had -cut from the bamboo. - -On ascertaining this, the fable continues, Ling-lun cut twelve pieces of -bamboo and pitched them according to the notes of the two songsters; he -found by alternating the sounds of the male with the female bird, that -he had a chromatic scale. The six tones of the male were called the -_li-yang_ (masculine tones) the other six _li-yn_ (feminine tones), and -throughout all Chinese music, the distinction between the male and -female tones of the scale still exists. This was the first Chinese -discovery of the proportions of sound, the first step in the science of -Acoustics, and though covered over with fable and allegory, it really -preceded the discoveries of Pythagoras by many centuries; Ling-lun went -back to the emperor’s court and there measured and fixed the pitch of -the Chinese scale forever. Bells were also made of the official pitch, -that it might easily be perpetuated. - -Hoang-ti also had immense trumpets made which imitated “the voice of -dragons,” and drums which sounded “like thunder.” This monarch was as -great and good in all arts and sciences, as he was in music. He seems to -have been a Chinese “king Alfred.” After him, came Chao-hao, at whose -accession the Foang-hoang again appeared, intimating thereby another -prosperous reign in this line of good and musical emperors. Chao-hao -invented the idea of marking the divisions of the night by strokes of a -drum, and also had founded a set of twelve copper bells, to represent -the twelve months of the year. He used all his efforts to make music -popular, and invented new modes of playing, making the _yang_ and _yn_ -less distinct from each other, that is uniting the more powerful tones -(male) with the weaker (female). It is said that he first introduced -songs in honor of the ancestors, which play a very important part in -Chinese music, and that these hymns were performed for the first time, -in honor of the amiable emperor Hoang-ti. - -The emperors next following, all protected and encouraged music. The -first songs, that is of a secular style, were composed about 2456 B. C. -At this time also, many new instruments were invented, and old ones -improved. With the reign of Yao, 2357 B. C., the chronological record of -Chinese emperors and their doings becomes much clearer. Under this -emperor, China had a season of great peace and prosperity. He invented -the instrument of musical stones, called the _king_, (to be described -later) and received the stones specially adapted to its manufacture, as -tribute from various provinces. - -Chun, who succeeded him, though of low birth (he was nominated to the -throne by Yao) continued to advance the progress of music, and used it, -as the Greek philosophers did later, to prepare himself for public -business. - -“It was to the sound of the _kin_,” says the Chinese historian,[94] -“that the great emperor Chun prepared to deal with the affairs of the -empire, and to the melody of the _kin_ is due the love and care which he -constantly gave to his people.” Chun composed the following song, words -and music, on the above instrument; it may be taken as a specimen of -very early Chinese improvisation. - -“The breeze of midday brings warmth and dispels sorrow; may it be the -same with Chun; may he be the joy and the consolation of his people. The -breeze of midday causes the grain to grow, which is the hope of the -people; even so Oh, Chun! be thou the hope and the wealth of thy -subjects,” etc. - -Chun also wrote a song in praise of agriculture. In the year 2284 B. C., -he established uniformity of weight and measure, as well as a fixed -diapason throughout the empire, and endeavored to have all the bells -made in just proportions to each other. He also caused to be composed, a -melody celebrating the nine principal virtues; it was accompanied with -dances, in nine parts and contained nine modulations; it was named -_Siao-chao_ from the instruments which the dancers held in their hand. - -Chun established five grand ceremonials, in each of which music bore a -part. First, a ceremony of rejoicing, in honor of Chang-ti (the supreme -being) and of the celestial spirits. Second, a festival in honor of the -ancestors. Third, a military celebration, in honor of the former -dissensions of the empire having given way to a tranquil peace. Fourth, -a feast dedicated to courtesy, when the beauties of concord and goodwill -were sung. Fifth and last, a ceremony in which the inter-dependence of -man was remembered, and the manifold blessings accruing by mutual -beneficence, chanted. - -Chun also appointed a superintendent of music, who was to see that the -art was always exercised in its proper direction. - -Kouei was appointed censor, and the instructions of the emperor to him, -are full of good sense. “Music should follow the sense of the words.” -“It should be simple and unaffected.” “Music is an expression of the -soul of the musician;” such sentiments as these show a keen appreciation -of the art, which seems all the more singular when we think of the -peculiar music to which it relates. The music of the time of Chun, is -rapturously eulogized by Confucius. - -Yu, the great, only followed the example of his predecessors in setting -to music the most moral precepts and praising virtue, in song. It may -perhaps have been this association of high thoughts and ideas, the noble -character of the poetry, which gave music such a charm in the eyes of -the ancient Chinese. Yu made use of some primitive instruments, in a new -and very laudable manner;[95] desirous of being easily accessible to all -his subjects, he caused to be placed at a gate of his palace, five -instruments of percussion, which were to be struck by any applicant, -according to the nature of his business with the emperor. - -A large bell announced a person who desired to complain of an injustice; -a drum signified a communication respecting the manners of the empire; -and a small bell, private or confidential business; a _tam-tam_, a -public or private misfortune; a tambourine, an accusation of crime which -was appealed from some lower tribunal to the adjudication of the -emperor. - -This kindly emperor, regulated what was still deficient in music, and -did it so thoroughly that no further changes were necessary until the -Hia dynasty became extinct. The last of the above mentioned dynasty was -(for a change) a most vicious emperor. Kie was, according to the -chroniclers, a sort of Mongolian Caligula, and his memory is execrated. - -The next dynasty, called Chang, after a prosperous series of emperors, -also ended with an atrocious tyrant called Tchow, who invented a -luxurious style of music, and is said to have first established the -feast of lanterns. He was deprived of throne and life by violence. - -Ou-wang a later ruler, is chiefly celebrated for his military music, for -which he seems to have had a _penchant_ and of which he composed -considerable. One of his pieces was intended for performance while the -army formed itself in order of battle. - -In his day, the discipline of music was very thoroughly attended to. -Every ceremony and rite had its appropriate music attached; the -musicians had to undergo two examinations each year, and all innovations -either in composition, or in the shaping of musical instruments was -jealously guarded against. No special features appear in the musical -history of China during the next few reigns. - -In the reign of Koang-tsee, a valuable treatise on music was published, -which is still highly esteemed. At this era also were established -Mandarins of music and of the dance. At this epoch flourished the great -Kong-fu-tsee, or Confucius, the leader of Chinese thought and -philosophy. - -This sage’s name was simply Kong, but his disciples added the title, -_fu-tsee_, which makes the meaning of the whole, Kong, the instructor, -or master. This was Latinized by the Jesuit missionaries into Confucius. -This philosopher cultivated the study of music and seems to have -esteemed it as highly as the Greek philosophers did a century later. He -revised and arranged many of the old books on musical ceremonies and -rites. He learnt the art in a distant province, as in his native place -music was but little known. - -While in the kingdom of Tchi, Confucius heard some of the ancient music -of the days of Chun performed. The effect on him was so marvellous, that -for three months he scarcely could eat, for thinking of it. “I should -never have believed,” he said, “that composers could reach such a -pinnacle of perfection.”[96] - -It is also said that Confucius was an excellent performer on the musical -stones of the _king_. Once while playing on this instrument a passer by -struck with the beauty of his performance, paused to listen, and -exclaimed “surely one who can play thus, must have his soul occupied -with great thoughts.” - -In the later days of his wanderings, when he was reduced to the -extremity of poverty and starvation, he sang and played as usual, -showing no signs of depression or despondency. One of his disciples -ventured a reproach, asking how he could sing when they were all -famishing; he replied; “the wise man seeks by music, to strengthen the -weakness of his soul, the thoughtless one uses it to stifle his fears.” -The facts relating to Confucius, his wanderings and life are full of -anecdotes relating to his extreme love of the art, and are probably -authentic. The family of Confucius still exists in his native province, -having passed intact through sixty-eight or sixty-nine generations; they -are honored by special privileges and distinctions and are the most -notable hereditary aristocracy of China. It may be mentioned here, that -all the philosophers and literati of the empire were musicians as well: -in this respect strongly resembling the sages of Greece. - -The theatre began to progress greatly in this era, (sixth century B. -C.), and one emperor was censured for devoting too much time to his -comedians, and too little to the worthy celebration of the ancestral -feast. The arts received a severe check when the Tchin or Tsin dynasty -obtained control of the entire realm. These were in reality the first -who united the various provinces under one rule, and who bore, with -right, the title of Hoang, or emperor. It is from this dynasty that -China takes its name (Tchina or Tsina). One of this set of conquerors, -Tchi-chi-hoang-ti, desirous of obliterating the memories of former -glories, which might prove prejudicial to his own, attempted, in 245 B. -C., a proscription of all science and art. - -He commanded all ancient books to be burnt, and especially caused strict -search to be made for the books which Confucius had collected and -revised. Only works on agriculture and medicine were to be spared. A -large number of literary persons who had concealed part of their books -were put to death; yet many continued to risk their lives to preserve -the fruits of ancient culture. Books were hidden in walls of houses, in -tombs, and buried in the earth, whence they were long afterward -recovered. The emperor in proclaiming this war on literature gave as his -reason that the ancient books did not suit that era, that they were a -hindrance to progress, that they caused the people to neglect -agriculture which was the only substantial happiness of a nation, and -that they gave to the people liberty to censure the sovereign, and by -consequence, fostered disobedience and rebellion. Of course in this -universal persecution, music did not fare better than the other arts. -All instruments were ordered to be destroyed and made over after new -models. The bells which had given the standard pitch up to that time, -were melted down, and many of them used for the purpose of founding -colossal statues to deck the entrance of the imperial palace. But, -according to La Fage,[97] it was much easier for the musicians to evade -the emperor’s decree, and save their instruments, than for the literati -to save their precious books. There were few instruments and they were -less rigorously sought after, and it was an easy matter to conceal bells -or the _kings_ (musical stones) by burying them in the earth whence they -could be exhumed intact at any later period. Therefore in spite of the -exertions of the emperor, the ancient traditions and arts could not be -wholly extinguished; a spark still remained from which the torch of -science and art could be re-lit. - -It was this despotic emperor, however, who built the _Wan-li-chang_ or -great wall of China, therefore his influence upon the empire was not -wholly exerted for evil, but rather directed towards the establishment -of himself and descendants as permanent rulers of China. The rule was -short however, for in 206 B. C. the _Han_ dynasty governed the empire. -The first of this family, named Kao, endeavored to repair the ravages -made in the field of learning by the Tsin despots. - -He caused extensive search to be made in order that the ancient pitch, -division of tone, and system of modulation might be discovered. It was -partially unavailing, for we learn that though music was established in -all its splendor under the subsequent reign of Vow-ti, yet many writers -of that era (about 140 B. C.) assert that the art of regulating the -heart by means of music, was irretrievably lost, and that it only seemed -to inflame the baser passions. - -In fact at this time, music was chiefly an adjunct of the theatre, and -each day brought forth new comedies, concerts, or ballets. A terrible -scandal was created in the reign of Tching-ti (an emperor who reigned -shortly after) by that sovereign taking one of his beautiful _corps de -ballet_, to wife. - -These ballet dancers seem also to have been talented singers, and were -of similar station, though far inferior in talents, to the _Hetaræ_ of -ancient Greece. In the time of the last named ruler, there were found on -the bank of a river, sixteen ancient musical stones or _kings_, and the -fact that the sovereign esteemed this one of the most glorious events of -his reign, shows how earnest and persistent was the endeavor to reclaim -the old school of music from oblivion. - -Between the years A. D. 8, and 23, many books relative to music were -written; the Chinese, however, assert that all of these were founded on -a false system and contained many errors. About A. D. 60, the president -of the tribunal of rites and music, made great efforts to collect the -remains of ancient knowledge, and place music once more upon its old, -pure basis. The work written by him was highly esteemed by the literati -but unfortunately, the musicians had become used entirely to the newer, -and less pure style of music, and were too lazy to care about learning -any new modes; therefore all manner of difficulties were placed in the -way of Pao-yé, and the reform was unsuccessful. - -Tching-ti, A. D. 280, had at his court ten thousand women, who were all -proficient singers and players. Ngai-ti, one of his successors, tried to -remedy the luxury and effeminacy which had crept into every department -of music. He dismissed all his musicians, except those who performed at -sacred rites, or in military music (these being countenanced by ancient -usage) and all the troupes of singing girls were also broken up. The -poor musicians thus thrown out of employment numbered four hundred and -forty. The singing girls were yet more numerous. - -These reforms seem to have been of short duration, for almost always, -after an emperor who enthusiastically attacked these abuses, came one -who with equal fervor, protected them. - -One sovereign, A. D. 289, had at his palace five thousand actresses, and -the fourth successor of the reformer who dismissed his musicians, named -Tsin-ou-ti, although a lover of music, was also a great lover of luxury. -His greatest delight was to enervate the officials of high rank by -inviting them to carousals which he would extend far into the night, and -when the censors remonstrated with him on his course, he heard them -patiently; he would then invite them to dinner for the same day, and -there cause them to drink so copiously that they had to be carried -home.[98] - -An emperor who reigned about 503 A. D. banished comedy and music from -the palace, and also established the funeral festival in honor of -Confucius, in which sacred music played a part. - -Tay-tsung, who ascended the throne A. D. 626, was an active and thorough -reformer in music as in all other arts which needed his helping hand. In -the year 640, he turned his attention, after having brought the empire -to a state of peace, to bringing music back to its ancient and pristine -glory. In pursuance of this design, he ordered that everything relating -to ancient music, books as well as instruments, should be sent to his -court. An immense quantity of books, fragments, memoirs, old and new -instruments, etc., were discovered and collected, which were handed over -to a committee of _savans_, whose duty it was to retain the good, reject -the bad, and systematize the whole. Much was discovered by this means; -books were printed and the art of music received a strong impetus; but -still the Chinese held that the full beauty of the ancient art could not -be unearthed, perhaps because they could find nothing in it equaling -their expectations: but Tay-tsung for his efforts in the matter, was -ever after held in the highest esteem by the Chinese, who rank him with -the great and good rulers, Hoang-ti, Yao, etc. - -Tay-tsung also composed, or caused to be composed, a war dance, -accompanied with the appropriate music; it was intended to inspire the -soldiers with virtue and courage, and to make them emulate heroes. - -Under the emperors who came immediately after, comedy and theatrical -representations flourished. The musicians were always kept within the -limits of their caste however. A chief comedian once permitted himself -to make an allusion to state affairs, in a play; the emperor listened to -him with much attention, (the Chinese politeness is such that they will -accord the most respectful attention to a person whom they would like to -strangle,) but after the performance called the actor aside and told him -that he kept his troupe to amuse, not to advise him, and sent the poor -fellow into exile. - -Another time a very talented musician committed a murder, and was -sentenced to death therefor; several officials endeavored to obtain his -pardon, and a number of musicians presented a petition to the emperor -acknowledging that the culprit was very guilty and fully deserved his -fate, but that his talents in music could not be replaced, and that -therefore his life should be spared. The emperor’s reply was a worthy -one, “you fear damage to the art of music” said he, “but I fear damage -to the laws and government of the empire.” The sentence was executed. -One emperor dared to raise a musician to special rank, and thus defied -the strong respect for caste, which existed in China. - -Y-tsung, the causer of this great scandal, had in his service a great -performer, named Li-ko-ki, who was an especial favorite. One day when -Li-ko-ki had composed a specially agreeable song, the emperor, without -considering his profession, gave him the post of captain of the guards. -It caused an immense excitement among the sticklers for etiquette, for -all previous emperors, when they gave office to their musicians, first -caused them to renounce their profession, while Li-ko-ki still continued -in the practice of music; the emperor however carried his point. Y-tsung -also showered other unusual honors upon the members of this profession, -for it was his custom to give a dozen festivals each month, when the -musical _corps_ were allowed to eat at his own table. - -In traveling, of which he was very fond, he rarely took along less than -five hundred musicians. - -Under the last prince of the Tang dynasty there came many disasters upon -the Chinese empire, and the successful inroads of the Tartar invaders, -were most of all prejudicial to music; at one time the emperor was -forced to fly from the capital, his palace was pillaged, and the musical -instruments in it, either destroyed, or carried off to Tartary. When -peace had been concluded and tranquillity reigned again, there was an -earnest effort made to manufacture new instruments, but in doing this, -great obstacles had to be surmounted, the models were dispersed or lost, -and the official pitch was uncertain. A great search was made for the -set of bells which represented the authorized ancient scale, but in -vain; large sums were offered to the Tartars if they would make -restitution of those which had been carried off at the sacking of the -imperial palace, but these savages, after long delays, replied that they -could not ascertain what had become of the captured instruments. - -Thus another disturbing influence was imported into the Chinese music; -but it was still as highly-prized an art as of old, for soon after these -calamities came rulers who were passionately devoted to it; -Tchowang-song, gave two provinces to a pair of favorite musicians; and a -subsequent emperor (_a la Nero_) took to the stage himself, in spite of -the horror of his remonstrating censors. - -Music and art took a new impetus under the Song dynasty (A. D. 960 to -1279), and very many books were written, on music especially, but alas! -there was now so much uncertainty in the field of ancient (and therefore -in Chinese eyes correct) music, that the commentators fell into the same -pit which engulfed the modern decipherers of ancient Greek music, i. e., -they speedily came to all kinds of varying and irreconcilable -conclusions. One thing they resolved however, which was that the bells -which gave the official scale were not correct; they therefore founded a -new set, which were so satisfactory to the emperor and his advisers, -that the former ordered his own official bells to be given to the -founders for recasting. The musicians were very ill pleased with the new -system, although obliged to conform to it, and yet determined that all -trace of the ancient scale should not be lost. They managed by -connivance with some officials to save a complete set. The bells were -indeed removed from the tribunal of music and rites, but instead of -being thrown into the furnace, they were with the tacit consent of high -authorities, buried in a court-yard of the palace, and long afterward -exhumed. - -Tsai-yu, one of the later emperors, studied deeply to place music on a -secure footing,[99] and it is remarkable that his researches into the -proportions of tones, led him to the same results that were _afterwards_ -discovered by the best acousticians of Europe. - -Kang-Hi, in the year 1678-9, worked for the art in an extraordinary -manner; he founded an academy of music, and made his third son president -of the institution; he wrote a work, “The true method of the Ly-lu,” in -four books, and had a fifth added “_concerning European music_.”[100] In -a proclamation concerning the diminution of the number of -court-musicians, Kang-hi says, “Music has power to quiet the heart, and -therefore was beloved by our sages. They also could while enjoying -themselves at its practice, benefit themselves, because the fundamental -principles of government are contained in the art of music. But such a -comparison scarcely is suitable to virtuosity. Why, therefore, expend -money on it? I approve of the action of Ngai-Ti, (a former emperor) in -discharging them.” - -The knowledge of European music, which this emperor attained, in -opposition to all previous custom in China, came through the Jesuit -missionary Pereira, a Portuguese by birth; and Grimaldi, a missionary of -the Propaganda. He found it (contrary to the custom of the Chinese) -quite to his taste.[101] He was particularly astounded by the ability of -Father Pereira to set down in notes, and sing any melody, after a single -hearing. He begged his two guests to prepare a work containing the -elements of European harmony, and on their completion of it, he had it -printed at his palace in a sumptuous manner, and as an especial honor, -he had his own name added to it as their coadjutor. He now forced his -musicians to learn and to play French, German and Italian music; they -did so quite exactly, but most mechanically and with much unwillingness, -for it was contrary to all their ideas of art or propriety. Kang-hi saw -that the effort would be useless unless he used severe measures in -enforcing his reform, and like a wise man he yielded and allowed his -performers to return to their own beloved style of music. But the spirit -of reform was yet in him, and so far as he was able, he introduced many -innovations and many alterations into all departments of Chinese music. - -He made a proclamation saying that the old instruments though very good -were quite worn out, and that as new ones were necessary, he had -prepared a list of the ones required. One of these _instruments_, can -scarcely be called a musical one, as it was simply a flag, which was to -be displayed during the continuance of the musical performance. - -Kang-hi is spoken of with much rapture by the Jesuit missionaries, for -he was not only European in his taste for music; he not only tolerated, -but greatly favored Christianity, and at one time it was feared by his -court, that he was about to embrace that faith. The real secret of his -intimacy with the Catholic missionaries, seems to have been only a great -desire on his part, to acquire new information. - -He was greatly interested in the mechanism of a clavichord, which the -fathers brought with them to China, and ordered two of his musicians to -take lessons from them, upon the instrument; the pupils made very little -progress, as they were rather unwilling students. - -It was not only in the emperor’s court, at this epoch, that European -music began to be known; many persons throughout all the empire, sought -to pave the way to Imperial favor by studying the new art. The method of -Father Pereira had been sent into each province by the emperor, and the -ancient _Li_ were for a time eclipsed by the _Do, re, mi_, etc., of the -“western barbarians.” It might have been a permanent reform, but for the -fact that the Chinese had always been accustomed to associate their -music in a peculiar manner, with virtue and morality; each tone -represented some moral precept, each species of the eight varieties of -sound represented to their mind some high thought or noble virtue; it -was this association of ideas, which evoked the eulogies of Confucius, -and it was this time-honored custom which prevented European music from -obtaining any foothold among them. When, a short time after, Amiot -endeavored to ingratiate himself with the Mandarins by means of his -music, he failed utterly, through the same cause. - -He thus relates his effort:— - -“I understood music passably well; I played the traverse flute and the -clavichord; I used all these little talents to make myself welcome to -the Chinese. On different occasions during the first years of my stay in -Pekin, I never failed to endeavor to convince those who heard me, that -our music, excelled that of their own country.” - -It is to be remembered that these were educated persons, able to compare -and to judge; persons of the first rank, who honoring the French -missionaries with their kindness, came often to their abode to entertain -themselves with them, with various matters relative to the sciences or -arts cultivated in China. - -“The cyclops,” “The savages,”[102] the most beautiful sonatas, the most -melodious airs of the flute, none of these made any impression on the -Chinese. - -“I saw upon their countenances only a cold and vacant look, which -announced to me that I had not touched them in the least. One day I -asked them how they liked our music, and begged that they would tell me -frankly what they thought. They answered in their politest way, that -_our melodies were not made for their ears, nor their ears for our -melodies_, it was not therefore surprising, they could not find beauties -in our melodies, as they could in their own.” - -“The melodies of our music,” said a distinguished doctor (in the service -of his majesty, the emperor); “the melodies of our music pass from the -ear to the heart, and from the heart to the soul. We feel them, and we -understand them; those which you have just played, have no such effect -upon us. The airs of our ancient music were something quite different; -one needed but to hear them, to be ravished with them. Our books give to -them the most pompous eulogies; but they tell us at the same time, that -we have, in a great measure, lost the excellent method by which the -ancients produced such marvellous effects.”[103] It is interesting to -place these remarks beside the reiterated opinion of many writers that -the Chinese music is not worthy of being called “music” at all; and then -to turn to that most proper definition of the art,—“Music is the art of -moving the feelings by combinations of sounds.” - -The same obstacles exist to-day against change in the music of the -Chinese, as in the days of Kang-hi. - -This emperor, in his later days added to the long list of his musical -efforts, a volume treating of dances, and also a collection of the most -celebrated ancient songs. The missionary who mentions this latter -work,[104] assures us that he dares not translate it, lest he should be -accused of placing the sentiments of the most noble psalms in the mouth -of the Chinese. - -During Kang-hi’s reign the flute became quite fashionable in China, the -people becoming infatuated with it; Kang-hi himself became proficient in -its use, but on finding, later, that he had not benefited himself in any -way by its use he gave up the practice. - -Young-tching, his successor, published new rules for music and assigned -a special music in honor of agriculture and husbandry, which was to be -performed each year. He did not take to the Jesuits as kindly as his -predecessor, for from A. D. 1724 to 1732 he was busily engaged in -expelling them from China. - -Khian-long, his son, succeeded him in 1736. There is nothing remarkable -in the history of Chinese music from his day to the present time. - -Lord Macartney’s embassy (1793) took place during the long reign of this -emperor. Many persons were attracted to the embassy’s rooms by the -European band which each evening gave a concert. Among the most -assiduous of these visitors was the chief of the emperor’s orchestra; -charmed with the sound of some of their instruments, yet absolutely -refusing to accept of them as a present, he sent several painters to -take designs of them on paper. These artists laid clarinets, flutes, -bassoons, etc., on immense sheets of paper, on which they traced the -exact shape and size of each, while underneath they wrote remarks giving -the exact dimensions of each aperture, valve and tube. - -The chief announced his determination of making similar instruments from -these models, but in different proportions, which he proposed to fix for -himself. The result of the experiment is unknown. - -The later emperors have all had long reigns, and left music in _status -quo_, the last emperor Hien-fung being only remarkable for his constant -drunkenness. Let us now examine more minutely the order of music which -has inspired such disgust to European ears, and such rapture to the -Chinese from the earliest ages down to the present time. - - - - - CHAPTER XII. - CHINESE MUSIC AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. - - -The Chinese have from the very earliest times divided musical sounds -into eight classes, and imagined that in order to produce them, nature -had formed eight kinds of sonorous bodies. They divided them as -follows:— - -1. The sound of skin, produced from the tanned skin, or parchment of -various animals. 2. The sound of stone. 3. Of metal. 4. Of baked clay. -5. Of silk, used in the form of strings as we use cat-gut, or wire. 6. -Of wood, used often in instruments of percussion. 7. Of bamboo, used in -flutes. 8. Of calabash, a species of gourd, out of which a peculiarly -constructed instrument was manufactured. - -Of the skins of animals, many different instruments are made, all of -which may be designated under the general name of drums, but the Chinese -possess various kinds of drums of all shapes and sizes.[105] The most -ancient variety of these was the _Tou-kou_, which signifies earth drum, -so called because its body was made of baked clay, over each end of -which was drawn the skin. An instrument of this description was both -fragile and unwieldy; its disadvantages soon caused the clay to be -replaced by wood, out of which all subsequent drums were made, the size -and shape being varied according to the uses for which they were -destined. Nothing is said in the ancient writings as to what varieties -of wood were used in the manufacture of the earliest drums, but -tradition has it, that at first the wood of the cedar and mulberry, as -also sandal wood, were the most used. - -The Chinese possess eight kinds of drums. 1. The _tsou-kou_, which had -the shape of a barrel, and was fixed upon a pole which ran through its -body. 2. The Yn-kou, similar to the above, but the body more elongated, -and the staff or pole which supported it usually thrust into the earth -to keep it firmly in position, while that of the tsou-kou stood upon a -cross piece at its base.[106] 3. A variety of the _tsou-kou_ called -hiuen-kou, of very large size; on each side of this drum is attached a -small drum, in shape like a kitchen pot, one of which is to be struck -lightly, the other heavily. 4. The kin-kou, another keg-shaped drum -mounted upon a pedestal; it is about six feet long, and six feet in -diameter. It receives different names according to the way it is -decorated; thus, if it bears on its case paintings of storms, it would -be called lei-kou; but if it is ornamented with birds of good omen, such -as the _foang-hoang_, or white swans, it is called _lou-kou_.[107] 5. -The great tao-kou, which is still used to give the signal for the -commencement of a song, is about one foot in length and diameter. 6. The -little tao-kou, a cross between a drum and a baby’s rattle, is about -seven inches long, mounted upon a stick, and through the centre of its -case a string is passed; at each end of this string are knots; when this -drum is played, the performer twirls it about rapidly, the knots fly -against the skin, and produce a sort of rattle or drumming. This drum is -used to show the completion of a verse or division of any musical -composition. It is also used in funeral processions and at commemorative -ceremonies.[108] 7. The _ya-kou_, a small drum which is filled with rice -grains. The skin of this drum is not only tanned but is boiled -afterwards in pure water. The sound of this instrument is soft and -pleasant. 8. The _po-sou_ is a drum of cylindrical shape, and is placed -upon a small table; it is played sitting; in all other respects it is -like the _ya-kou_. - -These are the eight varieties of drums known to the Chinese; many of -them are still in use; there are also some varieties of military drums -which do not differ much from the preceding. - -It is customary to cover not only the case, but the faces and sticks of -the drums with paintings. - -Drums are used in China to give the hour at night, to announce persons -desiring audience, at some palaces, and for many other purposes as well -as for music. The Chinese also sometimes muffle their drums (in all -religious ceremonies which take place in presence of the emperor) -effecting this not in our manner, but by covering the instrument with -ornamented draperies of cloth, which absorb part of the sound. - - - OF THE SOUND OF STONE. - -The custom of making a systematic use of stone, in music, is peculiarly -a Chinese institution. In the _Chouking_, one of the most ancient of -Chinese chronicles, we read that already in the almost mythological days -of Yao and Chun, the Chinese had observed that certain kinds of stone -were adapted to giving out musical sounds, and that these tones occupied -the place between the sound of metal and of wood, being less sharp and -penetrating than the former, and more sonorous than the latter, and more -brilliant and sweet than either. - -Even in those days they carved and shaped the stones, in order to -extract from them the regular notes of their scale, and made instruments -of them which even to-day are used in China, and are named _king_. - -These musical stones were highly valued, and received as tribute as -early as 2250 B. C. Those found on the surface of the earth, and near -the banks of the rivers, were most esteemed, as it was supposed that -their exposure gave clearness and purity to their tone. - -These stones, called _Yu_, are found near the mountain streams and -torrents of Yun-nan. They are of extreme hardness and are polished in -the same manner as agate and precious stones. Large specimens are -extremely rare; those which Amiot saw at the Imperial palace, were three -feet by one foot eight inches in size, but they were considered unique. - -Their weight (specific gravity) is also very wonderful, for stones which -seem to be not too heavy a burden for one man, require four men to move -them.[109] Those in the palace were of many colors, milk-white, -sky-blue, indigo-blue, yellow, orange, pale green, sea-green, red and -gray. Those most esteemed were of a single color throughout, though when -five colors blended, it was considered a valuable specimen. It may be -mentioned in this connection that the number five seems to acquire a -mystical significance among the Chinese, for their music has five -principal tones, they recognize five elements, five virtues, five -senses, five duties, and five principal ceremonies.[110] - -Some of these stones resemble marble, and others seem to be -petrifactions of some sort. We are unaware whether those belonging to -the emperor have been examined by any recent geologist. The Duke de -Chaulnes in the last century, came to the conclusion that the stone was -marble, but that its organization differed in some respects from ours; -and that iron entered into its composition. - -It is very difficult to complete an octave with the best of musical -stones. In carving and ornamentation they require most skillful -manipulation lest the pitch be endangered. - -Under the Han dynasty a most harmonious _king_ was presented to the -emperor. The designs traced upon the stones were not quite satisfactory -to that potentate; on endeavoring to alter slightly the fashion of the -stones, the pitch of the instrument was irrevocably lost, and its -harmony destroyed forever.[111] The _king_ has from time immemorial been -played by striking the stones with a stick or mallet of hard wood. The -skill of the player is shown in the degree of shading he can impart to -the tones, by varying the force of his blows. Of all instruments, the -Chinese claim that the _king_ blends best with the human voice. The -entire Chinese chronicles teem with praises of this peculiar instrument. -Confucius was thrown into ecstatic bliss on hearing it for the first -time. The musical work entitled _Li-ki_ says: “the harmonious sound of -the _king_ invites the sage to think of the end of life. When he hears -it, he thinks of death, and fortifies himself in his love of duty.” But -this passage refers only to the great _king_ made of _Yu_ (the finest -melodious stones), which was only played on great religious occasions; -it is not singular that this instrument should be associated with -religious thoughts. There were other kinds of _kings_ which were used on -lesser occasions. In the imperial palace were several of smaller size, -called _pien-king_, which were composed of sixteen stones each. The -_tse-king_ consisted of one large stone, and is used to give the pitch -to other instruments, to signalize the commencement of a tune, and -according to some writers, was anciently used to beat the time -throughout a composition. - -The shape of the stones is much like a carpenter’s square; and if -sixteen of these tools were suspended from a clothes horse, the shape at -least of the _king_ would be attained; but in the most ancient specimens -the stones are shaped with much more diversity, fishes, bats, and other -quaint forms appearing with much ingenuity in the different pieces. The -only modern instrument of similar style to the _king_, which is known to -American readers, is the glass-harmonica, where short strips of glass, -being struck by a mallet, give out a melodious, but not very manageable -tone, and any person performing on the _musical glasses_, not by -friction, but by percussion, can give a fair representation of the music -of the favorite instrument of China. - - - OF THE SOUND OF METAL. - -Bells have been in China from the earliest ages the most esteemed of -instruments. At first their duty was to be a sort of tuning fork; one -bell being made for chief or fundamental tone, and eleven others giving -the various semitones. These bells were much different from our church -and tower bells; they rather resemble large hand bells, but were of -somewhat greater weight. The smallest bells were used in an instrument -called _Pien-tchoung_, which consisted of sixteen of them, tuned in -unison with the sixteen stones of the king. We have already spoken of -the efforts made to suppress the bells, and through them, the authentic -pitch of Chinese music, by one of the conquering emperors. - - - OF THE SOUND OF BAKED CLAY. - -Of this the Chinese made a deep-toned whistle, with five to seven -apertures called _Hiuen_. This was probably the primitive instrument in -China, as it is mentioned as already existing before the reign of -Hoang-ty, about 2637 B. C. An ancient Chinese Dictionary speaks of the -two varieties of these, saying, “the larger hiuen should be of the size -of a goose egg, the smaller, of that of a hen.” - - - OF THE SOUND OF SILK. - -Under this head come all Chinese stringed instruments, for where we use -catgut, the celestials use silken cords. Even in the semi-mythical age -of Fo-hi, they made a simple instrument by extending threads of silk -upon a board of light wood. Little by little the board was shaped to its -purpose better; gradually also, the strings were laid with more -precision and exactness, and the cords gave out tones deep or high, -according to the tension to which they were subjected, or the number of -threads of which they were composed; thus by insensible degrees came -into existence the _kin_, the leading stringed instrument of the Chinese -empire. In size, it is larger than all Eastern stringed instruments -except the harp, its length being five feet, six inches. It has seven -cords which are tuned as follows:— - - DO, RE, FA, SOL, LA, DO, RE, - -giving it only five tones. The pentatonic character of this instrument -is observable in all Chinese music, and causes a slight resemblance -between that music and the Scotch. There are several varieties of the -_kin_. The large, medium, and small, only differ in their size, and have -each seven cords, but there is a much larger instrument of the same -species, which is called the _che_, which has twenty-five strings, and -is nine feet long; it is said that in ancient days there were _ches_ -made which had fifty strings. - -Both the _che_ and _kin_ were, in true Chinese fashion, made to convey -numberless morals and symbols. The breezes of Heaven, the four seasons, -the five elements, and the universe were all in some manner dragged into -the formation of these instruments. The _kin_ represented life, the -_che_ death, and before performing upon either, the player went through -certain ceremonies to fit himself for the task, and lighted some -perfumed tapers, which were kept burning throughout the performance. To -perform on the _kin_, the Chinese held that one must be well advanced in -wisdom and sagacity. Of the _che_, there exist four different kinds, the -great, medium, small and very small; all these differ in size but not in -their number of strings, each possessing twenty-five. Amiot[112] found -the _che_ to be a more agreeable instrument than any known in Europe in -his day (1750 circa), as the softer sounds of the silken cords were -preferable to the metallic sound of the wires of the clavichord. - -We have no instrument in our music which corresponds to the _kin_, or -_che_; but the zither if trebled in length, and strung with silk instead -of wire would give a very exact idea of this finest of Chinese -instruments. - - - THE SOUND OF WOOD. - -The Chinese have from remotest antiquity, used wooden instruments of -percussion; it is most natural that the earliest of instruments used by -man, should have been of wood, but it is also natural that most nations -should have laid aside these primitive and toneless instruments. Not so -the Chinese however; their wooden instruments are still used as they -were four thousand years ago; for the historians date their invention -from the mysterious reign of Fo-hi. - -These instruments are the _tchu_, the _ou_, and the _tchung-tou_, all of -which celebrate and typify the most profound moral precepts, _a la -Chinois_. - -The _tchu_ is a plain wooden box, about a foot and a half deep, in which -a hammer is fastened; by introducing the hand into a small aperture, -made for that purpose in the side of the instrument, the hammer is -agitated, and swaying from side to side, produces a sort of tattoo on -both sides of the box. This scarcely can be called _music_ for it is -doubtful if the sound is even rhythmic; but it is not the sound alone -which captivates the Chinese ear, the symbol attached to it moves the -Chinese heart, for the sages assure us that this clatter represents (in -some mysterious way) the advantages of the social intercourse of men, -and the mutual benefits of society. The _tchu_ is placed at the -_north-east_ of the other instruments and is played at the commencement -of a composition. - -The _ou_ is an image of a sleeping tiger, and is a symbol of the power -which man has over all other creatures. It is placed at the _north-west_ -of the other instruments, and is played at the close of a piece of -music. Along the back of this image is a row of pegs; when the -instrument is well played, six tones can be extracted from these wooden -pegs, but usually the performance is ended by the player running the -stick, by which the pegs are struck, swiftly along the whole row, and -finishing with a couple of blows upon the tiger’s head. This is repeated -three times as _finale_. - -The _tchung-tou_ cannot really be classed among musical instruments, -since they are only the wooden plates upon which music was sometimes -written; their moral is obvious; they bring back to memory the great -invention of communication by means of written characters. But they also -participate somewhat in the general clatter produced by the other wooden -instruments; they are about fourteen inches long, and one inch wide, are -twelve in number, to commemorate the twelve sounds of the scale, and -serve to beat the measure of the music, by being struck lightly against -the palm of the left hand. The twelve pieces are attached to each other -by means of cords. - -There is besides, a military instrument of wood (though also scarcely to -be classed as musical) which is carved in the form of a fish, and is -suspended in front of the general’s tent. When any person requires to -see that official, he has but to strike this fish with two wooden sticks -which are lying near by, and the audience is immediately granted; so -greatly have the Chinese reduced language to various musical sounds, -that by the mode of striking with the sticks, the applicant intimates, -in a general manner, concerning what description of business the -audience is requested. - -There also exist in China a few other instruments of wood, from which -regular series of tones can be produced, and upon which tunes can be -played, but these latter seem not to be really Chinese in their origin, -and are spoken of by the musical commentators of the country, as -“strange instruments which have come into use in China.” - - - THE SOUND OF BAMBOO. - -It seems, at first sight, as if this class of instruments should be -placed under the head of “wood;” but the Chinese draw a very wide -distinction between wood and bamboo, holding the latter in especial -esteem, as being of all vegetation, the most useful to man; and they -claim that nature in producing it, fitted it especially to the art of -music. It is true that it required no great inventive faculty to extract -tones from the hollow sticks of bamboo, and it is possible that music -drawn from the bamboo was the earliest of the Chinese empire. One of the -most famed of instruments made of this reed, is called the _Koan-tsee_. -This is simply a set of pan’s pipes, arranged according to Chinese -tonality; the superior (male) tones, called _yang_ being given to one -instrument, and the inferior (female) called _yn_ to another, so that to -have a melody in any modulations performed, two instruments and two -musicians were required. This arrangement was too awkward to last -forever; finally the two instruments were united in one, and instead of -being weakly bound together by cord, as were the twelve pipes of the -_koan-tsee_, two strips of thin board held the tubes in place; the -number of pipes was also increased from twelve, to sixteen, and the new -instrument called the _siao_.