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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..aa4b68c --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #66216 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/66216) diff --git a/old/66216-0.txt b/old/66216-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f3d1515..0000000 --- a/old/66216-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10474 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Curiosities of Music, by Louis C. -Elson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Curiosities of Music - A Collection of Facts not generally known, regarding the Music of - Ancient and Savage Nations - -Author: Louis C. Elson - -Release Date: September 4, 2021 [eBook #66216] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Turgut Dincer, Stephen Hutcheson, and the Online - Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This - file was produced from images generously made available by - The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CURIOSITIES OF MUSIC *** - - - - - - Curiosities of Music - - - A Collection of Facts, not generally known, regarding the Music of - Ancient and Savage Nations - - By - LOUIS C. ELSON - - [Illustration: publisher logo] - - OLIVER DITSON COMPANY - BOSTON - - New York Chicago - CHAS. H. DITSON & CO. LYON & HEALY - - Copyright, MDCCCLXXX, by J. M. STODDART & CO. - Copyright, MCMVIII, by OLIVER DITSON COMPANY - - - TO MY ESTEEMED FRIEND, - Dr. C. Annette Buckei, - THIS LITTLE WORK IS DEDICATED. - - - - - PREFACE. - - -In this work, I have endeavored to bring together the most curious -points in the music of many nations, ancient and modern. As the work -originally appeared in a magazine (“The Vox Humana”) I was obliged to -avoid any extended research into disputed points, such as Hebrew music, -Greek music, water organs, etc., as being too abstruse for periodical -reading. Yet many of the facts contained in its columns have not yet -found their way into English literature. This was so entirely the case -with Chinese music, that I was tempted to somewhat transgress my limits -on this subject, it being, apparently, a neglected one. In all the other -chapters I have merely sought out such facts as would interest, and -present a comprehensive idea to the general reader, whether musical or -not. - -My hearty thanks are due to Col. Henry Ware, and Mr. J. Norton, of -Boston, for many facilities afforded and suggestions offered, in the -course of compiling this book. If it fills an unoccupied niche, however -small, in musical literature, it will have fulfilled the desire of - - The Author. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - I Introduction 7 - The Hindoos 8 - II Ancient Egyptian 15 - III Biblical and Hebrew 26 - IV Ancient Greek Music 35 - V The Public Games of Greece 39 - VI The Philosophers, and Greek Social Music 53 - VII Greek Theatre and Chorus 67 - VII The Dances of Ancient Greece 79 - VIII Ancient Roman Music 85 - IX Music of the Roman Theatre 95 - X Music of the Roman Empire 99 - XI History of Chinese Music 114 - XII Chinese Music and Musical Instruments 142 - Of the Sound of Stone 145 - Of the Sound of Metal 148 - Of the Sound of Baked Clay 149 - Of the Sound of Silk 149 - The Sound of Wood 151 - The Sound of Bamboo 153 - The Sound of Calabash 155 - Miscellaneous Instruments 156 - The Sound of the Voice 158 - XIII Chinese Musical Compositions and Ceremonies 162 - Hymn to the Ancestors 164 - XVI The Chinese Theatre and Dances 176 - XVII Music of Japan 201 - XVIII Music of Savage Nations 229 - XIX African Music 251 - Praise of Dingan, A Very Celebrated Chief 254 - XX Music of the Early Christian Church 280 - Greek Church 288 - Syrian Church 290 - The Armenian Church 292 - The Churches of Africa 293 - General Synopsis of Early Christian Music 296 - XXI The Ambrosian and Gregorian Chant 299 - XXII Music in Europe from the Fifth Century 308 - XXIII The Ancient Bards 323 - XXIV The Troubadours and Minne-Singers 329 - XXV Curiosities of the Opera. Modern Composers, and Conclusion 352 - Footnotes 364 - Index. 365 - - - - - CURIOSITIES OF MUSIC. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - INTRODUCTION. - - -Music has been broadly defined by Fetis as “the art of moving the -feelings by combinations of sounds;” taken in this broad sense it may be -considered as coeval with the human race. - -Vocal music, in a crude form, is as natural in man, to express feelings, -as it is for a cat to purr or a lion to roar; as regards instrumental -music, the primitive man might have found in every hollow tree a -reverberating drum, and in every conchshell or horn of cattle, the -natural beginnings of instrumental music; we shall find later that many -nations ascribe the discovery of their music to the accidental appliance -of some natural instrument; our surest guide in watching the rise of the -art, should be the manner in which savage peoples, yet in a state of -nature, produce music, and we shall find too, that even the lowest in -the scale, even those beings who make the monkey tribe nearer and dearer -to us, as possible relatives (the bushmen of Australia for example), -have still a method of “moving the feelings by means of combinations of -sounds.” - -It is therefore, really in barbarous nations, that we may, reasoning by -analogy, find in what state music existed when our own ancestors were in -a state of nature; but in order to give a more chronological character -to our sketches we will begin with the _Music and Musical Mythology of -the Ancients_. - - - THE HINDOOS. - -With this people, and the Egyptians we find proofs of the existence of a -musical system at a time which far antedates the earliest reliable -Scriptural records. - -Among the Hindoos especially, as far back as history extends, music has -been treated not only as a fine art, but philosophically and -mathematically. According to the oldest Brahminical records, in their -all-embracing “Temple of Science,” it belongs to the 2d chief division -of Lesser Sciences, but its natural and philosophic elements, are, with -a nice distinction, admitted into their holiest and oldest book, the -_Veda_.[1] Of course it has a divine origin ascribed to it, in fact the -entire realm of Indian music is one tale of Mythology. - -According to Brahminical accounts, when Brahma had lain in the egg three -thousand billion, four hundred million of years (3,000,400,000,000) he -split it by the force of his thought and made Heaven and Earth from the -two pieces; then Manu brought forth ten great forces, which made Gods, -Goddesses, good and evil spirits and Gandharbas (Genii of music), and -Apsarasas (Genii of Dance), and these became the musicians of the Gods, -before man knew of the art. Then Sarisvati, Goddess of Speech and -Oratory, consort of Brahma, at Brahma’s command brought the art to man -and gave him also his finest musical instrument, the Vina, of which -hereafter. Music then found a protector in the demi-god Nared, one of -the chief Indian musical deities, while Maheda Chrishna helped it along -by allowing five keys, or modes, to spring from his head (_a la_ -Minerva) in the shape of Nymphs, and his wife Parbuti, added one more; -then Brahma added thirty lesser keys, or modes, and all these modes were -also Nymphs. - -The Hindoo scale has seven chief tones and these tones are represented -as so many heavenly sisters. - -In the Indian legends, music is represented as of immense might. All -men, all animals, all inanimate nature listened to the singing of Maheda -and Parbuti with ecstasy. - -Some modes were never to be sung by mortals, as they were so fiery that -the singer would be consumed by them. In the time of Akber, it is -related, that ruler commanded Naik Gobaul, a famous singer, to sing the -Raagni[2] of Fire; the poor singer entreated in vain, to be allowed to -sing a less dangerous strain; then he plunged up to his neck in the -river Djumna, and began: he had not finished more than half of his lay -when the water around him began to boil; he paused (at boiling point) -but the relentless, or curious Akber, demanded the rest, and with the -end of the song the singer burst into flames and was consumed. Another -melody caused clouds to rise and rain to fall; a female singer is said -once to have saved Bengal from famine and drought in this manner. -Another lay caused the sun to disappear and night to come at midday, or -another could change winter to spring or rain to sunshine. All these -typify beautifully the might of music with this race. Of the four chief -tone systems, two also have divine origin, from Iswara and from Hanuman -(the Indian Pan), the others come from Bharata Muni who invented the -drama with music and dance, and from Calinath. - -When Chrishna was upon the earth as a shepherd, there were sixteen -thousand pastoral Nymphs or Shepherdesses who fell in love with -him.—They all tried to win his heart by music, and each one sang him a -song, and each one sang in a _different key_, (let us hope not all at -once). Thence sprang the sixteen thousand keys, which according to -tradition once existed in India. - -In order that the full extent of Hindoo Musical Mythology may be -conceived, we will now sketch the tones which are employed. - -We have stated that there are seven chief tones; these tones have short -monosyllabic names; as we give to our notes the syllables, _do_, _re_, -_mi_, etc., the Hindoos call their scale tones _sa_, _ri_, _ga_, _ma_, -_pa_, _dha_, _ni_, _sa_, which are certainly as easy to vocalise upon as -our _solfeggi_; in fact the language is very well adapted to music, as -it has all the softness, elegance and clearness of the Italian. Von -Dalberg says that Sanscrit unites the splendor of the Spanish, the -strength of the German, and the singableness of the Italian. - -With the resemblance of seven chief tones, however, the similarity ends, -for while our scale has only half tones as smallest interval, the -Hindoos have quarter tones, and not equally distributed either; thus: - - whole small half whole whole small half - tone whole tone tone tone whole tone - Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa - ¼¼¼¼ ¼¼¼ ¼¼ ¼¼¼¼ ¼¼¼¼ ¼¼¼ ¼¼ - -In theory it will be seen that the octave is always a half tone flat, -but practically they correct this by singing it on its proper pitch. On -six of the above intervals they found their chief modes but they form -various lesser modes on each interval, i. e., they could give ten -different modes, or scales, starting from C alone. - -These six chief styles, are, of course, six Genii, corresponding to the -six Hindoo divisions of the year, these are each married to five Nymphs, -the thirty lesser styles; each Genii has eight sons, who are each -wedded, also to Nymphs, one apiece. There seem to be few celibates in -Hindoo Mythology, therefore an exact census gives to this interesting -family six fathers, thirty mothers, forty-eight sons, forty-eight -daughters-in-law, or one hundred thirty-two in all, each of them being -the God or Goddess of some particular key, and each of them, of course, -having a distinctive name; we shall not give the various names, but to -illustrate the relationship among them, the following will suffice; the -four 1-4 tones beginning on the fifth tone of the scale, _Panchama_ (or -_Pa_) are the Nymphs _Malina_, _Chapala_, _Lola_ and _Serveretna_, while -the next full tone (_Dha_) is owned by Santa and her sisters; if _Dha_ -should be flatted 1-4 tone which would give it the same pitch as the -highest 1-4 tone of _Pa_, (called Serveretna), the poetical Hindoo would -not say “_Dha_ is flat,” but “_Serveretna_ has been introduced to the -family of _Santa_ and her sisters.”[3] - -Although the musical art of the Hindoos had such an early existence, it -seems not to have developed or receded much since ancient days; they -possess airs to which the European ear instantly, and involuntarily -attaches harmony, (auxiliary voices), and yet they have not the -slightest craving for harmony. They are completely satisfied to express -all emotion by melody, sometimes combined with the dance, and yet do not -feel the monotony, which would be obviated by additional voices. - -But it must be said that, so far as melody goes, they have great taste -and discrimination; the music often approaches the European in form and -rhythm, and the Hindoo seems to feel instinctively the importance of the -tonic, and dominant, and often finishes the phrases of a melody with a -half cadence.[4] - -Of the Hindoo instruments the Vina takes the lead; as before mentioned, -they ascribe to it a divine origin; it has four strings and is -incorrectly defined as a lyre by many commentators, but it is rather a -guitar than lyre, and is made of a large hollow bamboo pipe, about 3½ -feet long, at each end of which are two large hollow gourds, to increase -the resonance: it may be roughly compared to a drum major’s _baton_, -with a ball at _both_ ends, while the strings extend along the stick; it -has a finger-board like a guitar, and the frets are not fastened -permanently on it, but stuck on by the performer with wax. - -The tone is both full and delicate, sometimes metallic and clear and -very pleasant. The music composed for it is usually brilliant and rapid, -and the Hindoos seem to have their Liszts and Rubinsteins; in the last -century Djivan Shah was known throughout all India as a _virtuoso_, on -the Vina. - -They ornament their Vinas sometimes very richly and there are paintings -of their chief performers, sitting with magnificent Vinas leaning -against their bodies, this being the attitude of the player. They also -have possessed from time immemorial, a three-stringed violin, so that -Raphael and Tintoretto may not have committed an anachronism in painting -Apollo with a violin.[5] - -A Guitar called Magoudi, finishes the list of characteristic stringed -instruments. - -The instruments of percussion and wind instruments are more numerous. -They possess four kinds of drums, and their popular, secular dances are -usually accompanied by the Vina, for the melody, and drums, bells and -cymbals. - -Flutes they have possessed from remotest antiquity, and a muffled drum -called Tare for funeral occasions, and they also have a double flute -with a single mouth piece. We will not dwell further upon their -instruments; there is but one, the _Vina_, which is really fitted to -produce beautiful music. - -The Hindoos complain that their old music is deteriorating and such -singers as Chanan or Dhilcook, two vocal celebrities of the last -centuries, have passed away. When one inquires for the miracle-working -Ragas, (improvised songs) in Bengal, the people say there are singers -probably left in Cashmere who can give them; and should you inquire in -Cashmere they would send you to Bengal for them, but in reality there -seems to have been comparatively little change in the style of Hindoo -music from its earliest days. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - ANCIENT EGYPTIAN. - - -The ancient Egyptians ascribed the origin of music to opposite causes, -some legends giving its invention to beneficent Deities, while other -legends are interpreted to give its origin to Satan, the evil principle, -or at least the principle of sensuality, as represented by the buck -Mendes. Hermes (or Mercury) is accredited with first having observed the -harmony of the spheres, and the lyre also is represented as being his -invention, in the following legend: - -A heavy inundation of the Nile had taken place, and when the waters -receded, there was left upon the banks a tortoise, who went the way of -all tortoises, and after a time was completely dried up by the sun; the -tendons however, which were attached to the shell, remained, and became -tightly drawn by the expansion of the shell. Hermes, wandering upon the -bank, accidentally struck his foot against it; the tendons resounded, -and Hermes thus found a natural lyre. - -This legend is however found also in Hindoo and Greek Mythology, and may -be one of those tales, springing from Arian root, which belong to almost -every race. We also find an Egyptian Apollo and Muses in other musical -legends, according to Diodorus Siculus. - -“When Osiris was in Ethiopia,—the Egyptian God Osiris was a sort of -blending of Bacchus and Apollo—he met a troupe of revelling satyrs, and -being a lover of pleasure and taking delight in choruses of music, he -admitted them to his already numerous train of musicians. In the midst -of these satyrs were nine young maidens, skilled in music and divers -sciences.” - -The Egyptians also considered Horus, brother of Osiris, (equivalent to -the Greek Apollo) as God of Harmony. - -Thus three Gods have the honor of fostering Egyptian music, Osiris, -Horus, and Hermes. - -Hermes, or (by his Egyptian name) Thoth, was the especial God of many -sciences, and is said to have written two books of song, or works -relating to the song-art. According to Diodorus, the Lyre which he had -invented had three strings, which represented the three seasons of -Egypt; the deepest string was the wet season, the middle one the growing -season, the highest the harvest season: the tones of Egyptian music seem -to be taken from the seven heavenly planets, as known to the ancients, -and from this circumstance Ambros hazards the conjecture that the -diatonic scale was known to them. - -Among the mythical musical personages of the earliest Egyptian music, -may be mentioned Maneros, who was son of the first king of Egypt, who -succeeded the second dynasty of demi-gods. - -He seems to be analogous to the Linus, (son of Apollo), of the Greeks; -he died young, and the _first_ song of the Egyptian music[6] was in his -honor; it was a lament over his untimely end, the swift passing away of -Youth, Spring, etc. The song was sung under various guises, for Maneros, -Linus, Adonis, etc., among various ancient nations, and Herodotus was -surprised at hearing it in Egypt. But in course of time the song itself, -and not the king’s son was called Maneros, and gradually diffused its -influence, (the warning of the passing away of Joy) through Egyptian -social life; at their banquets a perfectly painted statue of a _corpse_ -was borne round and shown to each guest, and there was sung the -following warning: - - “Cast your eyes upon this corpse - You will be like this after Death, - Therefore drink and be merry now.”[7] - -The song also from being a mournful one, became in time joyous and -lively,[8] Plutarch thinks that the words Maneros, became synonymous -with “Good Health.” The fashion was after the conquest of Egypt, -imitated in Rome.[9] The ancient Egyptian music was really a twofold -affair and is well symbolized in being attributed by some to good, by -others to evil gods; for it was used in the religious services of the -highest gods, (except, according to Strabo, in the services of Osiris, -at Abydos) and on the other hand was degraded as a pastime for the -lowest orders. - -The musicians were not held in any respect, and were not allowed to -change their occupation, but were obliged to transmit it from father to -son and were also probably compelled to live in a certain quarter of the -cities wherein they dwelt.[10] - -Of course there were celebrated singers and performers, and also leaders -of the chants, and royal singers, who were exceptions to the foregoing -rule, but according to Diodorus Siculus, the Egyptians not only -considered music a useless art, but even a hurtful one, as it enervated -the soul and made man effeminate. Yet for all this there are found among -ancient sculptures many representations of singers and musicians -evidently belonging to the higher classes, though we cannot but believe -that these exceptions only prove the rule, and even to-day music is -considered a sensuous and rather unmanly art, by Eastern nations. - -Among the most ancient songs of Egypt there seem to have been little -refrains sung by the working classes while at labor; there is here not -conjecture but absolute certainty, for the words of part of one of these -songs are preserved, on an ancient picture of threshers of grain, oxen, -etc.; the threshers sing, according to Champollion’s learned -deciphering, - - “Thresh for yourselves, oh oxen, - Thresh for yourselves; - Measures for your masters, - Measures for yourselves.” - -In a grotto at _El bersheh_ there is also a painting of the -transportation of a colossal statue from the quarry, and here also while -one hundred and seventy-two men are laboring at the ropes, one is -perched upon the statue and is giving the time of a refrain, which all -are to sing. - -The custom of singing while at work still exists in Egypt, as, for -example, sailors sing a particular song when starting on a voyage, -another when there is danger of a collision, another when the danger is -past. - -Music was a chief portion of the Egyptian funeral ceremonies, and on the -walls of nearly all the tombs of ancient days, are found paintings of -the funeral ceremonies; the greater part of what is known of their -instruments comes from this source; the best singers and players were -engaged for the purpose by the richer classes, and sang mournful chants, -being similar to the professional mourners at present found in the East. -The music was probably chiefly melodic, or one-voiced, though this -subject has some ambiguity attached to it, our only guide as to their -music being the representations in the tombs, etc., as not a scrap of -actual music has been left to us; but when we consider the furious -controversy about, and the different interpretations of the fragments of -Greek music which time has left us, this may be an _advantage_ rather -than otherwise. There is one painting[11] left, which seems to confirm -the idea that the Egyptians knew something of the effect of harmony. -This painting represents two harpers at one side and three flute players -at the other, while between them are two singers, one of whom seems to -be following with his voice the melody of the harpers, while the other -sings with the flutes; this seems to intimate that the Egyptians -possessed, at least _two-voiced_ harmony. - -Chappell, in his admirable History of Music, says that it is -mathematically impossible, that all of the instruments represented in -their paintings should have been played in unison. - -The music of Egypt was for a long time regulated by the Government, that -is all innovations were punishable by law; probably this referred only -to religious music, and did not affect popular music. - -In all ages there seem to have been two distinct schools of music, the -scientific, and popular. There is no doubt that while the early European -theorists held that _only consecutive fifths and fourths_ were musical, -the populace had a less forced and more beautiful style, and it is more -than probable that in Egypt the popular music was totally different from -the sacred. - -All the songs appear to have been accompanied by a clapping of hands, -and therefore the rhythm was probably strongly marked. The effect of -this clapping of hands is by no means unpleasant, and is still used by -the negroes of America in some songs and dances, and among various -barbarous nations. It seems curious to think, that in witnessing these -lively dances, one may be beholding a counterpart of the enjoyments of -four thousand years ago, or that in witnessing the _pirouettes_ of a -ballet dancer, we are amusing ourselves in the ancient Egyptian manner; -the latter fact is proved by ancient paintings, however. Other ancient -Egyptian dances were similar to the modern jigs, clog dances and -breakdowns, as is amply shown by figures found both in Upper and Lower -Egypt. - -The Egyptians had also dances with regular figures, forward and back, -swing, etc.; these dances were restricted to the lower orders, the upper -classes being forbidden to indulge in them. - -If we could transport ourselves back to Thebes in its days of grandeur, -we should be somewhat astonished at the slight change, in comparison -with what is usually supposed, from our own times. Imagine the time of a -great religious festival. The Nile is crowded with boats, loaded to -their utmost capacity, with passengers, offerings, etc. Sometimes -hundreds of thousands came to Thebes or Memphis, and especially to -Bubastis, on such occasions. From each boat is heard playing and -singing. Within the city all the streets are full; here march by a troop -of Pharaoh’s soldiers, all the privates uniformed alike, their marching -regular, and their drill well attended to; at their head is a military -band, (picture found at Thebes) of trumpeters, drummers beating the drum -with their _hands_, and other performers; along that mighty avenue of -Sphinxes is marching a procession to one of the temples: here also -musical instruments, particularly flutes, head the column, and a -processional hymn is being sung, to which the white-robed priests keep -time while marching, as they carry the sacred golden barge of the God, -full of treasure of various kinds. - -Here is passing along, a deputation from some far off tributary prince -in the heart of Æthiopia, carrying presents for the king, and all around -is life, bustle, and enjoyment. In some of the temples music is -sounding, (the temple of Osiris, at Abydos, being the only exception,) -and the clang of the sistrum is often heard. Truly the life of ancient -Egypt was as joyous and varied as that of more modern times. - -The sistrum was, until the Napoleonic expedition to Egypt, which gave to -the world the wonders of this store house of antiquity, considered the -representative of Egyptian music. It was merely a short, oval hand frame -which held three or four metal bars; sometimes bells were hung upon -these bars, and by shaking the instrument, as a baby shakes a rattle, -which it really in principle resembles, a jingling of the bars or bells -was produced. - -Latterly it has been thought that the sistrum was not a musical -instrument at all; but, like the bell sounded at the elevation of the -Host in Catholic churches, was used as a means of riveting and -impressing the minds of the worshippers. At all events the sistrum takes -no rank among Egyptian musical instruments. The harp was really the -instrument on which they lavished the most attention; paintings, and -fragments of harps have been found, in the so-called “Harpers’ Tomb,” -which caused Bruce to exclaim that no modern maker could manufacture a -more beautiful piece of workmanship. - -The ancient Egyptian harps look very modern indeed, except for the fact -that they have no front board or “Pole,” and it seems strange that they -could bear the tension without its support; the pitch could not have -been at all high. There was a species of harp, of the compass of about -two octaves, with catgut strings, (wire strings the Egyptians had not), -found in a tomb hewn in the solid rock at Thebes, so entirely preserved -that it was played upon by the discoverer, and gave out its tones _after -being buried 3000 years_. Of course the strings perished after exposure -to the air. - -Fetis, to whom musical history owes so much, has here fallen into a -singular mistake. He says “it would scarcely be believed that the -ancient Egyptians with whom the cat was a sacred animal, should have -used _cat-gut_ strings on their instruments, but the fact is proved -beyond a doubt.” This is all very true, but M. Fetis seems not to have -known the fact that cat-gut has not its origin in the _cat_, but is -almost always, in reality _sheep-gut_. - -The list of instruments of ancient Egypt embraces harps of various -numbers of strings, Nabla, from which come the Roman _Nablium_ and -Hebrew _Nebel_, a sort of Guitar; Flutes, single and double, (a flute -player often headed the sacred processions, and Isis is said to have -invented the flute.) Tambourines and hand drums; sometimes the Egyptians -danced to a rhythmic accompaniment of these alone.[12] The flute was -generally played by men, and the tambourines by women. Lyres, of various -shapes, often played with the hand, but sometimes also with a plectrum, -(a short, black stick, with which the strings were struck,) trumpets, -cymbals, and some metal instruments of percussion. There are many -paintings in which entire orchestras of these instruments are playing -together, but probably all in unison. - -There exists an excellent painting from a Theban tomb,[13] in which we -see an Egyptian musical party in a private house. Two principal figures -are smelling of small nosegays, while two females offer to them -refreshments; three females are dancing and singing for the amusement of -the guests, who sit around, apparently having a very enjoyable time; -below are seen slaves preparing a banquet, which is to follow the music. -The Egyptians often had music before dinner. - -Another application of music is pictured in a very ancient painting, -given by Rosellini,[14] in his great work; in it is seen a woman nursing -an infant, while a harper and singer are furnishing music, possibly to -lull the child to sleep; in almost all these paintings the singers are -represented with one hand to their ear in order to catch the pitch of -the instruments more readily. - -But the most interesting painting has been copied, in the folios of -Lepsius,[15] from a tomb of great antiquity; it represents a course of -_musical instruction_ in the department of the singers and players of -King Amenhotep IV. (18th Dynasty). We see several large and small rooms, -connecting with each other; furniture, musical instruments and -implements are seen all around, especially in the small rooms or -closets. In the large rooms are the musicians, engaged in practising and -teaching; one teacher is sitting, listening to the singing of a young -girl, while another pupil is accompanying her on the harp; another girl -stands attentively listening to the teacher’s instructions, (_class -system_ evidently); in another part two girls are practising a dance, -while a harper accompanies; other musicians are variously engaged. In -one room is a young lady having her hair dressed, and in another, a -young miss has leant her harp against the wall, and is sitting down with -a companion to lunch. This certainly gives a fair insight into the music -life of old, and we leave Egyptian music, of which _as music_ we know -nothing, with more satisfaction after this glance at the _Royal Egyptian -Conservatory of Music_. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - BIBLICAL AND HEBREW. - - -The earliest scriptural mention of music is in Genesis, Chapter IV. -where Jubal is spoken of as “Father of those who handle the harp and -organ.” But harp and organ must by no means be confounded with our -modern instruments of the same name. The harp was probably an instrument -of three strings, while all the very ancient references to an organ, -simply mean a “Syrinx” or Pan’s pipes. The music of Biblical History is, -as is almost all the music of ancient nations, combined to a great -extent with the dance; the dances of the ancients were what to-day would -be called pantomimes, expressing joy, sorrow, fear, or anger, by the -motions and expressions of face and body, rather than by the feet. - -The real character of the ancient Hebrew music, as well as of many of -the musical instruments, is involved in utter obscurity, and no clues to -enlighten the investigator, remain in the modern music of this usually -most conservative of peoples; much of their musical system was borrowed, -until David’s time certainly, from the Egyptians. - -The music of the modern Jews is tinged in almost every instance with the -character of the music of the people around them; thus the same psalms -are sung in a different manner by German, Polish, Spanish, or Portuguese -Jews. - -One little trace of their primitive music remains; on the occasion of -their New Year, a ram’s horn is blown, and between the blasts on this -excruciating instrument the following phrases are addressed to the -performer,— - - _Tahkee-oo, Schivoorim, Taru-o._ - -These words, which also have a reverential meaning, may possibly at one -time have been addressed to the ancient musicians, to give to them the -order of the music. Strong presumptive proof that this blowing of the -trumpet is the same as it was in King David’s time is found in the fact -that it is blown in the same rhythm, by the Jews _all over the world_. -It certainly requires no forced interpretation to call the Ram’s horn -(Schofer) one of their early instruments, as it would be their most -natural signal-call both in peace and war. - -In all the Jewish theocracy, the music naturally took a theosophical -character, and is seldom detached from religious rites; we shall find -the same spirit running through other of the ancient civilizations, even -barbarians seeming to share in the almost universal impulse to praise -the Deity with this art, and this should prove to supercilious critics -that however ill-sounding the music of other races may appear to our -ears, to _them_ it was a highly considered art, and as such, merits our -attention. - -David may be regarded as the real founder of Hebrew music. He must have -possessed great skill even in his youth, as the instance of his being -able to soothe Saul’s crazed mind with his music, proves. This may be -regarded as one of the earliest notices of the effects of music in -mental disease. What the nature of his inventions and reforms in music -afterwards were, and how far he remodelled the style which had been -brought from Egypt, cannot now be known, as Jerusalem has been pillaged -nearly twenty times since his reign, and every monument, or inscription -which might solve the enigma, has long been destroyed. - -There are still marks and inflections in the Hebrew Scriptures which are -evidently intended to show the style in which they were to be chanted. - -Regarding the instruments spoken of in Scripture as being used in the -Temple there is also no certainty. In the Talmud there is mention of an -organ which had but ten pipes, yet gave one hundred different tones; -this instrument is placed about the beginning of the Christian Era, and -is called _Magrepha_; it is said of it, that its tones were so powerful -that when it was played, the people in Jerusalem could not hear each -other talk. Pfeiffer conjectures that it was probably not an organ, but -a very loud drum. There are other authorities who have endeavored to -prove that the _Magrepha_ was simply a _fire shovel_; they contend that -it was used at the sacrifices of the Temple to build up the fire, and -was then thrown down, with a loud noise, to inform people outside how -far the services had progressed. The reader has liberty to make his own -choice, for the authorities are pretty evenly balanced,—_organ_, _drum_, -or _fire shovel_. - -We must make some allowance for Oriental exaggeration in musical -matters, for when Josephus speaks of a performance by 200,000 singers, -40,000 sistrums, 40,000 harps, and 200,000 trumpets, we must imagine -that either Josephus’ tale, or the ears of the Hebrews, were tough. All -these statements only enlarge a fruitless field, for in it all is -conjecture. - -The flute was a favorite instrument both for joy and sorrow: the Talmud -contains a saying that “flutes are suited either to the bride or to the -dead.” - -The performance of all these instruments seems to have been always in -unison, and often in the most _fortissimo_ style. - -Calmet gives a list of Hebrew instruments including viols, trumpets, -drums, bells, Pan’s pipes, flutes, cymbals, etc., and it is possible -that these have existed among them in a primitive form. - -The abbé de la Molette gives the number of the chief Jewish instruments -as twelve, and states that they borrowed three newer ones from the -Chaldeans, during the Babylonian captivity. - -According to records of the Rabbins, given by Forkel, the Jews possessed -in David’s time, thirty-six instruments. - -Some of the instruments named in the Scriptures are as -follows:—_Kinnor_, usually mentioned in the English translation as a -harp, so often alluded to in the Psalms, (“Praise the Lord with harp,” -etc., xxxiii:2,) was probably a lyre, or a small harp, of triangular -shape: that the Hebrews possessed a larger harp is more than probable, -for they were in communication with Assyria and Egypt, where the harp, -in a highly developed state, was the national instrument, but it is a -matter of much dispute, as to which of the musical terms used in the -Scriptures was intended to apply to this larger harp. - -The _Nebel_, or _Psaltery_, was a species of Dulcimer. - -The _Asor_;—When David sang of an “instrument of ten strings,” he -referred to the asor, which is supposed to have been a species of lyre, -with ten strings, and played with a _plectrum_, a short stick of wood, -or bone, usually black, with which the strings were struck. - -The _Timbrel_ or _Taboret_, was a small hand drum, or tambourine, -probably of varying shapes and sizes; the hand drum was derived from -Egypt, for it was customary for women to dance in that country entirely -to the rhythm of drums and tambourines; the military hand drum had the -shape of a small keg with parchment over the ends; that is to say, the -diameter at the middle was greatest. - -_The Organ_;—as before stated this was simply a set of pandean pipes. - -_Cymbals_;—there seems to be no doubt that the Hebrews possessed various -instruments of percussion of divers shapes. - -_Trumpets_;—apart from the ram’s horn, and other curved horns which were -called trumpets, there also existed a straight trumpet of more -artificial construction. “Make thee, two trumpets of silver: of one -piece shalt thou make them.” Numbers ix:2. - -It is probable that the sistrum, the guitar, and pipes, were also -possessed by this nation; about nineteen instruments are mentioned in -the scriptures, but some of the meanings are so dubious that they have -been translated by the general terms, harp, lute, psaltery, timbrel, -etc. - -How many different opinions are held, upon Hebrew music may be judged -from the fact that the word “_Selah_,” which was probably a musical -term, and is found in so many of the psalms, has given rise to the most -vehement and fruitless controversy. Hesychius says that it means a -charge of rhythm, in the chanting; Alberti denies this, as it sometimes -occurs at the end of a psalm, where certainly no change is possible: -some have suggested that it meant a modulation from one key to another; -Forkel, however, thinks that the Hebrews were not so far advanced in the -science of music as to understand modulation, but Fetis upsets Forkel by -remarking that the modulations, though not harmonic, might have been -purely melodic, by the introduction of tones, foreign to the key, as -occurs in many eastern melodies. - -Herder says also “the Orientals even of our day, love monotonous chants, -which Europeans find doleful, and which at certain passages or phrases, -change totally and abruptly their mode and time: the word _Selah_ was -without doubt an indication of such a change.” The last part of this -opinion, Fetis sets down as pure hypothesis. - -Two ancient Greek versions of the Old Testament give the meaning of the -word as “forever,” and as “for all ages.” - -Alberti thinks the word is a recapitulation of the chords of the psalm: -Rosenmüller proves that this is impossible in some cases. - -Augusti thinks it is an expression of joy similar to “Hallelujah.” - -David Kimchi thinks it a sign of elevation of the voice; Mattheson and -Pfeiffer agree in the opinion that it signifies a _ritornella_, or short -symphony between the verses, to be played by the instruments alone. - -Eichhorn thinks it means _Da Capo_, but Rosenmüller and Gesenius, (the -latter treats the matter with great erudition, and his opinion is -entitled to respect,) both think that it signifies a rest in the song -part, as we might write _Tacet_. - -Gesenius has found almost the only corroborative testimony of the whole -controversy in the fact that the grammatical root of the word Selah, is -repose, or silence. - -La Borde has boldly, not to say audaciously, given a unique -interpretation. He says “David invented the art of shading the sounds; -the word _Selah_ is equivalent to the Italian word _smorzando_, -extinguished, dying away.” And then he gives a highly colored picture of -the beauty and grace of the effects produced, though all that he proves -is that he has a little stronger imagination than the others. We must -also give the curious opinion of Wolff, who thinks that “_Selah_” has no -sense whatever, and was only added to fill up the metre of a verse. - -Several other eminent writers, including Fetis, who gives a full account -of this war of opinions,[16] decline to hazard an opinion in so dark a -matter. - -Another conjectural description of the mode of singing among the ancient -Hebrews, is the commentary of Herder on the song of Deborah and Barak, -Judges v.; he says, “probably verses 1-11 were interrupted by the shouts -of the populace; verses 12-27 were a picture of the battle with a naming -of the leaders with praise or blame, and mimicking each one as named; -verses 28-30 were mockery of the triumph of Sissera, and the last verse -was given as chorus by the whole people.” - -One cannot fail to observe some resemblance between this music and the -slave music of some sections of the southern states: in the -camp-meetings, and religious services, a tune which is well known to all -is chosen, and as the spirit moves, often a whole song appropriate to -the occasion is improvised. Of some such description must have been -Miriam’s song, after the downfall of Pharaoh’s host; she probably chose -a tune which was familiar to the people, and improvised, while the -people kept the rhythm, or sang refrains. - -Of course the element of poetry was immeasurably greater among the -Israelites than among the Negroes, but the similarity of improvisation -and religious fervor is noticeable. - -When Miriam sang, there was as yet no distinctive style of Hebrew music; -we must remember that she had obtained an Egyptian education, and that -up to David’s time the music was an imitation of the Egyptian school. - -The raptures of some commentators as to the exceeding beauty of the -music of David, are quite safe, for it is easy to affirm where no one -can bring rebutting evidence, but if it partook of the loudness of most -ancient and barbarous music,—“Play skillfully, and with a loud noise,” -Psalms xxxiii:2—our modern music may after all be some compensation for -its utter loss and oblivion. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - ANCIENT GREEK MUSIC. - - -The mythology of Greek music is too well known, for us to go into any -details upon the subject; with this people every thing relating to -music, was ennobled and enriched by an applicable legend, or a finely -conceived poem. In fact music (mousiké), meant with the Greeks, all the -æsthetics, and culture that were used in education of youth, and the -strictly _musical_ part of the above training had special names, as -_harmonia_, etc., to designate it. - -The subject of Greek music has given rise to more commentary and -dispute, than any other in the entire realm of musical history. - -The mode of notation employed was peculiar; it consisted in placing the -letters of the alphabet in various positions, straight, sideways, etc., -and sometimes even, fragments of letters were used. - -There are in existence but three authentic Greek hymns[17] with music, -viz: hymn to Calliope, to Apollo, and to Nemesis; there is also in -existence, some music to the first eight verses of the first Pythian of -Pindar, which Athanasius Kircher claimed to have discovered in a -monastery near Messina, but the best authorities reject this as -spurious. The copies of the above hymns are not older than the fifteenth -century, and have probably been much perverted by the ignorance, or -half-knowledge of the transcribers, who seeing a fragment of a letter, -would restore the whole letter, or change its position, thereby greatly -altering the character of the music. - -To this fact is to be attributed the dense fog, which has prevented us -from fully understanding the ancient Greek music. - -On this slight foundation however, learned writers have built an edifice -of erudition which consists of countless volumes of pedantry and -ingenuity, mixed with a large amount of abuse for those who did not -agree with their solution. - -As we intend to deal, in these articles, more with curious musical facts -than with musical systems, we will dismiss this branch of the subject -entirely by referring the reader to the best representative works of -this monument of research, which are Chappell’s History of Music, vol. -I., Ambros’ Geschichte der Musik, vol. I., pp. 218-513, Fetis’ Histoire -Generale de la Musique, vol. III., pp. 1-418. Kiesewetter, and Drieberg -also have written profoundly on the subject. These will give the -different opinions held in the matter. - -The _scale_ of the Greeks, is however, definitely known, and was similar -to our minor scale, although it contained no sharp seventh. Play on any -pianoforte the notes, A B C D E F G, and you have played the Greek one -octave diatonic scale. - -The nomenclature was however different, and some commentators have -forgotten to explain the fact, that what the Greeks called the _highest -note_, meant the longest string of the instrument, and consequently the -_lowest_ tone. - -Another fact which has given rise to much controversy is the pitch of -the lyre or phorminx; it seems that the mode of tuning this instrument -varied in Greece at different epochs, and even in different localities -at the same epoch.[18] - -The word harmony (harmonikē) has also been misunderstood, as it does not -mean harmony in our sense of the word, but the arrangement and rhythm of -a melody. Whether the Greeks understood harmony or not, in the modern -sense, has been the chief cause of the before-mentioned “Battle of the -Books.” - -The lowest note of the scale was called Proslambanomenos, and had not -the importance of the middle note, called Mese, which really became the -principal note of the scale. - -The Greek music practically, was very like our present minor modes, and -the singing of some young Greek of two thousand years ago, would -probably have sounded pleasantly to modern ears. - -The earliest Greek scale had but four tones, and was probably used to -accompany hymns. It might still suffice for many church chants.[19] -People seldom think how much music can be manufactured from three or -four notes; Rousseau gave a practical illustration of it in the last -century, by writing a not very monotonous tune, on three notes. But an -instrument founded on so few notes might also have been used to give the -pitch to the voice in reciting, or half-singing a poem. We must remember -that the poems of Greece were chanted in public; and even in modern -days, orators pitch their voices higher than in conversation, when -addressing an assembly. - -Early Grecian music experienced its first real onward movement, when -Egypt was thrown open to foreigners. Up to the reign of Psammetichus I., -(664 B. C.) Egypt was closed to aliens, exactly as China has been closed -in days not long gone by. Psammetichus first opened his kingdom to the -Greeks, and Pythagoras learned enough in Egypt to greatly change the -character of Greek music. Though some Greek writers with an excess of -zeal, have made the statement that he taught the Egyptians, by bringing -to them the seven-stringed lyre. Considering the fact that the Egyptians -had as many as twenty-two strings, the claim is rather audacious. - -But what placed the Greeks in advance of all other ancient nations, in -music, was the fact that they early recognized its rank as a _fine art_. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - THE PUBLIC GAMES OF GREECE. - - -The public games of Greece in which music and musical contests were a -feature, gave to the art a decided impetus, for when competition began, -musical study must have preceded. - -The Olympic games were celebrated at Olympia every fifth year, in July, -and lasted five days. They were dedicated to Zeus (Jupiter), and were -established (according to some re-established, having existed in -Mythical ages) by Iphitos, king of Elis, in the ninth century before the -Christian era. - -For a long time none but Grecians were allowed to compete in them. If -there existed internal war in Greece at the time, an armistice was -effected during the games. The contestants were trained for ten months -previous to the contest. The prizes awarded to the victors were wreaths -of wild olive twigs, cut from a sacred tree which grew in the -consecrated grove of Olympia, and the victors were presented to the -spectators, while a herald proclaimed the name of each, his father, and -his country. - -The first day opened with a sacrifice to Zeus, after which a contest of -trumpeters took place. This contest was not regularly instituted until -396 B. C., but after that period it was not interrupted. There are still -annals left of the most celebrated contestants; Archias of Hybla, gained -the prize for three successive Olympiads; and Athenæus says that -Herodorus of Megara, a most famous trumpeter, gained the prize _ten -times in succession_. Pollux says he gained _seventeen_ victories, which -is well-nigh incredible, but both agree in saying that this remarkable -performer was in one year crowned in the four great sacred games, the -Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian. His music was so loud that the -audience were sometimes stunned by the concussion. Other anecdotes of -this wonderful trumpeter remain. He was of giant stature, and slept upon -a bear skin, in imitation of Hercules and the lion skin. He could play -upon two trumpets at the same time, and when he did so, the audience had -to sit farther away than usual, on account of the immense sound. His -performances were of great use in military affairs. Once at the siege of -Argos, the troops were giving way when Herodorus began to sound his two -trumpets, which so inspired the warriors of Demetrius, that they -returned to the fight and won the victory. - -The trumpet cannot really be classed among Grecian musical instruments, -as it was rather a signal than any thing else. It was blown when heralds -made any proclamation, in military movements, etc., and seems to have -been appreciated only by the loudness with which it was blown. - -It was also frequently played at the Olympic games during the -horse-races, to inspirit the animals.[20] - -In fact at the public games the music had a most noisy character, and -trumpeters were proud of bursting a blood vessel, or otherwise injuring -themselves by excess of zeal. - -The contest of trumpeters was the only musical (?) one of these games, -though flute-playing took place on the fourth day, when according to -Krause,[21] the _pentathlon_ took place. This was a set of five athletic -games; leaping, running, throwing spear, throwing _discus_, and -wrestling. Here flute-playing also served to animate the contestants. -The flutes too, considering the purpose for which they were used, must -have been played in a violent manner. - -Harmonides, a young flute-player, on his first appearance at the games -wishing to _astonish_ the audience, began by giving such a tremendous -blast on his instrument, that he expired on the spot, probably having -burst a blood vessel, and having literally blown himself out with his -first note. The audience was probably astonished. - -The sacred games next in importance, were the Pythian. These games were -at first celebrated by the Delphians, every ninth year, but about 590 B. -C., the Amphyctions (another Grecian tribe) obtained the control of -them, and instituted them every fifth year. They took place on a plain -near Delphi, and were in honor of Apollo, commemorating his victory over -the serpent Python; the good principle defeating the evil principle, as -in Egyptian, and most other mythologies. Pindar’s odes have celebrated -the victories at some of these games. Being dedicated to Apollo, it was -but natural that music, (under this head, the Greeks understood most of -the accomplishments of the muses,) should play the most important part. - -Religious poems were chanted, with an accompaniment upon the lyre or -phorminx. The first poet-musicians who gained the prize were -Chrysothemis,[22] Philammon, an earlier poet-musician than Homer, and -Thamyris. According to Pausanius, all these singers were probably -priests of Apollo. The Amphyctions first established prizes for songs -with flute accompaniment, and for flute _solos_. Cephallon obtained a -prize for songs accompanied by Kithara, a small lyre, and Echembrotus -one for songs with flute, while Sacadas of Argos took the prize three -consecutive times for his flute solos. After him came Pythocritus of -Sicyon, who won the prize at these games six consecutive times, which -covers an interval of _thirty years_ of triumphs. - -Athletic sports also were introduced later. The prizes were, as at -Olympia, wreaths only. - -The use of the flute both as solo instrument, and as accompaniment, was -however, soon abolished, it being used as funeral music, and for dirge -playing among the Amphyctions, and therefore having too many melancholy -associations to allow of its use in these festive games. Finally _solos_ -on the small lyre (kithara) were allowed prizes. - -It is said that at one of these contests a flute player gained the prize -in a singular manner. He was playing the straight flute, when the reed -in the mouth-piece became closed by accident, on which he instantly -changed the position of his instrument, and played it as an _oblique_ -flute; his presence of mind was rewarded, by winning the prize. - -The Nemean games were commemorative of the slaying of the Nemean lion, -by Hercules. There was no musical contest in the games, but flutes were -used, to stimulate the athletes, and were probably allowed prizes. - -The Isthmian games celebrated upon the Isthmus of Corinth, whence their -name, were similar to the Nemean; music not being of any importance in -them. - -In Chios there has been found a stone on which the names of the victors -in the musical contests are inscribed. From it we learn that prizes were -given for reading music at sight, rhapsodizing, accompanying the voice -with a small harp played with the hand, and accompanying with kithara -played partially with the fingers of the left hand, and partially with a -_plectrum_ held in the right hand. - -The lesser games of Greece were also not inconsiderable. The great -festival of Athens was the Panathenæa, held in honor of Athene the -patron goddess of the city. It was established according to tradition, -about 1521 B. C., and was at first intended for the citizens of Athens -only. It took place about the middle of July. - -At the later Panathenæa, the people of all Attica used to attend. There -seem to have been two divisions of this festival, a greater and lesser -Panathenæa, the former being celebrated every four years, the latter -every year. The lesser Panathenæa consisted of recitations, gymnastics, -musical competitions, and a torch race in the evening, the whole -concluding with the sacrifice of an ox. The greater, was even more -extensive. The Homeric poems were sung, dramatic representation took -place, magnificient processions marched to the temple of Athene Polias, -and the whole city was full of mirth and gayety. The prizes were jars of -oil made from the sacred tree on the Acropolis. - -Pericles, (fifth century B. C.,) gave to music a greater prominence than -ever before in these games, by erecting a structure especially for -musical entertainments and contests, the Odeum, in the street of the -Tripod; this edifice was very well adapted in its acoustical properties, -for according to Plutarch’s description, the roof was dome-shaped, or -nearly so, and vast audiences could hear solos distinctly. - -In Sparta, in the month of August (Carneios) there were celebrated the -great Carneian games, which lasted nine days. In these games musical -contests also took place, and dances of men, youths, and maidens, as -well as gymnastic exercises. Sparta also had a special building for -musical purposes. Theodore of Samos erected the Skias, a building for -musical uses, in the market place. Sparta was in fact, the cradle of -Grecian music. - -In the early days, songs were learned and transmitted down, from mouth -to mouth. Homer’s poems were preserved in this manner for five hundred -years. In Sparta however, they first began to crystallize into form and -regularity. Yet strange to say, Sparta gave birth to no musicians of -eminence, even though she was so long the arbiter, and director of -Grecian musical taste.[23] - -Terpander of Lesbos, one of the founders of Greek music, came early to -Sparta. He is reported to have gained the prize at the first musical -contest of the Carneian games, B. C. 676, and is said to have studied in -Egypt, but he certainly could not have done so before his first advent -in Sparta, for Egypt was at that date still closed to foreigners, and -had even guards set to prevent the landing of strangers by the sea.[24] - -Terpander gained the Pythian crown four times in succession, and was the -most famous poet-musician of his time. His fame spread through all -Greece, but it was especially in Sparta that he won renown, for his -high, manly and earnest strains awoke a sturdy and manly response in the -bosoms of the rugged Spartans. It is probable however that at the first -visit to Sparta, his songs were not so powerful. At that time, (676 B. -C.) he probably sang chiefly the poems of Homer. We say _sang_, but it -is not even sure that they had, what we should call a tune, attached to -them; they were possibly recited in a musical pitch of voice, which -could not be called even a chant. - -There was at this time, little music among the Spartans, and that of -rather martial, or else of religious character; as for example we learn -that the Spartans marched into battle to the sound of many kitharas, as -did also the Cretans, and it was supposed to have been in honor of the -Gods, that they did so; though Thucydides, more practically, says that -it was only that they might move forward regularly and in time. On -Terpander’s second visit to Sparta, he changed the entire mode of -Spartan music, and enlarged it. The return happened in this wise:— - -At the beginning of the second Messenian war Sparta was in great -perplexity. Messenia by alliances with other tribes threatened -destruction from without. Within all was dissension; agriculture -prostrate, antagonism between those who had lost their lands through the -wars and those who possessed them, a demand for a new distribution of -land, and prospective anarchy. At this juncture, the Oracle of Delphi -was consulted, and gave reply that “discord would be quelled in Sparta -when the sound of Terpander’s harp was heard there,” and told the -Spartans, also to call the counsellor from Athens. So Terpander was sent -for, and also the counsellor Tyrtaeus from Athens. - -The effect of Terpander’s songs upon the populace on this occasion is -described as something remarkable; men burst into tears, enemies -embraced each other, and all internal dissension was at an end.[25] - -It is recorded therefore, that Terpander with his harp had quelled all -dissension in Sparta, but by this anecdote we may see that in what the -ancient Greeks called music, the words really played the most important -part. To show this yet more clearly, we will here give an instance from -later Athenian history where the same power was exerted for a similar -purpose. A war between Athens and Megara, for the possession of the -island of Salamis, had resulted in such continued disaster to Athens, -that the Athenians had left the island to its fate, and it was forbidden -upon penalty of death to broach the subject to the public again. Solon -however, attired himself as a messenger from the island to the -Athenians, and in this character sang a song which roused such a martial -spirit, that on the instant a large body of volunteers was formed, who, -under Solon, effected its reconquest. - -Terpander and Tyrtæus composed most of their songs in march rhythm, and -after this the Spartans sang hymns, while marching into battle to the -sound of many kitharas, which were afterwards displaced by the more -penetrating flute. - -Terpander also composed love songs, and banquet songs as well as nomes -or hymns, and his choruses were sung at all Spartan festivals and -sacrifices, they were taught to Spartan youths and maidens, and all -seemed to vie in doing him honor. He had really helped the music of -Greece to a higher plane, for it is said that he enlarged the lyre or -phorminx from four strings, to seven, and also made improvements in the -scale. - -Contemporary with this poet-musician was Olympus, who must not however -be confounded with an Olympus who lived six hundred years previously, -that is, about 1250 B. C. Plato says that the music of Olympus was -especially adapted to animate the hearers. Plutarch says that it -surpassed in simplicity and effect, all other music. He is said to have -composed the air which caused Alexander to seize his arms, when it was -sung to him; according to Aristotle his music filled all hearers with -enthusiasm. Much relating to Olympus must however be relegated to the -land of myths. It has even been doubted whether he ever really existed, -though that is carrying scepticism too far. - -Among the other characters which existed on the borderland of Greek -musical history, may be mentioned Polynestos, and Alcman who brought to -Sparta in its full glow, the love song, (Lydian measure). Alcman seems -to have been easily aroused to sing of female beauty, and composed some -choruses especially for the - - “Honey-voiced, lovely singing maidens,” - -which were sung by female voices only. - -The fragments which remain of Alcman’s verses do not justify the immense -fame which he seems to have enjoyed in Greece. Alcman was preceded by -Thaletas of Crete, who was sent for by the Spartans 620 B. C. to sing to -the Gods, in order that Sparta might be freed from a severe plague, -which was then ravaging the state. The plague ceased, and Thaletas for a -time stood at the head of all Spartan music. That country as above -mentioned, either would not, or could not encourage home talent. - -Sacadas of Argos came soon after with a yet more luxurious style, and -introduced the flute as an accompaniment to chorus music. - -To this foggy period of history, also belongs Tisias of Himera, who made -an indelible impression on Greek music. He was the first who regulated -the motions of the chorus, and who reduced chorus singing to a settled -system; from the fact that at one period of the song, (the _epode_, or -_finale_) he made the chorus stand quiet, instead of dancing he received -the nickname of “Stesichorus.” In some of the works of Stesichorus, one -can easily see the germ of the choruses of Æschylus or Sophocles.[26] - -If in the ancient Grecian music, the composer, poet, and performer seem -to be spoken of in common, the reader must recollect that in those days, -_all three_ branches of the art were united in one individual. It will -also aid some readers, if we define here what the functions of the Greek -chorus were. In the earliest days, the whole chorus simply sang refrains -after the solo of some cultivated singer; gradually whole compositions -were entrusted to their charge. Pantomimic action probably always -existed in connection with their songs, as with almost all ancient -singing. Stesichorus first gave them different historical or -mythological subjects to act, in a dramatic manner. At a later epoch the -chorus entered in a peculiar manner into the action of the drama. They -stood upon the stage as interested spectators of the various events; -they advised the Protagonist or only individual character[27] as to his -course of action, and when some startling incident, a murder for -example, had taken place, they would strongly express their feelings, -horror, dismay or fear, and thereby intensify the effect upon the -audience. - -An imitation of the Greek chorus may be found in Schiller’s “Bride of -Messina.” - -Stesichorus was deservedly honored as the founder of Greek chorus music, -and a statue was erected to his memory. Among those next following his -era we find Ibycus, a poet-musician attached to the court of Polycrates, -tyrant of Samos. This mighty sea king and despot had a considerable -liking for music; for we learn also that he kept a choir of beautiful -boys, whose duty it was to sing sweet Lydian melodies during his meals. -About 580-70 B. C. Alcæus and Sappho became leaders in Grecian musical -culture, or poetry, for the two are inseparable. The two poets seem to -have formed a mutual friendship. Of Sappho we have remaining an ode to -Aphrodite which makes it a matter of regret that the remains of her -poetry are so fragmentary.[28] At Mytilene she seems to have gathered -around her a large and elegant circle, composed entirely of females to -whom she taught poetry and music; in fact her house must have been a -musical university for her list of scholars embraces names from all -parts of Greece. Ottfried Müller[29] compares her life, surrounded by -all these fair followers, with that of Socrates surrounded by the flower -of Athenian youth. - -Sappho’s career is the more wonderful from the fact, that among the -ancient Greeks, the entire mission of woman was supposed to consist in -rearing her family, attending to the first education of her sons, who at -an early age passed into the hands of their teachers, teaching -housewife’s duties to her daughters, and attending to them herself; -according to Pericles, that woman was most to be prized of whom no one -spoke, either in praise or blame. - -Sappho’s poetry had great effect even on the rough character of Solon, -the law giver; hearing for the first time one of her songs, which his -nephew sang to him, he vehemently expressed the wish that he might not -die before he had committed to memory so beautiful a song. - -Sappho’s name is almost the only female one in the whole realm of -ancient Greek music, which was pure, noble, and uncontaminated. -Latterly, even her character has been assailed, but the accusation has -been refuted by Herr Welcker, of Bonn, (in the _Rheinisches Museum_,) -Ottfried Müller and other learned writers. After her, music as practiced -by the female sex, was handed over to the most degraded, (the _Hetarae_) -and seems to have borrowed from Egypt many lowering qualities,[30] -including dancing girls and ribald songs. - -Anacreon of Teos, introduced into Greece the light, airy songs, in -praise of woman, wine, etc., “It is no great stretch of fancy,” says a -thoughtful writer,[31] “to imagine his songs as expressing our modern -_Allegretto Grazioso_, _Andante Scherzoso_, etc.” - -From precisely this point however (the lack of signs of expression in -all Greek music) another writer[32] deduces the opinion that Greek music -must always have been in a crude state, and by no means of the beauty -which some enthusiasts ascribe to it. - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - THE PHILOSOPHERS, AND GREEK SOCIAL MUSIC. - - -From the sixth century B. C., music may date its entrance into the -positive sciences, for Pythagoras, born about 570 B. C., first began to -analyze music from a scientific point of view, and to ascertain how far -it rested upon natural laws. Pythagoras is said to have been the son of -a wealthy merchant. He was as before mentioned, one of the earliest -Greeks in Egypt, and after having been instructed for some time by the -priests, had at last the honor of being admitted into the Egyptian -college of priesthood. - -After remaining in Egypt twenty-two years, he spent some time among the -Chaldeans, and at last returned, full of wisdom, to his native Samos. -But here the sensuality of the court of Polycrates was so little to his -taste, that he departed to the city of Croton in southern Italy, where -he founded the order of Pythagoreans. - -With the order itself, we have little to do, but when we consider that -its founder was the pioneer of scientific musical research, its -proceedings become in some degree interesting. - -“All is number and harmony” was the fundamental maxim of this -philosopher,[33] and he sought for the laws in music, therefore, in -nature. This led to some mistakes of course, for the laws of nature had -not been made clear enough for thorough guidance, in that era. It is -said that Pythagoras one day, passing by a blacksmith’s shop heard the -blows of different hammers sound the fundamental, fourth, fifth, and -octave, and entering, he weighed the different hammers, thereby -obtaining the proportion of these intervals to each other. - -This story has been proved to be a silly myth, for the proportions given -are wrong. He should have weighed the anvils not the hammers, and anvils -of such difference in size as would be requisite to produce these -intervals would not be seen in blacksmiths’ shops. - -Pythagoras taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide -in music. He held that the universe was constructed on a musical plan, -and was probably the first to introduce among the Greeks the theory of -the music of the spheres. The fact that man could not hear this -music,[34] was explained by the statement that the sounds were either -too deep or too high for our ears. The reasoning was plausible enough, -and has been confirmed by science, for sounds of less than sixteen -vibrations in a second are inaudible on account of their depth, and -those exceeding 38,100 vibrations in a second are too high for the human -ear to perceive.[35] Starting from this premise Pythagoras formed a -scale founded on the seven planets, as known to the astronomers of that -time. This was its form: - - Moon. Mercury. Venus. Sun. Mars. Jupiter. Saturn. - E F G A B C D - -The sun was Mese, the controlling middle note, around which all the -others circled. - -The order of Pythagoreans were held together by the firmest ties, and -Pythagoras has been, not inaptly, compared in this capacity with -Ignatius Loyola. His adherents, who numbered about three hundred were, -in most cases, wealthy and noble, and the power of the society was -always upon the side of aristocracy. - -Pythagoras was very select in the admission of members, exercising great -vigilance lest improper or undesirable persons should be allowed to -enter; in this he was guided not a little by his skill in Physiognomy. -The initiates had, it is said, to pass through a most rigorous and -lengthy period of probation, they were obliged to maintain silence for -five years,[36] and in other ways had their powers of endurance, -severely tested. After entering the brotherhood,[37] the mode of life -was entirely dictated by Pythagoras. The members were clothed in pure -white. They were forbidden all animal food, and beans. They had -different grades of advancement among themselves, the highest being -undoubtedly instructed in a purer religion than that which obtained -around them, though outwardly they conformed with the religion of the -populace. Mathematics, music, and astronomy were studied, and gymnastics -regularly practised. - -Playing upon the lyre was obligatory, and none of the order went to -sleep at night, without having previously purified his soul, and set it -in harmony through music; and at rising in the morning, the strength for -the day’s labors and duties, was sought for in the same manner. -Pythagoras wrote many songs as correctives to undue excitement and -passion; he is said once to have brought to reason a young man beside -himself with jealousy and wine, by the power of a song. - -Clinias, a Pythagorean, took up his harp and played whenever any passion -arose in his breast; to a person who asked him the reason of the action, -he replied, “I play to compose myself.” - -While the music of Terpander, Olympus, etc., was intended for high state -and religious purposes, that of Pythagoras was intended to bring the art -into domestic and inner life. Choruses were, however, also chanted by -his followers, and were adapted to various occasions, as for example, at -the opening of Spring, the scholars would gather in a circle around the -harper, who played the accompaniment, and sing pæans of welcome to the -opening season. Other philosophers also allowed music to enter into -their teachings, though not to so great a degree, but almost all of them -understood enough of music to form an opinion. - -Plato seemed decidedly to object to instrumental music, for he says “the -using of instruments without the voice is barbarism and -charlatanry.”