[113] - -Of course the Chinese possess flutes, as well as other instruments of -bamboo. The _yo_ and _ty_ are in some respects similar to our flutes, -save that they have usually but three holes, and the tones have -therefore to be produced by a more skillful use of the breath than is -required on the European flute. An instrument of the flute family the -use of which has become somewhat obsolete, is the _tche_. This is -different from all other flutes, and is now but little played in China. -The _embouchure_ is exactly in the middle, both ends are stopped, and on -each side of the _embouchure_ are three holes. It was considered the -most difficult of all flutes to play. - - - THE SOUND OF CALABASH. - -The calabash is a gourd of pumpkin shape, but somewhat smaller. In the -instrument which we are about to describe, we shall see that the -calabash (called _pao_ by the Chinese) really emits no sound, but serves -only as an air reservoir for one of the most wonderful instruments of -ancient times. The _cheng_, which is the only instrument in which the -calabash is used, is in fact a _portable organ_, and when we consider -that this intricate instrument was invented about four thousand years -ago, we are lost in astonishment that the invention did not lead to -greater results; yet the Chinese have frequently, in other sciences as -well, advanced to the threshold of great discoveries. - -We will not detail to the reader, all the legends, symbols, and -mythology attached to the _cheng_; suffice it to say that animal, -mineral and vegetable nature is represented by it, and that to each part -of it is appended some mystical meaning. The gourd is pierced and -cleaned, and an aperture made for the air to enter, then the ends of -from thirteen to twenty-four pipes of bamboo are inserted into as many -holes cut in the gourd; each of these pipes contains in it a tongue of -copper or gold, the vibration of which causes the sound; beneath this is -a hole cut in the bamboo, through which aperture the air rushes without -giving any sound, but when the hole is stopped by pressing a finger upon -it, the air having no other outlet, is forced up the pipe, and striking -the metallic tongue, gives out an agreeable reed sound. A curved -mouth-piece through which the performer is to blow, is introduced at the -centre of the gourd. The _cheng_ contains all the elements of the reed -organ, and it would be a simple matter to produce harmonies with it, and -yet with this instrument in the world for four thousand years, it -remained for moderns (comparatively speaking,) to discover the art of -combining different sounds; but the invention of so well-conceived a -reed instrument in such remote ages, certainly entitles the ancient -Chinese to the utmost respect of their unconscious imitators, the -Europeans. - - - MISCELLANEOUS INSTRUMENTS. - -There exist in China, some instruments which are not classed with either -of the above eight kinds of tone. These we have thought best to group -under the head of “miscellaneous,” though they are quite as important as -any of the preceding, except perhaps, the _king_, _cheng_, and _kin_. -The Chinese have long possessed a peculiar variety of fiddle, which at -first appearance much resembles a mallet with cords stretched from the -head to the handle; but the head of this primitive fiddle is hollow, and -holds a sounding board, though a very small one, of gazelle’s skin. The -sounds drawn from this oriental fiddle are said to set one’s teeth on -edge; it is said to be the most execrable of all Chinese instruments. -The invention of this fiddle cannot be ascribed to the Chinese, as it -probably came from India originally. There also exist several Chinese -instruments of a kind much resembling our guitars or banjos. The number -of strings on these are variable.[114] - -From remote antiquity, the Chinese have understood the ductility of -metal, and it is not surprising that the trumpet is, with them, one of -the oldest of instruments. These trumpets are made of all sizes and most -peculiar shapes.[115] It appears that they are intended to give but two -tones each, although being made of all sizes, a complete scale can be -arranged by collecting ten or twelve of them. The music of them (as with -the ancient Greeks) is judged only by the degree of loudness with which -it is given, and even when several play together, there is no attempt at -harmony, but each trumpeter repeats his two notes with vigor and -persistency; the result is said to be most distressing to European ears. -Yet it is possible to extract beautiful music even from single-toned -trumpets, for in Russia, most exquisite melodies are rendered by bands -of trumpeters, each of whom performs but one note, in the same manner as -troupes of bell-ringers give whole pieces of music with small hand -bells. - -Tom-toms and gongs also appear frequently in the music of the empire; -these are chiefly used to keep the time of the orchestra; there is also -an instrument analogous to these, which consists of a series of metal -basins, (usually of copper) from eight to ten in number, set in a frame. -The whole instrument looks not unlike a cooking range with all its -utensils. These basins are struck with a mallet, and produce sounds -similar to, but less harsh than the gongs. The name of this unique -apparatus is _yin-lo_. - - - THE SOUND OF THE VOICE. - -Singular to relate, the Chinese have in their classification of eight -musical sounds, utterly omitted to make any mention of the sound of the -human voice. In all their great ceremonies, such as hymns of praise to -Heaven, and commemoration of the ancestors, songs are used, but never, -on these occasions are female voices allowed. In fact, the female, in -music, occupies about the same position in China, as she once did in -ancient Greece; the better class of respectable matrons do not study any -art whatever; and the less respectable and the slaves, are allowed to -perfect themselves in many arts of pleasing, among which a study of the -lower branches of music, as well as a certain degree of general -education is included. A slave is far more marketable with musical -talents than without. But women always participated in orchestral music, -and in a manner rather astonishing to us; they sometimes played the wind -instruments. The singular custom of allowing the weaker sex to play the -part requiring the strongest lungs was quite universal among ancient -nations, and the Chinese may be regarded as a nation who have kept their -ancient usages almost intact. It is seldom however, that women assist in -any concerts whatever; the instrumental playing as well as the singing -being almost always wholly rendered by men. - -Few travellers have heard a musical Chinese lady sing, and those who -have enjoyed this rare event, say it is the most torturing of all -Chinese music; from the _nose_ and throat issue the most droning and -hideous sounds, and they seem to pile Ossa upon Pelion in the way of -unnatural tones. - -Although the female voice is therefore lacking in the concerted music of -this singular people, the parts sometimes run very high for male voice -and the singers for these parts are procured in the same manner in which -the papal choir in the last century, procured its highest male -voices.[116] - -Of the divisions of the vocal parts in singing, very little is as yet -known, although many books must exist upon the subject, which have -hitherto been inaccessible to foreigners. The natural voice of the -Chinese is rather high, and very high tenors are not at all rare in the -empire. - -The voice in China is trained to much flexibility by the exigencies of -the language, for the Chinese is in one sense, the most musical of -languages, as a word acquires half a dozen different significations -according to the pitch of voice, or inflection with which it is -pronounced. - -The number of different words in the whole Chinese tongue does not -exceed three hundred and fifty; all the additional ones, are simply -variations of these by lowering, or raising the voice. This leads the -foreigner into endless complications and misunderstandings; for example, -the word _tchu_ pronounced clearly with the vowel of medium length, -means “master,” but by extending the vowel a trifle it signifies “hog;” -it also means “column,” and “cookery.” The syllable “_po_” has eleven -different meanings—“glass,” “boil,” “captive,” “prepare,” etc., each of -which must be pronounced with a different pitch and inflection.[117] -Among the original words are some which decidedly are taken from nature, -such as “_tchung_,”—“bell,” “_miaou_,”—“cat,” but these are very few. - -Some authors have endeavored to show from these facts, that the Chinese -is in all respects a musical language, but this can hardly be conceded, -for the inflections spoken of, are so slight as to escape the European -ear, which surely would not be the case if they were really musical -notes, since we have seen that Father Pereira, in the last century, was -able to note down at first hearing, and imitate any Chinese song. The -people in conversation give the voice a flute-like sound, but this has -scarcely arisen from any special musical quality in the language itself. - - - - - CHAPTER XIII. - CHINESE MUSICAL COMPOSITIONS AND CEREMONIES. - - -The most ancient music with the Chinese as with all people, seems to -have consisted of hymns to the Deity, rendering thanks to Him for the -benefits given to man in the various departments of labor. These were -divided according to the class which used them, into agricultural, -military, piscatorial, etc. Very soon after these, there came into -existence that reverential ceremony in memory of the ancestors, which is -so characteristically Chinese, and which became, of all their festivals, -the most important and the most musical. - -This ceremonial as conducted by the emperor is as follows. In the -vestibule of the hall are retainers who bear a particular kind of -standards, which show that the coming of the sovereign is expected. Here -also are seen bells, drums, and musicians, as well as officers of the -guards, all standing in symmetrical figure, and motionless in their -position. On entering the hall one sees, right and left, the performers -on the _cheng_ and _king_, and the minor instruments, all arranged in -their proper order. In the middle are placed the dancers, in uniform and -each holding in hand the instrument which they are to use in their -evolutions. Near the end are placed the players of the _che_ and _kin_ -as well as the performers on the style of drum called the _po-sou_, and -the singers. Finally, at the lower end of the hall are seen the -representations of the ancestors themselves, either in the form of -portraits, or of simple tablets bearing the name of each. Before these -is a table on which stand flowers and libations. Each performer and -instrument is placed in an allotted position. For example, the bell is -at the south-west, the _cheng_ at the north-west, the drum at the -south-east, the flute at the north-east, and the table at the south; and -this arrangement is never departed from. - -When the signal announcing the approach of the emperor is heard, the -singers and musicians, slowly and with great majesty, begin the hymn of -honor, while the emperor, with stately and dignified tread, advances to -the table at the south of the hall.[118] It is a moment of holy awe -(somewhat akin to the instant when the Host is elevated in Catholic -churches) for the spirits of the departed are supposed at this time to -come down from Heaven to their descendants. We give here an English -paraphrase of the words of part of this hymn, which we have translated -from the version of Father Amiot. - - - Hymn to the Ancestors.[119] - - When’er I think of you - Oh ancestors so great, - Then to the highest Heaven - My soul I elevate. - There in th’ immensity - Of the eternal springs - Of Fame which cannot die - And constant happiness - Are your immortal souls. - The vision transport brings - Your valor has reward - Your virtues Heaven doth bless - Around your joyous souls - Each new delight it flings. - Ineffable your joy - Your constant happiness. - If I in spite of faults - And of insufficience - Am called on by the high - Decrees of Providence, - To fill upon the Earth - The very highest place - ’Tis but because I am - Descendant of your race. - Although I never may - In your great footsteps move - Yet I will care display - Throughout my life’s high course - That every act of mine - Shall to descendants prove - That I lived not in vain - And need not feel remorse. - -In giving this, necessarily weak, translation of the opening part of the -hymn, we have endeavored to preserve the short Iambics of the Chinese -version; but in the Chinese there are only eight lines to the first -division, therefore four lines of the translation correspond to one of -the original. After the chorus has sung as far as this, which is only an -exordium, or manner of worthily preparing for the following exercises, -the emperor prostrates himself three times, touching his forehead to the -earth each time, and then taking the libations, offers them up to the -departed: meanwhile the chorus sing the second part of the hymn, still -in the name of the emperor.[120] In this he again alludes _per_ chorus, -to his noble descent, and thanks them for leaving their abode of bliss -to visit him, and humbly prostrated, begs to render homage to them, and -entreats that they will accept the libations offered, as a testimonial -of profound respect and perfect love.[121] After offering these, the -emperor prostrates himself nine times to the earth, and then resumes his -position in front of the table, while the chorus sing the third part of -the hymn. During this final division of the music, the spirits which -descended at the first part are supposed to be reascending to Heaven. In -the third part the emperor (still by proxy) states how mean and pitiful -he feels, after such illustrious predecessors, and tells how heavy the -burdens of state are to him, and thanks his ancestors for their -spiritual assistance. He concludes with the statement that he can do -very little to testify his appreciation of all their benefits, but what -he is able to do he has done. - -“Three times with respect, have I offered the triple sacrifice; not -being able to do more, my vows are satisfied.” The hymn being finished, -the emperor retires with his ministers and _cortege_ in the same order -in which they entered the hall. The music continues until he has reached -his own apartments. Dancers participate in this ceremony and are -sumptuously clad and really assume a _role_ of much importance. As with -the ancient Greeks and Romans, they are not to be thought of as being -jumpers or twirlers; they express by their motions the sentiments which -actuate the emperor as he eulogizes his ancestors, expresses his own -unworthiness, his gratitude, pride, and other emotions. The music of -this august ceremonial, is entirely written in whole notes, without any -change of rhythm whatever. It is rather monotonous than distressing to -our ears. - -This is not the case with other vocal compositions of the Chinese; -nearly all travellers agree in saying that their music, in this branch -especially, resembles far more the cries of the nocturnal cat than the -human voice. The composers seem to have an aversion to progression by -degrees, in their songs, and a decided _penchant_ for long skips. We do -not intend a slur upon the Scotch music when we say that there are -points of resemblance between the Chinese music and the former. Some -Chinese airs (given by Irwin and Barrow[122]) show this resemblance -startlingly. Although the Chinese understand the division of the -chromatic scale perfectly well, yet they never use it; five tones are -all they ordinarily employ; these are - - FA, SOL, LA, DO, RE, - -omitting even the semitone of our diatonic scale. Some of their most -eminent theorists have maintained that the notes pienkoung (si) and -pienche (mi) are as useless to music as a sixth finger would be to the -hand. - -It will be observed that the semitone progression is not used in China, -and though known, is universally proscribed and avoided; it is this -which occasions the peculiarities of Chinese music. On this subject we -cannot refrain from re-quoting an article on Chinese music, which -appeared in the “China Mail,” a Hong-Kong newspaper, in 1845.[123] - -“One possessed of a musical ear, and at all conversant with the musical -art, cannot fail, on his arrival in this country, to be struck with the -peculiarities of what is esteemed music here. He notices at once, that -the characteristics of western melody, are almost wholly wanting. Nearly -every note seems out of place, and there is neither beginning, middle -nor end, to the airs he listens to. Instead of a theme which is -developed and embellished by the whole performance, he hears a -hurry-skurry of notes, apparently flung together without link or -affinity; and even the confusion of sounds to make it worse, instead of -finishing in a quiescing cadence, passes beyond what is looked for as -the last note, and sometimes ends with what we should call a flatted -keynote, leaving the listeners in a most uncomfortable state of suspense -and uncertainty as to what may follow. For my own part, I have not been -able as yet to discover whether the Chinese recognise such a thing as a -keynote among the parts of song, or whether their composers begin, -continue, and end their tunes _ad libitum_.” - -We have inserted the above that the reader may judge how strongly the -music distresses the musical European at first hearing; but it is also -not to be forgotten that the Eastern, (Hindoo and Arabian) music had a -similar effect upon persons who a year later were obliged to acknowledge -that they had begun to find beauty, and take pleasure in it. - -Of other court musical ceremonies, the emperor’s birthday, the harvest -sacrifice, the feast of agriculture, and the fifteenth day of the first -moon, are the most important. The first occasion is described by Lord -Macartney, who heard it on the 17th of September, 1793. It began with a -slow majestic sound of deep-toned bells and muffled drums, in the -distance. This impressive music was occasionally interrupted by sudden -pauses; with equal suddenness the whole force of singers and -instrumentalists would burst out with their utmost strength, while the -entire court bowed their faces to the earth as often as the refrain was -sung:—“Bow down your heads ye inhabitants of the earth, bow down your -heads before the great Kien-long.” - -The emperor was not visible during these ceremonies. - -Among the secular pieces, collected by Amiot, is one which demands -especial notice; it is an instrumental representation of a battle. It -will be recollected that fifty years ago, many popular European -compositions took this shape. “The battle of Navarino,” “the battle of -Prague,” “Waterloo,” etc., were the out-crops of this mania: the Chinese -certainly have better instruments than we had, wherewith to represent -the din of combat. - -In the accompaniment of songs, the Chinese seem to stand, as regards -their harmony, about where Europe stood in the middle ages, for they use -as sole and only harmony, when playing on the _kin_, a succession of -_fourths and fifths_.[124] - -The constant use of instruments of percussion, in slow and monotonous -songs, is one of the most tiresome institutions of the Chinese music; -almost all the tunes are taken at an _andante_ or _adagio_ pace, and it -is but just to say, that the Chinese chiefly dislike European music -because it is often played quickly. - -“To what purpose” they ask, “should one dance and hurry in this manner, -and how can such things penetrate to the soul? With us” they add -proudly, “all is done calmly, and without precipitation.[125]” - -It must be acknowledged, that the Chinese love, and take pride in music, -that is, in their own kind. In every great state ceremony, in theatres, -in religion, it everywhere plays the leading _role_. - -One of the nine tribunals which have charge of the general affairs of -the empire, is charged with the care of music, rites, and ceremonies; -and the mandarins of music are considered of much higher rank than the -mandarins of mathematics, and have their college in the enclosure of the -imperial palace. - -The fondness for the art is apparent in all classes, and music is used -on almost every occasion of festivity, high or low. The streets of the -cities are full of peripatetic musicians, who earn their living by -catering to the general public, somewhat as the organ grinders do with -us. - -The feast of lanterns is the greatest of all popular Chinese festivals; -it takes place on the fifteenth day of the first moon, and corresponds -to a New Year’s feast. On this occasion every part of the immense cities -of the empire glows with the light of innumerable lanterns, while -fire-works and decorations are seen on all sides. In the streets are -seen large _Lantern Theatres_, that is to say, edifices made of paper; -on the inside, which is brightly illuminated, is a stage whereon actors -and singers give plays and concerts. Another great festival, where music -plays a leading part, takes place on the fifteenth day of the eighth -moon. On this evening the Chinese imagine that a _hare_ is seen in the -moon, and to the sound of many instruments, the entire population turn -out to look at it. It is customary for friends to send each other cakes, -on which the figure of a hare is moulded, in sugar. Concerts are an -important accessory to this festival with both rich and poor; the former -make every effort to secure the best singers and performers for their -entertainment on this holiday; the latter, not being able to have the -more delicate instruments content themselves with a clatter of basins, -pots and frying-pans, and make with these a sort of burlesque concert. - -At each full moon there takes place a festival in which gongs and -cannons rather than musical instruments are heard. Besides these -festivals which are celebrated throughout the empire, there are also -local ones, which are numberless. The richest class generally keep their -private troupe of musicians, whom they own almost as slaves. Often also -they educate young children of both sexes, in the musical art with the -utmost care, in order that when grown up they may swell the ranks of -their musical retinue. Among these are often special artists whom they -will not allow to appear on ordinary occasions, but reserve to perform -before their own family, or intimate friends to whom they wish to show -especial honor; at such times, the ordinary performers are sent away. - -Among the strolling musicians, there are many who make their living by -going to private festivals of the middle classes, such as weddings, -birthdays, and other rejoicings, even when uninvited; these are similar -to our ball room musicians, but also bear some resemblance to the -itinerant performers of early Eastern nations. In Poland there still -exists a similar class. - -For the poorer class, there are also, numerous blind musicians, who -travel from house to house, sometimes in bands, sometimes alone. We have -already compared these to our own organ-grinders, but they differ from -them in one particular; they do not rely so much upon making music -indiscriminately, but go, with much tact, to those places where their -services are likely to be required. - -In China the custom of celebrating the birthday anniversary is -universal; these wandering minstrels recollect the date of the birth of -each individual for miles around, with unerring exactness, and when a -birthday _fete_ occurs in any family, they may calculate with some -degree of certainty that the music will come without being sent for. - -There are other occasions, where these shrewd disciples of the muses can -turn an honest penny; if a skillful physician has saved the life of the -wife or child of some rich man no higher compliment can be given to him -(besides his fee) by the grateful nabob, than to invite him to a great -feast, and to send an escort of eight musicians to convey him thither, -besides bringing him numerous presents. - -Music is employed at funerals, but the friends of the deceased, are not -allowed to perform it; for months after, etiquette forbids their -touching any musical instruments. - -The mourning for a parent, or grandparent is very strict and protracted. -In China filial love and obedience are the virtues most insisted upon. -If the descendants give forth any musical sounds at all it is only to -howl dismally a chant respecting the virtues of the defunct; there are -many of these compositions, or “lamentations” in existence, of which the -poetry is by no means despicable. When the funeral ceremony is taking -place, some trumpets and a drum placed at the door, announce the arrival -of visitors who come with their condolences to the afflicted family. -After the body is buried with the ancestors, the _bonzes_, (Chinese -priests) chant the office of the dead, for nine days, and in the -procession itself drums, trumpets, tam tams, flutes, etc., play a -discordant dirge. - -We have already mentioned the wooden fish suspended at the tent door of -military commanders to summon them to audiences concerning public and -private affairs. Mandarins have, in like manner, a drum in the outer -hall of their palaces, by means of which they can be summoned to give -audience to any applicant; they are obliged to give immediate attention -to the complaint of any person beating the drum, but woe to the -audacious drummer who does not have some very especial wrong to complain -of; he is immediately soundly bastinadoed. - -At eclipses of the moon, the Chinese use their musical instruments in a -purposely hideous manner. This is done to frighten away the dragon which -is supposed to be eating up the orb of night. Instruments of percussion -are chiefly used on this occasion. The same instruments (i. e. gongs, -drums, trumpets and tam-tams) are used to aid the marching of the army. - -The _musical language_ such as we use in directing the movements of -cavalry and artillery, is much more extended, though differently used in -China; such musical signals are used in commanding civil as well as -military personages. Various trades have their especial songs also, -which they sing at their work. - -But the music of China, although extending into every department of -social and official life, is totally incapable of any advancement. -Musical martinets are continually exclaiming against the changes in -style of composition, which innovators are constantly introducing into -_our_ art,[126] but it is these changes which give the surest signs of -real life and intrinsic merit to modern music. - -In China, precisely as formerly in ancient Egypt, no such changes are -possible; the music for each and every event is as carefully mapped out -and adhered to, as is the cut of the garments, or the exchange of -civilities among this precise people.[127] - -If ever change takes place in their musical system it will assuredly be -a gravitation towards the European, as they have in a certain measure a -comprehension, theoretically at least, of our system of semi-tones, but -could by no means conceive of, and accurately produce the third and -quarter tones of Indian music. We have already related the ineffectual -movement towards western style, made in the last century; during the -embassy of 1793, Macartney observed many indications of inclination for -our system, such as the use of the violin,[128] the notation of music -upon ruled paper, and interest in the band concerts given at his rooms -each evening. He also found in the emperor’s palace at _Yuen min-yuen_, -an English musical clock, made by Geo. Clarke, Leadenhall Street, -London, which played many selections from the “Beggar’s Opera.”[129] It -is certainly not too venturesome to predict, in spite of the jarring of -their music upon us, that they may yet develop a taste for some of the -coarser branches of ours. - - - - - CHAPTER XVI. - THE CHINESE THEATRE AND DANCES. - - -Although the Chinese are passionately fond of plays, yet they do not -possess a good fixed theatre in their chief cities; for those edifices -which are regularly used for this purpose are never of a good class, and -many of them are even considered disreputable. The cream of the -theatrical troupes are reserved for private entertainments; when a -number of people of the middle class desire a comedy, they club together -and engage a troupe. The upper classes, as already stated, have always -their private comedy company. They have also their private halls for -dramatic representations. - -The Chinese, have like ourselves, Comedies, Tragedies, Farces, Ballets, -etc., and the music attached to them is always of the style of the play. -There is an excellent description of the ceremonies and social etiquette -used at a private dramatic entertainment, given by Du Halde.[130] He -says, ... “It was then, four or five of the principal comedians were -seen entering the hall, in rich costumes; they made a profound bow all -together, and struck the earth four times with their forehead.... They -arose and their chief addressing one of the principal guests, presented -to him a book composed of long tablets, on which were written, in golden -letters, the names of fifty or sixty comedies, which they knew by heart, -and any of which they were ready to perform on the spot if desired; from -this book they begged the guest to make a choice. The guest excused -himself and handed the volume politely to a second guest, with a sign of -invitation; the second guest passed it to the third with the same -ceremonies, the third to the fourth, etc. All excused themselves, and -finally the book was returned to the comedian, who yielded at last, -opened the book, and ran his eye over the list a moment, and then -decided upon a comedy which he thought would prove agreeable to all the -company. Should there be any inconvenience in producing any particular -play, the comedian-in-chief is expected to announce it; one of these -inconveniences would be, for example, that one of the chief characters -of the play bore a name similar to that of one of the guests. After the -choice the comedian shows to the guests the name of the play which he -has chosen, and each one signifies by a nod of the head, his approval. -The representation begins with some music which is essentially Chinese -and noisy. It is performed with metal basins, drums, flutes, fifes, and -trumpets. The play is often performed at a banquet, and after the guests -have finished their meal, the comedians take their places at the table; -after a short refreshment the guests are recalled and the play proceeded -with, or a new farce is chosen and performed as dessert.” - -Many of the plays are not destitute of poetry and plot. It may not be -uninteresting to give a short sketch of the style of incidents woven -into their plays by Chinese authors. - -The following is an outline of the plot of a play performed before the -English embassy, Lord Macartney’s, in the latter part of the last -century; it was given in a private theatre, by a private troupe. - -“An emperor of China and his empress are living in supreme felicity, -when on a sudden his subjects revolt. A civil war ensues, battles are -fought; and at last, the arch-rebel, who is a general of cavalry, -overcomes his sovereign, kills him with his own hand, and routs the -imperial army. - -The captive empress then appears upon the stage, in all the agonies of -despair, naturally resulting from the loss of her husband, and her -dignity, as well as the apprehension of that of her honor. Whilst she is -tearing her hair, and rending the skies with her complaints, the -conqueror enters, approaches her with respect, addresses her in a gentle -tone, soothes her sorrows with his compassion, talks of love and -adoration, and like Richard the Third with Lady Anne, in Shakespeare, -prevails, in less than half an hour, on the Chinese princess to dry up -her tears, to forget her deceased consort, and to yield to a consoling -wooer. The piece concludes with a wedding and a grand procession.”[131] - -Engel, who quotes the above plot, well says[132] “how interesting would -it be to the student of national music, to possess an exact notation of -the music belonging to this scene ‘(the empress complaints)’ and to -ascertain in what manner the intense emotions and vehement passions -represented are expressed in the Chinese musical compositions.” - -The above plot is curious in its Shakespearian resemblance, and seems to -be a drama of the superior order, for Lord Macartney was shown the -highest and best side of Chinese life and art; the comedies of the -people are less refined and of broader touches. We give as companion -piece to the above, a comedy plot which is a favorite one with Chinese -authors as well as the public. - -The emperor Vouti, having lost one of his wives, whom he tenderly loved, -had recourse to a celebrated magician, who assured him that his spouse -was not dead as supposed, for she had bought of him the elixir of -immortality; she still existed, but lived chiefly in the moon from -whence the magician promised he could cause her to descend as often as -desired. The emperor caused to be erected, under the superintendence of -the magician, a very high tower, to facilitate her descent; he also -often assisted at the incantations of the wizard, but as the fair -immortal did not respond, the imposter, fearing the anger of his royal -master, invented a new stratagem to avert this unpleasant conclusion. He -wrote upon a piece of silk a counterfeit letter from the dear defunct -giving various pretended reasons as to why she could not return -personally to the royal lover; this letter is given by the sorcerer to a -cow, who is then led by him to the emperor to whom he confesses that -some involuntary crime has, for the present, interrupted his intercourse -and influence with the immortal beings, but that in the stomach of the -cow he has perceived something; Vouti commands that the animal be opened -on the spot, and the silken message is discovered; the magician is -already enjoying his triumph when it is perceived that the characters of -the communication are in his own handwriting. He is at once condemned to -death, and the emperor thenceforth renounces magicians, immortal -elixirs, etc., etc.[133] - -It is well known that the Chinese often give, on the stage, a -representation of the life of the hero of the play from early infancy -(sometimes even _from birth_) to death, and these representations last -weeks in their performance; every action being done deliberately; for -example, if a performer smokes a pipe, he does not give a whiff or two -and then go on with the action, but calmly and placidly smokes it out to -the last puff. - -Fairy spectacles, the Chinese also possess, in which Genii appear and -disappear, as well as birds and beasts endowed with the power of speech. -Their farces are of a much broader character, and often in these, the -clownish, awkward character is a European or an American; they heartily -enjoy all his mishaps, even his manner of lifting his hat and bowing, -being held up to ridicule; it is very much the same kind of pleasure as -we “western barbarians” enjoy in seeing such farces as “_Ici on parle -Francais_” or “The Perplexed Dutchman,” where the habits of a Frenchman, -and German, are the mirth-provoking element; or of a piece with the -character of Sir Hugh Evans and Dr. Caius, in Shakespeare’s “Merry Wives -of Windsor.” - -There is another point of resemblance in Shakespeare, to the Chinese -drama: his following of the life of Henry VI. so closely and extensively -(through three parts) suggests the more extensive life-history-dramas of -the celestial empire. But the Chinese also give the “outside barbarians” -a thrust, _au serieux_; for in their plays the devil often appears, -dressed as a European. - -In the music of their dramas, the Chinese are decidedly Wagnerian, for -not only do they use a great many loud instruments (chiefly of -percussion) but they illustrate with them the action of the drama; when -an actor enters into a combat at arms, the orchestra pound away at their -instruments with redoubled vigor. The characters often sing long _arias_ -to the accompaniment of these voice-drowning instruments.[134] There is -much spoken action as well as song in these dramas, which therefore -approach more nearly to our _vaudevilles_ than any thing else. - -Choruses are few in Chinese pieces, but sometimes the air is sung by -many voices, in order to emphasize it, and make it more plainly -perceptible above the racket of the orchestra. - -The Chinese have also many tragedies and comedies wherein no music -whatever is employed. The actors in these, assuming the ordinary -conversational tone. - -Conjugal infelicity and infidelity, form a staple plot with these, and -the same inappropriate and ludicrous entering into detail is apparent in -them.[135] - -Movable scenes are not used, and the most infantile devices are used -when a rapid change is necessary; a general having to depart on a -distant expedition, mounts a hobby horse, or even a cane, and using a -small whip with one hand, imitates riding, (three or four times around -the theatre being sufficient) and then, announcing that he has arrived -at his destination, goes on with his speeches without any embarrassment. -This is but one example of the many where the dramatists draw heavily -upon the imagination of their audiences. - -The actor on entering (in the play) begins by announcing his name and -telling the audience why and wherefore he has come; this is done to -simplify the following of the action, as in some dramas there are hosts -of characters and one player often assumes many _roles_. - -Such puerility is caused partly by the small size of the stages, which -would not admit a host of performers, and partly by the fact that many -of the characters in a Chinese play are comparatively unimportant, -appearing once, and then vanishing forever; in fact at the end of some -of the Chinese dramas, one is considerably mystified as to the fate of -many of the characters, as the author, unlike the European and American -dramatists, who make everybody (except the villain) happy in the last -act, only deems it necessary to follow out closely the career of his -hero and heroine, and they being once dead, the other characters are -allowed to wind up in a very sudden and, to us, very unsatisfactory -manner. The musical part of these dramas is often quite long, and -whenever the actor desires to express much feeling, he falls into music. -Sometimes it is introduced in a most unnatural manner; in one tragedy, a -wife having murdered her husband is sentenced to be _flayed alive_; -after the execution of the sentence, she returns to the stage wholly -bereft of her skin, (this is depicted with true Chinese realistic -effect, the body of the performer being painted in exact imitation of -nature in such a hideous plight) and she then and there sings a song to -excite the pity of the infernal spirits. The song is full of screeches -and howls, and lasts half an hour.[136] Let us not be too hasty in -smiling at such absurd stage effects; there is an opera still performed -on our own stage, where an innocent Jewess is boiled in oil, as -_finale_, and as to the inappropriateness of a long song, under such -circumstances, there is a long chorus in a French opera of the last -century, where the mayor of the village having fallen into the water, -the anxious choristers sing for many minutes, that “he will he drowned -unless he is speedily helped out;” decidedly we must not smile too -broadly at the Chinese, as yet. - -Sir John Barrow[137] speaks of the theatre, which he visited, as a mere -“Shed of Bamboo.” He says: “In the farther division of the building, a -party of comedians were engaged in the midst of an historical drama, -when we entered; but on our being seated they broke off, and coming -forward, made before us an obeisance of nine genuflexions and -prostrations, after which they returned to their labors, keeping up an -incessant noise and bustle during our stay. The heat of the day, the -thermometer standing at eighty-one degrees, in the open air, and at -least ten degrees higher in the building, the crowds that thronged to -see the strangers [this was in 1792, when Europeans were great rarities -in China] the horrible crash of the gongs, kettle drums, trumpets, and -squalling flutes, were so stunning and oppressive that nothing but the -novelty of the scene could possibly have detained us a moment.” - -“The most entertaining, as well as the least noisy part of the -theatrical exhibition, was a sort of interlude, performed by three young -women, for the amusement it would seem of the principal actress, who sat -as a spectator, in the dress and character of some ancient queen, whilst -an old eunuch, very whimsically dressed, played his antic tricks like a -scaramouch, or buffoon in a Harlequin entertainment.” - -“The dialogue in this part, differed entirely from the querulous and -nearly monotonous recitation of the Chinese, being light and comic, and -occasionally interrupted by cheerful airs, which generally concluded -with a chorus. These airs rude and unpolished as they were, appeared to -be regular compositions, and were sung in exactly measured time. One in -particular attracted our attention, whose slow, melancholy movement -breathed the kind of plaintiveness so peculiar to the native airs of the -Scotch, to which indeed it bore a close resemblance.” [We have before -spoken of this resemblance, which proceeds from both scales, Chinese and -Scotch, being pentatonic, or five toned.] “The voices of the women are -shrill and warbling, but some of their cadences were not without melody. -The instruments at each pause gave a few short flourishes, till the -music gradually increased in loudness by the swelling and deafening -gong. Knowing nothing of the language we were of course as ignorant of -the subject as the majority of an English audience is at an Italian -opera.” Thus speaks Barrow of his first impressions of a Chinese -theatre, but he probably fell into two errors; the _women_, whom he -mentions were in all likelihood, eunuchs; and the theatre itself, being -public, was of inferior style to those private establishments which are -the pride of the rich mandarin class. - -It is singular, however, that the noise of the gong, tamtam, trumpet, -etc., are inseparable from all Chinese dramatic performances: although -the noise is deafening, and the voices of the actors are sometimes -drowned in spite of their shouting themselves hoarse, yet this -pandemonium only gives tranquil delight to the Chinese spectator whether -he be of high or low class. It is so extraordinary a fact that -physiologists and anatomists have endeavored to prove that the cause is -due to a peculiar formation of the Chinese ear.[138] - -Certain it is that the Chinese are so passionately fond of the drama, -that they will sometimes pass many hours in succession in this noisy -entertainment. - -There is a tremendous number of comedians in China; most of them are -purchased in early infancy by the chiefs of troupes, and by them trained -in music, singing, declamation, pantomime, and dance. It is a species of -slavery, not very unlike that of old Rome, but is not always life-long. - -Some comedians, especially the chiefs, acquire large fortunes in the -exercise of their calling, but the caste is so looked down upon, by the -general public, and the facility of confiscating their fortune is so -great, that they seldom attempt to leave the profession, or make any -display of their wealth, lest it should be seized under any pretext by -some mandarin, in which case (in spite of the theoretical justice of -China) it would probably be beyond recovery.[139] - -We may mention here, a peculiar mode of paying actors, in Cochin China. - -The occasion described is an entertainment, the expenses of which were -borne by the Quong, or provincial governor. An Englishman who was -present, thus speaks of the affair,—“The Quong was there squatted on a -raised platform in front of the actors, with a small drum before him, -supported in a diagonal position, on which he would strike a tap every -time any part of the performance pleased him; which was also a signal -for his purse bearer to show a small string of about twenty _cash_ to -the actors. To my taste this spoiled the effect of the piece; for every -time the _cash_ fell among them, there would be a silence, and the next -moment a scramble for the money; and it fell so frequently as almost to -keep time with the discordant music of the orchestra. - -The actors were engaged by the day, and in this manner received their -payment, the amount of which depended upon the approbation of the -_Quong_, and the number of times he encored them by tapping his drum. I -could see that many of them paid far more attention to the drum than -they did to their performance; though I suppose the amount thrown to -them is equally divided. Sometimes the string on which the _cash_ was -tied, unluckily broke, and the money flew in all directions; by which -some of the by-standers profited, not being honorable enough to hand it -up to the poor actors.[140] - -This was a public performance and took place in a large shed, before a -numerous audience. Often the theatrical performances are allowed to take -place in the Joss-houses or houses of worship, the _bonzes_ or priests -being wise enough not to offer any obstacles to a mode of amusement so -thoroughly loved and appreciated by all the Chinese. - -It is somewhat singular, and yet in keeping with the custom of the most -ancient nations, that the Chinese should at the same time enjoy the -drama so keenly, and despise the performers of it. The comedians are -kept as thoroughly within their caste as musicians were in Egypt, four -thousand years ago. Parents in China have almost unlimited power over -their children (filial love and obedience is the highest of Chinese -virtues,) they may sell them as slaves, or in some instances kill them, -but they are not allowed to sell them to the troupes of strolling -comedians, or to magicians. Any person so selling them is punished with -one hundred blows of the bamboo, and any go-between or middle-man, in -such transactions, receives a similar dose; any person of free -parentage, marrying an actor or actress, is punished in the same manner, -in spite of the precedent of several emperors. The crime of intimacy -with actresses is punishable with sixty blows, but this is easily -eluded, and the law seems to be obsolete. This punishment is not -attended with much infamy; the bastinado is in fact the lightest of -Chinese punishments. When the number of blows does not exceed twenty, -there is no disgrace whatever attached to the infliction: it is then -considered only a paternal chastisement; the emperor himself often -orders this correction to be administered to high officials for slight -faults, and afterwards treats them as if nothing had happened. After -such paternal punishment is inflicted, the victim goes on his knees to -the judge, bows his head three times to the earth, and _thanks him_ for -the care he has given to the education of his subject.[141] - -It is significant that the “State Gazette” of Pekin, which will often -enter into details concerning the death of a private soldier, and give -eulogies to the military valor of the most humble, does not even mention -the decease of the most brilliant and well-known comedian, no matter how -much applause may have been accorded to him while living. - -In such a country as China, it is easily imagined that there exists a -large troupe of “comedians to the emperor.” These although not more -superbly costumed than those of some rich mandarins, are clothed in a -peculiar manner. Of course it would not be allowable to turn their backs -upon the emperor, and yet often the action of the play, might demand -that they turn around. This dilemma is overcome by allowing them to wear -two masks, one on the face, the other at the back of their head, and -thus, Janus-like, they can always face the emperor. Their clothing is in -consequence different from that of ordinary actors, having two fronts -and no back.[142] - -The _corps_ of singers, declaimers and musicians of all kinds belonging -to the Imperial court, is of course very large. - -The dances of China, are as with all Eastern or ancient nations, purely -pantomimical, there are few pirouettes and skips as in our _ballet_. The -names and subjects of some of the earlier dancers, will show this -conclusively; “The labors of Agriculture,” “Joys of the Harvest,” “The -fatigues of War,” “The pleasures of Peace,” “The skill of Hunting,” etc. -These all show a primitive style of the art, and are not far removed -from the dances we shall find in vogue among the most crude children of -nature, such as the Australians, the Bushmen, or the Tasmanians. The -Chinese possess (as did the Egyptians) a number of gymnastic -performances similar to our clog, ballet, and comic dances, but these -come a long way after the dance proper, in the estimation of the people; -the word _ou_ which signifies dance, does not apply to them. We cannot -be surprised if from earliest times the regulation of the dance has been -a matter of State legislation. - -The ancient emperor was allowed eight dances, with eight performers to -each, his full troupe containing sixty-four members. Kings of Provinces -had six dances of six performers, thirty-six in all; and thus through -all the upper ranks, literary doctors being allowed only two dances of -two performers each. Only certain instruments were allowed as -accompaniment, and the direction of the whole was always to be in charge -of various musical doctors. There also existed dances which were called -“little dances,” as they were taught to children at a tender age; the -names of some of these are interesting; “the Dance of the Flag,” danced -in honor of the spirits of earth and the harvests, so called because the -dancers waved small banners; “The Dance of the Plumes,” in honor of the -spirits of the four quarters of the world, in which the young dancers -carried a plume of white feathers, attached to a short stick; “The Dance -of the Foang-hoang,” which was danced to induce the assistance of the -mysterious bird (already described) in times of drought, and in which -the dancers held plumes of feathers of five colors; “the Dance of the Ox -Tail,” in which each dancer swings an ox tail; “The Dance of Javelins,” -where this weapon was brandished in honor of river and mountain spirits; -and finally, “the Dance of Man,” in which the hands were quite free, no -accessories being used. - -The “Javelin Dance,” was not altogether pleasing to the great -philosopher Confucius. He condemns it as being too war-like, and the -gestures accompanying it, as too savage; as a whole he thought it liable -to inspire cruel sentiments. He preferred the “Dance of the Plumes,” as -containing all the chief elements of the “Javelin Dance” without -tendency to cruelty. In the palace, the sons of the emperor only, were -permitted to the “Dance of the Plumes.” - -At the epoch, when these dances were at their zenith, the emperors had a -peculiar way of showing by them their approbation, or condemnation of -their viceroys. When the viceroy was presented at court, if his -administration seemed good to the emperor, he was welcomed by numerous -and lengthy dances; if, on the contrary his government seemed worthy of -censure, the dances were both short and few. - -The following were the customs observed in presenting them:—Long before -the dance began, a drum was sounded “to dispel from the minds of the -spectators any thoughts unsuited to the occasion.” On the arrival of the -performers, they took three steps forward and put themselves in an -attitude, calculated to impress the beholders; a sort of _tableau -vivant_. The entrance was always accompanied with a slow movement of the -music, which gradually augmented both in speed and volume, until the -_finale_, when the climax having been reached, the music had attained a -presto movement, and the dancers retired with precipitation in order -that the interest might not have time to flag. - -Sometimes the dancers carried a small shield with bell attached. - -The Chinese sages deeply regret the loss of these ancient dances; (for -like all excellent customs the modern writers claim that they were at -their best in “the good old times,”) it seems that the ancient Chinese, -endeavored in the dance, to reproduce an easily-comprehended allegory of -the natural actions of men; the movements, gestures, attitudes, and -evolutions, all to be natural and easily understood by the spectators. -Since the days of Confucius, this simple style of dancing has fallen -greatly to decay. - -In those days many of the emperors of China studied and understood the -art of dancing. History shows many such “Davids” (although not so well -known as Israel’s royal dancer) in the dynasties of the empire. Autumn -was the favorite season for the study of dancing, as the “feast of -ancestors” takes place in the Spring, and the pupils were ready to -exhibit their proficiency at that great event. The ancient practice of -imperial dancing, was continued even as recently as 1719, when one of -the sons of Kang-hi, of the age of twenty, performed before the emperor -and his court. There are also mandarins whose duty it is to dance before -the emperor; the pantomime of these is especially graceful and -dignified. They advance slowly two by two, their limbs and bodies moving -gently to the time of a tranquil music; they turn around without -quitting their relative positions, and after a series of gestures made -in perfect unison, and some symmetrical evolutions, they make the salute -of honor, and retire. This dance seems to be only a formal expression of -homage to the emperor. The dress of these officials is uniform, and -elegant, fine silk capes, caps, etc., the only difference of costume -being the buttons, with which the top of the caps are ornamented; the -different color of these being indicative of greater or lesser rank. -This _corps_ of dancers is recruited from the wealthiest and greatest -families of the empire. - -In the dances, every detail is strictly systemized and observed; the -very positions are calculated according to the points of the compass; -thus one dancer is always placed at the north-west, another at the -north-east, the entrance is to be made from a fixed cardinal point, the -exit at another; all is rule and precision. - -The number of dancers is not at present limited to that given above -(sixty-four for the emperor, thirty-six for viceroys, etc.) as the -ancient standard. At times of great festivity, the dancers of the -Imperial court are reckoned by hundreds. Such _grandes ballets_, are -almost always symmetrical and in concerted movements; but there are also -_solo_ dances; in these _pas seuls_ the dancer often accompanies himself -with both song and instrument. This proves how slow and majestic the -motions must be. - -In dances, females very often appear, but in private only. Mandarins -frequently own female dancers and singers, whose performances are -reserved for their own families. It is but rarely, and as a mark of -especial honor, that they allow some intimate friend to view the dancing -of these slaves. - -Spectacular pantomimes, such as delight the theatre-goers at Christmas -time in Europe and America, find also a congenial atmosphere in China; a -most beautiful one was performed in the presence of the emperor, and -Lord Macartney, in 1793. In this representation the object seemed to be, -to illustrate upon the stage, the wonders and fertility of the world, or -an allegory of the intermarriage of earth and ocean. The earth gave -forth in this pantomime, a large number of its animals, and products; -elephants, tigers, dragons, ostriches and eagles, as well as oaks, -pines, bamboos, and other specimens of vegetation appeared upon the -stage; while upon a lower stage, the ocean sent forth whales, dolphins, -porpoises, and also vessels, rocks, weeds, sponges, and coral. Each of -these creations was true to life, and in many of them were concealed -actors who represented the motions and habits of the animals in a manner -quite natural. After these products of earth and sea had performed -several evolutions separately, each division moving in a separate -circle, all united and came to the front of the stage, where a farther -series of movements was enacted; suddenly the entire mass of actors -divided, moving swiftly to the right and left in order to give place to -the whale, who seemed a sort of commander in chief. This immense fish -then advanced to the front of the stage, opposite the box in which the -emperor was seated; on arriving here, he lifted his head and spurted an -enormous mass of water, amounting to many barrels full, into the pit of -the theatre; where (holes having been bored to receive it) it swiftly -disappeared.[143] - -This performance seemed to give the greatest delight to the Chinese part -of the audience. The music attached to this spectacle, was as usual of -the most deafening character. - -Of the lower order of dances, such as tumbling, harlequinades, etc., the -Chinese have a vast variety; even puppet shows (_marionettes_) are -greatly used by them, and plays with simple plots, very skilfully given -by their means. This is the story represented at one of them;—An -unfortunate princess is kept prisoner in a castle surrounded by dragons: -to her comes a bold warrior, who after many combats with dragons, wild -beasts and other horrible creations, succeeds in killing, vanquishing -and dispersing them. He is recompensed by receiving the hand of the -grateful princess, and the whole concludes with processions, tournaments -and other festivities.[144] - -As to the musical part of all these lesser performances, it is nearly -always present, and ever of the peculiar style which has filled every -traveller (so far as we know _without exception_), with utter distaste. -The juggling performances, of which there are many, both public and -private, are accompanied throughout with the above described orchestra. -Feats of skill, performed by troupes of children are especially admired -by the Chinese, and much sought for. The children begin their training -in these arts, very young. - -Boat races have also their music, which is evidently intended to -inspirit the oarsmen. The following is a description of such an event, -(so far as it relates to music). - -“On each side of the little mast that supports the national flag, are -two men, who leave off striking the tum-tum, and executing rolls upon -the drum, whilst the mariners leaning over their oars, row on -vigorously, and make the dragon junk, skim rapidly over the water. - -Whilst these elegant boats are contending with each other, the people -throng the quays, the shore and the roofs.... They animate the rowers -with their cries and plaudits; they let off fireworks; they perform at -various points, deafening music, in which the sonorous noise of the -tum-tum, and the sharp sound of a sort of a clarinet, giving perpetually -the same note, predominate over all the rest. The Chinese relish this -infernal harmony.”[145] - -We have dwelt with some detail upon the music of the Chinese, for we -consider these people, musically as well as ethnologically and -philologically a series of contradictions, and especially differing from -all our conceived notions of right and propriety: a nation where music -is heartily loved, and taught to youth,[146] and yet where musical -progress is almost unknown; where goodness and love are taught in the -most beautiful writings, and where greater cruelties are practised than -anywhere else on earth. They differ from us on almost every point. We -mourn in black, they in white; we respect crowns as badges of honor, -they the boots; we build solid walls, they make them hollow; we pull a -boat, they push it; we place the orchestra in front of the stage; they -behind it; with us children fly kites, with them, men; we scratch the -head when puzzled, they, the antipodes of it, etc, etc.[147] - -A nation so strange cannot be judged flippantly or speedily; only a -short time since we held the Japanese in the rank of the semi-civilized; -now they are making giant strides on the highway of progress. Who dare -say that the Chinese may not yet experience a similar awakening? At -present their heaviest drawbacks, in music, as well as in all -civilization, seem to be, a senseless clinging to ancient usages; an -education of the head, and not of the heart; an etiquette which becomes -both ludicrous and burdensome in its requirements;[148] a totally false -position of woman; and a theoretically competitive, but practically -corrupt public service. There have recently been unmistakeable signs of -progress, and, once begun, it is more than probable that the reform will -be thorough and swift as it has thus far been with their neighbors. In -such case, China will be of far higher interest to the world than she -has been to us in our describing her as—a curiosity shop. - - - - - CHAPTER XVII. - MUSIC OF JAPAN. - - -It is a singular fact, that while the Japanese have in all ages given a -great deal of attention to poetry the kindred art of music has been -suffered to remain almost neglected. Their musical system has never been -carefully formed or elucidated, and although they may vie with the -Chinese in the beauty of their poetical effusions, in the field of music -their research is nothing, when compared with the immense patience and -study which the latter people have given to the subject. - -Although there are few treatises on the art, yet the practice of music -is now deemed an essential part of the education of a Japanese young -lady, for contrary to Chinese custom, we find that in Japan, the female -sex are proficient in the art. - -Although at first glance there seems to be much affinity between -Japanese and Chinese music, (so much so, that it seems natural to -suppose that the former was an outgrowth of the latter) yet, upon closer -analysis, these resemblances are found to be few, and the contradictions -many and irreconcilable. - -The Japanese songs do not appear to have been founded on the Chinese -pentatonic scale, but rather upon the _chromatic_. - -It is very possible, that the music of Japan had its rise long ago, -within the limits of the island. Unfortunately, in this branch of -history, we can as yet, come to no definite conclusion; the absence of -all knowledge of the system (if there be one worthy of the name) on -which their melodies are formed, and the very slight knowledge of the -ancient history of the people, confine us altogether to conjecture and -inference. That China exerted some influence upon the musical style of -Japan, is undeniable. In the year (A. D.) 57, an embassy was sent from -the island, to the Emperor of China, with presents. The return of this -expedition, brought to the (at that time) totally rude and uncultivated -people, the fruits of the older Chinese civilization, and it was -probably at that epoch, that the Chinese instruments, which still exist -in Japan, were introduced. - -The instruments of Japan, though resembling, are much cruder than their -Chinese, prototypes. The _che_, of China, is found under the name of -_koto_. It is larger than the _che_, but has fewer strings; the latter -are of silk, lightly lacquered. The _sam-sin_ is a guitar, with a very -long neck, and has three strings. These instruments are among the -indispensable articles of the wedding outfit of every bride.[149] - -Of wind instruments they have many styles of flutes and a trumpet, made -of a conch shell.[150] The _cheng_ (small mouth organ) is also possessed -by them. It is called in Corean dialect _saing-hwang_.[151] Gongs, -tamtams, and noisy instruments of percussion, the Japanese possess in -profusion; they have also a curious instrument, quite like the Egyptian -sistrum,[152] formed of two sonorous metallic rings upon a light frame -work, which give forth a tinkling and jingling upon being shaken, or -struck with a small stick.[153] The _ko-kiou_ is a kind of violoncello -played with a bow; the birva is a similar instrument, which is picked -with a _plectrum_. The same plectrum is used in performing upon the -_sam-sin_. The clarionet is used very frequently; it is made of bamboo, -like the flute. There is also an eight-holed flageolet. Among the -instruments of percussion, are wooden rattles; stone drums like bowls, -which stand on low frames; a musical drum made of leather; the -_tam-tam_, or portable tambourine; gongs of all shapes, such as shields, -fishes, tortoises, etc., producing all tones grave and piercing; bells, -and kettle drums. - -The tambourines which accompany the character dances, are sometimes -played two at a time; one being held under the arm, the other in the -left hand.[154] There is a picture extant, representing a Japanese -concert, in which there is one melodious instrument (a flute) against -_six_ instruments of percussion, such as bells, cymbals and drums.[155] - -The Japanese ladies not only play the various instruments, but study -singing, assiduously. The language is well adapted to vocal efforts, -being one of the most melodious and soft of the East; it approaches the -Italian in its smoothness; it is monosyllabic,[156] but not varying with -the pitch of the voice, as the Chinese does. (The written characters -have been derived from the Chinese.) The very alphabet, or the nearest -Japanese approach to it, is converted into a short song, which is -characteristic of the materialistic views of the people. - -The poetic setting of the “Irova” (as this is called) runs thus:— - - “Color and light pass away - In our world nothing is permanent - The present day has disappeared - In the profound abyss of nothingness. - It was but the pale image of a dream; - It causes in our bosoms no regret.”[157] - -Nothing can give a stronger picture of the philosophy of Buddhism and -its influence upon the Japanese mind. - -Buddhism was so well suited to the temper of the people, that upon its -introduction into the country (A. D. 552) it almost absorbed the ancient -style of worship (Sintuism), and has, at the present time, so altered -that superstition, that the prevailing aspiration of one branch, even of -that creed, is an escape from trouble into nothingness. The mode of -worship is exceedingly simple, and in the main, joyous; there is no -thought of supplication to their deities; for as they regard these as -being in a state of bliss, they deem that the sight of any person in -distress, must be painful to them, and therefore, when in trouble, they -avoid going to religious exercises. In fact on the days of religious -festivals, they behave in a manner which we should call decidedly -immoral, but they do it with the best of motives, for they argue that -nothing can please the gods more than to see mortals enjoying themselves -heartily; and on this plea, both Buddhists and Sintuists indulge in all -kinds of excesses on holidays. - -Music does not play a very important part in the religious ceremonies of -Japan. The Sintuists, who worship the Kami, or demi-gods, employ choirs -on some occasions, and bear in all their ceremonies, some resemblance to -the Catholic rites; this resemblance is yet more striking in the -Buddhist religion; so much so, that a pious divine[158] on beholding -their customs, came to the conclusion that the whole was a parody by -Satan, upon the Catholic church. - -The annual _fetes_ instituted in honor of the chief Kami, consist almost -wholly in ceremonies of purification. On the day before the chief -solemnity, the priests march in procession, with tapers, to the temple -where the arms and other objects which belonged to the demi-god, are -kept in a reliquary called _mikosi_. According to the priests, the -_mikosi_ is the earthly dwelling place of the _Kami_; a sort of -terrestrial throne, for occasional inhabitance; and each year it must -undergo a thorough purification, in order to be acceptable to the hero. -The reliquary is emptied and brought to the river; a certain number of -priests carefully wash it, while others kindle a series of huge fires, -to keep away the evil _genii_. The _kagoura_, or sacred choir, play soft -and pleasant music, in order to appease the Kami, who is temporarily -deprived of his earthly dwelling; they make as much haste as possible to -restore it to him, which is done by placing the relics again in the -reliquary. - -The temple itself undergoes a purification lasting several days, at the -same time. Sometimes the Buddhists send out collectors for their -temples, who sing and play, quite musically, in front of the doors of -persons from whom they expect to obtain a gratuity; they continue at -each door until the heart of the proprietor is softened, or his patience -gone, when the door is opened and the singers rewarded civilly.[159] - -In order that the similarity of the Buddhist and Christian rites may be -remarked, we give the description of the interior of a temple during -worship, as seen by a European traveller.[160] - -“A hundred kneeling devotees were present; a large shrine, with a gilt -image in its recess; two large globular lamps, and two burning candles, -immensely long and thick; as also numerous gold and porcelain vases, -holding lighted tapers, and surrounded by a forest of artificial -flowers, were the objects that most riveted his attention. On both sides -of this magnificent and richly gilded shrine were two smaller ones, each -illuminated with lighted candles and perfumed tapers, burning with -colored flame; the effect of which was very beautiful. In front of the -principal altar, within an enclosure, knelt six shaven-headed priests -(the latter, and physicians shave the whole of the hair off their -heads), robed in crimson silk, and white crape; the centre and chief of -whom engaged himself in striking a small saucer-shaped bell, while four -more of the number performed a similar duty with padded drumsticks on -hollow vessels of lacquered wood, which awoke a dull, monotonous sound. -They kept good time, playing in unison, and toning their prayers to -their music in chanting. At the conclusion of this singing and drumming -they bent their foreheads to the floor, after which they arose and -repaired to the smaller shrines, where a ceremony made up of -gesticulation and a solemn reading of prayers, took place. In the -meantime, the audience knelt, with their eyes directed to the ground, -and gave some time to silent prayer.” - -Music bore a part also in the funeral ceremonies of some sects in Japan. -The priest sang a eulogy of the dead, just before the funeral pile was -set on fire.[161] - -The order of “mountain priests” use a few instruments of sound (rather -than music) in their wanderings. They have a staff with a copper head, -to which are fastened four rings, also of copper, which they shake on -uttering certain words in their prayers. They also carry a shell called -_forano-kai_, to which a tube is attached, and which they use as a -trumpet. They blow a blast upon this instrument (which in tone resembles -the horn of a cowherd) whenever they see any travellers approaching, as -a summons to them to give some charity to the order.[162] - -There also exist several orders of a semi-ecclesiastical character; -among which may be mentioned the society of blind men. One branch of -this society gives the following legend as to its origin. Kakekigo, a -general much renowned for his valor and supernatural strength, fought -under a prince, named Feki, against the famous hero, Joritomo. In a -great battle Feki was killed, and Kakekigo taken prisoner. Joritomo, far -from desiring to put him to death, sought by every means to attach him -to his own army. One day, when he was pressing him very close to enter -into his service, upon whatever terms he pleased, the captive general -returned him the following resolute answer:—“I was once the faithful -servant of a kind master. Now that he is dead no other shall boast of -possessing my faith and friendship. I owe even my life to your clemency; -and yet such is my misfortune, that I cannot set my eyes on you, but -with a design, in revenge of him and me, to cut off your head. -Therefore, these designing instruments of mischief, I will offer to you, -as the only acknowledgement of your generous behavior towards me which -my unhappy condition will allow me to give you.” Saying this, he plucked -out his eyes, and presented them, on a salver, to Joritomo; who, -astonished at so much magnanimity and resolution, instantly set him at -liberty. - -Kakekigo then retired into the province of Fiuga, where he learned to -play upon the birva (a musical instrument mentioned above), and founded -the society of the Feki-blind, of which he himself was the first head. -Many of the members of this society apply themselves to music, in which -capacity they are employed at the courts of Princes and great men, as -also upon public solemnities, festivals, processions, weddings, and the -like. The society does not solicit charity, but its members all strive -to be self-supporting, as well as of mutual assistance to each other. -Whoever is once admitted as a member, must remain so for life.[163] - -The Birva, mentioned above, is a great favorite with the masses, -especially when played by the Feki musicians, who still make it their -chief instrument. It has been known in Japan for twelve hundred -years;[164] and one of the most beautiful lakes in Japan, near Kiota is -named Birva Lake, from its shores resembling the outline of that -instrument. - -The religious chanting of some of the larger sects, is quite impressive. -Mr. Sile, Professor of History and Philosophy at the Imperial University -of Yeddo, says:—“Some of the chants are very impressive; especially -those of the Buddhists; they have a kind of sepulchral solemnity about -them, and when performed responsively by large companies of Bonzes, on -either side of a gloomy temple, in front of a shadowy half-illumined -shrine, they sound like the mournful wailings of prisoners, not of hope, -but of despair.”[165] - -The peculiarity of the performance lies in this: every man chants, not -on a given key, but on that which best suits his natural voice. The time -is well kept, but the key notes are as various as each voice that sings; -as each one is allowed to choose his own pitch. The effect is good; it -giving that blurred and massive sound, which is observed when a large -congregation repeats the “Lord’s Prayer” together; but the inflections -and intervals are more marked and effective. Instrumental music is also -sometimes present. The bonzes clad in heavy, sacerdotal vestments, -officiate to an accompaniment of gongs and tambourines. - -The solemn entry of the high priest into the choir, makes an immediate -diversion in the monotony of the service. This grand dignitary is clad -as richly as the bishops and arch-bishops of the west; red cloak, green -silk stole, and white embroidered robes. He is followed by a young -acolyte, dressed chiefly in white, who accompanies his master, step by -step, to offer to him, at an understood signal, a cup of tea from a -portable vessel which he carries with both hands.[166] - -Some of the Buddhist bonze-houses are celebrated for their luxury, the -number of their priests, their magnificent attire, and the theatrical -grandeur of their religious ceremonies. There are also endless numbers -of retainers, heralds, grooms and porters, attached to the monasteries. -The bonzes often give theatrical spectacles, in which dancers and -comedians appear. A very curious piece is given on the fifteenth day of -the sixth month. It is a sword dance, or military pageant, performed -entirely by the priests. Buddhism in Japan has been a most flexible and -conciliatory religion. It has succeeded so easily against the older -Japanese religion of Kami, or hero-worship, because its introducers saw -what customs had become rooted in the Japanese heart, and retained them. -Thus we find the worship of heroes, tolerated in the Buddhist faith, as -well as every spectacle and sound, calculated to please the senses of -the people. It also steered clear of the rock upon which Christianity -split (in Japan), that is, the alienation of the people from their -rulers or sovereign. - -Players of secular music, are numerous everywhere in Japan, but few of -them have any idea of time or notation. Blind musicians (of the -fraternity above mentioned, and of another called the Buffetz) are -numerous and much encouraged by the people, probably on account of their -infirmity. Women and girls form the bulk of the secular players and -singers. Most of these have been brought up to this from childhood, and -(as with the ancient Greeks,) the possession of a musical and literary -education often goes hand in hand with considerable laxity of morals. - -The practice of music is, therefore, not held in any great esteem among -men, as the few males who devote themselves to it are chiefly -itinerants. The secular songs are often plaintive in character, but at -times also quite stirring and fiery. - -In Japan, as in some other Eastern countries, it is not unusual to find -persons among the upper classes, who, while disdaining to study the art -themselves, yet are very fond of listening to the performances of hired -musicians. The taste seems to run entirely in the direction of melody, -and not at all towards harmony; although they have a knowledge of a rude -kind of harmony, consisting of melodies played upon two or more -instruments tuned a fifth apart, thus forming an endless succession of -consecutive fifths. This harmony, or a plain melody played in unison, -they prefer to the finest (or, in fact, any) European music. Our readers -will recollect the answer made by the Chinese mandarin to Pere Amiot, -relative to his opinion on the respective worth of Chinese and European -music. A similar reply was given by a Japanese nobleman to Dr. Müller, -when asked to give an opinion on our music,—“European music may please -women, children, and common people, but Japanese gentlemen may not -endure it.” - -In singing, the Chinese custom of using falsetto tones, obtains also in -Japan. One peculiar taste for Western music exists among the Japanese; -they like, and purchase many of our music boxes, and many are made in -Switzerland especially for the Chinese and Japanese market. These -contain two Chinese airs; but it is said that the people would enjoy -them even more, if there were no harmonies attached. The entire -instrumental music of Japan, partakes of a tinkling character, -suggestive of a music box. - -Secular singing is an indispensable adjunct of banqueting and feasting. -These are frequently enlivened by songs and the sound of stringed -instruments.[167] - -The Japanese have a great _penchant_ for excursions, banquets and lively -enjoyments; they have been, not inaptly, called the “Parisians of the -West;” hence it is not surprising to find houses of entertainment -scattered broadcast throughout the realm. In these tea houses, every -kind of dissipation, from the most innocent, to the reverse, is found, -often under the same roof. The most aristocratic of these resorts, have -a numerous staff of attendants, among which are singers, dancers, and -guitar-players. Although these establishments appear disreputable in -European eyes, yet the Japanese gentleman does not hesitate to take his -wife and children thither, for a pleasure jaunt. When we consider that -the Japanese are the most careful people in the world regarding the -education and behavior of their wives and children, we cannot attribute -this seeming incongruity to negligence. - -In tea houses of an inferior rank, when female dancers and musicians are -not among the assistants, they may be sent for, and engaged by the hour. -These women never enter the lower class of tea-houses, unless thus sent -for. In this respect, as well as by the correctness of their behavior, -they are to be distinguished from the lower order of street musicians -and dancers at fairs. These are not allowed to perform in private -houses; the law compels them to confine their music to such places as -are subject to police regulations. Theatres being included in this -category, they often appear there, at the request of performers in the -plays, in order to figure in the ballet.[168] - -In Yeddo, many of the tea houses are built along the banks of the river; -and in this case, they have large family boats or gondolas attached, -which they let out by the hour, to such parties (and there are many) as -desire to take their recreation upon the water. Guitar players and -refreshments are furnished with these boats. - -The lower classes are passionately fond of listening to story tellers -and singers, and these, as in other Eastern countries, give open air -performances, trusting to their ability to delight their audience, for a -voluntary recompense. - -Every day at the close of working hours, one may see groups of artizans, -and laborers, as well as many women of the working classes, either at -the door of the workshop or at a street corner, arranged in a -semi-circle around the story-teller. - -National legends and romances are usually given only by those women who -have made a profession of music and singing. This branch of street -singers forms a large class; they are less roving than the others, and -sometimes of rather a high order of talent, as compared with their more -itinerant associates. The most distinguished of them have three or four -musicians as accompanists, and do not themselves play upon any -instrument. The effect of these combinations is said sometimes to be -very charming, when heard and seen on a summer’s evening, in a light -bamboo frame work, hung round with vines, and lighted with paper -lanterns. - -Humbert has given the subject of some of these legendary songs, and they -are found to be of a most sensational description. A few examples will -suffice to prove this. - -“Asahina-Sabro charges a troop of enemies, and passes through them, -lifting with his right hand, a soldier wearing a casque and cuirass, and -spinning him round in the air, while with the left hand he kills two -equally redoubtable warriors with one blow of his mace.”[169] - -“Nitan-nosiro, the dauntless hunter, astride on the back of a gigantic -wild boar, which has flung down, and trodden under its hoofs, all the -companions of the hero, holds the furious monster between his knees, and -plunges his cutlass into its shoulder.” - -“Sonsige, one of the horsemen of the Mikado, finds his comrades -squatting around a checker board; he spurs his horse, and with one -bound, it stands in the centre of the board, as motionless as any bronze -equestrian statue.” - -“Tame-tomo desired to conquer the island of Fatsisis. As he mercifully -desired to avoid bloodshed, he set about convincing the islanders that -resistance was useless. He therefore summoned the two strongest men of -the race of the Ainos (the ancient inhabitants of Japan) and, seated -calmly upon a mass of rock, he presented his bow to them, holding it by -the wood and ordering them to try and bend it. Each seized it with both -hands, and setting their heels against the wood of the bow, they leaned -back with all their weight, and pulled the string with all their -strength. Every effort was in vain; the bow only yielded when Tame-tomo -took it delicately between the finger and thumb of his right hand, and -shot an arrow which was immediately lost in the clouds.” - -It must be remembered, however, that these highly spiced romances are -the especial pabulum of the lower classes; and it may be ranked -considerably higher than the musical recreation of the working classes -of China. - -The laborers of Japan, sometimes sing while at their toil, in a measured -but cheerful manner.[170] Before leaving the subject of Japanese songs, -it may be interesting to note that in the days of Kæmpfer, the Japanese -were as curious about our songs, as we are to hear those of barbaric -nations; for the emperor and his court, insisted upon that grave -historian dancing, and singing before them.[171] On one of these -interesting occasions the historian basely deceived the imperial -Japanese searcher after knowledge; for on being commanded to sing, he -sang to the emperor, a love ditty, which “he had formerly composed for a -lady, for whom he had a particular esteem;” and upon the emperor -inquiring the meaning of the song, he answered that it was an ode of -praise, in honor of the emperor and his court.