[38] - -Aristotle was disposed to allow more freedom, for he spoke of music as a -delicious pleasure, either alone (instrumental) or accompanied with -voice; but in instrumental solos he admitted the lyre and kithara only, -and rejected the flute, which he thought not to be a moral instrument, -and only capable of inflaming the passions. - -The philosophers as a class were really not very advantageous to musical -progress, for they fought tooth and nail for the old school of music. - -They sought only moral effects by the means of great simplicity, and any -intricate innovations displeased them; but in spite of their resistance -the art began to improve. - -The Skolion, or banquet song had a great influence on the music of -Athens. At the banquet, or symposium, the harp was passed from hand to -hand, and each person who made any pretence to education or good -breeding was expected to be able to improvise or at least to sing a good -_skolion_. - -There was certainly in the time of Pericles, music enough to choose -from, for there is much evidence that the Athenians of that day -possessed an extensive library of music;[39] and it was in this era, the -early part of the fifth century B. C., that the social music reached its -height. - -Themistocles once being present at a banquet had the harp (kithara) -presented to him, and was desired to sing his _skolion_; full of -confusion and shame he was obliged to acknowledge his ignorance of -music, and we can judge of the value in which the art was held, by the -sneers and jests which were pointed at him. At last stung to the quick -by the sharp witticisms, he retorted, “it is true I do not know how to -play the kithara, but I know how to raise an insignificant city to a -position of glory.” - -The _skolion_ was a really poetical and worthy song, and must not be -confounded with those lower and vulgar songs which were sung to the -guests by hired jesters and buffoons.[40] - -The subjects of the _skolion_ were sometimes of rather a lofty style; -praise of heroes,[41] calls to the gods, rules of life, often joyous, -sometimes sedate; but in all of them a less exact rhythm and style were -allowed than in other compositions. A few have been preserved to our -day; one begins, “my kingdom is my spear and sword,” another composed by -Chilon contains the following beautiful thought; “Gold is rubbed upon -the touchstone, and thus is tested, but the soul of man is tested by the -gold, if it be good or evil.” But the kithara, although used in the -_skolion_, was not the only instrument of the fashionable young men of -ancient Athens, for the flute found great favor among them; in fact -flute playing grew to be quite a mania for a time. It was part of the -musical education of youth. Most of the teachers of the instrument came -from Bœotia. - -Flute players of ability were held in high honor; the art of flute -playing received such an impetus that different flute schools were -established in Athens; even rival methods of playing and teaching -existed.[42] - -Flutes were played in almost every place where music was required, to -accompany hymns, at worship, and even sometimes the Greeks represented -the combat of Apollo and the Python on this instrument, with kithara -accompaniment; this may be considered as the earliest “song without -words” in existence. - -The ancients had some other attempts at tone pictures. Once an Athenian -kitharist played to Dorian, a representation of a storm at sea; on being -asked how he liked it, that ancient wit answered, “I have seen a better -storm in a pot of boiling water.” This would make the origin of the -phrase “a tempest in a teapot,” over two-thousand years old. - -Sometimes all Athens was divided into cliques for this or that flute -player; and the price paid for flutes were appalling, some being sold as -high as three thousand dollars, many flute-makers becoming immensely -wealthy. - -It received a slight check however, when Alcibiades, about 409 B. C., -declined to play it, alleging as a reason, that it spoilt the shape of -the mouth. Alcibiades stood at the head of the fashion as well as of the -state, and after such a _dictum_ the _beau monde_ of Athens laid aside -the flute; but some ingenious flute maker took alarm, and invented a -mouth-piece which obviated the difficulty, and which Alcibiades found -more to his taste, on which it resumed its place in popular favor. - -In Sparta it led the chorus, and was the military instrument, but the -Spartans disdained to make it a study, and only felt bound, at this era, -to discriminate between good and bad music. - -In some Ionian cities, the human victims were led to the sacrifice, or -to their execution to the sound of flutes; and this dead march (called -the Nome of Kradias) was said to be peculiarly depressing. - -Plutarch makes a warm defence of the flute, against the criticisms of -Plato and Aristotle. “The flute” he says “cannot be spared from the -banquet, leads the hymns to the gods, and with its rich and full tones -spreads peace and tranquillity throughout the soul;” but we must -remember that this was written at a much later epoch, when flute playing -became more universal than in the days of Pericles, and when the -instrument had probably been altered and improved. - -Flute players sometimes made large fortunes. Nicomachus was known for -his wealth in jewels acquired by his skill on the instrument. - -Lamia was one of the most famous of Athenian flutists. This female was -celebrated through Greece and Egypt for her skill, as well as for her -wit and beauty. The latter was not overrated, for a portrait of her has -been discovered in a signet, which amply confirms the accounts of her -charms. Although born in Athens, she went early to Alexandria, in Egypt, -to study her art; somewhat as our modern musicians go to Italy or -Germany. She was received with open arms at the Egyptian court, and was -detained for a long time. Captured by Demetrius Polyorcetes, she soon -succeeded in conquering her conqueror, and on her return to Athens, a -temple was built to her, and she was worshipped under the name of _Venus -Lamia_. Her powerful “friend” Demetrius, may have had something to do -with this deification, but at all events, there were still left some -Greeks (Lysimachus for example) who had the manliness to protest against -the desecration, for the character of Lamia was far different from that -of Sappho. - -It was not flute players only who earned immense salaries, for we learn -that Amabœus the kitharist, received nearly one thousand dollars for -each performance, and all flute-players, and kitharists, were welcomed -and honored at the courts of Greece, Egypt and Asia. - -Ptolemy Philadelphus gave a large musical festival in Alexandria, Egypt, -about 280 B. C., at which six hundred skilled singers, kitharists and -flutists assisted; there have been larger festivals in point of numbers -in ancient times, but few, where so much educated talent assisted. -Ptolemy Physcon[43], an amiable Egyptian ruler, 146 B. C., who married -his brother’s wife, killed his baby nephew, or step-son on the wedding -day and afterwards married his niece, or step-daughter (for he made the -relationship very mixed) winding up by killing all the progeny as -_finale_, seems to have patronized and enjoyed music, in spite of his -family troubles. - -Ptolemy Auletes, 80 B. C., was known as the “flute lover,” and though -king of Egypt was yet a very skilful virtuoso on this instrument. - -We must not omit here to mention a species of Greek music which was an -outgrowth of the sacred games. - -We have already stated how great the honor of achieving a victory at -these games was considered; and it was very natural that when a whole -city celebrated with joy the triumph of one of its sons, the poets would -also sing in high strains, the praises of the successful hero. These -poems soon became a necessary adjunct to the festivities, and may be -said to form a school of their own. They were chanted by a chorus under -the direction of the composer; and although at first they may have been -spontaneous, yet afterwards they became entirely a matter of purchase. - -When a young man had carried off the victor’s wreath, he would -frequently send word at once to some famous poet-musician, to write a -chorus in his honor. Sometimes the city itself would order the poem, and -in Athens about 540 B. C., statues began to be erected to the victors -who were natives of that city.[44] Simonides, born about 556 B. C., may -be regarded as the founder of this style of composition, and he -certainly was the founder of the custom of receiving pay for laudatory -verses. - -His contemporaries sneered greatly at him for this, and Pindar proves -him to have been very avaricious, but it really seems to have been no -more than just that the poet should have been compensated for his -exertions, as he not only had to write the poetry and music for the -occasion, but also to drill the chorus and lead the singing. - -The ceremony of praise to the victor was either celebrated at the -conclusion of the games, upon the spot, or upon his return home; -sometimes also in after years, to keep alive the remembrance of past -triumphs. - -The festivities were both religious and social. They began with a -procession to the temple, after which sacrifices were offered, either in -the temple, or in the victor’s house; this was followed by a banquet, to -which came the poet with his chorus, and intoned the triumphal ode, the -latter being considered the greatest event of the occasion.[45] - -Simonides seems to have been in the market for all kinds of Epinikia, or -triumphal odes. Leophron of Rhegion, having won a race with mules at one -of these games, ordered a chorus on the subject from the poet; Simonides -felt a little indignant at the proposal and replied, curtly “I don’t -sing about mules,” but Leophron being very anxious in the matter, -offered a large price, upon which Simonides reconsidered his -determination, and wrote the ode. It began by saluting the mules in an -ingenious manner, only noticing one side of their ancestry,—“Hail! oh ye -daughters of the stormy footed horse.” - -Simonides was not wholly, however, in this lower line of poetry; he -often competed in public musical, or poetical contests, and won -fifty-six oxen and tripods by such means. Even at eighty years of age he -added another to his lengthy list of victories. He was also considered -as very learned, and was sometimes reckoned among the philosophers. - -One of his chief competitors at Athens, was Lasus of Hermione, who was a -practical and theoretical musician of some eminence. - -Among the works of Lasus, there are some which are curiously -constructed. In his hymn to Diana, and in the Centaurs, the letter S -(sigma) is entirely avoided. The flute-players who accompanied the -choruses greatly disliked the hissing sound of S. as it did not blend -easily with their playing, and it was this fact which probably led Lasus -to so curious a style of poetry. - -Among the scholars of Lasus was Pindar, (born in the spring of 522 B. -C.,) who came from a noble Theban family. Pindar’s parents were musical, -and there were several flute-players in his family, but he soon became -far more than a mere flute-player. He came to Athens, to study music, at -a very early age, for after his return to Thebes he began a further -course of studies under Corinna and Myrtis, two famous poetesses, then -in Bœotia, all of which was done before his twentieth year. - -He strove in public contests with the two latter, but always -unsuccessfully; Corinna defeated him five times, which result, Pausanius -thinks, may have been partly due to her personal charms. - -Corinna once offered to beautify Pindar’s early efforts with -mythological allusions, but on his bringing her a poem, the first six -verses of which touched on every part of Theban Mythology, she smiled -and said: “One must sow seed by handsfull, not by bagsfull.” - -Pindar’s poetic career began very early, for at twenty years old he -wrote his first Epinikion (triumphal ode), in honor of a youth of the -tribe of Aleuads.[46] His services were soon sought for throughout all -Hellas; for although he imitated Simonides in writing for hire, yet his -muse was unquestionably a nobler one, and his _Epinikia_ bear an air of -heartiness which seems to be unfeigned. His songs were bolder and truer, -and not altogether composed of flattery, and he seems to have been an -eye-witness of many of the triumphs which he describes. - -He also was engaged as poet to Hiero, of Syracuse, Alexander, (son of -Amyntas of Macedonia,) Theron of Agrigentum, Arcesilaus, King of Cyrene, -and for several free states; with the two former he was an especial -favorite, and yet his position never seemed that of a parasite, or a -courtier, for he told them the truth bluntly when occasion demanded. His -life was chiefly spent in the courts of his various royal friends. He -once resided at the court of Hiero, at Syracuse, for the space of four -years. - -He died at the advanced age of eighty years. - -The names of Simonides and Pindar may be considered as the greatest in -this branch of Greek music and poetry; and although the subjects were of -local interest only, yet Pindar has invested them with such beautiful -imagery that he has shown us (to alter the phrase of an ancient,) that -it is better to be a great man in a small art, than a small man in a -great one. - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - GREEK THEATRE AND CHORUS. - - -Among the many institutions which contributed to that polished -civilization which was the glory of ancient Greece, none were higher in -aspirations, or more prolific in results, than the Tragedies and -Comedies which were at certain intervals presented in the Theatre at -Athens. The Athenians were by this agency, brought to a cultivated -discrimination in music and poetry, and as we shall see later, the -choruses being chosen from the body of the people, and demanding an -amount of musical ability in the members, caused the study of music to -become almost a necessity to all.[47] - -In its early days the Drama, (if it be worthy of the name,) must have -been a mere masquerading on any raised platform. It had its origin in -the festivities of Dionysius (Bacchus), for at the earliest Dionysian -festivals, the populace smeared their faces in wine lees, and thus -disguised, sang choruses in honor of this god of mirth. - -In later times, linen masks were substituted, but only in the days of -Thespis, did the art assume some regular shape. - -Comedy may be said to have arisen about 562 B. C., when Susarion and -Dolon travelled around, caricaturing the vices and follies of their -time, from a rude scaffold. - -The first Tragedy was acted in Athens, by Thespis, from a wagon, in the -year 535 B. C. In the same year Thespis received a goat as reward for -playing “Alcestis” at Athens. Goats were frequently given as rewards for -this kind of composition, and the word Tragedy is derived by some, from -the words Tragos, a goat, Odé, a song, literally a “goat-song.” - -The earliest attempt at dramatic action, with a plot, or incident to -give it connection, was the representation of the gift of the grape to -mankind, by Dionysius; this required three _dramatis personae_, -therefore Thespis changed his linen mask three times. - -Solon was not well pleased with the new art; striking his stick upon the -ground he said: “If this sort of thing were allowed and praised, it -would soon be found in the market-place;” and to Thespis who was singing -a recitation in the character which he was acting, he said: “Are you not -ashamed to lie so?” - -Solon had probably forgotten that when he aroused the Athenians to the -reconquest of Salamis, he had assumed the character of a herald from the -island. Solon had predicted right however, the drama became the most -cherished institution of Greece; even in its earliest stages, the state -fostered it, and it always attracted the peons for it was both a -religious, and popular enjoyment. - -The sons of Pisistratus did much in these days to encourage and -stimulate it. They arranged contests, rewards, etc., with profusion. - -The tragedies of Thespis which he both wrote and acted himself, had but -one performer, who, rapidly changing his mask, assumed various different -characters in the play. The monotony was soon felt, and in order that -dialogues might be used, a chorus was introduced, and then much of the -action consisted of duets between the solitary performer, or -_protagonist_, and the chorus. - -Phrynicus, a few years later, allowed this single actor to take both -male and female characters; but the first thorough representation of -tragedy, with its properties carefully attended to, is due to the great -tragic poet Æschylus, who instructed the actor and the chorus carefully, -and gave attention to thoroughness in its every department so far as -then known. - -The platform and auditorium were still uncouth wooden structures, until -a poetical contest took place between Phrynicus and others, when the -benches were so crowded that the whole structure gave way and many were -injured; after this the theatres were built of stone. - -The performances were still regarded as belonging to religious rites; -the seats were at first built in a semi-circle around the altar of -Dionysius, and the theatre never became, as with us, an every-day -matter, but was only used at certain Dionysian festivals, which occurred -about three times each year. Æschylus aimed very much at the terrible in -his tragedies, and the poets of this era never sought to “hold the -mirror up to nature,” but rather to represent something awe-inspiring -and supernatural; therefore the actors had to prepare themselves in many -peculiar ways for the stage. - -The characters of tragedy were represented as much larger than human -beings; to effect this the tragedian wore a kind of stilt-shoes with -very high heels, called _cothurne_, padded out his body in proportion to -his height, lengthened his arms by adding an artificial hand, and wore a -mask of large size, over his face. The stage upon which he appeared, was -also elevated above that on which the chorus stood, and the latter not -being artificially enlarged, must have appeared as pigmies, beside these -gigantic heroes. - -The voice was pitched in a style corresponding to the magnitude of the -body; it has been suggested[48] that the large tragic mask may have -concealed some contrivance for strengthening the voice; however this may -be, it is certain that the voice of the tragedian needed to be metallic, -solemn and majestic, and that this, though partly a natural gift, had to -be strengthened by long and severe practice, and a vast amount of -physical strength was also required to move about naturally when so -extremely bundled up. - -Lucian in his “_De saltatione_,” ridicules the tragic actor’s equipment. -He says: “What a ridiculous thing it is, to see a fellow stalking around -upon a pair of high heeled boots, with a terrible mask on, and a wide -gaping mouth, as if he intended to swallow the audience,[49] not to -mention the unseemly thickness of breast and body, all of which is done -to hide the disproportion between his extravagant height, and his meagre -body. Bawling aloud, and writhing his body in a thousand odd gestures;” -and then he alludes to the better singing and acting of previous time, -“but all sense of fitness is lost,” he concludes, “when Hercules enters -singing a mournful ditty, without either lion’s skin or club.” - -With regard to the immovable mask, Ottfried Müller supposes that the -picture is overdrawn, for facial expression had far less to do with the -action of the drama of that day than we imagine; the character had not -so many changing emotions to depict, as in modern plays; he says[50] “we -can imagine an Orestes, or a Medea, with a set countenance, but never a -Hamlet or Tasso.” - -We must also remember that the vast extent of the Athenian Theatre, made -it next to impossible to distinguish much play of feature, and that the -same masks were not worn throughout the play, but changed at any great -change of emotion. Oedipus in the tragedy by Sophocles, after -misfortunes came upon him, wore a different mask from the one worn in -his days of prosperity. - -The first plays represented were relative to the history of the gods, -and demi-gods, but Phrynicus made a bold innovation by representing -contemporaneous events upon the stage. He once ventured to represent the -conquest of Miletus, from the Athenians; the effect, according to -Herodotus, was startling, the whole audience burst into tears, and the -Athenian government forbade any further plays on that subject, -prohibited the piece from ever being represented again, and fined the -poet heavily. - -The contests between rival writers, by simultaneous production of their -pieces was a fruitful source of jealousy. Æchylus upon being vanquished -in one of these by Sophocles, took his defeat so much to heart, that he -left Athens for some years, and took up his residence in Sicily. - -In the plays of Thespis and Phrynicus, one actor only was employed; -Æchylus enriched his works by adding a second performer, called the -_Deuteragonist_. Sophocles went beyond by adding the third, or -_Tritagonist_, and desired even more, for in his Oedipus in Colonus, he -found that four players were a necessity, and wrote the tragedy for that -number, but dared not publicly make the innovation, and therefore this -great work remained unperformed until after his death. - -The above mentioned three performers, had their distinct lines of duty, -as we to-day have upon the stage, actors for each kind of character, but -the distinction was carried to great height on the ancient stage, for -the first actor always came on the stage from the right entrance, the -second from the left, and the third from the centre. - -The stage of the Athenian theatre was very wide but not deep, and the -scenery was very simple; sometimes the house of the chief character was -represented, sometimes the tent of a hero, but oftenest the entrance of -a palace, before which the entire action of some dramas could take -place. They were always exterior views, and no scenes of the interior -parts of a dwelling were ever used. The whole active life of the Greek -was passed in the open air, so that it seemed more natural to him to -represent his characters as living similarly. The female characters were -often personated by boys. - -There were many expedients to make the following of the action of the -play easier to the spectators, in such a vast space; programmes they had -not, opera glasses did not exist, so certain formulae took the place of -both; when standing on the stage of the Athenian theatre, and facing the -audience, the harbor and city of Athens were on the left hand, and -Attica on the right; a person entering from the right hand, was -therefore presumed to be a stranger who had come over land; and from the -left as coming from the city. - -The stage also possessed some mechanical effects, such as chariots -descending from the skies, birds or even immense beetles soaring aloft -carrying persons with them, forms arising from the deep, thunder, -lightning, etc. The chorus was an immense help to the audience in -following the events of the piece, and we must now describe this -characteristic part of Greek tragedy. - -The dramatic chorus probably appeared first as Satyrs, the natural -attendants of the jolly god Dionysius, in the plays of Thespis, and were -then numerous and ill disciplined. - -Æchylus lessened the part of the chorus in his tragedies, and they no -longer sang an unceasing duet with the Protagonist, for the addition of -a second actor, made dialogues possible without their assistance. - -The number of _Choryeutes_ (chorus players) in Æchylus’s tragedies was -twelve; Sophocles, and Euripides had usually fifteen. - -In the tragedy of the “Eumenides” there was a special chorus of fifty -members; these were apparelled as the hideous furies of that name, all -in black, with angry countenances, snakes twining in their hair, and -blood dripping from their eyes; and suddenly these frightful apparitions -appeared on the stage: the effect was terrible, women shrieked, and fell -in convulsions, and several children died of fright. This event proves -that the stage effects were rather realistic in those days. - -The chorus was felt as an inconvenience by Euripides, who yet could not -break the shackles of custom sufficiently to do away with it. - -The arrangement of the chorus was changed when it was transplanted from -lyric to dramatic use. The dithyrambic chorus stood around an altar -singing hymns, and was wholly occupied with its music: the dramatic -chorus stood in the shape of a square, the director taking good care to -place the best dressed and handsomest choryeutes in front. - -The songs were accompanied with well regulated movements, usually of a -stately and dignified character, such as befitted the characters which -they were representing, the parts which they performed usually being -those of Matrons or Patriarchs, who were best suited to give counsel, -comfort, or admonition to the acting characters of the drama. - -The formation of choruses, was a matter of legislation. The archon of -the city, gave the task of forming the choruses, to some of the wealthy -citizens, who had the title of _Choregus_. This person was not the -chorus leader, but the founder of it. He had authority from the archon -to receive and select able singers; when he had the organization formed, -he engaged a _choryphaeus_ or director, to instruct the members in -singing and dancing; he engaged flute-players[51] to accompany them, and -paid a regular salary to them all, that of the flute-players being -higher than that of the singers. He had to board and lodge them; to -supply them with good beverages during rehearsals; to see that they -received nutritious food, and such as was good for their voices; to -supply them with masks, and costumes for their parts, and other duties -all tending to the well being of the chorus. The choregus received no -pay for this, but if in a dramatic contest his chorus was adjudged to be -the best, he received a wreath as a reward. - -Expensive as this honor was, yet it was sought after by all the richer -class of Athens, as it was an ostentatious manner of showing their -munificence, for the tragic choruses vied with each other in the -splendor of their attire, their costumes being superb mantles of gold, -and purple. So costly was it that the saying became a well known jest, -that the way to ruin a man, was to get him appointed choregus. - -The costume of the actors was also rich, without much reference to the -part they were playing. Hercules came on the stage in purple and gold -instead of with a lion’s skin. - -The poet who had just completed a tragedy, and succeeded in obtaining a -hearing for it, applied to the Archon for a chorus; that functionary, if -he had confidence in the applicant, would assign him one of the choruses -which had already been formed and on receiving the permission from the -_choregus_, the composer would set to work, drilling them in their -various songs, attitudes, and movements. The director did not use a -stick for this purpose, as in modern days, but beat the time with a -heavy pair of iron shoes which he put on for the purpose.[52] The chorus -of comedy was a less expensive and smaller affair. The music which it -sang was also less difficult and grand. - -The comedy chorus consisted of twenty-four members, who came on the -stage in detachments of six each. - -The comedy costumes of both actors and chorus were something like what -we are accustomed to see in farce or pantomime; there was something -comical and exaggerated about them, which occasioned mirth of itself. -The masks were decidedly comic, and usually caricatured the countenance -of some public person well known to the audience. The comedy, especially -in the older days that of Aristophanes sought to teach the people by -holding up to ridicule, all such persons or measures as seemed to the -poet worthy of censure; therefore it dealt almost exclusively with the -events of the day, and such characters as Alcibiades, Socrates, Cleon, -etc., are constantly appearing, and in the most mirth-provoking manner. - -It is a matter of regret, however, that Aristophanes wielded so much -influence, for he brought it to bear against Socrates, whom he was -narrow-minded enough to take as the representative of Sophistry, and -raised a popular feeling against him by his comedy of “The Clouds,” in -which he attributed the most interested motives to that grand -philosopher. - -It is unfortunate for Cleon that the caricature of Aristophanes was -accepted as a portrait, and he has come down to us only as the noisy -impudent demagogue, as portrayed in “The Knights;” yet Cleon must have -been a rough and sturdy leader of the populace, to have attained so much -power.[53] - -Aristophanes was aristocratic in his tendencies, and could not forgive -the tanner, for having risen from his humble sphere. - -It required much courage however to attack the leader of the democracy, -with such boldness. Even the mask makers refused to make the comic mask -of Cleon; and when the mask was obtained no actor dared to play the -character, so that Aristophanes was obliged to act it himself. Cleon -embroiled Aristophanes in three lawsuits in consequence of his audacity. - -The choruses of these comedies had sometimes to assume very odd parts, -as in the two comedies of the “Birds,” and the “Wasps,” where they -represented those creatures. The masks were made to correspond to the -character assumed, and in “The Wasps” each man had a short spear or -sting, which they sometimes thrust out, or drew in, and the whole chorus -would sometimes move about quickly with a buzzing noise. The wasps were -a satire upon the swarm of Athenian magistrates.[54] - -One is forcibly reminded in these plays of the recent inventions of the -French _Opera Bouffe_. - -In the later comedies, private intrigues began to form the plot, and -there was no great difference between these and the plays of modern -times. - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - THE DANCES OF ANCIENT GREECE. - - -The dances of Greece were of considerable variety, and seem to have been -both refined and coarse in their character. The earliest were probable -merely military manœuvres, which were performed to songs, or to -accompaniment of flute or kithara: or festival dances at the -Bacchanalian or Dionysian revels. The chief dances may be classed as the -Pyrrhic, the Cordax, and the Emmeleia. - -The chorus itself, in very early times, was, in some parts of Greece -only used to heighten the effect of a solo song, by its pantomimic -dancing. - -In Crete, youths and maidens joined hands and danced in a circle; in the -centre of such a circle sat the musician, who sang to the accompaniment -of a kithara, while the chorus expressed by their actions, _not by -singing_, the various emotions which he chanted. - -The Pyrrhic, or war dance, was the pride of all Greece, and all young -men studied it. - -In Sparta there was a law that all parents should send their sons, above -the age of five years, to the public place, to have them instructed in -the armed dance; on these occasions they were led by the teachers who -made them sing hymns, etc., as they danced. The Pyrrhic was in fact, a -mock battle, in four parts, representing the pursuit, overtaking, -combat, and capture of the enemy, and was used as drill, to make young -men proficient in the use of their weapons; it was accompanied by flute, -which instrument was the one which the Greeks thought aroused the -energies most. - -The origin of the Pyrrhic is given as follows,—When Zeus, (Jupiter) was -born, his father Kronos, (Saturn) knowing that he should be dethroned by -him sought his life; he was hidden by the Corybantes, who on Kronos’ -coming near, fearing that the child would be discovered by its crying, -began to dance about, and clashed their swords and shields, thus -drowning its voice and saving its life. - -Dancing was equal, and often combined, with singing, and was held in the -highest estimation by the upper classes, and even the philosophers of -ancient Greece; though of course only in its higher branches, the lower -being usually abandoned to paid performers, as we to-day draw a wide -distinction between a fashionable ball-room dance, and a ballet, though -both are called dancing. - -Skill in dancing, was a most envied accomplishment, for it meant both -grace, and the talent of expressing all emotions without words. - -Lucian[55] says the real art of the dance is to express an action, and -gives a long list of mythological and historical deeds which were suited -to representation. “The dancer” he says “must understand history, -mythology, rhetoric,” etc. - -One person performed the whole dance, no matter how many characters were -included in the action, and therefore he had to change his dress -sometimes with much rapidity. The Proteus of the fables, is imagined to -have been only a dancer skilled in sudden changes. - -The philosophers not only praised, but practised the art. Plato led a -chorus of dancing boys; and considered those to be rough, uncouth churls -who disliked so pleasant a gift of the gods.[56] - -Alcibiades danced in public, arrayed in great splendor. Sophocles was a -celebrated dancer, and leader of dancing; while yet a boy, after the -Greek victory at Salamis, he is said to have danced (according to some, -naked) before the trophies. - -Socrates often entertained his guests with dancing, and studied it -himself at an advanced age.[57] - -Exact information respecting the dance is lacking, some commentators -deeming it to have been very like our modern ballet, others maintaining -that there was a vast difference; Czerwinski and Wieland hold the former -opinion, and to all appearance justly. Some erudite writers have -endeavored to give the most circumstantial accounts of the ancient -manner of dancing. - -Meibomius, one of the earliest writers on this subject, endeavored to -dance an ancient Greek dance to an ancient Greek tune, before the court -of Sweden, and Scaliger in the sixteenth century danced the Pyrrhic -dance fully armed, before the Emperor Maximilian;[58] both assumed far -too much knowledge in the matter. - -There were undoubtedly numerous dancing schools, and possibly also some -set figures prescribed in certain dances, but these figures had no names -attached to them, and cannot be determined with certainty. The time was -marked as in chorus, by a leader, tapping on the floor with heavy iron -shoes. There are indications that a dance similar to the Virginia reel, -and other contra dances were known to them; also a dance which resembled -the game of “follow-my-leader,” where all imitated the postures and -gestures of a leader. - -Many variations were allowed; Cleisthenes having promised the hand of -his daughter to the most successful dancer among her lovers, -Hippoclides, of Athens, tried an innovation on the usual style; having -danced the Emmeleia, or tragic dance successfully, he ordered the -attendants to bring him a table, upon which he sprang, and standing on -his head gesticulated with _his legs_. Cleisthenes indignant at this new -departure, exclaimed “Oh son of Tisander you have undanced your -marriage;” Cleisthenes caring more for his skill than for his marriage, -replied “that is perfectly immaterial to me.” - -The Emmeleia, was the stately dance belonging to tragedy, and was the -one most practised by the poets of that time, as they were often obliged -to teach it to the chorus, thus adding the business of dancing master, -to their already numerous duties. - -The Sicinis was a dance of demi-gods, and was suited to the immense -figure of the heroes of tragedy, already described. There was also a -dance representing Theseus wandering about in the labyrinth, the figures -of which must have been very twisted and irregular. - -There was a species of dancing at banquets and revels, by paid female -performers, at which the shape and form of the dancer were as lavishly -displayed as in the modern ballet.[59] - -The Cordax, or comic dance was throughout vulgar and unseemly, and no -Athenian could dance it unmasked, without bringing down upon himself the -reproach of the greatest impudence and immodesty. It was so outrageous -that the comic poets often tried to do without it. Aristophanes, in “The -Clouds” prides himself that he does not use it in that comedy. The -_cordax_ was a dance wherein the utmost vulgarity was not only allowed -but _demanded_.[60] - -Lucian in his treatise “_de Saltatione_” intimates the existence of -various other dances which in his day had fallen into desuetude, as the -dance of the _Cranes_; also the Phrygian dance, which was only to be -danced when the performers were drunk, and jumped about, with uncouth -irregular leaps to the music of the flute. - -Lucian also gives a specimen of the raillery of the people, when the -dancer was not suited to the part; when a small person undertook to act -Hector, they would call out, “we want Hector, not Astyanax.” To a fat -dancer, on making a leap they called “be careful, you’ll break the -stage;” and to a lean, sickly looking dancer they cried “go home, and -nurse yourself, never mind dancing.” Such little remarks are not -unsuited to the _gamins_ of the New York or London theatres. - -We have dwelt rather long upon Greek Music, Theatre Chorus, and Dancing, -but the subject has more than usual interest, as in the Greek art, of -all descriptions, we find the seeds from whence has sprung our own. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII. - ANCIENT ROMAN MUSIC. - - -Art-love was not a distinguishing characteristic of the ancient Romans, -and we are not astonished therefore, to find them borrowing music from -Etruria, Greece, and Egypt; originating nothing, and (although the study -was pursued by the Emperors) never finding anything higher in its -practice than a sensuous gratification. - -In the earliest days of Rome, the inhabitants were exclusively farmers, -or warriors, and their first temples were raised to Ceres, or to Mars. - -The priests of Ceres came originally from Asia Minor, and were called -the Arval Brotherhood; flute-playing was a prominent feature in their -rites, and they were all proficient upon that instrument. Their number -was limited to twelve. - -The worship of Mars was conducted by the Salian priests, whom Numa -summoned to Rome, from Etruria. These also used the flute as an -accessory to their sacrificial rites. In these primitive days of Rome, -much was borrowed from the Etruscans, in style and instruments of music. - -The earliest songs of Rome were in praise of Romulus, and told the story -of the twin brothers, and the divine origin of the city. They were sung -by choruses of boys. Similar songs were sung during meals by the elders, -with an accompaniment of flutes; these latter songs being especially -directed to the young men and inciting them to be worthy of the deeds of -their ancestors.[61] - -Under the rule of the Emperors, all these worthy compositions went to -decay, and were replaced by a much more degrading school of music. At no -time, however, was music considered a necessary part of the education of -Roman youth. - -There existed in the later days of ancient Rome, some music schools, but -the study was far less universally pursued, than in Greece, at the same -epoch. The musical course, has been given by Quintilian, as follows,— - - Theoretical - 1st - Arithmetic - Physics - 2nd - Harmony - Rhythm - Metrics - Practical - Composition - Rhythm - Melody - Poetry - Execution - Playing Instruments - Singing - Dramatic Action - -Which makes a rather formidable array, even to modern eyes. - -Among the Roman musical instruments, the flute was the most popular, and -essentially national. We have already stated, that it was used in the -worship of their two chief deities; it was in secular use to a yet -greater extent. - -This flute (Tibia) was hooped with brass bands, and had an immense -resonance. It was used by both sexes, but in public, and on most -religious occasions, was played by men. - -The frequency with which it was used, made the art of playing it, a most -remunerative one, and the flute-players soon formed themselves into a -guild, or protective society. This guild had many privileges accorded to -it, and existed for a period of some centuries. The “Guild of Dionysian -Artists” was a society of later date, and was a Musical Conservatory, -Academy, and Agency all in one. It flourished greatly under the -patronage of various Roman Emperors, and for a long time supplied -singers and actors to the Roman world. - -Valerius Maximus[62] has given an anecdote which shows how powerful, and -exacting the Guild of flute-players could afford to be. - -They were one day excluded from the Temple of Jupiter, where they had -been allowed, by ancient custom, to take their meals; upon which the -entire Guild left Rome, and went to the village of Tibur near by. This -caused great embarrassment, no religious services could be held, and -scarce any state ceremony properly conducted. The senate thereupon sent -an embassy to induce them to return; in vain, the angry musicians were -inflexible. The wily embassadors then called the inhabitants of Tibur to -their aid, and these pretended to give a great feast, to welcome the -flute-players. At this feast, the musicians were all made very drunk, -and while asleep from the effects of their liquor, they were bundled -into chariots and driven back to Rome, where all their old privileges -were restored, and newer, and greater ones added. - -They received the right to give public representations, and spectacles, -in Rome; but at these they were always masked, the reason given, being -their shame at the manner of their inglorious return to the city. - -Flutes were used at funerals, and it appears that at one time the luxury -and pomp of Roman obsequies grew so excessive that a law was passed -limiting the number of flute-players on such occasions to ten. - -Only at one time did the flute disappear from any public worship, and -that was when the worship of Bacchus was introduced into Rome. To this -rite the kithara was used; but this worship which was somewhat refined, -though jovial, among the Greeks, became among the Romans so debauched -and uxorious, that it was soon prohibited by law. - -The flute was used in combination with other instruments at times. -Apuleius speaks of a concert of flutes, kitharas and chorus, and -mentioned its deliciously sweet effect. It was also used as a pitch -pipe, to give orators a guide in modulating their voices when addressing -an assembly; thus Caius Gracchus always on such occasions, had a slave -behind him, whose duty it was to aid him to commence his orations in a -proper pitch, and when his voice sank too low, or became too shrill, to -call him to better intonation by the sounds of the flute. - -Although the flute was the favorite Roman instrument, it was by no means -the only one. Trumpets were used to a great extent. A one-toned trumpet -of very loud voice, was used for battle signals. These were of very -large size, usually of brass, and their sound is described as -“terrible.” There was also a smaller, shepherd’s trumpet of mellower -tone. - -Another much used instrument, of peculiar character, was the -_sumphonium_ which did not differ materially from the modern -bag-pipe.[63] - -Instruments of percussion, were few, and not indigenous to the Romans; -such as were used came from the East, and were chiefly used in the -worship of Eastern deities, at Rome. When the worship of Bacchus was -prohibited, they passed away, with that licentious rite. The most -complicated instrument of the ancient world, appeared in Rome during the -first century of our era. It was an _Organ_, not as in the scriptural -days a mere syrinx, or Pans-pipes, but an undoubted organ somewhat -similar in its effect to our modern instrument. - -The instrument is said to have been invented by Ctesebius of Alexandria, -in Egypt, who lived about 250 B. C. They did not appear extensively in -Rome however, until nearly 300 years later. This organ has given rise to -much fruitless discussion. In the field of musical history especially, -“a little knowledge” has proved “a dangerous thing,” for where slight -descriptions exist of instruments or music, latitude is left for every -writer to form his own theory, to fight for it, and denunciate those who -differ from it. - -We have seen what a battle was fought over the three little manuscripts -of Greek music, what a host of differing opinions were held about the -Scriptural word “Selah,” and now about this hydraulic organ, each writer -mounts his hobby horse, and careers over the field of conjecture. -Vitruvius, has given a full description of the instrument from personal -inspection, but as his technical terms have lost all significance to -modern readers, and have been translated in various ways, and as his -work contained no diagrams, or illustrations of the various parts, it is -useless. - -Some writers[64] imagine the organ to have had seven or eight stops, -that is, so many different _kinds_ of tones, which would place them -nearly on a par with our own. Others[65] think that they possessed seven -or eight _keys_, that is so many _tones_ only. It has been a point of -dispute as to what function the water performed in working it. Vitruvius -is rather hazy on this point, saying only that it is “suspended” in the -instrument. The water, when the organ was played was in a state of -agitation, as if boiling. - -There are medals still in existence, which were awarded to victors in -organ contests, on which this instrument is represented, with two boys -blowing or pumping, but the representation is too small to clear up any -doubtful points. - -So much is certain, the organs were very powerful in tone, being -therefore the instruments best adapted to the large amphitheatres of -Rome, and were extremely popular, for it was complained that young men -forsook their other studies to learn to play them. The only possibility -yet remaining that their construction may be known to us, is in the -chance of discovering one in Pompeii.[66] - -The functions of music in Rome were similar, though in a less degree, to -its uses in Greece. At the sacrifice, the banquet, the contest, and the -theatre, music was always an important adjunct. Prophets sometimes -inspired themselves by it, as in the east. - -There were various games, public and private, at which competition in -music took place. But it was not, as in Greece, an art of simplicity and -feeling; the love of the extraordinary, the colossal and _outre_, the -desire for the most vulgar modes and excess of obscenity, soon degraded -the art from the rude simplicity it possessed in the days of the -republic.[67] - -This desire for colossal effects was apparent in the Roman games. Seneca -says that in Nero’s time, the chorus was more numerous than formerly the -whole audience. Hosts of trumpeters, flute-players, etc., crowded the -stage. It is also well illustrated in the splendor of the Triumph. - -Triumphs were of two kinds, the lesser of which was called _Ovatio_, and -was decreed for unimportant or easily-gained victories. - -The grand Triumph (for important victories) was the highest military -honor that could be bestowed. - -When it had been decreed by the Senate, the victorious General entered -Rome by the triumphal gate, where he was met by a procession of the -entire Senate; here he gave an oration in praise of the valor of his -army, and entering his triumphal chariot, the procession began. The -order was as follows:— - -Musicians, singing and playing. These were chiefly trumpeters, and the -singers chanted triumphal songs. - -The Senate and Magistrates. - -The animals for the sacrifice, usually oxen, with their horns gilt, and -decked with garlands, accompanied by the priests. - -Music, flute players, to assist at the sacrificial rites. - -Wagons, filled with statues, plate, armor, ensigns, etc., the spoil -captured from the enemy. - -The tribute from various countries, usually golden crowns, or ornaments -sent to grace the occasion. - -The captive leaders, kings, or generals, with their wives, in chains. - -Lictors with the fasces twined with laurel. - -Musicians and dancers dressed as Satyrs, crowned with gold. In the midst -of these was a mimic, dressed as a female, who by his performance and -gestures, insulted and burlesqued the captives. - -Persons sprinkling perfumes. - -The victorious general, dressed in purple and gold, crowned with laurel; -he was seated in a circular chariot, drawn by four white horses. In his -right hand he held a branch of laurel, in his left an ivory sceptre, -surmounted by an eagle. His face was painted of a vermilion color, and a -golden _bulla_ hung from his neck. - -Sometimes the chariot was drawn by elephants. - -The children of the victor were allowed to ride with him, and he was -attended by many relatives and citizens dressed in white. Behind him -stood a slave carrying a richly gemmed crown, whose duty it was to -admonish him constantly during the triumph, by whispering in his ear, -“Remember that thou art a man.” - -The Military Tribunes followed, and the procession closed with,— - -The whole army, horse and foot, crowned with laurel, and carrying -various ornaments which they had won in the war. - -They sang as they marched, the praises of their general, and of their -own bravery; but sometimes (for it was a day of license and carnival) -they sang the coarsest ribaldry and jokes concerning their leader; thus -the army of Julius Cæsar, sang some very personal and vulgar verses -about him, at his triumph. - -The procession moved from the _Porta Triumphalis_, along the _Via Sacra_ -to the capitol. - -All the shops were closed, the temples all open. The buildings along the -route were decorated. Stands and scaffoldings were erected for the -convenience of spectators. Banquets were spread before every house, to -which all comers were welcome. It was in short a perfect carnival, but -far exceeding in its proportions that of modern Rome. - -When the procession arrived at the Temple of Jupiter at the Capitol, -several of the captive leaders were taken from the ranks, and put to -death, for ancient Rome was cruel even in her rejoicings; the oxen were -also sacrificed, and the wreaths, with which their horns were decorated, -were thrown into the lap of Jupiter’s statue. - -In the evening there was a grand banquet to the victorious General -(Imperator), after which he was escorted to his home with music and -song. - -Nothing better illustrates the cruel, coarse, and sensual character of -Roman music than that employed at such a triumph. Loud trumpet tones, a -vile and ungenerous musical pantomime, the sacrificial music, and rude -impromptu songs of the soldiery were the chief musical accessories of -the greatest popular festival. - - - - - CHAPTER IX. - MUSIC OF THE ROMAN THEATRE. - - -In Rome as in ancient Greece there was a school of music, which was -devoted to the stage; but it was not held in such high esteem, nor was -it the work of the poet to supply it. - -In the French _operas bouffes_ of our day we find the libretto and music -to be the work of different persons, and in this respect the Roman -comedies resembled them, save that while we rank the music above the -text, the Romans valued the words far more than the music; but in other -respects there was also much resemblance between the Roman tragedies and -modern _Opera Seria_. They divided the music into parts, such as -dialogues or duets, solos, and choruses. - -Cicero says that a connoisseur could instantly determine by the style of -the music alone, what tragedy was being performed; this would indicate -an amount of tone-painting, which justifies our comparison of the Roman -with the modern stage. - -The theatres were, as usual, of immense size. The Emperor Trajan built -an Odeum, or music hall, of which Apollodorus was the architect, which -was capable of seating twelve thousand spectators. These structures were -usually built of stone, and in the most thorough manner; there is -however one notable exception to the rule. In the reign of Tiberius an -amphitheatre erected by Atilius at Fidenæ, fell in during a gladiatorial -contest, and twenty thousand persons lost their lives.[68] - -The music of the stage, tended rather to virtuosity than to real beauty, -the natural result being, that while Rome possessed many skillful -performers, she had no musical composers of eminence.[69] The names of -the composers of music to the comedies of Terence and Plautus are still -extant, but they seem to have enjoyed no special renown. - -Quintilian speaks of the weak and womanish music of the stage, and -Martial in satirizing the Gaditanian female singers which were so much -sought for in the later days of ancient Rome, says, that it was the -surest sign of a fashionable dandy, to hear a young man trilling out the -latest Gaditanian ditties. - -Many of the theatrical performers and singers were slaves, who were -bought for the purpose, and the most stringent and cruel measures were -taken to prevent them from ruining their voices by any kind of -debauchery. Theatrical factions also existed for this or that singer, in -which at times many lives were lost.[70] Laws were afterwards enacted, -to guard against such riots. - -Another and less tolerable branch of Roman public musical diversion was -the dance, which although most skillfully performed by talented -pantomimists, was so indecent in its general character, and choice of -subjects, that it received strong condemnation from many writers of that -day. - -Many anecdotes remain, showing how well acted this art must have been. - -Demetrius, the cynic (in the reign of Nero) having reproached a dancer, -that his art was but an adjunct to music, the performer caused the -musical accompanists to cease playing, and enacted the subject of Mars -and Venus without music, and in such a manner that Demetrius was obliged -to retract, and said, “Even your hands seem to speak.”[71] - -The professional dancers, or musical pantomimists, were most appreciated -under the luxurious reign of the Cæsars. A prince of Pontus once came to -the court of Nero, where he was royally entertained; as he did not -understand the Latin language, he could not appreciate theatrical -representations, but a celebrated dancer appearing, he was able to -understand his actions from beginning to end. On his departure, when -Nero had given him presents, he said “If instead, you would give me this -dancer, it would be the greatest favor of all;” on being asked the -reason, he replied that he had many barbarian neighbors, whose language -he did not understand, and that such an unfailing interpreter would be -of incalculable value to him.[72] - -We can learn how much these performers entered into their acting by the -following anecdote. A dancer once acting the part of Ajax, in a double -character dance, became so frenzied, that he tore the clothes off from -the time-beater, (or conductor of music) seized the flute of the -accompanist and broke it over the head of Ulysses. The better class of -spectators condemned such a novel exhibition, but the lower orders -applauded vociferously. The performer afterwards became calm again, but, -on being desired to repeat the performance, he replied that it was -sufficient for a man to make a fool of himself _once_.[73] - -The dance in Rome was esteemed only as an amusement and sensual -enjoyment, and was not studied by the respectable classes, save -sometimes in connection with singing, in which case it was not driven to -such excess as the pantomime dance described above; but neither song, -instruments, or dance were studied to any large extent among the masses -of the Roman people. - - - - - CHAPTER X. - MUSIC OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. - - -Under the luxurious reign of the Cæsars, music attained unusual -prominence in Rome, but it was still the music of virtuosity, rather -than true art. Skillful performers multiplied, while talented composers -did not exist. The choruses were augmented to the utmost, their numbers -exceeding all previous extent.[74] New instruments began also to appear, -the sumphonia, the hydraulic organ, and others. The study of music began -to be fashionable (in some at least of its branches) and the emperors -themselves did not disdain to practise the art. It is a singular fact, -however, that exactly those emperors who were the greatest rascals, took -the greatest interest in music. Domitian founded games in honor of -Jupiter, in which he introduced Kithara playing and other musical -contests to amuse the populace. Heliogabalus sang, danced, played the -flute, organ, and pandura, and was proficient in giving musical -recitations with flute accompaniment. Caligula studied singing and -dancing, and was so fond of the former, that when at the theatre, he -could scarcely ever refrain from following the melodies which the -tragedians sang, by humming along with them. It is related of him,[75] -that during the height of his power and tyranny, he sent, one night, a -summons to three men of consular rank, to attend him at once at his -palace; in fear and terror, the three hastened to obey, scarcely -doubting that the night was to be their last on earth; on arriving, they -were most agreeably surprised to hear the sound of flutes, and the -emperor himself suddenly burst out before them, arrayed in full -theatrical costume, and sang them a song, after which he bowed and -retired, upon which they were dismissed, and returned to their anxious -families; we can imagine that, under the circumstances, Caligula -received very hearty applause that night. - -Vespasian established musical games, and gave large sums to actors and -singers.[76] - -Titus was a good singer and player. - -In the later days of paganism, when the music of the Christian church -had already manifested its power and superiority, the Emperor Julian -endeavored to bolster up the religion of the ancestors, and fight the -church with one of its own weapons. He therefore sought to make an -extensive reform in the religious and sacrificial music. He endeavored -to form music schools at Alexandria, in Egypt, where a new school of -singing and composition might be inculcated, and whence Rome might draw -the material for a better religious music than had formerly obtained. In -one of his letters, he says: “I deem no study more worthy of attention -than good music. I desire that you select from among the population of -Alexandria certain well born lads, who shall be supplied each with two -Egyptian artabai per month, besides rations of corn, wine and oil, and -be provided also with clothes by the comptroller of the treasury. The -boys are to be chosen for a definite time according to their voice. -Should any give promise of further abilities to reach a high degree in -the science of music, let them be informed that we propose to offer to -such, very substantial rewards. That the minds of these lads will, -independently of our encouragement, be benefited by that cleansing power -which perfect music exerts, we may rest assured on the authority of -those who in past times have laid down excellent regulations on the -subject. So much for the new choristers. As for those now under the -instruction of the music master Dioscurus, make them act here all the -more diligently to their practice. Since we are prepared to assist them -in whatever way they may choose.”[77] - -This beautiful scheme was frustrated by the death of its great -originator, about two years afterward. - -But among all the Roman Emperors, none was a more passionate virtuoso, -and devotee of skillful music than that incomprehensible monster, Nero. -We shall enter into considerable detail regarding this curious emperor, -as he may stand as a type (although an exaggerated one) of the soulless -and sensual musical _virtuosi_ of his era. In giving his history (so far -as it relates to music) we follow mainly the version of Suetonius. - -He studied music in his early youth, and first appeared publicly in the -games of the Roman youth, entitled the _Juvenalia_;[78] here he seems to -have made no remarkable impression, either by his voice or dramatic -action. Immediately on his accession to the throne, he sent for the -famous harper Terpnus, and took the greatest pleasure in his -performances; it was his habit to sit with him after supper till late -into the night. At last he began to practice upon the instrument -himself; and at the same time he began to apply himself assiduously to -the cultivation of his voice, although it is the testimony of all his -historians, that his voice was rather thin and husky. - -The care he lavished upon the preservation of his voice, far out-does -that of any modern _prima donna_; he would lie on his back during part -of each day, with a sheet of lead on his stomach, or chest; he used -emetics and clysters copiously when it seemed at all out of order; his -food was always regulated with reference to its effect upon his voice, -and he forbore from eating many fruits and pickles, because they were -prejudicial to it. - -He never delivered any addresses to his army because he feared that he -might thereby strain it; all his speeches to the soldiers were delivered -by proxy, even though he were present. On all occasions, he had his -voice-master by him, to caution him whenever he should be in danger of -over-straining, and this instructor was ordered, if the warning should -by any cause be unheeded, to clap a napkin upon his mouth by way of -enforcing his advice. Through the whole reign of this emperor however, -there was never less misery than while he was applying himself to his -musical education, or was upon his musical tours. - -Encouraged by the improvement (real or imagined) in his voice, he became -desirous of appearing upon the public stage. The unjust valuation which -he placed upon the art, being apparent by his remark that “music -unheard, was valueless and unregarded.” - -His first public appearance took place at Naples, A. D. 63; while -singing, the theatre was shaken by an earthquake, but Nero was not to be -checked, even by the elements, and sang to the end of his song.[79] -After the theatre had been vacated, it fell in; and Nero composed -lengthy hymns to the gods for his escape.[80] - -On his return to Rome he was desirous of showing his skill in that -metropolis; at first he only sang to select audiences of friends at his -own palace, but infatuated with the applause of this flattering circle, -he was only too glad to follow their suggestion that such a fine voice -should not be hidden. - -He instituted games in his own honor, entitled the _Neronia_, which were -celebrated in imitation of the Greek sacred games, every fifth year; at -these games he had introduced contests of flute and organ-players; he -was too impatient to wait until the allotted interval should have -expired, but ordered that the games should be celebrated in advance of -their accustomed time, and placed his name on the list of musical -competitors;[81] the Senate sought to avert such a disgrace, by offering -to decree the victory to him, without requiring him to compete, but Nero -answered, that he stood in no need of favor or protection; that he -depended entirely upon himself and upon his own merits; that he would -fairly enter the lists, and that the decision should come from the -judges.[82] When his name was called, he came on in his regular turn, -attended by a suite of high military officials, one of whom bore his -harp. After taking his place he announced that he would sing the story -of Niobe; this he did, and kept it up for hours, but at the conclusion -he (suddenly changing from singer to emperor) deferred the awards of the -judges for one year, as this afforded him an opportunity to appear again -in that time. - -The people gave on this occasion immense applause, but whether they were -most pleased by the music, or by the novelty of the whole affair, is -doubtful. - -But Nero could not wait even the exceptionally short time which he had -set, and appeared at numerous private shows, which were given from time -to time by private individuals of wealth and station. For these -performances he was glad to be offered compensation, not from any -avaricious motive, but because it stamped him as a thorough and -professional artist; of course many courtiers took advantage of this -foible and were very glad to pay him a princely _honorarium_. He was -offered on one occasion 1,000,000 sesterces for one appearance; this sum -being equivalent to $37,500 puts the enormous salaries of the modern -prima donna to the blush. - -He sometimes sang for two or three days in the same place, only pausing -occasionally to take refreshments and recuperate, and seldom was any -song of his less than a day in length. - -This in itself might have been an easily-avoided bore under ordinary -circumstances, but he prevented the possibility of a decreasing -audience, by posting sentinels at the doors, and forbidding all egress. -We can judge of the terrible dullness of these occasions by the fact -that some spectators, at times, jumped from the windows, at the risk of -their limbs, while others feigned death and were carried out for -burial.[83] - -There were spies scattered through the audience, and any inattention to -the emperor’s singing was dangerous. The soldiers chastised every one -who did not applaud properly. If any of the lower classes presumed to -give adverse criticism, they were summarily dealt with, while those of -the upper rank who showed their weariness, were marked out for future -vengeance. The emperor had in reality the life of any subject in his -power, while seemingly only exerting legal authority; for he had -hundreds of informers, spies and perjurers about his court who could -fasten any charge on any person however high in station, and the -awe-struck senate was always ready to condemn. Many when charged with -any crime by the emperor’s minions, at once committed suicide as the -shortest way out of the scrape. - -Among those who fell under Nero’s displeasure for not appreciating his -music, was the future emperor Vespasian, who during one of the songs, -fell fast asleep. Nero was with difficulty persuaded to spare his life, -but finally contented himself with banishing him from the court. The -scene must have been to some extent, ludicrous, when these poor, bored -victims of the emperor-musician, applauding vehemently, cried out for -more. Yet the applause did not always fall in the right place, and to -obviate this difficulty, the emperor formed a corps of _claquers_ or -professional applauders, whose duty it was to lead, and direct the -applause at the proper moments. This army of _claquers_ consisted of -many fashionable young men, and five thousand commoners. They could -easily be distinguished by their elegant attire and curled locks. - -The system pursued was similar to that at present used in some of the -Parisian theatres; there was one chief, or leader, and several deputy -commanders; the force was divided into small parties, and mingled among -the _bona fide_ audience, and at a signal from their chief, there would -be applause of the required kind. - -Nero lavished large sums on this _corps_, and was ever susceptible of -flattery to his musical talents: on some Alexandrians singing some -verses in his praise, he was so elated that he sent to Alexandria for -more singers and conferred many benefits upon them. - -Once while singing in the Roman theatre, in the character of Orestes, -the murderer of his mother (which he certainly ought to have acted well, -for Nero killed his own mother) he came on the stage loaded with chains, -on which a young soldier rushed on the stage to deliver him; this -compliment to the reality of his acting was specially grateful to Nero. - -The passion for acting and singing were with him almost monomania; -during the immense conflagration of Rome, which he himself had kindled, -(and which burned for six days and seven nights) he stood upon the tower -of Mecaenas, and was so impressed with the spectacle, that he hastened -to his theatre, put on the appropriate costume, and sang “The -Destruction of Troy:” hence the proverb “Nero fiddled while Rome was -burning,” which might run more appropriately “Nero sang because Rome was -burning,” for it was not callousness, as has been implied, but rather -the reverse of it; a venting of the emotions caused by the grandeur of -the spectacle. - -That he had implicit belief in his musical powers, there can be no -manner of doubt, for he had thoughts of possibly using it as a -profession; it had been foretold that the time should come when he would -be forsaken by all; on which he replied to the soothsayer “an artist can -gain his livelihood in any country.” - -In Greece at the public games, the musical contests were still an -important feature,[84] and the cities where they were celebrated, -hearing of Nero’s vanity in music, sent envoys to him with several -golden crowns, as tribute to his abilities in the art; Nero was -gratified beyond measure, and said that the Greeks had the only proper -appreciation of music. He gave a sumptuous supper to the envoys, after -which they begged that they might be permitted to hear that divine -voice; Nero, nothing loth, consented, and as might be expected the -Greeks went into ecstasies of applause. This determined Nero to make a -musical tour through Greece, and attend the sacred games there. - -He started on his journey with a vast retinue, among which were the -entire force of _claquers_. Arriving in Greece he ordered the games -which did not fall in that year, to be celebrated out of course, and -also, contrary to all precedent, established musical contests at the -Olympic games, that he might have the honor of appearing in them.