[172] Let us hope that the -Japanese will not lead our investigators astray in such a manner. - -The court of Japan had, at that era, musicians attached to its service, -though by no means on the grand scale of the Chinese court. The empress -had her private band, consisting of players upon the birva, the koto, -and the samsinn. Theatrical representations were sometimes added to -music. A corps of young comedians played little operas, or executed -character dances, some grave and slow, in which a long mantle was worn; -others lively and playful, the dancers appearing suddenly and with -appropriate movements, in the disguise of birds or butterflies. - -The court ladies had their private boxes at the theatre and at the -circus of wrestlers; many of these customs still exist at the Japanese -court but not with the spirit and life of former days. - -Processional music is, in Japan, similar to that described in “Chinese -Music,” noisy and distressing; but it is by no means so generally used -as in China. In some processions it is not present at all. The emperor -formerly appears to have had no music in his pompous cavalcades, for a -description of one of these pageants (written in the seventeenth -century), thus concludes: - -“It is at the same time in the utmost silence that the procession -proceeds. No one is heard to speak a word. Neither the spectators in the -streets, nor those who form the procession, make the least noise. It can -only be perceived by the sound of men’s footsteps, and the tramping of -horses.”[173] - -At the ecclesiastical processions, which take place on days devoted to -special _Kami_, (similar to the saints days of Europe), and called -_Matsouri_, the music consists of the fifes, drums, and gongs of the -bonzery. Of course these processions vary in proportion to the -popularity of the special Kami or saint. The greatest _Matsouri_ which -takes place at Yeddo, is that given in honor of Zinmou, the founder of -the empire. Even those who do not believe in Kami-worship, attend this -feast to show respect to their country, and it has become a patriotic as -well as religious occasion. Over a million of spectators, annually view -this procession. In the ranks appear an image of the patron of sacred -dancing, borne on a large drum; and the sacred gong of the priests. The -band on this occasion is large, and flutes, trumpets, big drums, -cymbals, gongs, and tambourines are among the instruments carried. The -expenses of the lesser _Matsouri_ are often defrayed by the people of a -street or quarter which is specially devoted to the _Kami_ in whose -honor it is held. - -Many of the customs above alluded to are sensibly losing their hold on -the populace, since the recent introduction of our civilization; this is -especially the case with such customs as come under government -surveillance. The military music for example, has been remodelled on the -European plan; regimental bands in French style (that is with a -preponderance of drums), are now attached to the Japanese national army. -The trumpet calls are said to be played with much aptitude by the -Japanese performers, but in the matter of time-keeping by the band, and -keeping step to the music by the soldiers, exactness is yet far from -being attained.[174] In the theatre and its music, there is, as yet, not -so great a change from former days, yet there are many European customs -to be found there (though probably not all derived from Europe), and the -theatre differs from that of China, in having a curtain in front of the -stage; in being often built upon a permanent site; and in other -particulars. - -The plays although sometimes quite as minute in details as the Chinese, -are much shorter, lasting usually about two hours; and are often much -wittier. - -There has been a peculiar manner of presenting these plays; if five -plays are to be performed in one day, the following mode has sometimes -been adopted.[175] - -The performers go through the first act of the first play, then the -first act of the second play, and so on until the five _first acts_ have -been given. They then take the _second_ act of each play in succession, -and so on, until all the last acts are given. The object of this custom -is to enable spectators to see one act, go away, and come again in time -for the next act. - -Often, however, the spectators remain throughout the entire day, and in -that case refreshments are openly consumed. It is also thought correct -for ladies to change their dress as often as possible during the day, so -that there is as much change of costume, in front of the stage as upon -it. In the Japanese comedies there is generally a large amount of love -making. The tragedies deal chiefly with the exploits of the mythological -heroes, and are expressed in verse, sometimes declaimed, sometimes -sung.[176] The terrific combat is an acknowledged essential of this -order of plays.[177] - -The effect of the martial scenes is much increased by a bass drum, -called “taiko” (after a celebrated ancient warrior), which is sometimes -played with a smaller one called “kakko.”[178] - -The building where these plays take place is very plain. The theatre at -Matsmai, the capital city of the Island of Jesso, is thus -described.[179] - -“It is a large and pretty high building; at the back is a stage which -with us, has a raised floor. From the stage to the front wall, where the -entrance is situated, two rows of seats are placed for the spectators. -In the middle where we have the pit, there is a vacant space in which -straw mats are laid down for the spectators. As this space is much lower -than the stage, those in front do not intercept the view from those -behind. Opposite the stage, where in our theatre the galleries and chief -boxes are situated there are only a bare wall, and the door for -entrance. - -There were no ornaments in the interior; the walls were not even -painted. The dresses and decorations are kept in a separate building.” - -In Yeddo this is far different and keeps more pace with civilization, -and, as Yeddo supplies the surrounding provinces with both actors and -plays, the change is spreading throughout the empire. The plays begin at -six or seven, P. M., and last (without the before-mentioned -alternations) until one or two o’clock in the morning. Theatres are -exceedingly numerous in the city; each has its own arms or design, by -which it is called; and these are painted upon banners and lanterns, -which are hung from a tower upon the roof of each establishment. We give -as complement to the above description of the Matsmai theatre, the -following picture of a leading theatre at Yeddo. - -“The interior of the theatre forms a long square. There are two ranges -of galleries, the upper containing the best places in the theatre. -Numbers of ladies are to be seen there in full dress, that is to say, -covered up to their eyes in crape dresses and silk mantles.[180] The -whole of the remainder of the house is occupied exclusively by men. - -The floor of the house as seen from a distance, resembles a draught -board. It is divided into compartments containing from eight to twelve -places each, most of which are hired by the year by the citizens who -take their children regularly to the play. There are no lobbies. Every -one walks to his place on the planks which enclose the compartments at -the height of the spectators’ shoulders, who squat on their heels, or -crouch on little stools. There is neither a ladder nor staircase, by -which to get down into the midst of them. The men hold out their arms to -the women and children. The settling of the audience in its place forms -a very picturesque part in the preliminaries of the representation. -Tobacco and refreshments are served during the whole evening by koskeis, -or servants, along the before-mentioned gang planks. On two sides of the -pit are two bridges of planks, which also communicate with the boards of -the stage; the first is nearest to one of the doors; the second, which -is four planks wide, forms an angle with the extremity of the boxes. On -this bridge certain heroic or tragic comic personages perform their -part, and the ballet is danced. The house is lit by paper lanterns tied -to the galleries; there is no chandelier from the roof, which is -perfectly flat, the cupola being unknown in Japanese architecture. Large -lanterns are however, sometimes held up to the roof, in order to light -up the performance of the acrobats, especially that of the ‘flying men,’ -who cross the theatre by means of cleverly contrived mechanism. - -The curtain which hangs before the stage, is ornamented by a gigantic -inscription in Chinese characters, and surmounted by a target with an -arrow in the centre. This is a symbol of the talent and tact which the -actors are about to display, and signifies that they expect to ‘hit the -bull’s eye’ of the audience’s wishes.”[181] - -The performance generally lasts till one o’clock A. M., and usually -consists of a comedy, a tragedy, an opera with a ballet, and two or -three interludes of acrobats, wrestlers and jugglers. - -The tragedy we have already partly described as of a mythological -sensational type. In the comedy it is often customary for the audience -to address the actors, and the latter answer in kind; thus frequently a -brisk fire of _repartee_ is kept up which delights the audience far more -than the play itself. It is very rare in any of these pieces that more -than two actors are upon the stage together. In the ballet the -performers are richly attired, and sometimes wear several dresses of -light silk, one above the other; as they dance they detach a few of -these vestments and allow them to hang from their waist, a cloud of airy -texture seemingly voluminous, but in reality very light.[182] The -Japanese plays are sometimes preceded by a prologue in which much of the -action is described (_a la_ Greek chorus) but not the _denouement_.[183] -The performance of the jugglers is most to the popular taste, for it is -not unusual to find the restaurants (with which each theatre is -surrounded, and which cater to the same class of custom) quite crowded -during the entire performances, but the moment that the gong gives the -signal for the commencement of the juggling, they are at once deserted, -every one hastening back to his seat in the theatre. The principal parts -of the performance are announced not with a bell or with music, but by -striking a small wooden stick upon the stage. - -Sometimes the actors pass through the audience on their way to the -stage, in order to give the spectators an opportunity to admire their -appearance and costume, as closely as possible.[184] The appearance of -infernal personages on the stage is always accompanied with lightning. - -The principal characters of the drama are accompanied on the stage by a -couple of attendants, each carrying a long stick at the end of which is -a lighted candle. The use of these candles is amusing; they show to the -audience what they ought to admire. If the actor’s facial expression be -peculiar, his attitude graceful, his dress fine, or his weapons elegant, -the candle is at once held to the part, to attract attention. - -With regard to the literary merit of the Japanese drama, not enough is -yet known whereon to base a detailed analysis, but it is safe to say -that the art is yet in its infancy. It is singular, that, while we -regard some of the situations in their plays as exceedingly indelicate, -they, on their part, condemn our drama as totally immoral, and would not -tolerate such plays as “Hamlet,” “School for Scandal,” etc. - -The key to the enigma is this,—they allow every license to unmarried -ladies, but the married state is with them inviolable. They therefore -tranquilly witness plays which would put “Camille” to the blush, but -allow nothing which involves post-marital intrigue. Some of their actors -are quite skillful; there is one at present upon the Yeddo stage, who -performs the part of a man possessed with the soul of a cat, and the -blending of human and feline character is said to be marvelous. - -The caste of actors, as in China, is rather low; the comedians being in -least repute. Although the theatre is so well patronized, yet it is only -by the middle and lower classes; very few aristocrats even of the lesser -nobility ever attending, and these even disguise themselves. - -Of course, it was to be imagined that the Jesuits would not (at the time -of their mission in Japan) neglect so straight a road to the popular -attention, as the drama. In their church at Nagasaki (more than two -centuries ago), they represented a play in the style of the mediæval -miracle plays, representing the birth of Christ. The parts were taken by -the neophites and native students at the college of the order. -Everything passed off in the best possible manner, as well in the -appointments of the theatre, as in the ease and smoothness of the -acting, and it would have been applauded in any European theatre.[185] - -It may be interesting to the reader to peep into the green room of a -Japanese theatre, during performance. It is thus described,— - -“In these places none but men are to be seen, excepting from time to -time some servants, or the artists’ wives who bring refreshments to -their husbands, or come to give the last touch to their toilet before -they go on the stage in the costume of either sex. In the midst of the -general disorder we find some very characteristic groups. Here are -musicians occupied in refreshing themselves, and indifferent to -everything else until the signal to return to their posts shall reach -them; there, two actors are rehearsing together the attitudes and -gestures which in a few moments are to delight the spectators; and -another sitting on his heels, before a looking glass placed upon the -floor, is painting his face and adjusting his feminine head-dress. A -young devil beside him, has thrown back his mask, with his horns and -mane over his shoulders and is fanning himself, while the chief of the -wrestlers, is tranquilly smoking his pipe, in the midst of the acrobats. - -Among the crowd, carpenters are coming and going, carrying the screens -and partitions for the next scene; the machinist is working a trap -through which a whirlwind of flame is about to escape; and the piece is -going on outside to the accompaniment of drum beating, amid the -conversation of the public in the house, and that of the disengaged -actors.”[186] - -Such briefly, is the condition of music and the drama in Japan, but such -astounding changes are taking place throughout every part of the life of -this enterprising people, that a description which is appropriate at -present, may be a record of past customs, ten years hence. Already there -is a tendency in upper circles towards Western music, but this may be -rather a result of fashion (which is being rapidly _Europeanized_) -rather than of genuine appreciation; even the present empress of Japan -has, it is said, a real taste for European music and instruments. She is -a good performer upon the piano-forte. - -As with the Chinese, the customs in general of the Japanese are at total -variance with our own; to show respect we take off our hat, they their -shoes. We get up, they sit down, (it is the height of impoliteness to -receive a visitor standing.)[187] - -We turn the back as a mark of incivility, they as a token of -respect;[188] their mixture of the truest modesty with the greatest -license, must ever remain an enigma to us. Since then, we cannot in -other respects, judge this remarkable people, it behooves us, in the -field of music, to study them without preconceived ideas of the art. -That music is in an undeveloped state with them, is undoubtedly true; -the absence of treatises and system proves it; but what direction the -art will take in its development can only be settled by time. That it -will not remain stationary in the midst of change, is a foregone -conclusion. - - - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - MUSIC OF SAVAGE NATIONS. - - -The music of savage tribes, should properly begin a chronological -account of the music of the world. It can scarce be doubted that the -strains which to-day delight the ears of the rudest peoples, were -similar to those which gave pleasure to the uncultivated denizens of the -earth in pre-historic times. The scientific inquirer, even to-day, finds -unexpected points of resemblance in music of nations and tribes, -separated from each other in distance, custom, climate and religion; -resemblances which are so numerous that they can only be accounted for -by the hypothesis that the strains have come down from an earlier, -homogeneous race. Of course the earliest efforts of primitive man were -rather rhythmical than musical, and even at present the music of the -least civilized races is altogether rhythmical. The ease of the -discovery that a regular clapping of the hands, or stamping of the feet, -or striking two pieces of wood together, could produce a pleasing -effect, is so apparent that it puts all discussion as to the origin of -music, out of sight; a fortunate occurrence, since there are enough -points of dispute yet left for our wiseacres to contend over. - -The discovery of drums and horns also came almost directly from nature; -and here the musical instruments of primitive man stopped; and here also -(in drums, clappers of wood, and trumpets) the catalogue of musical -instruments, of the more savage peoples, of the present, ceases. - -But among the more advanced tribes of savages, we shall find instruments -that will cause us to coincide with Solomon’s opinion, that “there is -nothing new under the sun.” - -With these, who did not stop contented at the rude percussion and -trumpet instruments, the next step was probably to cut reeds of various -lengths and to discover that the length regulated the tone. Here was the -first real discovery in music, for no sooner were high and deep tones -known than pleasant alternations would suggest themselves, and as a -consequence, melodies (however uncouth) sprang into being. Possibly at -the same mystic era, the tension of the sinews of some animal, left -exposed to the breeze, would fore-shadow string music. Then a thought -was required to find that the sounds varied with tension of the sinews, -and that a frame on which several threads and sinews were extended in -different degrees of tension, could be made to give the same variety of -tones, but of different quality of sound (_timbre_) from the reed pipes. -This already made demands upon the inventive faculties, and in the -infancy of music, as in the modern orchestra, stringed instruments take -the lead.[189] - -It is improbable, however, that all nations went the same road in these -discoveries. Accident had much to do with it. The conch shell, among a -tribe near the sea, the horn, with a hunting people, and, with people -situated near the bamboo forests, the “pans pipes,” would be the first -of instruments. Instruments of the order of flutes, were also of easy -fabrication, and the knowledge that they are so wide-spread among -savages all the world over, is internal evidence that they were -“natural” instruments. - -Without sketching further the probable progress of musical invention, we -shall now describe some of the instruments and songs used by the people -of the world who are yet in a state of nature. But first let us mention -some instruments, which have been handed down to us from an immensely -remote and ante-civilized period. - -The antiquarians in classifying the progress of pre-historic races from -their earliest emergence from barbarism, have called that age, when the -use of metal became first known,—the Bronze Age; as at that time -smelting not being known, the use of iron was not understood, and metal -implements were fashioned of copper, which could be beaten by the hammer -(of stone) into the required shape, even when cold. - -Of this mysterious epoch, a most interesting relic has been discovered, -in the shape of a musical instrument. In a sepulchre, in a deep ravine, -in Schleswig, were found very recently, a number of ornaments of bronze -and gold (silver as well as iron, was not then used), and also the horns -of many oxen. In the midst of this, lay a very large _trumpet_ of -bronze; a sure token of the existence of manufactured musical -instruments, thousands of years ago. This unique instrument when blown, -gives forth a deep, grave, and sonorous tone. In common with all the -barbarian trumpets, it has but one tone. It is at present in the Museum -of Copenhagen, but was exhibited at the Paris Exposition of 1867.[190] - -The second of these instruments is more ancient still. The age preceding -the knowledge of the uses of metal by early man, is called the Stone -Age. At this period the rude implements of use and ornament were made -either of soft substances, such as wood, ivory, and horn, or else of -stone. Even in this crude epoch, instrumental music seems to have -existed, and not in its rudest form, for a specimen has fortunately been -preserved, which, if authenticated fully, will show a degree of musical -taste at a most unexpected period. In an ancient _dolman_, or sepulchre -near Poictiers was found a partly completed _flute_ made of a stag’s -horn. The distances of the holes, and shape of the mouth-piece, show an -aptitude of construction and an experience in acoustics; but the -instrument evidently belongs to the later period of the Stone Age. - -But the third instrument is more interesting yet. It was discovered by -M. Lartet in a ravine, along with bones of animals now extinct in -France. It is also a flute (straight, and with mouth piece), with finger -holes.[191] It is made of the bone of a reindeer, which seems a proof -positive of its being made at a time when the climate and zoology of -France were totally different from the present. From the skulls found in -tombs and caves of this period, it appears impossible that man could -have been developed sufficiently at that time to construct an article of -pleasure, such as this. The skulls are said to greatly resemble those of -the present natives of Australia. Yet their possessors must have had a -vastly superior intelligence to the latter. - -It is no great leap in fact, although it may be in time, to leave the -savages of our own ancient race, and describe the musical customs of the -savages of another, and inferior one. Therefore, we will leave the -discussion of the above three instruments and their makers to -Anthropological and Ethnological societies, and pass on to the -examination of the barbarian of the present age. - -One of the most curious facts in savage music is to be found in New -Zealand. It is almost universally conceded that harmony was unknown to -Europeans until the tenth century; yet in New Zealand for unknown ages, -a combination of simple thirds in a short vocal strain[192] has been -known. It only illustrates the assertion of the force of accident, in -the rise of music. - -Here was a savage tribe of cannibals who came upon a most important -musical idea (to be sure, in a crude state, but still the germ of the -Harmonic theory) probably long before its acceptance among civilized -nations. - -Another strange savage song is that which was sung by the aborigines of -Canada, at the time of Cartier’s taking possession in the name of the -King of France (A. D. 1537). The curious fact here, was not in the -music, but in the words, in as much as the word “Alleluia” occurred in -it. This strange coincidence made some early writers conclude that the -inhabitants were Hebrews,[193] probably the lost tribes; it is needless -to say, that the surmise, was not borne out by any further researches. - -In describing the music of barbarian races, we find that its sister art, -dancing, is closely connected with it, and that it is impossible to -separate the two. In the lowest tribes, the dance is the most prominent -part of the musical efforts of the people. The Australians, who are -considered, from the conformation of their skulls, and legs, to be -nearest to the brute creation, have many interesting dances. The most -important of these is the “Cobbongo Corrobboree,” or great mystery -dance. It is performed by the inhabitants of the far interior of the -island. We subjoin the account of a witness of this event. - -The time selected for this great event is every twelfth moon, and during -her declination. For several days previous, a number of tribes, whose -territories adjoin one another, congregate at a particular spot, -characterised by an immense mound of earth, covered with ashes (known -amongst the white inhabitants as “a black’s oven”), and surrounded by -plenty of “couraway” or water holes. - -To this place, they bring numbers of kangaroos, possums, emus, and wild -ducks, and a large quantity of wild honey, together with a grass from -the seed of which they make a sort of bread. - -“Upon the evening on which the ‘corrobboree’ is celebrated, a number of -old men (one from each tribe) called ‘wammaroogo,’ signifying -medicine-men, or charm-men, repair to the top of the mound, where, after -lighting a fire they walk round it, muttering sentences, and throwing -into it portions of old charms which they have worn round their necks -for the past twelve months.” - -“This is continued for about half an hour, when they descend, each -carrying a fire-stick, which he places at the outskirts of the camp, and -which is supposed to prevent evil spirits from approaching. As soon as -this is over, during which a most profound silence is observed by all, -the men of the tribe prepare their toilets for the ‘corrobboree,’ -daubing themselves over with chalk, red ochre, and fat.”[194] - -“While the men are thus engaged, the gentler sex are busy arranging -themselves in a long line, and in a sitting posture, with rugs made of -possum skins, wound round their legs, and a small stick called ‘mulla -mulla’ in each hand. A fire is lit in front of them, and tended by one -of the old charmers. As the men are ready, they seat themselves, -cross-legged, like tailors, and in regular serried file, at the opposite -side of the fire to the women, while one of the medicine-men takes up -his position at the top of the mound, to watch the rising of the moon -which is the signal for ‘corrobboree.’” - -All is now still; nothing disturbs the silence, save the occasional -jabber of a woman or child, and even that, after a few minutes, is -hushed. The blaze of the fire throws a fitful light along the -batallion-like front of the black phalanx, and the hideous faces, daubed -with paint and smeared with grease, show out at such a moment to -anything but advantage. As soon as the old gentleman who has been -“taking the lunar” announces the advent of that planet, which seems to -exercise as great an influence over the actions of these people, as over -many of those amongst ourselves, the “corrobboree” commences. - -“The women beat the little sticks together,[195] keeping time to a -peculiar monotonous air, and repeating the words, the burden of which -may be translated in this manner,— - - ‘The kangaroo is swift, - But swifter is Ngoyulloman; - The snake is cunning, - More cunning is Ngoyulloman, etc.’ - -Each woman using the name of her husband, or favorite in the tribe.” - -“The men spring to their feet with a yell that rings through the forest, -and brandishing their spears, and boomerangs commence their dance, -flinging themselves into all sorts of attitudes, howling, laughing, -grinning, and singing; and this they continue until sheer exhaustion -compels them to desist, after which they roast and eat the product of -the chase gathered for the occasion, and then drop off to sleep one by -one.”[196] - -We have already expressed our opinion that the dance (pantomimic) first -sprang into existence when some savage finding his own limited language -(perhaps even, he had none) inadequate to describe to his companions, -some deed of hunting or war which he had performed, reproduced the feat -in actions, to give a more perfect understanding of it. If song be as -old as speech, dancing may be said to be as old as gestures. - -We are not surprised, therefore, to find among the Australians, dances -which represent such events. In the “frog dance,” the performers paint -themselves as usual, and then, squatting upon their haunches, jump -around in a circle imitating the motions of the frog. The “Emu dance” -represents the chase after that swift running bird. The performer who -takes the part of the Emu, imitates its fleet, long strides, and gives -out the low rattling drumming sound which is the bird’s only note. - -In the “canoe dance” men and women stationed in two lines, imitate the -graceful motions of paddling a canoe. - -There is a dance “with partners” prevalent in the southern part of -Australia. Both sexes participate in it. Each man carries a belt of -possum skin, or human hair, which he keeps stretched tight, holding one -end in each hand. The men all sit down in a circle while a woman takes -her place in the middle; one of the men then dances up to her, jumping -from side to side, and swaying his arms in harmony with his movements. -The woman also begins swaying and jumping in time with him, as he -approaches her, and after a short _pas de deux_ they dance back to their -places, while the centre is occupied by a fresh couple. - -A strange dance was celebrated by the Tasmanians at each full moon. The -various tribes assembled at some trysting place, and while the women -prepared the fire, and fenced off a space for the dance, the men retired -to adorn themselves with paint, and to fasten branches of bushy twigs to -their ankles, wrists and waists. The women being seated at the front of -the space, one of the oldest among them, strode forward, calling by -name, one of the performers, whom she reviled as a coward, and -challenged to come forward and meet her charge, and answer it. - -The warrior was swift enough in his response, and, bounding through the -fire, into the circle, he recounted his deeds of valor in both chase and -war. At every pause he made, his female admirers took up the list of his -praises, vaunting his actions in a sort of chant which they accompanied -with extemporized drums, made of rolled kangaroo skins. - -“Suddenly upon some inspiring allegro movement of the thumping hand, -thirty or forty grim savages would hound successively through the -furious flames, into the sacred arena, looking like veritable demons on -a special visit to _terra firma_; and, after thoroughly exhausting -themselves, by leaping in imitation of the kangaroo, around and through -the fire, they vanish in an instant. After this, the old lady who was -the origination of all the hubbub, gave a signal, upon which, all the -females rose, and quite unadorned, gave a series of acrobatic -performances around the fire, that were strange and wonderful to behold. -The main point being however, with each of them, to outscream her sister -singers.”[197] - -In the dances of Australia and Tasmania, only the rudest instruments of -percussion are used, and the chants are not musical, though sometimes -(rarely) the attitudes are graceful. A far more musical and poetical -people, are the New Zealanders who as we have already mentioned, -intuitively knew of harmony before the Europeans. Many of their love, -war, and religious songs have real sentiments of beauty in them, and the -gift of improvising poems and songs is much prized among them. Singular -to state, they (unlike all other savage races) do not use the drum in -their accompaniment. The _pahu_ (drum) is only used by them to give -military signals.[198] Their chief instrument is the flute, which is -usually made from a human thigh bone; often that of a fallen enemy. When -this is the case, the instrument is more than ordinarily prized, and is -worn around the neck. It is played through the nose, by placing the -nostril against the aperture, and blowing; stopping the other nostril -with the finger. - -The native New Zealander sings in all his sports and labours, and in -spite of his _penchant_ for human flesh, is of a light and joyous -temperament. Every incident of war, chase or love is commemorated by an -extemporized song. Sometimes these songs live for generations after -their signification has passed away; and thus it is, that in many of the -songs of this people, words are found, of which, neither the singers nor -audience understand the meaning. One song (_E’Haka_) is accompanied with -much mimicry; when giving this, the performers sit down in a circle, -throw off their upper mats, and sing in concert, making meanwhile the -wildest of gestures, and turning up their eyes so that only their whites -are visible. - -Their canoe song is very animating, and is often accompanied by the -primitive nose flute mentioned above. - -The words (improvised) are such as “pull away! pull away! pull away.” -“Dig into the water.” “Break your backs,” etc., and are shouted with -stentorian lungs, but not unmusically. - -But their greatest song and dance is the war-dance. In this they far -excel all other savage tribes the world over. Their movements although -extremely violent, are made with a precision and unity, to which all -other races are strangers. A description of this unique performance -speaks of it as follows. - -“They begin by smearing the whole of their clothing and painting their -faces with scarlet ochre, so as to make themselves as hideous as -possible. When they assemble for the dance they arrange themselves in -lines usually three deep, and excite their naturally passionate -dispositions to the highest pitch by contorting their faces, and -thrusting out their tongues as an act of defiance, interspersing these -gestures with shouts, yells and challenges to the enemy. The dance -itself begins with stamping the feet in perfect time with each other, -the vigor of the stamp increasing continually, and the excitement -increasing in similar proportion. Suddenly with a yell, the whole body -of men leap sideways into the air, as if actuated by one spirit, and as -they touch the ground, come down on it with a mighty stamp that makes -the earth tremble. The war song is raised, and in accordance with its -rhythm, the men leap from side to side, each time coming down with a -thud, as of some huge engine.”[199] - -The New Zealander often entertains himself with sham fights,[200] but -nothing has so intense an effect upon him as the music and action of -this rhythmic war-dance. Even when actual war is not impending, he will -enter into it with a vigor that is terrible. It transforms him for the -time into a monomaniac, and absorbs his whole nature; even when the -dance is given in honor of a stranger, it is dangerous to go too near -the Maori (native New Zealander) until he has become more tranquil. - -On one occasion a party of New Zealanders, visiting a European ship, -were requested to give an exhibition of their war-dance on board. They -did so, beginning without much excitement, but gradually their leaps -became so fierce and powerful that the captain was afraid that they -would break the deck; he begged of them to desist, but in vain; he might -as well have spoken to a whirlwind. His voice was drowned in the shouts -and singing of the frenzied warriors. The chief of the party, showed the -influence of its charms, in a ludicrous manner:— - -He had been presented on his arrival, with a full suit of naval uniform, -and he stalked around the deck, in all the dignity of new clothes. He -cheerfully allowed his followers to begin the war-dance, but he himself -looked on with conscious dignity; but after the excitement had continued -a few minutes, he too was drawn into its vortex. At first a gentle -swaying of his body, in time with the music was all: then a little -_sotto voce_ singing, then he joined in the rhythm stamping, and -finally, forgetting his new finery, he sprang into line and danced more -enthusiastically than any of them; so much so, that the clothes soon -split, and at the end of the dance he presented a very seedy appearance. -It is needless to say that the dance could not in any way be checked, -and found its conclusion only when all the dancers were reduced to a -state of complete exhaustion. - -With all savage people, song, dance and poetry are indissolubly united; -a fact which goes far to prove the “naturalness” of the old Greek music. -In the Malaysian archipelago we find a similar style of music, to that -described above; but we find the natural instrument of barbarians, the -drum, far more plentifully used. - -The Javanese have two kinds of drums, both made of copper, but differing -in size and pitch. The sound is like that of a distant bell, and as they -are used in sets, the compass often reaches an octave. The larger set, -called _Salendro_ contains but five tones in this interval; the general -effect of this set is _major_. The smaller set, called _Pelog_, contains -seven drums to the octave, and is minor in style. The natives themselves -speak of the _Salendro_ as being masculine, and the _Pelog_ as being -more tender and feminine in its _effect_. - -The songs of Java (as also of other islands in the Malay archipelago) -are strongly suggestive of the Scotch popular ballads, and can readily -be reproduced in our scale. - -It is not customary to sing the written poems, with an instrumental -accompaniment unless there is dancing simultaneously. As in French -poetry and song, many letters, usually mute, are sounded, so in the -Javanese much license of pronunciation is allowed in song, which would -be condemned in prose. There are some traces of inflection and accent, -altering the meaning of a word; thus “_boten_” signifies “_no_,” but -when the accent is placed on the first syllable, it signifies a haughty -or peremptory refusal, but when on the latter, a mild and regretful one. - -The Javanese have three styles of musical compositions, the great, -medium, and lesser. The latter is used for the popular songs, the former -for the higher flights of poetry. - -Very often one can hear an old native, on a holiday occasion, singing of -the great deeds of the ancient princes; the subjects of his ballads, are -often borrowed from the _babads_, or popular legends of the country, and -he accompanies himself with a species of stringed instrument. He sings -of the glories and fall of the kingdom of Pad-jad-jaran, and praises and -laments those royal heroes. Many of the love songs of the Malays are -written in the form of question and answer, as follows,— - - “Where do the swallows go to bathe? - They go to bathe in the forest brook. - What has my loved one promised to me? - She has promised to chat a little with me,” etc. - -This questioning and answering is not confined to their music, for the -Javanese are passionately fond of conundrums.[201] The imagery of their -poems and songs is of the simplest and most natural description, fields, -flowers, trees, rivers, etc., appear _ad infinitum_ in their -literature.[202] Their early historical legends are full of Gods in -human form, of giants, and miracles; somewhat resembling in this the -Hindoo allegories. - -Theatrical representations, of course form a large part of both -Malaysian and Polynesian popular amusements. In Java, national history -is preserved not only by the ballads, but by pantomimic representations; -in the latter, little puppets made of leather, wood, or paper, and -sometimes masked performers, appear. The performance is accompanied by -orchestral music, certain stringed instruments of which are only played -by women. Some of the representations are given at night behind a white -curtain, and resemble what, with us, are called, “shadow pantomimes;” -these are performed mostly by females, and often last all night, -breaking up, at times, as late as six in the morning. - -At all Javanese _fetes_, music is played, and every native is expected -to entertain such wandering musicians as apply to him. A refusal is apt -to cost dearly, as the irate musicians stone the dwelling of the -obdurate one.[203] - -M. Scherzer, connected with the Austrian Round-the-world expedition in -1857 (in the frigate Novara), was not highly delighted with the Javanese -pantomime dancing and music;[204] he says: - -“Conversation was carried on with difficulty, for an incessant and -stupefying noise was kept up with the _gammelong_, or orchestra of -bells. Bayaderes, very scantily clothed, and excessively ugly, executed -sentimental and religious dances of a most tedious description. - -Stiff, slow, and thin, these damsels jumped like forks, with motions as -graceful as those of old semaphores. The governor was kind enough to -explain to us, that the dance was meant to represent the touching -history of four sisters, who, lost in the forest, implored from the -divinity the return of their mother. - -This was followed by another choregraphic entertainment, a dance of -eight warriors, accompanied by the perpetual _gammelong_. The same -delectable music, delighted the ears of those who were without in the -court-yard. Hideous masks, on foot and on horseback, circulated there -amidst the crowd; a Mussulman priest was also howling fearfully, as he -danced on hot ashes, near to a mass of burning wood; others jumped in -and danced away frantically. At last the priest himself joined them, and -the shouts and gesticulations became furious. This representation had -probably some signification of religious expiation, at least it would -have been deemed as such in ancient mysteries.” - -After this followed conjuring tricks of a wonderful, though sanguinary -description, “and then the infernal _gammelong_ began again.” Then came -excellent fireworks. “At last the _gammelong_ ceased its stunning -noise.” - -During Captain Cook’s voyage round the world, Banks and Solander, two of -his best associates witnessed (A. D. 1769) a pantomime in one of the -Society islands. It was of a comic nature, and contained music and -dancing. The subject was the adventures of a thief, including his -capture.[205] In Cook’s second voyage, Forster observed a comic opera in -the Society islands, which appear closely allied to the above. Actors -and actresses appeared in this play, the first act of which concluded -with a burlesque beating of three of the participants. The commencement -of the second act was announced by the musicians beating their -drums.[206] - -In the Tonga islands, the actors of these musical dramas recite -sentences which are answered by a chorus of singers. There is a great -variety in their movements and groupings. Occasionally they sing slowly, -and afterwards quickly for about a quarter of an hour. Sometimes they -form a semi-circle, assume a bending position, and sing in a subdued -tone of voice, a soft air, which is soon followed again by a loud and -vehement declamation. - -It is a singular fact that some of the races most addicted to -cannibalism are also much addicted to music. We have seen this already -in the case of the New Zealanders; it will be fully as apparent with the -most cannibalistic race of the globe,—the Fiji Islanders. With them, -music teaching is a remunerative art, and any one who has composed a new -song or dance, can earn a large quantity of goods by teaching it. Their -musical instruments are poor and few; they consist of pipes, flutes, -drums, and trumpets. The trumpets are merely conch shells, blown through -an aperture in the side. - -The flutes are nose-flutes, played by putting the aperture under one -nostril, closing the other with the thumb of the left hand, and blowing. -The pipes are a species of pandean pipes made of bamboo. - -The dances are very carefully got up, and more resemble military -movements than dances, the similitude being increased by the martial -array of the dancers, who are all dressed as if for war, their faces -painted with scarlet, their bodies powdered black, and their best clubs -or spears in their hands. They execute intricate manœuvres, marching in -various figures, wheeling, halting, and stamping their feet in exact -time to the rhythm of the song, and the beat of the drum. - -Sometimes several hundred men are engaged in the dance, while the -musicians are twenty or thirty in number. The scene at one of these -dances is very picturesque, but it wants the furious energy, which gives -such fiery animation to the war-dance of the New Zealanders; the -movements, though correct in point of time, being comparatively dull and -heavy. In order to enliven it a little more, a professional buffoon is -usually introduced upon the scene, who performs sundry grotesque -movements, and is usually applauded for his exertions. Music and dancing -are always used at the celebration of a marriage.[207] Mr. Seeman in a -recent work[208] says of the entertainment called _Kalau Rere_, that, -“with its high poles, streamers, evergreens, [these cannibals are very -tasty in their personal adornments, wreaths of flowers, evergreens, -etc., being much used], masquerading, trumpet shells, chants, and other -wild music, is the nearest approach to dramatic representation, the -Fijians seem to have made, and it is with them, what private theatricals -are with us. Court fools, in many instances hunchbacks, are attached to -the chief’s establishment.” - -The music of the remaining races of Oceanica, does not differ very -materially from the above-described forms. Many of the instruments found -in use among the Malays, have had their origin in China and India,[209] -and therefore the description of them has not been made so minute as -that of the instruments of those countries. Summed up briefly, we find -that the taste for rhythm is _every where_ prevalent; for instruments of -percussion, almost so, (the New Zealanders forming a notable exception -here), and that the prevailing impulse of these races, on hearing -rhythmic music, is to dance. - -We now proceed to the examination of the music of another large division -of the human race. - - - - - CHAPTER XIX. - AFRICAN MUSIC. - - -In describing the music of the natives of Africa, we will place in -contrast the modes of the two extremes of the scale of intelligence. - -The Kaffir is certainly as far in advance of the Bushman, as we are in -advance of the native Indian. The Kaffir is peculiar in music; very -deficient in melody, he is almost perfect in rhythm and time-keeping. He -is fond of singing in company, and in fact is a rather convivial person -altogether. At social meals, while the food is cooking, the guests often -amuse themselves by singing together until the repast is in readiness. -The subjects of the songs are various; love songs, and war songs being -held in equal favor, but the Kaffir is always specially pleased with any -song that relates to the possession of cattle; and being a cattle-owning -people, they have many songs celebrating their favorite subject. - -Many of the Kaffir’s musical effects would seem most ludicrous to us. -Sudden contrasts, have, to him, a special attraction, and it is not -unusual to hear him give the highest squeaks of falsetto, and the -deepest bass grunts, alternately. - -Loudness in singing is his great end and aim, and to effect sudden -_sforzando_ effects, he has a peculiar method, i. e.—the choruses of the -songs are usually meaningless, being often a mere reiteration of the -words e-e-e-_yu_ (which may be called the African “fol de roi de ray”), -and when, after shouting with full lungs on the _e-e-e_, the singer -desires more power on the _yu_, he effects it by giving himself a sound -thump in the ribs with his elbows; this produces a marked emphasis on -the syllable, and the result, when two or three hundred singers do this -simultaneously is startling. The Kaffir, contrary to our practise, _sits -down_, when he sings. - -One of their favorite songs, is used at husking festivals. “The dry -heads of maize are thrown in a heap upon the hard and polished floor of -the hut, and a number of Kaffirs sit in a circle round the heap, each -being furnished with the ever useful _knobkerry_ (a stick or club, very -like a _shillelagh_, but with a knob at one end). One of them strikes up -a song, and the others join in full chorus beating time with their -clubs, upon the heads of the maize. This is a very exciting amusement -for the performers, who shout the noisy chorus at the highest pitch of -their lungs, and beat time by striking their knobkerries upon the grain. -With every blow of the heavy club the maize grains are struck from their -husks, and fly about the hut in all directions, threatening injury, if -not absolute destruction to the eyes of all who are present in the hut. -Yet the threshers seem to enjoy an immunity which seems to be restricted -to themselves and blacksmiths; and while a stranger is anxiously shading -his eyes from the shower of hard maize grains, the threshers themselves -do not give a thought to the safety of their eyes, but sing at the top -of their voices, pound away at the corn cobs, and make the grains fly in -all directions, as if the chorus of the song were the chief object in -life, and the preservation of their eyesight were unworthy of a -thought.”[210] - -The war-songs of the Kaffirs are fiery and exciting, though in a less -degree than those of New Zealand. - -Their poetry is full of metaphor, and alliterative enough to be admitted -into the opera of the future. The participants sit in a circle, -sometimes three or four deep, with their knees well drawn up, and sing, -beating rhythmic accompaniment upon the ground, twirling their -_assagais_ (javelins), and occasionally enlivening the proceedings with -an ear-piercing whistle, or deafening shout. - -We give an English version (Mr. Shooter’s) of two of these, merely -premising that much of the native beauty is said to be lost in the -transposition to a foreign tongue. - - - PRAISE OF DINGAN. - A VERY CELEBRATED CHIEF. - - “Thou needy offspring of Umpikazi - Eyer of the cattle of men, - Bird of Maube, fleet as a bullet, - Sleek, erect, of beautiful parts. - Thy cattle like the comb of bees. - O head too large, too huddled to move, - Devourer of Moselekatze, son of Machobana, - Devourer of Swazi, son of Sobuza, - Breaker of the gates of Machobana, - Devourer of Gundave of Machobana - A monster in size,[211] of mighty power, - Devourer of Ungwati of ancient race, - Devourer of the kingly Uomapé; - Like Heaven above, raining and shining.” - -The other is an Alexandrian lament of the lack of nations to conquer. It -is in honor of Tchaka, (a renowned warrior and chief). - - “Thou hast finished, finished the nations! - Where will you go out to battle now? - Hey! Where will you go out to battle now? - Thou hast conquered kings! - Where are you going to battle now? - Thou hast finished, finished the nations! - Where are you going to battle now? - Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!! - Where are you going to battle now?” - -From the extracts it will be seen that flattery is not confined to -European courts; the Kaffir carries it still further, for in addition to -his own proper name (which it is deemed ill omened to speak) everybody -of any rank, receives a number of _isi-bonges_ or praise-names, alluding -to some action or peculiarity. It is customary on all formal occasions, -to recite several of these _isi-bonges_, just as a European nobleman on -official ceremonies desires to have all his titles proclaimed. In songs, -of course, the invention of these is unlimited. Thus the great Panda, a -renowned ruler of enormous fatness, is spoken of as,— - - “A swallow which fled in the sky,” - “A swallow with a whiskered breast,” - “Ramrod of brass,” - “Thigh of the bullock of Inkakavini.” - “Thou art an _Elephant_.” - “Monarch who art black,” etc., etc. - -Such songs of praise are sung with great relish by full choruses. -Violent gestures are used to heighten the effect. The songs are in -unison, no harmonic divisions being attempted. - -The instruments of the Kaffir are few and crude; the whistle before -mentioned, although giving but one tone, is a great favorite. It is so -shrill that it can be heard above the wildest din of the _ensemble_. - -A rude flute or flageolet is also sometimes used; but the most-used -instrument, is a primitive harp with _one string_ only, and whose tones -though light and sweet can scarcely be heard at six yards distance. It -is an ordinary bow with a string of twisted hair, and a hollow gourd -attached at the centre of the wood to give resonance. A ring is passed -along the string, to raise or lower the tone, which is produced by -striking the cord with a short stick, or _plectrum_. The bow is about -five feet long, and exactly resembles the usual weapon, which however is -not used in war by the Kaffirs. - -Although the resources of this instrument are so extremely limited, the -musicians of this people are content to sit for hours, listening to its -monotonous sound. - -Let us now turn to the degraded black brother of the foregoing race, the -Bushman. His amusements are two;—singing and dancing. - -The dance of the Bushman is to European eyes a most uninteresting one; -as there is scarcely any motion or gesture at all in it, save that which -is made by _one leg_. Standing on one foot, the performer shakes the -other, (to which a string of rattles, made from the ears of the -spring-bok are attached) occasionally giving his body a twist, and -singing vigorously all the while, changing the foot, however, from time -to time. - -The spectators keep the rhythm by a constant and regular clapping of -hands and a monotonous singing. - -A water-drum, which is merely a wooden bowl, into which a little water -has been poured, and over which a skin is tightly drawn, is struck -regularly in time with the movements of the dancer; the latter when -partially exhausted, falls upon the floor, but still singing and kicking -in time with the music; after a short rest of this description, he jumps -up and continues as at first. When utterly exhausted, he retires among -the spectators and unfastening his leg-rattles, hands them to the next -dancer. The music to this odd performance is _not_ in unison; the dancer -sings one air, the spectators another, and the drum gives a species of -“ground bass” to the whole. - -While engaged in this interesting occupation of shaking one leg, the -Bushman is completely oblivious of all other considerations, as if he -were entranced. Discordant as the music seems to us when annotated by -the travellers who have heard it, yet these same authorities are almost -unanimous in declaring that the effect is extremely pleasant. - -The most peculiar instrument of the Bushmen, is the _goura_, which is -shaped like a bow, but has at one end of the string, a piece of quill -inserted; this quill is blown upon in the same manner that we use a -jew’s-harp. Women play upon this instrument, but hold it -perpendicularly, and do not breathe upon it, but strike it with a stick, -and then catch it up, quickly to their ear, to listen to the tones. When -thus played, it is called, a _joum-joum_. - -All the airs played upon this primitive instrument seem to come by -chance rather than skill, and the performer never seems able to play the -same tune twice. But the same or better music could be drawn from a much -more compact and portable instrument; therefore the _goura_ has now been -almost superseded by a European competitor, and the favorite instrument -of the African Bosjesman now is the _Jew’s-harp_. - -They also possess a rude banjo-like instrument from which comparatively -fair music could be produced, but the Bushmen are content to strum it -without method, and take the music as fortune sends it. A drum completes -the list of Bushman instruments; it is sometimes played with sticks and -sometimes with the fist. It can be heard at a considerable distance. - -In contrasting these two extremes of African races, it is singular to -remark, that the superiority in music, if there be any, must be conceded -to the lower race. - -We find much that is curious and worthy of note in the music of those -mysterious tribes of central Africa, who have so recently become known -to us through the researches of Schweinfurth, Stanley, and Baker. - -Among the best known of these tribes, may be mentioned the Nyam-Nyams, a -set of most inveterate cannibals, whose very name comes from the sound -of gnawing at food, and was given them on account of their man-eating -propensities. Their chief musical instruments are mandolins or small -harps of four strings each, drums (mostly of wood,) bells of iron, -whistles and pipes. Many of these instruments are very symmetrically -formed, and tastily carved, for in wood, iron, and clay designing the -Nyam-Nyams are very expert. Schweinfurth thus describes their -music,[212]—“They have an instinctive love of art. Music rejoices their -very soul. The harmonies they elicit from their favorite instrument, the -mandolin, seem almost to thrill through the chords of their inmost -nature. The prolonged duration of some of their musical productions is -very surprising.” Piaggia has remarked that he believed a “Nyam-Nyam -would go on playing all day and all night, without thinking to leave off -either to eat or to drink,” and although quite aware of the voracious -propensities of the people, it seems very probable that he was right. - -One favorite instrument there is, which is something between a harp and -a mandolin. It resembles the former in the vertical arrangement of its -strings, whilst in common with the mandolin, it has a sounding-board, a -neck, and screws for tightening the strings. - -The sounding board is constructed on strict acoustic principles. It has -two apertures; it is carved out of wood, and on the upper side it is -covered with a piece of skin; the strings are tightly stretched by means -of pegs, and are sometimes made of fine threads of bast, and sometimes -of the wiry hairs from the tail of the giraffe. - -The music is very monotonous and it is difficult to distinguish any -melody in it. It invariably is an accompaniment to a moaning kind of -recitative which is rendered with a decided nasal intonation. - -“I have not unfrequently seen friends marching about arm in arm, wrapt -in the mutual enjoyment of the performance, and beating time to every -note by nodding their heads.” - -“There is a singular class of professional musicians who make their -appearance decked out in the most fantastic way, with feathers, and -covered with a promiscuous array of bits of wood and roots, and all the -pretentious emblems of magical art, the feet of earth-pigs, the shell of -tortoises, the beaks of eagles, the claws of birds, and teeth in every -variety. Whenever one of this fraternity presents himself, he at once -begins to recite all the details of his travels and experiences, in an -emphatic recitative, and never forgets to conclude by an appeal to the -liberality of his audience, and to remind them that he looks for a -reward either of rings of copper, or of beads.”[213] - -With some slight differences these men may be found throughout Africa; -almost everywhere they are sought for and their talents enjoyed, but -they themselves held in contempt. Among the Nyam-Nyams, their -appellation in itself (“Nzangah”) implies contempt, being similar to -that which is applied to despised and outcast women. - -Contrary to the custom of almost all other savages, the Nyam-Nyams -delight most in gentle music; some of the minstrels sing so softly that -it is impossible to hear them a few yards off. The light Mandolin -accompaniment is in good accord with this _pianissimo_ style of music. - -Their dances, given by male and female performers, are wonderfully -swift, intricate and pleasant. - -A great “Congo” or dance was given by some of these people to Col. C. -Chaillé Long, an American officer on the staff of the Khedive of Egypt, -who made a very interesting expedition to the Makraka Nyam-Nyams, and -Lake Victoria Nyanza in 1874. He thus describes the scene:—[214] - -“Invitations had been sent to all the Nyam-Nyam lasses, who came even -from as far as Parafio, and did honor to the occasion by brightening up -their copper and iron fastenings, and in putting on fresh fig leaves. -The loose bands that encased their ankles, kept perfect time in loud -clanking sound to music really euphonious, and of a symphony that my -unmusical ear I regret cannot translate here, evoked from a Sinon-like -wooden horse, that was beaten on its sides with drum-sticks, or by -parallel banana trees that were traversed by different sized pieces of -dry wood, upon which several performers beat successively. - -This musical instrument, as well as drums and horns, the latter made of -Elephants’ tusks, were very similar to those I had seen at Ugunda.... - -The Sheik, a robust, powerfully developed man, led his brave warriors in -the dance, holding in his hand, a curiously-shaped sword, his insignia -of office, whilst the round little forms of hundreds of Nyam-Nyam -maidens followed, each with giddy swiftness as the “cancan” fantasia -became fast and furious. The festivity continued until the ‘wee sma -hours’ of the morning.” - -The trumpets of the Nyam-Nyam are more generally used as war signals -than as musical instruments; they are blown through a hole in the side, -and not at the end; therefore the mode of performing upon them, rather -resembles our style of flute playing.[215] - -Another musical nation of Central Africa is the Karague; travellers who -have visited them have given more or less detailed accounts of their -instruments and festivities. Capt. Speke had the unusual honor of a -serenade from the royal court band. The king after receiving a present -of some beads, cloth wire, and a tin box, was so delighted that he sent -his own band to give Speke a tune. - -The performers used reed instruments (made in telescopic fashion) and -marked the time by hand-drums. At first they marched and countermarched, -playing meanwhile much in the manner of Turkish regimental bands; but -this was soon changed to a species of “horn-pipe,” which all the -musicians danced, playing furiously meanwhile.[216] - -Another bit of musical ceremony which Speke witnessed, will at once -remind the reader of the great “Zapfenstreich” or grand tattoo practised -sometimes in the German army. At the new moon the king surrounds himself -with numerous drummers (Speke saw thirty-five); these strike up -together, gradually increasing to a deafening noise; this is followed by -a milder kind of music, similar to that described above. The object of -the ceremony is to call in all the king’s warriors to renew their oath -of fealty.[217] The time keeping is said to be very exact, and the -drummers burst forth again and again during the night. The war drum of -the Karague is beaten by women. - -A kind of guitar exists among this people, and six of the seven strings -which it possesses accord perfectly with our own diatonic scale, the -seventh string only, being discordant. Their wind instruments are -flageolet and bugle, or at least similar to them. - -Among the nations adjacent to those already mentioned are the Bongo. - -We again quote from the valuable work of the most musical traveller who -has visited this section,—Schweinfurth.[218] - -“The Bongo, in their way are enthusiastic lovers of music; and although -their instruments are of a very primitive description, and they are -unacquainted even with the pretty little guitar of the Nyam-Nyams, which -is constructed on perfectly correct acoustic principles, yet they may be -seen at any hour of the day, strumming away and chanting to their own -performances. The youngsters down to the small boys are all musicians. -Without much trouble and with the most meagre materials they contrive to -make little flutes; they are accustomed also to construct a monochord, -which in its design reminds one of that which (known as the Gubo of the -Zulus) is common throughout the tribes of Southern Africa. This consists -of a bow of bamboo, with the string tightly strained across it, and this -is struck by a slender slip of bamboo. - -The mouth of the player performs the office of sounding board; he holds -the instrument to his mouth with one hand, and manages the string with -the other. Performers may often be seen sitting for hours together with -an instrument of this sort; they stick one end of the bow into the -ground, and fasten the string over a cavity covered with bark, which -opens into an aperture for the escape of the sound. They pass one hand -from one part of the bow to the other, and with the other they play upon -the string with the bamboo twig, and produce a considerable variety of -buzzing and humming airs which are really rather pretty. This is quite a -common pastime with the lads who are put in charge of the goats. I have -seen them apply themselves very earnestly and with obvious interest to -their musical practice, and the ingenious use to which they apply the -simplest means for obtaining harmonious tones testifies to their -penetration into the secrets of the theory of sound. - -As appeals however to the sense of sound, the great festivals of the -Bongo abound with measures much more thrilling than any of these minor -performances. On these occasions the orchestral results might perhaps be -fairly characterised as cats’ music run wild. - -Unwearied thumping of drums, the bellowings of gigantic trumpets, for -the manufacture of which, great stems of trees come into requisition. -Interchanged by fits and starts with the shriller blasts of some smaller -horns, make up the burden of the unearthly hub-bub which re-echoes miles -away along the desert; meanwhile women and children by the hundred fill -gourd flasks with little stones, and rattle them as if they were -churning butter; or again at other times they will get some sticks or -faggots and strike them together with the greatest energy. - -The huge wooden tubes which may be styled the trumpets of the Bongo, are -by the natives themselves, called “manyinyee;” they vary from four to -five feet in length, being closed at the extremity and ornamented with -carved work representing a man’s head, which not unfrequently is adorned -with a pair of horns. The other end of the stem is open, and in an upper -department, towards the figure of the head, is the orifice into which -the performer blows with all his might. - -There is another form of manyinyee, which is made like a huge wine -bottle; in order to play upon it, the musician takes it between his -knees like a violincello, and when the build of the instrument is too -cumbrous he has to bend over it as it lies upon the ground. - -“Little difference can be noticed between the kettle drums of the Bongo, -and those of most other North African Negroes. A section is cut from the -thick stem of a tree, the preference being given to a tamarind when it -can be procured, this is hollowed out into a cylinder, one end being -larger than the other. The ends are then covered with two pieces of goat -skin, stripped of the hair which are tightly strained, and laced -together with thongs. - -At the nightly orgies a fire is invariably kept burning to dry the skin, -and to tighten it, when it has happened to become relaxed by the heavy -dews.” - -A short description of the signal horns of the Bongo is also given by -our musical traveller; some of them resemble fifes, and many are made of -antelope horns. - -Regarding the singing of the Bongo, Schweinfurth is quite descriptive -and as the deductions he arrives at are very similar to those we have -ascribed to primitive or natural men, we introduce the passage without -alteration.[219] - -“Difficult were the task to give any adequate description of the singing -of the Bongo. It must suffice to say that it consists of a babbling -recitative, which at one time suggests the yelling of a dog, and at -another the lowing of a cow, whilst it is broken over, and again by the -gabbling of a string of words which are huddled up one into another. The -commencement of a measure will always be with a lively air, and every -one without distinction of age or sex will begin yelling, screeching, -and bellowing with all their strength; gradually the surging of voices -will tone down, the rapid time will moderate, and the song be hushed -into a wailing melancholy strain. - -“Thus it sinks into a very dirge such as might be chanted at the grave, -and be interpreted as representative of a leaden and a frowning sky, -when all at once, without note of warning, there bursts forth the whole -fury of the negro throats; shrill and thrilling is the outcry, and the -contrast is as vivid as sunshine in the midst of rain.” - -“Often as I was present at these festivities I never could prevent my -ideas from associating Bongo music with the instinct of imitation which -belongs to men universally. The orgies always gave me the impression of -having no other object than to surpass in violence the fury of the -elements: adequately to represent the rage of a hurricane in the -tropics, any single instrument must of course be weak, poor, and -powerless, consequently they hammer at numbers of their gigantic drums -with powerful blows of their heavy clubs. If they would rival the -bursting of a storm, the roaring of the wind, or the plashing of the -rain, they summon a chorus of their stoutest lungs; whilst to depict the -bellowing of terrified wild beasts, they resort to their longest horns; -and to imitate the songs of birds, they bring together all their flutes -and fifes. - -Most characteristic of all, perchance is the deep and rolling bass of -the huge ‘manyinyee’ as descriptive of the rumbling thunder. The -penetrating shower may drive rattling and crackling among the twigs and -amid the parched foliage of the woods; and this is imitated by the -united energies of women and children, as they rattle the stones in -their gourd-flasks, and clash together their bits of wood.” - -The dances of these people are similar in wildness to their music. The -performers wear iron rings, with balls attached, around their ankles, -and clash these together with such energy that their feet are often -bathed in blood. - -The Mittoo tribe rank very high among the African tribes, in their -musical attainments; their melodies are quite agreeable to the -cultivated ear and the pains which they take in mastering the -intricacies of a musical composition, recall to the mind the -difficulties which beset the path of the civilized musical student. - -We have seen a transcription of one of their songs, which would require -but little alteration to transform it into a very fair “slumber song.” - -Many of them are quite skillful upon the flute, and have been described -by Nubian travellers as equal to the best Frankish (European) performers -who reside in Cairo. - -The Monbuttoo also have a strong passion for music, so much so that the -king sometimes dances before his wives and subjects, to the -accompaniment of the royal band. - -In his court concerts he has horn-men, who can modulate their tones from -infinite tenderness to the sound of a lion’s roar; and can perform upon -a horn so cumbrous that it can scarcely be held, passages of runs, -trills and shakes, which would be even difficult upon a flute. - -Court fools, jesters and mimics also appertain to the King of the -Monbuttoo—Munza; they have also a sort of national hymn, more noisy than -musical. The words are monotonous and much repeated,— - -“Ee, ee, tchupy, tchupy, ee, Munza, ee!” will do as a sample line. The -king stands up and _beats time_, with all the gravity of a musical -conductor. His _baton_ is made of a wicker worked sphere filled with -pebbles, and attached to a short stick, in fact exactly what we should -call a baby’s rattle. When he approves the performance or gets excited, -he joins in the chorus with a stentorian “B-r-r-r-r——” which shakes the -house. - -It is singular that music boxes should be popular with Africans who -indulge in such noisy effects, yet such is the fact; there is no present -so desired by Negro potentates as a music box with bells and drums. - -Explorers can find no surer road to the heart of an African chief than -by a present of one of these mechanisms. Sir Samuel Baker had great -trouble with King Kabba Rega (of the tribe of the Unyori,) about a music -box.[220] Speke and Schweinfurth both found them among the most -treasured possessions of the savage chieftains. Kabba Rega’s reason for -prizing the box above all other musical instruments, is unique; on -hearing it play, for the first time, he remarked,—“It is more convenient -than an instrument which requires study, as you might set this going at -night, to play you to sleep, when you were too drunk to play it yourself -even if you knew how to do it.”[221] The national hymn of this monarch, -bears considerable resemblance to the first part of the well known -air—“Three Blind Mice.”[222] - -We have not space to describe fully the rites and music of that curious -people, the Abyssinians; two examples of their musical ceremonies must -suffice. - -A funeral procession (reported by an American eye witness) consisted of -about one hundred and fifty people, old and young, preceded by a few -priests; every few minutes the _cortege_ would halt to shriek and howl. -The priests (clad in cotton robes with broad scarlet bands) were acting -in a frantic manner; tearing off their turbans, pulling their hair, then -folding their hands on their breasts and looking inexpressibly -miserable. - -They carried Arabic parchment books, illuminated with quaint figures and -devices, and now and then chanted prayers to some favorite saint,[223] -very dolefully, though with strong lungs and nasal intonation. Numerous -genuflections were made, always accompanied with long drawn howls of -extreme agony. At the lowering of the body into the grave, they chanted -a prayer, of which the following is a translation,— - -“Werkena, son of Yasous, who was the son of Tekee, is dead. Rejoice, oh -ye people! He has gone to his rest with Abraham, with Isaac, and with -Jacob. Let us pray for those who still live, and pray for the soul just -gone to doom. From vengeance and stern judgment, pray that his soul be -delivered. How can the souls be delivered from tribulation? By long -prayers. Pray, then, that he be sheltered by Father Abraham, that he may -walk in safety by the side of Moses and the prophets, Amen, and -Amen!”[224] - -After the grave was closed, the major part of the mourners followed in -the train of a musician, who was discoursing lively tunes on an oboe, -and one of the priests, who had been mourning so vigorously, offered to -show strangers over his cathedral for the consideration of one dollar. - -A fitting contrast to this, is the musical ovation tendered to the -British Army, after the conquest of King Theodore, April, 1868. The -natives came in great numbers to sing praises. They chose for the -subject of their psalm, the twenty-second chapter, of the second book of -Samuel, (David’s song), beginning:—“The Lord is my rock, and my -fortress,” and they sang it with David’s own fervor; and, to make it -quite realistic, in imitation of his dancing before the ark, the -Abyssinian clergy brought out an imitation of an ark, five yards in -length, one yard in breadth, and a foot in height. It was covered with a -scarlet cloth, embroidered with gold, and above it was a representation -of a mercy-seat of crimson silk, surmounted by a canopy of similar -stuff; candlesticks, lavers, priests’ robes, hyssops, communion cups, -pixes, chalices, crosses of brass, silver and gold, mitres, etc., -figured in the religious paraphernalia employed. The Neophytes kept up a -deafening, jingling clang; or, with instruments of wood and brass, one -stringed banjoes, clanking brass cymbals kept a rhythmic time, which -swelled louder and louder as they drew near the headquarters of the -army. - -“The priests (out of respect for their office) took the front position, -and one of them, with a semi-ludicrous air, struck up the first note of -the impromptu stanzas which were to celebrate the British conquest of -Abyssinia.” - -“As he warmed to his theme, and his voice rose to enthusiasm, the motley -assembly, at the waving of a crucifix, chimed in with chorus, which, -sung with stentorian lungs, had a tremendous effect. After the chorus, -six priests clad in cotton stoles headed by the sub-hierarch, took the -eulogy up at a very low key, which soon, however, rose so high and -shrill in a protracted continuity of sound, that one momentarily -expected to hear their lungs crack, ending with a stormy chorus as -before. Then, forming themselves into a circle, a hundred of them -commenced a dignified sailing round their neighbors, to the right and -left, their togas getting inflated with the movement, weaving each into -another, until it might have been imagined that they had manufactured -some complicated knot, on the gordian principle; but, soon taking the -reverse method, they reached their former positions in time. The singing -went on louder and louder, and the choragus giving the warning clap, the -whole multitude clapped their hands; the women and children struck up -the silver-toned ‘li, li, li,’ performing a dance similar to the Chinese -hop and skip.” - -“They then formed triplets and massed themselves together, when a shrill -note from the boys, sent them into a confused whirl, round and round, -the sub-hierarch and his six assistants going faster and faster, as they -acquired momentum, clapping their hands, singing louder than ever, the -head priest ducking his body lower and lower, and more energetic, until -the dance and the excitement which they all labored under, assumed the -appearance of a jubilee medley, composed of waltzes, Dervish-dances, -sarabands, fandangos, pirouettes and chasses, the three latter performed -by the most youthful of the assembly.” - -“It must not be forgotten, that all this time the ark and -mercy-seat—minus the cherubim—(which was totally omitted from this -Abyssinian imitation), stood on the ground near the priests, while a -choice number of infantine neophites, manfully rang the merriest chimes, -and the instruments of Juniper-wood, the one-stringed banjos, and -cymbals, made as much discordant music as was possible under the -circumstances. The Ethiops before concluding the entertainment, -raised[225] once again the Canto Trionfale.” - -The effect Mr. Stanley says, had a wonderful charm, and the blending of -the mass of women’s and children’s voices with the larger and deeper -tones of the bass, was like the whistling of a gale in a ship’s shrouds, -blending with the deeper roar of a tempest. - -We cannot give a better idea of the hold which music has upon the -average native Negro, than by narrating an incident which befell Sir -Samuel Baker, in the Shooli country. - -He held a review of his troops March 8, 1872, and after a sham fight, -firing of rockets, etc., the troops marched up and down a hill, with the -band playing. The natives assembled in considerable numbers and viewed -the manœuvres with much delight; but the brass band music was the -crowning point of their enjoyment. We sub-join his description of its -effect upon these children of nature. - -“The music of our band being produced simply by a considerable number of -bugles, drums, and cymbals, aided by a large military bass-drum, might -not have been thought first-rate in Europe, but in Africa it was -irresistible.” - -“The natives are passionately fond of music; and I believe the safest -way to travel in these wild countries, would be to play the cornet, if -possible, without ceasing, which would ensure a safe passage. A London -organ-grinder would march through Central Africa, followed by an -admiring and enthusiastic crowd, who, if his tunes were lively, would -form a dancing escort of the most untiring material.” - -“As my troops returned to their quarters, with the band playing rather -lively airs, we observed the women racing down from their villages, and -gathering from all directions towards the common centre. As they -approached nearer, the charms of music were overpowering, and halting -for an instant they assumed what they considered the most graceful -attitudes, and then danced up to band.” - -“In a short time my buglers could scarcely blow their instruments for -laughing at the extraordinary effect of their performance. A fantastic -crowd surrounded them as they halted in our position among the rocks, -and every minute added to their number.” - -“The women throughout the Shooli are entirely naked; thus the effect of -a female crowd, bounding madly about as musical enthusiasts, was very -extraordinary; even the babies were brought out to dance; and these -infants strapped to their mothers’ backs, and covered with pumpkin -shells, like the young tortoises, were jolted about, without the -slightest consideration for the weakness of their necks, by their -infatuated mothers.” - -“As usual among all tribes of Central Africa, the old women were even -more determined dancers than the young girls. Several old Venuses were -making themselves extremely ridiculous, as they sometimes do in -civilized countries, when attempting the allurements of younger days.” - -“The men did not share in the dance, but squatted upon the rocks in -great numbers to admire the music and to witness the efforts of their -wives and daughters.”[226] - -Sir Samuel Baker also once used music for quite a different purpose. He -was quartered near the town of Masindi, where dwelt Kabba Rega, King of -the Unyori, when one evening, he noticed a most unusual stillness in the -town, where ordinarily drunken songs and horn-blowing were the rule. -Suddenly there sounded the deep tones of a _nogara_, or drum. This -ceased in a moment; and then came a burst of terrific noise, which -caused every man in camp to rush to his post. It was a din, caused by -many thousands yelling and shrieking like maniacs. At least a thousand -drums were beating; horns, whistles, and every instrument which could -add to the confusion, was blowing and sounding, yet no human being was -visible. - -The dragoman, on being questioned by the commander, laughed, and said it -was “to make him _afraid_, and exhibit the large number of people -collected in the town.” - -Gen. Baker on ascertaining this determined to act as though it were a -compliment which he felt bound to return. He ordered the regimental band -to strike up, and play their loudest. This nonchalance had its effect, -for, after a short time, the bugles, drums, and clashing cymbals of his -own band, were the only sounds heard; the tumult in Masindi had -subsided, and soon Gen. Baker ordered his own musicians to cease -playing, and all was again perfectly still.[227] - -We close this account of the music of some of the savage tribes of the -earth, with a description of a farewell dance, given to Stanley, by the -Wanyamwezi of Singiri, which is well worthy of a place, as showing the -powers of improvisation of the Africans. - -“It was a wild dance, with lively music, four drums giving the sonorous -accompaniment, being beaten with tremendous energy and strength. -Everyone (even Stanley himself) danced with great fervor, and combined -excited gesticulations, with their saltatory efforts. But after the -close of this war-like music, came a total change; all dropped on their -knees, and in sorrowful accents sang a slow and solemn refrain, of which -the following is a literal translation,— - - _Solo_:—‘Oh, oh, oh! the white man is going home. - - _Chorus_:—Oh, oh, oh! going home! going home! oh, oh, oh! - - _Solo_:—To the happy island on the sea, - Where the beads are plenty, oh, oh, oh! - - _Chorus_:—Where the beads, etc. - - _Solo_:—While Singiri has kept us, oh, very long - From our homes, very long, oh, oh, oh! - - _Chorus_:—From our homes, etc. - - _Solo_:—And we have had no food for very long, - We are half-starved, oh, for so long Bana Singiri. - - _Chorus_:—For so very long, oh, oh, oh! Bana Singiri, Singiri, - Singiri! Oh! Singiri! - - _Solo_:—Mirambo has gone to war - To fight against the Arabs; - The Arabs and Wangwana - Have gone to fight Mirambo. - - _Chorus_:—Oh, oh, oh, to fight Mirambo, - Oh! Mirambo, Mirambo, etc. - - _Solo_:—But the white man will make us glad, - He is going home! For he is going home, - And he will make us glad! Sh, sh, sh. - - _Chorus_:—The white man will make us glad! Sh, sh, sh. - Sh——sh-h-h——, sh-h-h-h-h-h - Um-m—mu——um-m-m—sh!’”[228] - -Mr. Stanley says that the rhythm and melody were beautiful, and the -general effect fine. - -It is curious to contrast this quiet and pathetic farewell with the -bombastic “Where are you going to battle now?” previously given; and it -is also noticeable, that the power of improvisation which is so well -developed in the African Negro, is fully sustained by his descendents in -America. - -It will be an interesting task to the student to compare the -slave-music, especially the camp-meeting songs of the American Negroes, -with the various descriptions of songs given above. The same fervor of -expression, and gradually growing excitement, and the same exaggeration -of feeling will be perceived at once. - -It is not too much to say, that the Negro race may be, when refined and -toned down, the most universally and thoroughly musical race on the face -of the globe. - - - - - CHAPTER XX - MUSIC OF THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH. - - -We now resume the chronological chain of musical history, from the -termination of “Ancient Greek music;” for the music of the Christian -church took its rise, from the melodies of Ancient Greece. Yet it is -probable that the earliest Christian melodies were not according to the -classical Grecian type, but rather conformed to the popular in style. -This has always been the case in the rise of a new sect with sagacious -leaders. The Jews on leaving Egypt, yet sang the popular melodies dear -to their hearts, by association of childhood and youth; only at a later -period, only when these songs were no longer so endeared to them did -David introduce such reforms, as gave to the Hebrew music a distinctive -style. So, also, it was with the Christian church in its earliest days; -it would have been positively injudicious, at first, to have attempted a -reform; and therefore, the old popular melodies of Greece and Rome, were -set to new words and exerted a new influence. - -Music has been, with every religion, the most powerful accessory of the -Faith; but with none more than with Christianity. It had the additional -advantage, of being in an advancing state (under the charge of able -directors, who fully saw the power of the art when made popular) while -the music of the Pagan church was greatly declining. The great emperor -Julian, foresaw the result, and used great efforts to secure a better -class of music for the Roman sacrifices, but without avail. - -With regard to the Christian music of the time of the apostles, we have -only tradition, but these traditions have so much probability, that they -acquire some degree of authority. - -Eusebius assures us that St. Mark taught the first Egyptian Christians -how to chant their prayers: St. John Chrysostom affirms (in his sixth -homily) that the Apostles wrote the first hymn. In Rome (according to -Tertullian) the chants were given in a deep tone, and not in a sustained -manner, at one part of the service, and with strong accents, and -flexible voice at another. The Fathers of the church almost all bear -testimony that the music of the service generally partook of the -habitual style of singing of each nation. - -Kiesewetter, one of the most careful of the students of Ancient Greek -music, maintains that, while the early Christians borrowed much from -Greece, yet from the first, the tendency was rather away from, than in -the path of the Greek style. Brendel in his essays coincides with this -opinion.[229] - -The cause of this, so far as Rome and Greece are concerned, is very -apparent. The apostles and their followers, started unencumbered in the -musical field. The theory of Greek music was a most difficult one to -master, and the converts were at first almost wholly among the humbler -classes. It would have been impossible to have trained them in the -elaborate Hellenic school, therefore, the more ear-catching melodies -were at first used, combined probably with a simple chant. The same -cause operated in the foundation of a newer and simpler theory of music; -hence, although our modern music is the child of the ancient Greek -school, yet it did not go in the same course, or arrive at the same goal -which would have resulted, had the old Greek civilization been continued -two thousand years longer. - -We hold that the Greeks were too much devoted to the plastic arts, ever -to have brought music deeply into the inner life. - -Before the liturgy had been well established, improvisation was much -employed; a result always to be anticipated when uncultivated persons -become musical. At the evening meal, the twenty-third Psalm was usually -chanted.[230] Other passages of scripture were also used, such as Exodus -XV., and Daniel III. - -When the water was passed around for the washing of hands, each one of -the company was asked in turn to praise God in song, and the selection -might either be taken from Scripture, or improvised, according to the -taste or ability of the performer.[231] Some of the best of these -effusions were unquestionably preserved and possibly even admitted into -the regular service of the church. The songs may have been rough and -uncouth, but they were given with a fervor which compensated for any -short-comings. They were unaccompanied, for two reasons; first, it would -have been difficult to have formed an instrumental accompaniment to such -variable and primitive songs, (sometimes a mere intonation of the voice, -scarcely to be called music or even chanting); and second, because all -the instruments of the heathen were in daily use at the sacrifices and -theatres; and it would have seemed sacrilegious to have used them in the -celebration of a Christian festival.[232] - -The summing up of the legends, surmises, and few statements concerning -the music of the earliest Christians, are well expressed in Ambros.