[85] - -At these games, he appeared with all his enforced boredom, none being -allowed to leave the theatre, during his performances. The anxiety and -earnestness he displayed in these contests are almost incredible. He -bribed better artists to allow him to win, and he would address the -judges, telling them that he had made all study and preparation, and -taken all the care necessary for so important a contest, but the issue -was in their hands, he hoped therefore they would not regard any purely -accidental mishaps. The judges would thereupon mildly encourage the -timid contestant. - -He always adhered strictly to the rules imposed upon the contestants; he -would never spit, or wipe the perspiration from his forehead; once on -dropping his staff, he was greatly alarmed lest the accident should lose -him the prize, but was reassured by one of the contestants who told him -that he was sure that the judges had not perceived the occurrence; after -the conclusion of his song, he fell on his knees, stretching out his -hands in humble supplication for the verdict of the judges. But when the -victory was awarded to him, (as it was always sure to be) his humility -was thrown to the winds; he then caused his own heralds to proclaim him -as the victor, and soon set up statues of himself in the various cities, -with laudatory inscriptions, according to the custom of Greece. Not -content however, with this, he also caused the statues of all previous -victors to be pulled down and thrown in the sewers. - -He took the prize (of course) in every Greek contest in which he -participated. Competition was freely invited, though not as freely -tolerated. - -In one of the Grecian contests a musician entered the lists against him, -who was very proud of his skill, and could not be bought; he contested -the prize so obstinately and skilfully, that Nero’s soldiers also -entered the contest by driving him to the wall, and killing him in sight -of the audience;[86] the prize was awarded to Nero. - -His return from the tour was made with grand pomp; on reaching Naples, -he had a breach made in the walls (according to Greek custom) and made -his triumphal entry into the city, through it. In the same manner he -entered Rome and Antium. In Rome he arrogated to himself a full triumph, -and entered in state; all his prizes to the number of eighteen hundred -were placed in chariots, and appeared in the procession, each one -bearing an inscription as to where and when it was won. Statues were set -up, and medals struck in honor of his unprecedented musical success. -From this time forward, until his death he did not abate in his musical -studies or ardor. - -Towards the close of his reign, he took much interest in the water -organ, of which we have previously given a description. - -When his affairs were at a crisis, soon to be followed by his death, he -still gave most of his time to his favorite study. One day when -messengers first brought to him the tidings of a new rebellion, it is -related that he spent a few moments in consultation about these -momentous state affairs, and the rest of the day in showing to his -courtiers some new organs which he said he intended shortly to introduce -into the theatre. - -When apprised of the fact that the legions of Julius Vindex had -mutinied, and that that able general had also declared against him, he -was sufficiently aroused to march against him, but, ever a maniac on the -subject of music, he declared that he intended to do nothing but appear -in the camp of the rebellious legions, and weep and sing to them -pathetic songs, which should so affect them that they would at once -return to their allegiance; the next day after the bloodless victory he -promised to appear and sing songs of triumph in the theatre; and he -thought it well that composers should begin to write the triumphal odes -at once. - -In preparing for the expedition, his chief care was not for instruments -of war, but to provide safe carriage for his musical instruments; many -wagons were filled with these, as he took along several water organs. -But the expedition never took place, and he never had the chance of -testing the effects of pathetic music upon the Roman legions, for all -the army declared against him and he suddenly found himself deserted by -his court, and proscribed by the senate. In his downfall nothing hurt -him more than that his enemies spoke of him as “that pitiful harper,” -and he constantly appealed to his attendants if any could excel him in -the art. - -He at this crisis made a vow that, if his reign continued peaceably, he -would appear in the games he intended to give in honor of his success -against the insurgents, and play the water organ, flute and sumphonia, -as well as enact a play, and dance; but these inflictions the Roman -people were spared. - -In one night his seemingly strong power vanished, and he was compelled -to fly for his life, attended only by three or four persons. Having made -his way to the suburban residence of Phaon, one of his freedmen, it was -soon apparent that he could not escape, and that he must die, either by -the hands of the infuriated Romans, or by his own. Weeping and sobbing, -while his attendants prepared his grave, almost his last words before -his suicide were “Alas! what an artist the world is now to lose,” thus -in his latest moments, keeping up that egotism and infatuation for music -which had been one of his ruling characteristics through life. - -The musical side of Nero’s character is certainly to some extent -ludicrous, but there were other and far darker sides to his hideous -character. These of course are not within our province to dwell upon, -but we have chosen to give a full description of his musical life that -the reader may clearly see how little of true art, or love of art could -have existed in so oppressive an atmosphere. - - - - - CHAPTER XI. - HISTORY OF CHINESE MUSIC.[87] - - -In Brande’s dictionary of arts and sciences, under the head of “Chinese -music,” the whole fabric of Chinese music is swept away in one short -sentence, at the close of which, the compiler curtly says,—“We ought, -perhaps to apologize for saying _so much_ of it.” - -No right minded and just reader will echo so flippant an opinion; a -nation which more than four thousand years ago, had studied music as an -abstract science and which understood the laws of musical proportion -centuries before Pythagoras was born, certainly deserves more than a -passing notice from the musical historian, no matter how barbarous its -present music may seem. - -The Chinese life and character, while apparently full of fancy, is in -reality quite emptily rational and pragmatic. In all the scientific -facts relating to music, the Chinese made early and thorough -investigations, but in that inventive inspiration which is the soul of -art, they seem to have been deficient. They possess a very full account -of their music both of modern and ancient days. Their musical history -teems with facts, and anecdotes, dating back far beyond every other -nation except the Egyptian. Their literature contains a vast number of -treatises and comments on the musical art, many of which are, however, -couched in very mystical and ambiguous language. In the Imperial library -at Pekin, there are four hundred and eighty-two books on this subject -exclusively.[88] - -The invention of music, is ascribed by the Chinese to supernatural -beings. - -The emperor Chi-hoang-che, who reigned in the time of the spirits, is -said to have invented the rules of pronunciation, the written characters -of the Chinese language, and finally music.[89] A mythological character -named Tong-how composed the earliest songs. - -Kai-tien-chi, the ninth emperor of this spiritual dynasty, is credited -with many of the earliest songs. He also invented eight kinds of -instruments (which will be described later) the names of which are -certainly poetical enough,— - -1. Love the people. 2. The black bird. 3. Don’t cut the trees. 4. -Cultivate the eight different grains. 5. Chant the celestial doctrines. -6. Celebrate the merits of the sovereign. 7. Imitate the virtues of the -earth. 8. Recall the memory of all existing things. - -These names were probably given to the instruments from the special -songs which each accompanied. - -Tcho-yung, a successor of the preceding emperor, is said once to have -listened to the songs of the birds, while the empire was in a state of -profound peace, and their singing caused him to invent a music which -penetrated every where, speaking to the intelligence, calming the -passions of the heart, causing perfect equilibrium in the emotions, -facilitating and improving the use of all the senses, and prolonging the -life of man. - -The name of this music was _Tsie-ven_—“Temperance and mercy.” - -This beautiful legend of the birds, seems almost Greek in its poetry, -but there exists yet another mythological bird in the Chinese tales, -which is extraordinarily like the Egyptian Phœnix. The _Foang-hoang_ was -a bird whose nest and abiding-place was wrapt up in mystery; it appeared -in China only at the birth of a good ruler, and its coming was always a -happy presage to the nation. The Chinese mythology, so far as it relates -to music, is evidently a traditional history, and poetically relates -actual occurrences, showing that, in all probability, their music -existed, and was highly esteemed in pre-historic times. - -The authentic history of Chinese music may be said to begin with Fo-hi, -the first of the Ty dynasty, and the founder of the Chinese empire. He -reigned about 2950 B. C.[90] All good qualities seem to have been united -in this beneficent ruler; in all ways he sought to benefit his race. - -It was not as an amusement, but as a means of popularizing his thoughts -on all sciences, that he regulated and arranged the system of music. His -first song celebrated his triumph over ignorance and barbarism; soon -after he composed the “Fisher’s song” in which he relates how he had -taught modes of fishing to the natives. He invented the kin, a stringed -instrument in the style of the modern zither, but with cords of silk, -and in it he symbolized all manner of things. - -He rounded the upper part to represent Heaven; he flattened the lower -part to resemble the earth; one part of the instrument was called “The -abode of the dragon” (representing the breezes of Heaven); another part -was entitled “The nest of the Foang-hoang” (to betoken the seasons of -the year). By means of this instrument he could regulate his heart, and -curb his passions.[91] - -“Those who would play the Kin,” says the Chinese commentator, “and draw -sounds from it which can charm, must have a grave countenance and well -regulated interior, they should pick it lightly, and give a tone neither -too high, nor low.”[92] - -Many Chinese writers attribute some of the inventions which are credited -to Fo-hi, to his wife Niu-va, a supernatural personage who was regarded -as a holy and miraculous virgin in the Chinese annals.[93] The truth -about Fo-hi seems to be that he was a remarkably good man and a -benefactor to his race, and therefore many useful inventions, and -wonderful adventures are attached to his name, which cannot be -authenticated. Some writers consider him a myth, which is scarcely a -tenable position; others have endeavored to prove him to be neither more -nor less than the Noah of the Bible. There is little doubt that he made -improvements in Chinese music, and, by exaggeration, was called its -inventor. A Chinese writer in giving to the invention a greater -antiquity, beautifully says “Music had its cradle in the heart of man.” - -Chin-noung, successor of Fo-hi, was also a good ruler; his chief works -in music seem to have been some alterations in the _Che_ (a sort of -_Kin_) and he was able by his playing to turn the heart of man, from -intemperate life, to celestial truth. - -Hoang-ti, the next emperor, had music scientifically investigated and -established natural rules to the art. The reign of Hoang-ti is supposed -to have been about 2,600 B. C. In his day music though practised, was -not understood in its natural elements. - -The Chinese even at that day, based all other sciences on music, and -sought to make this art (in a mystical and hyperbolical way) the -foundation of all others. The emperor therefore ordered Ling-lun to give -his attention to the development of the laws of music. The fables on the -subject of his researches are innumerable; he travelled to the -north-western part of China and took up his abode on a high mountain, -near which was a large growth of bamboos. Ling-lun took a bamboo, which -he cut between two knots; he removed the pith, and blowing in the tube, -a sound resulted which was of the exact pitch of the human voice when in -its normal state. Not far off was the source of the Hoang-ho, and -Ling-lun found that the tone of his tube was similar to the sound given -by the waters of that river in bubbling from the earth; thus was -discovered the first _Lu_, (or Li) the fundamental tone. - -Ling-lun was pursuing his investigations further, when the Foang-hoang -appeared with its mate and perched upon a neighboring tree. The male -bird sang in six different tones, while the female also used six, but -different from the preceding. The first note of the mystical -Foang-hoang, was precisely in unison with the reed which Ling-lun had -cut from the bamboo. - -On ascertaining this, the fable continues, Ling-lun cut twelve pieces of -bamboo and pitched them according to the notes of the two songsters; he -found by alternating the sounds of the male with the female bird, that -he had a chromatic scale. The six tones of the male were called the -_li-yang_ (masculine tones) the other six _li-yn_ (feminine tones), and -throughout all Chinese music, the distinction between the male and -female tones of the scale still exists. This was the first Chinese -discovery of the proportions of sound, the first step in the science of -Acoustics, and though covered over with fable and allegory, it really -preceded the discoveries of Pythagoras by many centuries; Ling-lun went -back to the emperor’s court and there measured and fixed the pitch of -the Chinese scale forever. Bells were also made of the official pitch, -that it might easily be perpetuated. - -Hoang-ti also had immense trumpets made which imitated “the voice of -dragons,” and drums which sounded “like thunder.” This monarch was as -great and good in all arts and sciences, as he was in music. He seems to -have been a Chinese “king Alfred.” After him, came Chao-hao, at whose -accession the Foang-hoang again appeared, intimating thereby another -prosperous reign in this line of good and musical emperors. Chao-hao -invented the idea of marking the divisions of the night by strokes of a -drum, and also had founded a set of twelve copper bells, to represent -the twelve months of the year. He used all his efforts to make music -popular, and invented new modes of playing, making the _yang_ and _yn_ -less distinct from each other, that is uniting the more powerful tones -(male) with the weaker (female). It is said that he first introduced -songs in honor of the ancestors, which play a very important part in -Chinese music, and that these hymns were performed for the first time, -in honor of the amiable emperor Hoang-ti. - -The emperors next following, all protected and encouraged music. The -first songs, that is of a secular style, were composed about 2456 B. C. -At this time also, many new instruments were invented, and old ones -improved. With the reign of Yao, 2357 B. C., the chronological record of -Chinese emperors and their doings becomes much clearer. Under this -emperor, China had a season of great peace and prosperity. He invented -the instrument of musical stones, called the _king_, (to be described -later) and received the stones specially adapted to its manufacture, as -tribute from various provinces. - -Chun, who succeeded him, though of low birth (he was nominated to the -throne by Yao) continued to advance the progress of music, and used it, -as the Greek philosophers did later, to prepare himself for public -business. - -“It was to the sound of the _kin_,” says the Chinese historian,[94] -“that the great emperor Chun prepared to deal with the affairs of the -empire, and to the melody of the _kin_ is due the love and care which he -constantly gave to his people.” Chun composed the following song, words -and music, on the above instrument; it may be taken as a specimen of -very early Chinese improvisation. - -“The breeze of midday brings warmth and dispels sorrow; may it be the -same with Chun; may he be the joy and the consolation of his people. The -breeze of midday causes the grain to grow, which is the hope of the -people; even so Oh, Chun! be thou the hope and the wealth of thy -subjects,” etc. - -Chun also wrote a song in praise of agriculture. In the year 2284 B. C., -he established uniformity of weight and measure, as well as a fixed -diapason throughout the empire, and endeavored to have all the bells -made in just proportions to each other. He also caused to be composed, a -melody celebrating the nine principal virtues; it was accompanied with -dances, in nine parts and contained nine modulations; it was named -_Siao-chao_ from the instruments which the dancers held in their hand. - -Chun established five grand ceremonials, in each of which music bore a -part. First, a ceremony of rejoicing, in honor of Chang-ti (the supreme -being) and of the celestial spirits. Second, a festival in honor of the -ancestors. Third, a military celebration, in honor of the former -dissensions of the empire having given way to a tranquil peace. Fourth, -a feast dedicated to courtesy, when the beauties of concord and goodwill -were sung. Fifth and last, a ceremony in which the inter-dependence of -man was remembered, and the manifold blessings accruing by mutual -beneficence, chanted. - -Chun also appointed a superintendent of music, who was to see that the -art was always exercised in its proper direction. - -Kouei was appointed censor, and the instructions of the emperor to him, -are full of good sense. “Music should follow the sense of the words.” -“It should be simple and unaffected.” “Music is an expression of the -soul of the musician;” such sentiments as these show a keen appreciation -of the art, which seems all the more singular when we think of the -peculiar music to which it relates. The music of the time of Chun, is -rapturously eulogized by Confucius. - -Yu, the great, only followed the example of his predecessors in setting -to music the most moral precepts and praising virtue, in song. It may -perhaps have been this association of high thoughts and ideas, the noble -character of the poetry, which gave music such a charm in the eyes of -the ancient Chinese. Yu made use of some primitive instruments, in a new -and very laudable manner;[95] desirous of being easily accessible to all -his subjects, he caused to be placed at a gate of his palace, five -instruments of percussion, which were to be struck by any applicant, -according to the nature of his business with the emperor. - -A large bell announced a person who desired to complain of an injustice; -a drum signified a communication respecting the manners of the empire; -and a small bell, private or confidential business; a _tam-tam_, a -public or private misfortune; a tambourine, an accusation of crime which -was appealed from some lower tribunal to the adjudication of the -emperor. - -This kindly emperor, regulated what was still deficient in music, and -did it so thoroughly that no further changes were necessary until the -Hia dynasty became extinct. The last of the above mentioned dynasty was -(for a change) a most vicious emperor. Kie was, according to the -chroniclers, a sort of Mongolian Caligula, and his memory is execrated. - -The next dynasty, called Chang, after a prosperous series of emperors, -also ended with an atrocious tyrant called Tchow, who invented a -luxurious style of music, and is said to have first established the -feast of lanterns. He was deprived of throne and life by violence. - -Ou-wang a later ruler, is chiefly celebrated for his military music, for -which he seems to have had a _penchant_ and of which he composed -considerable. One of his pieces was intended for performance while the -army formed itself in order of battle. - -In his day, the discipline of music was very thoroughly attended to. -Every ceremony and rite had its appropriate music attached; the -musicians had to undergo two examinations each year, and all innovations -either in composition, or in the shaping of musical instruments was -jealously guarded against. No special features appear in the musical -history of China during the next few reigns. - -In the reign of Koang-tsee, a valuable treatise on music was published, -which is still highly esteemed. At this era also were established -Mandarins of music and of the dance. At this epoch flourished the great -Kong-fu-tsee, or Confucius, the leader of Chinese thought and -philosophy. - -This sage’s name was simply Kong, but his disciples added the title, -_fu-tsee_, which makes the meaning of the whole, Kong, the instructor, -or master. This was Latinized by the Jesuit missionaries into Confucius. -This philosopher cultivated the study of music and seems to have -esteemed it as highly as the Greek philosophers did a century later. He -revised and arranged many of the old books on musical ceremonies and -rites. He learnt the art in a distant province, as in his native place -music was but little known. - -While in the kingdom of Tchi, Confucius heard some of the ancient music -of the days of Chun performed. The effect on him was so marvellous, that -for three months he scarcely could eat, for thinking of it. “I should -never have believed,” he said, “that composers could reach such a -pinnacle of perfection.”[96] - -It is also said that Confucius was an excellent performer on the musical -stones of the _king_. Once while playing on this instrument a passer by -struck with the beauty of his performance, paused to listen, and -exclaimed “surely one who can play thus, must have his soul occupied -with great thoughts.” - -In the later days of his wanderings, when he was reduced to the -extremity of poverty and starvation, he sang and played as usual, -showing no signs of depression or despondency. One of his disciples -ventured a reproach, asking how he could sing when they were all -famishing; he replied; “the wise man seeks by music, to strengthen the -weakness of his soul, the thoughtless one uses it to stifle his fears.” -The facts relating to Confucius, his wanderings and life are full of -anecdotes relating to his extreme love of the art, and are probably -authentic. The family of Confucius still exists in his native province, -having passed intact through sixty-eight or sixty-nine generations; they -are honored by special privileges and distinctions and are the most -notable hereditary aristocracy of China. It may be mentioned here, that -all the philosophers and literati of the empire were musicians as well: -in this respect strongly resembling the sages of Greece. - -The theatre began to progress greatly in this era, (sixth century B. -C.), and one emperor was censured for devoting too much time to his -comedians, and too little to the worthy celebration of the ancestral -feast. The arts received a severe check when the Tchin or Tsin dynasty -obtained control of the entire realm. These were in reality the first -who united the various provinces under one rule, and who bore, with -right, the title of Hoang, or emperor. It is from this dynasty that -China takes its name (Tchina or Tsina). One of this set of conquerors, -Tchi-chi-hoang-ti, desirous of obliterating the memories of former -glories, which might prove prejudicial to his own, attempted, in 245 B. -C., a proscription of all science and art. - -He commanded all ancient books to be burnt, and especially caused strict -search to be made for the books which Confucius had collected and -revised. Only works on agriculture and medicine were to be spared. A -large number of literary persons who had concealed part of their books -were put to death; yet many continued to risk their lives to preserve -the fruits of ancient culture. Books were hidden in walls of houses, in -tombs, and buried in the earth, whence they were long afterward -recovered. The emperor in proclaiming this war on literature gave as his -reason that the ancient books did not suit that era, that they were a -hindrance to progress, that they caused the people to neglect -agriculture which was the only substantial happiness of a nation, and -that they gave to the people liberty to censure the sovereign, and by -consequence, fostered disobedience and rebellion. Of course in this -universal persecution, music did not fare better than the other arts. -All instruments were ordered to be destroyed and made over after new -models. The bells which had given the standard pitch up to that time, -were melted down, and many of them used for the purpose of founding -colossal statues to deck the entrance of the imperial palace. But, -according to La Fage,[97] it was much easier for the musicians to evade -the emperor’s decree, and save their instruments, than for the literati -to save their precious books. There were few instruments and they were -less rigorously sought after, and it was an easy matter to conceal bells -or the _kings_ (musical stones) by burying them in the earth whence they -could be exhumed intact at any later period. Therefore in spite of the -exertions of the emperor, the ancient traditions and arts could not be -wholly extinguished; a spark still remained from which the torch of -science and art could be re-lit. - -It was this despotic emperor, however, who built the _Wan-li-chang_ or -great wall of China, therefore his influence upon the empire was not -wholly exerted for evil, but rather directed towards the establishment -of himself and descendants as permanent rulers of China. The rule was -short however, for in 206 B. C. the _Han_ dynasty governed the empire. -The first of this family, named Kao, endeavored to repair the ravages -made in the field of learning by the Tsin despots. - -He caused extensive search to be made in order that the ancient pitch, -division of tone, and system of modulation might be discovered. It was -partially unavailing, for we learn that though music was established in -all its splendor under the subsequent reign of Vow-ti, yet many writers -of that era (about 140 B. C.) assert that the art of regulating the -heart by means of music, was irretrievably lost, and that it only seemed -to inflame the baser passions. - -In fact at this time, music was chiefly an adjunct of the theatre, and -each day brought forth new comedies, concerts, or ballets. A terrible -scandal was created in the reign of Tching-ti (an emperor who reigned -shortly after) by that sovereign taking one of his beautiful _corps de -ballet_, to wife. - -These ballet dancers seem also to have been talented singers, and were -of similar station, though far inferior in talents, to the _Hetaræ_ of -ancient Greece. In the time of the last named ruler, there were found on -the bank of a river, sixteen ancient musical stones or _kings_, and the -fact that the sovereign esteemed this one of the most glorious events of -his reign, shows how earnest and persistent was the endeavor to reclaim -the old school of music from oblivion. - -Between the years A. D. 8, and 23, many books relative to music were -written; the Chinese, however, assert that all of these were founded on -a false system and contained many errors. About A. D. 60, the president -of the tribunal of rites and music, made great efforts to collect the -remains of ancient knowledge, and place music once more upon its old, -pure basis. The work written by him was highly esteemed by the literati -but unfortunately, the musicians had become used entirely to the newer, -and less pure style of music, and were too lazy to care about learning -any new modes; therefore all manner of difficulties were placed in the -way of Pao-yé, and the reform was unsuccessful. - -Tching-ti, A. D. 280, had at his court ten thousand women, who were all -proficient singers and players. Ngai-ti, one of his successors, tried to -remedy the luxury and effeminacy which had crept into every department -of music. He dismissed all his musicians, except those who performed at -sacred rites, or in military music (these being countenanced by ancient -usage) and all the troupes of singing girls were also broken up. The -poor musicians thus thrown out of employment numbered four hundred and -forty. The singing girls were yet more numerous. - -These reforms seem to have been of short duration, for almost always, -after an emperor who enthusiastically attacked these abuses, came one -who with equal fervor, protected them. - -One sovereign, A. D. 289, had at his palace five thousand actresses, and -the fourth successor of the reformer who dismissed his musicians, named -Tsin-ou-ti, although a lover of music, was also a great lover of luxury. -His greatest delight was to enervate the officials of high rank by -inviting them to carousals which he would extend far into the night, and -when the censors remonstrated with him on his course, he heard them -patiently; he would then invite them to dinner for the same day, and -there cause them to drink so copiously that they had to be carried -home.[98] - -An emperor who reigned about 503 A. D. banished comedy and music from -the palace, and also established the funeral festival in honor of -Confucius, in which sacred music played a part. - -Tay-tsung, who ascended the throne A. D. 626, was an active and thorough -reformer in music as in all other arts which needed his helping hand. In -the year 640, he turned his attention, after having brought the empire -to a state of peace, to bringing music back to its ancient and pristine -glory. In pursuance of this design, he ordered that everything relating -to ancient music, books as well as instruments, should be sent to his -court. An immense quantity of books, fragments, memoirs, old and new -instruments, etc., were discovered and collected, which were handed over -to a committee of _savans_, whose duty it was to retain the good, reject -the bad, and systematize the whole. Much was discovered by this means; -books were printed and the art of music received a strong impetus; but -still the Chinese held that the full beauty of the ancient art could not -be unearthed, perhaps because they could find nothing in it equaling -their expectations: but Tay-tsung for his efforts in the matter, was -ever after held in the highest esteem by the Chinese, who rank him with -the great and good rulers, Hoang-ti, Yao, etc. - -Tay-tsung also composed, or caused to be composed, a war dance, -accompanied with the appropriate music; it was intended to inspire the -soldiers with virtue and courage, and to make them emulate heroes. - -Under the emperors who came immediately after, comedy and theatrical -representations flourished. The musicians were always kept within the -limits of their caste however. A chief comedian once permitted himself -to make an allusion to state affairs, in a play; the emperor listened to -him with much attention, (the Chinese politeness is such that they will -accord the most respectful attention to a person whom they would like to -strangle,) but after the performance called the actor aside and told him -that he kept his troupe to amuse, not to advise him, and sent the poor -fellow into exile. - -Another time a very talented musician committed a murder, and was -sentenced to death therefor; several officials endeavored to obtain his -pardon, and a number of musicians presented a petition to the emperor -acknowledging that the culprit was very guilty and fully deserved his -fate, but that his talents in music could not be replaced, and that -therefore his life should be spared. The emperor’s reply was a worthy -one, “you fear damage to the art of music” said he, “but I fear damage -to the laws and government of the empire.” The sentence was executed. -One emperor dared to raise a musician to special rank, and thus defied -the strong respect for caste, which existed in China. - -Y-tsung, the causer of this great scandal, had in his service a great -performer, named Li-ko-ki, who was an especial favorite. One day when -Li-ko-ki had composed a specially agreeable song, the emperor, without -considering his profession, gave him the post of captain of the guards. -It caused an immense excitement among the sticklers for etiquette, for -all previous emperors, when they gave office to their musicians, first -caused them to renounce their profession, while Li-ko-ki still continued -in the practice of music; the emperor however carried his point. Y-tsung -also showered other unusual honors upon the members of this profession, -for it was his custom to give a dozen festivals each month, when the -musical _corps_ were allowed to eat at his own table. - -In traveling, of which he was very fond, he rarely took along less than -five hundred musicians. - -Under the last prince of the Tang dynasty there came many disasters upon -the Chinese empire, and the successful inroads of the Tartar invaders, -were most of all prejudicial to music; at one time the emperor was -forced to fly from the capital, his palace was pillaged, and the musical -instruments in it, either destroyed, or carried off to Tartary. When -peace had been concluded and tranquillity reigned again, there was an -earnest effort made to manufacture new instruments, but in doing this, -great obstacles had to be surmounted, the models were dispersed or lost, -and the official pitch was uncertain. A great search was made for the -set of bells which represented the authorized ancient scale, but in -vain; large sums were offered to the Tartars if they would make -restitution of those which had been carried off at the sacking of the -imperial palace, but these savages, after long delays, replied that they -could not ascertain what had become of the captured instruments. - -Thus another disturbing influence was imported into the Chinese music; -but it was still as highly-prized an art as of old, for soon after these -calamities came rulers who were passionately devoted to it; -Tchowang-song, gave two provinces to a pair of favorite musicians; and a -subsequent emperor (_a la Nero_) took to the stage himself, in spite of -the horror of his remonstrating censors. - -Music and art took a new impetus under the Song dynasty (A. D. 960 to -1279), and very many books were written, on music especially, but alas! -there was now so much uncertainty in the field of ancient (and therefore -in Chinese eyes correct) music, that the commentators fell into the same -pit which engulfed the modern decipherers of ancient Greek music, i. e., -they speedily came to all kinds of varying and irreconcilable -conclusions. One thing they resolved however, which was that the bells -which gave the official scale were not correct; they therefore founded a -new set, which were so satisfactory to the emperor and his advisers, -that the former ordered his own official bells to be given to the -founders for recasting. The musicians were very ill pleased with the new -system, although obliged to conform to it, and yet determined that all -trace of the ancient scale should not be lost. They managed by -connivance with some officials to save a complete set. The bells were -indeed removed from the tribunal of music and rites, but instead of -being thrown into the furnace, they were with the tacit consent of high -authorities, buried in a court-yard of the palace, and long afterward -exhumed. - -Tsai-yu, one of the later emperors, studied deeply to place music on a -secure footing,[99] and it is remarkable that his researches into the -proportions of tones, led him to the same results that were _afterwards_ -discovered by the best acousticians of Europe. - -Kang-Hi, in the year 1678-9, worked for the art in an extraordinary -manner; he founded an academy of music, and made his third son president -of the institution; he wrote a work, “The true method of the Ly-lu,” in -four books, and had a fifth added “_concerning European music_.”[100] In -a proclamation concerning the diminution of the number of -court-musicians, Kang-hi says, “Music has power to quiet the heart, and -therefore was beloved by our sages. They also could while enjoying -themselves at its practice, benefit themselves, because the fundamental -principles of government are contained in the art of music. But such a -comparison scarcely is suitable to virtuosity. Why, therefore, expend -money on it? I approve of the action of Ngai-Ti, (a former emperor) in -discharging them.” - -The knowledge of European music, which this emperor attained, in -opposition to all previous custom in China, came through the Jesuit -missionary Pereira, a Portuguese by birth; and Grimaldi, a missionary of -the Propaganda. He found it (contrary to the custom of the Chinese) -quite to his taste.[101] He was particularly astounded by the ability of -Father Pereira to set down in notes, and sing any melody, after a single -hearing. He begged his two guests to prepare a work containing the -elements of European harmony, and on their completion of it, he had it -printed at his palace in a sumptuous manner, and as an especial honor, -he had his own name added to it as their coadjutor. He now forced his -musicians to learn and to play French, German and Italian music; they -did so quite exactly, but most mechanically and with much unwillingness, -for it was contrary to all their ideas of art or propriety. Kang-hi saw -that the effort would be useless unless he used severe measures in -enforcing his reform, and like a wise man he yielded and allowed his -performers to return to their own beloved style of music. But the spirit -of reform was yet in him, and so far as he was able, he introduced many -innovations and many alterations into all departments of Chinese music. - -He made a proclamation saying that the old instruments though very good -were quite worn out, and that as new ones were necessary, he had -prepared a list of the ones required. One of these _instruments_, can -scarcely be called a musical one, as it was simply a flag, which was to -be displayed during the continuance of the musical performance. - -Kang-hi is spoken of with much rapture by the Jesuit missionaries, for -he was not only European in his taste for music; he not only tolerated, -but greatly favored Christianity, and at one time it was feared by his -court, that he was about to embrace that faith. The real secret of his -intimacy with the Catholic missionaries, seems to have been only a great -desire on his part, to acquire new information. - -He was greatly interested in the mechanism of a clavichord, which the -fathers brought with them to China, and ordered two of his musicians to -take lessons from them, upon the instrument; the pupils made very little -progress, as they were rather unwilling students. - -It was not only in the emperor’s court, at this epoch, that European -music began to be known; many persons throughout all the empire, sought -to pave the way to Imperial favor by studying the new art. The method of -Father Pereira had been sent into each province by the emperor, and the -ancient _Li_ were for a time eclipsed by the _Do, re, mi_, etc., of the -“western barbarians.” It might have been a permanent reform, but for the -fact that the Chinese had always been accustomed to associate their -music in a peculiar manner, with virtue and morality; each tone -represented some moral precept, each species of the eight varieties of -sound represented to their mind some high thought or noble virtue; it -was this association of ideas, which evoked the eulogies of Confucius, -and it was this time-honored custom which prevented European music from -obtaining any foothold among them. When, a short time after, Amiot -endeavored to ingratiate himself with the Mandarins by means of his -music, he failed utterly, through the same cause. - -He thus relates his effort:— - -“I understood music passably well; I played the traverse flute and the -clavichord; I used all these little talents to make myself welcome to -the Chinese. On different occasions during the first years of my stay in -Pekin, I never failed to endeavor to convince those who heard me, that -our music, excelled that of their own country.” - -It is to be remembered that these were educated persons, able to compare -and to judge; persons of the first rank, who honoring the French -missionaries with their kindness, came often to their abode to entertain -themselves with them, with various matters relative to the sciences or -arts cultivated in China. - -“The cyclops,” “The savages,”[102] the most beautiful sonatas, the most -melodious airs of the flute, none of these made any impression on the -Chinese. - -“I saw upon their countenances only a cold and vacant look, which -announced to me that I had not touched them in the least. One day I -asked them how they liked our music, and begged that they would tell me -frankly what they thought. They answered in their politest way, that -_our melodies were not made for their ears, nor their ears for our -melodies_, it was not therefore surprising, they could not find beauties -in our melodies, as they could in their own.” - -“The melodies of our music,” said a distinguished doctor (in the service -of his majesty, the emperor); “the melodies of our music pass from the -ear to the heart, and from the heart to the soul. We feel them, and we -understand them; those which you have just played, have no such effect -upon us. The airs of our ancient music were something quite different; -one needed but to hear them, to be ravished with them. Our books give to -them the most pompous eulogies; but they tell us at the same time, that -we have, in a great measure, lost the excellent method by which the -ancients produced such marvellous effects.”[103] It is interesting to -place these remarks beside the reiterated opinion of many writers that -the Chinese music is not worthy of being called “music” at all; and then -to turn to that most proper definition of the art,—“Music is the art of -moving the feelings by combinations of sounds.” - -The same obstacles exist to-day against change in the music of the -Chinese, as in the days of Kang-hi. - -This emperor, in his later days added to the long list of his musical -efforts, a volume treating of dances, and also a collection of the most -celebrated ancient songs. The missionary who mentions this latter -work,[104] assures us that he dares not translate it, lest he should be -accused of placing the sentiments of the most noble psalms in the mouth -of the Chinese. - -During Kang-hi’s reign the flute became quite fashionable in China, the -people becoming infatuated with it; Kang-hi himself became proficient in -its use, but on finding, later, that he had not benefited himself in any -way by its use he gave up the practice. - -Young-tching, his successor, published new rules for music and assigned -a special music in honor of agriculture and husbandry, which was to be -performed each year. He did not take to the Jesuits as kindly as his -predecessor, for from A. D. 1724 to 1732 he was busily engaged in -expelling them from China. - -Khian-long, his son, succeeded him in 1736. There is nothing remarkable -in the history of Chinese music from his day to the present time. - -Lord Macartney’s embassy (1793) took place during the long reign of this -emperor. Many persons were attracted to the embassy’s rooms by the -European band which each evening gave a concert. Among the most -assiduous of these visitors was the chief of the emperor’s orchestra; -charmed with the sound of some of their instruments, yet absolutely -refusing to accept of them as a present, he sent several painters to -take designs of them on paper. These artists laid clarinets, flutes, -bassoons, etc., on immense sheets of paper, on which they traced the -exact shape and size of each, while underneath they wrote remarks giving -the exact dimensions of each aperture, valve and tube. - -The chief announced his determination of making similar instruments from -these models, but in different proportions, which he proposed to fix for -himself. The result of the experiment is unknown. - -The later emperors have all had long reigns, and left music in _status -quo_, the last emperor Hien-fung being only remarkable for his constant -drunkenness. Let us now examine more minutely the order of music which -has inspired such disgust to European ears, and such rapture to the -Chinese from the earliest ages down to the present time. - - - - - CHAPTER XII. - CHINESE MUSIC AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. - - -The Chinese have from the very earliest times divided musical sounds -into eight classes, and imagined that in order to produce them, nature -had formed eight kinds of sonorous bodies. They divided them as -follows:— - -1. The sound of skin, produced from the tanned skin, or parchment of -various animals. 2. The sound of stone. 3. Of metal. 4. Of baked clay. -5. Of silk, used in the form of strings as we use cat-gut, or wire. 6. -Of wood, used often in instruments of percussion. 7. Of bamboo, used in -flutes. 8. Of calabash, a species of gourd, out of which a peculiarly -constructed instrument was manufactured. - -Of the skins of animals, many different instruments are made, all of -which may be designated under the general name of drums, but the Chinese -possess various kinds of drums of all shapes and sizes.[105] The most -ancient variety of these was the _Tou-kou_, which signifies earth drum, -so called because its body was made of baked clay, over each end of -which was drawn the skin. An instrument of this description was both -fragile and unwieldy; its disadvantages soon caused the clay to be -replaced by wood, out of which all subsequent drums were made, the size -and shape being varied according to the uses for which they were -destined. Nothing is said in the ancient writings as to what varieties -of wood were used in the manufacture of the earliest drums, but -tradition has it, that at first the wood of the cedar and mulberry, as -also sandal wood, were the most used. - -The Chinese possess eight kinds of drums. 1. The _tsou-kou_, which had -the shape of a barrel, and was fixed upon a pole which ran through its -body. 2. The Yn-kou, similar to the above, but the body more elongated, -and the staff or pole which supported it usually thrust into the earth -to keep it firmly in position, while that of the tsou-kou stood upon a -cross piece at its base.[106] 3. A variety of the _tsou-kou_ called -hiuen-kou, of very large size; on each side of this drum is attached a -small drum, in shape like a kitchen pot, one of which is to be struck -lightly, the other heavily. 4. The kin-kou, another keg-shaped drum -mounted upon a pedestal; it is about six feet long, and six feet in -diameter. It receives different names according to the way it is -decorated; thus, if it bears on its case paintings of storms, it would -be called lei-kou; but if it is ornamented with birds of good omen, such -as the _foang-hoang_, or white swans, it is called _lou-kou_.[107] 5. -The great tao-kou, which is still used to give the signal for the -commencement of a song, is about one foot in length and diameter. 6. The -little tao-kou, a cross between a drum and a baby’s rattle, is about -seven inches long, mounted upon a stick, and through the centre of its -case a string is passed; at each end of this string are knots; when this -drum is played, the performer twirls it about rapidly, the knots fly -against the skin, and produce a sort of rattle or drumming. This drum is -used to show the completion of a verse or division of any musical -composition. It is also used in funeral processions and at commemorative -ceremonies.[108] 7. The _ya-kou_, a small drum which is filled with rice -grains. The skin of this drum is not only tanned but is boiled -afterwards in pure water. The sound of this instrument is soft and -pleasant. 8. The _po-sou_ is a drum of cylindrical shape, and is placed -upon a small table; it is played sitting; in all other respects it is -like the _ya-kou_. - -These are the eight varieties of drums known to the Chinese; many of -them are still in use; there are also some varieties of military drums -which do not differ much from the preceding. - -It is customary to cover not only the case, but the faces and sticks of -the drums with paintings. - -Drums are used in China to give the hour at night, to announce persons -desiring audience, at some palaces, and for many other purposes as well -as for music. The Chinese also sometimes muffle their drums (in all -religious ceremonies which take place in presence of the emperor) -effecting this not in our manner, but by covering the instrument with -ornamented draperies of cloth, which absorb part of the sound. - - - OF THE SOUND OF STONE. - -The custom of making a systematic use of stone, in music, is peculiarly -a Chinese institution. In the _Chouking_, one of the most ancient of -Chinese chronicles, we read that already in the almost mythological days -of Yao and Chun, the Chinese had observed that certain kinds of stone -were adapted to giving out musical sounds, and that these tones occupied -the place between the sound of metal and of wood, being less sharp and -penetrating than the former, and more sonorous than the latter, and more -brilliant and sweet than either. - -Even in those days they carved and shaped the stones, in order to -extract from them the regular notes of their scale, and made instruments -of them which even to-day are used in China, and are named _king_. - -These musical stones were highly valued, and received as tribute as -early as 2250 B. C. Those found on the surface of the earth, and near -the banks of the rivers, were most esteemed, as it was supposed that -their exposure gave clearness and purity to their tone. - -These stones, called _Yu_, are found near the mountain streams and -torrents of Yun-nan. They are of extreme hardness and are polished in -the same manner as agate and precious stones. Large specimens are -extremely rare; those which Amiot saw at the Imperial palace, were three -feet by one foot eight inches in size, but they were considered unique. - -Their weight (specific gravity) is also very wonderful, for stones which -seem to be not too heavy a burden for one man, require four men to move -them.[109] Those in the palace were of many colors, milk-white, -sky-blue, indigo-blue, yellow, orange, pale green, sea-green, red and -gray. Those most esteemed were of a single color throughout, though when -five colors blended, it was considered a valuable specimen. It may be -mentioned in this connection that the number five seems to acquire a -mystical significance among the Chinese, for their music has five -principal tones, they recognize five elements, five virtues, five -senses, five duties, and five principal ceremonies.[110] - -Some of these stones resemble marble, and others seem to be -petrifactions of some sort. We are unaware whether those belonging to -the emperor have been examined by any recent geologist. The Duke de -Chaulnes in the last century, came to the conclusion that the stone was -marble, but that its organization differed in some respects from ours; -and that iron entered into its composition. - -It is very difficult to complete an octave with the best of musical -stones. In carving and ornamentation they require most skillful -manipulation lest the pitch be endangered. - -Under the Han dynasty a most harmonious _king_ was presented to the -emperor. The designs traced upon the stones were not quite satisfactory -to that potentate; on endeavoring to alter slightly the fashion of the -stones, the pitch of the instrument was irrevocably lost, and its -harmony destroyed forever.[111] The _king_ has from time immemorial been -played by striking the stones with a stick or mallet of hard wood. The -skill of the player is shown in the degree of shading he can impart to -the tones, by varying the force of his blows. Of all instruments, the -Chinese claim that the _king_ blends best with the human voice. The -entire Chinese chronicles teem with praises of this peculiar instrument. -Confucius was thrown into ecstatic bliss on hearing it for the first -time. The musical work entitled _Li-ki_ says: “the harmonious sound of -the _king_ invites the sage to think of the end of life. When he hears -it, he thinks of death, and fortifies himself in his love of duty.” But -this passage refers only to the great _king_ made of _Yu_ (the finest -melodious stones), which was only played on great religious occasions; -it is not singular that this instrument should be associated with -religious thoughts. There were other kinds of _kings_ which were used on -lesser occasions. In the imperial palace were several of smaller size, -called _pien-king_, which were composed of sixteen stones each. The -_tse-king_ consisted of one large stone, and is used to give the pitch -to other instruments, to signalize the commencement of a tune, and -according to some writers, was anciently used to beat the time -throughout a composition. - -The shape of the stones is much like a carpenter’s square; and if -sixteen of these tools were suspended from a clothes horse, the shape at -least of the _king_ would be attained; but in the most ancient specimens -the stones are shaped with much more diversity, fishes, bats, and other -quaint forms appearing with much ingenuity in the different pieces. The -only modern instrument of similar style to the _king_, which is known to -American readers, is the glass-harmonica, where short strips of glass, -being struck by a mallet, give out a melodious, but not very manageable -tone, and any person performing on the _musical glasses_, not by -friction, but by percussion, can give a fair representation of the music -of the favorite instrument of China. - - - OF THE SOUND OF METAL. - -Bells have been in China from the earliest ages the most esteemed of -instruments. At first their duty was to be a sort of tuning fork; one -bell being made for chief or fundamental tone, and eleven others giving -the various semitones. These bells were much different from our church -and tower bells; they rather resemble large hand bells, but were of -somewhat greater weight. The smallest bells were used in an instrument -called _Pien-tchoung_, which consisted of sixteen of them, tuned in -unison with the sixteen stones of the king. We have already spoken of -the efforts made to suppress the bells, and through them, the authentic -pitch of Chinese music, by one of the conquering emperors. - - - OF THE SOUND OF BAKED CLAY. - -Of this the Chinese made a deep-toned whistle, with five to seven -apertures called _Hiuen_. This was probably the primitive instrument in -China, as it is mentioned as already existing before the reign of -Hoang-ty, about 2637 B. C. An ancient Chinese Dictionary speaks of the -two varieties of these, saying, “the larger hiuen should be of the size -of a goose egg, the smaller, of that of a hen.” - - - OF THE SOUND OF SILK. - -Under this head come all Chinese stringed instruments, for where we use -catgut, the celestials use silken cords. Even in the semi-mythical age -of Fo-hi, they made a simple instrument by extending threads of silk -upon a board of light wood. Little by little the board was shaped to its -purpose better; gradually also, the strings were laid with more -precision and exactness, and the cords gave out tones deep or high, -according to the tension to which they were subjected, or the number of -threads of which they were composed; thus by insensible degrees came -into existence the _kin_, the leading stringed instrument of the Chinese -empire. In size, it is larger than all Eastern stringed instruments -except the harp, its length being five feet, six inches. It has seven -cords which are tuned as follows:— - - DO, RE, FA, SOL, LA, DO, RE, - -giving it only five tones. The pentatonic character of this instrument -is observable in all Chinese music, and causes a slight resemblance -between that music and the Scotch. There are several varieties of the -_kin_. The large, medium, and small, only differ in their size, and have -each seven cords, but there is a much larger instrument of the same -species, which is called the _che_, which has twenty-five strings, and -is nine feet long; it is said that in ancient days there were _ches_ -made which had fifty strings. - -Both the _che_ and _kin_ were, in true Chinese fashion, made to convey -numberless morals and symbols. The breezes of Heaven, the four seasons, -the five elements, and the universe were all in some manner dragged into -the formation of these instruments. The _kin_ represented life, the -_che_ death, and before performing upon either, the player went through -certain ceremonies to fit himself for the task, and lighted some -perfumed tapers, which were kept burning throughout the performance. To -perform on the _kin_, the Chinese held that one must be well advanced in -wisdom and sagacity. Of the _che_, there exist four different kinds, the -great, medium, small and very small; all these differ in size but not in -their number of strings, each possessing twenty-five. Amiot[112] found -the _che_ to be a more agreeable instrument than any known in Europe in -his day (1750 circa), as the softer sounds of the silken cords were -preferable to the metallic sound of the wires of the clavichord. - -We have no instrument in our music which corresponds to the _kin_, or -_che_; but the zither if trebled in length, and strung with silk instead -of wire would give a very exact idea of this finest of Chinese -instruments. - - - THE SOUND OF WOOD. - -The Chinese have from remotest antiquity, used wooden instruments of -percussion; it is most natural that the earliest of instruments used by -man, should have been of wood, but it is also natural that most nations -should have laid aside these primitive and toneless instruments. Not so -the Chinese however; their wooden instruments are still used as they -were four thousand years ago; for the historians date their invention -from the mysterious reign of Fo-hi. - -These instruments are the _tchu_, the _ou_, and the _tchung-tou_, all of -which celebrate and typify the most profound moral precepts, _a la -Chinois_. - -The _tchu_ is a plain wooden box, about a foot and a half deep, in which -a hammer is fastened; by introducing the hand into a small aperture, -made for that purpose in the side of the instrument, the hammer is -agitated, and swaying from side to side, produces a sort of tattoo on -both sides of the box. This scarcely can be called _music_ for it is -doubtful if the sound is even rhythmic; but it is not the sound alone -which captivates the Chinese ear, the symbol attached to it moves the -Chinese heart, for the sages assure us that this clatter represents (in -some mysterious way) the advantages of the social intercourse of men, -and the mutual benefits of society. The _tchu_ is placed at the -_north-east_ of the other instruments and is played at the commencement -of a composition. - -The _ou_ is an image of a sleeping tiger, and is a symbol of the power -which man has over all other creatures. It is placed at the _north-west_ -of the other instruments, and is played at the close of a piece of -music. Along the back of this image is a row of pegs; when the -instrument is well played, six tones can be extracted from these wooden -pegs, but usually the performance is ended by the player running the -stick, by which the pegs are struck, swiftly along the whole row, and -finishing with a couple of blows upon the tiger’s head. This is repeated -three times as _finale_. - -The _tchung-tou_ cannot really be classed among musical instruments, -since they are only the wooden plates upon which music was sometimes -written; their moral is obvious; they bring back to memory the great -invention of communication by means of written characters. But they also -participate somewhat in the general clatter produced by the other wooden -instruments; they are about fourteen inches long, and one inch wide, are -twelve in number, to commemorate the twelve sounds of the scale, and -serve to beat the measure of the music, by being struck lightly against -the palm of the left hand. The twelve pieces are attached to each other -by means of cords. - -There is besides, a military instrument of wood (though also scarcely to -be classed as musical) which is carved in the form of a fish, and is -suspended in front of the general’s tent. When any person requires to -see that official, he has but to strike this fish with two wooden sticks -which are lying near by, and the audience is immediately granted; so -greatly have the Chinese reduced language to various musical sounds, -that by the mode of striking with the sticks, the applicant intimates, -in a general manner, concerning what description of business the -audience is requested. - -There also exist in China a few other instruments of wood, from which -regular series of tones can be produced, and upon which tunes can be -played, but these latter seem not to be really Chinese in their origin, -and are spoken of by the musical commentators of the country, as -“strange instruments which have come into use in China.” - - - THE SOUND OF BAMBOO. - -It seems, at first sight, as if this class of instruments should be -placed under the head of “wood;” but the Chinese draw a very wide -distinction between wood and bamboo, holding the latter in especial -esteem, as being of all vegetation, the most useful to man; and they -claim that nature in producing it, fitted it especially to the art of -music. It is true that it required no great inventive faculty to extract -tones from the hollow sticks of bamboo, and it is possible that music -drawn from the bamboo was the earliest of the Chinese empire. One of the -most famed of instruments made of this reed, is called the _Koan-tsee_. -This is simply a set of pan’s pipes, arranged according to Chinese -tonality; the superior (male) tones, called _yang_ being given to one -instrument, and the inferior (female) called _yn_ to another, so that to -have a melody in any modulations performed, two instruments and two -musicians were required. This arrangement was too awkward to last -forever; finally the two instruments were united in one, and instead of -being weakly bound together by cord, as were the twelve pipes of the -_koan-tsee_, two strips of thin board held the tubes in place; the -number of pipes was also increased from twelve, to sixteen, and the new -instrument called the _siao_.[113] - -Of course the Chinese possess flutes, as well as other instruments of -bamboo. The _yo_ and _ty_ are in some respects similar to our flutes, -save that they have usually but three holes, and the tones have -therefore to be produced by a more skillful use of the breath than is -required on the European flute. An instrument of the flute family the -use of which has become somewhat obsolete, is the _tche_. This is -different from all other flutes, and is now but little played in China. -The _embouchure_ is exactly in the middle, both ends are stopped, and on -each side of the _embouchure_ are three holes. It was considered the -most difficult of all flutes to play. - - - THE SOUND OF CALABASH. - -The calabash is a gourd of pumpkin shape, but somewhat smaller. In the -instrument which we are about to describe, we shall see that the -calabash (called _pao_ by the Chinese) really emits no sound, but serves -only as an air reservoir for one of the most wonderful instruments of -ancient times. The _cheng_, which is the only instrument in which the -calabash is used, is in fact a _portable organ_, and when we consider -that this intricate instrument was invented about four thousand years -ago, we are lost in astonishment that the invention did not lead to -greater results; yet the Chinese have frequently, in other sciences as -well, advanced to the threshold of great discoveries. - -We will not detail to the reader, all the legends, symbols, and -mythology attached to the _cheng_; suffice it to say that animal, -mineral and vegetable nature is represented by it, and that to each part -of it is appended some mystical meaning. The gourd is pierced and -cleaned, and an aperture made for the air to enter, then the ends of -from thirteen to twenty-four pipes of bamboo are inserted into as many -holes cut in the gourd; each of these pipes contains in it a tongue of -copper or gold, the vibration of which causes the sound; beneath this is -a hole cut in the bamboo, through which aperture the air rushes without -giving any sound, but when the hole is stopped by pressing a finger upon -it, the air having no other outlet, is forced up the pipe, and striking -the metallic tongue, gives out an agreeable reed sound. A curved -mouth-piece through which the performer is to blow, is introduced at the -centre of the gourd. The _cheng_ contains all the elements of the reed -organ, and it would be a simple matter to produce harmonies with it, and -yet with this instrument in the world for four thousand years, it -remained for moderns (comparatively speaking,) to discover the art of -combining different sounds; but the invention of so well-conceived a -reed instrument in such remote ages, certainly entitles the ancient -Chinese to the utmost respect of their unconscious imitators, the -Europeans. - - - MISCELLANEOUS INSTRUMENTS. - -There exist in China, some instruments which are not classed with either -of the above eight kinds of tone. These we have thought best to group -under the head of “miscellaneous,” though they are quite as important as -any of the preceding, except perhaps, the _king_, _cheng_, and _kin_. -The Chinese have long possessed a peculiar variety of fiddle, which at -first appearance much resembles a mallet with cords stretched from the -head to the handle; but the head of this primitive fiddle is hollow, and -holds a sounding board, though a very small one, of gazelle’s skin. The -sounds drawn from this oriental fiddle are said to set one’s teeth on -edge; it is said to be the most execrable of all Chinese instruments. -The invention of this fiddle cannot be ascribed to the Chinese, as it -probably came from India originally. There also exist several Chinese -instruments of a kind much resembling our guitars or banjos. The number -of strings on these are variable.[114] - -From remote antiquity, the Chinese have understood the ductility of -metal, and it is not surprising that the trumpet is, with them, one of -the oldest of instruments. These trumpets are made of all sizes and most -peculiar shapes.[115] It appears that they are intended to give but two -tones each, although being made of all sizes, a complete scale can be -arranged by collecting ten or twelve of them. The music of them (as with -the ancient Greeks) is judged only by the degree of loudness with which -it is given, and even when several play together, there is no attempt at -harmony, but each trumpeter repeats his two notes with vigor and -persistency; the result is said to be most distressing to European ears. -Yet it is possible to extract beautiful music even from single-toned -trumpets, for in Russia, most exquisite melodies are rendered by bands -of trumpeters, each of whom performs but one note, in the same manner as -troupes of bell-ringers give whole pieces of music with small hand -bells. - -Tom-toms and gongs also appear frequently in the music of the empire; -these are chiefly used to keep the time of the orchestra; there is also -an instrument analogous to these, which consists of a series of metal -basins, (usually of copper) from eight to ten in number, set in a frame. -The whole instrument looks not unlike a cooking range with all its -utensils. These basins are struck with a mallet, and produce sounds -similar to, but less harsh than the gongs. The name of this unique -apparatus is _yin-lo_. - - - THE SOUND OF THE VOICE. - -Singular to relate, the Chinese have in their classification of eight -musical sounds, utterly omitted to make any mention of the sound of the -human voice. In all their great ceremonies, such as hymns of praise to -Heaven, and commemoration of the ancestors, songs are used, but never, -on these occasions are female voices allowed. In fact, the female, in -music, occupies about the same position in China, as she once did in -ancient Greece; the better class of respectable matrons do not study any -art whatever; and the less respectable and the slaves, are allowed to -perfect themselves in many arts of pleasing, among which a study of the -lower branches of music, as well as a certain degree of general -education is included. A slave is far more marketable with musical -talents than without. But women always participated in orchestral music, -and in a manner rather astonishing to us; they sometimes played the wind -instruments. The singular custom of allowing the weaker sex to play the -part requiring the strongest lungs was quite universal among ancient -nations, and the Chinese may be regarded as a nation who have kept their -ancient usages almost intact. It is seldom however, that women assist in -any concerts whatever; the instrumental playing as well as the singing -being almost always wholly rendered by men. - -Few travellers have heard a musical Chinese lady sing, and those who -have enjoyed this rare event, say it is the most torturing of all -Chinese music; from the _nose_ and throat issue the most droning and -hideous sounds, and they seem to pile Ossa upon Pelion in the way of -unnatural tones. - -Although the female voice is therefore lacking in the concerted music of -this singular people, the parts sometimes run very high for male voice -and the singers for these parts are procured in the same manner in which -the papal choir in the last century, procured its highest male -voices.[116] - -Of the divisions of the vocal parts in singing, very little is as yet -known, although many books must exist upon the subject, which have -hitherto been inaccessible to foreigners. The natural voice of the -Chinese is rather high, and very high tenors are not at all rare in the -empire. - -The voice in China is trained to much flexibility by the exigencies of -the language, for the Chinese is in one sense, the most musical of -languages, as a word acquires half a dozen different significations -according to the pitch of voice, or inflection with which it is -pronounced. - -The number of different words in the whole Chinese tongue does not -exceed three hundred and fifty; all the additional ones, are simply -variations of these by lowering, or raising the voice. This leads the -foreigner into endless complications and misunderstandings; for example, -the word _tchu_ pronounced clearly with the vowel of medium length, -means “master,” but by extending the vowel a trifle it signifies “hog;” -it also means “column,” and “cookery.” The syllable “_po_” has eleven -different meanings—“glass,” “boil,” “captive,” “prepare,” etc., each of -which must be pronounced with a different pitch and inflection.[117] -Among the original words are some which decidedly are taken from nature, -such as “_tchung_,”—“bell,” “_miaou_,”—“cat,” but these are very few. - -Some authors have endeavored to show from these facts, that the Chinese -is in all respects a musical language, but this can hardly be conceded, -for the inflections spoken of, are so slight as to escape the European -ear, which surely would not be the case if they were really musical -notes, since we have seen that Father Pereira, in the last century, was -able to note down at first hearing, and imitate any Chinese song. The -people in conversation give the voice a flute-like sound, but this has -scarcely arisen from any special musical quality in the language itself. - - - - - CHAPTER XIII. - CHINESE MUSICAL COMPOSITIONS AND CEREMONIES. - - -The most ancient music with the Chinese as with all people, seems to -have consisted of hymns to the Deity, rendering thanks to Him for the -benefits given to man in the various departments of labor. These were -divided according to the class which used them, into agricultural, -military, piscatorial, etc. Very soon after these, there came into -existence that reverential ceremony in memory of the ancestors, which is -so characteristically Chinese, and which became, of all their festivals, -the most important and the most musical. - -This ceremonial as conducted by the emperor is as follows. In the -vestibule of the hall are retainers who bear a particular kind of -standards, which show that the coming of the sovereign is expected. Here -also are seen bells, drums, and musicians, as well as officers of the -guards, all standing in symmetrical figure, and motionless in their -position. On entering the hall one sees, right and left, the performers -on the _cheng_ and _king_, and the minor instruments, all arranged in -their proper order. In the middle are placed the dancers, in uniform and -each holding in hand the instrument which they are to use in their -evolutions. Near the end are placed the players of the _che_ and _kin_ -as well as the performers on the style of drum called the _po-sou_, and -the singers. Finally, at the lower end of the hall are seen the -representations of the ancestors themselves, either in the form of -portraits, or of simple tablets bearing the name of each. Before these -is a table on which stand flowers and libations. Each performer and -instrument is placed in an allotted position. For example, the bell is -at the south-west, the _cheng_ at the north-west, the drum at the -south-east, the flute at the north-east, and the table at the south; and -this arrangement is never departed from. - -When the signal announcing the approach of the emperor is heard, the -singers and musicians, slowly and with great majesty, begin the hymn of -honor, while the emperor, with stately and dignified tread, advances to -the table at the south of the hall.[118] It is a moment of holy awe -(somewhat akin to the instant when the Host is elevated in Catholic -churches) for the spirits of the departed are supposed at this time to -come down from Heaven to their descendants. We give here an English -paraphrase of the words of part of this hymn, which we have translated -from the version of Father Amiot. - - - Hymn to the Ancestors.[119] - - When’er I think of you - Oh ancestors so great, - Then to the highest Heaven - My soul I elevate. - There in th’ immensity - Of the eternal springs - Of Fame which cannot die - And constant happiness - Are your immortal souls. - The vision transport brings - Your valor has reward - Your virtues Heaven doth bless - Around your joyous souls - Each new delight it flings. - Ineffable your joy - Your constant happiness. - If I in spite of faults - And of insufficience - Am called on by the high - Decrees of Providence, - To fill upon the Earth - The very highest place - ’Tis but because I am - Descendant of your race. - Although I never may - In your great footsteps move - Yet I will care display - Throughout my life’s high course - That every act of mine - Shall to descendants prove - That I lived not in vain - And need not feel remorse. - -In giving this, necessarily weak, translation of the opening part of the -hymn, we have endeavored to preserve the short Iambics of the Chinese -version; but in the Chinese there are only eight lines to the first -division, therefore four lines of the translation correspond to one of -the original. After the chorus has sung as far as this, which is only an -exordium, or manner of worthily preparing for the following exercises, -the emperor prostrates himself three times, touching his forehead to the -earth each time, and then taking the libations, offers them up to the -departed: meanwhile the chorus sing the second part of the hymn, still -in the name of the emperor.[120] In this he again alludes _per_ chorus, -to his noble descent, and thanks them for leaving their abode of bliss -to visit him, and humbly prostrated, begs to render homage to them, and -entreats that they will accept the libations offered, as a testimonial -of profound respect and perfect love.[121] After offering these, the -emperor prostrates himself nine times to the earth, and then resumes his -position in front of the table, while the chorus sing the third part of -the hymn. During this final division of the music, the spirits which -descended at the first part are supposed to be reascending to Heaven. In -the third part the emperor (still by proxy) states how mean and pitiful -he feels, after such illustrious predecessors, and tells how heavy the -burdens of state are to him, and thanks his ancestors for their -spiritual assistance. He concludes with the statement that he can do -very little to testify his appreciation of all their benefits, but what -he is able to do he has done. - -“Three times with respect, have I offered the triple sacrifice; not -being able to do more, my vows are satisfied.” The hymn being finished, -the emperor retires with his ministers and _cortege_ in the same order -in which they entered the hall. The music continues until he has reached -his own apartments. Dancers participate in this ceremony and are -sumptuously clad and really assume a _role_ of much importance. As with -the ancient Greeks and Romans, they are not to be thought of as being -jumpers or twirlers; they express by their motions the sentiments which -actuate the emperor as he eulogizes his ancestors, expresses his own -unworthiness, his gratitude, pride, and other emotions. The music of -this august ceremonial, is entirely written in whole notes, without any -change of rhythm whatever. It is rather monotonous than distressing to -our ears. - -This is not the case with other vocal compositions of the Chinese; -nearly all travellers agree in saying that their music, in this branch -especially, resembles far more the cries of the nocturnal cat than the -human voice. The composers seem to have an aversion to progression by -degrees, in their songs, and a decided _penchant_ for long skips. We do -not intend a slur upon the Scotch music when we say that there are -points of resemblance between the Chinese music and the former. Some -Chinese airs (given by Irwin and Barrow[122]) show this resemblance -startlingly. Although the Chinese understand the division of the -chromatic scale perfectly well, yet they never use it; five tones are -all they ordinarily employ; these are - - FA, SOL, LA, DO, RE, - -omitting even the semitone of our diatonic scale. Some of their most -eminent theorists have maintained that the notes pienkoung (si) and -pienche (mi) are as useless to music as a sixth finger would be to the -hand. - -It will be observed that the semitone progression is not used in China, -and though known, is universally proscribed and avoided; it is this -which occasions the peculiarities of Chinese music. On this subject we -cannot refrain from re-quoting an article on Chinese music, which -appeared in the “China Mail,” a Hong-Kong newspaper, in 1845.[123] - -“One possessed of a musical ear, and at all conversant with the musical -art, cannot fail, on his arrival in this country, to be struck with the -peculiarities of what is esteemed music here. He notices at once, that -the characteristics of western melody, are almost wholly wanting. Nearly -every note seems out of place, and there is neither beginning, middle -nor end, to the airs he listens to. Instead of a theme which is -developed and embellished by the whole performance, he hears a -hurry-skurry of notes, apparently flung together without link or -affinity; and even the confusion of sounds to make it worse, instead of -finishing in a quiescing cadence, passes beyond what is looked for as -the last note, and sometimes ends with what we should call a flatted -keynote, leaving the listeners in a most uncomfortable state of suspense -and uncertainty as to what may follow. For my own part, I have not been -able as yet to discover whether the Chinese recognise such a thing as a -keynote among the parts of song, or whether their composers begin, -continue, and end their tunes _ad libitum_.” - -We have inserted the above that the reader may judge how strongly the -music distresses the musical European at first hearing; but it is also -not to be forgotten that the Eastern, (Hindoo and Arabian) music had a -similar effect upon persons who a year later were obliged to acknowledge -that they had begun to find beauty, and take pleasure in it. - -Of other court musical ceremonies, the emperor’s birthday, the harvest -sacrifice, the feast of agriculture, and the fifteenth day of the first -moon, are the most important. The first occasion is described by Lord -Macartney, who heard it on the 17th of September, 1793. It began with a -slow majestic sound of deep-toned bells and muffled drums, in the -distance. This impressive music was occasionally interrupted by sudden -pauses; with equal suddenness the whole force of singers and -instrumentalists would burst out with their utmost strength, while the -entire court bowed their faces to the earth as often as the refrain was -sung:—“Bow down your heads ye inhabitants of the earth, bow down your -heads before the great Kien-long.” - -The emperor was not visible during these ceremonies. - -Among the secular pieces, collected by Amiot, is one which demands -especial notice; it is an instrumental representation of a battle. It -will be recollected that fifty years ago, many popular European -compositions took this shape. “The battle of Navarino,” “the battle of -Prague,” “Waterloo,” etc., were the out-crops of this mania: the Chinese -certainly have better instruments than we had, wherewith to represent -the din of combat. - -In the accompaniment of songs, the Chinese seem to stand, as regards -their harmony, about where Europe stood in the middle ages, for they use -as sole and only harmony, when playing on the _kin_, a succession of -_fourths and fifths_.[124] - -The constant use of instruments of percussion, in slow and monotonous -songs, is one of the most tiresome institutions of the Chinese music; -almost all the tunes are taken at an _andante_ or _adagio_ pace, and it -is but just to say, that the Chinese chiefly dislike European music -because it is often played quickly. - -“To what purpose” they ask, “should one dance and hurry in this manner, -and how can such things penetrate to the soul? With us” they add -proudly, “all is done calmly, and without precipitation.[125]” - -It must be acknowledged, that the Chinese love, and take pride in music, -that is, in their own kind. In every great state ceremony, in theatres, -in religion, it everywhere plays the leading _role_. - -One of the nine tribunals which have charge of the general affairs of -the empire, is charged with the care of music, rites, and ceremonies; -and the mandarins of music are considered of much higher rank than the -mandarins of mathematics, and have their college in the enclosure of the -imperial palace. - -The fondness for the art is apparent in all classes, and music is used -on almost every occasion of festivity, high or low. The streets of the -cities are full of peripatetic musicians, who earn their living by -catering to the general public, somewhat as the organ grinders do with -us. - -The feast of lanterns is the greatest of all popular Chinese festivals; -it takes place on the fifteenth day of the first moon, and corresponds -to a New Year’s feast. On this occasion every part of the immense cities -of the empire glows with the light of innumerable lanterns, while -fire-works and decorations are seen on all sides. In the streets are -seen large _Lantern Theatres_, that is to say, edifices made of paper; -on the inside, which is brightly illuminated, is a stage whereon actors -and singers give plays and concerts. Another great festival, where music -plays a leading part, takes place on the fifteenth day of the eighth -moon. On this evening the Chinese imagine that a _hare_ is seen in the -moon, and to the sound of many instruments, the entire population turn -out to look at it. It is customary for friends to send each other cakes, -on which the figure of a hare is moulded, in sugar. Concerts are an -important accessory to this festival with both rich and poor; the former -make every effort to secure the best singers and performers for their -entertainment on this holiday; the latter, not being able to have the -more delicate instruments content themselves with a clatter of basins, -pots and frying-pans, and make with these a sort of burlesque concert. - -At each full moon there takes place a festival in which gongs and -cannons rather than musical instruments are heard. Besides these -festivals which are celebrated throughout the empire, there are also -local ones, which are numberless. The richest class generally keep their -private troupe of musicians, whom they own almost as slaves. Often also -they educate young children of both sexes, in the musical art with the -utmost care, in order that when grown up they may swell the ranks of -their musical retinue. Among these are often special artists whom they -will not allow to appear on ordinary occasions, but reserve to perform -before their own family, or intimate friends to whom they wish to show -especial honor; at such times, the ordinary performers are sent away. - -Among the strolling musicians, there are many who make their living by -going to private festivals of the middle classes, such as weddings, -birthdays, and other rejoicings, even when uninvited; these are similar -to our ball room musicians, but also bear some resemblance to the -itinerant performers of early Eastern nations. In Poland there still -exists a similar class. - -For the poorer class, there are also, numerous blind musicians, who -travel from house to house, sometimes in bands, sometimes alone. We have -already compared these to our own organ-grinders, but they differ from -them in one particular; they do not rely so much upon making music -indiscriminately, but go, with much tact, to those places where their -services are likely to be required. - -In China the custom of celebrating the birthday anniversary is -universal; these wandering minstrels recollect the date of the birth of -each individual for miles around, with unerring exactness, and when a -birthday _fete_ occurs in any family, they may calculate with some -degree of certainty that the music will come without being sent for. - -There are other occasions, where these shrewd disciples of the muses can -turn an honest penny; if a skillful physician has saved the life of the -wife or child of some rich man no higher compliment can be given to him -(besides his fee) by the grateful nabob, than to invite him to a great -feast, and to send an escort of eight musicians to convey him thither, -besides bringing him numerous presents. - -Music is employed at funerals, but the friends of the deceased, are not -allowed to perform it; for months after, etiquette forbids their -touching any musical instruments. - -The mourning for a parent, or grandparent is very strict and protracted. -In China filial love and obedience are the virtues most insisted upon. -If the descendants give forth any musical sounds at all it is only to -howl dismally a chant respecting the virtues of the defunct; there are -many of these compositions, or “lamentations” in existence, of which the -poetry is by no means despicable. When the funeral ceremony is taking -place, some trumpets and a drum placed at the door, announce the arrival -of visitors who come with their condolences to the afflicted family. -After the body is buried with the ancestors, the _bonzes_, (Chinese -priests) chant the office of the dead, for nine days, and in the -procession itself drums, trumpets, tam tams, flutes, etc., play a -discordant dirge. - -We have already mentioned the wooden fish suspended at the tent door of -military commanders to summon them to audiences concerning public and -private affairs. Mandarins have, in like manner, a drum in the outer -hall of their palaces, by means of which they can be summoned to give -audience to any applicant; they are obliged to give immediate attention -to the complaint of any person beating the drum, but woe to the -audacious drummer who does not have some very especial wrong to complain -of; he is immediately soundly bastinadoed. - -At eclipses of the moon, the Chinese use their musical instruments in a -purposely hideous manner. This is done to frighten away the dragon which -is supposed to be eating up the orb of night. Instruments of percussion -are chiefly used on this occasion. The same instruments (i. e. gongs, -drums, trumpets and tam-tams) are used to aid the marching of the army. - -The _musical language_ such as we use in directing the movements of -cavalry and artillery, is much more extended, though differently used in -China; such musical signals are used in commanding civil as well as -military personages. Various trades have their especial songs also, -which they sing at their work. - -But the music of China, although extending into every department of -social and official life, is totally incapable of any advancement. -Musical martinets are continually exclaiming against the changes in -style of composition, which innovators are constantly introducing into -_our_ art,[126] but it is these changes which give the surest signs of -real life and intrinsic merit to modern music. - -In China, precisely as formerly in ancient Egypt, no such changes are -possible; the music for each and every event is as carefully mapped out -and adhered to, as is the cut of the garments, or the exchange of -civilities among this precise people.[127] - -If ever change takes place in their musical system it will assuredly be -a gravitation towards the European, as they have in a certain measure a -comprehension, theoretically at least, of our system of semi-tones, but -could by no means conceive of, and accurately produce the third and -quarter tones of Indian music. We have already related the ineffectual -movement towards western style, made in the last century; during the -embassy of 1793, Macartney observed many indications of inclination for -our system, such as the use of the violin,[128] the notation of music -upon ruled paper, and interest in the band concerts given at his rooms -each evening. He also found in the emperor’s palace at _Yuen min-yuen_, -an English musical clock, made by Geo. Clarke, Leadenhall Street, -London, which played many selections from the “Beggar’s Opera.”[129] It -is certainly not too venturesome to predict, in spite of the jarring of -their music upon us, that they may yet develop a taste for some of the -coarser branches of ours. - - - - - CHAPTER XVI. - THE CHINESE THEATRE AND DANCES. - - -Although the Chinese are passionately fond of plays, yet they do not -possess a good fixed theatre in their chief cities; for those edifices -which are regularly used for this purpose are never of a good class, and -many of them are even considered disreputable. The cream of the -theatrical troupes are reserved for private entertainments; when a -number of people of the middle class desire a comedy, they club together -and engage a troupe. The upper classes, as already stated, have always -their private comedy company. They have also their private halls for -dramatic representations. - -The Chinese, have like ourselves, Comedies, Tragedies, Farces, Ballets, -etc., and the music attached to them is always of the style of the play. -There is an excellent description of the ceremonies and social etiquette -used at a private dramatic entertainment, given by Du Halde.[130] He -says, ... “It was then, four or five of the principal comedians were -seen entering the hall, in rich costumes; they made a profound bow all -together, and struck the earth four times with their forehead.... They -arose and their chief addressing one of the principal guests, presented -to him a book composed of long tablets, on which were written, in golden -letters, the names of fifty or sixty comedies, which they knew by heart, -and any of which they were ready to perform on the spot if desired; from -this book they begged the guest to make a choice. The guest excused -himself and handed the volume politely to a second guest, with a sign of -invitation; the second guest passed it to the third with the same -ceremonies, the third to the fourth, etc. All excused themselves, and -finally the book was returned to the comedian, who yielded at last, -opened the book, and ran his eye over the list a moment, and then -decided upon a comedy which he thought would prove agreeable to all the -company. Should there be any inconvenience in producing any particular -play, the comedian-in-chief is expected to announce it; one of these -inconveniences would be, for example, that one of the chief characters -of the play bore a name similar to that of one of the guests. After the -choice the comedian shows to the guests the name of the play which he -has chosen, and each one signifies by a nod of the head, his approval. -The representation begins with some music which is essentially Chinese -and noisy. It is performed with metal basins, drums, flutes, fifes, and -trumpets. The play is often performed at a banquet, and after the guests -have finished their meal, the comedians take their places at the table; -after a short refreshment the guests are recalled and the play proceeded -with, or a new farce is chosen and performed as dessert.” - -Many of the plays are not destitute of poetry and plot. It may not be -uninteresting to give a short sketch of the style of incidents woven -into their plays by Chinese authors. - -The following is an outline of the plot of a play performed before the -English embassy, Lord Macartney’s, in the latter part of the last -century; it was given in a private theatre, by a private troupe. - -“An emperor of China and his empress are living in supreme felicity, -when on a sudden his subjects revolt. A civil war ensues, battles are -fought; and at last, the arch-rebel, who is a general of cavalry, -overcomes his sovereign, kills him with his own hand, and routs the -imperial army. - -The captive empress then appears upon the stage, in all the agonies of -despair, naturally resulting from the loss of her husband, and her -dignity, as well as the apprehension of that of her honor. Whilst she is -tearing her hair, and rending the skies with her complaints, the -conqueror enters, approaches her with respect, addresses her in a gentle -tone, soothes her sorrows with his compassion, talks of love and -adoration, and like Richard the Third with Lady Anne, in Shakespeare, -prevails, in less than half an hour, on the Chinese princess to dry up -her tears, to forget her deceased consort, and to yield to a consoling -wooer. The piece concludes with a wedding and a grand procession.”[131] - -Engel, who quotes the above plot, well says[132] “how interesting would -it be to the student of national music, to possess an exact notation of -the music belonging to this scene ‘(the empress complaints)’ and to -ascertain in what manner the intense emotions and vehement passions -represented are expressed in the Chinese musical compositions.” - -The above plot is curious in its Shakespearian resemblance, and seems to -be a drama of the superior order, for Lord Macartney was shown the -highest and best side of Chinese life and art; the comedies of the -people are less refined and of broader touches. We give as companion -piece to the above, a comedy plot which is a favorite one with Chinese -authors as well as the public. - -The emperor Vouti, having lost one of his wives, whom he tenderly loved, -had recourse to a celebrated magician, who assured him that his spouse -was not dead as supposed, for she had bought of him the elixir of -immortality; she still existed, but lived chiefly in the moon from -whence the magician promised he could cause her to descend as often as -desired. The emperor caused to be erected, under the superintendence of -the magician, a very high tower, to facilitate her descent; he also -often assisted at the incantations of the wizard, but as the fair -immortal did not respond, the imposter, fearing the anger of his royal -master, invented a new stratagem to avert this unpleasant conclusion. He -wrote upon a piece of silk a counterfeit letter from the dear defunct -giving various pretended reasons as to why she could not return -personally to the royal lover; this letter is given by the sorcerer to a -cow, who is then led by him to the emperor to whom he confesses that -some involuntary crime has, for the present, interrupted his intercourse -and influence with the immortal beings, but that in the stomach of the -cow he has perceived something; Vouti commands that the animal be opened -on the spot, and the silken message is discovered; the magician is -already enjoying his triumph when it is perceived that the characters of -the communication are in his own handwriting. He is at once condemned to -death, and the emperor thenceforth renounces magicians, immortal -elixirs, etc., etc.[133] - -It is well known that the Chinese often give, on the stage, a -representation of the life of the hero of the play from early infancy -(sometimes even _from birth_) to death, and these representations last -weeks in their performance; every action being done deliberately; for -example, if a performer smokes a pipe, he does not give a whiff or two -and then go on with the action, but calmly and placidly smokes it out to -the last puff. - -Fairy spectacles, the Chinese also possess, in which Genii appear and -disappear, as well as birds and beasts endowed with the power of speech. -Their farces are of a much broader character, and often in these, the -clownish, awkward character is a European or an American; they heartily -enjoy all his mishaps, even his manner of lifting his hat and bowing, -being held up to ridicule; it is very much the same kind of pleasure as -we “western barbarians” enjoy in seeing such farces as “_Ici on parle -Francais_” or “The Perplexed Dutchman,” where the habits of a Frenchman, -and German, are the mirth-provoking element; or of a piece with the -character of Sir Hugh Evans and Dr. Caius, in Shakespeare’s “Merry Wives -of Windsor.” - -There is another point of resemblance in Shakespeare, to the Chinese -drama: his following of the life of Henry VI. so closely and extensively -(through three parts) suggests the more extensive life-history-dramas of -the celestial empire. But the Chinese also give the “outside barbarians” -a thrust, _au serieux_; for in their plays the devil often appears, -dressed as a European. - -In the music of their dramas, the Chinese are decidedly Wagnerian, for -not only do they use a great many loud instruments (chiefly of -percussion) but they illustrate with them the action of the drama; when -an actor enters into a combat at arms, the orchestra pound away at their -instruments with redoubled vigor. The characters often sing long _arias_ -to the accompaniment of these voice-drowning instruments.[134] There is -much spoken action as well as song in these dramas, which therefore -approach more nearly to our _vaudevilles_ than any thing else. - -Choruses are few in Chinese pieces, but sometimes the air is sung by -many voices, in order to emphasize it, and make it more plainly -perceptible above the racket of the orchestra. - -The Chinese have also many tragedies and comedies wherein no music -whatever is employed. The actors in these, assuming the ordinary -conversational tone. - -Conjugal infelicity and infidelity, form a staple plot with these, and -the same inappropriate and ludicrous entering into detail is apparent in -them.[135] - -Movable scenes are not used, and the most infantile devices are used -when a rapid change is necessary; a general having to depart on a -distant expedition, mounts a hobby horse, or even a cane, and using a -small whip with one hand, imitates riding, (three or four times around -the theatre being sufficient) and then, announcing that he has arrived -at his destination, goes on with his speeches without any embarrassment. -This is but one example of the many where the dramatists draw heavily -upon the imagination of their audiences. - -The actor on entering (in the play) begins by announcing his name and -telling the audience why and wherefore he has come; this is done to -simplify the following of the action, as in some dramas there are hosts -of characters and one player often assumes many _roles_. - -Such puerility is caused partly by the small size of the stages, which -would not admit a host of performers, and partly by the fact that many -of the characters in a Chinese play are comparatively unimportant, -appearing once, and then vanishing forever; in fact at the end of some -of the Chinese dramas, one is considerably mystified as to the fate of -many of the characters, as the author, unlike the European and American -dramatists, who make everybody (except the villain) happy in the last -act, only deems it necessary to follow out closely the career of his -hero and heroine, and they being once dead, the other characters are -allowed to wind up in a very sudden and, to us, very unsatisfactory -manner. The musical part of these dramas is often quite long, and -whenever the actor desires to express much feeling, he falls into music. -Sometimes it is introduced in a most unnatural manner; in one tragedy, a -wife having murdered her husband is sentenced to be _flayed alive_; -after the execution of the sentence, she returns to the stage wholly -bereft of her skin, (this is depicted with true Chinese realistic -effect, the body of the performer being painted in exact imitation of -nature in such a hideous plight) and she then and there sings a song to -excite the pity of the infernal spirits. The song is full of screeches -and howls, and lasts half an hour.[136] Let us not be too hasty in -smiling at such absurd stage effects; there is an opera still performed -on our own stage, where an innocent Jewess is boiled in oil, as -_finale_, and as to the inappropriateness of a long song, under such -circumstances, there is a long chorus in a French opera of the last -century, where the mayor of the village having fallen into the water, -the anxious choristers sing for many minutes, that “he will he drowned -unless he is speedily helped out;” decidedly we must not smile too -broadly at the Chinese, as yet. - -Sir John Barrow[137] speaks of the theatre, which he visited, as a mere -“Shed of Bamboo.” He says: “In the farther division of the building, a -party of comedians were engaged in the midst of an historical drama, -when we entered; but on our being seated they broke off, and coming -forward, made before us an obeisance of nine genuflexions and -prostrations, after which they returned to their labors, keeping up an -incessant noise and bustle during our stay. The heat of the day, the -thermometer standing at eighty-one degrees, in the open air, and at -least ten degrees higher in the building, the crowds that thronged to -see the strangers [this was in 1792, when Europeans were great rarities -in China] the horrible crash of the gongs, kettle drums, trumpets, and -squalling flutes, were so stunning and oppressive that nothing but the -novelty of the scene could possibly have detained us a moment.” - -“The most entertaining, as well as the least noisy part of the -theatrical exhibition, was a sort of interlude, performed by three young -women, for the amusement it would seem of the principal actress, who sat -as a spectator, in the dress and character of some ancient queen, whilst -an old eunuch, very whimsically dressed, played his antic tricks like a -scaramouch, or buffoon in a Harlequin entertainment.” - -“The dialogue in this part, differed entirely from the querulous and -nearly monotonous recitation of the Chinese, being light and comic, and -occasionally interrupted by cheerful airs, which generally concluded -with a chorus. These airs rude and unpolished as they were, appeared to -be regular compositions, and were sung in exactly measured time. One in -particular attracted our attention, whose slow, melancholy movement -breathed the kind of plaintiveness so peculiar to the native airs of the -Scotch, to which indeed it bore a close resemblance.” [We have before -spoken of this resemblance, which proceeds from both scales, Chinese and -Scotch, being pentatonic, or five toned.] “The voices of the women are -shrill and warbling, but some of their cadences were not without melody. -The instruments at each pause gave a few short flourishes, till the -music gradually increased in loudness by the swelling and deafening -gong. Knowing nothing of the language we were of course as ignorant of -the subject as the majority of an English audience is at an Italian -opera.” Thus speaks Barrow of his first impressions of a Chinese -theatre, but he probably fell into two errors; the _women_, whom he -mentions were in all likelihood, eunuchs; and the theatre itself, being -public, was of inferior style to those private establishments which are -the pride of the rich mandarin class. - -It is singular, however, that the noise of the gong, tamtam, trumpet, -etc., are inseparable from all Chinese dramatic performances: although -the noise is deafening, and the voices of the actors are sometimes -drowned in spite of their shouting themselves hoarse, yet this -pandemonium only gives tranquil delight to the Chinese spectator whether -he be of high or low class. It is so extraordinary a fact that -physiologists and anatomists have endeavored to prove that the cause is -due to a peculiar formation of the Chinese ear.[138] - -Certain it is that the Chinese are so passionately fond of the drama, -that they will sometimes pass many hours in succession in this noisy -entertainment. - -There is a tremendous number of comedians in China; most of them are -purchased in early infancy by the chiefs of troupes, and by them trained -in music, singing, declamation, pantomime, and dance. It is a species of -slavery, not very unlike that of old Rome, but is not always life-long. - -Some comedians, especially the chiefs, acquire large fortunes in the -exercise of their calling, but the caste is so looked down upon, by the -general public, and the facility of confiscating their fortune is so -great, that they seldom attempt to leave the profession, or make any -display of their wealth, lest it should be seized under any pretext by -some mandarin, in which case (in spite of the theoretical justice of -China) it would probably be beyond recovery.[139] - -We may mention here, a peculiar mode of paying actors, in Cochin China. - -The occasion described is an entertainment, the expenses of which were -borne by the Quong, or provincial governor. An Englishman who was -present, thus speaks of the affair,—“The Quong was there squatted on a -raised platform in front of the actors, with a small drum before him, -supported in a diagonal position, on which he would strike a tap every -time any part of the performance pleased him; which was also a signal -for his purse bearer to show a small string of about twenty _cash_ to -the actors. To my taste this spoiled the effect of the piece; for every -time the _cash_ fell among them, there would be a silence, and the next -moment a scramble for the money; and it fell so frequently as almost to -keep time with the discordant music of the orchestra. - -The actors were engaged by the day, and in this manner received their -payment, the amount of which depended upon the approbation of the -_Quong_, and the number of times he encored them by tapping his drum. I -could see that many of them paid far more attention to the drum than -they did to their performance; though I suppose the amount thrown to -them is equally divided. Sometimes the string on which the _cash_ was -tied, unluckily broke, and the money flew in all directions; by which -some of the by-standers profited, not being honorable enough to hand it -up to the poor actors.[140] - -This was a public performance and took place in a large shed, before a -numerous audience. Often the theatrical performances are allowed to take -place in the Joss-houses or houses of worship, the _bonzes_ or priests -being wise enough not to offer any obstacles to a mode of amusement so -thoroughly loved and appreciated by all the Chinese. - -It is somewhat singular, and yet in keeping with the custom of the most -ancient nations, that the Chinese should at the same time enjoy the -drama so keenly, and despise the performers of it. The comedians are -kept as thoroughly within their caste as musicians were in Egypt, four -thousand years ago. Parents in China have almost unlimited power over -their children (filial love and obedience is the highest of Chinese -virtues,) they may sell them as slaves, or in some instances kill them, -but they are not allowed to sell them to the troupes of strolling -comedians, or to magicians. Any person so selling them is punished with -one hundred blows of the bamboo, and any go-between or middle-man, in -such transactions, receives a similar dose; any person of free -parentage, marrying an actor or actress, is punished in the same manner, -in spite of the precedent of several emperors. The crime of intimacy -with actresses is punishable with sixty blows, but this is easily -eluded, and the law seems to be obsolete. This punishment is not -attended with much infamy; the bastinado is in fact the lightest of -Chinese punishments. When the number of blows does not exceed twenty, -there is no disgrace whatever attached to the infliction: it is then -considered only a paternal chastisement; the emperor himself often -orders this correction to be administered to high officials for slight -faults, and afterwards treats them as if nothing had happened. After -such paternal punishment is inflicted, the victim goes on his knees to -the judge, bows his head three times to the earth, and _thanks him_ for -the care he has given to the education of his subject.[141] - -It is significant that the “State Gazette” of Pekin, which will often -enter into details concerning the death of a private soldier, and give -eulogies to the military valor of the most humble, does not even mention -the decease of the most brilliant and well-known comedian, no matter how -much applause may have been accorded to him while living. - -In such a country as China, it is easily imagined that there exists a -large troupe of “comedians to the emperor.” These although not more -superbly costumed than those of some rich mandarins, are clothed in a -peculiar manner. Of course it would not be allowable to turn their backs -upon the emperor, and yet often the action of the play, might demand -that they turn around. This dilemma is overcome by allowing them to wear -two masks, one on the face, the other at the back of their head, and -thus, Janus-like, they can always face the emperor. Their clothing is in -consequence different from that of ordinary actors, having two fronts -and no back.[142] - -The _corps_ of singers, declaimers and musicians of all kinds belonging -to the Imperial court, is of course very large. - -The dances of China, are as with all Eastern or ancient nations, purely -pantomimical, there are few pirouettes and skips as in our _ballet_. The -names and subjects of some of the earlier dancers, will show this -conclusively; “The labors of Agriculture,” “Joys of the Harvest,” “The -fatigues of War,” “The pleasures of Peace,” “The skill of Hunting,” etc. -These all show a primitive style of the art, and are not far removed -from the dances we shall find in vogue among the most crude children of -nature, such as the Australians, the Bushmen, or the Tasmanians. The -Chinese possess (as did the Egyptians) a number of gymnastic -performances similar to our clog, ballet, and comic dances, but these -come a long way after the dance proper, in the estimation of the people; -the word _ou_ which signifies dance, does not apply to them. We cannot -be surprised if from earliest times the regulation of the dance has been -a matter of State legislation. - -The ancient emperor was allowed eight dances, with eight performers to -each, his full troupe containing sixty-four members. Kings of Provinces -had six dances of six performers, thirty-six in all; and thus through -all the upper ranks, literary doctors being allowed only two dances of -two performers each. Only certain instruments were allowed as -accompaniment, and the direction of the whole was always to be in charge -of various musical doctors. There also existed dances which were called -“little dances,” as they were taught to children at a tender age; the -names of some of these are interesting; “the Dance of the Flag,” danced -in honor of the spirits of earth and the harvests, so called because the -dancers waved small banners; “The Dance of the Plumes,” in honor of the -spirits of the four quarters of the world, in which the young dancers -carried a plume of white feathers, attached to a short stick; “The Dance -of the Foang-hoang,” which was danced to induce the assistance of the -mysterious bird (already described) in times of drought, and in which -the dancers held plumes of feathers of five colors; “the Dance of the Ox -Tail,” in which each dancer swings an ox tail; “The Dance of Javelins,” -where this weapon was brandished in honor of river and mountain spirits; -and finally, “the Dance of Man,” in which the hands were quite free, no -accessories being used. - -The “Javelin Dance,” was not altogether pleasing to the great -philosopher Confucius. He condemns it as being too war-like, and the -gestures accompanying it, as too savage; as a whole he thought it liable -to inspire cruel sentiments. He preferred the “Dance of the Plumes,” as -containing all the chief elements of the “Javelin Dance” without -tendency to cruelty. In the palace, the sons of the emperor only, were -permitted to the “Dance of the Plumes.” - -At the epoch, when these dances were at their zenith, the emperors had a -peculiar way of showing by them their approbation, or condemnation of -their viceroys. When the viceroy was presented at court, if his -administration seemed good to the emperor, he was welcomed by numerous -and lengthy dances; if, on the contrary his government seemed worthy of -censure, the dances were both short and few. - -The following were the customs observed in presenting them:—Long before -the dance began, a drum was sounded “to dispel from the minds of the -spectators any thoughts unsuited to the occasion.” On the arrival of the -performers, they took three steps forward and put themselves in an -attitude, calculated to impress the beholders; a sort of _tableau -vivant_. The entrance was always accompanied with a slow movement of the -music, which gradually augmented both in speed and volume, until the -_finale_, when the climax having been reached, the music had attained a -presto movement, and the dancers retired with precipitation in order -that the interest might not have time to flag. - -Sometimes the dancers carried a small shield with bell attached. - -The Chinese sages deeply regret the loss of these ancient dances; (for -like all excellent customs the modern writers claim that they were at -their best in “the good old times,”) it seems that the ancient Chinese, -endeavored in the dance, to reproduce an easily-comprehended allegory of -the natural actions of men; the movements, gestures, attitudes, and -evolutions, all to be natural and easily understood by the spectators. -Since the days of Confucius, this simple style of dancing has fallen -greatly to decay. - -In those days many of the emperors of China studied and understood the -art of dancing. History shows many such “Davids” (although not so well -known as Israel’s royal dancer) in the dynasties of the empire. Autumn -was the favorite season for the study of dancing, as the “feast of -ancestors” takes place in the Spring, and the pupils were ready to -exhibit their proficiency at that great event. The ancient practice of -imperial dancing, was continued even as recently as 1719, when one of -the sons of Kang-hi, of the age of twenty, performed before the emperor -and his court. There are also mandarins whose duty it is to dance before -the emperor; the pantomime of these is especially graceful and -dignified. They advance slowly two by two, their limbs and bodies moving -gently to the time of a tranquil music; they turn around without -quitting their relative positions, and after a series of gestures made -in perfect unison, and some symmetrical evolutions, they make the salute -of honor, and retire. This dance seems to be only a formal expression of -homage to the emperor. The dress of these officials is uniform, and -elegant, fine silk capes, caps, etc., the only difference of costume -being the buttons, with which the top of the caps are ornamented; the -different color of these being indicative of greater or lesser rank. -This _corps_ of dancers is recruited from the wealthiest and greatest -families of the empire. - -In the dances, every detail is strictly systemized and observed; the -very positions are calculated according to the points of the compass; -thus one dancer is always placed at the north-west, another at the -north-east, the entrance is to be made from a fixed cardinal point, the -exit at another; all is rule and precision. - -The number of dancers is not at present limited to that given above -(sixty-four for the emperor, thirty-six for viceroys, etc.) as the -ancient standard. At times of great festivity, the dancers of the -Imperial court are reckoned by hundreds. Such _grandes ballets_, are -almost always symmetrical and in concerted movements; but there are also -_solo_ dances; in these _pas seuls_ the dancer often accompanies himself -with both song and instrument. This proves how slow and majestic the -motions must be. - -In dances, females very often appear, but in private only. Mandarins -frequently own female dancers and singers, whose performances are -reserved for their own families. It is but rarely, and as a mark of -especial honor, that they allow some intimate friend to view the dancing -of these slaves. - -Spectacular pantomimes, such as delight the theatre-goers at Christmas -time in Europe and America, find also a congenial atmosphere in China; a -most beautiful one was performed in the presence of the emperor, and -Lord Macartney, in 1793. In this representation the object seemed to be, -to illustrate upon the stage, the wonders and fertility of the world, or -an allegory of the intermarriage of earth and ocean. The earth gave -forth in this pantomime, a large number of its animals, and products; -elephants, tigers, dragons, ostriches and eagles, as well as oaks, -pines, bamboos, and other specimens of vegetation appeared upon the -stage; while upon a lower stage, the ocean sent forth whales, dolphins, -porpoises, and also vessels, rocks, weeds, sponges, and coral. Each of -these creations was true to life, and in many of them were concealed -actors who represented the motions and habits of the animals in a manner -quite natural. After these products of earth and sea had performed -several evolutions separately, each division moving in a separate -circle, all united and came to the front of the stage, where a farther -series of movements was enacted; suddenly the entire mass of actors -divided, moving swiftly to the right and left in order to give place to -the whale, who seemed a sort of commander in chief. This immense fish -then advanced to the front of the stage, opposite the box in which the -emperor was seated; on arriving here, he lifted his head and spurted an -enormous mass of water, amounting to many barrels full, into the pit of -the theatre; where (holes having been bored to receive it) it swiftly -disappeared.[143] - -This performance seemed to give the greatest delight to the Chinese part -of the audience. The music attached to this spectacle, was as usual of -the most deafening character. - -Of the lower order of dances, such as tumbling, harlequinades, etc., the -Chinese have a vast variety; even puppet shows (_marionettes_) are -greatly used by them, and plays with simple plots, very skilfully given -by their means. This is the story represented at one of them;—An -unfortunate princess is kept prisoner in a castle surrounded by dragons: -to her comes a bold warrior, who after many combats with dragons, wild -beasts and other horrible creations, succeeds in killing, vanquishing -and dispersing them. He is recompensed by receiving the hand of the -grateful princess, and the whole concludes with processions, tournaments -and other festivities.[144] - -As to the musical part of all these lesser performances, it is nearly -always present, and ever of the peculiar style which has filled every -traveller (so far as we know _without exception_), with utter distaste. -The juggling performances, of which there are many, both public and -private, are accompanied throughout with the above described orchestra. -Feats of skill, performed by troupes of children are especially admired -by the Chinese, and much sought for. The children begin their training -in these arts, very young. - -Boat races have also their music, which is evidently intended to -inspirit the oarsmen. The following is a description of such an event, -(so far as it relates to music). - -“On each side of the little mast that supports the national flag, are -two men, who leave off striking the tum-tum, and executing rolls upon -the drum, whilst the mariners leaning over their oars, row on -vigorously, and make the dragon junk, skim rapidly over the water. - -Whilst these elegant boats are contending with each other, the people -throng the quays, the shore and the roofs.... They animate the rowers -with their cries and plaudits; they let off fireworks; they perform at -various points, deafening music, in which the sonorous noise of the -tum-tum, and the sharp sound of a sort of a clarinet, giving perpetually -the same note, predominate over all the rest. The Chinese relish this -infernal harmony.”[145] - -We have dwelt with some detail upon the music of the Chinese, for we -consider these people, musically as well as ethnologically and -philologically a series of contradictions, and especially differing from -all our conceived notions of right and propriety: a nation where music -is heartily loved, and taught to youth,[146] and yet where musical -progress is almost unknown; where goodness and love are taught in the -most beautiful writings, and where greater cruelties are practised than -anywhere else on earth. They differ from us on almost every point. We -mourn in black, they in white; we respect crowns as badges of honor, -they the boots; we build solid walls, they make them hollow; we pull a -boat, they push it; we place the orchestra in front of the stage; they -behind it; with us children fly kites, with them, men; we scratch the -head when puzzled, they, the antipodes of it, etc, etc.[147] - -A nation so strange cannot be judged flippantly or speedily; only a -short time since we held the Japanese in the rank of the semi-civilized; -now they are making giant strides on the highway of progress. Who dare -say that the Chinese may not yet experience a similar awakening? At -present their heaviest drawbacks, in music, as well as in all -civilization, seem to be, a senseless clinging to ancient usages; an -education of the head, and not of the heart; an etiquette which becomes -both ludicrous and burdensome in its requirements;[148] a totally false -position of woman; and a theoretically competitive, but practically -corrupt public service. There have recently been unmistakeable signs of -progress, and, once begun, it is more than probable that the reform will -be thorough and swift as it has thus far been with their neighbors. In -such case, China will be of far higher interest to the world than she -has been to us in our describing her as—a curiosity shop. - - - - - CHAPTER XVII. - MUSIC OF JAPAN. - - -It is a singular fact, that while the Japanese have in all ages given a -great deal of attention to poetry the kindred art of music has been -suffered to remain almost neglected. Their musical system has never been -carefully formed or elucidated, and although they may vie with the -Chinese in the beauty of their poetical effusions, in the field of music -their research is nothing, when compared with the immense patience and -study which the latter people have given to the subject. - -Although there are few treatises on the art, yet the practice of music -is now deemed an essential part of the education of a Japanese young -lady, for contrary to Chinese custom, we find that in Japan, the female -sex are proficient in the art. - -Although at first glance there seems to be much affinity between -Japanese and Chinese music, (so much so, that it seems natural to -suppose that the former was an outgrowth of the latter) yet, upon closer -analysis, these resemblances are found to be few, and the contradictions -many and irreconcilable. - -The Japanese songs do not appear to have been founded on the Chinese -pentatonic scale, but rather upon the _chromatic_. - -It is very possible, that the music of Japan had its rise long ago, -within the limits of the island. Unfortunately, in this branch of -history, we can as yet, come to no definite conclusion; the absence of -all knowledge of the system (if there be one worthy of the name) on -which their melodies are formed, and the very slight knowledge of the -ancient history of the people, confine us altogether to conjecture and -inference. That China exerted some influence upon the musical style of -Japan, is undeniable. In the year (A. D.) 57, an embassy was sent from -the island, to the Emperor of China, with presents. The return of this -expedition, brought to the (at that time) totally rude and uncultivated -people, the fruits of the older Chinese civilization, and it was -probably at that epoch, that the Chinese instruments, which still exist -in Japan, were introduced. - -The instruments of Japan, though resembling, are much cruder than their -Chinese, prototypes. The _che_, of China, is found under the name of -_koto_. It is larger than the _che_, but has fewer strings; the latter -are of silk, lightly lacquered. The _sam-sin_ is a guitar, with a very -long neck, and has three strings. These instruments are among the -indispensable articles of the wedding outfit of every bride.[149] - -Of wind instruments they have many styles of flutes and a trumpet, made -of a conch shell.[150] The _cheng_ (small mouth organ) is also possessed -by them. It is called in Corean dialect _saing-hwang_.[151] Gongs, -tamtams, and noisy instruments of percussion, the Japanese possess in -profusion; they have also a curious instrument, quite like the Egyptian -sistrum,[152] formed of two sonorous metallic rings upon a light frame -work, which give forth a tinkling and jingling upon being shaken, or -struck with a small stick.[153] The _ko-kiou_ is a kind of violoncello -played with a bow; the birva is a similar instrument, which is picked -with a _plectrum_. The same plectrum is used in performing upon the -_sam-sin_. The clarionet is used very frequently; it is made of bamboo, -like the flute. There is also an eight-holed flageolet. Among the -instruments of percussion, are wooden rattles; stone drums like bowls, -which stand on low frames; a musical drum made of leather; the -_tam-tam_, or portable tambourine; gongs of all shapes, such as shields, -fishes, tortoises, etc., producing all tones grave and piercing; bells, -and kettle drums. - -The tambourines which accompany the character dances, are sometimes -played two at a time; one being held under the arm, the other in the -left hand.[154] There is a picture extant, representing a Japanese -concert, in which there is one melodious instrument (a flute) against -_six_ instruments of percussion, such as bells, cymbals and drums.[155] - -The Japanese ladies not only play the various instruments, but study -singing, assiduously. The language is well adapted to vocal efforts, -being one of the most melodious and soft of the East; it approaches the -Italian in its smoothness; it is monosyllabic,[156] but not varying with -the pitch of the voice, as the Chinese does. (The written characters -have been derived from the Chinese.) The very alphabet, or the nearest -Japanese approach to it, is converted into a short song, which is -characteristic of the materialistic views of the people. - -The poetic setting of the “Irova” (as this is called) runs thus:— - - “Color and light pass away - In our world nothing is permanent - The present day has disappeared - In the profound abyss of nothingness. - It was but the pale image of a dream; - It causes in our bosoms no regret.”[157] - -Nothing can give a stronger picture of the philosophy of Buddhism and -its influence upon the Japanese mind. - -Buddhism was so well suited to the temper of the people, that upon its -introduction into the country (A. D. 552) it almost absorbed the ancient -style of worship (Sintuism), and has, at the present time, so altered -that superstition, that the prevailing aspiration of one branch, even of -that creed, is an escape from trouble into nothingness. The mode of -worship is exceedingly simple, and in the main, joyous; there is no -thought of supplication to their deities; for as they regard these as -being in a state of bliss, they deem that the sight of any person in -distress, must be painful to them, and therefore, when in trouble, they -avoid going to religious exercises. In fact on the days of religious -festivals, they behave in a manner which we should call decidedly -immoral, but they do it with the best of motives, for they argue that -nothing can please the gods more than to see mortals enjoying themselves -heartily; and on this plea, both Buddhists and Sintuists indulge in all -kinds of excesses on holidays. - -Music does not play a very important part in the religious ceremonies of -Japan. The Sintuists, who worship the Kami, or demi-gods, employ choirs -on some occasions, and bear in all their ceremonies, some resemblance to -the Catholic rites; this resemblance is yet more striking in the -Buddhist religion; so much so, that a pious divine[158] on beholding -their customs, came to the conclusion that the whole was a parody by -Satan, upon the Catholic church. - -The annual _fetes_ instituted in honor of the chief Kami, consist almost -wholly in ceremonies of purification. On the day before the chief -solemnity, the priests march in procession, with tapers, to the temple -where the arms and other objects which belonged to the demi-god, are -kept in a reliquary called _mikosi_. According to the priests, the -_mikosi_ is the earthly dwelling place of the _Kami_; a sort of -terrestrial throne, for occasional inhabitance; and each year it must -undergo a thorough purification, in order to be acceptable to the hero. -The reliquary is emptied and brought to the river; a certain number of -priests carefully wash it, while others kindle a series of huge fires, -to keep away the evil _genii_. The _kagoura_, or sacred choir, play soft -and pleasant music, in order to appease the Kami, who is temporarily -deprived of his earthly dwelling; they make as much haste as possible to -restore it to him, which is done by placing the relics again in the -reliquary. - -The temple itself undergoes a purification lasting several days, at the -same time. Sometimes the Buddhists send out collectors for their -temples, who sing and play, quite musically, in front of the doors of -persons from whom they expect to obtain a gratuity; they continue at -each door until the heart of the proprietor is softened, or his patience -gone, when the door is opened and the singers rewarded civilly.[159] - -In order that the similarity of the Buddhist and Christian rites may be -remarked, we give the description of the interior of a temple during -worship, as seen by a European traveller.[160] - -“A hundred kneeling devotees were present; a large shrine, with a gilt -image in its recess; two large globular lamps, and two burning candles, -immensely long and thick; as also numerous gold and porcelain vases, -holding lighted tapers, and surrounded by a forest of artificial -flowers, were the objects that most riveted his attention. On both sides -of this magnificent and richly gilded shrine were two smaller ones, each -illuminated with lighted candles and perfumed tapers, burning with -colored flame; the effect of which was very beautiful. In front of the -principal altar, within an enclosure, knelt six shaven-headed priests -(the latter, and physicians shave the whole of the hair off their -heads), robed in crimson silk, and white crape; the centre and chief of -whom engaged himself in striking a small saucer-shaped bell, while four -more of the number performed a similar duty with padded drumsticks on -hollow vessels of lacquered wood, which awoke a dull, monotonous sound. -They kept good time, playing in unison, and toning their prayers to -their music in chanting. At the conclusion of this singing and drumming -they bent their foreheads to the floor, after which they arose and -repaired to the smaller shrines, where a ceremony made up of -gesticulation and a solemn reading of prayers, took place. In the -meantime, the audience knelt, with their eyes directed to the ground, -and gave some time to silent prayer.” - -Music bore a part also in the funeral ceremonies of some sects in Japan. -The priest sang a eulogy of the dead, just before the funeral pile was -set on fire.[161] - -The order of “mountain priests” use a few instruments of sound (rather -than music) in their wanderings. They have a staff with a copper head, -to which are fastened four rings, also of copper, which they shake on -uttering certain words in their prayers. They also carry a shell called -_forano-kai_, to which a tube is attached, and which they use as a -trumpet. They blow a blast upon this instrument (which in tone resembles -the horn of a cowherd) whenever they see any travellers approaching, as -a summons to them to give some charity to the order.[162] - -There also exist several orders of a semi-ecclesiastical character; -among which may be mentioned the society of blind men. One branch of -this society gives the following legend as to its origin. Kakekigo, a -general much renowned for his valor and supernatural strength, fought -under a prince, named Feki, against the famous hero, Joritomo. In a -great battle Feki was killed, and Kakekigo taken prisoner. Joritomo, far -from desiring to put him to death, sought by every means to attach him -to his own army. One day, when he was pressing him very close to enter -into his service, upon whatever terms he pleased, the captive general -returned him the following resolute answer:—“I was once the faithful -servant of a kind master. Now that he is dead no other shall boast of -possessing my faith and friendship. I owe even my life to your clemency; -and yet such is my misfortune, that I cannot set my eyes on you, but -with a design, in revenge of him and me, to cut off your head. -Therefore, these designing instruments of mischief, I will offer to you, -as the only acknowledgement of your generous behavior towards me which -my unhappy condition will allow me to give you.” Saying this, he plucked -out his eyes, and presented them, on a salver, to Joritomo; who, -astonished at so much magnanimity and resolution, instantly set him at -liberty. - -Kakekigo then retired into the province of Fiuga, where he learned to -play upon the birva (a musical instrument mentioned above), and founded -the society of the Feki-blind, of which he himself was the first head. -Many of the members of this society apply themselves to music, in which -capacity they are employed at the courts of Princes and great men, as -also upon public solemnities, festivals, processions, weddings, and the -like. The society does not solicit charity, but its members all strive -to be self-supporting, as well as of mutual assistance to each other. -Whoever is once admitted as a member, must remain so for life.[163] - -The Birva, mentioned above, is a great favorite with the masses, -especially when played by the Feki musicians, who still make it their -chief instrument. It has been known in Japan for twelve hundred -years;[164] and one of the most beautiful lakes in Japan, near Kiota is -named Birva Lake, from its shores resembling the outline of that -instrument. - -The religious chanting of some of the larger sects, is quite impressive. -Mr. Sile, Professor of History and Philosophy at the Imperial University -of Yeddo, says:—“Some of the chants are very impressive; especially -those of the Buddhists; they have a kind of sepulchral solemnity about -them, and when performed responsively by large companies of Bonzes, on -either side of a gloomy temple, in front of a shadowy half-illumined -shrine, they sound like the mournful wailings of prisoners, not of hope, -but of despair.”[165] - -The peculiarity of the performance lies in this: every man chants, not -on a given key, but on that which best suits his natural voice. The time -is well kept, but the key notes are as various as each voice that sings; -as each one is allowed to choose his own pitch. The effect is good; it -giving that blurred and massive sound, which is observed when a large -congregation repeats the “Lord’s Prayer” together; but the inflections -and intervals are more marked and effective. Instrumental music is also -sometimes present. The bonzes clad in heavy, sacerdotal vestments, -officiate to an accompaniment of gongs and tambourines. - -The solemn entry of the high priest into the choir, makes an immediate -diversion in the monotony of the service. This grand dignitary is clad -as richly as the bishops and arch-bishops of the west; red cloak, green -silk stole, and white embroidered robes. He is followed by a young -acolyte, dressed chiefly in white, who accompanies his master, step by -step, to offer to him, at an understood signal, a cup of tea from a -portable vessel which he carries with both hands.[166] - -Some of the Buddhist bonze-houses are celebrated for their luxury, the -number of their priests, their magnificent attire, and the theatrical -grandeur of their religious ceremonies. There are also endless numbers -of retainers, heralds, grooms and porters, attached to the monasteries. -The bonzes often give theatrical spectacles, in which dancers and -comedians appear. A very curious piece is given on the fifteenth day of -the sixth month. It is a sword dance, or military pageant, performed -entirely by the priests. Buddhism in Japan has been a most flexible and -conciliatory religion. It has succeeded so easily against the older -Japanese religion of Kami, or hero-worship, because its introducers saw -what customs had become rooted in the Japanese heart, and retained them. -Thus we find the worship of heroes, tolerated in the Buddhist faith, as -well as every spectacle and sound, calculated to please the senses of -the people. It also steered clear of the rock upon which Christianity -split (in Japan), that is, the alienation of the people from their -rulers or sovereign. - -Players of secular music, are numerous everywhere in Japan, but few of -them have any idea of time or notation. Blind musicians (of the -fraternity above mentioned, and of another called the Buffetz) are -numerous and much encouraged by the people, probably on account of their -infirmity. Women and girls form the bulk of the secular players and -singers. Most of these have been brought up to this from childhood, and -(as with the ancient Greeks,) the possession of a musical and literary -education often goes hand in hand with considerable laxity of morals. - -The practice of music is, therefore, not held in any great esteem among -men, as the few males who devote themselves to it are chiefly -itinerants. The secular songs are often plaintive in character, but at -times also quite stirring and fiery. - -In Japan, as in some other Eastern countries, it is not unusual to find -persons among the upper classes, who, while disdaining to study the art -themselves, yet are very fond of listening to the performances of hired -musicians. The taste seems to run entirely in the direction of melody, -and not at all towards harmony; although they have a knowledge of a rude -kind of harmony, consisting of melodies played upon two or more -instruments tuned a fifth apart, thus forming an endless succession of -consecutive fifths. This harmony, or a plain melody played in unison, -they prefer to the finest (or, in fact, any) European music. Our readers -will recollect the answer made by the Chinese mandarin to Pere Amiot, -relative to his opinion on the respective worth of Chinese and European -music. A similar reply was given by a Japanese nobleman to Dr. Müller, -when asked to give an opinion on our music,—“European music may please -women, children, and common people, but Japanese gentlemen may not -endure it.” - -In singing, the Chinese custom of using falsetto tones, obtains also in -Japan. One peculiar taste for Western music exists among the Japanese; -they like, and purchase many of our music boxes, and many are made in -Switzerland especially for the Chinese and Japanese market. These -contain two Chinese airs; but it is said that the people would enjoy -them even more, if there were no harmonies attached. The entire -instrumental music of Japan, partakes of a tinkling character, -suggestive of a music box. - -Secular singing is an indispensable adjunct of banqueting and feasting. -These are frequently enlivened by songs and the sound of stringed -instruments.[167] - -The Japanese have a great _penchant_ for excursions, banquets and lively -enjoyments; they have been, not inaptly, called the “Parisians of the -West;” hence it is not surprising to find houses of entertainment -scattered broadcast throughout the realm. In these tea houses, every -kind of dissipation, from the most innocent, to the reverse, is found, -often under the same roof. The most aristocratic of these resorts, have -a numerous staff of attendants, among which are singers, dancers, and -guitar-players. Although these establishments appear disreputable in -European eyes, yet the Japanese gentleman does not hesitate to take his -wife and children thither, for a pleasure jaunt. When we consider that -the Japanese are the most careful people in the world regarding the -education and behavior of their wives and children, we cannot attribute -this seeming incongruity to negligence. - -In tea houses of an inferior rank, when female dancers and musicians are -not among the assistants, they may be sent for, and engaged by the hour. -These women never enter the lower class of tea-houses, unless thus sent -for. In this respect, as well as by the correctness of their behavior, -they are to be distinguished from the lower order of street musicians -and dancers at fairs. These are not allowed to perform in private -houses; the law compels them to confine their music to such places as -are subject to police regulations. Theatres being included in this -category, they often appear there, at the request of performers in the -plays, in order to figure in the ballet.[168] - -In Yeddo, many of the tea houses are built along the banks of the river; -and in this case, they have large family boats or gondolas attached, -which they let out by the hour, to such parties (and there are many) as -desire to take their recreation upon the water. Guitar players and -refreshments are furnished with these boats. - -The lower classes are passionately fond of listening to story tellers -and singers, and these, as in other Eastern countries, give open air -performances, trusting to their ability to delight their audience, for a -voluntary recompense. - -Every day at the close of working hours, one may see groups of artizans, -and laborers, as well as many women of the working classes, either at -the door of the workshop or at a street corner, arranged in a -semi-circle around the story-teller. - -National legends and romances are usually given only by those women who -have made a profession of music and singing. This branch of street -singers forms a large class; they are less roving than the others, and -sometimes of rather a high order of talent, as compared with their more -itinerant associates. The most distinguished of them have three or four -musicians as accompanists, and do not themselves play upon any -instrument. The effect of these combinations is said sometimes to be -very charming, when heard and seen on a summer’s evening, in a light -bamboo frame work, hung round with vines, and lighted with paper -lanterns. - -Humbert has given the subject of some of these legendary songs, and they -are found to be of a most sensational description. A few examples will -suffice to prove this. - -“Asahina-Sabro charges a troop of enemies, and passes through them, -lifting with his right hand, a soldier wearing a casque and cuirass, and -spinning him round in the air, while with the left hand he kills two -equally redoubtable warriors with one blow of his mace.”