[233] - -We can conclude regarding the music of the earliest Christian times, -that it was at first a species of Folk-song, founded upon the school of -music then in vogue, but elevated and impregnated with a new religious -spirit. But this simplicity soon was changed: profiting by the -experience of the Romans in uniting all art and beauty in their -theatres, (whereby the theatre grew, and the church declined;) the early -Christians soon found it wise to unite every art, in the service of -their church. It is also probable that much of the music was borrowed -from that of the Hebrews. This is more natural when we reflect that -Christianity was at first a continuation (or reorganization) of Hebrew -rites and the apostles were all well acquainted with the ceremonies of -the Jewish church. - -The chanting of the scriptures which took place in the latter worship, -was undoubtedly transplanted into the Christian service.[234] Many of -the early psalms and canticles were sung in caves and subterranean -retreats in which places the proscribed and persecuted worshippers were -obliged to seek refuge, and where they still kept, up with undeviating -regularity the practice of their ceremonies. - -Pliny the younger on being made pro-consul of Bithynia was especially -charged by the emperor Trajan, to find accusations against the -Christians there, the number of whom was augmenting daily. A letter of -his, supposed to have been written in the third year of the second -century of our era,[235] contains the following regarding the new -religion. - -“They affirm that their fault, and errors have only consisted of -this;—they convene at stated days, before sunrise, and sing, each in -turn, verses in praise of Christ, as of a God; they engage themselves, -by oath, not to do any crime, but never to commit theft, robbery, or -adultery, never to break faith, or betray a trust. After this they -separate and afterwards reassemble to eat together innocent and -innocuous dishes.”[236] - -At a later period (the fourth century) all proselytes and new converts -were not admitted to sing in the church with the baptized. The new -converts presented themselves before the hierarch, (a dignitary who was -charged with the duty of classifying the catechumens in different -orders) and expressed to him the desire of joining the church. If the -questions of the priests were satisfactorily answered, he placed his -hand on the head of the applicant and gave him the benediction with the -sign of the cross, and afterwards inscribed his name among the number of -candidates for baptism. The catechumen had not the right to enter the -church. He might linger around the porticos, but was on no account -allowed to join in the prayers, except in a low voice, and in the hymns -not at all, until he had received the rite of baptism. - -The candidates for baptism were divided into various classes. Even after -baptism there were three orders of Christians, and those who had fallen -into disgrace with the church, were sometimes disciplined by being -reduced for a few years to the rank of auditors at the services. These -were not allowed to join in the congregational singing, and were -sometimes not even admitted to the body of the church edifice unless -called there. - -It is presumable that the right to join in the singing was, during the -first two or three centuries, highly prized. - -Little by little the spirit of improvement crept into the unskilled but -soul-felt music of the early Christian church. It seems rather strange -to find in the very germs of the religion, a silent, yet real contest -between congregational and paid singing; and to find the same evils -creeping in with the employment of singers in those early times, that we -see in the present days of quartette choirs. In the days of Origen -(about the middle of the second century) all the congregation sang -together. - -St. John Chrysostom says,— - -“The psalms which we sing united all the voices in one, and the -canticles arise harmoniously in unison. Young and old, rich and poor, -women, men, slaves and citizens, all of us have formed but one melody -together.”[237] - -A better picture of the full congregational singing of the primitive -Christians cannot be given. The custom of allowing both sexes to sing -together, was abolished by the Synod of Antioch in A. D. 379, and it was -then decided that the men only should be allowed to sing the psalms. - -In A. D. 481, the council of Laodicea ordained that the clerks only -(called canonical singers “_Canonicos Cantores_,”) should be allowed to -sing during the service.[238] The abuses which accompany paid singing, -appeared even in the second century. Singers found themselves sought -after in proportion to their talents, and therefore (in the absence of -an exact method of notation) sought to make those talents more -conspicuous by an introduction of florid ornaments and cadenzas into -their music; they gradually forgot, or disregarded the old traditional -style of singing, and sought only to excite the admiration of the masses -by exhibiting to the best advantage the power and agility of their -voices. - -It was, without doubt, to remedy this abuse that Pope Sylvester I, who -occupied the pontifical chair, A. D. 320, founded a school in Rome for -the formation of singers.[239] At this time also, the choir had its own -gallery or place in the church assigned to it, and every art was called -into play to impress and enthrall the worshipper. Sculpture, Painting, -Architecture and Music combined, as they had previously done for Pagan -theatres and amusements, to render the church a beautiful as well as -holy resort. Charity combined in some instances with policy; for we -learn that a singing school founded in A. D. 350, by pope Hilary, was -called an orphan asylum (orphanotrophia), and here the education of -clerks for the church, was commenced at a very tender age.[240] - -These schools did much to re-establish a dignified and worthy style of -sacred singing. Yet there was great need of a sweeping reform; for as -there existed no really fixed system, the differences in singing were -almost as numerous as the various existing churches. Before speaking of -this reform, we will briefly outline the progress of music in Christian -communities outside of Rome. - - - GREEK CHURCH. - -The Greek church, from the very beginning, paid great attention to music -in all its details. The first institution of the mass, is attributed to -St. James the lesser, first bishop of Jerusalem, who died a martyr in A. -D. 62. This mass is still in existence. There are also existing, masses -by the two great luminaries of the Greek Church, Sts. John Chrysostom -and Basilius, who flourished in the last half of the fourth century. - -Although there are doubts expressed as to whether St. John Chrysostom -wrote the one attributed to him, yet it is certain that the mass was -used in Constantinople (of which city he was the Patriarch) as long ago -as the end of the fourth century, and was not materially changed until -the eighth century. It is entitled “The mystery of the divine -Eucharist.”[241] - -The _hymns_, which at first were not used at all in the Roman church, -were one of the brightest ornaments of the Greek. The verses and ancient -tunes of these hymns were at first well adapted to each other; but, by -the constant introduction of embellishments, shakes, and cadenzas, the -connection was soon lost. - -This taste for ornamentation in sacred music was driven to far greater -excess in the Greek church, than even in Rome; the taste _fioritura_ is -to-day, and always has been, a characteristic of most Eastern nations. -This is driven to such excess in the Greek church, that (in the churches -of the Orient, at least), the hymns are executed by two singers, one of -whom sings the hymns, while the other sustains the key note or principal -tone only. - -This note the singer gives out with regularity and monotony, its only -object being to keep the principal singer in bounds and to prevent him -from straying away from the key on account of the numerous trills and -_fiorituri_ which he is expected to introduce into the song. - -It may be well to mention here, as we shall not recur to the music of -the Eastern Greek church again, that its style of notation, and singing -has altered very little, in the course of centuries; it is totally -different from that of all other countries, and consists wholly of -signs, which are not in any manner measured off into bars, but somewhat -resemble the chants of the Catholic church. The notes are only relative -in value, and the scale on which the melodies are founded, may be -represented thus,— - - Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, Do, Re. - Pa, Bou, Ga, Di, Ke, Zô, Ne, Pa. - -Every embellishment is represented by a character; rising and falling -inflections by others, and comparative length of notes by yet others. - -It will therefore be seen that although the notation is decidedly -complicated, there is a comprehensible system followed, by consulting -which, we attain certain information as to one branch of the early -church.[242] - -The works found in the old monasteries of the Orient are almost -invaluable to the musical antiquary. We believe that many more will yet -be discovered among the monks of Mt. Athos, those strange and illiterate -custodians of some of the rarest manuscripts in existence, relative to -this subject.[243] - -We are sorry that a thorough description of this subject (though full of -interest) would demand much space and many engravings. The effect of the -singing of this church in its oriental branches is very similar to that -of the Hebrews in their services of the present day. - - - SYRIAN CHURCH. - -We now turn to the early Christian church of Syria, founded by the -Apostles Paul and Barnabas. - -One of the earliest in existence, the church of Antioch soon became the -metropolis of Syrian Christianity. Yet it was in this church also that -the first heresy took place, by the rise of the Gnostics (disciples of -science); one of this sect, named Bardesanes, founded a separate -denomination of these, and was the first who composed hymns in the -native tongue, and adapted them to melodies. He composed one hundred and -fifty psalms in imitation of David. - -But greatest of all the musicians of the Orthodox Christian church of -Syria, was Ephraem Syrus. He is still called “Harp of the Holy Spirit” -in many churches who yet honor him and celebrate his feast. - -He was a monk of Syria, born of poor parents, in a village of -Mesopotamia. At eighteen years of age he was converted and baptized, and -soon retired to a desert spot to practice penitence and piety. It was in -this retreat that he composed his voluminous sermons, hymns, etc., all -of which have much poetic beauty and oriental imagery.[244] He wrote -fifteen hymns on the “Nativity,” fifteen on “Paradise,” fifty-two on -“Faith,” and “The Church,” fifty-one on “The Virginity,” eighty-seven -against “Heresy,” and “The Arians,” eighty-five “Mortuary,” fifteen -moral hymns, etc. His writings on the _Peshito_ or Syriac version of the -scriptures are still of use to the theological student. - -He arranged the music to his hymns, and he himself speaks of having -arranged sixty-six of them in the style of Bardesanes. - -Many of the songs and prayers in the Syrian liturgy, ascribed to St. -Ephraem are spurious. It is related that at the first interview between -him and St. Basilius, the former was endowed by the Holy Ghost with -sudden power to speak Greek, and the latter Syriac, thus giving them a -choice of languages in which to converse. - -It is impossible to give a thorough account of the music of the Syrian -Church, as although the first instruments mentioned in the Bible (the -taboret, a tambourine held in one hand and struck with the other, and -Kinnor, a seven stringed triangular harp) are Syrian, yet the people -have never, from time immemorial, written down their melodies, but -always handed them down orally, father to son, or teacher to pupil. - -The mass in Syrian liturgy, is very different in its form, from the -Catholic: there is neither _Kyrie Eleison_, _Gloria_, nor _Epistle_, -contained in it. - -There are two distinct sects in the Syrian church; the first -Ephraemitic, or followers of the Orthodox saint; the second, heretical -and followers of Jacob Baradaeus, a Syrian monk of the sixth century. -These are called Jacobites, and hold Eutychian doctrines. - -The music of the latter is ornamented to excess; that of the Ephraemitic -rite nobler and plainer. - - - THE ARMENIAN CHURCH. - -The rise of Christianity among the Armenians, goes back to the third -century, but they early developed the doctrines of Eutychius, and the -Monophysites. At times, portions of the Armenian church have adhered to -the Western church, but in its rites it far more resembles the Eastern -Greek church. The language is well adapted for song. - -Their most ancient religious songs were written by _Sahac_, the great -_Katholicos_, or patriarch of the church; the psalms were sung by them -to popular melodies. - - - THE CHURCHES OF AFRICA. - -St. Mark is considered as the Apostle of Egypt and founder of the church -of Alexandria; the liturgy used by this church is said to have been -written by him; but many manuscripts exist which point to St. Basilius -as its author, and it bears internal evidence that St. Mark could not -have written it, for among the prayers for the dead, it names many -saints, martyrs, bishops, etc., _including St. Mark_. - -The songs of the early Christians here, as throughout the Orient, were -hymns, psalms, and anthems of which the melodies were taken from the -popular music of the day. - -The Coptic church in its liturgy entirely resembled the Greek church of -Egypt, and in looking over its ritual, one continually meets with -translations of the liturgies of St. Basil, St. Cyrille, or St. Gregory -Nazianzen. In the National Library, of Paris there is also a Coptic -translation of the Liturgy of St. Mark. - -The music of the Coptic church is very much embellished, and of -inordinate length; for, owing to the practice of the singers to vocalise -upon one syllable sometimes to the length of _several minutes_[245] the -vespers alone, often attain the length of _four or five hours_. - -As the rules of worship of the Copts do not allow them either to kneel -or to sit down during services, they are obliged to support themselves -by placing under their arm-pits, a long crutch, in order not to drop -from fatigue. - -This race is degenerating fast, and will soon disappear under the -despotic sway of the Arabs. Their number is about one hundred and fifty -thousand. Few of them understand the Coptic language, and although part -of the service is sung in that tongue, it is usually afterwards -explained in Arabic. Their modulations in singing are very bold, -constant, and fatiguing; so much so, that long before the end of the -song, all remembrance of any key-note, is lost. - -All writers agree in speaking of their music, as tiresome in the -extreme. This proceeds from three causes;—their extraordinary length, -their insignificant melody, and the constant repetition of the syllables -and vowels of a single word, whereby it is made almost impossible to -follow the sense of the text. This fault is not confined to the Coptic -sect only, but is largely found in the Greek church throughout the -Orient. Fetis gives a strong example of one case, taken from an Eastern -Hymnal, it runs as follows,— - -Aga-a-a-a-a-a-aate-e-e-e-e mara ky-y-y-ri-i-i-i-i-ou. - -Each of the vowels is given separate from the others, and the effect is -ludicrous in the extreme. The Copts do worse than this; after mincing a -word into such minute fragments, they go back and re-mutilate the first -syllable, then again the second, then perhaps the first two, and so on -for a long time before they give the word complete like the Syrians. - -The Copts have no musical notation whatever, and it is a most curious -fact in music, that they should be able to recollect such lengthy songs, -devoid of any apparent melody, or sequence, and hand them down -traditionally, from generation to generation; they must possess either -phenomenal memories, or an insight to a connection of ideas in their -songs, which has escaped European perception. These remarkable -descendants of the ancient Egyptians, hate other Christian sects with -much more fervor than they do the Mohammedans. - -Of the Abyssinian Church we have already spoken, (see chapters on -“African Music”);—there is little more to add. They have different modes -of singing for different grades of sacred festivals. Responses made by -the people or the choir, enter largely into their mass. The number of -choristers is from eight to twelve, and they have all powerful voices; -this is in fact a prime necessity, as at the door of the church, during -service, a constant din of drums, cymbals, and sistrums is kept up. - -On certain days, the priests and people have a grand religious dance, to -the sound of these instruments, while the chorus sing a litany and all -mark the time by a clapping of hands. - - - GENERAL SYNOPSIS OF EARLY CHRISTIAN MUSIC. - -That the art of music was esteemed among the more educated of the early -Christians is very strongly shown by a fresco in the cemetery of -Domitilla (in Rome). This painting which seems to be of the first or -second century of our era, represents Christ as Orpheus, charming all -nature by his music.[246] It is probably only an allegorical figure, -representing his divine gifts, but the figure must be a shock to all who -are accustomed to see the face of Jesus, as drawn by the Leonardo da -Vinci. Instead of the meek and beautiful form, we see here a lank -loosely-built young man, sitting in a very uncomfortable attitude, on a -rock, and twanging away at a four-stringed lyre. - -Regarding the origin of the present pictures of Christ (although not -strictly belonging to our subject) we are tempted to make the following -remarks. - -It is believed by some scholars that the head of Christ was first copied -from the statue of Jupiter (or the Greek Zeus), which was, in the early -centuries regarded as the most perfect model of manly beauty. It is -scarcely to be doubted that the general model of the Pagan sculptures -was followed in the early representations of the Saviour. But the style -of portraits was altered in consonance with the description handed down -by good authorities. - -A brass medal with a head of Christ on one side, was discovered in 1702, -in some Druidical ruins, at Aberfraw, Wales, which although of a later -era than that assigned to it, is of great antiquity, and coincides with -the pictures of to-day. - -There exists a letter ascribed to Publius Lentulus and directed to the -emperor Tiberius, which describes Jesus. Although it is apocryphal, yet -it was certainly written in the days of the primitive Christians. It is -translated as follows,—[247] - -“There hath appeared in these, our days, a man of great virtue, named -Jesus Christ, who is yet living among us, and of the Gentiles, is -accepted as a prophet, but his disciples call him the Son of God. He -raiseth the dead, and cures all manner of diseases; a man of stature -somewhat tall and comely, with very reverend countenance, such as the -beholders both love and fear; his hair the color of chestnut, full ripe, -plain to his ears, whence downward it is more orient, curling and waving -about his shoulders.” - -“In the midst of his head is a seam or partition of the hair, after the -manner of the Nazarites; his forehead plain and very delicate; his face -without a spot or wrinkle, beautified with the most lovely red; his nose -and mouth so formed that nothing can be reprehended; his beard thickish, -in color like his hair, not very long but forked; his look innocent and -mature, his eyes gray, clear, and quick. In reproving he is terrible; in -admonishing, courteous and fair spoken; pleasant in conversation mixed -with gravity.” - -“It cannot be remarked that any one saw him laugh, but many have seen -him weep. In proportion of body, most excellent; his hands and arms most -delicate to behold. In speaking, very temperate, moderate and wise. A -man for his singular beauty, surpassing the children of men.” - -From this letter of the predecessor of Pontius Pilate (?) the two -earliest known portraits of Christ (in the Calixtine and Pontine -catacombs at Rome) were probably sketched and the model has been -followed up to our day. - -But there is another description, by St. John of Damascus, which is much -more in keeping with the Jewish type, of which he supposes the Saviour -probably may have had some trait. - -According to him, Christ had beautiful eyes, but the eyebrows meeting; a -regular nose, flowing locks, a black beard, and a straw colored -complexion, like his mother. - - - - - CHAPTER XXI. - THE AMBROSIAN AND GREGORIAN CHANT. - - -St Ambrose, the first real reformer in the music of the Christian -Church, was born A. D. 333, probably at Treves, where his father who was -prefect of Gaul, often resided. He is said to have received an -auspicious omen even in his cradle; a swarm of bees alighted upon him -during his slumber, and the astonished nurse saw that they did not sting -him, but clustered around his lips; his father, remembering a similar -wonder related of Plato, predicted a high destiny for his son. He was -therefore, thoroughly educated in his youth, and soon was sent with -Satyrus, his brother, to Milan to study law. - -He soon became so eminent in this profession, that he was appointed (A. -D. 369) prefect of upper Italy and Milan. In A. D. 374 he was -unanimously, and against his will, chosen bishop of Milan. - -Once in the chair, however, he ruled with vigor and great sagacity, -making numerous and necessary reforms in church regulations and -discipline.[248] - -We shall only follow his musical career. Unfortunately, although there -are some remains in the Milanese church-chant of to-day, we have but -little proof of the nature of his reforms. That it was deeply impressive -we have the testimony of St. Augustine who eulogises, without accurately -describing it,[249] but it is certain that his reforms were founded in -part upon the Greek music, and that in the Gregorian and Ambrosian -chants of the church, we have a legitimate descendant of the ancient -Greek music. The reader must remove one impression from his mind; the -music of the early Christians, though certainly crude, was by no means -simple; on the contrary, it contained many flourishes and rapid -embellishments, most of which were of oriental origin. The reform was in -the nature of simplicity, and added dignity to a service, which already, -in its words, possessed beauty and poetry. - -He cast aside much of the cumbrous nomenclature of the Greek modes, and -retained of them only what was beautiful and easily comprehended. He did -not aim at any sweeping reform, as is evident from his letter to his -sister St. Marcellina, wherein he says that he is endeavoring to -regulate the mode of singing the hymns, canticles and anthems in his own -church,[250] and St. Augustine[251] says that it was done after the -manner of the churches of the Orient. - -The modes which he chose for his compositions were the following:— - - First mode:— D, E, F, G, A, B, C, D, - re mi fa sol la si do re - Second do. E, F, G, A, B, C, D, E, - mi fa sol la si do re mi - Third do. F, G, A, B, C, D, E, F, - fa sol la si do re mi fa - Fourth do. G, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, - sol la si do re mi fa sol - -It will be seen that the semi-tones are immovable, and therefore occur -in different positions in each mode, by the change of the key-note; -being respectively,— - - First mode, semitones 2-3, 6-7 - Second ” ” 1-2, 5-6 - Third ” ” 4-5, 7-8 - Fourth ” ” 3-4, 6-7 - -It was this distinction which gave to each mode its peculiar character. - -Not only did St. Ambrose reinstate these modes, but he composed many -beautiful compositions in them. Many of the so-called Ambrosian chants -and hymns, were not written by him, but after his manner; but some ten -of the ancient hymns, including “_Veni Redemptor Gentium_,” “_Eterna -Christi munera_,” etc., are from his own pen. - -The Cathedral of Milan still uses _Aeterne rerum conditor_; _Deus -Creator omnium_; _Veni Redemptor omnium_; _Splendor Paternæ gloriæ_; -_Consors paterni luminis_; and _O Lux Beata Trinitas_.[252] - -Some of these are of rare beauty, and remain as monuments of the -cultivated taste of this pioneer in church music. The composition of the -“_Te Deum Laudamus_,” has been ascribed to St. Ambrose, and St. -Augustine; but it was composed nearly a century after their death. Among -other persons to whom this beautiful production has been assigned, may -be mentioned St. Hilary, St. Abundius, St. Sisebut, and St. Nicat; but -it may be safely affirmed that its real author has never been -discovered. - -The greatest boon bestowed on the church by St. Ambrose was the -rhythmical hymn, mentioned above, all of which, and many others he wrote -for the Cathedral which he built at Milan. - -“The entire accent, and style of chanting as regulated by him, was -undoubtedly an artistic and cultivated improvement on that of preceding -church services, such as would naturally result from the rare -combination of piety, zeal, intellect, and poetical and musical power by -which he was distinguished.” The Ambrosian chant was eventually merged, -but certainly not lost in that vast repertory of plain song, (whether -then ancient or modern,) which we now call Gregorian, from the name of -the next great reformer of church music, St. Gregory the Great.[253] St. -Ambrose died A. D. 397; it was but a short time afterwards that the -great invasion of the northern barbarians took place. The history of the -vicissitudes of the ecclesiastical music, during the general disruption -of Europe and the western civilization, which followed, can only be -imagined; but scarcely had a calm been re-established, when, at a period -when the reforms and inventions of St. Ambrose had not been vitiated or -lost, the great reformer of church music arose, and re-instated the art -upon a firmer pedestal than ever. - -Gregory, the Great, born about A. D. 540, and pope from September 3, -590, to March 12, 604, was of an illustrious Roman family. His father -Gordianus, was a senator, and Felix III., one of the early pontiffs, was -among his ancestors. He was one of the most remarkable, zealous, and -intelligent of the fathers of the church. - -We have here only to follow his musical work, but in every branch of -work connected with his church, he was most eminent. He founded six -monasteries in Sicily alone. He voluntarily resigned an honorable -office, to leave the world, and seek retirement in the monastery of St. -Andrew, which he himself had founded at Rome. On this occasion he gave -to the poor all his wealth, and declining the abbacy of his own convent, -began with the ordinary monastic life, about 575. - -He wished to attempt the conversion of the Britains, (moved thereto by -the well known incident of seeing some beautiful Anglo-Saxon youths -exposed for sale in the Roman market place), but was prevented by the -clamor of the populace who refused to lose him. Like St. Ambrose, he was -called to office entirely against his will, and, on being made pontiff, -he seems to have excelled in every department of his administration; -thus much, to show that music was but one of the fields in which this -wonderful man exercised his talents. - -He collected the available church music, he added to it by composing new -hymns and anthems, he arranged them for the various special days of the -year, he invented or amplified the system of ecclesiastical composition, -and took care that the reforms should be permanent, by having most -things relative to his musical labors, written out in a lasting -manner.[254] - -These reforms he began about A. D. 599. He did not discard the four -modes of St. Ambrose, but rather extended them; and yet (through the -great personal popularity of St. Ambrose), the Milan Cathedral kept the -Ambrosian chant unadulterated, for centuries after the establishment of -the Gregorian. - -As late as the latter half of the fifteenth century, Franchinus Gafor -speaks of the Gregorians and Ambrosians as partizans. Of course, in -order to secure uniformity, the rulers of Europe, sought to dwarf the -workings of the Ambrosian system, and Charlemagne even ordered the -Ambrosian books to be burnt. Although, as above stated, there was -nothing antagonistic in the two systems, yet their musical results seem -to have had a material difference, for Radulf of Tongern an -unimpeachable witness of the fourteenth century, who heard both methods -in their purity, says that he found the Ambrosian chanting, widely -different from the Roman (Gregorian); the former being strong and -majestic, while the latter was sweet-toned, and well arranged.[255] This -distinction is utterly meaningless to us, for the Gregorian chant is -certainly majestic and strong, at least to our ears. - -Gregory also founded a singing school in Rome, which was large enough to -occupy two good-sized edifices. In this he probably taught personally. - -There have been shown as relics of his instruction, the couch on which -he sat while teaching, and the rod with which the boys were corrected, -or awed into giving proper attention to their studies. - -The amplification which he made in the Ambrosian scale was the addition -of four tones or plagal modes, and also that he totally abolished the -difficult Greek nomenclature, such as _para-mese_ and -_proslambanomenos_, and gave the names of the first seven letters of the -Roman alphabet, to the seven notes, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, in the same -manner as used to-day. There is no question but that the scale founded -by Gregory, had a diatonic character, but as to the number of systems of -tones employed, authorities differ, and even the books of music of -Gregory’s own compilation (one of which was chained to the altar at St. -Peters, to fix the standard of tone for ever and ever) do not clear up -the difficulty, for the number differs. - -But the system gradually settled itself, and eight tones only (our -ordinary diatonic scale tones) were found practicable for composition -and singing. - -Gregory’s system was founded on the division of the octave into two -intervals; a perfect fifth and perfect fourth. The fifth was, next to -the octave, the most important interval. - -The added modes (called plagal, signifying “oblique, sideways”), were so -called to distinguish them from the authentic tones or keys (D, E, F, G, -A), a synopsis of the entire set of tones would be as follows,— - - A, B, C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C, D, - plagal 4, - authentic 5, - plagal 4. - -There were four authentic modes, viz.,—D, E, F and G, and four plagal, -as follows,—A, B, C and D. - -To give a description that would be at all adequate, of the system of -Gregory, would require much space, and many plates and engravings. We -shall therefore touch but lightly on the tone systems and notations of -the early and middle ages. The founding of the scale from a fifth and -fourth, led to one grave mistake; these intervals were supposed to be of -prime importance, and more perfect than others, and finally were -employed in harmonies which were decidedly harsh. But to such an extent -did the evil spread that no composition (in the dark ages) was thought -to be pure or classic, without containing a series of fourths, fifths, -and octaves, and an invariable close upon an empty fifth. Thirds were -rejected as totally impure. But these faults are not of Gregory’s -origination, and he must ever stand as the man who made the connecting -link between the old Greek music and our own. - - - - - CHAPTER XXII. - MUSIC IN EUROPE FROM THE FIFTH CENTURY. - - -In proceeding to briefly sketch the curious facts of musical history in -the dark ages, we shall necessarily confine ourselves to pointing out -only what is chiefly remarkable, and shall not enter into the field of -dispute regarding systems and notations, for this period of Musical -History is a very hazy one. It is but natural to suppose, that when -general barbarism spread over Europe, music was not likely to be either -much practised or written about. The last writer on the previous systems -was Boethius (the last of old Roman writers), who lived at about the -same epoch as Gregory (he was put to death by Theodoric, the Goth, A. D. -525). - -In his work, he uses the letters of the alphabet, to designate musical -notes, but does not repeat the letters at the octave; his nomenclature -therefore does not end at G, but continues on, to _N_, _O_, and -_P_.[256] - -Musical progress was at a stand still from the time of Gregory, until -the reign of the Carlovingian kings. Charlemagne at the end of the -eighth, and beginning of the ninth centuries, took all art and music -under his powerful protection. He loved to compare himself with King -David, and had in many respects, good reason to, for he possessed both -the virtues and the failings of that ancient monarch. - -He gathered about him a number of musical and literary friends, and we -can judge of the pleasant manner of their intercourse by the names of -antiquity which each one was known by. Alcuin, was dubbed Flaccus -Albinus; Riculf, Archbishop of Mayence,—Damoetas; Arno,—Aquila; -Angilbert,—Homerus, etc.[257] - -In addition to the literary and musical schools founded throughout his -empire, in his own palace was one devoted to the education of the -children of his servants. Books were read, and music sung to his -courtiers, during the hours of dining or other leisure. - -The singing at his court, he often conducted himself, and every one was -obliged to participate. If a stranger arrived, he was also obliged to -stand with the chorus, and even if he could not sing, at least to make -the semblance of doing so. - -In the conservation of ancient legendary songs Charlemagne was very -active, and many which have come down to our day, owe their existence to -his wise and thoughtful care.[258] - -In church music he was, most of all, interested, and remarked with much -concern, the variations between the Gregorian and French singing. To put -an end to the matter, he sent to Stephen IV., the reigning pope, for -ecclesiastical singers; the latter responded by sending, (in imitation -of the twelve apostles,) twelve clerical singers to teach his empire. - -But these twelve apostles, turned out to be _all_ Judases, for jealous -of the rising civilization of France, they agreed among themselves, not -to aid in its rise. When therefore, they had been received at the French -court with every honor, and were sent to their various fields of labor, -it is said, they began to sing in a most wretched manner, and not -content with that, they _taught_ this abomination to their pupils. But -when Charlemagne celebrated Christmas at Tours that year, and in Paris -the succeeding year, he heard other Roman vocalists sing in a manner -totally different, and lost no time in making complaint to the pope, -who, calling back the untrustworthy teachers, punished them, some with -banishment, and some with perpetual imprisonment; and in order that a -similar deceit might not again be practised, he persuaded Charlemagne to -send two French Ecclesiastics to Rome, where under Papal supervision -they learned the true Gregorian style of song.[259] - -There also exists another anecdote of the ruling of Charlemagne in -church singing, which will show how high partizan feeling ran in musical -matters at this era. It is as follows,— - -“The most pious King Charles having returned to celebrate Easter at Rome -with the apostolic Lord, a great quarrel ensued during the festival, -between the Roman and Gallic singers. The French pretended to sing -better and more agreeable than the Italians; the Italians, on the -contrary, regarding themselves as more learned in Ecclesiastical music, -in which they had been instructed by St. Gregory, accused their -competitors of corrupting, disfiguring, and spoiling the new chant. The -dispute being brought before our sovereign lord the king, the French, -thinking themselves sure of his countenance and support, insulted the -Roman singers; who, on their part, emboldened by superior knowledge, and -comparing the musical abilities of their great master, St. Gregory, with -the ignorance and rusticity of their rivals, treated them as fools and -barbarians.” - -“As their altercation was not likely to come to a speedy issue, the most -pious King Charles asked his chanters which they thought to be the -purest and best water, that which was drawn from the source at the -fountain-head, or that which after being mixed with turbid and muddy -rivulets, was found at a great distance from the original spring?” - -“They exclaimed unanimously, that all water must be most pure at its -source; upon which our lord the King, said, ‘mount ye then up to the -pure fountain of St. Gregory, whose chant ye have manifestly corrupted.’ -After this our lord the king, applied to Pope Adrian (the first) for -singing masters to convert the Gallican chant; and the pope appointed -for that purpose Theodore and Benedict, two chanters of great learning -and abilities, who had been instructed by St. Gregory himself; he -likewise granted to him _Antiphonaria_, or choral-books of that saint, -which he had himself written in Roman notes.” - -“Our lord the King, on his return to France, sent one of the two singers -granted him by the Pope, to Metz, and the other to Soissons; commanding -all the singing masters of his kingdom to correct their _antiphonaria_, -and to conform in all respects to the Roman manner of performing the -church service.” - -“Thus were the French _antiphonaria_ corrected, which had before been -vitiated, interpolated, and abridged at the pleasure of every choir man, -and all the chanters of France learned from the Romans that chant which -they now call the French chant, which is entirely as the Roman except -that the French do not execute the tremulus and vinnulas, the bound and -staccato notes (_collisibiles vel secabiles voces_), with facility, and -give a rather rude and throaty manner of singing. The best style of -singing remained in Metz, and as superior as Rome is to Metz, so -superior is Metz to the rest of France, in its school of singing.”[260] - -Both the above anecdotes, although quoted very frequently, must be taken -_cum grano salis_, for as Ambros and Fetis well observe, the two -singers, if they had received instruction from Gregory, and also taught -in the era of Charlemagne, must have been about _two hundred years of -age_, which is certainly too old for active service. Another historian -gives the names of the envoys as _Petrus_ and _Romanus_, and it is -certain that one of these did go to Metz, and that a famous school of -singing was founded at Soissons about the same time. Both the teachers, -also must have instructed the French, in the musical characters then -used in notation, and known by the name of _Neumes_. - -The _Neumes_ which were in use for musical writing from the eighth to -the twelfth century were short lines, twirls, and hooks, which were -written above the words of a song to denote the melody. - -The origin of these marks, is buried in oblivion, for they seem to have -been developed, not at one time, but gradually, and from the simplest -beginnings. Although we have not space to describe the theories -concerning them, a short explanation of them is necessary, for from -these Neumes gradually came our modern system of notation. At first -these marks were only meant as guides to memory; to aid the singer to -sing an air which he had previously learned. Thus the first bar of “Home -Sweet Home,” would be represented by a _Scandicus_ signifying three -upward moving tones, the first two short, the last one long. - -The exclamation and interrogation point, are in language, what _Neumes_ -were at first in music, they roughly sketched out the inflection of the -voice. The connection between them, and our modern notation is very -evident; in our musical notation the requirements of the eye, have been -well attended to; not entirely perhaps, as regards the length of notes, -but certainly in the matter of ascending and descending passages, -etc.;[261] the old Greek notation, with its upturned and fragmentary -letters, meant nothing to the untutored eye; but the _Neumes_ of the -middle ages, were the first attempt to express a meaning _by their -arrangement_. Thus the _tripunctum_ ({tripunctum}) would denote three -notes ascending, though not which ones; it might mean - - C, D, E, or E, F, G, or F, G, A, - do, re, mi, mi, fa, sol, fa, sol, la, - -etc., the _bipunctum_ ({bipunctum}) two ascending, or ({bipunctum}) -descending notes; the _plica ascendens_ ({plica ascendens}) an upward -spring of a third, etc. - -It being a system which was evolved by slow degrees, it is not -astonishing that there are various signs, about which opinions differ. -The system though seemingly barbarous, was in reality an improvement; -although not developed so extensively as the Greek notation which -preceded it, it bore the germ of a more natural style of musical -characters. - -But the constant change of, and addition to the _Neumes_, bore evidence, -that it was but a pathway to a more complete system. The next great -reformer in music gave his attention to abolishing the uncertainty which -clung around the _pneumata_. - -Hucbald, Monk of St. Amand, in Flanders, (born about 840, died 932,) -made the first practical effort to fix notes permanently. To him is due -the germ of the idea which afterwards culminated in the modern clefs and -staff. - -He took (unfortunately) the Greek system for his starting point, and -this led him into many errors, and much lessened the permanent value of -his work. He took the tetrachord (or succession of four notes) as the -foundation of music, but he applied it in a most strange manner; his -scale was as follows:[262] - - G, A, B flat, - C, D, E, F, - G, A, B natural, - C, D, E, F sharp, - G, A, B, C sharp, - -it will be readily seen that the above scale contains some -incongruities, which are precisely similar to those noticed in the music -of the Hindoos; that is the octave comes out a semi-tone sharp; B -natural being octave to B flat, F sharp to F, etc. - -Naturally, in singing it is not to be conceived that the singers took -any such outlandish system as to substitute this for an octave, but it -must have allowed great license to the singers, and the whole must have -given rise to much ambiguity. - -His improvement in the method of notation consisted (a perfect -anticipation of clef and staff) in placing the letters of the notes -employed, before each line of the words, and then writing each syllable -of the song, opposite to (and level with) the note to which it belonged. -As he adopted the clumsy Greek method of lettering (using only four -letters, and placing them upright, reversed, backwards, and sideways) we -will give an example with English letters.