[169] - -“Nitan-nosiro, the dauntless hunter, astride on the back of a gigantic -wild boar, which has flung down, and trodden under its hoofs, all the -companions of the hero, holds the furious monster between his knees, and -plunges his cutlass into its shoulder.” - -“Sonsige, one of the horsemen of the Mikado, finds his comrades -squatting around a checker board; he spurs his horse, and with one -bound, it stands in the centre of the board, as motionless as any bronze -equestrian statue.” - -“Tame-tomo desired to conquer the island of Fatsisis. As he mercifully -desired to avoid bloodshed, he set about convincing the islanders that -resistance was useless. He therefore summoned the two strongest men of -the race of the Ainos (the ancient inhabitants of Japan) and, seated -calmly upon a mass of rock, he presented his bow to them, holding it by -the wood and ordering them to try and bend it. Each seized it with both -hands, and setting their heels against the wood of the bow, they leaned -back with all their weight, and pulled the string with all their -strength. Every effort was in vain; the bow only yielded when Tame-tomo -took it delicately between the finger and thumb of his right hand, and -shot an arrow which was immediately lost in the clouds.” - -It must be remembered, however, that these highly spiced romances are -the especial pabulum of the lower classes; and it may be ranked -considerably higher than the musical recreation of the working classes -of China. - -The laborers of Japan, sometimes sing while at their toil, in a measured -but cheerful manner.[170] Before leaving the subject of Japanese songs, -it may be interesting to note that in the days of Kæmpfer, the Japanese -were as curious about our songs, as we are to hear those of barbaric -nations; for the emperor and his court, insisted upon that grave -historian dancing, and singing before them.[171] On one of these -interesting occasions the historian basely deceived the imperial -Japanese searcher after knowledge; for on being commanded to sing, he -sang to the emperor, a love ditty, which “he had formerly composed for a -lady, for whom he had a particular esteem;” and upon the emperor -inquiring the meaning of the song, he answered that it was an ode of -praise, in honor of the emperor and his court.[172] Let us hope that the -Japanese will not lead our investigators astray in such a manner. - -The court of Japan had, at that era, musicians attached to its service, -though by no means on the grand scale of the Chinese court. The empress -had her private band, consisting of players upon the birva, the koto, -and the samsinn. Theatrical representations were sometimes added to -music. A corps of young comedians played little operas, or executed -character dances, some grave and slow, in which a long mantle was worn; -others lively and playful, the dancers appearing suddenly and with -appropriate movements, in the disguise of birds or butterflies. - -The court ladies had their private boxes at the theatre and at the -circus of wrestlers; many of these customs still exist at the Japanese -court but not with the spirit and life of former days. - -Processional music is, in Japan, similar to that described in “Chinese -Music,” noisy and distressing; but it is by no means so generally used -as in China. In some processions it is not present at all. The emperor -formerly appears to have had no music in his pompous cavalcades, for a -description of one of these pageants (written in the seventeenth -century), thus concludes: - -“It is at the same time in the utmost silence that the procession -proceeds. No one is heard to speak a word. Neither the spectators in the -streets, nor those who form the procession, make the least noise. It can -only be perceived by the sound of men’s footsteps, and the tramping of -horses.”[173] - -At the ecclesiastical processions, which take place on days devoted to -special _Kami_, (similar to the saints days of Europe), and called -_Matsouri_, the music consists of the fifes, drums, and gongs of the -bonzery. Of course these processions vary in proportion to the -popularity of the special Kami or saint. The greatest _Matsouri_ which -takes place at Yeddo, is that given in honor of Zinmou, the founder of -the empire. Even those who do not believe in Kami-worship, attend this -feast to show respect to their country, and it has become a patriotic as -well as religious occasion. Over a million of spectators, annually view -this procession. In the ranks appear an image of the patron of sacred -dancing, borne on a large drum; and the sacred gong of the priests. The -band on this occasion is large, and flutes, trumpets, big drums, -cymbals, gongs, and tambourines are among the instruments carried. The -expenses of the lesser _Matsouri_ are often defrayed by the people of a -street or quarter which is specially devoted to the _Kami_ in whose -honor it is held. - -Many of the customs above alluded to are sensibly losing their hold on -the populace, since the recent introduction of our civilization; this is -especially the case with such customs as come under government -surveillance. The military music for example, has been remodelled on the -European plan; regimental bands in French style (that is with a -preponderance of drums), are now attached to the Japanese national army. -The trumpet calls are said to be played with much aptitude by the -Japanese performers, but in the matter of time-keeping by the band, and -keeping step to the music by the soldiers, exactness is yet far from -being attained.[174] In the theatre and its music, there is, as yet, not -so great a change from former days, yet there are many European customs -to be found there (though probably not all derived from Europe), and the -theatre differs from that of China, in having a curtain in front of the -stage; in being often built upon a permanent site; and in other -particulars. - -The plays although sometimes quite as minute in details as the Chinese, -are much shorter, lasting usually about two hours; and are often much -wittier. - -There has been a peculiar manner of presenting these plays; if five -plays are to be performed in one day, the following mode has sometimes -been adopted.[175] - -The performers go through the first act of the first play, then the -first act of the second play, and so on until the five _first acts_ have -been given. They then take the _second_ act of each play in succession, -and so on, until all the last acts are given. The object of this custom -is to enable spectators to see one act, go away, and come again in time -for the next act. - -Often, however, the spectators remain throughout the entire day, and in -that case refreshments are openly consumed. It is also thought correct -for ladies to change their dress as often as possible during the day, so -that there is as much change of costume, in front of the stage as upon -it. In the Japanese comedies there is generally a large amount of love -making. The tragedies deal chiefly with the exploits of the mythological -heroes, and are expressed in verse, sometimes declaimed, sometimes -sung.[176] The terrific combat is an acknowledged essential of this -order of plays.[177] - -The effect of the martial scenes is much increased by a bass drum, -called “taiko” (after a celebrated ancient warrior), which is sometimes -played with a smaller one called “kakko.”[178] - -The building where these plays take place is very plain. The theatre at -Matsmai, the capital city of the Island of Jesso, is thus -described.[179] - -“It is a large and pretty high building; at the back is a stage which -with us, has a raised floor. From the stage to the front wall, where the -entrance is situated, two rows of seats are placed for the spectators. -In the middle where we have the pit, there is a vacant space in which -straw mats are laid down for the spectators. As this space is much lower -than the stage, those in front do not intercept the view from those -behind. Opposite the stage, where in our theatre the galleries and chief -boxes are situated there are only a bare wall, and the door for -entrance. - -There were no ornaments in the interior; the walls were not even -painted. The dresses and decorations are kept in a separate building.” - -In Yeddo this is far different and keeps more pace with civilization, -and, as Yeddo supplies the surrounding provinces with both actors and -plays, the change is spreading throughout the empire. The plays begin at -six or seven, P. M., and last (without the before-mentioned -alternations) until one or two o’clock in the morning. Theatres are -exceedingly numerous in the city; each has its own arms or design, by -which it is called; and these are painted upon banners and lanterns, -which are hung from a tower upon the roof of each establishment. We give -as complement to the above description of the Matsmai theatre, the -following picture of a leading theatre at Yeddo. - -“The interior of the theatre forms a long square. There are two ranges -of galleries, the upper containing the best places in the theatre. -Numbers of ladies are to be seen there in full dress, that is to say, -covered up to their eyes in crape dresses and silk mantles.[180] The -whole of the remainder of the house is occupied exclusively by men. - -The floor of the house as seen from a distance, resembles a draught -board. It is divided into compartments containing from eight to twelve -places each, most of which are hired by the year by the citizens who -take their children regularly to the play. There are no lobbies. Every -one walks to his place on the planks which enclose the compartments at -the height of the spectators’ shoulders, who squat on their heels, or -crouch on little stools. There is neither a ladder nor staircase, by -which to get down into the midst of them. The men hold out their arms to -the women and children. The settling of the audience in its place forms -a very picturesque part in the preliminaries of the representation. -Tobacco and refreshments are served during the whole evening by koskeis, -or servants, along the before-mentioned gang planks. On two sides of the -pit are two bridges of planks, which also communicate with the boards of -the stage; the first is nearest to one of the doors; the second, which -is four planks wide, forms an angle with the extremity of the boxes. On -this bridge certain heroic or tragic comic personages perform their -part, and the ballet is danced. The house is lit by paper lanterns tied -to the galleries; there is no chandelier from the roof, which is -perfectly flat, the cupola being unknown in Japanese architecture. Large -lanterns are however, sometimes held up to the roof, in order to light -up the performance of the acrobats, especially that of the ‘flying men,’ -who cross the theatre by means of cleverly contrived mechanism. - -The curtain which hangs before the stage, is ornamented by a gigantic -inscription in Chinese characters, and surmounted by a target with an -arrow in the centre. This is a symbol of the talent and tact which the -actors are about to display, and signifies that they expect to ‘hit the -bull’s eye’ of the audience’s wishes.”[181] - -The performance generally lasts till one o’clock A. M., and usually -consists of a comedy, a tragedy, an opera with a ballet, and two or -three interludes of acrobats, wrestlers and jugglers. - -The tragedy we have already partly described as of a mythological -sensational type. In the comedy it is often customary for the audience -to address the actors, and the latter answer in kind; thus frequently a -brisk fire of _repartee_ is kept up which delights the audience far more -than the play itself. It is very rare in any of these pieces that more -than two actors are upon the stage together. In the ballet the -performers are richly attired, and sometimes wear several dresses of -light silk, one above the other; as they dance they detach a few of -these vestments and allow them to hang from their waist, a cloud of airy -texture seemingly voluminous, but in reality very light.[182] The -Japanese plays are sometimes preceded by a prologue in which much of the -action is described (_a la_ Greek chorus) but not the _denouement_.[183] -The performance of the jugglers is most to the popular taste, for it is -not unusual to find the restaurants (with which each theatre is -surrounded, and which cater to the same class of custom) quite crowded -during the entire performances, but the moment that the gong gives the -signal for the commencement of the juggling, they are at once deserted, -every one hastening back to his seat in the theatre. The principal parts -of the performance are announced not with a bell or with music, but by -striking a small wooden stick upon the stage. - -Sometimes the actors pass through the audience on their way to the -stage, in order to give the spectators an opportunity to admire their -appearance and costume, as closely as possible.[184] The appearance of -infernal personages on the stage is always accompanied with lightning. - -The principal characters of the drama are accompanied on the stage by a -couple of attendants, each carrying a long stick at the end of which is -a lighted candle. The use of these candles is amusing; they show to the -audience what they ought to admire. If the actor’s facial expression be -peculiar, his attitude graceful, his dress fine, or his weapons elegant, -the candle is at once held to the part, to attract attention. - -With regard to the literary merit of the Japanese drama, not enough is -yet known whereon to base a detailed analysis, but it is safe to say -that the art is yet in its infancy. It is singular, that, while we -regard some of the situations in their plays as exceedingly indelicate, -they, on their part, condemn our drama as totally immoral, and would not -tolerate such plays as “Hamlet,” “School for Scandal,” etc. - -The key to the enigma is this,—they allow every license to unmarried -ladies, but the married state is with them inviolable. They therefore -tranquilly witness plays which would put “Camille” to the blush, but -allow nothing which involves post-marital intrigue. Some of their actors -are quite skillful; there is one at present upon the Yeddo stage, who -performs the part of a man possessed with the soul of a cat, and the -blending of human and feline character is said to be marvelous. - -The caste of actors, as in China, is rather low; the comedians being in -least repute. Although the theatre is so well patronized, yet it is only -by the middle and lower classes; very few aristocrats even of the lesser -nobility ever attending, and these even disguise themselves. - -Of course, it was to be imagined that the Jesuits would not (at the time -of their mission in Japan) neglect so straight a road to the popular -attention, as the drama. In their church at Nagasaki (more than two -centuries ago), they represented a play in the style of the mediæval -miracle plays, representing the birth of Christ. The parts were taken by -the neophites and native students at the college of the order. -Everything passed off in the best possible manner, as well in the -appointments of the theatre, as in the ease and smoothness of the -acting, and it would have been applauded in any European theatre.[185] - -It may be interesting to the reader to peep into the green room of a -Japanese theatre, during performance. It is thus described,— - -“In these places none but men are to be seen, excepting from time to -time some servants, or the artists’ wives who bring refreshments to -their husbands, or come to give the last touch to their toilet before -they go on the stage in the costume of either sex. In the midst of the -general disorder we find some very characteristic groups. Here are -musicians occupied in refreshing themselves, and indifferent to -everything else until the signal to return to their posts shall reach -them; there, two actors are rehearsing together the attitudes and -gestures which in a few moments are to delight the spectators; and -another sitting on his heels, before a looking glass placed upon the -floor, is painting his face and adjusting his feminine head-dress. A -young devil beside him, has thrown back his mask, with his horns and -mane over his shoulders and is fanning himself, while the chief of the -wrestlers, is tranquilly smoking his pipe, in the midst of the acrobats. - -Among the crowd, carpenters are coming and going, carrying the screens -and partitions for the next scene; the machinist is working a trap -through which a whirlwind of flame is about to escape; and the piece is -going on outside to the accompaniment of drum beating, amid the -conversation of the public in the house, and that of the disengaged -actors.”[186] - -Such briefly, is the condition of music and the drama in Japan, but such -astounding changes are taking place throughout every part of the life of -this enterprising people, that a description which is appropriate at -present, may be a record of past customs, ten years hence. Already there -is a tendency in upper circles towards Western music, but this may be -rather a result of fashion (which is being rapidly _Europeanized_) -rather than of genuine appreciation; even the present empress of Japan -has, it is said, a real taste for European music and instruments. She is -a good performer upon the piano-forte. - -As with the Chinese, the customs in general of the Japanese are at total -variance with our own; to show respect we take off our hat, they their -shoes. We get up, they sit down, (it is the height of impoliteness to -receive a visitor standing.)[187] - -We turn the back as a mark of incivility, they as a token of -respect;[188] their mixture of the truest modesty with the greatest -license, must ever remain an enigma to us. Since then, we cannot in -other respects, judge this remarkable people, it behooves us, in the -field of music, to study them without preconceived ideas of the art. -That music is in an undeveloped state with them, is undoubtedly true; -the absence of treatises and system proves it; but what direction the -art will take in its development can only be settled by time. That it -will not remain stationary in the midst of change, is a foregone -conclusion. - - - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - MUSIC OF SAVAGE NATIONS. - - -The music of savage tribes, should properly begin a chronological -account of the music of the world. It can scarce be doubted that the -strains which to-day delight the ears of the rudest peoples, were -similar to those which gave pleasure to the uncultivated denizens of the -earth in pre-historic times. The scientific inquirer, even to-day, finds -unexpected points of resemblance in music of nations and tribes, -separated from each other in distance, custom, climate and religion; -resemblances which are so numerous that they can only be accounted for -by the hypothesis that the strains have come down from an earlier, -homogeneous race. Of course the earliest efforts of primitive man were -rather rhythmical than musical, and even at present the music of the -least civilized races is altogether rhythmical. The ease of the -discovery that a regular clapping of the hands, or stamping of the feet, -or striking two pieces of wood together, could produce a pleasing -effect, is so apparent that it puts all discussion as to the origin of -music, out of sight; a fortunate occurrence, since there are enough -points of dispute yet left for our wiseacres to contend over. - -The discovery of drums and horns also came almost directly from nature; -and here the musical instruments of primitive man stopped; and here also -(in drums, clappers of wood, and trumpets) the catalogue of musical -instruments, of the more savage peoples, of the present, ceases. - -But among the more advanced tribes of savages, we shall find instruments -that will cause us to coincide with Solomon’s opinion, that “there is -nothing new under the sun.” - -With these, who did not stop contented at the rude percussion and -trumpet instruments, the next step was probably to cut reeds of various -lengths and to discover that the length regulated the tone. Here was the -first real discovery in music, for no sooner were high and deep tones -known than pleasant alternations would suggest themselves, and as a -consequence, melodies (however uncouth) sprang into being. Possibly at -the same mystic era, the tension of the sinews of some animal, left -exposed to the breeze, would fore-shadow string music. Then a thought -was required to find that the sounds varied with tension of the sinews, -and that a frame on which several threads and sinews were extended in -different degrees of tension, could be made to give the same variety of -tones, but of different quality of sound (_timbre_) from the reed pipes. -This already made demands upon the inventive faculties, and in the -infancy of music, as in the modern orchestra, stringed instruments take -the lead.[189] - -It is improbable, however, that all nations went the same road in these -discoveries. Accident had much to do with it. The conch shell, among a -tribe near the sea, the horn, with a hunting people, and, with people -situated near the bamboo forests, the “pans pipes,” would be the first -of instruments. Instruments of the order of flutes, were also of easy -fabrication, and the knowledge that they are so wide-spread among -savages all the world over, is internal evidence that they were -“natural” instruments. - -Without sketching further the probable progress of musical invention, we -shall now describe some of the instruments and songs used by the people -of the world who are yet in a state of nature. But first let us mention -some instruments, which have been handed down to us from an immensely -remote and ante-civilized period. - -The antiquarians in classifying the progress of pre-historic races from -their earliest emergence from barbarism, have called that age, when the -use of metal became first known,—the Bronze Age; as at that time -smelting not being known, the use of iron was not understood, and metal -implements were fashioned of copper, which could be beaten by the hammer -(of stone) into the required shape, even when cold. - -Of this mysterious epoch, a most interesting relic has been discovered, -in the shape of a musical instrument. In a sepulchre, in a deep ravine, -in Schleswig, were found very recently, a number of ornaments of bronze -and gold (silver as well as iron, was not then used), and also the horns -of many oxen. In the midst of this, lay a very large _trumpet_ of -bronze; a sure token of the existence of manufactured musical -instruments, thousands of years ago. This unique instrument when blown, -gives forth a deep, grave, and sonorous tone. In common with all the -barbarian trumpets, it has but one tone. It is at present in the Museum -of Copenhagen, but was exhibited at the Paris Exposition of 1867.[190] - -The second of these instruments is more ancient still. The age preceding -the knowledge of the uses of metal by early man, is called the Stone -Age. At this period the rude implements of use and ornament were made -either of soft substances, such as wood, ivory, and horn, or else of -stone. Even in this crude epoch, instrumental music seems to have -existed, and not in its rudest form, for a specimen has fortunately been -preserved, which, if authenticated fully, will show a degree of musical -taste at a most unexpected period. In an ancient _dolman_, or sepulchre -near Poictiers was found a partly completed _flute_ made of a stag’s -horn. The distances of the holes, and shape of the mouth-piece, show an -aptitude of construction and an experience in acoustics; but the -instrument evidently belongs to the later period of the Stone Age. - -But the third instrument is more interesting yet. It was discovered by -M. Lartet in a ravine, along with bones of animals now extinct in -France. It is also a flute (straight, and with mouth piece), with finger -holes.[191] It is made of the bone of a reindeer, which seems a proof -positive of its being made at a time when the climate and zoology of -France were totally different from the present. From the skulls found in -tombs and caves of this period, it appears impossible that man could -have been developed sufficiently at that time to construct an article of -pleasure, such as this. The skulls are said to greatly resemble those of -the present natives of Australia. Yet their possessors must have had a -vastly superior intelligence to the latter. - -It is no great leap in fact, although it may be in time, to leave the -savages of our own ancient race, and describe the musical customs of the -savages of another, and inferior one. Therefore, we will leave the -discussion of the above three instruments and their makers to -Anthropological and Ethnological societies, and pass on to the -examination of the barbarian of the present age. - -One of the most curious facts in savage music is to be found in New -Zealand. It is almost universally conceded that harmony was unknown to -Europeans until the tenth century; yet in New Zealand for unknown ages, -a combination of simple thirds in a short vocal strain[192] has been -known. It only illustrates the assertion of the force of accident, in -the rise of music. - -Here was a savage tribe of cannibals who came upon a most important -musical idea (to be sure, in a crude state, but still the germ of the -Harmonic theory) probably long before its acceptance among civilized -nations. - -Another strange savage song is that which was sung by the aborigines of -Canada, at the time of Cartier’s taking possession in the name of the -King of France (A. D. 1537). The curious fact here, was not in the -music, but in the words, in as much as the word “Alleluia” occurred in -it. This strange coincidence made some early writers conclude that the -inhabitants were Hebrews,[193] probably the lost tribes; it is needless -to say, that the surmise, was not borne out by any further researches. - -In describing the music of barbarian races, we find that its sister art, -dancing, is closely connected with it, and that it is impossible to -separate the two. In the lowest tribes, the dance is the most prominent -part of the musical efforts of the people. The Australians, who are -considered, from the conformation of their skulls, and legs, to be -nearest to the brute creation, have many interesting dances. The most -important of these is the “Cobbongo Corrobboree,” or great mystery -dance. It is performed by the inhabitants of the far interior of the -island. We subjoin the account of a witness of this event. - -The time selected for this great event is every twelfth moon, and during -her declination. For several days previous, a number of tribes, whose -territories adjoin one another, congregate at a particular spot, -characterised by an immense mound of earth, covered with ashes (known -amongst the white inhabitants as “a black’s oven”), and surrounded by -plenty of “couraway” or water holes. - -To this place, they bring numbers of kangaroos, possums, emus, and wild -ducks, and a large quantity of wild honey, together with a grass from -the seed of which they make a sort of bread. - -“Upon the evening on which the ‘corrobboree’ is celebrated, a number of -old men (one from each tribe) called ‘wammaroogo,’ signifying -medicine-men, or charm-men, repair to the top of the mound, where, after -lighting a fire they walk round it, muttering sentences, and throwing -into it portions of old charms which they have worn round their necks -for the past twelve months.” - -“This is continued for about half an hour, when they descend, each -carrying a fire-stick, which he places at the outskirts of the camp, and -which is supposed to prevent evil spirits from approaching. As soon as -this is over, during which a most profound silence is observed by all, -the men of the tribe prepare their toilets for the ‘corrobboree,’ -daubing themselves over with chalk, red ochre, and fat.”[194] - -“While the men are thus engaged, the gentler sex are busy arranging -themselves in a long line, and in a sitting posture, with rugs made of -possum skins, wound round their legs, and a small stick called ‘mulla -mulla’ in each hand. A fire is lit in front of them, and tended by one -of the old charmers. As the men are ready, they seat themselves, -cross-legged, like tailors, and in regular serried file, at the opposite -side of the fire to the women, while one of the medicine-men takes up -his position at the top of the mound, to watch the rising of the moon -which is the signal for ‘corrobboree.’” - -All is now still; nothing disturbs the silence, save the occasional -jabber of a woman or child, and even that, after a few minutes, is -hushed. The blaze of the fire throws a fitful light along the -batallion-like front of the black phalanx, and the hideous faces, daubed -with paint and smeared with grease, show out at such a moment to -anything but advantage. As soon as the old gentleman who has been -“taking the lunar” announces the advent of that planet, which seems to -exercise as great an influence over the actions of these people, as over -many of those amongst ourselves, the “corrobboree” commences. - -“The women beat the little sticks together,[195] keeping time to a -peculiar monotonous air, and repeating the words, the burden of which -may be translated in this manner,— - - ‘The kangaroo is swift, - But swifter is Ngoyulloman; - The snake is cunning, - More cunning is Ngoyulloman, etc.’ - -Each woman using the name of her husband, or favorite in the tribe.” - -“The men spring to their feet with a yell that rings through the forest, -and brandishing their spears, and boomerangs commence their dance, -flinging themselves into all sorts of attitudes, howling, laughing, -grinning, and singing; and this they continue until sheer exhaustion -compels them to desist, after which they roast and eat the product of -the chase gathered for the occasion, and then drop off to sleep one by -one.”[196] - -We have already expressed our opinion that the dance (pantomimic) first -sprang into existence when some savage finding his own limited language -(perhaps even, he had none) inadequate to describe to his companions, -some deed of hunting or war which he had performed, reproduced the feat -in actions, to give a more perfect understanding of it. If song be as -old as speech, dancing may be said to be as old as gestures. - -We are not surprised, therefore, to find among the Australians, dances -which represent such events. In the “frog dance,” the performers paint -themselves as usual, and then, squatting upon their haunches, jump -around in a circle imitating the motions of the frog. The “Emu dance” -represents the chase after that swift running bird. The performer who -takes the part of the Emu, imitates its fleet, long strides, and gives -out the low rattling drumming sound which is the bird’s only note. - -In the “canoe dance” men and women stationed in two lines, imitate the -graceful motions of paddling a canoe. - -There is a dance “with partners” prevalent in the southern part of -Australia. Both sexes participate in it. Each man carries a belt of -possum skin, or human hair, which he keeps stretched tight, holding one -end in each hand. The men all sit down in a circle while a woman takes -her place in the middle; one of the men then dances up to her, jumping -from side to side, and swaying his arms in harmony with his movements. -The woman also begins swaying and jumping in time with him, as he -approaches her, and after a short _pas de deux_ they dance back to their -places, while the centre is occupied by a fresh couple. - -A strange dance was celebrated by the Tasmanians at each full moon. The -various tribes assembled at some trysting place, and while the women -prepared the fire, and fenced off a space for the dance, the men retired -to adorn themselves with paint, and to fasten branches of bushy twigs to -their ankles, wrists and waists. The women being seated at the front of -the space, one of the oldest among them, strode forward, calling by -name, one of the performers, whom she reviled as a coward, and -challenged to come forward and meet her charge, and answer it. - -The warrior was swift enough in his response, and, bounding through the -fire, into the circle, he recounted his deeds of valor in both chase and -war. At every pause he made, his female admirers took up the list of his -praises, vaunting his actions in a sort of chant which they accompanied -with extemporized drums, made of rolled kangaroo skins. - -“Suddenly upon some inspiring allegro movement of the thumping hand, -thirty or forty grim savages would hound successively through the -furious flames, into the sacred arena, looking like veritable demons on -a special visit to _terra firma_; and, after thoroughly exhausting -themselves, by leaping in imitation of the kangaroo, around and through -the fire, they vanish in an instant. After this, the old lady who was -the origination of all the hubbub, gave a signal, upon which, all the -females rose, and quite unadorned, gave a series of acrobatic -performances around the fire, that were strange and wonderful to behold. -The main point being however, with each of them, to outscream her sister -singers.”[197] - -In the dances of Australia and Tasmania, only the rudest instruments of -percussion are used, and the chants are not musical, though sometimes -(rarely) the attitudes are graceful. A far more musical and poetical -people, are the New Zealanders who as we have already mentioned, -intuitively knew of harmony before the Europeans. Many of their love, -war, and religious songs have real sentiments of beauty in them, and the -gift of improvising poems and songs is much prized among them. Singular -to state, they (unlike all other savage races) do not use the drum in -their accompaniment. The _pahu_ (drum) is only used by them to give -military signals.[198] Their chief instrument is the flute, which is -usually made from a human thigh bone; often that of a fallen enemy. When -this is the case, the instrument is more than ordinarily prized, and is -worn around the neck. It is played through the nose, by placing the -nostril against the aperture, and blowing; stopping the other nostril -with the finger. - -The native New Zealander sings in all his sports and labours, and in -spite of his _penchant_ for human flesh, is of a light and joyous -temperament. Every incident of war, chase or love is commemorated by an -extemporized song. Sometimes these songs live for generations after -their signification has passed away; and thus it is, that in many of the -songs of this people, words are found, of which, neither the singers nor -audience understand the meaning. One song (_E’Haka_) is accompanied with -much mimicry; when giving this, the performers sit down in a circle, -throw off their upper mats, and sing in concert, making meanwhile the -wildest of gestures, and turning up their eyes so that only their whites -are visible. - -Their canoe song is very animating, and is often accompanied by the -primitive nose flute mentioned above. - -The words (improvised) are such as “pull away! pull away! pull away.” -“Dig into the water.” “Break your backs,” etc., and are shouted with -stentorian lungs, but not unmusically. - -But their greatest song and dance is the war-dance. In this they far -excel all other savage tribes the world over. Their movements although -extremely violent, are made with a precision and unity, to which all -other races are strangers. A description of this unique performance -speaks of it as follows. - -“They begin by smearing the whole of their clothing and painting their -faces with scarlet ochre, so as to make themselves as hideous as -possible. When they assemble for the dance they arrange themselves in -lines usually three deep, and excite their naturally passionate -dispositions to the highest pitch by contorting their faces, and -thrusting out their tongues as an act of defiance, interspersing these -gestures with shouts, yells and challenges to the enemy. The dance -itself begins with stamping the feet in perfect time with each other, -the vigor of the stamp increasing continually, and the excitement -increasing in similar proportion. Suddenly with a yell, the whole body -of men leap sideways into the air, as if actuated by one spirit, and as -they touch the ground, come down on it with a mighty stamp that makes -the earth tremble. The war song is raised, and in accordance with its -rhythm, the men leap from side to side, each time coming down with a -thud, as of some huge engine.”[199] - -The New Zealander often entertains himself with sham fights,[200] but -nothing has so intense an effect upon him as the music and action of -this rhythmic war-dance. Even when actual war is not impending, he will -enter into it with a vigor that is terrible. It transforms him for the -time into a monomaniac, and absorbs his whole nature; even when the -dance is given in honor of a stranger, it is dangerous to go too near -the Maori (native New Zealander) until he has become more tranquil. - -On one occasion a party of New Zealanders, visiting a European ship, -were requested to give an exhibition of their war-dance on board. They -did so, beginning without much excitement, but gradually their leaps -became so fierce and powerful that the captain was afraid that they -would break the deck; he begged of them to desist, but in vain; he might -as well have spoken to a whirlwind. His voice was drowned in the shouts -and singing of the frenzied warriors. The chief of the party, showed the -influence of its charms, in a ludicrous manner:— - -He had been presented on his arrival, with a full suit of naval uniform, -and he stalked around the deck, in all the dignity of new clothes. He -cheerfully allowed his followers to begin the war-dance, but he himself -looked on with conscious dignity; but after the excitement had continued -a few minutes, he too was drawn into its vortex. At first a gentle -swaying of his body, in time with the music was all: then a little -_sotto voce_ singing, then he joined in the rhythm stamping, and -finally, forgetting his new finery, he sprang into line and danced more -enthusiastically than any of them; so much so, that the clothes soon -split, and at the end of the dance he presented a very seedy appearance. -It is needless to say that the dance could not in any way be checked, -and found its conclusion only when all the dancers were reduced to a -state of complete exhaustion. - -With all savage people, song, dance and poetry are indissolubly united; -a fact which goes far to prove the “naturalness” of the old Greek music. -In the Malaysian archipelago we find a similar style of music, to that -described above; but we find the natural instrument of barbarians, the -drum, far more plentifully used. - -The Javanese have two kinds of drums, both made of copper, but differing -in size and pitch. The sound is like that of a distant bell, and as they -are used in sets, the compass often reaches an octave. The larger set, -called _Salendro_ contains but five tones in this interval; the general -effect of this set is _major_. The smaller set, called _Pelog_, contains -seven drums to the octave, and is minor in style. The natives themselves -speak of the _Salendro_ as being masculine, and the _Pelog_ as being -more tender and feminine in its _effect_. - -The songs of Java (as also of other islands in the Malay archipelago) -are strongly suggestive of the Scotch popular ballads, and can readily -be reproduced in our scale. - -It is not customary to sing the written poems, with an instrumental -accompaniment unless there is dancing simultaneously. As in French -poetry and song, many letters, usually mute, are sounded, so in the -Javanese much license of pronunciation is allowed in song, which would -be condemned in prose. There are some traces of inflection and accent, -altering the meaning of a word; thus “_boten_” signifies “_no_,” but -when the accent is placed on the first syllable, it signifies a haughty -or peremptory refusal, but when on the latter, a mild and regretful one. - -The Javanese have three styles of musical compositions, the great, -medium, and lesser. The latter is used for the popular songs, the former -for the higher flights of poetry. - -Very often one can hear an old native, on a holiday occasion, singing of -the great deeds of the ancient princes; the subjects of his ballads, are -often borrowed from the _babads_, or popular legends of the country, and -he accompanies himself with a species of stringed instrument. He sings -of the glories and fall of the kingdom of Pad-jad-jaran, and praises and -laments those royal heroes. Many of the love songs of the Malays are -written in the form of question and answer, as follows,— - - “Where do the swallows go to bathe? - They go to bathe in the forest brook. - What has my loved one promised to me? - She has promised to chat a little with me,” etc. - -This questioning and answering is not confined to their music, for the -Javanese are passionately fond of conundrums.[201] The imagery of their -poems and songs is of the simplest and most natural description, fields, -flowers, trees, rivers, etc., appear _ad infinitum_ in their -literature.[202] Their early historical legends are full of Gods in -human form, of giants, and miracles; somewhat resembling in this the -Hindoo allegories. - -Theatrical representations, of course form a large part of both -Malaysian and Polynesian popular amusements. In Java, national history -is preserved not only by the ballads, but by pantomimic representations; -in the latter, little puppets made of leather, wood, or paper, and -sometimes masked performers, appear. The performance is accompanied by -orchestral music, certain stringed instruments of which are only played -by women. Some of the representations are given at night behind a white -curtain, and resemble what, with us, are called, “shadow pantomimes;” -these are performed mostly by females, and often last all night, -breaking up, at times, as late as six in the morning. - -At all Javanese _fetes_, music is played, and every native is expected -to entertain such wandering musicians as apply to him. A refusal is apt -to cost dearly, as the irate musicians stone the dwelling of the -obdurate one.[203] - -M. Scherzer, connected with the Austrian Round-the-world expedition in -1857 (in the frigate Novara), was not highly delighted with the Javanese -pantomime dancing and music;[204] he says: - -“Conversation was carried on with difficulty, for an incessant and -stupefying noise was kept up with the _gammelong_, or orchestra of -bells. Bayaderes, very scantily clothed, and excessively ugly, executed -sentimental and religious dances of a most tedious description. - -Stiff, slow, and thin, these damsels jumped like forks, with motions as -graceful as those of old semaphores. The governor was kind enough to -explain to us, that the dance was meant to represent the touching -history of four sisters, who, lost in the forest, implored from the -divinity the return of their mother. - -This was followed by another choregraphic entertainment, a dance of -eight warriors, accompanied by the perpetual _gammelong_. The same -delectable music, delighted the ears of those who were without in the -court-yard. Hideous masks, on foot and on horseback, circulated there -amidst the crowd; a Mussulman priest was also howling fearfully, as he -danced on hot ashes, near to a mass of burning wood; others jumped in -and danced away frantically. At last the priest himself joined them, and -the shouts and gesticulations became furious. This representation had -probably some signification of religious expiation, at least it would -have been deemed as such in ancient mysteries.” - -After this followed conjuring tricks of a wonderful, though sanguinary -description, “and then the infernal _gammelong_ began again.” Then came -excellent fireworks. “At last the _gammelong_ ceased its stunning -noise.” - -During Captain Cook’s voyage round the world, Banks and Solander, two of -his best associates witnessed (A. D. 1769) a pantomime in one of the -Society islands. It was of a comic nature, and contained music and -dancing. The subject was the adventures of a thief, including his -capture.[205] In Cook’s second voyage, Forster observed a comic opera in -the Society islands, which appear closely allied to the above. Actors -and actresses appeared in this play, the first act of which concluded -with a burlesque beating of three of the participants. The commencement -of the second act was announced by the musicians beating their -drums.[206] - -In the Tonga islands, the actors of these musical dramas recite -sentences which are answered by a chorus of singers. There is a great -variety in their movements and groupings. Occasionally they sing slowly, -and afterwards quickly for about a quarter of an hour. Sometimes they -form a semi-circle, assume a bending position, and sing in a subdued -tone of voice, a soft air, which is soon followed again by a loud and -vehement declamation. - -It is a singular fact that some of the races most addicted to -cannibalism are also much addicted to music. We have seen this already -in the case of the New Zealanders; it will be fully as apparent with the -most cannibalistic race of the globe,—the Fiji Islanders. With them, -music teaching is a remunerative art, and any one who has composed a new -song or dance, can earn a large quantity of goods by teaching it. Their -musical instruments are poor and few; they consist of pipes, flutes, -drums, and trumpets. The trumpets are merely conch shells, blown through -an aperture in the side. - -The flutes are nose-flutes, played by putting the aperture under one -nostril, closing the other with the thumb of the left hand, and blowing. -The pipes are a species of pandean pipes made of bamboo. - -The dances are very carefully got up, and more resemble military -movements than dances, the similitude being increased by the martial -array of the dancers, who are all dressed as if for war, their faces -painted with scarlet, their bodies powdered black, and their best clubs -or spears in their hands. They execute intricate manœuvres, marching in -various figures, wheeling, halting, and stamping their feet in exact -time to the rhythm of the song, and the beat of the drum. - -Sometimes several hundred men are engaged in the dance, while the -musicians are twenty or thirty in number. The scene at one of these -dances is very picturesque, but it wants the furious energy, which gives -such fiery animation to the war-dance of the New Zealanders; the -movements, though correct in point of time, being comparatively dull and -heavy. In order to enliven it a little more, a professional buffoon is -usually introduced upon the scene, who performs sundry grotesque -movements, and is usually applauded for his exertions. Music and dancing -are always used at the celebration of a marriage.[207] Mr. Seeman in a -recent work[208] says of the entertainment called _Kalau Rere_, that, -“with its high poles, streamers, evergreens, [these cannibals are very -tasty in their personal adornments, wreaths of flowers, evergreens, -etc., being much used], masquerading, trumpet shells, chants, and other -wild music, is the nearest approach to dramatic representation, the -Fijians seem to have made, and it is with them, what private theatricals -are with us. Court fools, in many instances hunchbacks, are attached to -the chief’s establishment.” - -The music of the remaining races of Oceanica, does not differ very -materially from the above-described forms. Many of the instruments found -in use among the Malays, have had their origin in China and India,[209] -and therefore the description of them has not been made so minute as -that of the instruments of those countries. Summed up briefly, we find -that the taste for rhythm is _every where_ prevalent; for instruments of -percussion, almost so, (the New Zealanders forming a notable exception -here), and that the prevailing impulse of these races, on hearing -rhythmic music, is to dance. - -We now proceed to the examination of the music of another large division -of the human race. - - - - - CHAPTER XIX. - AFRICAN MUSIC. - - -In describing the music of the natives of Africa, we will place in -contrast the modes of the two extremes of the scale of intelligence. - -The Kaffir is certainly as far in advance of the Bushman, as we are in -advance of the native Indian. The Kaffir is peculiar in music; very -deficient in melody, he is almost perfect in rhythm and time-keeping. He -is fond of singing in company, and in fact is a rather convivial person -altogether. At social meals, while the food is cooking, the guests often -amuse themselves by singing together until the repast is in readiness. -The subjects of the songs are various; love songs, and war songs being -held in equal favor, but the Kaffir is always specially pleased with any -song that relates to the possession of cattle; and being a cattle-owning -people, they have many songs celebrating their favorite subject. - -Many of the Kaffir’s musical effects would seem most ludicrous to us. -Sudden contrasts, have, to him, a special attraction, and it is not -unusual to hear him give the highest squeaks of falsetto, and the -deepest bass grunts, alternately. - -Loudness in singing is his great end and aim, and to effect sudden -_sforzando_ effects, he has a peculiar method, i. e.—the choruses of the -songs are usually meaningless, being often a mere reiteration of the -words e-e-e-_yu_ (which may be called the African “fol de roi de ray”), -and when, after shouting with full lungs on the _e-e-e_, the singer -desires more power on the _yu_, he effects it by giving himself a sound -thump in the ribs with his elbows; this produces a marked emphasis on -the syllable, and the result, when two or three hundred singers do this -simultaneously is startling. The Kaffir, contrary to our practise, _sits -down_, when he sings. - -One of their favorite songs, is used at husking festivals. “The dry -heads of maize are thrown in a heap upon the hard and polished floor of -the hut, and a number of Kaffirs sit in a circle round the heap, each -being furnished with the ever useful _knobkerry_ (a stick or club, very -like a _shillelagh_, but with a knob at one end). One of them strikes up -a song, and the others join in full chorus beating time with their -clubs, upon the heads of the maize. This is a very exciting amusement -for the performers, who shout the noisy chorus at the highest pitch of -their lungs, and beat time by striking their knobkerries upon the grain. -With every blow of the heavy club the maize grains are struck from their -husks, and fly about the hut in all directions, threatening injury, if -not absolute destruction to the eyes of all who are present in the hut. -Yet the threshers seem to enjoy an immunity which seems to be restricted -to themselves and blacksmiths; and while a stranger is anxiously shading -his eyes from the shower of hard maize grains, the threshers themselves -do not give a thought to the safety of their eyes, but sing at the top -of their voices, pound away at the corn cobs, and make the grains fly in -all directions, as if the chorus of the song were the chief object in -life, and the preservation of their eyesight were unworthy of a -thought.”[210] - -The war-songs of the Kaffirs are fiery and exciting, though in a less -degree than those of New Zealand. - -Their poetry is full of metaphor, and alliterative enough to be admitted -into the opera of the future. The participants sit in a circle, -sometimes three or four deep, with their knees well drawn up, and sing, -beating rhythmic accompaniment upon the ground, twirling their -_assagais_ (javelins), and occasionally enlivening the proceedings with -an ear-piercing whistle, or deafening shout. - -We give an English version (Mr. Shooter’s) of two of these, merely -premising that much of the native beauty is said to be lost in the -transposition to a foreign tongue. - - - PRAISE OF DINGAN. - A VERY CELEBRATED CHIEF. - - “Thou needy offspring of Umpikazi - Eyer of the cattle of men, - Bird of Maube, fleet as a bullet, - Sleek, erect, of beautiful parts. - Thy cattle like the comb of bees. - O head too large, too huddled to move, - Devourer of Moselekatze, son of Machobana, - Devourer of Swazi, son of Sobuza, - Breaker of the gates of Machobana, - Devourer of Gundave of Machobana - A monster in size,[211] of mighty power, - Devourer of Ungwati of ancient race, - Devourer of the kingly Uomapé; - Like Heaven above, raining and shining.” - -The other is an Alexandrian lament of the lack of nations to conquer. It -is in honor of Tchaka, (a renowned warrior and chief). - - “Thou hast finished, finished the nations! - Where will you go out to battle now? - Hey! Where will you go out to battle now? - Thou hast conquered kings! - Where are you going to battle now? - Thou hast finished, finished the nations! - Where are you going to battle now? - Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!! - Where are you going to battle now?” - -From the extracts it will be seen that flattery is not confined to -European courts; the Kaffir carries it still further, for in addition to -his own proper name (which it is deemed ill omened to speak) everybody -of any rank, receives a number of _isi-bonges_ or praise-names, alluding -to some action or peculiarity. It is customary on all formal occasions, -to recite several of these _isi-bonges_, just as a European nobleman on -official ceremonies desires to have all his titles proclaimed. In songs, -of course, the invention of these is unlimited. Thus the great Panda, a -renowned ruler of enormous fatness, is spoken of as,— - - “A swallow which fled in the sky,” - “A swallow with a whiskered breast,” - “Ramrod of brass,” - “Thigh of the bullock of Inkakavini.” - “Thou art an _Elephant_.” - “Monarch who art black,” etc., etc. - -Such songs of praise are sung with great relish by full choruses. -Violent gestures are used to heighten the effect. The songs are in -unison, no harmonic divisions being attempted. - -The instruments of the Kaffir are few and crude; the whistle before -mentioned, although giving but one tone, is a great favorite. It is so -shrill that it can be heard above the wildest din of the _ensemble_. - -A rude flute or flageolet is also sometimes used; but the most-used -instrument, is a primitive harp with _one string_ only, and whose tones -though light and sweet can scarcely be heard at six yards distance. It -is an ordinary bow with a string of twisted hair, and a hollow gourd -attached at the centre of the wood to give resonance. A ring is passed -along the string, to raise or lower the tone, which is produced by -striking the cord with a short stick, or _plectrum_. The bow is about -five feet long, and exactly resembles the usual weapon, which however is -not used in war by the Kaffirs. - -Although the resources of this instrument are so extremely limited, the -musicians of this people are content to sit for hours, listening to its -monotonous sound. - -Let us now turn to the degraded black brother of the foregoing race, the -Bushman. His amusements are two;—singing and dancing. - -The dance of the Bushman is to European eyes a most uninteresting one; -as there is scarcely any motion or gesture at all in it, save that which -is made by _one leg_. Standing on one foot, the performer shakes the -other, (to which a string of rattles, made from the ears of the -spring-bok are attached) occasionally giving his body a twist, and -singing vigorously all the while, changing the foot, however, from time -to time. - -The spectators keep the rhythm by a constant and regular clapping of -hands and a monotonous singing. - -A water-drum, which is merely a wooden bowl, into which a little water -has been poured, and over which a skin is tightly drawn, is struck -regularly in time with the movements of the dancer; the latter when -partially exhausted, falls upon the floor, but still singing and kicking -in time with the music; after a short rest of this description, he jumps -up and continues as at first. When utterly exhausted, he retires among -the spectators and unfastening his leg-rattles, hands them to the next -dancer. The music to this odd performance is _not_ in unison; the dancer -sings one air, the spectators another, and the drum gives a species of -“ground bass” to the whole. - -While engaged in this interesting occupation of shaking one leg, the -Bushman is completely oblivious of all other considerations, as if he -were entranced. Discordant as the music seems to us when annotated by -the travellers who have heard it, yet these same authorities are almost -unanimous in declaring that the effect is extremely pleasant. - -The most peculiar instrument of the Bushmen, is the _goura_, which is -shaped like a bow, but has at one end of the string, a piece of quill -inserted; this quill is blown upon in the same manner that we use a -jew’s-harp. Women play upon this instrument, but hold it -perpendicularly, and do not breathe upon it, but strike it with a stick, -and then catch it up, quickly to their ear, to listen to the tones. When -thus played, it is called, a _joum-joum_. - -All the airs played upon this primitive instrument seem to come by -chance rather than skill, and the performer never seems able to play the -same tune twice. But the same or better music could be drawn from a much -more compact and portable instrument; therefore the _goura_ has now been -almost superseded by a European competitor, and the favorite instrument -of the African Bosjesman now is the _Jew’s-harp_. - -They also possess a rude banjo-like instrument from which comparatively -fair music could be produced, but the Bushmen are content to strum it -without method, and take the music as fortune sends it. A drum completes -the list of Bushman instruments; it is sometimes played with sticks and -sometimes with the fist. It can be heard at a considerable distance. - -In contrasting these two extremes of African races, it is singular to -remark, that the superiority in music, if there be any, must be conceded -to the lower race. - -We find much that is curious and worthy of note in the music of those -mysterious tribes of central Africa, who have so recently become known -to us through the researches of Schweinfurth, Stanley, and Baker. - -Among the best known of these tribes, may be mentioned the Nyam-Nyams, a -set of most inveterate cannibals, whose very name comes from the sound -of gnawing at food, and was given them on account of their man-eating -propensities. Their chief musical instruments are mandolins or small -harps of four strings each, drums (mostly of wood,) bells of iron, -whistles and pipes. Many of these instruments are very symmetrically -formed, and tastily carved, for in wood, iron, and clay designing the -Nyam-Nyams are very expert. Schweinfurth thus describes their -music,[212]—“They have an instinctive love of art. Music rejoices their -very soul. The harmonies they elicit from their favorite instrument, the -mandolin, seem almost to thrill through the chords of their inmost -nature. The prolonged duration of some of their musical productions is -very surprising.” Piaggia has remarked that he believed a “Nyam-Nyam -would go on playing all day and all night, without thinking to leave off -either to eat or to drink,” and although quite aware of the voracious -propensities of the people, it seems very probable that he was right. - -One favorite instrument there is, which is something between a harp and -a mandolin. It resembles the former in the vertical arrangement of its -strings, whilst in common with the mandolin, it has a sounding-board, a -neck, and screws for tightening the strings. - -The sounding board is constructed on strict acoustic principles. It has -two apertures; it is carved out of wood, and on the upper side it is -covered with a piece of skin; the strings are tightly stretched by means -of pegs, and are sometimes made of fine threads of bast, and sometimes -of the wiry hairs from the tail of the giraffe. - -The music is very monotonous and it is difficult to distinguish any -melody in it. It invariably is an accompaniment to a moaning kind of -recitative which is rendered with a decided nasal intonation. - -“I have not unfrequently seen friends marching about arm in arm, wrapt -in the mutual enjoyment of the performance, and beating time to every -note by nodding their heads.” - -“There is a singular class of professional musicians who make their -appearance decked out in the most fantastic way, with feathers, and -covered with a promiscuous array of bits of wood and roots, and all the -pretentious emblems of magical art, the feet of earth-pigs, the shell of -tortoises, the beaks of eagles, the claws of birds, and teeth in every -variety. Whenever one of this fraternity presents himself, he at once -begins to recite all the details of his travels and experiences, in an -emphatic recitative, and never forgets to conclude by an appeal to the -liberality of his audience, and to remind them that he looks for a -reward either of rings of copper, or of beads.”[213] - -With some slight differences these men may be found throughout Africa; -almost everywhere they are sought for and their talents enjoyed, but -they themselves held in contempt. Among the Nyam-Nyams, their -appellation in itself (“Nzangah”) implies contempt, being similar to -that which is applied to despised and outcast women. - -Contrary to the custom of almost all other savages, the Nyam-Nyams -delight most in gentle music; some of the minstrels sing so softly that -it is impossible to hear them a few yards off. The light Mandolin -accompaniment is in good accord with this _pianissimo_ style of music. - -Their dances, given by male and female performers, are wonderfully -swift, intricate and pleasant. - -A great “Congo” or dance was given by some of these people to Col. C. -Chaillé Long, an American officer on the staff of the Khedive of Egypt, -who made a very interesting expedition to the Makraka Nyam-Nyams, and -Lake Victoria Nyanza in 1874. He thus describes the scene:—[214] - -“Invitations had been sent to all the Nyam-Nyam lasses, who came even -from as far as Parafio, and did honor to the occasion by brightening up -their copper and iron fastenings, and in putting on fresh fig leaves. -The loose bands that encased their ankles, kept perfect time in loud -clanking sound to music really euphonious, and of a symphony that my -unmusical ear I regret cannot translate here, evoked from a Sinon-like -wooden horse, that was beaten on its sides with drum-sticks, or by -parallel banana trees that were traversed by different sized pieces of -dry wood, upon which several performers beat successively. - -This musical instrument, as well as drums and horns, the latter made of -Elephants’ tusks, were very similar to those I had seen at Ugunda.... - -The Sheik, a robust, powerfully developed man, led his brave warriors in -the dance, holding in his hand, a curiously-shaped sword, his insignia -of office, whilst the round little forms of hundreds of Nyam-Nyam -maidens followed, each with giddy swiftness as the “cancan” fantasia -became fast and furious. The festivity continued until the ‘wee sma -hours’ of the morning.” - -The trumpets of the Nyam-Nyam are more generally used as war signals -than as musical instruments; they are blown through a hole in the side, -and not at the end; therefore the mode of performing upon them, rather -resembles our style of flute playing.[215] - -Another musical nation of Central Africa is the Karague; travellers who -have visited them have given more or less detailed accounts of their -instruments and festivities. Capt. Speke had the unusual honor of a -serenade from the royal court band. The king after receiving a present -of some beads, cloth wire, and a tin box, was so delighted that he sent -his own band to give Speke a tune. - -The performers used reed instruments (made in telescopic fashion) and -marked the time by hand-drums. At first they marched and countermarched, -playing meanwhile much in the manner of Turkish regimental bands; but -this was soon changed to a species of “horn-pipe,” which all the -musicians danced, playing furiously meanwhile.[216] - -Another bit of musical ceremony which Speke witnessed, will at once -remind the reader of the great “Zapfenstreich” or grand tattoo practised -sometimes in the German army. At the new moon the king surrounds himself -with numerous drummers (Speke saw thirty-five); these strike up -together, gradually increasing to a deafening noise; this is followed by -a milder kind of music, similar to that described above. The object of -the ceremony is to call in all the king’s warriors to renew their oath -of fealty.[217] The time keeping is said to be very exact, and the -drummers burst forth again and again during the night. The war drum of -the Karague is beaten by women. - -A kind of guitar exists among this people, and six of the seven strings -which it possesses accord perfectly with our own diatonic scale, the -seventh string only, being discordant. Their wind instruments are -flageolet and bugle, or at least similar to them. - -Among the nations adjacent to those already mentioned are the Bongo. - -We again quote from the valuable work of the most musical traveller who -has visited this section,—Schweinfurth.[218] - -“The Bongo, in their way are enthusiastic lovers of music; and although -their instruments are of a very primitive description, and they are -unacquainted even with the pretty little guitar of the Nyam-Nyams, which -is constructed on perfectly correct acoustic principles, yet they may be -seen at any hour of the day, strumming away and chanting to their own -performances. The youngsters down to the small boys are all musicians. -Without much trouble and with the most meagre materials they contrive to -make little flutes; they are accustomed also to construct a monochord, -which in its design reminds one of that which (known as the Gubo of the -Zulus) is common throughout the tribes of Southern Africa. This consists -of a bow of bamboo, with the string tightly strained across it, and this -is struck by a slender slip of bamboo. - -The mouth of the player performs the office of sounding board; he holds -the instrument to his mouth with one hand, and manages the string with -the other. Performers may often be seen sitting for hours together with -an instrument of this sort; they stick one end of the bow into the -ground, and fasten the string over a cavity covered with bark, which -opens into an aperture for the escape of the sound. They pass one hand -from one part of the bow to the other, and with the other they play upon -the string with the bamboo twig, and produce a considerable variety of -buzzing and humming airs which are really rather pretty. This is quite a -common pastime with the lads who are put in charge of the goats. I have -seen them apply themselves very earnestly and with obvious interest to -their musical practice, and the ingenious use to which they apply the -simplest means for obtaining harmonious tones testifies to their -penetration into the secrets of the theory of sound. - -As appeals however to the sense of sound, the great festivals of the -Bongo abound with measures much more thrilling than any of these minor -performances. On these occasions the orchestral results might perhaps be -fairly characterised as cats’ music run wild. - -Unwearied thumping of drums, the bellowings of gigantic trumpets, for -the manufacture of which, great stems of trees come into requisition. -Interchanged by fits and starts with the shriller blasts of some smaller -horns, make up the burden of the unearthly hub-bub which re-echoes miles -away along the desert; meanwhile women and children by the hundred fill -gourd flasks with little stones, and rattle them as if they were -churning butter; or again at other times they will get some sticks or -faggots and strike them together with the greatest energy. - -The huge wooden tubes which may be styled the trumpets of the Bongo, are -by the natives themselves, called “manyinyee;” they vary from four to -five feet in length, being closed at the extremity and ornamented with -carved work representing a man’s head, which not unfrequently is adorned -with a pair of horns. The other end of the stem is open, and in an upper -department, towards the figure of the head, is the orifice into which -the performer blows with all his might. - -There is another form of manyinyee, which is made like a huge wine -bottle; in order to play upon it, the musician takes it between his -knees like a violincello, and when the build of the instrument is too -cumbrous he has to bend over it as it lies upon the ground. - -“Little difference can be noticed between the kettle drums of the Bongo, -and those of most other North African Negroes. A section is cut from the -thick stem of a tree, the preference being given to a tamarind when it -can be procured, this is hollowed out into a cylinder, one end being -larger than the other. The ends are then covered with two pieces of goat -skin, stripped of the hair which are tightly strained, and laced -together with thongs. - -At the nightly orgies a fire is invariably kept burning to dry the skin, -and to tighten it, when it has happened to become relaxed by the heavy -dews.” - -A short description of the signal horns of the Bongo is also given by -our musical traveller; some of them resemble fifes, and many are made of -antelope horns. - -Regarding the singing of the Bongo, Schweinfurth is quite descriptive -and as the deductions he arrives at are very similar to those we have -ascribed to primitive or natural men, we introduce the passage without -alteration.[219] - -“Difficult were the task to give any adequate description of the singing -of the Bongo. It must suffice to say that it consists of a babbling -recitative, which at one time suggests the yelling of a dog, and at -another the lowing of a cow, whilst it is broken over, and again by the -gabbling of a string of words which are huddled up one into another. The -commencement of a measure will always be with a lively air, and every -one without distinction of age or sex will begin yelling, screeching, -and bellowing with all their strength; gradually the surging of voices -will tone down, the rapid time will moderate, and the song be hushed -into a wailing melancholy strain. - -“Thus it sinks into a very dirge such as might be chanted at the grave, -and be interpreted as representative of a leaden and a frowning sky, -when all at once, without note of warning, there bursts forth the whole -fury of the negro throats; shrill and thrilling is the outcry, and the -contrast is as vivid as sunshine in the midst of rain.” - -“Often as I was present at these festivities I never could prevent my -ideas from associating Bongo music with the instinct of imitation which -belongs to men universally. The orgies always gave me the impression of -having no other object than to surpass in violence the fury of the -elements: adequately to represent the rage of a hurricane in the -tropics, any single instrument must of course be weak, poor, and -powerless, consequently they hammer at numbers of their gigantic drums -with powerful blows of their heavy clubs. If they would rival the -bursting of a storm, the roaring of the wind, or the plashing of the -rain, they summon a chorus of their stoutest lungs; whilst to depict the -bellowing of terrified wild beasts, they resort to their longest horns; -and to imitate the songs of birds, they bring together all their flutes -and fifes. - -Most characteristic of all, perchance is the deep and rolling bass of -the huge ‘manyinyee’ as descriptive of the rumbling thunder. The -penetrating shower may drive rattling and crackling among the twigs and -amid the parched foliage of the woods; and this is imitated by the -united energies of women and children, as they rattle the stones in -their gourd-flasks, and clash together their bits of wood.” - -The dances of these people are similar in wildness to their music. The -performers wear iron rings, with balls attached, around their ankles, -and clash these together with such energy that their feet are often -bathed in blood. - -The Mittoo tribe rank very high among the African tribes, in their -musical attainments; their melodies are quite agreeable to the -cultivated ear and the pains which they take in mastering the -intricacies of a musical composition, recall to the mind the -difficulties which beset the path of the civilized musical student. - -We have seen a transcription of one of their songs, which would require -but little alteration to transform it into a very fair “slumber song.” - -Many of them are quite skillful upon the flute, and have been described -by Nubian travellers as equal to the best Frankish (European) performers -who reside in Cairo. - -The Monbuttoo also have a strong passion for music, so much so that the -king sometimes dances before his wives and subjects, to the -accompaniment of the royal band. - -In his court concerts he has horn-men, who can modulate their tones from -infinite tenderness to the sound of a lion’s roar; and can perform upon -a horn so cumbrous that it can scarcely be held, passages of runs, -trills and shakes, which would be even difficult upon a flute. - -Court fools, jesters and mimics also appertain to the King of the -Monbuttoo—Munza; they have also a sort of national hymn, more noisy than -musical. The words are monotonous and much repeated,— - -“Ee, ee, tchupy, tchupy, ee, Munza, ee!” will do as a sample line. The -king stands up and _beats time_, with all the gravity of a musical -conductor. His _baton_ is made of a wicker worked sphere filled with -pebbles, and attached to a short stick, in fact exactly what we should -call a baby’s rattle. When he approves the performance or gets excited, -he joins in the chorus with a stentorian “B-r-r-r-r——” which shakes the -house. - -It is singular that music boxes should be popular with Africans who -indulge in such noisy effects, yet such is the fact; there is no present -so desired by Negro potentates as a music box with bells and drums. - -Explorers can find no surer road to the heart of an African chief than -by a present of one of these mechanisms. Sir Samuel Baker had great -trouble with King Kabba Rega (of the tribe of the Unyori,) about a music -box.[220] Speke and Schweinfurth both found them among the most -treasured possessions of the savage chieftains. Kabba Rega’s reason for -prizing the box above all other musical instruments, is unique; on -hearing it play, for the first time, he remarked,—“It is more convenient -than an instrument which requires study, as you might set this going at -night, to play you to sleep, when you were too drunk to play it yourself -even if you knew how to do it.”[221] The national hymn of this monarch, -bears considerable resemblance to the first part of the well known -air—“Three Blind Mice.”[222] - -We have not space to describe fully the rites and music of that curious -people, the Abyssinians; two examples of their musical ceremonies must -suffice. - -A funeral procession (reported by an American eye witness) consisted of -about one hundred and fifty people, old and young, preceded by a few -priests; every few minutes the _cortege_ would halt to shriek and howl. -The priests (clad in cotton robes with broad scarlet bands) were acting -in a frantic manner; tearing off their turbans, pulling their hair, then -folding their hands on their breasts and looking inexpressibly -miserable. - -They carried Arabic parchment books, illuminated with quaint figures and -devices, and now and then chanted prayers to some favorite saint,[223] -very dolefully, though with strong lungs and nasal intonation. Numerous -genuflections were made, always accompanied with long drawn howls of -extreme agony. At the lowering of the body into the grave, they chanted -a prayer, of which the following is a translation,— - -“Werkena, son of Yasous, who was the son of Tekee, is dead. Rejoice, oh -ye people! He has gone to his rest with Abraham, with Isaac, and with -Jacob. Let us pray for those who still live, and pray for the soul just -gone to doom. From vengeance and stern judgment, pray that his soul be -delivered. How can the souls be delivered from tribulation? By long -prayers. Pray, then, that he be sheltered by Father Abraham, that he may -walk in safety by the side of Moses and the prophets, Amen, and -Amen!”[224] - -After the grave was closed, the major part of the mourners followed in -the train of a musician, who was discoursing lively tunes on an oboe, -and one of the priests, who had been mourning so vigorously, offered to -show strangers over his cathedral for the consideration of one dollar. - -A fitting contrast to this, is the musical ovation tendered to the -British Army, after the conquest of King Theodore, April, 1868. The -natives came in great numbers to sing praises. They chose for the -subject of their psalm, the twenty-second chapter, of the second book of -Samuel, (David’s song), beginning:—“The Lord is my rock, and my -fortress,” and they sang it with David’s own fervor; and, to make it -quite realistic, in imitation of his dancing before the ark, the -Abyssinian clergy brought out an imitation of an ark, five yards in -length, one yard in breadth, and a foot in height. It was covered with a -scarlet cloth, embroidered with gold, and above it was a representation -of a mercy-seat of crimson silk, surmounted by a canopy of similar -stuff; candlesticks, lavers, priests’ robes, hyssops, communion cups, -pixes, chalices, crosses of brass, silver and gold, mitres, etc., -figured in the religious paraphernalia employed. The Neophytes kept up a -deafening, jingling clang; or, with instruments of wood and brass, one -stringed banjoes, clanking brass cymbals kept a rhythmic time, which -swelled louder and louder as they drew near the headquarters of the -army. - -“The priests (out of respect for their office) took the front position, -and one of them, with a semi-ludicrous air, struck up the first note of -the impromptu stanzas which were to celebrate the British conquest of -Abyssinia.” - -“As he warmed to his theme, and his voice rose to enthusiasm, the motley -assembly, at the waving of a crucifix, chimed in with chorus, which, -sung with stentorian lungs, had a tremendous effect. After the chorus, -six priests clad in cotton stoles headed by the sub-hierarch, took the -eulogy up at a very low key, which soon, however, rose so high and -shrill in a protracted continuity of sound, that one momentarily -expected to hear their lungs crack, ending with a stormy chorus as -before. Then, forming themselves into a circle, a hundred of them -commenced a dignified sailing round their neighbors, to the right and -left, their togas getting inflated with the movement, weaving each into -another, until it might have been imagined that they had manufactured -some complicated knot, on the gordian principle; but, soon taking the -reverse method, they reached their former positions in time. The singing -went on louder and louder, and the choragus giving the warning clap, the -whole multitude clapped their hands; the women and children struck up -the silver-toned ‘li, li, li,’ performing a dance similar to the Chinese -hop and skip.” - -“They then formed triplets and massed themselves together, when a shrill -note from the boys, sent them into a confused whirl, round and round, -the sub-hierarch and his six assistants going faster and faster, as they -acquired momentum, clapping their hands, singing louder than ever, the -head priest ducking his body lower and lower, and more energetic, until -the dance and the excitement which they all labored under, assumed the -appearance of a jubilee medley, composed of waltzes, Dervish-dances, -sarabands, fandangos, pirouettes and chasses, the three latter performed -by the most youthful of the assembly.” - -“It must not be forgotten, that all this time the ark and -mercy-seat—minus the cherubim—(which was totally omitted from this -Abyssinian imitation), stood on the ground near the priests, while a -choice number of infantine neophites, manfully rang the merriest chimes, -and the instruments of Juniper-wood, the one-stringed banjos, and -cymbals, made as much discordant music as was possible under the -circumstances. The Ethiops before concluding the entertainment, -raised[225] once again the Canto Trionfale.” - -The effect Mr. Stanley says, had a wonderful charm, and the blending of -the mass of women’s and children’s voices with the larger and deeper -tones of the bass, was like the whistling of a gale in a ship’s shrouds, -blending with the deeper roar of a tempest. - -We cannot give a better idea of the hold which music has upon the -average native Negro, than by narrating an incident which befell Sir -Samuel Baker, in the Shooli country. - -He held a review of his troops March 8, 1872, and after a sham fight, -firing of rockets, etc., the troops marched up and down a hill, with the -band playing. The natives assembled in considerable numbers and viewed -the manœuvres with much delight; but the brass band music was the -crowning point of their enjoyment. We sub-join his description of its -effect upon these children of nature. - -“The music of our band being produced simply by a considerable number of -bugles, drums, and cymbals, aided by a large military bass-drum, might -not have been thought first-rate in Europe, but in Africa it was -irresistible.” - -“The natives are passionately fond of music; and I believe the safest -way to travel in these wild countries, would be to play the cornet, if -possible, without ceasing, which would ensure a safe passage. A London -organ-grinder would march through Central Africa, followed by an -admiring and enthusiastic crowd, who, if his tunes were lively, would -form a dancing escort of the most untiring material.” - -“As my troops returned to their quarters, with the band playing rather -lively airs, we observed the women racing down from their villages, and -gathering from all directions towards the common centre. As they -approached nearer, the charms of music were overpowering, and halting -for an instant they assumed what they considered the most graceful -attitudes, and then danced up to band.” - -“In a short time my buglers could scarcely blow their instruments for -laughing at the extraordinary effect of their performance. A fantastic -crowd surrounded them as they halted in our position among the rocks, -and every minute added to their number.” - -“The women throughout the Shooli are entirely naked; thus the effect of -a female crowd, bounding madly about as musical enthusiasts, was very -extraordinary; even the babies were brought out to dance; and these -infants strapped to their mothers’ backs, and covered with pumpkin -shells, like the young tortoises, were jolted about, without the -slightest consideration for the weakness of their necks, by their -infatuated mothers.” - -“As usual among all tribes of Central Africa, the old women were even -more determined dancers than the young girls. Several old Venuses were -making themselves extremely ridiculous, as they sometimes do in -civilized countries, when attempting the allurements of younger days.” - -“The men did not share in the dance, but squatted upon the rocks in -great numbers to admire the music and to witness the efforts of their -wives and daughters.”[226] - -Sir Samuel Baker also once used music for quite a different purpose. He -was quartered near the town of Masindi, where dwelt Kabba Rega, King of -the Unyori, when one evening, he noticed a most unusual stillness in the -town, where ordinarily drunken songs and horn-blowing were the rule. -Suddenly there sounded the deep tones of a _nogara_, or drum. This -ceased in a moment; and then came a burst of terrific noise, which -caused every man in camp to rush to his post. It was a din, caused by -many thousands yelling and shrieking like maniacs. At least a thousand -drums were beating; horns, whistles, and every instrument which could -add to the confusion, was blowing and sounding, yet no human being was -visible. - -The dragoman, on being questioned by the commander, laughed, and said it -was “to make him _afraid_, and exhibit the large number of people -collected in the town.” - -Gen. Baker on ascertaining this determined to act as though it were a -compliment which he felt bound to return. He ordered the regimental band -to strike up, and play their loudest. This nonchalance had its effect, -for, after a short time, the bugles, drums, and clashing cymbals of his -own band, were the only sounds heard; the tumult in Masindi had -subsided, and soon Gen. Baker ordered his own musicians to cease -playing, and all was again perfectly still.[227] - -We close this account of the music of some of the savage tribes of the -earth, with a description of a farewell dance, given to Stanley, by the -Wanyamwezi of Singiri, which is well worthy of a place, as showing the -powers of improvisation of the Africans. - -“It was a wild dance, with lively music, four drums giving the sonorous -accompaniment, being beaten with tremendous energy and strength. -Everyone (even Stanley himself) danced with great fervor, and combined -excited gesticulations, with their saltatory efforts. But after the -close of this war-like music, came a total change; all dropped on their -knees, and in sorrowful accents sang a slow and solemn refrain, of which -the following is a literal translation,— - - _Solo_:—‘Oh, oh, oh! the white man is going home. - - _Chorus_:—Oh, oh, oh! going home! going home! oh, oh, oh! - - _Solo_:—To the happy island on the sea, - Where the beads are plenty, oh, oh, oh! - - _Chorus_:—Where the beads, etc. - - _Solo_:—While Singiri has kept us, oh, very long - From our homes, very long, oh, oh, oh! - - _Chorus_:—From our homes, etc. - - _Solo_:—And we have had no food for very long, - We are half-starved, oh, for so long Bana Singiri. - - _Chorus_:—For so very long, oh, oh, oh! Bana Singiri, Singiri, - Singiri! Oh! Singiri! - - _Solo_:—Mirambo has gone to war - To fight against the Arabs; - The Arabs and Wangwana - Have gone to fight Mirambo. - - _Chorus_:—Oh, oh, oh, to fight Mirambo, - Oh! Mirambo, Mirambo, etc. - - _Solo_:—But the white man will make us glad, - He is going home! For he is going home, - And he will make us glad! Sh, sh, sh. - - _Chorus_:—The white man will make us glad! Sh, sh, sh. - Sh——sh-h-h——, sh-h-h-h-h-h - Um-m—mu——um-m-m—sh!’”[228] - -Mr. Stanley says that the rhythm and melody were beautiful, and the -general effect fine. - -It is curious to contrast this quiet and pathetic farewell with the -bombastic “Where are you going to battle now?” previously given; and it -is also noticeable, that the power of improvisation which is so well -developed in the African Negro, is fully sustained by his descendents in -America. - -It will be an interesting task to the student to compare the -slave-music, especially the camp-meeting songs of the American Negroes, -with the various descriptions of songs given above. The same fervor of -expression, and gradually growing excitement, and the same exaggeration -of feeling will be perceived at once. - -It is not too much to say, that the Negro race may be, when refined and -toned down, the most universally and thoroughly musical race on the face -of the globe. - - - - - CHAPTER XX - MUSIC OF THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH. - - -We now resume the chronological chain of musical history, from the -termination of “Ancient Greek music;” for the music of the Christian -church took its rise, from the melodies of Ancient Greece. Yet it is -probable that the earliest Christian melodies were not according to the -classical Grecian type, but rather conformed to the popular in style. -This has always been the case in the rise of a new sect with sagacious -leaders. The Jews on leaving Egypt, yet sang the popular melodies dear -to their hearts, by association of childhood and youth; only at a later -period, only when these songs were no longer so endeared to them did -David introduce such reforms, as gave to the Hebrew music a distinctive -style. So, also, it was with the Christian church in its earliest days; -it would have been positively injudicious, at first, to have attempted a -reform; and therefore, the old popular melodies of Greece and Rome, were -set to new words and exerted a new influence. - -Music has been, with every religion, the most powerful accessory of the -Faith; but with none more than with Christianity. It had the additional -advantage, of being in an advancing state (under the charge of able -directors, who fully saw the power of the art when made popular) while -the music of the Pagan church was greatly declining. The great emperor -Julian, foresaw the result, and used great efforts to secure a better -class of music for the Roman sacrifices, but without avail. - -With regard to the Christian music of the time of the apostles, we have -only tradition, but these traditions have so much probability, that they -acquire some degree of authority. - -Eusebius assures us that St. Mark taught the first Egyptian Christians -how to chant their prayers: St. John Chrysostom affirms (in his sixth -homily) that the Apostles wrote the first hymn. In Rome (according to -Tertullian) the chants were given in a deep tone, and not in a sustained -manner, at one part of the service, and with strong accents, and -flexible voice at another. The Fathers of the church almost all bear -testimony that the music of the service generally partook of the -habitual style of singing of each nation. - -Kiesewetter, one of the most careful of the students of Ancient Greek -music, maintains that, while the early Christians borrowed much from -Greece, yet from the first, the tendency was rather away from, than in -the path of the Greek style. Brendel in his essays coincides with this -opinion.[229] - -The cause of this, so far as Rome and Greece are concerned, is very -apparent. The apostles and their followers, started unencumbered in the -musical field. The theory of Greek music was a most difficult one to -master, and the converts were at first almost wholly among the humbler -classes. It would have been impossible to have trained them in the -elaborate Hellenic school, therefore, the more ear-catching melodies -were at first used, combined probably with a simple chant. The same -cause operated in the foundation of a newer and simpler theory of music; -hence, although our modern music is the child of the ancient Greek -school, yet it did not go in the same course, or arrive at the same goal -which would have resulted, had the old Greek civilization been continued -two thousand years longer. - -We hold that the Greeks were too much devoted to the plastic arts, ever -to have brought music deeply into the inner life. - -Before the liturgy had been well established, improvisation was much -employed; a result always to be anticipated when uncultivated persons -become musical. At the evening meal, the twenty-third Psalm was usually -chanted.[230] Other passages of scripture were also used, such as Exodus -XV., and Daniel III. - -When the water was passed around for the washing of hands, each one of -the company was asked in turn to praise God in song, and the selection -might either be taken from Scripture, or improvised, according to the -taste or ability of the performer.[231] Some of the best of these -effusions were unquestionably preserved and possibly even admitted into -the regular service of the church. The songs may have been rough and -uncouth, but they were given with a fervor which compensated for any -short-comings. They were unaccompanied, for two reasons; first, it would -have been difficult to have formed an instrumental accompaniment to such -variable and primitive songs, (sometimes a mere intonation of the voice, -scarcely to be called music or even chanting); and second, because all -the instruments of the heathen were in daily use at the sacrifices and -theatres; and it would have seemed sacrilegious to have used them in the -celebration of a Christian festival.[232] - -The summing up of the legends, surmises, and few statements concerning -the music of the earliest Christians, are well expressed in Ambros.[233] - -We can conclude regarding the music of the earliest Christian times, -that it was at first a species of Folk-song, founded upon the school of -music then in vogue, but elevated and impregnated with a new religious -spirit. But this simplicity soon was changed: profiting by the -experience of the Romans in uniting all art and beauty in their -theatres, (whereby the theatre grew, and the church declined;) the early -Christians soon found it wise to unite every art, in the service of -their church. It is also probable that much of the music was borrowed -from that of the Hebrews. This is more natural when we reflect that -Christianity was at first a continuation (or reorganization) of Hebrew -rites and the apostles were all well acquainted with the ceremonies of -the Jewish church. - -The chanting of the scriptures which took place in the latter worship, -was undoubtedly transplanted into the Christian service.[234] Many of -the early psalms and canticles were sung in caves and subterranean -retreats in which places the proscribed and persecuted worshippers were -obliged to seek refuge, and where they still kept, up with undeviating -regularity the practice of their ceremonies. - -Pliny the younger on being made pro-consul of Bithynia was especially -charged by the emperor Trajan, to find accusations against the -Christians there, the number of whom was augmenting daily. A letter of -his, supposed to have been written in the third year of the second -century of our era,[235] contains the following regarding the new -religion. - -“They affirm that their fault, and errors have only consisted of -this;—they convene at stated days, before sunrise, and sing, each in -turn, verses in praise of Christ, as of a God; they engage themselves, -by oath, not to do any crime, but never to commit theft, robbery, or -adultery, never to break faith, or betray a trust. After this they -separate and afterwards reassemble to eat together innocent and -innocuous dishes.”[236] - -At a later period (the fourth century) all proselytes and new converts -were not admitted to sing in the church with the baptized. The new -converts presented themselves before the hierarch, (a dignitary who was -charged with the duty of classifying the catechumens in different -orders) and expressed to him the desire of joining the church. If the -questions of the priests were satisfactorily answered, he placed his -hand on the head of the applicant and gave him the benediction with the -sign of the cross, and afterwards inscribed his name among the number of -candidates for baptism. The catechumen had not the right to enter the -church. He might linger around the porticos, but was on no account -allowed to join in the prayers, except in a low voice, and in the hymns -not at all, until he had received the rite of baptism. - -The candidates for baptism were divided into various classes. Even after -baptism there were three orders of Christians, and those who had fallen -into disgrace with the church, were sometimes disciplined by being -reduced for a few years to the rank of auditors at the services. These -were not allowed to join in the congregational singing, and were -sometimes not even admitted to the body of the church edifice unless -called there. - -It is presumable that the right to join in the singing was, during the -first two or three centuries, highly prized. - -Little by little the spirit of improvement crept into the unskilled but -soul-felt music of the early Christian church. It seems rather strange -to find in the very germs of the religion, a silent, yet real contest -between congregational and paid singing; and to find the same evils -creeping in with the employment of singers in those early times, that we -see in the present days of quartette choirs. In the days of Origen -(about the middle of the second century) all the congregation sang -together. - -St. John Chrysostom says,— - -“The psalms which we sing united all the voices in one, and the -canticles arise harmoniously in unison. Young and old, rich and poor, -women, men, slaves and citizens, all of us have formed but one melody -together.”[237] - -A better picture of the full congregational singing of the primitive -Christians cannot be given. The custom of allowing both sexes to sing -together, was abolished by the Synod of Antioch in A. D. 379, and it was -then decided that the men only should be allowed to sing the psalms. - -In A. D. 481, the council of Laodicea ordained that the clerks only -(called canonical singers “_Canonicos Cantores_,”) should be allowed to -sing during the service.[238] The abuses which accompany paid singing, -appeared even in the second century. Singers found themselves sought -after in proportion to their talents, and therefore (in the absence of -an exact method of notation) sought to make those talents more -conspicuous by an introduction of florid ornaments and cadenzas into -their music; they gradually forgot, or disregarded the old traditional -style of singing, and sought only to excite the admiration of the masses -by exhibiting to the best advantage the power and agility of their -voices. - -It was, without doubt, to remedy this abuse that Pope Sylvester I, who -occupied the pontifical chair, A. D. 320, founded a school in Rome for -the formation of singers.[239] At this time also, the choir had its own -gallery or place in the church assigned to it, and every art was called -into play to impress and enthrall the worshipper. Sculpture, Painting, -Architecture and Music combined, as they had previously done for Pagan -theatres and amusements, to render the church a beautiful as well as -holy resort. Charity combined in some instances with policy; for we -learn that a singing school founded in A. D. 350, by pope Hilary, was -called an orphan asylum (orphanotrophia), and here the education of -clerks for the church, was commenced at a very tender age.[240] - -These schools did much to re-establish a dignified and worthy style of -sacred singing. Yet there was great need of a sweeping reform; for as -there existed no really fixed system, the differences in singing were -almost as numerous as the various existing churches. Before speaking of -this reform, we will briefly outline the progress of music in Christian -communities outside of Rome. - - - GREEK CHURCH. - -The Greek church, from the very beginning, paid great attention to music -in all its details. The first institution of the mass, is attributed to -St. James the lesser, first bishop of Jerusalem, who died a martyr in A. -D. 62. This mass is still in existence. There are also existing, masses -by the two great luminaries of the Greek Church, Sts. John Chrysostom -and Basilius, who flourished in the last half of the fourth century. - -Although there are doubts expressed as to whether St. John Chrysostom -wrote the one attributed to him, yet it is certain that the mass was -used in Constantinople (of which city he was the Patriarch) as long ago -as the end of the fourth century, and was not materially changed until -the eighth century. It is entitled “The mystery of the divine -Eucharist.”[241] - -The _hymns_, which at first were not used at all in the Roman church, -were one of the brightest ornaments of the Greek. The verses and ancient -tunes of these hymns were at first well adapted to each other; but, by -the constant introduction of embellishments, shakes, and cadenzas, the -connection was soon lost. - -This taste for ornamentation in sacred music was driven to far greater -excess in the Greek church, than even in Rome; the taste _fioritura_ is -to-day, and always has been, a characteristic of most Eastern nations. -This is driven to such excess in the Greek church, that (in the churches -of the Orient, at least), the hymns are executed by two singers, one of -whom sings the hymns, while the other sustains the key note or principal -tone only. - -This note the singer gives out with regularity and monotony, its only -object being to keep the principal singer in bounds and to prevent him -from straying away from the key on account of the numerous trills and -_fiorituri_ which he is expected to introduce into the song. - -It may be well to mention here, as we shall not recur to the music of -the Eastern Greek church again, that its style of notation, and singing -has altered very little, in the course of centuries; it is totally -different from that of all other countries, and consists wholly of -signs, which are not in any manner measured off into bars, but somewhat -resemble the chants of the Catholic church. The notes are only relative -in value, and the scale on which the melodies are founded, may be -represented thus,— - - Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, Do, Re. - Pa, Bou, Ga, Di, Ke, Zô, Ne, Pa. - -Every embellishment is represented by a character; rising and falling -inflections by others, and comparative length of notes by yet others. - -It will therefore be seen that although the notation is decidedly -complicated, there is a comprehensible system followed, by consulting -which, we attain certain information as to one branch of the early -church.[242] - -The works found in the old monasteries of the Orient are almost -invaluable to the musical antiquary. We believe that many more will yet -be discovered among the monks of Mt. Athos, those strange and illiterate -custodians of some of the rarest manuscripts in existence, relative to -this subject.[243] - -We are sorry that a thorough description of this subject (though full of -interest) would demand much space and many engravings. The effect of the -singing of this church in its oriental branches is very similar to that -of the Hebrews in their services of the present day. - - - SYRIAN CHURCH. - -We now turn to the early Christian church of Syria, founded by the -Apostles Paul and Barnabas. - -One of the earliest in existence, the church of Antioch soon became the -metropolis of Syrian Christianity. Yet it was in this church also that -the first heresy took place, by the rise of the Gnostics (disciples of -science); one of this sect, named Bardesanes, founded a separate -denomination of these, and was the first who composed hymns in the -native tongue, and adapted them to melodies. He composed one hundred and -fifty psalms in imitation of David. - -But greatest of all the musicians of the Orthodox Christian church of -Syria, was Ephraem Syrus. He is still called “Harp of the Holy Spirit” -in many churches who yet honor him and celebrate his feast. - -He was a monk of Syria, born of poor parents, in a village of -Mesopotamia. At eighteen years of age he was converted and baptized, and -soon retired to a desert spot to practice penitence and piety. It was in -this retreat that he composed his voluminous sermons, hymns, etc., all -of which have much poetic beauty and oriental imagery.[244] He wrote -fifteen hymns on the “Nativity,” fifteen on “Paradise,” fifty-two on -“Faith,” and “The Church,” fifty-one on “The Virginity,” eighty-seven -against “Heresy,” and “The Arians,” eighty-five “Mortuary,” fifteen -moral hymns, etc. His writings on the _Peshito_ or Syriac version of the -scriptures are still of use to the theological student. - -He arranged the music to his hymns, and he himself speaks of having -arranged sixty-six of them in the style of Bardesanes. - -Many of the songs and prayers in the Syrian liturgy, ascribed to St. -Ephraem are spurious. It is related that at the first interview between -him and St. Basilius, the former was endowed by the Holy Ghost with -sudden power to speak Greek, and the latter Syriac, thus giving them a -choice of languages in which to converse. - -It is impossible to give a thorough account of the music of the Syrian -Church, as although the first instruments mentioned in the Bible (the -taboret, a tambourine held in one hand and struck with the other, and -Kinnor, a seven stringed triangular harp) are Syrian, yet the people -have never, from time immemorial, written down their melodies, but -always handed them down orally, father to son, or teacher to pupil. - -The mass in Syrian liturgy, is very different in its form, from the -Catholic: there is neither _Kyrie Eleison_, _Gloria_, nor _Epistle_, -contained in it. - -There are two distinct sects in the Syrian church; the first -Ephraemitic, or followers of the Orthodox saint; the second, heretical -and followers of Jacob Baradaeus, a Syrian monk of the sixth century. -These are called Jacobites, and hold Eutychian doctrines. - -The music of the latter is ornamented to excess; that of the Ephraemitic -rite nobler and plainer. - - - THE ARMENIAN CHURCH. - -The rise of Christianity among the Armenians, goes back to the third -century, but they early developed the doctrines of Eutychius, and the -Monophysites. At times, portions of the Armenian church have adhered to -the Western church, but in its rites it far more resembles the Eastern -Greek church. The language is well adapted for song. - -Their most ancient religious songs were written by _Sahac_, the great -_Katholicos_, or patriarch of the church; the psalms were sung by them -to popular melodies. - - - THE CHURCHES OF AFRICA. - -St. Mark is considered as the Apostle of Egypt and founder of the church -of Alexandria; the liturgy used by this church is said to have been -written by him; but many manuscripts exist which point to St. Basilius -as its author, and it bears internal evidence that St. Mark could not -have written it, for among the prayers for the dead, it names many -saints, martyrs, bishops, etc., _including St. Mark_. - -The songs of the early Christians here, as throughout the Orient, were -hymns, psalms, and anthems of which the melodies were taken from the -popular music of the day. - -The Coptic church in its liturgy entirely resembled the Greek church of -Egypt, and in looking over its ritual, one continually meets with -translations of the liturgies of St. Basil, St. Cyrille, or St. Gregory -Nazianzen. In the National Library, of Paris there is also a Coptic -translation of the Liturgy of St. Mark. - -The music of the Coptic church is very much embellished, and of -inordinate length; for, owing to the practice of the singers to vocalise -upon one syllable sometimes to the length of _several minutes_[245] the -vespers alone, often attain the length of _four or five hours_. - -As the rules of worship of the Copts do not allow them either to kneel -or to sit down during services, they are obliged to support themselves -by placing under their arm-pits, a long crutch, in order not to drop -from fatigue. - -This race is degenerating fast, and will soon disappear under the -despotic sway of the Arabs. Their number is about one hundred and fifty -thousand. Few of them understand the Coptic language, and although part -of the service is sung in that tongue, it is usually afterwards -explained in Arabic. Their modulations in singing are very bold, -constant, and fatiguing; so much so, that long before the end of the -song, all remembrance of any key-note, is lost. - -All writers agree in speaking of their music, as tiresome in the -extreme. This proceeds from three causes;—their extraordinary length, -their insignificant melody, and the constant repetition of the syllables -and vowels of a single word, whereby it is made almost impossible to -follow the sense of the text. This fault is not confined to the Coptic -sect only, but is largely found in the Greek church throughout the -Orient. Fetis gives a strong example of one case, taken from an Eastern -Hymnal, it runs as follows,— - -Aga-a-a-a-a-a-aate-e-e-e-e mara ky-y-y-ri-i-i-i-i-ou. - -Each of the vowels is given separate from the others, and the effect is -ludicrous in the extreme. The Copts do worse than this; after mincing a -word into such minute fragments, they go back and re-mutilate the first -syllable, then again the second, then perhaps the first two, and so on -for a long time before they give the word complete like the Syrians. - -The Copts have no musical notation whatever, and it is a most curious -fact in music, that they should be able to recollect such lengthy songs, -devoid of any apparent melody, or sequence, and hand them down -traditionally, from generation to generation; they must possess either -phenomenal memories, or an insight to a connection of ideas in their -songs, which has escaped European perception. These remarkable -descendants of the ancient Egyptians, hate other Christian sects with -much more fervor than they do the Mohammedans. - -Of the Abyssinian Church we have already spoken, (see chapters on -“African Music”);—there is little more to add. They have different modes -of singing for different grades of sacred festivals. Responses made by -the people or the choir, enter largely into their mass. The number of -choristers is from eight to twelve, and they have all powerful voices; -this is in fact a prime necessity, as at the door of the church, during -service, a constant din of drums, cymbals, and sistrums is kept up. - -On certain days, the priests and people have a grand religious dance, to -the sound of these instruments, while the chorus sing a litany and all -mark the time by a clapping of hands. - - - GENERAL SYNOPSIS OF EARLY CHRISTIAN MUSIC. - -That the art of music was esteemed among the more educated of the early -Christians is very strongly shown by a fresco in the cemetery of -Domitilla (in Rome). This painting which seems to be of the first or -second century of our era, represents Christ as Orpheus, charming all -nature by his music.[246] It is probably only an allegorical figure, -representing his divine gifts, but the figure must be a shock to all who -are accustomed to see the face of Jesus, as drawn by the Leonardo da -Vinci. Instead of the meek and beautiful form, we see here a lank -loosely-built young man, sitting in a very uncomfortable attitude, on a -rock, and twanging away at a four-stringed lyre. - -Regarding the origin of the present pictures of Christ (although not -strictly belonging to our subject) we are tempted to make the following -remarks. - -It is believed by some scholars that the head of Christ was first copied -from the statue of Jupiter (or the Greek Zeus), which was, in the early -centuries regarded as the most perfect model of manly beauty. It is -scarcely to be doubted that the general model of the Pagan sculptures -was followed in the early representations of the Saviour. But the style -of portraits was altered in consonance with the description handed down -by good authorities. - -A brass medal with a head of Christ on one side, was discovered in 1702, -in some Druidical ruins, at Aberfraw, Wales, which although of a later -era than that assigned to it, is of great antiquity, and coincides with -the pictures of to-day. - -There exists a letter ascribed to Publius Lentulus and directed to the -emperor Tiberius, which describes Jesus. Although it is apocryphal, yet -it was certainly written in the days of the primitive Christians. It is -translated as follows,—[247] - -“There hath appeared in these, our days, a man of great virtue, named -Jesus Christ, who is yet living among us, and of the Gentiles, is -accepted as a prophet, but his disciples call him the Son of God. He -raiseth the dead, and cures all manner of diseases; a man of stature -somewhat tall and comely, with very reverend countenance, such as the -beholders both love and fear; his hair the color of chestnut, full ripe, -plain to his ears, whence downward it is more orient, curling and waving -about his shoulders.” - -“In the midst of his head is a seam or partition of the hair, after the -manner of the Nazarites; his forehead plain and very delicate; his face -without a spot or wrinkle, beautified with the most lovely red; his nose -and mouth so formed that nothing can be reprehended; his beard thickish, -in color like his hair, not very long but forked; his look innocent and -mature, his eyes gray, clear, and quick. In reproving he is terrible; in -admonishing, courteous and fair spoken; pleasant in conversation mixed -with gravity.” - -“It cannot be remarked that any one saw him laugh, but many have seen -him weep. In proportion of body, most excellent; his hands and arms most -delicate to behold. In speaking, very temperate, moderate and wise. A -man for his singular beauty, surpassing the children of men.” - -From this letter of the predecessor of Pontius Pilate (?) the two -earliest known portraits of Christ (in the Calixtine and Pontine -catacombs at Rome) were probably sketched and the model has been -followed up to our day. - -But there is another description, by St. John of Damascus, which is much -more in keeping with the Jewish type, of which he supposes the Saviour -probably may have had some trait. - -According to him, Christ had beautiful eyes, but the eyebrows meeting; a -regular nose, flowing locks, a black beard, and a straw colored -complexion, like his mother. - - - - - CHAPTER XXI. - THE AMBROSIAN AND GREGORIAN CHANT. - - -St Ambrose, the first real reformer in the music of the Christian -Church, was born A. D. 333, probably at Treves, where his father who was -prefect of Gaul, often resided. He is said to have received an -auspicious omen even in his cradle; a swarm of bees alighted upon him -during his slumber, and the astonished nurse saw that they did not sting -him, but clustered around his lips; his father, remembering a similar -wonder related of Plato, predicted a high destiny for his son. He was -therefore, thoroughly educated in his youth, and soon was sent with -Satyrus, his brother, to Milan to study law. - -He soon became so eminent in this profession, that he was appointed (A. -D. 369) prefect of upper Italy and Milan. In A. D. 374 he was -unanimously, and against his will, chosen bishop of Milan. - -Once in the chair, however, he ruled with vigor and great sagacity, -making numerous and necessary reforms in church regulations and -discipline.[248] - -We shall only follow his musical career. Unfortunately, although there -are some remains in the Milanese church-chant of to-day, we have but -little proof of the nature of his reforms. That it was deeply impressive -we have the testimony of St. Augustine who eulogises, without accurately -describing it,[249] but it is certain that his reforms were founded in -part upon the Greek music, and that in the Gregorian and Ambrosian -chants of the church, we have a legitimate descendant of the ancient -Greek music. The reader must remove one impression from his mind; the -music of the early Christians, though certainly crude, was by no means -simple; on the contrary, it contained many flourishes and rapid -embellishments, most of which were of oriental origin. The reform was in -the nature of simplicity, and added dignity to a service, which already, -in its words, possessed beauty and poetry. - -He cast aside much of the cumbrous nomenclature of the Greek modes, and -retained of them only what was beautiful and easily comprehended. He did -not aim at any sweeping reform, as is evident from his letter to his -sister St. Marcellina, wherein he says that he is endeavoring to -regulate the mode of singing the hymns, canticles and anthems in his own -church,[250] and St. Augustine[251] says that it was done after the -manner of the churches of the Orient. - -The modes which he chose for his compositions were the following:— - - First mode:— D, E, F, G, A, B, C, D, - re mi fa sol la si do re - Second do. E, F, G, A, B, C, D, E, - mi fa sol la si do re mi - Third do. F, G, A, B, C, D, E, F, - fa sol la si do re mi fa - Fourth do. G, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, - sol la si do re mi fa sol - -It will be seen that the semi-tones are immovable, and therefore occur -in different positions in each mode, by the change of the key-note; -being respectively,— - - First mode, semitones 2-3, 6-7 - Second ” ” 1-2, 5-6 - Third ” ” 4-5, 7-8 - Fourth ” ” 3-4, 6-7 - -It was this distinction which gave to each mode its peculiar character. - -Not only did St. Ambrose reinstate these modes, but he composed many -beautiful compositions in them. Many of the so-called Ambrosian chants -and hymns, were not written by him, but after his manner; but some ten -of the ancient hymns, including “_Veni Redemptor Gentium_,” “_Eterna -Christi munera_,” etc., are from his own pen. - -The Cathedral of Milan still uses _Aeterne rerum conditor_; _Deus -Creator omnium_; _Veni Redemptor omnium_; _Splendor Paternæ gloriæ_; -_Consors paterni luminis_; and _O Lux Beata Trinitas_.[252] - -Some of these are of rare beauty, and remain as monuments of the -cultivated taste of this pioneer in church music. The composition of the -“_Te Deum Laudamus_,” has been ascribed to St. Ambrose, and St. -Augustine; but it was composed nearly a century after their death. Among -other persons to whom this beautiful production has been assigned, may -be mentioned St. Hilary, St. Abundius, St. Sisebut, and St. Nicat; but -it may be safely affirmed that its real author has never been -discovered. - -The greatest boon bestowed on the church by St. Ambrose was the -rhythmical hymn, mentioned above, all of which, and many others he wrote -for the Cathedral which he built at Milan. - -“The entire accent, and style of chanting as regulated by him, was -undoubtedly an artistic and cultivated improvement on that of preceding -church services, such as would naturally result from the rare -combination of piety, zeal, intellect, and poetical and musical power by -which he was distinguished.” The Ambrosian chant was eventually merged, -but certainly not lost in that vast repertory of plain song, (whether -then ancient or modern,) which we now call Gregorian, from the name of -the next great reformer of church music, St. Gregory the Great.[253] St. -Ambrose died A. D. 397; it was but a short time afterwards that the -great invasion of the northern barbarians took place. The history of the -vicissitudes of the ecclesiastical music, during the general disruption -of Europe and the western civilization, which followed, can only be -imagined; but scarcely had a calm been re-established, when, at a period -when the reforms and inventions of St. Ambrose had not been vitiated or -lost, the great reformer of church music arose, and re-instated the art -upon a firmer pedestal than ever. - -Gregory, the Great, born about A. D. 540, and pope from September 3, -590, to March 12, 604, was of an illustrious Roman family. His father -Gordianus, was a senator, and Felix III., one of the early pontiffs, was -among his ancestors. He was one of the most remarkable, zealous, and -intelligent of the fathers of the church. - -We have here only to follow his musical work, but in every branch of -work connected with his church, he was most eminent. He founded six -monasteries in Sicily alone. He voluntarily resigned an honorable -office, to leave the world, and seek retirement in the monastery of St. -Andrew, which he himself had founded at Rome. On this occasion he gave -to the poor all his wealth, and declining the abbacy of his own convent, -began with the ordinary monastic life, about 575. - -He wished to attempt the conversion of the Britains, (moved thereto by -the well known incident of seeing some beautiful Anglo-Saxon youths -exposed for sale in the Roman market place), but was prevented by the -clamor of the populace who refused to lose him. Like St. Ambrose, he was -called to office entirely against his will, and, on being made pontiff, -he seems to have excelled in every department of his administration; -thus much, to show that music was but one of the fields in which this -wonderful man exercised his talents. - -He collected the available church music, he added to it by composing new -hymns and anthems, he arranged them for the various special days of the -year, he invented or amplified the system of ecclesiastical composition, -and took care that the reforms should be permanent, by having most -things relative to his musical labors, written out in a lasting -manner.[254] - -These reforms he began about A. D. 599. He did not discard the four -modes of St. Ambrose, but rather extended them; and yet (through the -great personal popularity of St. Ambrose), the Milan Cathedral kept the -Ambrosian chant unadulterated, for centuries after the establishment of -the Gregorian. - -As late as the latter half of the fifteenth century, Franchinus Gafor -speaks of the Gregorians and Ambrosians as partizans. Of course, in -order to secure uniformity, the rulers of Europe, sought to dwarf the -workings of the Ambrosian system, and Charlemagne even ordered the -Ambrosian books to be burnt. Although, as above stated, there was -nothing antagonistic in the two systems, yet their musical results seem -to have had a material difference, for Radulf of Tongern an -unimpeachable witness of the fourteenth century, who heard both methods -in their purity, says that he found the Ambrosian chanting, widely -different from the Roman (Gregorian); the former being strong and -majestic, while the latter was sweet-toned, and well arranged.[255] This -distinction is utterly meaningless to us, for the Gregorian chant is -certainly majestic and strong, at least to our ears. - -Gregory also founded a singing school in Rome, which was large enough to -occupy two good-sized edifices. In this he probably taught personally. - -There have been shown as relics of his instruction, the couch on which -he sat while teaching, and the rod with which the boys were corrected, -or awed into giving proper attention to their studies. - -The amplification which he made in the Ambrosian scale was the addition -of four tones or plagal modes, and also that he totally abolished the -difficult Greek nomenclature, such as _para-mese_ and -_proslambanomenos_, and gave the names of the first seven letters of the -Roman alphabet, to the seven notes, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, in the same -manner as used to-day. There is no question but that the scale founded -by Gregory, had a diatonic character, but as to the number of systems of -tones employed, authorities differ, and even the books of music of -Gregory’s own compilation (one of which was chained to the altar at St. -Peters, to fix the standard of tone for ever and ever) do not clear up -the difficulty, for the number differs. - -But the system gradually settled itself, and eight tones only (our -ordinary diatonic scale tones) were found practicable for composition -and singing. - -Gregory’s system was founded on the division of the octave into two -intervals; a perfect fifth and perfect fourth. The fifth was, next to -the octave, the most important interval. - -The added modes (called plagal, signifying “oblique, sideways”), were so -called to distinguish them from the authentic tones or keys (D, E, F, G, -A), a synopsis of the entire set of tones would be as follows,— - - A, B, C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C, D, - plagal 4, - authentic 5, - plagal 4. - -There were four authentic modes, viz.,—D, E, F and G, and four plagal, -as follows,—A, B, C and D. - -To give a description that would be at all adequate, of the system of -Gregory, would require much space, and many plates and engravings. We -shall therefore touch but lightly on the tone systems and notations of -the early and middle ages. The founding of the scale from a fifth and -fourth, led to one grave mistake; these intervals were supposed to be of -prime importance, and more perfect than others, and finally were -employed in harmonies which were decidedly harsh. But to such an extent -did the evil spread that no composition (in the dark ages) was thought -to be pure or classic, without containing a series of fourths, fifths, -and octaves, and an invariable close upon an empty fifth. Thirds were -rejected as totally impure. But these faults are not of Gregory’s -origination, and he must ever stand as the man who made the connecting -link between the old Greek music and our own. - - - - - CHAPTER XXII. - MUSIC IN EUROPE FROM THE FIFTH CENTURY. - - -In proceeding to briefly sketch the curious facts of musical history in -the dark ages, we shall necessarily confine ourselves to pointing out -only what is chiefly remarkable, and shall not enter into the field of -dispute regarding systems and notations, for this period of Musical -History is a very hazy one. It is but natural to suppose, that when -general barbarism spread over Europe, music was not likely to be either -much practised or written about. The last writer on the previous systems -was Boethius (the last of old Roman writers), who lived at about the -same epoch as Gregory (he was put to death by Theodoric, the Goth, A. D. -525). - -In his work, he uses the letters of the alphabet, to designate musical -notes, but does not repeat the letters at the octave; his nomenclature -therefore does not end at G, but continues on, to _N_, _O_, and -_P_.[256] - -Musical progress was at a stand still from the time of Gregory, until -the reign of the Carlovingian kings. Charlemagne at the end of the -eighth, and beginning of the ninth centuries, took all art and music -under his powerful protection. He loved to compare himself with King -David, and had in many respects, good reason to, for he possessed both -the virtues and the failings of that ancient monarch. - -He gathered about him a number of musical and literary friends, and we -can judge of the pleasant manner of their intercourse by the names of -antiquity which each one was known by. Alcuin, was dubbed Flaccus -Albinus; Riculf, Archbishop of Mayence,—Damoetas; Arno,—Aquila; -Angilbert,—Homerus, etc.[257] - -In addition to the literary and musical schools founded throughout his -empire, in his own palace was one devoted to the education of the -children of his servants. Books were read, and music sung to his -courtiers, during the hours of dining or other leisure. - -The singing at his court, he often conducted himself, and every one was -obliged to participate. If a stranger arrived, he was also obliged to -stand with the chorus, and even if he could not sing, at least to make -the semblance of doing so. - -In the conservation of ancient legendary songs Charlemagne was very -active, and many which have come down to our day, owe their existence to -his wise and thoughtful care.[258] - -In church music he was, most of all, interested, and remarked with much -concern, the variations between the Gregorian and French singing. To put -an end to the matter, he sent to Stephen IV., the reigning pope, for -ecclesiastical singers; the latter responded by sending, (in imitation -of the twelve apostles,) twelve clerical singers to teach his empire. - -But these twelve apostles, turned out to be _all_ Judases, for jealous -of the rising civilization of France, they agreed among themselves, not -to aid in its rise. When therefore, they had been received at the French -court with every honor, and were sent to their various fields of labor, -it is said, they began to sing in a most wretched manner, and not -content with that, they _taught_ this abomination to their pupils. But -when Charlemagne celebrated Christmas at Tours that year, and in Paris -the succeeding year, he heard other Roman vocalists sing in a manner -totally different, and lost no time in making complaint to the pope, -who, calling back the untrustworthy teachers, punished them, some with -banishment, and some with perpetual imprisonment; and in order that a -similar deceit might not again be practised, he persuaded Charlemagne to -send two French Ecclesiastics to Rome, where under Papal supervision -they learned the true Gregorian style of song.[259] - -There also exists another anecdote of the ruling of Charlemagne in -church singing, which will show how high partizan feeling ran in musical -matters at this era. It is as follows,— - -“The most pious King Charles having returned to celebrate Easter at Rome -with the apostolic Lord, a great quarrel ensued during the festival, -between the Roman and Gallic singers. The French pretended to sing -better and more agreeable than the Italians; the Italians, on the -contrary, regarding themselves as more learned in Ecclesiastical music, -in which they had been instructed by St. Gregory, accused their -competitors of corrupting, disfiguring, and spoiling the new chant. The -dispute being brought before our sovereign lord the king, the French, -thinking themselves sure of his countenance and support, insulted the -Roman singers; who, on their part, emboldened by superior knowledge, and -comparing the musical abilities of their great master, St. Gregory, with -the ignorance and rusticity of their rivals, treated them as fools and -barbarians.” - -“As their altercation was not likely to come to a speedy issue, the most -pious King Charles asked his chanters which they thought to be the -purest and best water, that which was drawn from the source at the -fountain-head, or that which after being mixed with turbid and muddy -rivulets, was found at a great distance from the original spring?” - -“They exclaimed unanimously, that all water must be most pure at its -source; upon which our lord the King, said, ‘mount ye then up to the -pure fountain of St. Gregory, whose chant ye have manifestly corrupted.’ -After this our lord the king, applied to Pope Adrian (the first) for -singing masters to convert the Gallican chant; and the pope appointed -for that purpose Theodore and Benedict, two chanters of great learning -and abilities, who had been instructed by St. Gregory himself; he -likewise granted to him _Antiphonaria_, or choral-books of that saint, -which he had himself written in Roman notes.” - -“Our lord the King, on his return to France, sent one of the two singers -granted him by the Pope, to Metz, and the other to Soissons; commanding -all the singing masters of his kingdom to correct their _antiphonaria_, -and to conform in all respects to the Roman manner of performing the -church service.” - -“Thus were the French _antiphonaria_ corrected, which had before been -vitiated, interpolated, and abridged at the pleasure of every choir man, -and all the chanters of France learned from the Romans that chant which -they now call the French chant, which is entirely as the Roman except -that the French do not execute the tremulus and vinnulas, the bound and -staccato notes (_collisibiles vel secabiles voces_), with facility, and -give a rather rude and throaty manner of singing. The best style of -singing remained in Metz, and as superior as Rome is to Metz, so -superior is Metz to the rest of France, in its school of singing.”[260] - -Both the above anecdotes, although quoted very frequently, must be taken -_cum grano salis_, for as Ambros and Fetis well observe, the two -singers, if they had received instruction from Gregory, and also taught -in the era of Charlemagne, must have been about _two hundred years of -age_, which is certainly too old for active service. Another historian -gives the names of the envoys as _Petrus_ and _Romanus_, and it is -certain that one of these did go to Metz, and that a famous school of -singing was founded at Soissons about the same time. Both the teachers, -also must have instructed the French, in the musical characters then -used in notation, and known by the name of _Neumes_. - -The _Neumes_ which were in use for musical writing from the eighth to -the twelfth century were short lines, twirls, and hooks, which were -written above the words of a song to denote the melody. - -The origin of these marks, is buried in oblivion, for they seem to have -been developed, not at one time, but gradually, and from the simplest -beginnings. Although we have not space to describe the theories -concerning them, a short explanation of them is necessary, for from -these Neumes gradually came our modern system of notation. At first -these marks were only meant as guides to memory; to aid the singer to -sing an air which he had previously learned. Thus the first bar of “Home -Sweet Home,” would be represented by a _Scandicus_ signifying three -upward moving tones, the first two short, the last one long. - -The exclamation and interrogation point, are in language, what _Neumes_ -were at first in music, they roughly sketched out the inflection of the -voice. The connection between them, and our modern notation is very -evident; in our musical notation the requirements of the eye, have been -well attended to; not entirely perhaps, as regards the length of notes, -but certainly in the matter of ascending and descending passages, -etc.;[261] the old Greek notation, with its upturned and fragmentary -letters, meant nothing to the untutored eye; but the _Neumes_ of the -middle ages, were the first attempt to express a meaning _by their -arrangement_. Thus the _tripunctum_ ({tripunctum}) would denote three -notes ascending, though not which ones; it might mean - - C, D, E, or E, F, G, or F, G, A, - do, re, mi, mi, fa, sol, fa, sol, la, - -etc., the _bipunctum_ ({bipunctum}) two ascending, or ({bipunctum}) -descending notes; the _plica ascendens_ ({plica ascendens}) an upward -spring of a third, etc. - -It being a system which was evolved by slow degrees, it is not -astonishing that there are various signs, about which opinions differ. -The system though seemingly barbarous, was in reality an improvement; -although not developed so extensively as the Greek notation which -preceded it, it bore the germ of a more natural style of musical -characters. - -But the constant change of, and addition to the _Neumes_, bore evidence, -that it was but a pathway to a more complete system. The next great -reformer in music gave his attention to abolishing the uncertainty which -clung around the _pneumata_. - -Hucbald, Monk of St. Amand, in Flanders, (born about 840, died 932,) -made the first practical effort to fix notes permanently. To him is due -the germ of the idea which afterwards culminated in the modern clefs and -staff. - -He took (unfortunately) the Greek system for his starting point, and -this led him into many errors, and much lessened the permanent value of -his work. He took the tetrachord (or succession of four notes) as the -foundation of music, but he applied it in a most strange manner; his -scale was as follows:[262] - - G, A, B flat, - C, D, E, F, - G, A, B natural, - C, D, E, F sharp, - G, A, B, C sharp, - -it will be readily seen that the above scale contains some -incongruities, which are precisely similar to those noticed in the music -of the Hindoos; that is the octave comes out a semi-tone sharp; B -natural being octave to B flat, F sharp to F, etc. - -Naturally, in singing it is not to be conceived that the singers took -any such outlandish system as to substitute this for an octave, but it -must have allowed great license to the singers, and the whole must have -given rise to much ambiguity. - -His improvement in the method of notation consisted (a perfect -anticipation of clef and staff) in placing the letters of the notes -employed, before each line of the words, and then writing each syllable -of the song, opposite to (and level with) the note to which it belonged. -As he adopted the clumsy Greek method of lettering (using only four -letters, and placing them upright, reversed, backwards, and sideways) we -will give an example with English letters.[263] - - A _______a-________________________ - G ____da-__te_______num____________ - F Lau-___________mi-____de-________ - E ____________do-__________e_______ - D ___________________________cœlis - -The words being “Laudate Dominum de cœlis.” - -The harmony of Hucbald was as peculiar and barbaric as his scale system. - -He followed the principle of the ancients in treating intervals of -thirds and sixths as _dissonances_, and therefore did not allow them to -appear in his works. In common with some of his predecessors, he held -that the only pure intervals were fifths and fourths. To us this -succession of discords appears most appalling, but it is probable that -in the practical use of music it was ameliorated somewhat. At this time -when the organ was in such a primitive state that the organist struck -the keys heavily with his _fist_ in playing, the left fist was sometimes -allowed to hold a tone (in the manner of an organ point), while the -right played a succession of tones with the singers. The constant -rejection of sixths and thirds as impure intervals, must ever remain a -mystery to us; yet the effect of even this harsh and uncouth singing was -deep on those who heard it. History tells us that King Canute was deeply -impressed on hearing the monks chant, while being rowed in his boat, -near a monastery, and a lady upon hearing the music of the first organ -erected in France, went raving mad, from excess of emotion. - -We will leave the rude harmonies of Hucbald, with a final example -showing the succession of fourths used in his _organum_ (or art of -composing). - -The letters T, and S, signify tone and semitone. - - _______________Do-_____________________________ - T_________________mini_________________________ - T_Sit_____oria_________in_____cula________bitur - S_____glo-_____Do-________sae-_________ta______ - T_________________mini_____________lae-________ } etc. - T_Sit_____oria_________in_____cula________bitur - S_____glo-________________sae-_________ta______ - T__________________________________lae-________ - -Sometimes four voices were thus written on a staff of fifteen lines. -Although this system was so cumbrous, yet the right path had been -attained, and the progress was continual; little inventions followed one -upon the other, and many of the modern usages in music date their rise -to this obscure age of Musical History. - -The next great name, in the art, is that of Guido Aretino, or of Arezzo, -a monk of the Benedictine order, born at Arezzo. He flourished about A. -D. 1030 though the date of his birth and death, is not accurately known. -His work has had more influence in shaping modern music, than that of -any one before him. Yet much of his life and work belongs to the hazy -realm of legend. He attained such celebrity that every invention to -which his successors could not find a father, was attributed to him. - -Guido’s great success lay in the fact that he was a _specialist_. He did -not undertake, like Gregory and Ambros, to shine in all art, science, -and enterprise; his position precluded that; he says “The ways of -Philosophers are not mine, I only occupy myself with what can be of use -to the church, and bring our little ones (the scholars) forward.” - -There was need of such a man; for though music teachers were sought in -every country at this time, and those from Italy, Greece, France and -even Germany, were highly prized, yet there were many who presumed on -this state of affairs, and the consequence was that incompetent teachers -were the rule. To remedy this great evil was the aim of Guido’s life. - -He says some of these would-be teachers, “If they sang in their aimless -manner, every day, for a hundred years, they would not invent even the -slightest new Antiphon, and he who cannot easily and correctly sing a -new song, by what right can he call himself a musician or singer? - -“At the service of God, it too often sounds, not as if we were praising -Him, but as if we were quarrelling, and scolding among ourselves.” - -He devoted himself greatly, to the teaching of a most important branch -of singing, i. e., _sight reading_, and soon brought his cloister class -to such perfection in this that they astonished all beholders. He was -not however, as mild-mannered a reformer as his predecessor in art, -Hucbald. His bitter sarcasms on his brother monks, soon brought a -result, and he found himself though not actually chased from his -convent, yet ostracized in it. - -But he was well able to sustain such a strife, and continued his work -with zeal unabated. His style of teaching sight reading was far in -advance of his competitors, for he taught his scholars to sing -intervals, not by referring to the monochord, but instead of it to think -of some similar interval in any hymn well known to them, thus combining -thought, memory and musical ear, in a practical manner. - -He was struck with the regularly ascending intervals of the first -syllables of each line of the hymn in honor of St. John, and with the -inspiration of genius attached the syllables ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, to -the notes, and caused his scholars to memorize each interval, thus -forming a new and easily comprehended system of _Solfeggio_. The hymn -which inspired this wonderful stride in music runs, - - _Ut_—queant laxis. - _Re_—sonare fibris. - _Mi_—ra gestorum. - _Fa_—muli tuorum. - _Sol_—ve polluti. - _La_—bia reati. - Sancte Johannes. - -The fame of his wonderful results in choir-training, soon reached Rome, -and the Pope, John XIX.,[264] sent an invitation to the still ostracized -monk, to come to Rome. - -Guido is credited with having made many changes in the notation and -harmony of his day. The hexachord system is attributed (justly or -unjustly) to him. He also is said to have introduced lines of different -colors into the staff, for the purpose of aiding the singer to recognize -certain notes with more facility. He says in his _Micrologus_[265] “In -order that sounds may be discerned with certainty, we mark some lines -with various colors, so that the eye may immediately distinguish a note, -in whatever place it may be. For the third of the scale [C] a bright -saffron line. The sixth [F] adjacent to C is of bright vermilion, and -the proximity of others to these colors, will be an index to the whole. -If there were neither letter, nor colored lines to the Neumes, it would -be like having a well without a rope—the water plentiful, but of no use -to those who see it.” - -While Guido does not lay claim to having invented the colored lines, it -is probable that he brought them, by his influence into much more -general use. - -He certainly invented a modification of the line system of Hucbald. -Instead of the inverted letters, and fragments of letters which the -latter used, he employed the vowels only, to designate the pitch, thus,— - - ________________________________________________ - ____________________________________tu-____|_u_| - ______________so-______________________os__|_o_| - F__ri-_____ri____lis________u-_____________|_i_| - ________ve-_____________ter___ber-_________|_e_| - Ma-___a______________Ma-__________a________|_a_| - -“Maria, veri solis mater, ubera tuos.” - -Guido, altered Hucbald’s _Organum_ in so far, that he rejected -consecutive fifths, as being too harsh, and substituted a series of -consecutive fourths as being milder. - -It may not be out of place to remark here, that the present scrupulous -avoidance of all consecutive fifths, in modern composition of strict -school, is simply a reaction from the rude taste of past centuries, -which employed them _ad nauseum_; there is no valid reason for their -complete ostracism, any more than there was cause for the banishing of -all sixths and thirds from the harmony of our ancestors. To Guido is -also attributed the invention of the method of the harmonical hand -(Guidonian hand, as it has been named after its supposed originator). -This consisted of marking certain notes and musical signs on the tips of -the fingers, and by this means more readily committing them to memory. -As before stated, many of the inventions credited to Guido, are only -adaptations. The Sol-faing system was almost an accidental occurrence; -yet only genius can derive full profit from accidents. The hymn which -gave rise to it (quoted above), is a most prosaic invocation to St. John -to save the throats of the singers from hoarseness, in order that they -may fittingly sing his praise. A very diplomatic way of requesting it. - -Musical history in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries is at its -darkest; hence little is positively known of the life of Guido. It is -certain that he was in great favor at Rome, and that other countries -applied to him for his musical services to reorganize their -ecclesiastical chanting, and also that his health failing, he returned -to his monastery, forgetting and forgiving the ill treatment he had -received there, and in its cloisters peacefully ended his days. - -The date of his decease is not known. - -Other names appear in this misty epoch in musical history. Franco of -Cologne, Walter Odington, an English Monk, Heeronymus von Maehren, etc., -wrote works upon the theory of music, while Adam de la Hale (of Arras, -France) wrote music in four-part harmony, about the year 1280. But in -the midst of this darkness there came a glorious sunburst in the shape -of chivalric bands who elevated music to a broader sphere by adding to -the ecclesiastical chanting a secular school of composition, both -warlike and lyrical. - - - - - CHAPTER XXIII. - THE ANCIENT BARDS. - - -While Rome and Milan were devoting themselves almost entirely to -ecclesiastical music, there had sprung up among the barbarian nations a -school of music more consonant to their habits, being warlike in its -style, and having for its object the celebration of the heroes of each -country, and the inciting of their descendants to similar deeds of -glory. From earliest days Wales has possessed a guild of such singers, -who were, in fact, the historians of the country, at a time when written -books would have been nearly useless. The songs of the Welsh bards have -been preserved traditionally by that people; while the songs of the -druids who preceded them have been allowed to pass into utter oblivion, -the latter having, evidently, not taken deep root in Welsh soil. - -At the commencement of the sixth century, the bards of Wales exerted all -their energies of exhortation to animate their countrymen in the strife -with the Saxon invaders, and when Wales was conquered by Edward I., -(1284) he dreaded their influence so much that he is said to have -persecuted them and put them to death. The bards in Wales had an -organization similar to that which we shall presently find among the -troubadours and minne-singers. They were divided into two -classes,—poets, and musicians. Each of these classes were subdivided -into three divisions. The first class of poet-bards was composed of -those who understood history, and dabbled somewhat in sorcery, thus -being held in awe as prophets and diviners. The second class consisted -of bards attached to private families, whose duties were to chant the -praises of the heroes of their particular house. The third class were -the heraldic bards, who wrote the national annals and prescribed the -laws of etiquette and precedence. These must have exerted a powerful -influence on a nation which clung so strictly to ceremony and the -privileges of lineage. - -The musicians were also divided into three classes, of which the first -were harpers, and possessed the title of Doctors of Music; the second -class were the players upon the _crouth_ or _chrotta_, a smaller -stringed instrument; the third class consisted of the singers. Many laws -and regulations were made to define the privileges of each class, and -the classification of new bards took place at an assemblage called the -Eisteddfod, which met triennially, and conferred degrees. The highest -degree could only be obtained after nine years faithful study. From the -thirteenth century Wales also possessed a class of wandering musicians -entitled, “_Clery dom_.” The harps used were various, though the -three-stringed one was the national instrument. One variety was made of -leather, strung with wire, and is said to have been peculiarly harsh; -another called _isgywer_ was so small that it could be played on -horseback; another was strung with hair. The order of the bards was -hereditary to some extent. King Howel Dha issued edicts regarding them -(fixing their rank) about 940 A. D., and in 1078 the whole order was -reformed and full regulations made by Gryffith ap Conan. In spite of the -persecutions to which they were subjected, the order was sustained for -centuries, and _Eisteddfods_ were held under royal commission down to -the reign of Queen Elizabeth. - -In Ireland minstrelsy has had a foothold in all times. There is a legend -that about the year 365 B. C., there occurred in Ireland the first -triumph of poetry and music. A young prince, driven from his throne by a -usurper, was so moved by a song which his betrothed wrote and caused -Craftine, a celebrated bard, to sing to him, that he resolved on -hazarding a supreme effort to regain his crown, and succeeded in driving -the usurper from his kingdom. - -The Irish claim that they were the originators of the Welsh system of -bards, but this statement seems to be founded rather on national pride -than upon fact, for it is probable that the borrowing was upon the other -side. But it is certain that the Irish have ever possessed musical taste -and skill. - -Gyraldus Cambriensis (who wrote in the twelfth century) says of them: -“The aptitude of this people for performing upon musical instruments is -worthy of attention.” - -“They have in this respect, much more ability than any nation I have -ever seen. The modulations are not with them slow and sad, like those of -the instruments of Britain, to which we are accustomed, but the sounds, -though rapid and precipitate, are yet sweet and soothing.”