[263] - - A _______a-________________________ - G ____da-__te_______num____________ - F Lau-___________mi-____de-________ - E ____________do-__________e_______ - D ___________________________cœlis - -The words being “Laudate Dominum de cœlis.” - -The harmony of Hucbald was as peculiar and barbaric as his scale system. - -He followed the principle of the ancients in treating intervals of -thirds and sixths as _dissonances_, and therefore did not allow them to -appear in his works. In common with some of his predecessors, he held -that the only pure intervals were fifths and fourths. To us this -succession of discords appears most appalling, but it is probable that -in the practical use of music it was ameliorated somewhat. At this time -when the organ was in such a primitive state that the organist struck -the keys heavily with his _fist_ in playing, the left fist was sometimes -allowed to hold a tone (in the manner of an organ point), while the -right played a succession of tones with the singers. The constant -rejection of sixths and thirds as impure intervals, must ever remain a -mystery to us; yet the effect of even this harsh and uncouth singing was -deep on those who heard it. History tells us that King Canute was deeply -impressed on hearing the monks chant, while being rowed in his boat, -near a monastery, and a lady upon hearing the music of the first organ -erected in France, went raving mad, from excess of emotion. - -We will leave the rude harmonies of Hucbald, with a final example -showing the succession of fourths used in his _organum_ (or art of -composing). - -The letters T, and S, signify tone and semitone. - - _______________Do-_____________________________ - T_________________mini_________________________ - T_Sit_____oria_________in_____cula________bitur - S_____glo-_____Do-________sae-_________ta______ - T_________________mini_____________lae-________ } etc. - T_Sit_____oria_________in_____cula________bitur - S_____glo-________________sae-_________ta______ - T__________________________________lae-________ - -Sometimes four voices were thus written on a staff of fifteen lines. -Although this system was so cumbrous, yet the right path had been -attained, and the progress was continual; little inventions followed one -upon the other, and many of the modern usages in music date their rise -to this obscure age of Musical History. - -The next great name, in the art, is that of Guido Aretino, or of Arezzo, -a monk of the Benedictine order, born at Arezzo. He flourished about A. -D. 1030 though the date of his birth and death, is not accurately known. -His work has had more influence in shaping modern music, than that of -any one before him. Yet much of his life and work belongs to the hazy -realm of legend. He attained such celebrity that every invention to -which his successors could not find a father, was attributed to him. - -Guido’s great success lay in the fact that he was a _specialist_. He did -not undertake, like Gregory and Ambros, to shine in all art, science, -and enterprise; his position precluded that; he says “The ways of -Philosophers are not mine, I only occupy myself with what can be of use -to the church, and bring our little ones (the scholars) forward.” - -There was need of such a man; for though music teachers were sought in -every country at this time, and those from Italy, Greece, France and -even Germany, were highly prized, yet there were many who presumed on -this state of affairs, and the consequence was that incompetent teachers -were the rule. To remedy this great evil was the aim of Guido’s life. - -He says some of these would-be teachers, “If they sang in their aimless -manner, every day, for a hundred years, they would not invent even the -slightest new Antiphon, and he who cannot easily and correctly sing a -new song, by what right can he call himself a musician or singer? - -“At the service of God, it too often sounds, not as if we were praising -Him, but as if we were quarrelling, and scolding among ourselves.” - -He devoted himself greatly, to the teaching of a most important branch -of singing, i. e., _sight reading_, and soon brought his cloister class -to such perfection in this that they astonished all beholders. He was -not however, as mild-mannered a reformer as his predecessor in art, -Hucbald. His bitter sarcasms on his brother monks, soon brought a -result, and he found himself though not actually chased from his -convent, yet ostracized in it. - -But he was well able to sustain such a strife, and continued his work -with zeal unabated. His style of teaching sight reading was far in -advance of his competitors, for he taught his scholars to sing -intervals, not by referring to the monochord, but instead of it to think -of some similar interval in any hymn well known to them, thus combining -thought, memory and musical ear, in a practical manner. - -He was struck with the regularly ascending intervals of the first -syllables of each line of the hymn in honor of St. John, and with the -inspiration of genius attached the syllables ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, to -the notes, and caused his scholars to memorize each interval, thus -forming a new and easily comprehended system of _Solfeggio_. The hymn -which inspired this wonderful stride in music runs, - - _Ut_—queant laxis. - _Re_—sonare fibris. - _Mi_—ra gestorum. - _Fa_—muli tuorum. - _Sol_—ve polluti. - _La_—bia reati. - Sancte Johannes. - -The fame of his wonderful results in choir-training, soon reached Rome, -and the Pope, John XIX.,[264] sent an invitation to the still ostracized -monk, to come to Rome. - -Guido is credited with having made many changes in the notation and -harmony of his day. The hexachord system is attributed (justly or -unjustly) to him. He also is said to have introduced lines of different -colors into the staff, for the purpose of aiding the singer to recognize -certain notes with more facility. He says in his _Micrologus_[265] “In -order that sounds may be discerned with certainty, we mark some lines -with various colors, so that the eye may immediately distinguish a note, -in whatever place it may be. For the third of the scale [C] a bright -saffron line. The sixth [F] adjacent to C is of bright vermilion, and -the proximity of others to these colors, will be an index to the whole. -If there were neither letter, nor colored lines to the Neumes, it would -be like having a well without a rope—the water plentiful, but of no use -to those who see it.” - -While Guido does not lay claim to having invented the colored lines, it -is probable that he brought them, by his influence into much more -general use. - -He certainly invented a modification of the line system of Hucbald. -Instead of the inverted letters, and fragments of letters which the -latter used, he employed the vowels only, to designate the pitch, thus,— - - ________________________________________________ - ____________________________________tu-____|_u_| - ______________so-______________________os__|_o_| - F__ri-_____ri____lis________u-_____________|_i_| - ________ve-_____________ter___ber-_________|_e_| - Ma-___a______________Ma-__________a________|_a_| - -“Maria, veri solis mater, ubera tuos.” - -Guido, altered Hucbald’s _Organum_ in so far, that he rejected -consecutive fifths, as being too harsh, and substituted a series of -consecutive fourths as being milder. - -It may not be out of place to remark here, that the present scrupulous -avoidance of all consecutive fifths, in modern composition of strict -school, is simply a reaction from the rude taste of past centuries, -which employed them _ad nauseum_; there is no valid reason for their -complete ostracism, any more than there was cause for the banishing of -all sixths and thirds from the harmony of our ancestors. To Guido is -also attributed the invention of the method of the harmonical hand -(Guidonian hand, as it has been named after its supposed originator). -This consisted of marking certain notes and musical signs on the tips of -the fingers, and by this means more readily committing them to memory. -As before stated, many of the inventions credited to Guido, are only -adaptations. The Sol-faing system was almost an accidental occurrence; -yet only genius can derive full profit from accidents. The hymn which -gave rise to it (quoted above), is a most prosaic invocation to St. John -to save the throats of the singers from hoarseness, in order that they -may fittingly sing his praise. A very diplomatic way of requesting it. - -Musical history in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries is at its -darkest; hence little is positively known of the life of Guido. It is -certain that he was in great favor at Rome, and that other countries -applied to him for his musical services to reorganize their -ecclesiastical chanting, and also that his health failing, he returned -to his monastery, forgetting and forgiving the ill treatment he had -received there, and in its cloisters peacefully ended his days. - -The date of his decease is not known. - -Other names appear in this misty epoch in musical history. Franco of -Cologne, Walter Odington, an English Monk, Heeronymus von Maehren, etc., -wrote works upon the theory of music, while Adam de la Hale (of Arras, -France) wrote music in four-part harmony, about the year 1280. But in -the midst of this darkness there came a glorious sunburst in the shape -of chivalric bands who elevated music to a broader sphere by adding to -the ecclesiastical chanting a secular school of composition, both -warlike and lyrical. - - - - - CHAPTER XXIII. - THE ANCIENT BARDS. - - -While Rome and Milan were devoting themselves almost entirely to -ecclesiastical music, there had sprung up among the barbarian nations a -school of music more consonant to their habits, being warlike in its -style, and having for its object the celebration of the heroes of each -country, and the inciting of their descendants to similar deeds of -glory. From earliest days Wales has possessed a guild of such singers, -who were, in fact, the historians of the country, at a time when written -books would have been nearly useless. The songs of the Welsh bards have -been preserved traditionally by that people; while the songs of the -druids who preceded them have been allowed to pass into utter oblivion, -the latter having, evidently, not taken deep root in Welsh soil. - -At the commencement of the sixth century, the bards of Wales exerted all -their energies of exhortation to animate their countrymen in the strife -with the Saxon invaders, and when Wales was conquered by Edward I., -(1284) he dreaded their influence so much that he is said to have -persecuted them and put them to death. The bards in Wales had an -organization similar to that which we shall presently find among the -troubadours and minne-singers. They were divided into two -classes,—poets, and musicians. Each of these classes were subdivided -into three divisions. The first class of poet-bards was composed of -those who understood history, and dabbled somewhat in sorcery, thus -being held in awe as prophets and diviners. The second class consisted -of bards attached to private families, whose duties were to chant the -praises of the heroes of their particular house. The third class were -the heraldic bards, who wrote the national annals and prescribed the -laws of etiquette and precedence. These must have exerted a powerful -influence on a nation which clung so strictly to ceremony and the -privileges of lineage. - -The musicians were also divided into three classes, of which the first -were harpers, and possessed the title of Doctors of Music; the second -class were the players upon the _crouth_ or _chrotta_, a smaller -stringed instrument; the third class consisted of the singers. Many laws -and regulations were made to define the privileges of each class, and -the classification of new bards took place at an assemblage called the -Eisteddfod, which met triennially, and conferred degrees. The highest -degree could only be obtained after nine years faithful study. From the -thirteenth century Wales also possessed a class of wandering musicians -entitled, “_Clery dom_.” The harps used were various, though the -three-stringed one was the national instrument. One variety was made of -leather, strung with wire, and is said to have been peculiarly harsh; -another called _isgywer_ was so small that it could be played on -horseback; another was strung with hair. The order of the bards was -hereditary to some extent. King Howel Dha issued edicts regarding them -(fixing their rank) about 940 A. D., and in 1078 the whole order was -reformed and full regulations made by Gryffith ap Conan. In spite of the -persecutions to which they were subjected, the order was sustained for -centuries, and _Eisteddfods_ were held under royal commission down to -the reign of Queen Elizabeth. - -In Ireland minstrelsy has had a foothold in all times. There is a legend -that about the year 365 B. C., there occurred in Ireland the first -triumph of poetry and music. A young prince, driven from his throne by a -usurper, was so moved by a song which his betrothed wrote and caused -Craftine, a celebrated bard, to sing to him, that he resolved on -hazarding a supreme effort to regain his crown, and succeeded in driving -the usurper from his kingdom. - -The Irish claim that they were the originators of the Welsh system of -bards, but this statement seems to be founded rather on national pride -than upon fact, for it is probable that the borrowing was upon the other -side. But it is certain that the Irish have ever possessed musical taste -and skill. - -Gyraldus Cambriensis (who wrote in the twelfth century) says of them: -“The aptitude of this people for performing upon musical instruments is -worthy of attention.” - -“They have in this respect, much more ability than any nation I have -ever seen. The modulations are not with them slow and sad, like those of -the instruments of Britain, to which we are accustomed, but the sounds, -though rapid and precipitate, are yet sweet and soothing.”[266] The harp -was, as in Wales, the national instrument. The bards were a hereditary -class, and their guild, as in Wales, had three divisions; the _Filedha_, -who sang both about religious and martial subjects, and were also -heralds to the nobility; _Braitheamhain_, who chanted the laws; and the -_Seanachaidehe_, who were the musical and poetical chroniclers and -historians. Their influence and privileges were fully as great as those -of their Welsh brethren, and they had many valuable possessions of land. -Their skill was universally acknowledged up to their conquest by Henry -II., but from that epoch the profession began to decline, although noble -families still made it a point of honor to keep private bards to sing to -them of the deeds of the ancestors of their house. - -The influence which these songs exerted in fomenting rebellion was such, -that severe laws were promulgated against them in England, and under -Elizabeth all the Irish bards who were captured, were hanged. - -The last Irish hard existed as late as the eighteenth century. - -Turlogh O’Carolan was born 1670, and died 1737; worthily closing the -long reign of the fiery minstrel guild of Ireland. - -Scotland’s bardism, was similar to that of Wales and Ireland, but the -ranks and privileges are less known. The bag-pipe was played as much as -the harp, and there was much analogy in the ancient music of Ireland and -Scotland. The scale on which the Scotch pieces were founded, bears much -resemblance to the Chinese, and to some of the Hindoo modes. - -In England there were also bards, but there was not an order, as in the -preceding countries, and at a time when these heraldic singers were so -highly honored in Wales, the singers and musicians of England were held -in very slight social estimation. The irruptions of the Danes, and -Norsemen generally, upon England in the ninth, tenth and eleventh -centuries, brought a taste of the forcible Northern _sagas_ along with -them, and when King Canute held the throne, bards and “_gleemen_,” were -protected and favored, for King Canute was very fond of song. He, -himself, wrote a song which was for a long time the favorite ballad of -England. - -The circumstances which prompted it were as follows:— - -He was being rowed near the Monastery of Ely, in the evening, when the -sound of the monks singing their vesper chants, came across the water; -he was greatly moved by the beauty of the song, which, with the -accessories of the tranquil evening, the rippling water, and the -measured stroke of the oars, caused him to improvise upon the spot, a -song which soon spread among the peasantry as well as the higher -classes. - -Only one stanza has been preserved of this interesting effusion,— - - “Merie sungen the muneches binnen Ely, - Tha Cnute Ching, reu ther by - Rowe cnihtes, næw the land, - And here we thes muneches sæng,” - -which may be rendered in English thus:— - - “Sweetly sang the Monks of Ely, - As King Canute rowed there by, - Row men, nearer to the shore - And hear we these Monks’ song.” - -The minstrels of England from the first, took a more peaceful and -religious turn than those of Wales and Ireland. The most of the really -authentic pieces of their era, take the shape of Christmas carols. - - - - - CHAPTER XXIV. - THE TROUBADOURS AND MINNE-SINGERS. - - -We now come to an era in music, where the most cultivated minds gave -their attention to the art; and where it is no longer confined to the -narrow channels of ecclesiastical, and even heraldic and martial use, -but finds a broader outlet in the subjects of Love, and Nature. The -troubadours were gentlemen (often knights), who held themselves totally -distinct from those musicians who wrote for pay. The rise of chivalry in -the middle ages, elevated woman from an unjustly low position, to an -absurdly high one. She was held to be the arbiter of Fate; the Queen to -whom all service was due; and was almost religiously worshipped. From -this exaggerated devotion arose the school of troubadour and -minne-singer composition. When knights racked their brains, as to what -new offering they could bring to their lady, it was but natural that -they should find, in the combination of poetry and song, a series of -never-ending tributes with which they could pay homage to their chosen -one. - -It is easy to imagine that once launched into this fertile field, they -would not wholly confine themselves to Love, but that an occasional poem -on Nature, or War, would attest their versatility so that even the -puerile “Courts of Love,” of the chivalric age, brought a general onward -impulse to art; it was not to be expected that the knights could step at -once from a condition of rudeness, to a state of culture, and it is not -surprising to see a vast exaggeration of politeness, where little had -been before. - -In the beautiful country of Provence (South France), this branch of art -took its rise. The lyrical songs of the troubadours were written in the -Provencal tongue, which soon became, for all South France the court -language for amatory poetry. It was called also the _Langue d’oc_ (from -the affirmative “_Oc_,” or “yes”), to distinguish it from the _Lingua di -Si_ (Italian) and the _Langue d’öil_ (North France); the name afterwards -was attached to another province of France. The Trouvères, were the -poets and minstrels of North France, and wrote in the _langue d’öil_. -They wrote chiefly epic poetry, (fables, tales and romances), while the -lyrical school was left to their southern competitors. - -The troubadours composed and sang their own songs, but did not play -their own accompaniments; that branch of music was turned over to hired -musicians, called _jongleurs_. - -Celebrated troubadours had often several _jongleurs_ in their employ. -Those who made music a means of gaining a livelihood, were classed much -lower. All in fact who did not invent (“_Trobar_,” to find, or invent, -whence comes the word trobador) their own songs, but sang or accompanied -others, were called _jongleurs_, which was about as ordinary a trade as -that of our perambulating “jugglers;” whose name is only a corruption of -the more ancient calling. - -The troubadours had a position which was even better than that of the -bards of Wales or Ireland. They also made a livelihood of music, but in -a far more genteel way than their humbler assistants, who were -proscribed for so doing. The first thing the troubadour did, on -practising his art was to seek out some person on whom to bestow his -heart. This person was almost invariably a married lady. To her, he -would then dedicate all his lays; he would (bestowing upon her, an -assumed name), sing of her beauties, and entreat her favors; he would -sneer at the charms of other dames, and sometimes satirize them. - -The feelings of the husband during all this can “better be imagined than -described.” - -Yet often the dame, may have been totally indifferent to his ardor. We -feel sure that at times this was the case, for husbands are known to -have begged their wives to accept the troubadour’s flattery, and keep -him on, with slight encouragement. - -Meanwhile the singers went on from Court to Court, received as equals, -by the highest; flattered and sought for by the most brilliant circles, -and fairest ladies. Often they attached themselves to some particular -prince, and gained his favor and enriched themselves by singing -_sirventes_ (songs of service) in his honor, and in derision of his -enemies. - -The nobles and kings of that era, also took up the Troubadour’s lyre, at -times. Richard I., Alfonso X., William IX. Count of Poitiers and others -were famous for their efforts in this line, and they richly patronized -such troubadours as sought them. - -The gifts with which a successful song was rewarded, were of course -influenced by the liberality of the giver. Horses, richly caparisoned, -elegant vestments, and money, are mentioned in this connection.[267] -Meanwhile the troubadours occasionally display the utmost contempt for -their assistants, the before mentioned _jongleurs_, and reproach nobles, -in some verses, with receiving such persons (who play at village fairs, -dance on the tight rope, and exhibit performing monkeys), into their -castles. Yet not all of the poets shared in this feeling, for Boccaccio -tells us that Dante loved to associate with the musicians who set his -_canzone_ to music. In the thirteenth century, Guirant Riquier (called -the “last of the troubadours”) complains to the king of Castile, Alfonso -X., of the decadence of the troubadour’s art, and attributes it to the -indiscriminate mixing of troubadours and jongleurs, in popular -estimation. He says—“You know that all men live in classes differing and -distinguished from each other. Therefore it seems to me that such a -distinction of names ought also to be made amongst the joglars; for it -is unjust that the best of them should not be distinguished by name as -well as they are by deed. It is unfair that an ignorant man of small -learning, who knows a little how to play some instrument, and strums it -in public places, for whatever people will give him, or one who sings -low ditties to low people about the streets and taverns, and takes alms -without shame from the first comer,—that all these should -indiscriminately go by the name of joglars ... for joglaria was invented -by wise men to give joy to good people by their skill in playing on -instruments.... After that came the troubadours to record valiant deeds, -and to praise the good, and encourage them in their noble endeavor.... -But in our days, and for some time past, a set of people without sense -and wisdom have undertaken to sing and compose stanzas and play on -instruments,”[268] etc. - -The poor troubadour desired the king to classify them, and to title the -best. The king’s answer is extant, wherein he endeavored to do so, but -as the real essence and life had departed from the whole institution, it -was unavailing. - -The troubadours often had poetical combats, when they would indulge in a -verse-battle about some “Law of Love,” and the judges were selected from -the fairest and wittiest of the noble dames. These were called the -“Courts of Love.” - -The muse of some of them seems to have taken a most curious turn, for -there are still in existence some “_Essenhamens_,” or books of etiquette -for young ladies, which emanated from these lyrical pens, which are of -the quaintest description. We reproduce a quotation from one, written by -“Amanieus des Escas, called God of Love.”[269] - -In this treatise we are supplied with a minute account of the -accomplishments expected from a well educated young lady, and of the bad -habits most prejudicial to her character. The poet is supposed to be -addressing a noble damsel living at the court of some great baron, as a -sort of ‘lady help’ to his wife; this being a not unusual, and -undoubtedly a most efficient method of polite education in Provence. The -young lady has accosted Amanieus on a lonely walk, asking for his advice -in matters fashionable. This the poet at first refuses to tender, -alleging that “you (the damsel) have ten times as much sense as I, and -that is the truth!” But after his modest scruples are once overcome, he -launches forth into a flood of good counsel. He systematically begins -with enforcing the good old doctrine of ‘early to rise,’ touches -delicately on the mysteries of the toilet, such as lacing, washing of -arms, hands, and head, which, he sententiously adds, ought to go before -the first mentioned process, and, after briefly referring to the -especial care required by teeth and nails, he leaves the dressing room -for the church, where a quiet undemonstrative attitude is recommended; -the illicit use of the eyes and tongue being mentioned amongst the -temptations peculiarly to be avoided. - -Directions of similar minuteness assist the young lady at the dinner -table; the cases in which it would be good taste, and those in which it -would be the reverse, to invite persons to a share of the dishes within -her reach are specified; and the rules as to carving, washing one’s -hands before and after dinner, and similar matters, leave nothing to be -desired. ‘Always temper your wine with water, so that it cannot do you -harm,’ is another maxim of undeniable wisdom. - -After dinner follows the time of polite conversation in the sala -(drawing room), the arbour, or on the battlements of the castle; and now -the teachings of Amanieus become more and more animated, and are -enlivened occasionally by practical illustrations of great interest. -“And if at this season,” he says “a gentleman takes you aside, and -wishes to talk of courtship to you, do not show a strange or sullen -behavior, but defend yourself with pleasant repartees. And if his talk -annoys you; and makes you uneasy, I advise you to ask him questions, for -instance:—‘Which ladies do you think are more handsome, those of Gascony -or of England, and which are more courteous, and faithful, and good? And -if he says those of Gascony, answer without hesitation; Sir, by your -leave, English ladies are more courteous than those of any other -country. But if he prefers those of England, tell him Gascon ladies are -much better behaved, and thus carry on the discussion, and call your -companions to you to decide the questions.’” - -We also give two extracts from the poems of that famous troubadour, -Bertrand De Born. He was a poet far more given to martial songs, than to -the lyrical muse. His enemies dreaded his pen as much as his sword. He -describes his belligerent qualities without any exaggeration, for he was -literally never contented except when at war with some of his neighbors. -One of his poems (addressed to a lady) begins smoothly enough, but -before he is half done, he breaks into an abrupt praise of fighting. - -In the following, he warns Williams of Gordon, against Richard of -Poitou, and hurls invective at the latter. - -“I love you well,” Bertrand says, “but my enemies want to make a fool -and a dupe of you, and the time seems long to them before they see you -in their ranks.” “To Perigeux, close to the wall, so that I can throw my -battle axe over it, I will come well armed, and riding on my horse, -Bayard; and if I find the glutton of Poitou[270] he shall know the cut -of my sword. A mixture of brain and splinters of iron he shall wear on -his brow.” - -Here follows a frank avowal of his delight in war. - -“All day long,” he says, “I fight, and am at work, to make a thrust at -them and defend myself, for they are laying waste my land, and burning -my crops; they pull up my trees by the roots, and mix my corn with the -straw. Cowards and brave men are my enemies. I constantly disunite and -sow hatred among the barons, and then remould and join them together -again, and try to give them brave hearts and strong; but I am a fool for -my trouble, for they are made of base metal.” - -We cannot better take leave of the troubadours than by giving two -additional specimens of the writing of Bertrand de Born. - -The first is an ingenious poem. He has quarreled with his lady, and as a -means of reconciliation he borrows from all the famous beauties of his -time, their special charm, and gives them all to his love. The second -song will explain itself.[271] - - Domna, puois de mi no us cal, - E partit m’aretz de vos, &c. - - Lady, since thou hast driven me forth, - Since thou, unkind, hast banished me, - (Though cause of such neglect be none,) - Where shall I turn from thee? - Ne’er can I see - Such joy as I have seen before, - If, as I fear, I find no more - Another fair, from thee removed, - I’ll sigh to think I e’er was loved. - - And since my eager search were vain, - One lovely as thyself to find; - A heart so matchlessly endow’d, - Or manner so refined, - So gay, so kind, - So courteous, gentle, debonair,— - I’ll rove, and catch from every fair - Some winning grace and form a whole, - So glad (till thou return) my soul. - - The roses of thy glowing cheek, - Fair Sembelis, I’ll steal from thee; - That lovely smiling look I’ll take, - Yet rich thou shalt be, - In whom we see - All that can deck a lady bright, - And your enchanting converse, light, - Fair Ellis, will I borrow too, - That she in wit may shine like you. - - And from the noble Chales, I - Will beg that neck of ivory white, - And her fair hands of loveliest form - I’ll take; and speeding, light, - My onward flight - Earnest at Roca Choart’s gate, - Fair Agnes I will supplicate - To grant her locks, more bright than those - Which Tristan loved on Iseult’s brows. - - And Audiartz, though on me thou frown, - All that thou hast of courtesy - I’ll have,—thy look, thy gentle mien, - And all the unchanged constancy - That dwells with thee. - And Miels de Ben, on thee I’ll wait - For thy light shape so delicate, - That in thy fairy form of grace - My lady’s image I may trace - - The beauty of those snow-white teeth - From thee, famed Faidit, I’ll extort, - The welcome, affable and kind, - To all the numbers that resort - Unto her court. - And Bels Miraills shall crown the whole, - With all her sparkling flow of soul; - Those mental charms that round her play, - For ever wise, yet ever gay. - - - Be in play lo douz temps de paseor - Que fais fuelhas e flors venir; - E play mi quant aug la baudor - Dels auzels que fan retentir - Lor chan per lo boscatge; - E plai me quan rey sus els pratz - Tendas e parallos fermetz; - Quan rey per campanhas rengatz - Cavalliers ab carals armatz. - - The beautiful spring delights me well, - When flowers and leaves are growing; - And it pleases my heart to hear the swell - Of the birds’ sweet choruses flowing - In the echoing wood - And I love to see, all scatter’d around, - Pavillions, tents, on martial ground; - And my spirit finds it good - To see, on the level plains beyond, - Gay knights and steeds comparison’d. - - It pleases me, when the lances bold - Set men and armies flying; - And it pleases me, too, to hear around - The voice of the soldiers crying; - And joy is mine - When the castles strong, totter and crack; - And I see the foemen join, - On the moated floor all compass’d round - With the palisade and guarded mound. - - Lances and swords, and stained helms, - And shields dismantled and broken, - On the verge of the bloody battle scene, - The field of wrath betoken; - And the vassals are there, - And there fly the steeds of the dying and dead; - And where the mingled strife is spread, - The noblest warriors care - Is to cleave the foeman’s limbs and head,— - The conqueror less of the living than dead. - - I tell you that nothing my soul can cheer, - Or banqueting or reposing, - Like the onset cry of “charge them” rung - From each side as in battle closing, - Where the horses neigh, - And the call to “aid” is echoing loud; - And there on the earth the lowly and proud - In the foes together lie; - And yonder is piled the mangled heap - Of the brave that scaled the trench’s steep. - - Barons! your castles in safety place, - Your cities and villages too, - Before ye haste to the battle scene, - And, Papiol! quickly go, - And tell the lord of “Oc and No,” - That peace already too long hath been. - -The Trouvères, were, as before intimated, the poet-musicians of North -France. They wrote in a much more matter-of-fact manner than the -troubadours, and wrote in the _Langue d’öil_, while the latter wrote in -the _Langue d’oc_; two tongues as dissimilar as French and Italian, or -English and Dutch. - -There existed lady troubadours and trouvères; the works of some of them -are extant, and do not in any way compare unfavorably with those of the -other sex. Of course there are several solitary cases where the Norman -poet would write a love song, and the Provencal a fable, but the general -tendency was as above indicated. - -Contemporary with the troubadours and trouvères, there arose in Germany, -a similar order of singers, whose productions have been preserved, even -more copiously than those of the southrons. - -The minne-singers began their career in Germany, under the glorious -reign of Barbarossa, (Frederic I.) in the last half of the twelfth -century. The first name which we meet with is Henry of Veldig, yet it is -a singular fact that he, the first of a new order of singers, begins by -complaining of the decadence of the true minne-lied (love-song.) The -word minne-singer means simply love-singer, i. e.—singer of love-songs. -We give here, a verse of this early love-song, and have endeavored to -give a translation, preserving the original metre (as nearly literal as -possible) below it. - - “Do man der rehten minne pflag - Da pflag man ouch der ehren; - Nu mag man naht und tag - Die bösen sitte leren: - Swer dis nu siht, und jens do sach, - O we! was der nu clagen mag - Tugende wend sich nu verkehren.” - - “When true love had its proper sway, - Then honour too, was nourished - But now by night and day - All evil ways are cherished, - Who knows the past and present way, - Oh Woe! how well complain he may - Since every virtue now has perished.” - -Almost all the lays of the minne-singers were written in the Swabian -dialect which was then the court language of Germany. As a rule, their -grace and elegance of diction was superior to that of the troubadours. -They did not, like the latter, hire accompanists, or jongleurs, but -played their own accompaniments on a viol. As in the South, emperors, -princes, and knights, were proud to be known as minne-singers. - -There exists a little epigram (ascribed to Frederic II.,) which we are -tempted to reproduce, as it gives an insight to the qualities which were -esteemed at that time. - - “I like a cavalier Frances,[272] - And a Catalonian dame; - The courtesy of the Genoese - And Castilian dignity - The Provence songs,[273] my ears to please, - And the dance of the Trevisan; - The graceful form of the Arragoneze - And the pearl of the Julian;[274] - An English face and hands to see, - And a page of Tuscany.”[275] - -The love songs of the Germans were not so fiery as those of Provence; -while the adoration of the troubadour for his love went all lengths, the -German knight rendered to his own a much quieter, (and chaster) species -of homage. There were not such criminal passions (often ending in murder -at the hands of the outraged husband) as in France. In epic poems this -school was very successful, and that stateliest of German poems, “The -_Nibelungen-lied_,” dates from about this time, although its author is -not known. - -The preservation of many of the songs of the Minne-singers is due to -Rudiger of Manesse, a senator of Zurich (fourteenth century). To those -who are desirous of seeing the main part of his collection we cannot do -better than to recommend the excellent work of F. von der Hagen, -(“_Minne-sänger_,” _Manessische Sammlung_), in which all the gems of -this early growth of mediæval poetry are given. One peculiar species of -their songs were called “_Wacht-lieder_” (Watch-songs), and represent -the pleading of the knight, with the watchman of the castle, for -admittance to his love; or the warning of the watchman to the lover in -the castle, to avoid discovery by leaving while it was yet dark. We -present the reader with a specimen (author unknown). - - Vor tags ich hort, in liebes port, wohl diese wort, - Von wächters mund erklingen; - Ist jeman ji, vorborgen hie, derachte wie, - Er mog hindannen sprengen, &c. - - I heard before the dawn of day - The watchman loud proclaim;— - “If any knightly lover stay - In secret with his dame, - Take heed the sun will soon appear; - Then fly, ye knights, your ladies dear, - Fly ere the day-light dawn. - - “Brightly gleams the firmament, - In silvery splendor gay, - Rejoicing that the night is spent, - The lark salutes the day: - Then fly, ye lovers, and begone! - Take leave before the night is done, - And jealous eyes appear.” - - That watchman’s call did wound my heart, - And banished my delight; - “Alas, the envious sun will part - Our loves, my lady bright.” - On me she looked with downcast eye, - Despairing at my mournful cry, - “We tarry here too long.” - - Straight to the wicket did she speed; - “Good watchman spare thy joke! - Warn not my love, till o’er the mead - The morning sun has broke: - Too short, alas! the time, since here - I tarried with my leman dear, - In love and converse sweet.” - - “Lady, be warn’d! on roof and mead - The dew-drops glitter gay, - Then quickly bid thy leman speed, - Nor linger till the day; - For by the twilight did I mark - Wolves hyeing to their covert dark, - And stags to covert fly.” - - Now by the rising sun I view’d - In tears my lady’s face; - She gave me many a token good, - And many a soft embrace, - Our parting bitterly we mourn’d; - The hearts which erst with rapture burn’d, - Were cold with woe and care. - - A ring, with glittering ruby red, - Gave me that lady sheen, - And with me from the castle sped - Along the meadow green; - And whilst I saw my leman bright, - She waved on high her ’kerchief white; - “Courage! To arms!” she cried. - - In the raging fight each pennon white - Reminds me of her love; - In the field of blood, with mournful mood - I see her ’kerchief move; - Through foes I hew where’er I view - Her ruby ring, and blithely sing, - “Lady, I fight for thee.” - -But the glory of the minne-singers was but short; the emperors of the -house of Swabia, had fostered the art, by allowing an unheard-of liberty -of speech and thought; with the downfall of that house (1256 A. D.) the -church regained a continually-increasing ascendancy, and this liberty -was again fettered. Song and poetry, especially of an amatory or -frivolous (?) character were condemned, and the place of the pleasant -school of minne-singer poetry was usurped by paraphrases of the -Scriptures, hymns or legends, written either in very weak German or bad -Latin; the school of German poetry took a very long retrograde step. -Before leaving the minne-singers, a word must be said of their fables -and tales; in these we find many modern ideas in a quaint and ancient -dress, proverbs abound, and many tales of Roman History. “Don’t set the -wolf to guard the Sheep,” “Never borrow trouble,” - - “The king must die, - And so must I,” - -and many other sage thoughts. - -The tales are sometimes very prettily told. We have thought it worth -while to translate one, which we believe, has not yet been seen in an -English dress. - -As far as possible we have adhered to the abruptness and quaintness of -the original. - -“At one time there was a king, who had but one son, who was very dear to -him; the son demanded leave of absence from his father, and said that he -wished to see the world, and wished to make friends. Then the king spoke -‘that pleases me well; but see that you do not have your labor in vain.’ -The son was made ready for his journey, and remained seven years away; -after that he returned to his home and his father, which pleased the -father very much, and he said,—‘Dear son: how many friends hast thou -earned in these three years? Then the son answered ‘only three; the -first I love better than myself; the second as much as myself; and the -third, not as well as myself.’ The father said ‘It is well to have -friends, and it is well to try them; I counsel you to kill a hog, and -put it in a sack, and go in the night to your friends and say, you met -an old enemy on the street and killed him, and are afraid that if the -dead body should be found on you, it would cost you your life, and beg -him that he should, in such extremity, help you, and that he will allow -you to bury the body in his house, that it may not be found on you; so -you shall find out if you have good friends.’ - -This advice pleased the son well, so he went back again to the city -where he knew he should find his friends; and killed one night, a hog, -and did as his father had advised him to, and came to the friend whom he -loved better than himself. When this one had heard his story, he -said:—‘you killed him yourself, so suffer for it yourself; if it were -found by me it would cost me my life; but because we are good friends -and comrades, when you are caught, and when they are about to bill you, -I will go to you, and will console you, and will buy many ells of cloth -for you, wherein they may wind you and bury you; because you loved me -more than yourself.’ When he heard this, he answered nothing but went to -the other friend whom he loved as much as himself, and knocked at his -door with the same tale as he had told to the first; this one -said:—‘Dear one! do you suppose I am such a simpleton that I want to die -for you? If it is found here then I must die; but if they kill you, then -I will comfort you, because that we are friends, and will do it the best -I can, since we must all die.’ When he heard this, he parted from him, -and came to the third friend whom he did not love as well as himself. -This one asked what was in the sack, which he came with. He said:—‘I can -not say well, but I need help in this day; yet know that it has been my -fate to kill a man, and I carry his body on my back, and if it is caught -by me, then I must die, therefore I call on you for counsel; This one -spoke;—‘Give me here the body, and let me carry it myself, for I will -even die for you,’ and when he opened the sack he found that only a dead -hog lay therein. After that the son went home and told the whole story -to his father.”[276] - -The end is of rather startling abruptness; we should have liked to have -heard of the rewards and punishment, _a la_ modern novel. - -One song took its rise at this time which is even to-day a popular one, -the world over. We refer to the music of the song now known as, “We -won’t go Home till morning,” or “For he’s a jolly good fellow;” and -known in France as “Malbrook s’en va-t-en Guerre.” This was a favorite -air at the time of the crusades, and the crusaders often made it resound -before Jerusalem. - -The Arabs first knew the melody and have retained it to this day. The -Arab fellahs will listen apathetically to the whole repertoire of a -European orchestra; but the moment that the above tune is played, the -whole aspect changes, and instead of a lifeless audience, the performers -have the most enthusiastic of listeners.[277] In the course of descent -from the Crusaders and ancient musicians, the tune has become a little -quicker but is not changed in any material respect. - -Some time after the decline of Minne-singing, an attempt was made to -revive its glories, by musical competitions, somewhat similar in style; -but the essence of the real “Minne” was gone; it was no longer the -knight singing to his love, or telling in unaffected verse, the beauties -of Nature. Instead of this, there was a competition of burgers and -tradespeople, affecting a passion foreign to their nature, and caring -far more for a stilted style of verse, than for the subject of it. Such -were the Meister-singers;[278] Nuremburg was their chief seat, and like -all the tradesmen of that age, they made their Guild a very close one. -No one could be admitted as a Master, unless he invented a new style of -rhyme. Almost all the members came from the lower classes, and the -result of such tyros endeavoring to strike out paths which would have -been difficult even to genius, can be imagined. - -Hans Sachs (a Nuremberg shoe-maker) and a couple of others, were -probably all that sang with real poetic feeling. - -Their songs were also accompanied with music. There was a severe set of -rules regulating the poetical and musical contests; and the Guild spread -over all Germany; the last vestige of it did not disappear until as -recently as 1839. - -But while this stultified mode of music was going on in Nuremberg, a -truer musical plant was growing beside it: at this time the Volks-lied -(folk song) took its rise in Germany. - -The first form of the volks-lied was religious, and it was of a -simplicity which adapted it to the wants of the people. The pedantry of -the Meister-singers had an excellent effect upon this class of -composition, for it added counterpoint and harmony (even if driven to -excess) to a class of music which was able to bear it. - -Another order of music was that connected with the miracle plays, where -scriptural events were represented upon the stage, with music. Much of -this music was taken bodily from the ecclesiastical chants of the -period. - -With the commencement of the reformation, the music of Germany was -lifted to a very elevated sphere, in being applied to the stately -chorals which came into general use, through the efforts of Luther, who -himself composed some of them. Luther had a most musical nature, which -left its imprint upon his whole epoch. - -It is related of him, that he spent the largest part of the night before -he appeared to define his doctrines before the Diet of Worms, playing on -his lute, in order to give composure and firmness to his thoughts. - -He ranked music next to theology, and said:—“I am not ashamed to -acknowledge, that next to divinity there is no study which I prize so -highly as that of music.” - -With the reformation, the epoch of modern music may be said to begin. Of -course there was both crudity and pedantry in the art, but the -Meister-singers, although they yet existed centuries later, had ceased -to exert an influence. - -There are but few curious facts, which are not generally known, from -that age, to our own. Yet we think a brief sketch of the growth of some -branches of our music, will not be uninteresting to the general reader, -even if the facts have lost the relish of novelty. - - - - - CHAPTER XXV. - CURIOSITIES OF THE OPERA. - MODERN COMPOSERS, AND CONCLUSION. - - -Our series of sketches now draws towards its close. The rise of the -many-voiced harmony in Italy, France, Germany, England, and the -Netherlands, the contrapuntal works of Palestrina, Dufay, De Lattre, -etc., come rather under the head of the history and science of music, -than within the scope of a work which only endeavors to collect the -curiosities of the art, and things not generally known. But in the rise -and progress of the opera, we find some interesting facts which belong -to our subject, and which bring our chain of sketches down to the music -of our own times. - -The opera was the legitimate offspring of the Miracle plays of the -Middle ages, which were only sacred operas or oratorios, wherein some -events in the life of a holy personage were represented with songs and -acting. The first opera (being exactly like a “mystery play,” except -that the subject was a secular one) was “Orpheus,” by Angelo Poliziano, -and was performed in Rome in 1480. The libretto was by Cardinal Riario -(nephew of Pope Sixtus IV.) - -Pope Clement IX., wrote seven librettos for operas. All was not sung in -these: they were rather tragedies with choruses.