[266] The harp -was, as in Wales, the national instrument. The bards were a hereditary -class, and their guild, as in Wales, had three divisions; the _Filedha_, -who sang both about religious and martial subjects, and were also -heralds to the nobility; _Braitheamhain_, who chanted the laws; and the -_Seanachaidehe_, who were the musical and poetical chroniclers and -historians. Their influence and privileges were fully as great as those -of their Welsh brethren, and they had many valuable possessions of land. -Their skill was universally acknowledged up to their conquest by Henry -II., but from that epoch the profession began to decline, although noble -families still made it a point of honor to keep private bards to sing to -them of the deeds of the ancestors of their house. - -The influence which these songs exerted in fomenting rebellion was such, -that severe laws were promulgated against them in England, and under -Elizabeth all the Irish bards who were captured, were hanged. - -The last Irish hard existed as late as the eighteenth century. - -Turlogh O’Carolan was born 1670, and died 1737; worthily closing the -long reign of the fiery minstrel guild of Ireland. - -Scotland’s bardism, was similar to that of Wales and Ireland, but the -ranks and privileges are less known. The bag-pipe was played as much as -the harp, and there was much analogy in the ancient music of Ireland and -Scotland. The scale on which the Scotch pieces were founded, bears much -resemblance to the Chinese, and to some of the Hindoo modes. - -In England there were also bards, but there was not an order, as in the -preceding countries, and at a time when these heraldic singers were so -highly honored in Wales, the singers and musicians of England were held -in very slight social estimation. The irruptions of the Danes, and -Norsemen generally, upon England in the ninth, tenth and eleventh -centuries, brought a taste of the forcible Northern _sagas_ along with -them, and when King Canute held the throne, bards and “_gleemen_,” were -protected and favored, for King Canute was very fond of song. He, -himself, wrote a song which was for a long time the favorite ballad of -England. - -The circumstances which prompted it were as follows:— - -He was being rowed near the Monastery of Ely, in the evening, when the -sound of the monks singing their vesper chants, came across the water; -he was greatly moved by the beauty of the song, which, with the -accessories of the tranquil evening, the rippling water, and the -measured stroke of the oars, caused him to improvise upon the spot, a -song which soon spread among the peasantry as well as the higher -classes. - -Only one stanza has been preserved of this interesting effusion,— - - “Merie sungen the muneches binnen Ely, - Tha Cnute Ching, reu ther by - Rowe cnihtes, næw the land, - And here we thes muneches sæng,” - -which may be rendered in English thus:— - - “Sweetly sang the Monks of Ely, - As King Canute rowed there by, - Row men, nearer to the shore - And hear we these Monks’ song.” - -The minstrels of England from the first, took a more peaceful and -religious turn than those of Wales and Ireland. The most of the really -authentic pieces of their era, take the shape of Christmas carols. - - - - - CHAPTER XXIV. - THE TROUBADOURS AND MINNE-SINGERS. - - -We now come to an era in music, where the most cultivated minds gave -their attention to the art; and where it is no longer confined to the -narrow channels of ecclesiastical, and even heraldic and martial use, -but finds a broader outlet in the subjects of Love, and Nature. The -troubadours were gentlemen (often knights), who held themselves totally -distinct from those musicians who wrote for pay. The rise of chivalry in -the middle ages, elevated woman from an unjustly low position, to an -absurdly high one. She was held to be the arbiter of Fate; the Queen to -whom all service was due; and was almost religiously worshipped. From -this exaggerated devotion arose the school of troubadour and -minne-singer composition. When knights racked their brains, as to what -new offering they could bring to their lady, it was but natural that -they should find, in the combination of poetry and song, a series of -never-ending tributes with which they could pay homage to their chosen -one. - -It is easy to imagine that once launched into this fertile field, they -would not wholly confine themselves to Love, but that an occasional poem -on Nature, or War, would attest their versatility so that even the -puerile “Courts of Love,” of the chivalric age, brought a general onward -impulse to art; it was not to be expected that the knights could step at -once from a condition of rudeness, to a state of culture, and it is not -surprising to see a vast exaggeration of politeness, where little had -been before. - -In the beautiful country of Provence (South France), this branch of art -took its rise. The lyrical songs of the troubadours were written in the -Provencal tongue, which soon became, for all South France the court -language for amatory poetry. It was called also the _Langue d’oc_ (from -the affirmative “_Oc_,” or “yes”), to distinguish it from the _Lingua di -Si_ (Italian) and the _Langue d’öil_ (North France); the name afterwards -was attached to another province of France. The Trouvères, were the -poets and minstrels of North France, and wrote in the _langue d’öil_. -They wrote chiefly epic poetry, (fables, tales and romances), while the -lyrical school was left to their southern competitors. - -The troubadours composed and sang their own songs, but did not play -their own accompaniments; that branch of music was turned over to hired -musicians, called _jongleurs_. - -Celebrated troubadours had often several _jongleurs_ in their employ. -Those who made music a means of gaining a livelihood, were classed much -lower. All in fact who did not invent (“_Trobar_,” to find, or invent, -whence comes the word trobador) their own songs, but sang or accompanied -others, were called _jongleurs_, which was about as ordinary a trade as -that of our perambulating “jugglers;” whose name is only a corruption of -the more ancient calling. - -The troubadours had a position which was even better than that of the -bards of Wales or Ireland. They also made a livelihood of music, but in -a far more genteel way than their humbler assistants, who were -proscribed for so doing. The first thing the troubadour did, on -practising his art was to seek out some person on whom to bestow his -heart. This person was almost invariably a married lady. To her, he -would then dedicate all his lays; he would (bestowing upon her, an -assumed name), sing of her beauties, and entreat her favors; he would -sneer at the charms of other dames, and sometimes satirize them. - -The feelings of the husband during all this can “better be imagined than -described.” - -Yet often the dame, may have been totally indifferent to his ardor. We -feel sure that at times this was the case, for husbands are known to -have begged their wives to accept the troubadour’s flattery, and keep -him on, with slight encouragement. - -Meanwhile the singers went on from Court to Court, received as equals, -by the highest; flattered and sought for by the most brilliant circles, -and fairest ladies. Often they attached themselves to some particular -prince, and gained his favor and enriched themselves by singing -_sirventes_ (songs of service) in his honor, and in derision of his -enemies. - -The nobles and kings of that era, also took up the Troubadour’s lyre, at -times. Richard I., Alfonso X., William IX. Count of Poitiers and others -were famous for their efforts in this line, and they richly patronized -such troubadours as sought them. - -The gifts with which a successful song was rewarded, were of course -influenced by the liberality of the giver. Horses, richly caparisoned, -elegant vestments, and money, are mentioned in this connection.[267] -Meanwhile the troubadours occasionally display the utmost contempt for -their assistants, the before mentioned _jongleurs_, and reproach nobles, -in some verses, with receiving such persons (who play at village fairs, -dance on the tight rope, and exhibit performing monkeys), into their -castles. Yet not all of the poets shared in this feeling, for Boccaccio -tells us that Dante loved to associate with the musicians who set his -_canzone_ to music. In the thirteenth century, Guirant Riquier (called -the “last of the troubadours”) complains to the king of Castile, Alfonso -X., of the decadence of the troubadour’s art, and attributes it to the -indiscriminate mixing of troubadours and jongleurs, in popular -estimation. He says—“You know that all men live in classes differing and -distinguished from each other. Therefore it seems to me that such a -distinction of names ought also to be made amongst the joglars; for it -is unjust that the best of them should not be distinguished by name as -well as they are by deed. It is unfair that an ignorant man of small -learning, who knows a little how to play some instrument, and strums it -in public places, for whatever people will give him, or one who sings -low ditties to low people about the streets and taverns, and takes alms -without shame from the first comer,—that all these should -indiscriminately go by the name of joglars ... for joglaria was invented -by wise men to give joy to good people by their skill in playing on -instruments.... After that came the troubadours to record valiant deeds, -and to praise the good, and encourage them in their noble endeavor.... -But in our days, and for some time past, a set of people without sense -and wisdom have undertaken to sing and compose stanzas and play on -instruments,”[268] etc. - -The poor troubadour desired the king to classify them, and to title the -best. The king’s answer is extant, wherein he endeavored to do so, but -as the real essence and life had departed from the whole institution, it -was unavailing. - -The troubadours often had poetical combats, when they would indulge in a -verse-battle about some “Law of Love,” and the judges were selected from -the fairest and wittiest of the noble dames. These were called the -“Courts of Love.” - -The muse of some of them seems to have taken a most curious turn, for -there are still in existence some “_Essenhamens_,” or books of etiquette -for young ladies, which emanated from these lyrical pens, which are of -the quaintest description. We reproduce a quotation from one, written by -“Amanieus des Escas, called God of Love.”[269] - -In this treatise we are supplied with a minute account of the -accomplishments expected from a well educated young lady, and of the bad -habits most prejudicial to her character. The poet is supposed to be -addressing a noble damsel living at the court of some great baron, as a -sort of ‘lady help’ to his wife; this being a not unusual, and -undoubtedly a most efficient method of polite education in Provence. The -young lady has accosted Amanieus on a lonely walk, asking for his advice -in matters fashionable. This the poet at first refuses to tender, -alleging that “you (the damsel) have ten times as much sense as I, and -that is the truth!” But after his modest scruples are once overcome, he -launches forth into a flood of good counsel. He systematically begins -with enforcing the good old doctrine of ‘early to rise,’ touches -delicately on the mysteries of the toilet, such as lacing, washing of -arms, hands, and head, which, he sententiously adds, ought to go before -the first mentioned process, and, after briefly referring to the -especial care required by teeth and nails, he leaves the dressing room -for the church, where a quiet undemonstrative attitude is recommended; -the illicit use of the eyes and tongue being mentioned amongst the -temptations peculiarly to be avoided. - -Directions of similar minuteness assist the young lady at the dinner -table; the cases in which it would be good taste, and those in which it -would be the reverse, to invite persons to a share of the dishes within -her reach are specified; and the rules as to carving, washing one’s -hands before and after dinner, and similar matters, leave nothing to be -desired. ‘Always temper your wine with water, so that it cannot do you -harm,’ is another maxim of undeniable wisdom. - -After dinner follows the time of polite conversation in the sala -(drawing room), the arbour, or on the battlements of the castle; and now -the teachings of Amanieus become more and more animated, and are -enlivened occasionally by practical illustrations of great interest. -“And if at this season,” he says “a gentleman takes you aside, and -wishes to talk of courtship to you, do not show a strange or sullen -behavior, but defend yourself with pleasant repartees. And if his talk -annoys you; and makes you uneasy, I advise you to ask him questions, for -instance:—‘Which ladies do you think are more handsome, those of Gascony -or of England, and which are more courteous, and faithful, and good? And -if he says those of Gascony, answer without hesitation; Sir, by your -leave, English ladies are more courteous than those of any other -country. But if he prefers those of England, tell him Gascon ladies are -much better behaved, and thus carry on the discussion, and call your -companions to you to decide the questions.’” - -We also give two extracts from the poems of that famous troubadour, -Bertrand De Born. He was a poet far more given to martial songs, than to -the lyrical muse. His enemies dreaded his pen as much as his sword. He -describes his belligerent qualities without any exaggeration, for he was -literally never contented except when at war with some of his neighbors. -One of his poems (addressed to a lady) begins smoothly enough, but -before he is half done, he breaks into an abrupt praise of fighting. - -In the following, he warns Williams of Gordon, against Richard of -Poitou, and hurls invective at the latter. - -“I love you well,” Bertrand says, “but my enemies want to make a fool -and a dupe of you, and the time seems long to them before they see you -in their ranks.” “To Perigeux, close to the wall, so that I can throw my -battle axe over it, I will come well armed, and riding on my horse, -Bayard; and if I find the glutton of Poitou[270] he shall know the cut -of my sword. A mixture of brain and splinters of iron he shall wear on -his brow.” - -Here follows a frank avowal of his delight in war. - -“All day long,” he says, “I fight, and am at work, to make a thrust at -them and defend myself, for they are laying waste my land, and burning -my crops; they pull up my trees by the roots, and mix my corn with the -straw. Cowards and brave men are my enemies. I constantly disunite and -sow hatred among the barons, and then remould and join them together -again, and try to give them brave hearts and strong; but I am a fool for -my trouble, for they are made of base metal.” - -We cannot better take leave of the troubadours than by giving two -additional specimens of the writing of Bertrand de Born. - -The first is an ingenious poem. He has quarreled with his lady, and as a -means of reconciliation he borrows from all the famous beauties of his -time, their special charm, and gives them all to his love. The second -song will explain itself.[271] - - Domna, puois de mi no us cal, - E partit m’aretz de vos, &c. - - Lady, since thou hast driven me forth, - Since thou, unkind, hast banished me, - (Though cause of such neglect be none,) - Where shall I turn from thee? - Ne’er can I see - Such joy as I have seen before, - If, as I fear, I find no more - Another fair, from thee removed, - I’ll sigh to think I e’er was loved. - - And since my eager search were vain, - One lovely as thyself to find; - A heart so matchlessly endow’d, - Or manner so refined, - So gay, so kind, - So courteous, gentle, debonair,— - I’ll rove, and catch from every fair - Some winning grace and form a whole, - So glad (till thou return) my soul. - - The roses of thy glowing cheek, - Fair Sembelis, I’ll steal from thee; - That lovely smiling look I’ll take, - Yet rich thou shalt be, - In whom we see - All that can deck a lady bright, - And your enchanting converse, light, - Fair Ellis, will I borrow too, - That she in wit may shine like you. - - And from the noble Chales, I - Will beg that neck of ivory white, - And her fair hands of loveliest form - I’ll take; and speeding, light, - My onward flight - Earnest at Roca Choart’s gate, - Fair Agnes I will supplicate - To grant her locks, more bright than those - Which Tristan loved on Iseult’s brows. - - And Audiartz, though on me thou frown, - All that thou hast of courtesy - I’ll have,—thy look, thy gentle mien, - And all the unchanged constancy - That dwells with thee. - And Miels de Ben, on thee I’ll wait - For thy light shape so delicate, - That in thy fairy form of grace - My lady’s image I may trace - - The beauty of those snow-white teeth - From thee, famed Faidit, I’ll extort, - The welcome, affable and kind, - To all the numbers that resort - Unto her court. - And Bels Miraills shall crown the whole, - With all her sparkling flow of soul; - Those mental charms that round her play, - For ever wise, yet ever gay. - - - Be in play lo douz temps de paseor - Que fais fuelhas e flors venir; - E play mi quant aug la baudor - Dels auzels que fan retentir - Lor chan per lo boscatge; - E plai me quan rey sus els pratz - Tendas e parallos fermetz; - Quan rey per campanhas rengatz - Cavalliers ab carals armatz. - - The beautiful spring delights me well, - When flowers and leaves are growing; - And it pleases my heart to hear the swell - Of the birds’ sweet choruses flowing - In the echoing wood - And I love to see, all scatter’d around, - Pavillions, tents, on martial ground; - And my spirit finds it good - To see, on the level plains beyond, - Gay knights and steeds comparison’d. - - It pleases me, when the lances bold - Set men and armies flying; - And it pleases me, too, to hear around - The voice of the soldiers crying; - And joy is mine - When the castles strong, totter and crack; - And I see the foemen join, - On the moated floor all compass’d round - With the palisade and guarded mound. - - Lances and swords, and stained helms, - And shields dismantled and broken, - On the verge of the bloody battle scene, - The field of wrath betoken; - And the vassals are there, - And there fly the steeds of the dying and dead; - And where the mingled strife is spread, - The noblest warriors care - Is to cleave the foeman’s limbs and head,— - The conqueror less of the living than dead. - - I tell you that nothing my soul can cheer, - Or banqueting or reposing, - Like the onset cry of “charge them” rung - From each side as in battle closing, - Where the horses neigh, - And the call to “aid” is echoing loud; - And there on the earth the lowly and proud - In the foes together lie; - And yonder is piled the mangled heap - Of the brave that scaled the trench’s steep. - - Barons! your castles in safety place, - Your cities and villages too, - Before ye haste to the battle scene, - And, Papiol! quickly go, - And tell the lord of “Oc and No,” - That peace already too long hath been. - -The Trouvères, were, as before intimated, the poet-musicians of North -France. They wrote in a much more matter-of-fact manner than the -troubadours, and wrote in the _Langue d’öil_, while the latter wrote in -the _Langue d’oc_; two tongues as dissimilar as French and Italian, or -English and Dutch. - -There existed lady troubadours and trouvères; the works of some of them -are extant, and do not in any way compare unfavorably with those of the -other sex. Of course there are several solitary cases where the Norman -poet would write a love song, and the Provencal a fable, but the general -tendency was as above indicated. - -Contemporary with the troubadours and trouvères, there arose in Germany, -a similar order of singers, whose productions have been preserved, even -more copiously than those of the southrons. - -The minne-singers began their career in Germany, under the glorious -reign of Barbarossa, (Frederic I.) in the last half of the twelfth -century. The first name which we meet with is Henry of Veldig, yet it is -a singular fact that he, the first of a new order of singers, begins by -complaining of the decadence of the true minne-lied (love-song.) The -word minne-singer means simply love-singer, i. e.—singer of love-songs. -We give here, a verse of this early love-song, and have endeavored to -give a translation, preserving the original metre (as nearly literal as -possible) below it. - - “Do man der rehten minne pflag - Da pflag man ouch der ehren; - Nu mag man naht und tag - Die bösen sitte leren: - Swer dis nu siht, und jens do sach, - O we! was der nu clagen mag - Tugende wend sich nu verkehren.” - - “When true love had its proper sway, - Then honour too, was nourished - But now by night and day - All evil ways are cherished, - Who knows the past and present way, - Oh Woe! how well complain he may - Since every virtue now has perished.” - -Almost all the lays of the minne-singers were written in the Swabian -dialect which was then the court language of Germany. As a rule, their -grace and elegance of diction was superior to that of the troubadours. -They did not, like the latter, hire accompanists, or jongleurs, but -played their own accompaniments on a viol. As in the South, emperors, -princes, and knights, were proud to be known as minne-singers. - -There exists a little epigram (ascribed to Frederic II.,) which we are -tempted to reproduce, as it gives an insight to the qualities which were -esteemed at that time. - - “I like a cavalier Frances,[272] - And a Catalonian dame; - The courtesy of the Genoese - And Castilian dignity - The Provence songs,[273] my ears to please, - And the dance of the Trevisan; - The graceful form of the Arragoneze - And the pearl of the Julian;[274] - An English face and hands to see, - And a page of Tuscany.”[275] - -The love songs of the Germans were not so fiery as those of Provence; -while the adoration of the troubadour for his love went all lengths, the -German knight rendered to his own a much quieter, (and chaster) species -of homage. There were not such criminal passions (often ending in murder -at the hands of the outraged husband) as in France. In epic poems this -school was very successful, and that stateliest of German poems, “The -_Nibelungen-lied_,” dates from about this time, although its author is -not known. - -The preservation of many of the songs of the Minne-singers is due to -Rudiger of Manesse, a senator of Zurich (fourteenth century). To those -who are desirous of seeing the main part of his collection we cannot do -better than to recommend the excellent work of F. von der Hagen, -(“_Minne-sänger_,” _Manessische Sammlung_), in which all the gems of -this early growth of mediæval poetry are given. One peculiar species of -their songs were called “_Wacht-lieder_” (Watch-songs), and represent -the pleading of the knight, with the watchman of the castle, for -admittance to his love; or the warning of the watchman to the lover in -the castle, to avoid discovery by leaving while it was yet dark. We -present the reader with a specimen (author unknown). - - Vor tags ich hort, in liebes port, wohl diese wort, - Von wächters mund erklingen; - Ist jeman ji, vorborgen hie, derachte wie, - Er mog hindannen sprengen, &c. - - I heard before the dawn of day - The watchman loud proclaim;— - “If any knightly lover stay - In secret with his dame, - Take heed the sun will soon appear; - Then fly, ye knights, your ladies dear, - Fly ere the day-light dawn. - - “Brightly gleams the firmament, - In silvery splendor gay, - Rejoicing that the night is spent, - The lark salutes the day: - Then fly, ye lovers, and begone! - Take leave before the night is done, - And jealous eyes appear.” - - That watchman’s call did wound my heart, - And banished my delight; - “Alas, the envious sun will part - Our loves, my lady bright.” - On me she looked with downcast eye, - Despairing at my mournful cry, - “We tarry here too long.” - - Straight to the wicket did she speed; - “Good watchman spare thy joke! - Warn not my love, till o’er the mead - The morning sun has broke: - Too short, alas! the time, since here - I tarried with my leman dear, - In love and converse sweet.” - - “Lady, be warn’d! on roof and mead - The dew-drops glitter gay, - Then quickly bid thy leman speed, - Nor linger till the day; - For by the twilight did I mark - Wolves hyeing to their covert dark, - And stags to covert fly.” - - Now by the rising sun I view’d - In tears my lady’s face; - She gave me many a token good, - And many a soft embrace, - Our parting bitterly we mourn’d; - The hearts which erst with rapture burn’d, - Were cold with woe and care. - - A ring, with glittering ruby red, - Gave me that lady sheen, - And with me from the castle sped - Along the meadow green; - And whilst I saw my leman bright, - She waved on high her ’kerchief white; - “Courage! To arms!” she cried. - - In the raging fight each pennon white - Reminds me of her love; - In the field of blood, with mournful mood - I see her ’kerchief move; - Through foes I hew where’er I view - Her ruby ring, and blithely sing, - “Lady, I fight for thee.” - -But the glory of the minne-singers was but short; the emperors of the -house of Swabia, had fostered the art, by allowing an unheard-of liberty -of speech and thought; with the downfall of that house (1256 A. D.) the -church regained a continually-increasing ascendancy, and this liberty -was again fettered. Song and poetry, especially of an amatory or -frivolous (?) character were condemned, and the place of the pleasant -school of minne-singer poetry was usurped by paraphrases of the -Scriptures, hymns or legends, written either in very weak German or bad -Latin; the school of German poetry took a very long retrograde step. -Before leaving the minne-singers, a word must be said of their fables -and tales; in these we find many modern ideas in a quaint and ancient -dress, proverbs abound, and many tales of Roman History. “Don’t set the -wolf to guard the Sheep,” “Never borrow trouble,” - - “The king must die, - And so must I,” - -and many other sage thoughts. - -The tales are sometimes very prettily told. We have thought it worth -while to translate one, which we believe, has not yet been seen in an -English dress. - -As far as possible we have adhered to the abruptness and quaintness of -the original. - -“At one time there was a king, who had but one son, who was very dear to -him; the son demanded leave of absence from his father, and said that he -wished to see the world, and wished to make friends. Then the king spoke -‘that pleases me well; but see that you do not have your labor in vain.’ -The son was made ready for his journey, and remained seven years away; -after that he returned to his home and his father, which pleased the -father very much, and he said,—‘Dear son: how many friends hast thou -earned in these three years? Then the son answered ‘only three; the -first I love better than myself; the second as much as myself; and the -third, not as well as myself.’ The father said ‘It is well to have -friends, and it is well to try them; I counsel you to kill a hog, and -put it in a sack, and go in the night to your friends and say, you met -an old enemy on the street and killed him, and are afraid that if the -dead body should be found on you, it would cost you your life, and beg -him that he should, in such extremity, help you, and that he will allow -you to bury the body in his house, that it may not be found on you; so -you shall find out if you have good friends.’ - -This advice pleased the son well, so he went back again to the city -where he knew he should find his friends; and killed one night, a hog, -and did as his father had advised him to, and came to the friend whom he -loved better than himself. When this one had heard his story, he -said:—‘you killed him yourself, so suffer for it yourself; if it were -found by me it would cost me my life; but because we are good friends -and comrades, when you are caught, and when they are about to bill you, -I will go to you, and will console you, and will buy many ells of cloth -for you, wherein they may wind you and bury you; because you loved me -more than yourself.’ When he heard this, he answered nothing but went to -the other friend whom he loved as much as himself, and knocked at his -door with the same tale as he had told to the first; this one -said:—‘Dear one! do you suppose I am such a simpleton that I want to die -for you? If it is found here then I must die; but if they kill you, then -I will comfort you, because that we are friends, and will do it the best -I can, since we must all die.’ When he heard this, he parted from him, -and came to the third friend whom he did not love as well as himself. -This one asked what was in the sack, which he came with. He said:—‘I can -not say well, but I need help in this day; yet know that it has been my -fate to kill a man, and I carry his body on my back, and if it is caught -by me, then I must die, therefore I call on you for counsel; This one -spoke;—‘Give me here the body, and let me carry it myself, for I will -even die for you,’ and when he opened the sack he found that only a dead -hog lay therein. After that the son went home and told the whole story -to his father.”[276] - -The end is of rather startling abruptness; we should have liked to have -heard of the rewards and punishment, _a la_ modern novel. - -One song took its rise at this time which is even to-day a popular one, -the world over. We refer to the music of the song now known as, “We -won’t go Home till morning,” or “For he’s a jolly good fellow;” and -known in France as “Malbrook s’en va-t-en Guerre.” This was a favorite -air at the time of the crusades, and the crusaders often made it resound -before Jerusalem. - -The Arabs first knew the melody and have retained it to this day. The -Arab fellahs will listen apathetically to the whole repertoire of a -European orchestra; but the moment that the above tune is played, the -whole aspect changes, and instead of a lifeless audience, the performers -have the most enthusiastic of listeners.[277] In the course of descent -from the Crusaders and ancient musicians, the tune has become a little -quicker but is not changed in any material respect. - -Some time after the decline of Minne-singing, an attempt was made to -revive its glories, by musical competitions, somewhat similar in style; -but the essence of the real “Minne” was gone; it was no longer the -knight singing to his love, or telling in unaffected verse, the beauties -of Nature. Instead of this, there was a competition of burgers and -tradespeople, affecting a passion foreign to their nature, and caring -far more for a stilted style of verse, than for the subject of it. Such -were the Meister-singers;[278] Nuremburg was their chief seat, and like -all the tradesmen of that age, they made their Guild a very close one. -No one could be admitted as a Master, unless he invented a new style of -rhyme. Almost all the members came from the lower classes, and the -result of such tyros endeavoring to strike out paths which would have -been difficult even to genius, can be imagined. - -Hans Sachs (a Nuremberg shoe-maker) and a couple of others, were -probably all that sang with real poetic feeling. - -Their songs were also accompanied with music. There was a severe set of -rules regulating the poetical and musical contests; and the Guild spread -over all Germany; the last vestige of it did not disappear until as -recently as 1839. - -But while this stultified mode of music was going on in Nuremberg, a -truer musical plant was growing beside it: at this time the Volks-lied -(folk song) took its rise in Germany. - -The first form of the volks-lied was religious, and it was of a -simplicity which adapted it to the wants of the people. The pedantry of -the Meister-singers had an excellent effect upon this class of -composition, for it added counterpoint and harmony (even if driven to -excess) to a class of music which was able to bear it. - -Another order of music was that connected with the miracle plays, where -scriptural events were represented upon the stage, with music. Much of -this music was taken bodily from the ecclesiastical chants of the -period. - -With the commencement of the reformation, the music of Germany was -lifted to a very elevated sphere, in being applied to the stately -chorals which came into general use, through the efforts of Luther, who -himself composed some of them. Luther had a most musical nature, which -left its imprint upon his whole epoch. - -It is related of him, that he spent the largest part of the night before -he appeared to define his doctrines before the Diet of Worms, playing on -his lute, in order to give composure and firmness to his thoughts. - -He ranked music next to theology, and said:—“I am not ashamed to -acknowledge, that next to divinity there is no study which I prize so -highly as that of music.” - -With the reformation, the epoch of modern music may be said to begin. Of -course there was both crudity and pedantry in the art, but the -Meister-singers, although they yet existed centuries later, had ceased -to exert an influence. - -There are but few curious facts, which are not generally known, from -that age, to our own. Yet we think a brief sketch of the growth of some -branches of our music, will not be uninteresting to the general reader, -even if the facts have lost the relish of novelty. - - - - - CHAPTER XXV. - CURIOSITIES OF THE OPERA. - MODERN COMPOSERS, AND CONCLUSION. - - -Our series of sketches now draws towards its close. The rise of the -many-voiced harmony in Italy, France, Germany, England, and the -Netherlands, the contrapuntal works of Palestrina, Dufay, De Lattre, -etc., come rather under the head of the history and science of music, -than within the scope of a work which only endeavors to collect the -curiosities of the art, and things not generally known. But in the rise -and progress of the opera, we find some interesting facts which belong -to our subject, and which bring our chain of sketches down to the music -of our own times. - -The opera was the legitimate offspring of the Miracle plays of the -Middle ages, which were only sacred operas or oratorios, wherein some -events in the life of a holy personage were represented with songs and -acting. The first opera (being exactly like a “mystery play,” except -that the subject was a secular one) was “Orpheus,” by Angelo Poliziano, -and was performed in Rome in 1480. The libretto was by Cardinal Riario -(nephew of Pope Sixtus IV.) - -Pope Clement IX., wrote seven librettos for operas. All was not sung in -these: they were rather tragedies with choruses.[279] - -In 1500 the popes possessed a theatre, with decorations and machinery. -The paintings in this edifice were by Balthazar Peruzzi, who may be said -to be the father of scene painting. His scenery is said to have been -very realistic. - -Julian de Medicis, brother of Leon X., on being proclaimed a citizen of -Rome gave public plays, and had a comedy of Plautus presented for two -days, the music of which was much admired. - -In 1574, Claudio Merulo, organist at St. Mark’s, composed music to a -drama, which was performed in the presence of Henry III., of France. - -Vincent Galileo, father of the astronomer, and Giovanni Bardi invented -the recitative at about the same time. - -Peri and Caccini, two of the best musicians of Florence were engaged by -two rich noblemen to write for them a complete opera; _Dafne_, produced -in Florence (1597,) was the result, and was the first complete opera in -modern form; these composers were therefore the originators of the -opera. - -An opera by the same writers was given at the wedding of Henry IV., and -Marie de Medici. Rinucci, the author of the _libretti_ of both the above -was silly enough to imagine that Marie de Medici loved him, and followed -her into France the ridicule which he received for his conceit soon sent -him back to Italy. - -The score of “Orpheus,” by Monteverde, 1608, allows us to see the -construction of his orchestra. - -There were,— - - 2 Clavichords, - 2 Lyres, or Grand Viols (13 strings), - 10 Violas, - 3 Bass Viols, - 2 Double Bass, - 1 Double Harp (2 rows of strings), - 2 Small French Violins, - 2 Great Guitars, - 2 Organs (wood), - 4 Trombones, - 1 Pair of Regals (small organ), - 2 Cornets, - 1 Small Flute, - 1 Clarion, - 3 Sourdines (muted trumpets). - -These instruments gave to each chorus and character a different effect, -thus the double basses accompanied Orpheus; the viols, Euridice; the -trombones, Pluto; the regals, Apollo. The shepherd’s choruses were -accompanied by flute, cornets, sourdines and clarion, and most singular -of all, Charon sang to the light tones of the _guitar_.[280] - -In Italy, from this time forth, opera followed opera. - -In France it was not known till much later plays “with songs” were known -however, and one of these, “in the Italian style,” was performed in -Paris, before the King and Royal family, on the occasion of the victory -of the Duke of Guise at Calais, 1558. - -The chief representations for years after, lay rather in the direction -of ballets, than of operas. Religious plays also still were given at -Paris, but after the ordinance, of 1548, that no Catholic ceremony -should be represented on the stage, they disappeared.[281] - -The theatres, that is those which were public, were at this time very -poorly appointed, but through the constant festivities of the court, -many inventions came into use. - -The Court of France had always a _penchant_ for music, the drama, and -dancing. Henry IV., was very fond of the latter. - -Louis XIII., cultivated music with much success, he composed many airs, -and several motets which he had performed in his Chapel. Music was his -ordinary recreation when he could not go hunting. At the siege of La -Rochelle, there being no musicians or singers with the army, he himself -wrote out the vespers for Pentecost, that they might be ready in time. -Three weeks before his death, and after he had received the extreme -unction, feeling himself somewhat better, he begged Nyert, his first -_valet de garderobe_ to sing a paraphrase of David, which he had set to -music, to give thanks to God. - -Saint-Martin and Campeforte who were present, each sang a part, and thus -made a concerted piece which they sang around the bed, the king from -time to time joining in with his own voice. - -He also wrote a “_de Profundis_,” which was sung over him after his -death.[282] The words still exist which were written by him for his now -well-known “Amaryllis;” they were written for Madame de Hauteforte, and -one of the verses runs:— - - Tu crois, o beau soleil! - Q’ua ton eclat rien n’est pareil; - Mais quoi! tu palis - Auprès d’Amaryllis.[283] - -Tallement speaks of a concert given once where one of his songs was sung -four times, the king beating the measure. To these gatherings he would -admit none who were not musical, and no women whatever, “for” said he, -“_they cannot keep silent_."[284] - -Under Louis XIV., the opera became well known in France, nor was it any -longer a borrowed spectacle, for Lulli in 1664 associated himself with -Moliere in writing; the latter furnishing the _libretti_, which were in -themselves of the best order. In 1672 he built a permanent opera house, -(Academie Royale de Musique) and thus gave to France, what it had never -before possessed,—a national opera. - -There were, to be sure, a few French operas, before his enterprise; one -given at Paris, by Cardinal Mazarin, in 1645; one entitled “Akébar, King -of Mogul,” by the Abbeé Mailly and “La Pastorale en musique,” by -Cambert,[285] but these do not deprive Lulli of the claim of being the -“founder of French opera.” - -La Fontaine tried to write some _libretti_ for Lulli, which were total -failures, and declined by the musician. - -The King (Louis XIV.), was passionately fond of Lulli’s music, and would -hear scarcely any other. - -About this time, the idea of _whistling and hissing_ to show -disapproval, was invented. It is said that Corneille’s “_Baron de -Fondrieres_” has the questionable honor of being the first play that -ever was hissed. - -The hiss, spread rapidly, but on some one having injudiciously hissed -the opera of Orpheus, by the sons of Lully, the hiss was interdicted by -law in 1690.[286] - -The repression was not very effectual, and innumerable epigrams (some of -which still exist),[287] showed the derision of the public. - -The singers of Lulli’s operas had all the faults of their later -brethren. Dumenil, the tenor, used to steal the jewelry of the _prime -donne_, and get intoxicated with the baritone. He is said to have drank -six bottles of champagne every night, and only the sixth deteriorated -his performance. - -Marthe Le Rochois, another of the troupe, on being accused of too much -intimacy with the bassoon of the orchestra, exhibited a promise of -marriage from the fond performer, written on the back of an _ace of -spades_. - -Mlle. de Maupin was the wildest scapegrace the stage ever saw: her -adventures read like the most improbable sensational novel, and would -take as much space to reproduce. - -England’s first opera was performed in 1656. It was entitled the “Siege -of Rhodes,” and was composed by five persons in collaboration. Musicians -and players were at this time held in low esteem, and were liable to -arrest as vagabonds at almost any moment. - -England possessed in Henry Purcell (1658-1695) a musician of whom any -country might be proud. This composer soon turned his pen to the writing -of operas; the music to “The Tempest” was excellent, while his “King -Arthur” contains music which is still loved by Englishmen everywhere. - -Now that opera was established firmly, the rivalries of the singers at -once began. - -In 1726 a bitter rivalry sprang up in London between Cuzzoni and -Faustina Bordoni, in which the whole town took part. It lasted over two -years, and was throughout causeless, as the styles of the two were -entirely dissimilar, Bordoni being unapproachable in the lightness and -rapidity of her runs and embellishments, and Cuzzoni excelling in the -pathetic quality, and breadth of her tones.[288] - -But to follow the absurdities which constantly arose in the rivalries of -the various composers, singers and performers, would require, not one, -but very many volumes by itself; we need only allude to the disputes and -rivalries between Gluck and Piccini (in the composition of operas,) the -singers Mara and Todi, in France, and Billington and Mara in London. - -The names of those who have established a reputation as wonderful -operatic singers, also make a formidable list. Among the very greatest -may however be mentioned Farinelli (male soprano) Catalani, and -Lablache, and among the most successful of operatic writers, Gluck, -Mozart, Meyerbeer, Rossini, Verdi, Gounod. Of course many names could be -added, but these may stand as representatives. - -It is not singular that the great masters, Händel, Beethoven and -Mendelssohn failed in this branch of composition. None of them had the -ability to stoop to the musical _finesses_, and _coups de theatre_, -which were necessary to make a successful opera. They might have -succeeded, if the pure style of Gluck, with _libretti_ taken from the -Greek tragedies, had continued, for these were in their vein. But the -public demanded a more spicy operatic diet which they were not able or -desirous to finish. - -It is well that it was so, for to this fact we owe our grandest -oratorios. - -Händel had trouble enough with opera, before he finally left it. He had -a temper which was simply frightful (and an appetite which was the -same), and when he came in contact with the conceited and irascible -singers of his day, an explosion was sure to follow. - -Cuzzoni (who had the sweetest of voices, and the harshest of tempers), -was the hardest of all for him to get along with. - -One day she refused absolutely to sing a part which he had assigned to -her; his patience, small at the best, gave out totally, and he was going -to throw her out of the window, when she hurriedly gave her consent to -sing. - -Händel’s losses and trials as operatic manager, temporarily drove him -crazy. - -Rossini also had his troubles in the operatic field. Once a manager, -whose _libretti_ he was bound by contract to set to music, took offence -at some action of the composer, and sought to revenge himself by writing -a wretched opera for him. The result nearly brought both to ruin, for -Rossini retorted by writing a terribly poor score to the words; in the -overture, during an _allegro_ movement, the violins were arranged so as -to stop at every bar, and tap the tin shades of their lamps with their -bows. The audience nearly demolished the theatre. The “Barber of -Seville” was a failure at its first performance. - -There is a note to be made here, of a passage in one of his operas, -which is of interest to conductors. - -The overture to “William Tell” had been played from its first -representation, August 3, 1829, for more than thirty years, with a major -trill in the violincello at the cadence of the first part; (the andante -at the beginning of the work), but on the 16th of November, 1861, the -piece was played before the composer, who stigmatized as “a great -fault,” the major trill in the third measure of the cadence.[289] “It -should be minor” he said. And since that date it has been played so. But -it is very uncertain whether the abrupt remark was not a mere whim of -the composer. The trill is more satisfactory with G sharp, than with G -natural; the earlier editions have none of them any mention of a minor -trill and it is scarcely possible that “a great fault” like this, should -have escaped notice so long. - -Meyerbeer, was in all respects, a person well calculated to popularize -opera. He knew how to work up dramatic effects, in which he was well -seconded by his French librettists, and he did not hesitate at any -innovation to ask if it were classical, or belonged to pure art; and he -succeeded far better than the martinets who condemned him. - -At the first representation of his “_Robert le Diable_,” an accident -occurred which nearly resulted in disaster. In the last act, Bertram, -the tempter, has to descend to the infernal regions, alone; Levasseur -(who performed the character) leaped down the trap, and Robert -(represented by the tenor Nourrit), who should have remained on earth, -saved by the prayers of Alice,—after a moment of indecision (not -remembering the denouèment) _leaped after him_. - -There was general consternation on the stage, for all thought that -Nourrit was injured. In the audience they must have thought that the -opera had a rather immoral ending, since Bertram, the tempter, had -triumphed over the prayers of Alice. - -Fortunately the mattresses had not been removed; and Bertram was vastly -astonished to find that he had bagged his victim after all; he asked -Nourrit in amazement.—“Has the plot been changed?” but Nourrit -recollecting his mistake, hastened back to the stage, where the audience -were astonished to see him reappear, but soon grasping the situation -burst into loud applause. - -The curiosities of the opera of to-day are even greater than those of -twenty years since, for the world has found an iconoclastic composer who -is endeavoring to reform all that went before him, by pulling it to -pieces. Yet he has done opera precisely the service which it at present -needed, in showing composers the importance of bestowing a greater -attention upon the libretto, and elevating the orchestra as well as the -scene painter to their proper places; his idea that an opera should be a -“perfect chrysolite,” a complete picture in all its accessories, is the -true one, though his mode of effecting it may not be. - -His zeal has allowed him to commit a ludicrous “curiosity of music” in -attacking almost all that the Jews have ever done in music, and -endeavoring to depreciate the most prominent talent of that race; a -talent which has been acknowledged ever since the days of the Babylonian -captivity. - -Yet a still greater curiosity (and the most recent of all) has been -written by one of his defenders. Of course his attacks upon all who -differed from him, provoked retorts innumerable; these have been -collected and published in a compact form, and the work is entitled “A -Dictionary of Impoliteness.” - -With this “curiosity” our catalogue appropriately ends. We have not -mentioned some of the great names in music (Haydn, Cherubini, -Palestrina, Schumann, Schubert, etc.), and have touched but lightly upon -others. They did not seem to come within our scope. - -The incidents in the lives of the musical giants have all been sought -out by persons possessing facilities which no American writer can have, -and are generally so well known that they can no longer be called -curious. We have endeavored to show that music is a very uncertain and -fickle art, and continually changing, and that there never can be -_absolute_ laws laid down in this free art, as if it were a fixed -science. If we have done this and amused our readers at the same time, -we consider our work brought to a satisfactory conclusion. - - - THE END. - - - - - FOOTNOTES - - -[1]Krause.—Geschichte der Musik. - -[2]The Raagni is the popular mode of singing in India; it is a free - Fantasia, or improvisation. - -[3]Wm. Jones; Music of India. - -[4]Ambros. - -[5]Krause. - -[6]Plutarch, of Isis and Osiris. - -[7]Herodotus, Hist. - -[8]Plutarch, of Isis and Osiris. - -[9]Petronius. - -[10]Champollion. - -[11]Lepsius, Abt. 2 Pl., 86e. - -[12]Wilkinson, p. 240. - -[13]Wilkinson, v. 2, p. 222. - -[14]V. 3, p. 83. - -[15]Abtheilung, 3, page 106. - -[16]Hist. Gen. de la Mus. - -[17]Doubts have been expressed concerning the genuineness even of these. - -[18]Lloyd. - -[19]Lloyd, Age of Pericles, Vol. II., p. 222. - -[20]Ambros, Gesch. d. Musik, p. 237. - -[21]Olympia, p. 106. - -[22]The nome, or hymn for which Chrysothemis, gained the prize, - celebrated the victory of Apollo over the serpent Python. - -[23]Gevært, Mus. de l’antiquite, p. 45. - -[24]Chappell, Hist. of Mus., p. 32. - -[25]Diodorus. - -[26]Ambros Ges. d musik, p. 265, v. 1. - -[27]Later there were more characters added, but at first, the whole - action consisted of dialogues between a solitary actor and the - chorus. - -[28]Jullien however, thinks Sappho in common with many other ancient - poets much overrated. Theses Supplementaires, p. 439. - -[29]Geschichte der Griech. Lit. - -[30]Lucian, Lapithæ. - -[31]Ambros, Gesch. d. musik, v. 1, p. 260. - -[32]Jullien, Theses Supplementaires, p. 130. - -[33]The very title “philosopher” was of his own coining, for previous - sages called themselves Sophos (wise), but he preferred the better - name of Philosopher (lover of wisdom). - -[34]Some of the pupils of Pythagoras, maintained that he only of all men - had heard the harmony of the spheres. - -[35]The sense of sound differs in different ears. In Chappell’s Histy. - of Music, page 251, an account is given of a wire of sixty-four feet - in length, arranged by Sir F. A. Gore Ouseley, to sound the C, four - octaves below C in the bass clef. The note was inaudible, but when - taken at half length some of the listeners heard it, while at - quarter length it was audible to all. - -[36]See Lucian, Auction of Philosophers. Some say two years. - -[37]Women were also admitted, but probably only to attendance on - lectures, not to membership. - -[38]Legum II. - -[39]Lloyd, Ages of Pericles, Vol. 2, p. 239. - -[40]See Lucian, Lapithæ. - -[41]Ottfried Müller, V. I, p. 343. - -[42]Socrates intimates that the hiring of a large retinue of servants, - and the purchase of an expensive flute, went very far towards - establishing a reputation as a skillful flutist. - -[43]Physcon was a nickname signifying thick belly. - -[44]Müller, Gesch. d. Griech. Lit. v. 1, p. 380. - -[45]Müller, Gesch. v. 1, p. 399. - -[46]Müller, Ges. v. 1, p. 394. - -[47]At seven years old the study was usually commenced. - -[48]See O. Müller, Gesch. v. 2, p. 44 - -[49]The lips of the tragic mask were usually half open. - -[50]Gesch. d. Griech. Lit. p. 44 - -[51]Some Dithyrambic poets kept a band of flute-players to accompany - their choruses. - -[52]There was, and possibly is still, in some parts of Italy, a custom - analogous to this, when the director of the orchestra marked time by - rapping his baton regularly on his music stand instead of simply - waving it. - -[53]Thucydides also gives an unfavorable picture of Cleon. Grote in his - History of Greece, defends Cleon’s character. - -[54]Müller, p. 207, v. 2. - -[55]_De Saltatione_ - -[56]Czerwinski, Geschichte d. tanz kunst, p. 19. - -[57]Lucian, _de Saltatione_. - -[58]Czerwinski, Gesch. d. Tanz k. - -[59]Phillina, in dialogues of the Hetaræ. - -[60]O. Müller, Gesch. d. Griech. Lit. v. 2, p. 210. - -[61]Valerius Maximus, Book 2, x. - -[62]Book 2. s. iv - -[63]These are still used in Italy, and their performers are called Zam - pognari. The derivation is obvious. - -[64]Chappell, in his History of Music, is the most lucid of these. - -[65]See Fetis’ Hist. Gen. de la Musique. - -[66]Fetis, Hist. v. 8. - -[67]Gevært, Hist. de la Mus. de l’ant. p 56. - -[68]Tacitus, Bk. IV. - -[69]Gevært, Mus. de l’ant. p. 58. - -[70]Tacitus, Bk. I. - -[71]Lucian, _de Saltatione_. - -[72]Lucian, _de Saltatione_. - -[73]Lucian, ibid. - -[74]Seneca. - -[75]Suetonius, Calig. LIV. - -[76]Suetonius, Vesp. XIX. - -[77]Letters of Julian, No. 56. - -[78]Tacitus, Bk. XX. - -[79]Suetonius, XX. - -[80]Tacitus, XV. - -[81]Suet. Nero, XXI. - -[82]Tacitus, Bk. XXI. - -[83]Suetonius, Nero. XXIII. - -[84]See chapter on Games of Greece. - -[85]Nero however sometimes took part in other contests, he was as poor - and persistent a charioteer as magician. - -[86]Tacitus, Book XVI. - -[87]In the early historical part of this article, we have mainly - followed the dates used by La Fage. - -[88]Ambros, Gesch. d. Mus. p. 20, v. 1. - -[89]Amiot, Abrege Chron. p. 201. - -[90]Chinese annals claim that their empire was founded 80,000 or 100,000 - years B. C. Fo-hi’s reign is fixed by some at about 2,250 B. C. - -[91]Amiot, De la Mus. des Chinois, p. 54. - -[92]Amiot, p. 57. - -[93]It is singular that a similar personage exists in the Hindoo - mythology. - -[94]Quoted by La Fage, Hist. de Mus., p. 47. - -[95]La Fage, p. 50. - -[96]Amiot, de la Mus. des Chinois, p. 11. - -[97]P. 63. Mus. des Chinois. - -[98]La Fage, 69. De Mailla, 191. - -[99]Amiot, de la Mus. de Chin., p. 33. - -[100]Ambros, Gesch. der Musik, p. 27, v. 1. - -[101]Ambros, Gesch. d Mus. p. 32. - -[102]Pieces for the Clavichord in the style of Rameau. - -[103]Amiot, Mus. des Chinois, p. 3. - -[104]Cibot, Essai sur les Caracteres Chinois. - -[105]Amiot, de la Mus. de Chin., p. 35. - -[106]Figures 2 and 3, pl. 1, Amiot, des Chin. - -[107]Figures 4 and 6, pl. 2, Amiot. - -[108]Figure 7, pl. 2, Amiot. - -[109]Amiot, Essai sur les pierres sonores. - -[110]L’Abbé Roussier, Annotations sur Amiot. - -[111]The chronicle says “it was mute forever,” but this was meant as - hyperbole. - -[112]De la Mus. des Chin., p. 60. - -[113]There are two kinds of _siao_, the great and the small. The latter - has the same number of tubes, but pitched an octave higher. - -[114]Fetis, Hist. Gen de la Mus. VI. 1, p. 66-67. - -[115]Fetis, p. 73. - -[116]“Les Chinois ont remplacé les voix des femmes par celles des - casrats. Les chirurgiens Chinois sont arriveés a pratiquer - l’operation avec une addresse singuliere et presque sans souffrance - pour le sujet.” La Fage, Mus. des Chin., p. 150. - -[117]La Fage, Mus. des Chin., p. 241. - -[118]Amiot, Mus. des Chinois, p. 179. - -[119]In singing this the chorus speaks in the name of the emperor. - -[120]Amiot, des Chin., p. 180. - -[121]The offerings are viands, libations, and perfumes, the latter being - burnt as incense by the emperor. - -[122]Copied by Ambros, in Gesch d mus. v. 1, p. 34-5. - -[123]Quoted by Fetis, Hist. Gen. de la Mus. v. 1, p. 62. - -[124]Amiot, p. 171. - -[125]La Fage, des Chinois, p. 269. - -[126]First it was Haydn, then Handel, then Mozart, then Beethoven and - to-day Wagner (a few years ago, Schumann) whose bold eagle-flights - dismayed the more timid owls. - -[127]“Among the Chinese themselves, society chiefly consists of certain - stated forms, and expressions, a calm, equal, cold deportment, - hypocritical attentions, and hyperbolical professions.” Barrow’s - Life of Macartney, v. 2, p. 414. The curious reader will also find a - very full description of Chinese social etiquette, in the - “_Description de la Chine_,” by Pere Du Halde, pages 115 to 154, - vol. 2. Rules are given for set formalities, even on the slightest - occasions, such as, the opening of a conversation when visiting (p. - 126), the exit, the rising from table after meals, (138), etc., etc. - It is possible, that in the customs of this people, we may see a - living reproduction of some traits of the ancient Egyptians - -[128]Barrow’s life of Macartney, v. 2, p. 231. - -[129]Ibid, v. 2, p. 217 - -[130]Desc. de la Chine. T. II. p. 132. In La Fage’s quotation the page - is given as 112, probably an oversight, or a later edition. - -[131]Account of Lord Macartney’s embassy, by Sir George Staunton. - -[132]Musical Myths and Facts, vol. 2, p. 163. - -[133]La Fage Mus. des. Chinois T. 1. p. 302 - -[134]_Leit motiven_ however the Chinese have _not_!! - -[135]De Guignes, Voyage a Peking v. 2, p. 325. - -[136]It would however, be as unjust to judge average Chinese plays by - this one instance as to judge of the Shakesperian drama by “Titus - Andronicus.” - -[137]Voyage to Cochin China, p. 295. - -[138]In like manner physiologists at one time endeavored to account for - the peculiar singing of the Tyrolese peasantry (called the “yodel”) - by the theory that the Tyrolese throat was shaped differently from - throats in general. Anatomy exploded the assumption. - -[139]La Fage, Mus. des Chinois, v. 1, p. 311. - -[140]Edward Brown, Adventures In Cochin China, p. 221, quoted by Engel - Mus. Myths and facts, vol. 2, p. 157. - -[141]DuHalde, Description de l’emp. de la Chine. T. 2, p. 156. - -[142]LaFage, Mus. des. Chin., T. 1, p. 313. - -[143]Barrow’s life of Macartney, v. 1, pp. 341-2 - -[144]Ibid, p. 337. - -[145]Ainsworth, around the world, p. 102. - -[146]The following is a short synopsis of Chinese education. “When - choosing a wet-nurse, the mother must seek a modest, virtuous, - affable, discreet, respectful, exact and prudent woman. When the boy - can carry his hand to his mouth he is weaned, and taught to use his - right hand in eating; at the age of six, teach him the simplest - numbers, and the names of most important parts of the globe; at the - age of seven separate him from his sisters, and let him neither eat - nor sit with them; at the age of eight teach him the rules of - politeness and civility, which he must observe when entering or - leaving a house, or when he is with his elders; at nine teach him - the calendar; at ten send him to the public school and give him no - more cotton-stuffed garments, they will be too warm for his age. The - school-master is to give him knowledge of reading, writing and - arithmetic. At thirteen, let him study music, that he may sing - poetry, and that the wise maxims contained in the verses, be - engraven on his memory. At fifteen he is to learn archery and - riding. As for girls, when they have attained the age of ten years, - they are not to be allowed to go out of doors; teach them to speak - sweetly, to have an affable air, and to understand all household - duties.” Book of ancient rites quoted in Pere du Halde’s Descrip. de - la Chin., T. 2, p. 438. - -[147]Ainsworth, p. 102. - -[148]A good example of the ludicrous side of this over politeness, may - be given here. The host in China will constantly press his guest to - accept of things which the latter is _expected_ to refuse; the host - is also required by etiquette to depreciate himself and extol his - guest, which the latter returns in kind. An English gentleman having - resigned himself to his interpreter, the following dialogue (like - that in Kinglake’s “Eothen,”) takes place:— - - _Interpreter._ His excellency has long looked forward to this day. - - _Chinese Dignitary._ I meet him now as an old friend, and request to - know his honorable age. - - _Int._ His excellency has profitlessly passed —— years. - - _Chinese Dig._ The ears of his excellency are long, and betoken - great ability. - - _Int._ Ah! oh! he is unworthy of the compliment. - - _Chinese Dig._ You have had an arduous journey. - - _Int._ We deserved it, etc. - - A similar “call” is described in Ainsworth’s “all around the world,” - p. 106. - - “At last we begged to take our leave, and began violently to - ‘tsing-tsing,’ a ceremony which consists in clasping your hands - before your breast, and making a crouching baboon-like gesture; it - is the equivalent of shaking hands, only one shakes one’s own - hands.... Our host insists on following us to our chairs. We - remonstrate; ‘stop! stop! we are unworthy,’ say we. ‘What language - is this’ he replies. ‘We are really unworthy’ we reiterate. ‘You are - in my house,’ he insists; and so we back to our chairs, perpetually - imploring him not to accompany us, which he vehemently resists, - until at last, when we are in our chairs, he reluctantly consents to - return, apologising to the last, for being so rude as to leave us - even then.” - -[149]Japan, Aime Humbert, p. 173. - -[150]Ambros, Gesch. d. Mus. v. 1, p. 38. - -[151]Ibid, 39. - -[152]See Article on Egypt. - -[153]Fetis, Hist. de la Mus. v. 1, p. 84. - -[154]Humbert’s Japan, p. 174. - -[155]Siebold, Pantheon of Nipon, part C, plates - -[156]Or more properly, agglutinate. - -[157]Humbert, Japan, p. 42. - -[158]Abbe Huc, Travels in Thibet. - -[159]S. Osborne, Japanese Fragments. - -[160]Mr. Oliphant, in Elgin’s Mission to Japan. - -[161]Thunberg, Voyage to Japan, p. 351, Sherwood’s Edition. - -[162]Kaempfer, Hist. of Japan (Pinkerton), p. 745. - -[163]Kaempfer, Hist. of Japan, p. __. - -[164]Dr. Müller, Journal of the German Eastern Asiatic Society. - -[165]Letter to the “Leisure Hour,” June 9, 1877. - -[166]Humbert, Japan, p. 248. - -[167]Caron’s Account of Japan (Pinkerton), p. 633. - -[168]Humbert, Japan, p. 295. - -[169]Humbert, Japan, p. 258. - -[170]Thunberg, Voyage to Japan (Sherwood’s Ed.), p. 293. - -[171]Kæmpfer’s history of Japan, p. 815 (Pinkerton’s). - -[172]Ibid, p. 818. - -[173]Caron’s Account of Japan (Pinkerton’s ed.), p. 611. v. 7. - -[174]Dr. Müller; paper read before the German Asiatic Society. - -[175]Wood’s Natural History of Man, v. II, p. 849. - -[176]La Fage, Hist. gen. de la musique, v. I, p. 376. - -[177]Wood’s Nat. Hist. of Man, v. II, p. 850. - -[178]Dr. Müller, German East. Asiatic Society. - -[179]Japan and the Japanese. Capt. Golownin, v. II, p. 149. - -[180]Worn one above the other. Sometimes six or seven dresses are worn - in this manner by one fair fashionable. - -[181]Humbert’s Japan, p. 336. - -[182]Thunberg. - -[183]La Fage, Hist. de la Mus. v. I, p. 375. - -[184]Engel, Mus. Myths and Facts, v. II, p. 164. - -[185]La Fage, Hist. de la Mus. v. I, p. 376. - -[186]Humbert, Japan, p. 337. - -[187]All Round the World, p. 206. - -[188]Thunberg, p. 307. - -[189]Ambros, Gesch. d. Musik, v. I, p. 4. - -[190]Comettant, Mus. et Musiciens, p. 586. - -[191]Fetis, Hist. gen. de la Mus., v. I, p. 26. - -[192]Ambros, Gesch. d. Musik, p. 10, v. I. - -[193]See Fetis, Hist. gen. de la Mus. v. I, p. 15. - -[194]The effect of this in some Australian dances, is said to be very - striking. The favorite device, is to draw the outline of a skeleton, - on the front of the body, with white paint. As the dancers twirl - round, the pattern is plainly perceptible when their faces are - turned toward the spectator, but when their black backs are turned, - the whole vanishes, and gives the impression of a number of ghastly - skeletons, alternately appearing and disappearing, by the dim - flicker of the firelight. - -[195]Here we see one of the earliest traits of primitive music. The use - of a plain, rhythmic accompaniment, without tune. - -[196]From the “Illustrated London News,” Oct. 8, 1863. - -[197]Wood’s Nat. Hist. of Man, v. I, p. 68. - -[198]Meinicke, Inseln des Stillen Oceans, v. I, p. 329. - -[199]Wood’s Hist. of Man, v. I, p. 162. - -[200]Meinecke, Inseln d still. Oceans, v. I, p. 330. - -[201]A conundrum from Java may be interesting to the reader. Here is - one,— - - _Q._—What is lower than the knee, yet higher than the mountain? - - _A._—The road which crosses the mountain. - -[202]De Backer, L’Archipel Indien, p. 185. - -[203]De Backer, L’Archipel Indien, p. 207. - -[204]Quoted in Ainsworth, Round the World, p. 246. - -[205]Engel’s Musical Myths, e. c., v. 2, p. 150. - -[206]A voyage round the World (Cook’s) Forster, p. 398, v. 1. - -[207]Wood’s Nat. History of Man, v. 1, p. 285. - -[208]An account of a Government mission to the Fiji Islands, p. 116. - -[209]Fetis, Histoire de la Mus., v. 1, p. 96. - -[210]Wood’s Nat. History, v. 2, p. 288. - -[211]All Kaffir chiefs aspire to obesity as an emblem of rank. - -[212]The Heart of Africa, v. 2, p. 29. - -[213]Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa, v. 2, p. 30. - -[214]Central Africa, or Naked Truths about Naked people, p. 278. - -[215]Wood’s Nat’l History of Man, v. 2, p. 498. - -[216]Journal of the discovery of the source of the Nile, by Capt. Speke, - page 210. - -[217]Captain Speke’s Journal, p. 222. - -[218]Heart of Africa, v. 1, p. 287. - -[219]Heart of Africa, v. 1, p. 289. - -[220]Ismailia, By Sir S. W. Baker, page 391. - -[221]Ismailia, p. 355. - -[222]See “Ismailia,” p. 372. - -[223]It will be recollected that the Abyssinians belong to a sect of the - Christian Church. - -[224]Coomassie and Magdala, by H. M. Stanley, p. 310 - -[225]Coomassie and Magdala, page 488. - -[226]Ismailia, page 282. - -[227]Baker’s “Ismailia,” page 