[279] - -In 1500 the popes possessed a theatre, with decorations and machinery. -The paintings in this edifice were by Balthazar Peruzzi, who may be said -to be the father of scene painting. His scenery is said to have been -very realistic. - -Julian de Medicis, brother of Leon X., on being proclaimed a citizen of -Rome gave public plays, and had a comedy of Plautus presented for two -days, the music of which was much admired. - -In 1574, Claudio Merulo, organist at St. Mark’s, composed music to a -drama, which was performed in the presence of Henry III., of France. - -Vincent Galileo, father of the astronomer, and Giovanni Bardi invented -the recitative at about the same time. - -Peri and Caccini, two of the best musicians of Florence were engaged by -two rich noblemen to write for them a complete opera; _Dafne_, produced -in Florence (1597,) was the result, and was the first complete opera in -modern form; these composers were therefore the originators of the -opera. - -An opera by the same writers was given at the wedding of Henry IV., and -Marie de Medici. Rinucci, the author of the _libretti_ of both the above -was silly enough to imagine that Marie de Medici loved him, and followed -her into France the ridicule which he received for his conceit soon sent -him back to Italy. - -The score of “Orpheus,” by Monteverde, 1608, allows us to see the -construction of his orchestra. - -There were,— - - 2 Clavichords, - 2 Lyres, or Grand Viols (13 strings), - 10 Violas, - 3 Bass Viols, - 2 Double Bass, - 1 Double Harp (2 rows of strings), - 2 Small French Violins, - 2 Great Guitars, - 2 Organs (wood), - 4 Trombones, - 1 Pair of Regals (small organ), - 2 Cornets, - 1 Small Flute, - 1 Clarion, - 3 Sourdines (muted trumpets). - -These instruments gave to each chorus and character a different effect, -thus the double basses accompanied Orpheus; the viols, Euridice; the -trombones, Pluto; the regals, Apollo. The shepherd’s choruses were -accompanied by flute, cornets, sourdines and clarion, and most singular -of all, Charon sang to the light tones of the _guitar_.[280] - -In Italy, from this time forth, opera followed opera. - -In France it was not known till much later plays “with songs” were known -however, and one of these, “in the Italian style,” was performed in -Paris, before the King and Royal family, on the occasion of the victory -of the Duke of Guise at Calais, 1558. - -The chief representations for years after, lay rather in the direction -of ballets, than of operas. Religious plays also still were given at -Paris, but after the ordinance, of 1548, that no Catholic ceremony -should be represented on the stage, they disappeared.[281] - -The theatres, that is those which were public, were at this time very -poorly appointed, but through the constant festivities of the court, -many inventions came into use. - -The Court of France had always a _penchant_ for music, the drama, and -dancing. Henry IV., was very fond of the latter. - -Louis XIII., cultivated music with much success, he composed many airs, -and several motets which he had performed in his Chapel. Music was his -ordinary recreation when he could not go hunting. At the siege of La -Rochelle, there being no musicians or singers with the army, he himself -wrote out the vespers for Pentecost, that they might be ready in time. -Three weeks before his death, and after he had received the extreme -unction, feeling himself somewhat better, he begged Nyert, his first -_valet de garderobe_ to sing a paraphrase of David, which he had set to -music, to give thanks to God. - -Saint-Martin and Campeforte who were present, each sang a part, and thus -made a concerted piece which they sang around the bed, the king from -time to time joining in with his own voice. - -He also wrote a “_de Profundis_,” which was sung over him after his -death.[282] The words still exist which were written by him for his now -well-known “Amaryllis;” they were written for Madame de Hauteforte, and -one of the verses runs:— - - Tu crois, o beau soleil! - Q’ua ton eclat rien n’est pareil; - Mais quoi! tu palis - Auprès d’Amaryllis.[283] - -Tallement speaks of a concert given once where one of his songs was sung -four times, the king beating the measure. To these gatherings he would -admit none who were not musical, and no women whatever, “for” said he, -“_they cannot keep silent_."[284] - -Under Louis XIV., the opera became well known in France, nor was it any -longer a borrowed spectacle, for Lulli in 1664 associated himself with -Moliere in writing; the latter furnishing the _libretti_, which were in -themselves of the best order. In 1672 he built a permanent opera house, -(Academie Royale de Musique) and thus gave to France, what it had never -before possessed,—a national opera. - -There were, to be sure, a few French operas, before his enterprise; one -given at Paris, by Cardinal Mazarin, in 1645; one entitled “Akébar, King -of Mogul,” by the Abbeé Mailly and “La Pastorale en musique,” by -Cambert,[285] but these do not deprive Lulli of the claim of being the -“founder of French opera.” - -La Fontaine tried to write some _libretti_ for Lulli, which were total -failures, and declined by the musician. - -The King (Louis XIV.), was passionately fond of Lulli’s music, and would -hear scarcely any other. - -About this time, the idea of _whistling and hissing_ to show -disapproval, was invented. It is said that Corneille’s “_Baron de -Fondrieres_” has the questionable honor of being the first play that -ever was hissed. - -The hiss, spread rapidly, but on some one having injudiciously hissed -the opera of Orpheus, by the sons of Lully, the hiss was interdicted by -law in 1690.[286] - -The repression was not very effectual, and innumerable epigrams (some of -which still exist),[287] showed the derision of the public. - -The singers of Lulli’s operas had all the faults of their later -brethren. Dumenil, the tenor, used to steal the jewelry of the _prime -donne_, and get intoxicated with the baritone. He is said to have drank -six bottles of champagne every night, and only the sixth deteriorated -his performance. - -Marthe Le Rochois, another of the troupe, on being accused of too much -intimacy with the bassoon of the orchestra, exhibited a promise of -marriage from the fond performer, written on the back of an _ace of -spades_. - -Mlle. de Maupin was the wildest scapegrace the stage ever saw: her -adventures read like the most improbable sensational novel, and would -take as much space to reproduce. - -England’s first opera was performed in 1656. It was entitled the “Siege -of Rhodes,” and was composed by five persons in collaboration. Musicians -and players were at this time held in low esteem, and were liable to -arrest as vagabonds at almost any moment. - -England possessed in Henry Purcell (1658-1695) a musician of whom any -country might be proud. This composer soon turned his pen to the writing -of operas; the music to “The Tempest” was excellent, while his “King -Arthur” contains music which is still loved by Englishmen everywhere. - -Now that opera was established firmly, the rivalries of the singers at -once began. - -In 1726 a bitter rivalry sprang up in London between Cuzzoni and -Faustina Bordoni, in which the whole town took part. It lasted over two -years, and was throughout causeless, as the styles of the two were -entirely dissimilar, Bordoni being unapproachable in the lightness and -rapidity of her runs and embellishments, and Cuzzoni excelling in the -pathetic quality, and breadth of her tones.[288] - -But to follow the absurdities which constantly arose in the rivalries of -the various composers, singers and performers, would require, not one, -but very many volumes by itself; we need only allude to the disputes and -rivalries between Gluck and Piccini (in the composition of operas,) the -singers Mara and Todi, in France, and Billington and Mara in London. - -The names of those who have established a reputation as wonderful -operatic singers, also make a formidable list. Among the very greatest -may however be mentioned Farinelli (male soprano) Catalani, and -Lablache, and among the most successful of operatic writers, Gluck, -Mozart, Meyerbeer, Rossini, Verdi, Gounod. Of course many names could be -added, but these may stand as representatives. - -It is not singular that the great masters, Händel, Beethoven and -Mendelssohn failed in this branch of composition. None of them had the -ability to stoop to the musical _finesses_, and _coups de theatre_, -which were necessary to make a successful opera. They might have -succeeded, if the pure style of Gluck, with _libretti_ taken from the -Greek tragedies, had continued, for these were in their vein. But the -public demanded a more spicy operatic diet which they were not able or -desirous to finish. - -It is well that it was so, for to this fact we owe our grandest -oratorios. - -Händel had trouble enough with opera, before he finally left it. He had -a temper which was simply frightful (and an appetite which was the -same), and when he came in contact with the conceited and irascible -singers of his day, an explosion was sure to follow. - -Cuzzoni (who had the sweetest of voices, and the harshest of tempers), -was the hardest of all for him to get along with. - -One day she refused absolutely to sing a part which he had assigned to -her; his patience, small at the best, gave out totally, and he was going -to throw her out of the window, when she hurriedly gave her consent to -sing. - -Händel’s losses and trials as operatic manager, temporarily drove him -crazy. - -Rossini also had his troubles in the operatic field. Once a manager, -whose _libretti_ he was bound by contract to set to music, took offence -at some action of the composer, and sought to revenge himself by writing -a wretched opera for him. The result nearly brought both to ruin, for -Rossini retorted by writing a terribly poor score to the words; in the -overture, during an _allegro_ movement, the violins were arranged so as -to stop at every bar, and tap the tin shades of their lamps with their -bows. The audience nearly demolished the theatre. The “Barber of -Seville” was a failure at its first performance. - -There is a note to be made here, of a passage in one of his operas, -which is of interest to conductors. - -The overture to “William Tell” had been played from its first -representation, August 3, 1829, for more than thirty years, with a major -trill in the violincello at the cadence of the first part; (the andante -at the beginning of the work), but on the 16th of November, 1861, the -piece was played before the composer, who stigmatized as “a great -fault,” the major trill in the third measure of the cadence.[289] “It -should be minor” he said. And since that date it has been played so. But -it is very uncertain whether the abrupt remark was not a mere whim of -the composer. The trill is more satisfactory with G sharp, than with G -natural; the earlier editions have none of them any mention of a minor -trill and it is scarcely possible that “a great fault” like this, should -have escaped notice so long. - -Meyerbeer, was in all respects, a person well calculated to popularize -opera. He knew how to work up dramatic effects, in which he was well -seconded by his French librettists, and he did not hesitate at any -innovation to ask if it were classical, or belonged to pure art; and he -succeeded far better than the martinets who condemned him. - -At the first representation of his “_Robert le Diable_,” an accident -occurred which nearly resulted in disaster. In the last act, Bertram, -the tempter, has to descend to the infernal regions, alone; Levasseur -(who performed the character) leaped down the trap, and Robert -(represented by the tenor Nourrit), who should have remained on earth, -saved by the prayers of Alice,—after a moment of indecision (not -remembering the denouèment) _leaped after him_. - -There was general consternation on the stage, for all thought that -Nourrit was injured. In the audience they must have thought that the -opera had a rather immoral ending, since Bertram, the tempter, had -triumphed over the prayers of Alice. - -Fortunately the mattresses had not been removed; and Bertram was vastly -astonished to find that he had bagged his victim after all; he asked -Nourrit in amazement.—“Has the plot been changed?” but Nourrit -recollecting his mistake, hastened back to the stage, where the audience -were astonished to see him reappear, but soon grasping the situation -burst into loud applause. - -The curiosities of the opera of to-day are even greater than those of -twenty years since, for the world has found an iconoclastic composer who -is endeavoring to reform all that went before him, by pulling it to -pieces. Yet he has done opera precisely the service which it at present -needed, in showing composers the importance of bestowing a greater -attention upon the libretto, and elevating the orchestra as well as the -scene painter to their proper places; his idea that an opera should be a -“perfect chrysolite,” a complete picture in all its accessories, is the -true one, though his mode of effecting it may not be. - -His zeal has allowed him to commit a ludicrous “curiosity of music” in -attacking almost all that the Jews have ever done in music, and -endeavoring to depreciate the most prominent talent of that race; a -talent which has been acknowledged ever since the days of the Babylonian -captivity. - -Yet a still greater curiosity (and the most recent of all) has been -written by one of his defenders. Of course his attacks upon all who -differed from him, provoked retorts innumerable; these have been -collected and published in a compact form, and the work is entitled “A -Dictionary of Impoliteness.” - -With this “curiosity” our catalogue appropriately ends. We have not -mentioned some of the great names in music (Haydn, Cherubini, -Palestrina, Schumann, Schubert, etc.), and have touched but lightly upon -others. They did not seem to come within our scope. - -The incidents in the lives of the musical giants have all been sought -out by persons possessing facilities which no American writer can have, -and are generally so well known that they can no longer be called -curious. We have endeavored to show that music is a very uncertain and -fickle art, and continually changing, and that there never can be -_absolute_ laws laid down in this free art, as if it were a fixed -science. If we have done this and amused our readers at the same time, -we consider our work brought to a satisfactory conclusion. - - - THE END. - - - - - FOOTNOTES - - -[1]Krause.—Geschichte der Musik. - -[2]The Raagni is the popular mode of singing in India; it is a free - Fantasia, or improvisation. - -[3]Wm. Jones; Music of India. - -[4]Ambros. - -[5]Krause. - -[6]Plutarch, of Isis and Osiris. - -[7]Herodotus, Hist. - -[8]Plutarch, of Isis and Osiris. - -[9]Petronius. - -[10]Champollion. - -[11]Lepsius, Abt. 2 Pl., 86e. - -[12]Wilkinson, p. 240. - -[13]Wilkinson, v. 2, p. 222. - -[14]V. 3, p. 83. - -[15]Abtheilung, 3, page 106. - -[16]Hist. Gen. de la Mus. - -[17]Doubts have been expressed concerning the genuineness even of these. - -[18]Lloyd. - -[19]Lloyd, Age of Pericles, Vol. II., p. 222. - -[20]Ambros, Gesch. d. Musik, p. 237. - -[21]Olympia, p. 106. - -[22]The nome, or hymn for which Chrysothemis, gained the prize, - celebrated the victory of Apollo over the serpent Python. - -[23]Gevært, Mus. de l’antiquite, p. 45. - -[24]Chappell, Hist. of Mus., p. 32. - -[25]Diodorus. - -[26]Ambros Ges. d musik, p. 265, v. 1. - -[27]Later there were more characters added, but at first, the whole - action consisted of dialogues between a solitary actor and the - chorus. - -[28]Jullien however, thinks Sappho in common with many other ancient - poets much overrated. Theses Supplementaires, p. 439. - -[29]Geschichte der Griech. Lit. - -[30]Lucian, Lapithæ. - -[31]Ambros, Gesch. d. musik, v. 1, p. 260. - -[32]Jullien, Theses Supplementaires, p. 130. - -[33]The very title “philosopher” was of his own coining, for previous - sages called themselves Sophos (wise), but he preferred the better - name of Philosopher (lover of wisdom). - -[34]Some of the pupils of Pythagoras, maintained that he only of all men - had heard the harmony of the spheres. - -[35]The sense of sound differs in different ears. In Chappell’s Histy. - of Music, page 251, an account is given of a wire of sixty-four feet - in length, arranged by Sir F. A. Gore Ouseley, to sound the C, four - octaves below C in the bass clef. The note was inaudible, but when - taken at half length some of the listeners heard it, while at - quarter length it was audible to all. - -[36]See Lucian, Auction of Philosophers. Some say two years. - -[37]Women were also admitted, but probably only to attendance on - lectures, not to membership. - -[38]Legum II. - -[39]Lloyd, Ages of Pericles, Vol. 2, p. 239. - -[40]See Lucian, Lapithæ. - -[41]Ottfried Müller, V. I, p. 343. - -[42]Socrates intimates that the hiring of a large retinue of servants, - and the purchase of an expensive flute, went very far towards - establishing a reputation as a skillful flutist. - -[43]Physcon was a nickname signifying thick belly. - -[44]Müller, Gesch. d. Griech. Lit. v. 1, p. 380. - -[45]Müller, Gesch. v. 1, p. 399. - -[46]Müller, Ges. v. 1, p. 394. - -[47]At seven years old the study was usually commenced. - -[48]See O. Müller, Gesch. v. 2, p. 44 - -[49]The lips of the tragic mask were usually half open. - -[50]Gesch. d. Griech. Lit. p. 44 - -[51]Some Dithyrambic poets kept a band of flute-players to accompany - their choruses. - -[52]There was, and possibly is still, in some parts of Italy, a custom - analogous to this, when the director of the orchestra marked time by - rapping his baton regularly on his music stand instead of simply - waving it. - -[53]Thucydides also gives an unfavorable picture of Cleon. Grote in his - History of Greece, defends Cleon’s character. - -[54]Müller, p. 207, v. 2. - -[55]_De Saltatione_ - -[56]Czerwinski, Geschichte d. tanz kunst, p. 19. - -[57]Lucian, _de Saltatione_. - -[58]Czerwinski, Gesch. d. Tanz k. - -[59]Phillina, in dialogues of the Hetaræ. - -[60]O. Müller, Gesch. d. Griech. Lit. v. 2, p. 210. - -[61]Valerius Maximus, Book 2, x. - -[62]Book 2. s. iv - -[63]These are still used in Italy, and their performers are called Zam - pognari. The derivation is obvious. - -[64]Chappell, in his History of Music, is the most lucid of these. - -[65]See Fetis’ Hist. Gen. de la Musique. - -[66]Fetis, Hist. v. 8. - -[67]Gevært, Hist. de la Mus. de l’ant. p 56. - -[68]Tacitus, Bk. IV. - -[69]Gevært, Mus. de l’ant. p. 58. - -[70]Tacitus, Bk. I. - -[71]Lucian, _de Saltatione_. - -[72]Lucian, _de Saltatione_. - -[73]Lucian, ibid. - -[74]Seneca. - -[75]Suetonius, Calig. LIV. - -[76]Suetonius, Vesp. XIX. - -[77]Letters of Julian, No. 56. - -[78]Tacitus, Bk. XX. - -[79]Suetonius, XX. - -[80]Tacitus, XV. - -[81]Suet. Nero, XXI. - -[82]Tacitus, Bk. XXI. - -[83]Suetonius, Nero. XXIII. - -[84]See chapter on Games of Greece. - -[85]Nero however sometimes took part in other contests, he was as poor - and persistent a charioteer as magician. - -[86]Tacitus, Book XVI. - -[87]In the early historical part of this article, we have mainly - followed the dates used by La Fage. - -[88]Ambros, Gesch. d. Mus. p. 20, v. 1. - -[89]Amiot, Abrege Chron. p. 201. - -[90]Chinese annals claim that their empire was founded 80,000 or 100,000 - years B. C. Fo-hi’s reign is fixed by some at about 2,250 B. C. - -[91]Amiot, De la Mus. des Chinois, p. 54. - -[92]Amiot, p. 57. - -[93]It is singular that a similar personage exists in the Hindoo - mythology. - -[94]Quoted by La Fage, Hist. de Mus., p. 47. - -[95]La Fage, p. 50. - -[96]Amiot, de la Mus. des Chinois, p. 11. - -[97]P. 63. Mus. des Chinois. - -[98]La Fage, 69. De Mailla, 191. - -[99]Amiot, de la Mus. de Chin., p. 33. - -[100]Ambros, Gesch. der Musik, p. 27, v. 1. - -[101]Ambros, Gesch. d Mus. p. 32. - -[102]Pieces for the Clavichord in the style of Rameau. - -[103]Amiot, Mus. des Chinois, p. 3. - -[104]Cibot, Essai sur les Caracteres Chinois. - -[105]Amiot, de la Mus. de Chin., p. 35. - -[106]Figures 2 and 3, pl. 1, Amiot, des Chin. - -[107]Figures 4 and 6, pl. 2, Amiot. - -[108]Figure 7, pl. 2, Amiot. - -[109]Amiot, Essai sur les pierres sonores. - -[110]L’Abbé Roussier, Annotations sur Amiot. - -[111]The chronicle says “it was mute forever,” but this was meant as - hyperbole. - -[112]De la Mus. des Chin., p. 60. - -[113]There are two kinds of _siao_, the great and the small. The latter - has the same number of tubes, but pitched an octave higher. - -[114]Fetis, Hist. Gen de la Mus. VI. 1, p. 66-67. - -[115]Fetis, p. 73. - -[116]“Les Chinois ont remplacé les voix des femmes par celles des - casrats. Les chirurgiens Chinois sont arriveés a pratiquer - l’operation avec une addresse singuliere et presque sans souffrance - pour le sujet.” La Fage, Mus. des Chin., p. 150. - -[117]La Fage, Mus. des Chin., p. 241. - -[118]Amiot, Mus. des Chinois, p. 179. - -[119]In singing this the chorus speaks in the name of the emperor. - -[120]Amiot, des Chin., p. 180. - -[121]The offerings are viands, libations, and perfumes, the latter being - burnt as incense by the emperor. - -[122]Copied by Ambros, in Gesch d mus. v. 1, p. 34-5. - -[123]Quoted by Fetis, Hist. Gen. de la Mus. v. 1, p. 62. - -[124]Amiot, p. 171. - -[125]La Fage, des Chinois, p. 269. - -[126]First it was Haydn, then Handel, then Mozart, then Beethoven and - to-day Wagner (a few years ago, Schumann) whose bold eagle-flights - dismayed the more timid owls. - -[127]“Among the Chinese themselves, society chiefly consists of certain - stated forms, and expressions, a calm, equal, cold deportment, - hypocritical attentions, and hyperbolical professions.” Barrow’s - Life of Macartney, v. 2, p. 414. The curious reader will also find a - very full description of Chinese social etiquette, in the - “_Description de la Chine_,” by Pere Du Halde, pages 115 to 154, - vol. 2. Rules are given for set formalities, even on the slightest - occasions, such as, the opening of a conversation when visiting (p. - 126), the exit, the rising from table after meals, (138), etc., etc. - It is possible, that in the customs of this people, we may see a - living reproduction of some traits of the ancient Egyptians - -[128]Barrow’s life of Macartney, v. 2, p. 231. - -[129]Ibid, v. 2, p. 217 - -[130]Desc. de la Chine. T. II. p. 132. In La Fage’s quotation the page - is given as 112, probably an oversight, or a later edition. - -[131]Account of Lord Macartney’s embassy, by Sir George Staunton. - -[132]Musical Myths and Facts, vol. 2, p. 163. - -[133]La Fage Mus. des. Chinois T. 1. p. 302 - -[134]_Leit motiven_ however the Chinese have _not_!! - -[135]De Guignes, Voyage a Peking v. 2, p. 325. - -[136]It would however, be as unjust to judge average Chinese plays by - this one instance as to judge of the Shakesperian drama by “Titus - Andronicus.” - -[137]Voyage to Cochin China, p. 295. - -[138]In like manner physiologists at one time endeavored to account for - the peculiar singing of the Tyrolese peasantry (called the “yodel”) - by the theory that the Tyrolese throat was shaped differently from - throats in general. Anatomy exploded the assumption. - -[139]La Fage, Mus. des Chinois, v. 1, p. 311. - -[140]Edward Brown, Adventures In Cochin China, p. 221, quoted by Engel - Mus. Myths and facts, vol. 2, p. 157. - -[141]DuHalde, Description de l’emp. de la Chine. T. 2, p. 156. - -[142]LaFage, Mus. des. Chin., T. 1, p. 313. - -[143]Barrow’s life of Macartney, v. 1, pp. 341-2 - -[144]Ibid, p. 337. - -[145]Ainsworth, around the world, p. 102. - -[146]The following is a short synopsis of Chinese education. “When - choosing a wet-nurse, the mother must seek a modest, virtuous, - affable, discreet, respectful, exact and prudent woman. When the boy - can carry his hand to his mouth he is weaned, and taught to use his - right hand in eating; at the age of six, teach him the simplest - numbers, and the names of most important parts of the globe; at the - age of seven separate him from his sisters, and let him neither eat - nor sit with them; at the age of eight teach him the rules of - politeness and civility, which he must observe when entering or - leaving a house, or when he is with his elders; at nine teach him - the calendar; at ten send him to the public school and give him no - more cotton-stuffed garments, they will be too warm for his age. The - school-master is to give him knowledge of reading, writing and - arithmetic. At thirteen, let him study music, that he may sing - poetry, and that the wise maxims contained in the verses, be - engraven on his memory. At fifteen he is to learn archery and - riding. As for girls, when they have attained the age of ten years, - they are not to be allowed to go out of doors; teach them to speak - sweetly, to have an affable air, and to understand all household - duties.” Book of ancient rites quoted in Pere du Halde’s Descrip. de - la Chin., T. 2, p. 438. - -[147]Ainsworth, p. 102. - -[148]A good example of the ludicrous side of this over politeness, may - be given here. The host in China will constantly press his guest to - accept of things which the latter is _expected_ to refuse; the host - is also required by etiquette to depreciate himself and extol his - guest, which the latter returns in kind. An English gentleman having - resigned himself to his interpreter, the following dialogue (like - that in Kinglake’s “Eothen,”) takes place:— - - _Interpreter._ His excellency has long looked forward to this day. - - _Chinese Dignitary._ I meet him now as an old friend, and request to - know his honorable age. - - _Int._ His excellency has profitlessly passed —— years. - - _Chinese Dig._ The ears of his excellency are long, and betoken - great ability. - - _Int._ Ah! oh! he is unworthy of the compliment. - - _Chinese Dig._ You have had an arduous journey. - - _Int._ We deserved it, etc. - - A similar “call” is described in Ainsworth’s “all around the world,” - p. 106. - - “At last we begged to take our leave, and began violently to - ‘tsing-tsing,’ a ceremony which consists in clasping your hands - before your breast, and making a crouching baboon-like gesture; it - is the equivalent of shaking hands, only one shakes one’s own - hands.... Our host insists on following us to our chairs. We - remonstrate; ‘stop! stop! we are unworthy,’ say we. ‘What language - is this’ he replies. ‘We are really unworthy’ we reiterate. ‘You are - in my house,’ he insists; and so we back to our chairs, perpetually - imploring him not to accompany us, which he vehemently resists, - until at last, when we are in our chairs, he reluctantly consents to - return, apologising to the last, for being so rude as to leave us - even then.” - -[149]Japan, Aime Humbert, p. 173. - -[150]Ambros, Gesch. d. Mus. v. 1, p. 38. - -[151]Ibid, 39. - -[152]See Article on Egypt. - -[153]Fetis, Hist. de la Mus. v. 1, p. 84. - -[154]Humbert’s Japan, p. 174. - -[155]Siebold, Pantheon of Nipon, part C, plates - -[156]Or more properly, agglutinate. - -[157]Humbert, Japan, p. 42. - -[158]Abbe Huc, Travels in Thibet. - -[159]S. Osborne, Japanese Fragments. - -[160]Mr. Oliphant, in Elgin’s Mission to Japan. - -[161]Thunberg, Voyage to Japan, p. 351, Sherwood’s Edition. - -[162]Kaempfer, Hist. of Japan (Pinkerton), p. 745. - -[163]Kaempfer, Hist. of Japan, p. __. - -[164]Dr. Müller, Journal of the German Eastern Asiatic Society. - -[165]Letter to the “Leisure Hour,” June 9, 1877. - -[166]Humbert, Japan, p. 248. - -[167]Caron’s Account of Japan (Pinkerton), p. 633. - -[168]Humbert, Japan, p. 295. - -[169]Humbert, Japan, p. 258. - -[170]Thunberg, Voyage to Japan (Sherwood’s Ed.), p. 293. - -[171]Kæmpfer’s history of Japan, p. 815 (Pinkerton’s). - -[172]Ibid, p. 818. - -[173]Caron’s Account of Japan (Pinkerton’s ed.), p. 611. v. 7. - -[174]Dr. Müller; paper read before the German Asiatic Society. - -[175]Wood’s Natural History of Man, v. II, p. 849. - -[176]La Fage, Hist. gen. de la musique, v. I, p. 376. - -[177]Wood’s Nat. Hist. of Man, v. II, p. 850. - -[178]Dr. Müller, German East. Asiatic Society. - -[179]Japan and the Japanese. Capt. Golownin, v. II, p. 149. - -[180]Worn one above the other. Sometimes six or seven dresses are worn - in this manner by one fair fashionable. - -[181]Humbert’s Japan, p. 336. - -[182]Thunberg. - -[183]La Fage, Hist. de la Mus. v. I, p. 375. - -[184]Engel, Mus. Myths and Facts, v. II, p. 164. - -[185]La Fage, Hist. de la Mus. v. I, p. 376. - -[186]Humbert, Japan, p. 337. - -[187]All Round the World, p. 206. - -[188]Thunberg, p. 307. - -[189]Ambros, Gesch. d. Musik, v. I, p. 4. - -[190]Comettant, Mus. et Musiciens, p. 586. - -[191]Fetis, Hist. gen. de la Mus., v. I, p. 26. - -[192]Ambros, Gesch. d. Musik, p. 10, v. I. - -[193]See Fetis, Hist. gen. de la Mus. v. I, p. 15. - -[194]The effect of this in some Australian dances, is said to be very - striking. The favorite device, is to draw the outline of a skeleton, - on the front of the body, with white paint. As the dancers twirl - round, the pattern is plainly perceptible when their faces are - turned toward the spectator, but when their black backs are turned, - the whole vanishes, and gives the impression of a number of ghastly - skeletons, alternately appearing and disappearing, by the dim - flicker of the firelight. - -[195]Here we see one of the earliest traits of primitive music. The use - of a plain, rhythmic accompaniment, without tune. - -[196]From the “Illustrated London News,” Oct. 8, 1863. - -[197]Wood’s Nat. Hist. of Man, v. I, p. 68. - -[198]Meinicke, Inseln des Stillen Oceans, v. I, p. 329. - -[199]Wood’s Hist. of Man, v. I, p. 162. - -[200]Meinecke, Inseln d still. Oceans, v. I, p. 330. - -[201]A conundrum from Java may be interesting to the reader. Here is - one,— - - _Q._—What is lower than the knee, yet higher than the mountain? - - _A._—The road which crosses the mountain. - -[202]De Backer, L’Archipel Indien, p. 185. - -[203]De Backer, L’Archipel Indien, p. 207. - -[204]Quoted in Ainsworth, Round the World, p. 246. - -[205]Engel’s Musical Myths, e. c., v. 2, p. 150. - -[206]A voyage round the World (Cook’s) Forster, p. 398, v. 1. - -[207]Wood’s Nat. History of Man, v. 1, p. 285. - -[208]An account of a Government mission to the Fiji Islands, p. 116. - -[209]Fetis, Histoire de la Mus., v. 1, p. 96. - -[210]Wood’s Nat. History, v. 2, p. 288. - -[211]All Kaffir chiefs aspire to obesity as an emblem of rank. - -[212]The Heart of Africa, v. 2, p. 29. - -[213]Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa, v. 2, p. 30. - -[214]Central Africa, or Naked Truths about Naked people, p. 278. - -[215]Wood’s Nat’l History of Man, v. 2, p. 498. - -[216]Journal of the discovery of the source of the Nile, by Capt. Speke, - page 210. - -[217]Captain Speke’s Journal, p. 222. - -[218]Heart of Africa, v. 1, p. 287. - -[219]Heart of Africa, v. 1, p. 289. - -[220]Ismailia, By Sir S. W. Baker, page 391. - -[221]Ismailia, p. 355. - -[222]See “Ismailia,” p. 372. - -[223]It will be recollected that the Abyssinians belong to a sect of the - Christian Church. - -[224]Coomassie and Magdala, by H. M. Stanley, p. 310 - -[225]Coomassie and Magdala, page 488. - -[226]Ismailia, page 282. - -[227]Baker’s “Ismailia,” page 351. - -[228]Stanley’s “How I found Livingstone,” page 622. - -[229]Brendel, Gesch. d. Musik, p. 7. - -[230]According to Clemens Romanus, a contemporary of St. Paul. - -[231]Tertullian, Apologia, 39. Evidently a custom derived from the - _skolion_ of Greece. - -[232]Ambros, Geschichte d. Musik, v. II, p. 5. - -[233]Gesch. d. Musik, v. II p. 11 - -[234]Marcillac, Histoire de la Mus. Modern, p. 25. - -[235]Fetis, Histoire Gen. de la mus, v. 4, p. 6. - -[236]Letters, v. 5, p. 7. - - Affirmabent autem, hanc fuisse summan vel culpæ suæ, vel erroris - quod essent soliti stato die ante lucem convenire; carmenque - Christo, quasi Deo, dicere secum invicem; seque sacramento non in - scelus aliquod obstringere, sed ne furta, ne latrocinia, ne - adulteria committerent ne fidem fallerent, ne depositum appellati - abnegarent, quibus peractis morem, sibi discedendi fuisse, rursusque - coeundi ad capiendum cibum, promiscium tamen et innoxium. - -[237]Quoted by Fetis, Histoire Gen. d. l. Mus., v. 4, p. 7. - -[238]Fetis. - -[239]Marcillac, Histoire de la Mus. Moderne, p. 27. - -[240]Ambros, Geschichte d. Mus., v. 2, p 13. - -[241]Fetis, Histoire Gen. de la Mus., v. 4, p. 17. - -[242]A good explanation of the system is to be found in Fetis, v. 4, pp. - 29-56. - -[243]See Curzon’s “Monasteries of the Levant,” or Proust’s “Voyage on - Mt. Athos.” - -[244]Some excellent German translations of the hymns, have been made by - Zingerle, and are to be found in the “Zeitschrift d. Deutschen - Morgenl. Gesellschaft.” - -[245]Fetis, Histoire Gen. T. 4. p 90. - -[246]Rambosson, Harmonies du Son, p. 21. - -[247]King’s “Ten Thousand Wonders,” p. 241. - -[248]Marcillac, Hist. de la Mus. Moderne, p. 28, and Brendel, Gesch. d - Mus. p. 9. - -[249]Confessions, Book IX., Chap. 6. - -[250]Ambros, Geschicht der Musik, vol. 2, p. 14. Fetis, Biographie Univ. - v. 1. p. 85. - -[251]Confess, IX., 7. - -[252]Fetis, Hist. Gen de la Mus., v. 4, p. 135. - -[253]Grove’s Dictionary of Music and Musicians, part 1, vol. 1, article - “Ambrosian chant,” by Rev. Thomas Helmore. - -[254]Ambros, Gesch. d. Mus., v. 2, p. 43. - -[255]Ambros, v. 2, p. 45. - -[256]These latter letters may however, only refer to the diagrams, and - not to musical notes. - -[257]Epoch men, by Sam’l Neal, p. 43. - -[258]Vie de Charlemagne, Guizot, T. 3, p. 151. - -[259]Ambros Gesch. d. Mus., v. 2, p. 94. We must remind the reader that - “Gregorian” music, does not always refer to the compositions of - Gregory, but simply means the singing used at Rome, as the - “Ambrosian” means the style used at Milan. - -[260]Monachus Engolismensis (the monk of Angouleme), an anonymous writer - of this era, in his _Vita Caroli Magni._ quoted by J. J. Rousseau, - in his Dictionnaire de Musique article “Chant,” also by Crowest, - Mus. Anecdotes, v. 2, p. 239; Fetis, v. 4, p. 279; Ambros, v. 2, p. - 94, etc., etc. - -[261]It has been suggested by some recent writers on this subject, that - even this should be met by forming the notes of various lengths, - thus, a whole note ———, a half note ——, a quarter —, etc., but this - difficulty can be obviated, in spacing, by any good music engraver, - and does not require so radical a change. - -[262]The semitone falling always between the second and third note, is - the only regularity apparent. - -[263]Stainer’s Dictionary, p. 311. - -[264]There is some ambiguity regarding the title of this pontiff. Some - authorities call him John XX., and the next John (1276) the XXI. - -[265]Quoted by Stainer and Barrett, Dict. p. 314. - -[266]Topog. Hibern., 3 C. 1. - -[267]“The Troubadours,” F. Hueffer, p. 61. - -[268]Quoted by Hueffer, “Troubabours,” p. 72. - -[269]Hueffer, p. 274-5. - -[270]Richard. - -[271]Taylor’s “Lays of the Minnesingers,” p. 229. - -[272]French. - -[273]Those of the Troubadours. - -[274]This line is vague in its meaning. - -[275]Taylor’s “Minne-singers,” p. 98. - -[276]Fabeln und Erzehlungen aus d. zeiten d. minne-sanger. Von Bodmer - and Breitlinger Zurich, 1757, p. 247. - -[277]Rambosson, Harmonies du Son, p. 46. - -[278]Anglice—Master-singers. - -[279]L’Opera Italien. Castil-Blaze, p. 20. - -[280]L’Opera Italien. Castil-Blaze, p. 26. - -[281]Curiosites Theatrales, Fournel (Paris), p. 17. - -[282]Bibliotheque de Poche, v. VIII., p. 345. - -[283]Ibid, vol. II., p. 811. - -[284]Historiette d. la Marechale de Themines, book 5, p. 196. - -[285]Edwards’ History of the Opera, vol. 1, p. 15. - -[286]Curiosites Theatrales, Fournel, p. 161. - -[287]See Annals Dramatiques, VII., p. 165. - -[288]L’Opera Ital. Castil-Blaze, p. 128. - -[289]Deldeves. Curiosites Musicales, p. 215. - - - - - INDEX. - - - A - Abyssinian Music 270 - Æschylus 74 - African Music 251 - Amanieus, troubadour 334 - Amaryllis 356 - Ambrosian Chant 299 - Ancestors, feasts of 186 - Aristotle 57 - Armenian Church 292 - - - B - Bamboo Instruments 153 - Banquet Music, Egyptian 17, 24 - Banquet Music, Grecian 53, 57 - Banquet Music, Japanese 213 - Barbarians, Music of 229 - Bards, ancient 323 - Bardesanes 291 - Bells 148 - Bertrand du Born 336 - Bœthius 308 - Bongo Songs 267 - Brahma, legend of 8 - - - C - Caligula 99 - Canadian, curious song 234 - Canute 328 - Caste of musicians, Chinese 131 - Caste of musicians, Egyptian 18 - Chant, Ambrosian 299 - Chant, Gregorian 303 - Charlemagne 308 - Cheng 155 - Chinese ceremonies 162 - Chinese compositions 162 - Chinese music 114 - Chinese a musical language 160 - Chinese music resembles Scotch 166 - Chinese songs, earliest 115 - Chinese songs 158 - Chinese theatre and plays 176 - Chinese whistle 149 - Chorus, a terrible 74 - Chorus, Greek 74 - Christian, early customs 287 - Christian, early music 283 - Christian churches of Africa 293 - Chun, Song of 121 - Clavichord in China 137 - Confucius 124 - Conservatories in ancient Egypt 25 - Coptic Hymns 294 - Crusaders’ songs 349 - Cuzzoni 358, 360 - - - D - Dances, Australian 234 - Dances, Bushmen 256 - Dances, Chinese 176 - Dances, Egyptian 21 - Dances, Fiji Islands 248 - Dances, Grecian 79 - Dances, Roman 97 - Dances, Savage 234, 277 - Dances, Tasmanian 238 - Dances, War 241 - Destruction of musical instruments 133 - Dictionary of Impoliteness 363 - Drums, African 265 - Drums, Chinese 143 - Drums, used to mark the hour 144 - Drums, Javanese 243 - Drums, water 256 - - - E - Egyptian music 15 - Egyptian Muses 16 - Egyptian banquets 17 - English Bards 327 - Essenhamens 334 - European music in China 135 - - - F - Female musicians, Chinese 129 - Female musicians, Greek 51 - Female musicians, Troubadours 341 - Festivals, Chinese 170 - Festivals, Theban 21 - Fiddle, Chinese 156 - Fiji Islanders, Music 248 - Flute, Chinese 139 - Flute, Egyptian 23 - Flute, Grecian 41, 42, 43, 59 - Flute, Kaffir 255 - Flute, Roman 86 - Flute, Prehistoric 232 - Flute-playing at Grecian Games 41 - Foang-hoang 116 - Fo Hi, the Chinese Noah 116 - Folk Songs 350 - Funeral music, Chinese 173 - Funeral music, Egyptian 19 - Funeral music, Japanese 207 - Funeral music, Roman 88 - - - G - Games of Greece 35 - Goura—African Instrument 257 - Greek Church, music of 288 - Greek music, ancient 35 - Greek Hymns 35 - Greek Scale 36, 55 - Gregorian Chant 303 - Gregorian Chant in France 310 - Guido d’Arezzo 318 - Guitar, African 263 - Guitar, Hindoo 14 - - - H - Handel 360 - Harmony, Egyptian 19 - Harps, African 255 - Harps, Egyptian 23 - Harps, Hebrew 26 - Hebrew music 26 - Hebrew music, resemblance to Negro 33 - Hermes, Egyptian god 15 - Hindoo music 8 - Hissing, when first began 357 - Hucbald 315 - Hymns, Christian, ancient 281, 294 - Hymn, Chinese 164 - Hymn, Greek 35 - - - I - Instruments, African 257, 259 - Instruments, Chinese 142 - Instruments, East Indian 13 - Instruments, Egyptian 24 - Instruments, Greek 59 - Instruments, Hebrew 29 - Instruments, Hindoo 13 - Instruments, Japanese 202 - Instruments, Kaffir 255 - Instruments, Roman 89 - Irish Bards 325 - Irova, Japanese 204 - - - J - Japanese music 201 - Jews, music of modern 27 - Jewsharps in Africa 258 - Jongleurs 331 - Julian, reforms of Emperor 100 - - - K - Kaffir songs 251 - Kin, Chinese 150 - King, Chinese instrument 147 - Kithara, Greek instrument 57 - - - L - Laborers’ songs, Egyptian 18 - Lamia 61 - Laws relative to music, Egyptian 20 - Legends of music, Chinese 116, 119 - Legends of music, Egyptian 15 - Legends of music, Hindoo 8 - Legends of music, Japanese 215 - Legends of music, Javanese 244 - Louis Xiii. 355 - Louis Xiv. 357 - - - M - Malay music 243 - Meistersingers 349 - Melody, Hindoo 12 - Melody, an old 348 - Meyerbeer 361 - Military music, African 262 - Military music, Chinese 131, 169 - Military music, Greek 47, 60 - Military music, Japanese 219 - Minnesingers 329, 341 - Mode, Ambrosian 301 - Mode, Gregorian 365 - Musical Buildings 44 - Musical course Roman 86 - Music as a means of inspiring fear 276 - Music boxes in Africa 269 - Music boxes, Chinese 175 - - - N - Nero, musical history of 101 - Neumes 313 - New Zealand, Harmony in 233 - New Zealand songs 240 - Nose-flutes 248 - Notation 313, 316, 317, 321 - Nyam-Nyams, Music of 258 - - - O - Olympic Games 39 - Opera 352 - Orchestra, an old 354 - Organ, ancient Rome 89 - Organ, Chinese 155 - Organ, Hebrew 28, 30 - - - P - Pantomimes, Chinese 195 - Pantomimes, Roman 97 - Pantomimes, Javanese 243 - Persecution of musicians 126 - Philosophers and music 53 - Pindar 65 - Pianoforte in Japan 227 - Poems of the Troubadours 338 - Power of Music 9, 10 - Power of Music in Africa 274 - Processional music, Egyptian 22 - Processional music, Japanese 218 - Processional music, Roman 92 - Processional music, Savage 263 - Provençal songs 330 - Psaltery 30 - Ptolemy 62 - Pythagoras 53 - Pythian Games 41 - - - Q - Quarrel between choirs 311 - Quarrel between singers 358 - - - R - Ragas, Hindoo 9 - Religious music, Abyssinian 269 - Religious music, Chinese 162 - Religious music, Christian 280 - Religious music, Greek 35 - Religious music, Hebrew 26 - Religious music, Japanese 205 - Religious music, Roman 86 - Rhythm, Egyptian 20 - Rhythm of savage nations 229 - Riquier, Guirant 332 - “Robert,” accident at first performance 361 - Roman, ancient music 85 - Roman Empire, music of 99 - Rossini 360 - Royal dancers 193 - Royal musicians 99, 100, 102, 115, 332, 355 - - - S - Salaries, ancient Greece 61 - Salaries, Chinese 187 - Salaries, Nero 105 - Sappho 61 - Savage music 229 - Scale, Chinese 167 - Scale, East Indian 11 - Scale, Grecian 36, 55 - Scale, Hindoo 11 - Scale, Japanese 201 - Scale, modern 320 - Scale, Religious, Greek 289 - Schofer, Hebrew horn 27 - Schools of music, Egypt 25 - Schools of music, Rome 86, 100 - “Selah!” meaning of 31 - Signals, musical Chinese 123, 173 - Simonides 63 - Sistrum 22 - Skolion 57 - Societies, or Guilds of Musicians, Roman 87 - Songs, Chinese 158 - Stesi-chorus 49 - Stones, musical 145 - Stringed instruments 149 - Syrian Church 290 - - - T - Tales of the Minnesingers 346 - Terpander 45 - Theatre, Chinese 176 - Theatre, Greek 67 - Theatre, Japanese 219 - Theatre, Javanese 245 - Theatre, Roman 95 - Timbrel 30 - Time marked by bells 120 - Time marked by drums 120 - Tone-picture, Grecian 59 - Treatises on music, Chinese 135 - Triumphs, Roman 92 - Triumphal Odes, Greece 62 - Trumpeter, a great 40 - Trumpets, African 261, 265 - Trumpets, Chinese 120, 157 - Trumpets, pre-historic 231 - Trumpets, Russian 157 - Troubadours 329 - - - V - Vina, Indian instrument 13 - Violin, Hindoo 13 - Volkslied 350 - - - W - Wagner 362 - War Song 284 - Watch Song 344 - Welsh Bards 324 - “William Tell,” an error in 361 - Wood instruments of China 151 - - - Y - Yu, Chinese musician 132 - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - 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