351. - -[228]Stanley’s “How I found Livingstone,” page 622. - -[229]Brendel, Gesch. d. Musik, p. 7. - -[230]According to Clemens Romanus, a contemporary of St. Paul. - -[231]Tertullian, Apologia, 39. Evidently a custom derived from the - _skolion_ of Greece. - -[232]Ambros, Geschichte d. Musik, v. II, p. 5. - -[233]Gesch. d. Musik, v. II p. 11 - -[234]Marcillac, Histoire de la Mus. Modern, p. 25. - -[235]Fetis, Histoire Gen. de la mus, v. 4, p. 6. - -[236]Letters, v. 5, p. 7. - - Affirmabent autem, hanc fuisse summan vel culpæ suæ, vel erroris - quod essent soliti stato die ante lucem convenire; carmenque - Christo, quasi Deo, dicere secum invicem; seque sacramento non in - scelus aliquod obstringere, sed ne furta, ne latrocinia, ne - adulteria committerent ne fidem fallerent, ne depositum appellati - abnegarent, quibus peractis morem, sibi discedendi fuisse, rursusque - coeundi ad capiendum cibum, promiscium tamen et innoxium. - -[237]Quoted by Fetis, Histoire Gen. d. l. Mus., v. 4, p. 7. - -[238]Fetis. - -[239]Marcillac, Histoire de la Mus. Moderne, p. 27. - -[240]Ambros, Geschichte d. Mus., v. 2, p 13. - -[241]Fetis, Histoire Gen. de la Mus., v. 4, p. 17. - -[242]A good explanation of the system is to be found in Fetis, v. 4, pp. - 29-56. - -[243]See Curzon’s “Monasteries of the Levant,” or Proust’s “Voyage on - Mt. Athos.” - -[244]Some excellent German translations of the hymns, have been made by - Zingerle, and are to be found in the “Zeitschrift d. Deutschen - Morgenl. Gesellschaft.” - -[245]Fetis, Histoire Gen. T. 4. p 90. - -[246]Rambosson, Harmonies du Son, p. 21. - -[247]King’s “Ten Thousand Wonders,” p. 241. - -[248]Marcillac, Hist. de la Mus. Moderne, p. 28, and Brendel, Gesch. d - Mus. p. 9. - -[249]Confessions, Book IX., Chap. 6. - -[250]Ambros, Geschicht der Musik, vol. 2, p. 14. Fetis, Biographie Univ. - v. 1. p. 85. - -[251]Confess, IX., 7. - -[252]Fetis, Hist. Gen de la Mus., v. 4, p. 135. - -[253]Grove’s Dictionary of Music and Musicians, part 1, vol. 1, article - “Ambrosian chant,” by Rev. Thomas Helmore. - -[254]Ambros, Gesch. d. Mus., v. 2, p. 43. - -[255]Ambros, v. 2, p. 45. - -[256]These latter letters may however, only refer to the diagrams, and - not to musical notes. - -[257]Epoch men, by Sam’l Neal, p. 43. - -[258]Vie de Charlemagne, Guizot, T. 3, p. 151. - -[259]Ambros Gesch. d. Mus., v. 2, p. 94. We must remind the reader that - “Gregorian” music, does not always refer to the compositions of - Gregory, but simply means the singing used at Rome, as the - “Ambrosian” means the style used at Milan. - -[260]Monachus Engolismensis (the monk of Angouleme), an anonymous writer - of this era, in his _Vita Caroli Magni._ quoted by J. J. Rousseau, - in his Dictionnaire de Musique article “Chant,” also by Crowest, - Mus. Anecdotes, v. 2, p. 239; Fetis, v. 4, p. 279; Ambros, v. 2, p. - 94, etc., etc. - -[261]It has been suggested by some recent writers on this subject, that - even this should be met by forming the notes of various lengths, - thus, a whole note ———, a half note ——, a quarter —, etc., but this - difficulty can be obviated, in spacing, by any good music engraver, - and does not require so radical a change. - -[262]The semitone falling always between the second and third note, is - the only regularity apparent. - -[263]Stainer’s Dictionary, p. 311. - -[264]There is some ambiguity regarding the title of this pontiff. Some - authorities call him John XX., and the next John (1276) the XXI. - -[265]Quoted by Stainer and Barrett, Dict. p. 314. - -[266]Topog. Hibern., 3 C. 1. - -[267]“The Troubadours,” F. Hueffer, p. 61. - -[268]Quoted by Hueffer, “Troubabours,” p. 72. - -[269]Hueffer, p. 274-5. - -[270]Richard. - -[271]Taylor’s “Lays of the Minnesingers,” p. 229. - -[272]French. - -[273]Those of the Troubadours. - -[274]This line is vague in its meaning. - -[275]Taylor’s “Minne-singers,” p. 98. - -[276]Fabeln und Erzehlungen aus d. zeiten d. minne-sanger. Von Bodmer - and Breitlinger Zurich, 1757, p. 247. - -[277]Rambosson, Harmonies du Son, p. 46. - -[278]Anglice—Master-singers. - -[279]L’Opera Italien. Castil-Blaze, p. 20. - -[280]L’Opera Italien. Castil-Blaze, p. 26. - -[281]Curiosites Theatrales, Fournel (Paris), p. 17. - -[282]Bibliotheque de Poche, v. VIII., p. 345. - -[283]Ibid, vol. II., p. 811. - -[284]Historiette d. la Marechale de Themines, book 5, p. 196. - -[285]Edwards’ History of the Opera, vol. 1, p. 15. - -[286]Curiosites Theatrales, Fournel, p. 161. - -[287]See Annals Dramatiques, VII., p. 165. - -[288]L’Opera Ital. Castil-Blaze, p. 128. - -[289]Deldeves. Curiosites Musicales, p. 215. - - - - - INDEX. - - - A - Abyssinian Music 270 - Æschylus 74 - African Music 251 - Amanieus, troubadour 334 - Amaryllis 356 - Ambrosian Chant 299 - Ancestors, feasts of 186 - Aristotle 57 - Armenian Church 292 - - - B - Bamboo Instruments 153 - Banquet Music, Egyptian 17, 24 - Banquet Music, Grecian 53, 57 - Banquet Music, Japanese 213 - Barbarians, Music of 229 - Bards, ancient 323 - Bardesanes 291 - Bells 148 - Bertrand du Born 336 - Bœthius 308 - Bongo Songs 267 - Brahma, legend of 8 - - - C - Caligula 99 - Canadian, curious song 234 - Canute 328 - Caste of musicians, Chinese 131 - Caste of musicians, Egyptian 18 - Chant, Ambrosian 299 - Chant, Gregorian 303 - Charlemagne 308 - Cheng 155 - Chinese ceremonies 162 - Chinese compositions 162 - Chinese music 114 - Chinese a musical language 160 - Chinese music resembles Scotch 166 - Chinese songs, earliest 115 - Chinese songs 158 - Chinese theatre and plays 176 - Chinese whistle 149 - Chorus, a terrible 74 - Chorus, Greek 74 - Christian, early customs 287 - Christian, early music 283 - Christian churches of Africa 293 - Chun, Song of 121 - Clavichord in China 137 - Confucius 124 - Conservatories in ancient Egypt 25 - Coptic Hymns 294 - Crusaders’ songs 349 - Cuzzoni 358, 360 - - - D - Dances, Australian 234 - Dances, Bushmen 256 - Dances, Chinese 176 - Dances, Egyptian 21 - Dances, Fiji Islands 248 - Dances, Grecian 79 - Dances, Roman 97 - Dances, Savage 234, 277 - Dances, Tasmanian 238 - Dances, War 241 - Destruction of musical instruments 133 - Dictionary of Impoliteness 363 - Drums, African 265 - Drums, Chinese 143 - Drums, used to mark the hour 144 - Drums, Javanese 243 - Drums, water 256 - - - E - Egyptian music 15 - Egyptian Muses 16 - Egyptian banquets 17 - English Bards 327 - Essenhamens 334 - European music in China 135 - - - F - Female musicians, Chinese 129 - Female musicians, Greek 51 - Female musicians, Troubadours 341 - Festivals, Chinese 170 - Festivals, Theban 21 - Fiddle, Chinese 156 - Fiji Islanders, Music 248 - Flute, Chinese 139 - Flute, Egyptian 23 - Flute, Grecian 41, 42, 43, 59 - Flute, Kaffir 255 - Flute, Roman 86 - Flute, Prehistoric 232 - Flute-playing at Grecian Games 41 - Foang-hoang 116 - Fo Hi, the Chinese Noah 116 - Folk Songs 350 - Funeral music, Chinese 173 - Funeral music, Egyptian 19 - Funeral music, Japanese 207 - Funeral music, Roman 88 - - - G - Games of Greece 35 - Goura—African Instrument 257 - Greek Church, music of 288 - Greek music, ancient 35 - Greek Hymns 35 - Greek Scale 36, 55 - Gregorian Chant 303 - Gregorian Chant in France 310 - Guido d’Arezzo 318 - Guitar, African 263 - Guitar, Hindoo 14 - - - H - Handel 360 - Harmony, Egyptian 19 - Harps, African 255 - Harps, Egyptian 23 - Harps, Hebrew 26 - Hebrew music 26 - Hebrew music, resemblance to Negro 33 - Hermes, Egyptian god 15 - Hindoo music 8 - Hissing, when first began 357 - Hucbald 315 - Hymns, Christian, ancient 281, 294 - Hymn, Chinese 164 - Hymn, Greek 35 - - - I - Instruments, African 257, 259 - Instruments, Chinese 142 - Instruments, East Indian 13 - Instruments, Egyptian 24 - Instruments, Greek 59 - Instruments, Hebrew 29 - Instruments, Hindoo 13 - Instruments, Japanese 202 - Instruments, Kaffir 255 - Instruments, Roman 89 - Irish Bards 325 - Irova, Japanese 204 - - - J - Japanese music 201 - Jews, music of modern 27 - Jewsharps in Africa 258 - Jongleurs 331 - Julian, reforms of Emperor 100 - - - K - Kaffir songs 251 - Kin, Chinese 150 - King, Chinese instrument 147 - Kithara, Greek instrument 57 - - - L - Laborers’ songs, Egyptian 18 - Lamia 61 - Laws relative to music, Egyptian 20 - Legends of music, Chinese 116, 119 - Legends of music, Egyptian 15 - Legends of music, Hindoo 8 - Legends of music, Japanese 215 - Legends of music, Javanese 244 - Louis Xiii. 355 - Louis Xiv. 357 - - - M - Malay music 243 - Meistersingers 349 - Melody, Hindoo 12 - Melody, an old 348 - Meyerbeer 361 - Military music, African 262 - Military music, Chinese 131, 169 - Military music, Greek 47, 60 - Military music, Japanese 219 - Minnesingers 329, 341 - Mode, Ambrosian 301 - Mode, Gregorian 365 - Musical Buildings 44 - Musical course Roman 86 - Music as a means of inspiring fear 276 - Music boxes in Africa 269 - Music boxes, Chinese 175 - - - N - Nero, musical history of 101 - Neumes 313 - New Zealand, Harmony in 233 - New Zealand songs 240 - Nose-flutes 248 - Notation 313, 316, 317, 321 - Nyam-Nyams, Music of 258 - - - O - Olympic Games 39 - Opera 352 - Orchestra, an old 354 - Organ, ancient Rome 89 - Organ, Chinese 155 - Organ, Hebrew 28, 30 - - - P - Pantomimes, Chinese 195 - Pantomimes, Roman 97 - Pantomimes, Javanese 243 - Persecution of musicians 126 - Philosophers and music 53 - Pindar 65 - Pianoforte in Japan 227 - Poems of the Troubadours 338 - Power of Music 9, 10 - Power of Music in Africa 274 - Processional music, Egyptian 22 - Processional music, Japanese 218 - Processional music, Roman 92 - Processional music, Savage 263 - Provençal songs 330 - Psaltery 30 - Ptolemy 62 - Pythagoras 53 - Pythian Games 41 - - - Q - Quarrel between choirs 311 - Quarrel between singers 358 - - - R - Ragas, Hindoo 9 - Religious music, Abyssinian 269 - Religious music, Chinese 162 - Religious music, Christian 280 - Religious music, Greek 35 - Religious music, Hebrew 26 - Religious music, Japanese 205 - Religious music, Roman 86 - Rhythm, Egyptian 20 - Rhythm of savage nations 229 - Riquier, Guirant 332 - “Robert,” accident at first performance 361 - Roman, ancient music 85 - Roman Empire, music of 99 - Rossini 360 - Royal dancers 193 - Royal musicians 99, 100, 102, 115, 332, 355 - - - S - Salaries, ancient Greece 61 - Salaries, Chinese 187 - Salaries, Nero 105 - Sappho 61 - Savage music 229 - Scale, Chinese 167 - Scale, East Indian 11 - Scale, Grecian 36, 55 - Scale, Hindoo 11 - Scale, Japanese 201 - Scale, modern 320 - Scale, Religious, Greek 289 - Schofer, Hebrew horn 27 - Schools of music, Egypt 25 - Schools of music, Rome 86, 100 - “Selah!” meaning of 31 - Signals, musical Chinese 123, 173 - Simonides 63 - Sistrum 22 - Skolion 57 - Societies, or Guilds of Musicians, Roman 87 - Songs, Chinese 158 - Stesi-chorus 49 - Stones, musical 145 - Stringed instruments 149 - Syrian Church 290 - - - T - Tales of the Minnesingers 346 - Terpander 45 - Theatre, Chinese 176 - Theatre, Greek 67 - Theatre, Japanese 219 - Theatre, Javanese 245 - Theatre, Roman 95 - Timbrel 30 - Time marked by bells 120 - Time marked by drums 120 - Tone-picture, Grecian 59 - Treatises on music, Chinese 135 - Triumphs, Roman 92 - Triumphal Odes, Greece 62 - Trumpeter, a great 40 - Trumpets, African 261, 265 - Trumpets, Chinese 120, 157 - Trumpets, pre-historic 231 - Trumpets, Russian 157 - Troubadours 329 - - - V - Vina, Indian instrument 13 - Violin, Hindoo 13 - Volkslied 350 - - - W - Wagner 362 - War Song 284 - Watch Song 344 - Welsh Bards 324 - “William Tell,” an error in 361 - Wood instruments of China 151 - - - Y - Yu, Chinese musician 132 - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - 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text-align:left; } -p.t15, div.t15,.t15 { margin-left:19em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; } -p.lr, div.lr, span.lr { display:block; margin-left:0em; margin-right:1em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:right; } -dt.lr { width:100%; margin-left:0em; margin-right:0em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; margin-top:1em; text-align:right; } -dl dt.lr a { text-align:left; clear:left; float:left; } - -.fnblock { margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:2em; } -.fndef, p.fn { text-align:justify; margin-top:1.5em; margin-left:1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em; } -.fndef p.fncont, .fndef dl { margin-left:0em; text-indent:0em; } -.fnblock div.fncont { margin-left:1.5em; text-indent:0em; margin-top:1em; text-align:justify; } -.fnblock dl { margin-top:0; margin-left:4em; text-indent:-2em; } -.fnblock dt { text-align:justify; } -dl.catalog dd { font-style:italic; } -dl.catalog dt { margin-top:1em; } -.author { text-align:right; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:0em; display:block; } - -dl.biblio dt { margin-top:.6em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; clear:both; } -dl.biblio dt div { display:block; float:left; margin-left:-6em; width:6em; clear:both; } -dl.biblio dt.center { margin-left:0em; text-align:center; text-indent:0; } -dl.biblio dd { margin-top:.3em; margin-left:3em; text-align:justify; font-size:90%; } -p.biblio { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; } -.clear { clear:both; } -p.book { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; } -p.review { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; font-size:80%; } -p.pcap { margin-left:0em; text-indent:0; text-align:center; margin-top:0; font-size:110%; } -p.pcapc { margin-left:4.7em; text-indent:0em; text-align:justify; } -span.attr { font-size:80%; font-family:sans-serif; } -span.pn { display:inline-block; width:4.7em; text-align:left; margin-left:0; text-indent:0; } -</style> -</head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Curiosities of Music, by Louis C. Elson</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Curiosities of Music</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>A Collection of Facts not generally known, regarding the Music of Ancient and Savage Nations</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Louis C. Elson</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: September 4, 2021 [eBook #66216]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Turgut Dincer, Stephen Hutcheson, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) </p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CURIOSITIES OF MUSIC ***</div> -<div id="cover" class="img"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Curiosities of Music" width="800" height="1059" /> -</div> -<div class="box"> -<h1><span class="ss">Curiosities of Music</span></h1> -<p class="center"><span class="ssn">A Collection of Facts, not generally known, regarding the Music of Ancient and Savage Nations</span></p> -<p class="center"><span class="ssn"><span class="small">By</span> -<br /><span class="large">LOUIS C. ELSON</span></span></p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p1.jpg" id="ncfig1" alt="publisher logo" width="312" height="304" /> -</div> -<p class="center"><span class="ssn">OLIVER DITSON COMPANY -<br /><span class="small">BOSTON</span></span></p> -<p class="center"><span class="small ssn">New York</span> <span class="hst"><span class="small ssn">Chicago</span></span> -<br /><span class="small ssn">CHAS. H. DITSON & CO.</span> <span class="hst"><span class="small ssn">LYON & HEALY</span></span></p> -</div> -<p class="center smaller"><span class="sc">Copyright</span>, MDCCCLXXX, by J. M. STODDART & CO. -<br /><span class="sc">Copyright</span>, MCMVIII, by OLIVER DITSON COMPANY</p> -<p class="tbcenter">TO MY ESTEEMED FRIEND, -<br /><span class="large b i">Dr. C. Annette Buckei,</span> -<br />THIS LITTLE WORK IS DEDICATED.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div> -<h2><span class="small">PREFACE.</span></h2> -<p>In this work, I have endeavored to bring together -the most curious points in the music of -many nations, ancient and modern. As the -work originally appeared in a magazine (“The -Vox Humana”) I was obliged to avoid any extended -research into disputed points, such as -Hebrew music, Greek music, water organs, etc., -as being too abstruse for periodical reading. Yet -many of the facts contained in its columns have -not yet found their way into English literature. -This was so entirely the case with Chinese music, -that I was tempted to somewhat transgress my -limits on this subject, it being, apparently, a -neglected one. In all the other chapters I have -merely sought out such facts as would interest, -and present a comprehensive idea to the general -reader, whether musical or not.</p> -<p>My hearty thanks are due to Col. Henry Ware, -and Mr. J. Norton, of Boston, for many facilities -afforded and suggestions offered, in the course -of compiling this book. If it fills an unoccupied -niche, however small, in musical literature, it will -have fulfilled the desire of</p> -<p><span class="lr"><span class="sc">The Author</span>.</span></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_6">6</div> -<h2 id="toc" class="center">CONTENTS</h2> -<dl class="toc"> -<dt><a href="#c1"><span class="cn">I </span>Introduction</a> 7</dt> -<dd class="ddt3"><a href="#c2">The Hindoos</a> 8</dd> -<dt><a href="#c3"><span class="cn">II </span>Ancient Egyptian</a> 15</dt> -<dt><a href="#c4"><span class="cn">III </span>Biblical and Hebrew</a> 26</dt> -<dt><a href="#c5"><span class="cn">IV </span>Ancient Greek Music</a> 35</dt> -<dt><a href="#c6"><span class="cn">V </span>The Public Games of Greece</a> 39</dt> -<dt><a href="#c7"><span class="cn">VI </span>The Philosophers, and Greek Social Music</a> 53</dt> -<dt><a href="#c8"><span class="cn">VII </span>Greek Theatre and Chorus</a> 67</dt> -<dt><a href="#c9"><span class="cn">VII </span>The Dances of Ancient Greece</a> 79</dt> -<dt><a href="#c10"><span class="cn">VIII </span>Ancient Roman Music</a> 85</dt> -<dt><a href="#c11"><span class="cn">IX </span>Music of the Roman Theatre</a> 95</dt> -<dt><a href="#c12"><span class="cn">X </span>Music of the Roman Empire</a> 99</dt> -<dt><a href="#c13"><span class="cn">XI </span>History of Chinese Music</a> 114</dt> -<dt><a href="#c14"><span class="cn">XII </span>Chinese Music and Musical Instruments</a> 142</dt> -<dd class="ddt3"><a href="#c15">Of the Sound of Stone</a> 145</dd> -<dd class="ddt3"><a href="#c16">Of the Sound of Metal</a> 148</dd> -<dd class="ddt3"><a href="#c17">Of the Sound of Baked Clay</a> 149</dd> -<dd class="ddt3"><a href="#c18">Of the Sound of Silk</a> 149</dd> -<dd class="ddt3"><a href="#c19">The Sound of Wood</a> 151</dd> -<dd class="ddt3"><a href="#c20">The Sound of Bamboo</a> 153</dd> -<dd class="ddt3"><a href="#c21">The Sound of Calabash</a> 155</dd> -<dd class="ddt3"><a href="#c22">Miscellaneous Instruments</a> 156</dd> -<dd class="ddt3"><a href="#c23">The Sound of the Voice</a> 158</dd> -<dt><a href="#c24"><span class="cn">XIII </span>Chinese Musical Compositions and Ceremonies</a> 162</dt> -<dd class="ddt3"><a href="#c25">Hymn to the Ancestors</a> 164</dd> -<dt><a href="#c26"><span class="cn">XVI </span>The Chinese Theatre and Dances</a> 176</dt> -<dt><a href="#c27"><span class="cn">XVII </span>Music of Japan</a> 201</dt> -<dt><a href="#c28"><span class="cn">XVIII </span>Music of Savage Nations</a> 229</dt> -<dt><a href="#c29"><span class="cn">XIX </span>African Music</a> 251</dt> -<dd class="ddt3"><a href="#c30">Praise of Dingan, A Very Celebrated Chief</a> 254</dd> -<dt><a href="#c31"><span class="cn">XX </span>Music of the Early Christian Church</a> 280</dt> -<dd class="ddt3"><a href="#c32">Greek Church</a> 288</dd> -<dd class="ddt3"><a href="#c33">Syrian Church</a> 290</dd> -<dd class="ddt3"><a href="#c34">The Armenian Church</a> 292</dd> -<dd class="ddt3"><a href="#c35">The Churches of Africa</a> 293</dd> -<dd class="ddt3"><a href="#c36">General Synopsis of Early Christian Music</a> 296</dd> -<dt><a href="#c37"><span class="cn">XXI </span>The Ambrosian and Gregorian Chant</a> 299</dt> -<dt><a href="#c38"><span class="cn">XXII </span>Music in Europe from the Fifth Century</a> 308</dt> -<dt><a href="#c39"><span class="cn">XXIII </span>The Ancient Bards</a> 323</dt> -<dt><a href="#c40"><span class="cn">XXIV </span>The Troubadours and Minne-Singers</a> 329</dt> -<dt><a href="#c41"><span class="cn">XXV </span>Curiosities of the Opera. Modern Composers, and Conclusion</a> 352</dt> -<dt><a href="#c42">Footnotes</a> 364</dt> -<dt><a href="#c43">Index.</a> 365</dt> -</dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_7">7</div> -<h1 title="">CURIOSITIES OF MUSIC.</h1> -<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">CHAPTER I.</span> -<br />INTRODUCTION.</h2> -<p>Music has been broadly defined by Fetis as “the -art of moving the feelings by combinations of -sounds;” taken in this broad sense it may be -considered as coeval with the human race.</p> -<p>Vocal music, in a crude form, is as natural in -man, to express feelings, as it is for a cat to purr -or a lion to roar; as regards instrumental music, -the primitive man might have found in every hollow -tree a reverberating drum, and in every -conchshell or horn of cattle, the natural beginnings -of instrumental music; we shall find later -that many nations ascribe the discovery of their -music to the accidental appliance of some -natural instrument; our surest guide in watching -the rise of the art, should be the manner in which -savage peoples, yet in a state of nature, produce -music, and we shall find too, that even the lowest -in the scale, even those beings who make the -monkey tribe nearer and dearer to us, as possible -relatives (the bushmen of Australia for example), -have still a method of “moving the feelings by -means of combinations of sounds.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_8">8</div> -<p>It is therefore, really in barbarous nations, that -we may, reasoning by analogy, find in what state -music existed when our own ancestors were in a -state of nature; but in order to give a more chronological -character to our sketches we will begin -with the <i>Music and Musical Mythology of the -Ancients</i>.</p> -<h3 id="c2">THE HINDOOS.</h3> -<p>With this people, and the Egyptians we find -proofs of the existence of a musical system at a -time which far antedates the earliest reliable -Scriptural records.</p> -<p>Among the Hindoos especially, as far back as -history extends, music has been treated not only -as a fine art, but philosophically and mathematically. -According to the oldest Brahminical records, -in their all-embracing “Temple of Science,” -it belongs to the 2d chief division of Lesser Sciences, -but its natural and philosophic elements, -are, with a nice distinction, admitted into their -holiest and oldest book, the <i>Veda</i>.<a class="fn" id="fr_1" href="#fn_1">[1]</a> Of course it -has a divine origin ascribed to it, in fact the entire -realm of Indian music is one tale of Mythology.</p> -<p>According to Brahminical accounts, when Brahma -had lain in the egg three thousand billion, -four hundred million of years (3,000,400,000,000) -he split it by the force of his thought and made -Heaven and Earth from the two pieces; then -Manu brought forth ten great forces, which made -<span class="pb" id="Page_9">9</span> -Gods, Goddesses, good and evil spirits and Gandharbas -(Genii of music), and Apsarasas (Genii of -Dance), and these became the musicians of the -Gods, before man knew of the art. Then Sarisvati, -Goddess of Speech and Oratory, consort of -Brahma, at Brahma’s command brought the art -to man and gave him also his finest musical instrument, -the Vina, of which hereafter. Music -then found a protector in the demi-god Nared, -one of the chief Indian musical deities, while -Maheda Chrishna helped it along by allowing five -keys, or modes, to spring from his head (<i>a la</i> -Minerva) in the shape of Nymphs, and his wife -Parbuti, added one more; then Brahma added -thirty lesser keys, or modes, and all these modes -were also Nymphs.</p> -<p>The Hindoo scale has seven chief tones and -these tones are represented as so many heavenly -sisters.</p> -<p>In the Indian legends, music is represented as -of immense might. All men, all animals, all inanimate -nature listened to the singing of Maheda -and Parbuti with ecstasy.</p> -<p>Some modes were never to be sung by mortals, -as they were so fiery that the singer would be -consumed by them. In the time of Akber, it is -related, that ruler commanded Naik Gobaul, -a famous singer, to sing the Raagni<a class="fn" id="fr_2" href="#fn_2">[2]</a> of Fire; the -poor singer entreated in vain, to be allowed to -sing a less dangerous strain; then he plunged up -<span class="pb" id="Page_10">10</span> -to his neck in the river Djumna, and began: he -had not finished more than half of his lay when -the water around him began to boil; he paused -(at boiling point) but the relentless, or curious -Akber, demanded the rest, and with the end of -the song the singer burst into flames and was consumed. -Another melody caused clouds to rise -and rain to fall; a female singer is said once to -have saved Bengal from famine and drought in -this manner. Another lay caused the sun to disappear -and night to come at midday, or another -could change winter to spring or rain to sunshine. -All these typify beautifully the might of music -with this race. Of the four chief tone systems, -two also have divine origin, from Iswara and -from Hanuman (the Indian Pan), the others -come from Bharata Muni who invented the -drama with music and dance, and from Calinath.</p> -<p>When Chrishna was upon the earth as a shepherd, -there were sixteen thousand pastoral Nymphs -or Shepherdesses who fell in love with him.—They -all tried to win his heart by music, and -each one sang him a song, and each one sang in a -<i>different key</i>, (let us hope not all at once). Thence -sprang the sixteen thousand keys, which according -to tradition once existed in India.</p> -<p>In order that the full extent of Hindoo Musical -Mythology may be conceived, we will now sketch -the tones which are employed.</p> -<p>We have stated that there are seven chief tones; -these tones have short monosyllabic names; as we -give to our notes the syllables, <i>do</i>, <i>re</i>, <i>mi</i>, etc., the -<span class="pb" id="Page_11">11</span> -Hindoos call their scale tones <i>sa</i>, <i>ri</i>, <i>ga</i>, <i>ma</i>, <i>pa</i>, -<i>dha</i>, <i>ni</i>, <i>sa</i>, which are certainly as easy to vocalise -upon as our <i>solfeggi</i>; in fact the language is very -well adapted to music, as it has all the softness, -elegance and clearness of the Italian. Von Dalberg -says that Sanscrit unites the splendor of the -Spanish, the strength of the German, and the -singableness of the Italian.</p> -<p>With the resemblance of seven chief tones, however, -the similarity ends, for while our scale has -only half tones as smallest interval, the Hindoos -have quarter tones, and not equally distributed -either; thus:</p> -<table class="center"> -<tr><td> </td><td class="cs">whole tone </td><td> </td><td class="cs">small whole </td><td> </td><td class="cs">half tone </td><td> </td><td class="cs">whole tone </td><td> </td><td class="cs">whole tone </td><td> </td><td class="cs">small whole </td><td> </td><td class="cs">half tone</td></tr> -<tr><td>Sa </td><td> </td><td>Ri </td><td> </td><td>Ga </td><td> </td><td>Ma </td><td> </td><td>Pa </td><td> </td><td>Dha </td><td> </td><td>Ni </td><td> </td><td>Sa</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td class="cs">¼¼¼¼ </td><td> </td><td class="cs">¼¼¼ </td><td> </td><td class="cs">¼¼ </td><td> </td><td class="cs">¼¼¼¼ </td><td> </td><td class="cs">¼¼¼¼ </td><td> </td><td class="cs">¼¼¼ </td><td> </td><td class="cs">¼¼</td></tr> -</table> -<p>In theory it will be seen that the octave is always -a half tone flat, but practically they correct -this by singing it on its proper pitch. On six of -the above intervals they found their chief modes -but they form various lesser modes on each interval, -i. e., they could give ten different modes, or -scales, starting from C alone.</p> -<p>These six chief styles, are, of course, six Genii, -corresponding to the six Hindoo divisions of the -year, these are each married to five Nymphs, the -thirty lesser styles; each Genii has eight sons, -who are each wedded, also to Nymphs, one apiece. -There seem to be few celibates in Hindoo Mythology, -therefore an exact census gives to this -interesting family six fathers, thirty mothers, forty-eight -sons, forty-eight daughters-in-law, or one -<span class="pb" id="Page_12">12</span> -hundred thirty-two in all, each of them being the -God or Goddess of some particular key, and each -of them, of course, having a distinctive name; we -shall not give the various names, but to illustrate -the relationship among them, the following will -suffice; the four 1-4 tones beginning on the fifth -tone of the scale, <i>Panchama</i> (or <i>Pa</i>) are the -Nymphs <i>Malina</i>, <i>Chapala</i>, <i>Lola</i> and <i>Serveretna</i>, -while the next full tone (<i>Dha</i>) is owned by Santa -and her sisters; if <i>Dha</i> should be flatted 1-4 tone -which would give it the same pitch as the highest -1-4 tone of <i>Pa</i>, (called Serveretna), the poetical -Hindoo would not say “<i>Dha</i> is flat,” but “<i>Serveretna</i> -has been introduced to the family of <i>Santa</i> -and her sisters.”<a class="fn" id="fr_3" href="#fn_3">[3]</a></p> -<p>Although the musical art of the Hindoos had -such an early existence, it seems not to have developed -or receded much since ancient days; they -possess airs to which the European ear instantly, -and involuntarily attaches harmony, (auxiliary -voices), and yet they have not the slightest craving -for harmony. They are completely satisfied -to express all emotion by melody, sometimes -combined with the dance, and yet do not feel the -monotony, which would be obviated by additional -voices.</p> -<p>But it must be said that, so far as melody goes, -they have great taste and discrimination; the music -often approaches the European in form and -rhythm, and the Hindoo seems to feel instinctively -<span class="pb" id="Page_13">13</span> -the importance of the tonic, and dominant, and -often finishes the phrases of a melody with a -half cadence.<a class="fn" id="fr_4" href="#fn_4">[4]</a></p> -<p>Of the Hindoo instruments the Vina takes the -lead; as before mentioned, they ascribe to it a -divine origin; it has four strings and is incorrectly -defined as a lyre by many commentators, but it is -rather a guitar than lyre, and is made of a large -hollow bamboo pipe, about 3½ feet long, at -each end of which are two large hollow gourds, to -increase the resonance: it may be roughly compared -to a drum major’s <i>baton</i>, with a ball at -<i>both</i> ends, while the strings extend along the stick; -it has a finger-board like a guitar, and the frets -are not fastened permanently on it, but stuck on -by the performer with wax.</p> -<p>The tone is both full and delicate, sometimes -metallic and clear and very pleasant. The music -composed for it is usually brilliant and rapid, and -the Hindoos seem to have their Liszts and Rubinsteins; -in the last century Djivan Shah was known -throughout all India as a <i>virtuoso</i>, on the Vina.</p> -<p>They ornament their Vinas sometimes very richly -and there are paintings of their chief performers, -sitting with magnificent Vinas leaning against -their bodies, this being the attitude of the player. -They also have possessed from time immemorial, -a three-stringed violin, so that Raphael and Tintoretto -may not have committed an anachronism -in painting Apollo with a violin.<a class="fn" id="fr_5" href="#fn_5">[5]</a></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div> -<p>A Guitar called Magoudi, finishes the list of -characteristic stringed instruments.</p> -<p>The instruments of percussion and wind instruments -are more numerous. They possess four -kinds of drums, and their popular, secular dances -are usually accompanied by the Vina, for the -melody, and drums, bells and cymbals.</p> -<p>Flutes they have possessed from remotest antiquity, -and a muffled drum called Tare for funeral -occasions, and they also have a double flute -with a single mouth piece. We will not dwell -further upon their instruments; there is but one, -the <i>Vina</i>, which is really fitted to produce beautiful -music.</p> -<p>The Hindoos complain that their old music is -deteriorating and such singers as Chanan or -Dhilcook, two vocal celebrities of the last centuries, -have passed away. When one inquires -for the miracle-working Ragas, (improvised songs) -in Bengal, the people say there are singers probably -left in Cashmere who can give them; and -should you inquire in Cashmere they would send -you to Bengal for them, but in reality there seems -to have been comparatively little change in the -style of Hindoo music from its earliest days.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div> -<h2 id="c3"><span class="small">CHAPTER II.</span> -<br />ANCIENT EGYPTIAN.</h2> -<p>The ancient Egyptians ascribed the origin of -music to opposite causes, some legends giving -its invention to beneficent Deities, while other -legends are interpreted to give its origin to Satan, -the evil principle, or at least the principle of sensuality, -as represented by the buck Mendes. -Hermes (or Mercury) is accredited with first having -observed the harmony of the spheres, and the -lyre also is represented as being his invention, in -the following legend:</p> -<p>A heavy inundation of the Nile had taken -place, and when the waters receded, there was -left upon the banks a tortoise, who went the way -of all tortoises, and after a time was completely -dried up by the sun; the tendons however, which -were attached to the shell, remained, and became -tightly drawn by the expansion of the shell. -Hermes, wandering upon the bank, accidentally -struck his foot against it; the tendons resounded, -and Hermes thus found a natural lyre.</p> -<p>This legend is however found also in Hindoo -and Greek Mythology, and may be one of those -tales, springing from Arian root, which belong to -almost every race. We also find an Egyptian -<span class="pb" id="Page_16">16</span> -Apollo and Muses in other musical legends, according -to Diodorus Siculus.</p> -<p>“When Osiris was in Ethiopia,—the Egyptian -God Osiris was a sort of blending of Bacchus and -Apollo—he met a troupe of revelling satyrs, and -being a lover of pleasure and taking delight in -choruses of music, he admitted them to his already -numerous train of musicians. In the midst of -these satyrs were nine young maidens, skilled in -music and divers sciences.”</p> -<p>The Egyptians also considered Horus, brother -of Osiris, (equivalent to the Greek Apollo) as God -of Harmony.</p> -<p>Thus three Gods have the honor of fostering -Egyptian music, Osiris, Horus, and Hermes.</p> -<p>Hermes, or (by his Egyptian name) Thoth, was -the especial God of many sciences, and is said to -have written two books of song, or works relating -to the song-art. According to Diodorus, the Lyre -which he had invented had three strings, which -represented the three seasons of Egypt; the deepest -string was the wet season, the middle one the -growing season, the highest the harvest season: -the tones of Egyptian music seem to be taken -from the seven heavenly planets, as known to the -ancients, and from this circumstance Ambros -hazards the conjecture that the diatonic scale was -known to them.</p> -<p>Among the mythical musical personages of the -earliest Egyptian music, may be mentioned Maneros, -who was son of the first king of Egypt, who -succeeded the second dynasty of demi-gods.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_17">17</div> -<p>He seems to be analogous to the Linus, (son of -Apollo), of the Greeks; he died young, and the -<i>first</i> song of the Egyptian music<a class="fn" id="fr_6" href="#fn_6">[6]</a> was in his -honor; it was a lament over his untimely end, the -swift passing away of Youth, Spring, etc. The -song was sung under various guises, for Maneros, -Linus, Adonis, etc., among various ancient -nations, and Herodotus was surprised at hearing -it in Egypt. But in course of time the song itself, -and not the king’s son was called Maneros, and -gradually diffused its influence, (the warning -of the passing away of Joy) through Egyptian -social life; at their banquets a perfectly painted -statue of a <i>corpse</i> was borne round and shown to -each guest, and there was sung the following -warning:</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">“Cast your eyes upon this corpse</p> -<p class="t0">You will be like this after Death,</p> -<p class="t0">Therefore drink and be merry now.”<a class="fn" id="fr_7" href="#fn_7">[7]</a></p> -</div> -<p>The song also from being a mournful one, -became in time joyous and lively,<a class="fn" id="fr_8" href="#fn_8">[8]</a> Plutarch -thinks that the words Maneros, became synonymous -with “Good Health.” The fashion was -after the conquest of Egypt, imitated in Rome.<a class="fn" id="fr_9" href="#fn_9">[9]</a> -The ancient Egyptian music was really a twofold -affair and is well symbolized in being attributed -by some to good, by others to evil gods; for it -was used in the religious services of the highest -gods, (except, according to Strabo, in the services -of Osiris, at Abydos) and on the other hand was -degraded as a pastime for the lowest orders.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_18">18</div> -<p>The musicians were not held in any respect, -and were not allowed to change their occupation, -but were obliged to transmit it from father to son -and were also probably compelled to live in a certain -quarter of the cities wherein they dwelt.<a class="fn" id="fr_10" href="#fn_10">[10]</a></p> -<p>Of course there were celebrated singers and -performers, and also leaders of the chants, and -royal singers, who were exceptions to the foregoing -rule, but according to Diodorus Siculus, the -Egyptians not only considered music a useless art, -but even a hurtful one, as it enervated the soul -and made man effeminate. Yet for all this -there are found among ancient sculptures many -representations of singers and musicians evidently -belonging to the higher classes, though we cannot -but believe that these exceptions only prove the -rule, and even to-day music is considered a sensuous -and rather unmanly art, by Eastern nations.</p> -<p>Among the most ancient songs of Egypt there -seem to have been little refrains sung by the working -classes while at labor; there is here not conjecture -but absolute certainty, for the words of -part of one of these songs are preserved, on an -ancient picture of threshers of grain, oxen, etc.; -the threshers sing, according to Champollion’s -learned deciphering,</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">“Thresh for yourselves, oh oxen,</p> -<p class="t0">Thresh for yourselves;</p> -<p class="t0">Measures for your masters,</p> -<p class="t0">Measures for yourselves.”</p> -</div> -<p>In a grotto at <i>El bersheh</i> there is also a painting -of the transportation of a colossal statue from the -<span class="pb" id="Page_19">19</span> -quarry, and here also while one hundred and seventy-two -men are laboring at the ropes, one is -perched upon the statue and is giving the time of -a refrain, which all are to sing.</p> -<p>The custom of singing while at work still exists -in Egypt, as, for example, sailors sing a particular -song when starting on a voyage, another when -there is danger of a collision, another when the -danger is past.</p> -<p>Music was a chief portion of the Egyptian funeral -ceremonies, and on the walls of nearly all -the tombs of ancient days, are found paintings of -the funeral ceremonies; the greater part of what -is known of their instruments comes from this -source; the best singers and players were engaged -for the purpose by the richer classes, and -sang mournful chants, being similar to the professional -mourners at present found in the East. -The music was probably chiefly melodic, or one-voiced, -though this subject has some ambiguity -attached to it, our only guide as to their music -being the representations in the tombs, etc., as not -a scrap of actual music has been left to us; but -when we consider the furious controversy about, -and the different interpretations of the fragments -of Greek music which time has left us, this may -be an <i>advantage</i> rather than otherwise. There -is one painting<a class="fn" id="fr_11" href="#fn_11">[11]</a> left, which seems to confirm the -idea that the Egyptians knew something of the -effect of harmony. This painting represents two -<span class="pb" id="Page_20">20</span> -harpers at one side and three flute players at the -other, while between them are two singers, one of -whom seems to be following with his voice the -melody of the harpers, while the other sings with -the flutes; this seems to intimate that the Egyptians -possessed, at least <i>two-voiced</i> harmony.</p> -<p>Chappell, in his admirable History of Music, -says that it is mathematically impossible, that all -of the instruments represented in their paintings -should have been played in unison.</p> -<p>The music of Egypt was for a long time regulated -by the Government, that is all innovations -were punishable by law; probably this referred -only to religious music, and did not affect popular -music.</p> -<p>In all ages there seem to have been two distinct -schools of music, the scientific, and popular. -There is no doubt that while the early European -theorists held that <i>only consecutive fifths and -fourths</i> were musical, the populace had a less -forced and more beautiful style, and it is more -than probable that in Egypt the popular music -was totally different from the sacred.</p> -<p>All the songs appear to have been accompanied -by a clapping of hands, and therefore the rhythm -was probably strongly marked. The effect of this -clapping of hands is by no means unpleasant, and -is still used by the negroes of America in some -songs and dances, and among various barbarous -nations. It seems curious to think, that in witnessing -these lively dances, one may be beholding -a counterpart of the enjoyments of four thousand -<span class="pb" id="Page_21">21</span> -years ago, or that in witnessing the <i>pirouettes</i> -of a ballet dancer, we are amusing ourselves in -the ancient Egyptian manner; the latter fact is -proved by ancient paintings, however. Other -ancient Egyptian dances were similar to the modern -jigs, clog dances and breakdowns, as is amply -shown by figures found both in Upper and -Lower Egypt.</p> -<p>The Egyptians had also dances with regular -figures, forward and back, swing, etc.; these dances -were restricted to the lower orders, the upper -classes being forbidden to indulge in them.</p> -<p>If we could transport ourselves back to Thebes -in its days of grandeur, we should be somewhat -astonished at the slight change, in comparison -with what is usually supposed, from our own -times. Imagine the time of a great religious festival. -The Nile is crowded with boats, loaded to -their utmost capacity, with passengers, offerings, -etc. Sometimes hundreds of thousands came to -Thebes or Memphis, and especially to Bubastis, -on such occasions. From each boat is heard -playing and singing. Within the city all the -streets are full; here march by a troop of Pharaoh’s -soldiers, all the privates uniformed alike, -their marching regular, and their drill well -attended to; at their head is a military band, -(picture found at Thebes) of trumpeters, drummers -beating the drum with their <i>hands</i>, and -other performers; along that mighty avenue of -Sphinxes is marching a procession to one of the -temples: here also musical instruments, particularly -<span class="pb" id="Page_22">22</span> -flutes, head the column, and a processional -hymn is being sung, to which the white-robed -priests keep time while marching, as they carry -the sacred golden barge of the God, full of treasure -of various kinds.</p> -<p>Here is passing along, a deputation from some -far off tributary prince in the heart of Æthiopia, -carrying presents for the king, and all around is -life, bustle, and enjoyment. In some of the temples -music is sounding, (the temple of Osiris, at -Abydos, being the only exception,) and the clang -of the sistrum is often heard. Truly the life of -ancient Egypt was as joyous and varied as that of -more modern times.</p> -<p>The sistrum was, until the Napoleonic expedition -to Egypt, which gave to the world the wonders -of this store house of antiquity, considered the -representative of Egyptian music. It was merely -a short, oval hand frame which held three or four -metal bars; sometimes bells were hung upon these -bars, and by shaking the instrument, as a baby -shakes a rattle, which it really in principle -resembles, a jingling of the bars or bells was -produced.</p> -<p>Latterly it has been thought that the sistrum -was not a musical instrument at all; but, like -the bell sounded at the elevation of the Host -in Catholic churches, was used as a means of -riveting and impressing the minds of the worshippers. -At all events the sistrum takes no rank -among Egyptian musical instruments. The harp -was really the instrument on which they lavished -<span class="pb" id="Page_23">23</span> -the most attention; paintings, and fragments of -harps have been found, in the so-called “Harpers’ -Tomb,” which caused Bruce to exclaim that no -modern maker could manufacture a more beautiful -piece of workmanship.</p> -<p>The ancient Egyptian harps look very modern -indeed, except for the fact that they have no front -board or “Pole,” and it seems strange that they -could bear the tension without its support; the -pitch could not have been at all high. There -was a species of harp, of the compass of about -two octaves, with catgut strings, (wire strings the -Egyptians had not), found in a tomb hewn in the -solid rock at Thebes, so entirely preserved that it -was played upon by the discoverer, and gave out -its tones <i>after being buried 3000 years</i>. Of course -the strings perished after exposure to the air.</p> -<p>Fetis, to whom musical history owes so much, -has here fallen into a singular mistake. He says -“it would scarcely be believed that the ancient -Egyptians with whom the cat was a sacred animal, -should have used <i>cat-gut</i> strings on their instruments, -but the fact is proved beyond a doubt.” -This is all very true, but M. Fetis seems not to -have known the fact that cat-gut has not its origin -in the <i>cat</i>, but is almost always, in reality <i>sheep-gut</i>.</p> -<p>The list of instruments of ancient Egypt embraces -harps of various numbers of strings, Nabla, -from which come the Roman <i>Nablium</i> and Hebrew -<i>Nebel</i>, a sort of Guitar; Flutes, single and -double, (a flute player often headed the sacred -<span class="pb" id="Page_24">24</span> -processions, and Isis is said to have invented the -flute.) Tambourines and hand drums; sometimes -the Egyptians danced to a rhythmic accompaniment -of these alone.<a class="fn" id="fr_12" href="#fn_12">[12]</a> The flute was generally -played by men, and the tambourines by women. -Lyres, of various shapes, often played with the -hand, but sometimes also with a plectrum, (a short, -black stick, with which the strings were struck,) -trumpets, cymbals, and some metal instruments of -percussion. There are many paintings in which -entire orchestras of these instruments are playing -together, but probably all in unison.</p> -<p>There exists an excellent painting from a Theban -tomb,<a class="fn" id="fr_13" href="#fn_13">[13]</a> in which we see an Egyptian musical party -in a private house. Two principal figures are -smelling of small nosegays, while two females -offer to them refreshments; three females are -dancing and singing for the amusement of the -guests, who sit around, apparently having a very -enjoyable time; below are seen slaves preparing -a banquet, which is to follow the music. The -Egyptians often had music before dinner.</p> -<p>Another application of music is pictured in a very -ancient painting, given by Rosellini,<a class="fn" id="fr_14" href="#fn_14">[14]</a> in his great -work; in it is seen a woman nursing an infant, -while a harper and singer are furnishing music, -possibly to lull the child to sleep; in almost all -these paintings the singers are represented with -one hand to their ear in order to catch the pitch -of the instruments more readily.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_25">25</div> -<p>But the most interesting painting has been -copied, in the folios of Lepsius,<a class="fn" id="fr_15" href="#fn_15">[15]</a> from a tomb of -great antiquity; it represents a course of <i>musical -instruction</i> in the department of the singers and -players of King Amenhotep <span class="smaller">IV.</span> (18th Dynasty). -We see several large and small rooms, connecting -with each other; furniture, musical instruments -and implements are seen all around, especially in -the small rooms or closets. In the large rooms -are the musicians, engaged in practising and -teaching; one teacher is sitting, listening to the -singing of a young girl, while another pupil -is accompanying her on the harp; another girl -stands attentively listening to the teacher’s instructions, -(<i>class system</i> evidently); in another -part two girls are practising a dance, while a harper -accompanies; other musicians are variously -engaged. In one room is a young lady having -her hair dressed, and in another, a young -miss has leant her harp against the wall, and is -sitting down with a companion to lunch. This -certainly gives a fair insight into the music life of -old, and we leave Egyptian music, of which <i>as -music</i> we know nothing, with more satisfaction -after this glance at the <i>Royal Egyptian Conservatory -of Music</i>.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_26">26</div> -<h2 id="c4"><span class="small">CHAPTER III.</span> -<br />BIBLICAL AND HEBREW.</h2> -<p>The earliest scriptural mention of music is in -Genesis, Chapter <span class="smaller">IV.</span> where Jubal is spoken of as -“Father of those who handle the harp and organ.” -But harp and organ must by no means be confounded -with our modern instruments of the same name. -The harp was probably an instrument of three -strings, while all the very ancient references to -an organ, simply mean a “Syrinx” or Pan’s pipes. -The music of Biblical History is, as is almost all -the music of ancient nations, combined to a -great extent with the dance; the dances of the -ancients were what to-day would be called pantomimes, -expressing joy, sorrow, fear, or anger, -by the motions and expressions of face and -body, rather than by the feet.</p> -<p>The real character of the ancient Hebrew music, -as well as of many of the musical instruments, -is involved in utter obscurity, and no clues to -enlighten the investigator, remain in the modern -music of this usually most conservative of peoples; -much of their musical system was borrowed, until -David’s time certainly, from the Egyptians.</p> -<p>The music of the modern Jews is tinged in -almost every instance with the character of the -<span class="pb" id="Page_27">27</span> -music of the people around them; thus the same -psalms are sung in a different manner by German, -Polish, Spanish, or Portuguese Jews.</p> -<p>One little trace of their primitive music remains; -on the occasion of their New Year, a ram’s horn -is blown, and between the blasts on this excruciating -instrument the following phrases are addressed -to the performer,—</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0"><i>Tahkee-oo, Schivoorim, Taru-o.</i></p> -</div> -<p>These words, which also have a reverential meaning, -may possibly at one time have been addressed -to the ancient musicians, to give to them the order -of the music. Strong presumptive proof that this -blowing of the trumpet is the same as it was in -King David’s time is found in the fact that it is -blown in the same rhythm, by the Jews <i>all over -the world</i>. It certainly requires no forced interpretation -to call the Ram’s horn (Schofer) one of their -early instruments, as it would be their most -natural signal-call both in peace and war.</p> -<p>In all the Jewish theocracy, the music naturally -took a theosophical character, and is seldom -detached from religious rites; we shall find the -same spirit running through other of the ancient -civilizations, even barbarians seeming to share in -the almost universal impulse to praise the Deity -with this art, and this should prove to supercilious -critics that however ill-sounding the music of other -races may appear to our ears, to <i>them</i> it was a -highly considered art, and as such, merits our -attention.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_28">28</div> -<p>David may be regarded as the real founder of -Hebrew music. He must have possessed great -skill even in his youth, as the instance of his being -able to soothe Saul’s crazed mind with his music, -proves. This may be regarded as one of the earliest -notices of the effects of music in mental disease. -What the nature of his inventions and reforms in -music afterwards were, and how far he remodelled -the style which had been brought from Egypt, -cannot now be known, as Jerusalem has been pillaged -nearly twenty times since his reign, and -every monument, or inscription which might solve -the enigma, has long been destroyed.</p> -<p>There are still marks and inflections in the Hebrew -Scriptures which are evidently intended to -show the style in which they were to be chanted.</p> -<p>Regarding the instruments spoken of in Scripture -as being used in the Temple there is also -no certainty. In the Talmud there is mention of -an organ which had but ten pipes, yet gave one -hundred different tones; this instrument is placed -about the beginning of the Christian Era, and is -called <i>Magrepha</i>; it is said of it, that its tones -were so powerful that when it was played, the -people in Jerusalem could not hear each other -talk. Pfeiffer conjectures that it was probably not -an organ, but a very loud drum. There are other -authorities who have endeavored to prove that the -<i>Magrepha</i> was simply a <i>fire shovel</i>; they contend -that it was used at the sacrifices of the Temple to -build up the fire, and was then thrown down, with -a loud noise, to inform people outside how far the -<span class="pb" id="Page_29">29</span> -services had progressed. The reader has liberty -to make his own choice, for the authorities are -pretty evenly balanced,—<i>organ</i>, <i>drum</i>, or <i>fire -shovel</i>.</p> -<p>We must make some allowance for Oriental -exaggeration in musical matters, for when -Josephus speaks of a performance by 200,000 -singers, 40,000 sistrums, 40,000 harps, and 200,000 -trumpets, we must imagine that either Josephus’ -tale, or the ears of the Hebrews, were tough. -All these statements only enlarge a fruitless field, -for in it all is conjecture.</p> -<p>The flute was a favorite instrument both for joy -and sorrow: the Talmud contains a saying that -“flutes are suited either to the bride or to the -dead.”</p> -<p>The performance of all these instruments seems -to have been always in unison, and often in the -most <i>fortissimo</i> style.</p> -<p>Calmet gives a list of Hebrew instruments -including viols, trumpets, drums, bells, Pan’s -pipes, flutes, cymbals, etc., and it is possible that -these have existed among them in a primitive -form.</p> -<p>The abbé de la Molette gives the number of the -chief Jewish instruments as twelve, and states -that they borrowed three newer ones from the -Chaldeans, during the Babylonian captivity.</p> -<p>According to records of the Rabbins, given by -Forkel, the Jews possessed in David’s time, -thirty-six instruments.</p> -<p>Some of the instruments named in the Scriptures -<span class="pb" id="Page_30">30</span> -are as follows:—<i>Kinnor</i>, usually mentioned in -the English translation as a harp, so often alluded -to in the Psalms, (“Praise the Lord with harp,” -etc., xxxiii:2,) was probably a lyre, or a small -harp, of triangular shape: that the Hebrews possessed -a larger harp is more than probable, for -they were in communication with Assyria and -Egypt, where the harp, in a highly developed state, -was the national instrument, but it is a matter -of much dispute, as to which of the musical terms -used in the Scriptures was intended to apply to -this larger harp.</p> -<p>The <i>Nebel</i>, or <i>Psaltery</i>, was a species of Dulcimer.</p> -<p>The <i>Asor</i>;—When David sang of an “instrument -of ten strings,” he referred to the asor, which -is supposed to have been a species of lyre, with -ten strings, and played with a <i>plectrum</i>, a short -stick of wood, or bone, usually black, with which -the strings were struck.</p> -<p>The <i>Timbrel</i> or <i>Taboret</i>, was a small hand drum, -or tambourine, probably of varying shapes and -sizes; the hand drum was derived from Egypt, for -it was customary for women to dance in that -country entirely to the rhythm of drums and -tambourines; the military hand drum had the -shape of a small keg with parchment over the -ends; that is to say, the diameter at the middle -was greatest.</p> -<p><i>The Organ</i>;—as before stated this was simply a -set of pandean pipes.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_31">31</div> -<p><i>Cymbals</i>;—there seems to be no doubt that the -Hebrews possessed various instruments of percussion -of divers shapes.</p> -<p><i>Trumpets</i>;—apart from the ram’s horn, and other -curved horns which were called trumpets, there -also existed a straight trumpet of more artificial -construction. “Make thee, two trumpets of silver: -of one piece shalt thou make them.” Numbers ix:2.</p> -<p>It is probable that the sistrum, the guitar, and -pipes, were also possessed by this nation; about -nineteen instruments are mentioned in the scriptures, -but some of the meanings are so dubious -that they have been translated by the general -terms, harp, lute, psaltery, timbrel, etc.</p> -<p>How many different opinions are held, upon -Hebrew music may be judged from the fact that -the word “<i>Selah</i>,” which was probably a musical -term, and is found in so many of the psalms, -has given rise to the most vehement and fruitless -controversy. Hesychius says that it means a -charge of rhythm, in the chanting; Alberti denies -this, as it sometimes occurs at the end of a psalm, -where certainly no change is possible: some have -suggested that it meant a modulation from one key -to another; Forkel, however, thinks that the Hebrews -were not so far advanced in the science of -music as to understand modulation, but Fetis -upsets Forkel by remarking that the modulations, -though not harmonic, might have been purely -melodic, by the introduction of tones, foreign to -the key, as occurs in many eastern melodies.</p> -<p>Herder says also “the Orientals even of our -<span class="pb" id="Page_32">32</span> -day, love monotonous chants, which Europeans -find doleful, and which at certain passages or -phrases, change totally and abruptly their mode -and time: the word <i>Selah</i> was without doubt an -indication of such a change.” The last part of this -opinion, Fetis sets down as pure hypothesis.</p> -<p>Two ancient Greek versions of the Old Testament -give the meaning of the word as “forever,” and -as “for all ages.”</p> -<p>Alberti thinks the word is a recapitulation of the -chords of the psalm: Rosenmüller proves that -this is impossible in some cases.</p> -<p>Augusti thinks it is an expression of joy similar -to “Hallelujah.”</p> -<p>David Kimchi thinks it a sign of elevation of -the voice; Mattheson and Pfeiffer agree in the -opinion that it signifies a <i>ritornella</i>, or short symphony -between the verses, to be played by the -instruments alone.</p> -<p>Eichhorn thinks it means <i>Da Capo</i>, but Rosenmüller -and Gesenius, (the latter treats the matter -with great erudition, and his opinion is entitled to -respect,) both think that it signifies a rest in the -song part, as we might write <i>Tacet</i>.</p> -<p>Gesenius has found almost the only corroborative -testimony of the whole controversy in the fact -that the grammatical root of the word Selah, is -repose, or silence.</p> -<p>La Borde has boldly, not to say audaciously, -given a unique interpretation. He says “David -invented the art of shading the sounds; the word -<i>Selah</i> is equivalent to the Italian word <i>smorzando</i>, -<span class="pb" id="Page_33">33</span> -extinguished, dying away.” And then he -gives a highly colored picture of the beauty and -grace of the effects produced, though all that he -proves is that he has a little stronger imagination -than the others. We must also give the curious -opinion of Wolff, who thinks that “<i>Selah</i>” has no -sense whatever, and was only added to fill up the -metre of a verse.</p> -<p>Several other eminent writers, including Fetis, -who gives a full account of this war of opinions,<a class="fn" id="fr_16" href="#fn_16">[16]</a> -decline to hazard an opinion in so dark a matter.</p> -<p>Another conjectural description of the mode of -singing among the ancient Hebrews, is the -commentary of Herder on the song of Deborah -and Barak, Judges v.; he says, “probably verses -1-11 were interrupted by the shouts of the populace; -verses 12-27 were a picture of the battle -with a naming of the leaders with praise or blame, -and mimicking each one as named; verses 28-30 -were mockery of the triumph of Sissera, and the -last verse was given as chorus by the whole -people.”</p> -<p>One cannot fail to observe some resemblance -between this music and the slave music of some -sections of the southern states: in the camp-meetings, -and religious services, a tune which is -well known to all is chosen, and as the spirit moves, -often a whole song appropriate to the occasion is -improvised. Of some such description must have -been Miriam’s song, after the downfall of Pharaoh’s -host; she probably chose a tune which was -<span class="pb" id="Page_34">34</span> -familiar to the people, and improvised, while the -people kept the rhythm, or sang refrains.</p> -<p>Of course the element of poetry was immeasurably -greater among the Israelites than among -the Negroes, but the similarity of improvisation -and religious fervor is noticeable.</p> -<p>When Miriam sang, there was as yet no -distinctive style of Hebrew music; we must remember -that she had obtained an Egyptian education, -and that up to David’s time the music was an -imitation of the Egyptian school.</p> -<p>The raptures of some commentators as to the -exceeding beauty of the music of David, are quite -safe, for it is easy to affirm where no one can bring -rebutting evidence, but if it partook of the loudness -of most ancient and barbarous music,—“Play -skillfully, and with a loud noise,” Psalms xxxiii:2—our -modern music may after all be some compensation -for its utter loss and oblivion.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_35">35</div> -<h2 id="c5"><span class="small">CHAPTER IV.</span> -<br />ANCIENT GREEK MUSIC.</h2> -<p>The mythology of Greek music is too well -known, for us to go into any details upon the subject; -with this people every thing relating to -music, was ennobled and enriched by an applicable -legend, or a finely conceived poem. In fact -music (mousiké), meant with the Greeks, all the -æsthetics, and culture that were used in education -of youth, and the strictly <i>musical</i> part of the above -training had special names, as <i>harmonia</i>, etc., to -designate it.</p> -<p>The subject of Greek music has given rise to -more commentary and dispute, than any other in -the entire realm of musical history.</p> -<p>The mode of notation employed was peculiar; -it consisted in placing the letters of the alphabet -in various positions, straight, sideways, etc., and -sometimes even, fragments of letters were used.</p> -<p>There are in existence but three authentic Greek -hymns<a class="fn" id="fr_17" href="#fn_17">[17]</a> with music, viz: hymn to Calliope, to -Apollo, and to Nemesis; there is also in existence, -some music to the first eight verses of the first -Pythian of Pindar, which Athanasius Kircher -<span class="pb" id="Page_36">36</span> -claimed to have discovered in a monastery near -Messina, but the best authorities reject this as -spurious. The copies of the above hymns are -not older than the fifteenth century, and have -probably been much perverted by the ignorance, -or half-knowledge of the transcribers, who seeing -a fragment of a letter, would restore the whole -letter, or change its position, thereby greatly altering -the character of the music.</p> -<p>To this fact is to be attributed the dense fog, -which has prevented us from fully understanding -the ancient Greek music.</p> -<p>On this slight foundation however, learned -writers have built an edifice of erudition which -consists of countless volumes of pedantry and -ingenuity, mixed with a large amount of abuse for -those who did not agree with their solution.</p> -<p>As we intend to deal, in these articles, more with -curious musical facts than with musical systems, -we will dismiss this branch of the subject entirely -by referring the reader to the best representative -works of this monument of research, which are -Chappell’s History of Music, vol. <span class="smaller">I.</span>, Ambros’ -Geschichte der Musik, vol. <span class="smaller">I.</span>, pp. 218-513, Fetis’ -Histoire Generale de la Musique, vol. <span class="smaller">III.</span>, pp. 1-418. -Kiesewetter, and Drieberg also have written -profoundly on the subject. These will give the -different opinions held in the matter.</p> -<p>The <i>scale</i> of the Greeks, is however, definitely -known, and was similar to our minor scale, although -it contained no sharp seventh. Play on any -pianoforte the notes, <span class="smaller">A B C D E F G</span>, and you -have played the Greek one octave diatonic scale.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_37">37</div> -<p>The nomenclature was however different, and -some commentators have forgotten to explain the -fact, that what the Greeks called the <i>highest note</i>, -meant the longest string of the instrument, and -consequently the <i>lowest</i> tone.</p> -<p>Another fact which has given rise to much -controversy is the pitch of the lyre or phorminx; -it seems that the mode of tuning this instrument -varied in Greece at different epochs, and even -in different localities at the same epoch.<a class="fn" id="fr_18" href="#fn_18">[18]</a></p> -<p>The word harmony (harmonikē) has also been -misunderstood, as it does not mean harmony in -our sense of the word, but the arrangement and -rhythm of a melody. Whether the Greeks understood -harmony or not, in the modern sense, has -been the chief cause of the before-mentioned -“Battle of the Books.”</p> -<p>The lowest note of the scale was called Proslambanomenos, -and had not the importance of the -middle note, called Mese, which really became -the principal note of the scale.</p> -<p>The Greek music practically, was very like our -present minor modes, and the singing of some -young Greek of two thousand years ago, would -probably have sounded pleasantly to modern ears.</p> -<p>The earliest Greek scale had but four tones, and -was probably used to accompany hymns. It -might still suffice for many church chants.<a class="fn" id="fr_19" href="#fn_19">[19]</a> -People seldom think how much music can be -manufactured from three or four notes; Rousseau -<span class="pb" id="Page_38">38</span> -gave a practical illustration of it in the last century, -by writing a not very monotonous tune, on -three notes. But an instrument founded on so few -notes might also have been used to give the pitch -to the voice in reciting, or half-singing a poem. -We must remember that the poems of Greece -were chanted in public; and even in modern -days, orators pitch their voices higher than in conversation, -when addressing an assembly.</p> -<p>Early Grecian music experienced its first real -onward movement, when Egypt was thrown open -to foreigners. Up to the reign of Psammetichus -<span class="smaller">I.</span>, (664 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span>) Egypt was closed to aliens, exactly -as China has been closed in days not long gone by. -Psammetichus first opened his kingdom to the -Greeks, and Pythagoras learned enough in Egypt -to greatly change the character of Greek music. -Though some Greek writers with an excess of -zeal, have made the statement that he taught the -Egyptians, by bringing to them the seven-stringed -lyre. Considering the fact that the Egyptians had -as many as twenty-two strings, the claim is rather -audacious.</p> -<p>But what placed the Greeks in advance of all -other ancient nations, in music, was the fact that -they early recognized its rank as a <i>fine art</i>.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_39">39</div> -<h2 id="c6"><span class="small">CHAPTER V.</span> -<br />THE PUBLIC GAMES OF GREECE.</h2> -<p>The public games of Greece in which music -and musical contests were a feature, gave to -the art a decided impetus, for when competition -began, musical study must have preceded.</p> -<p>The Olympic games were celebrated at Olympia -every fifth year, in July, and lasted five days. -They were dedicated to Zeus (Jupiter), and were -established (according to some re-established, having -existed in Mythical ages) by Iphitos, king of -Elis, in the ninth century before the Christian era.</p> -<p>For a long time none but Grecians were allowed -to compete in them. If there existed internal war in -Greece at the time, an armistice was effected during -the games. The contestants were trained for ten -months previous to the contest. The prizes -awarded to the victors were wreaths of wild olive -twigs, cut from a sacred tree which grew in the -consecrated grove of Olympia, and the victors -were presented to the spectators, while a herald -proclaimed the name of each, his father, and his -country.</p> -<p>The first day opened with a sacrifice to Zeus, -after which a contest of trumpeters took place. -This contest was not regularly instituted until 396 -<span class="pb" id="Page_40">40</span> -<span class="smaller">B. C.</span>, but after that period it was not interrupted. -There are still annals left of the most celebrated -contestants; Archias of Hybla, gained the prize -for three successive Olympiads; and Athenæus -says that Herodorus of Megara, a most famous -trumpeter, gained the prize <i>ten times in succession</i>. -Pollux says he gained <i>seventeen</i> victories, which -is well-nigh incredible, but both agree in saying -that this remarkable performer was in one year -crowned in the four great sacred games, the -Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian. His -music was so loud that the audience were sometimes -stunned by the concussion. Other anecdotes -of this wonderful trumpeter remain. He -was of giant stature, and slept upon a bear skin, -in imitation of Hercules and the lion skin. He -could play upon two trumpets at the same time, -and when he did so, the audience had to sit farther -away than usual, on account of the immense -sound. His performances were of great use in -military affairs. Once at the siege of Argos, the -troops were giving way when Herodorus began to -sound his two trumpets, which so inspired the -warriors of Demetrius, that they returned to the -fight and won the victory.</p> -<p>The trumpet cannot really be classed among -Grecian musical instruments, as it was rather a -signal than any thing else. It was blown when -heralds made any proclamation, in military movements, -etc., and seems to have been appreciated -only by the loudness with which it was blown.</p> -<p>It was also frequently played at the Olympic -<span class="pb" id="Page_41">41</span> -games during the horse-races, to inspirit the -animals.<a class="fn" id="fr_20" href="#fn_20">[20]</a></p> -<p>In fact at the public games the music had a -most noisy character, and trumpeters were proud -of bursting a blood vessel, or otherwise injuring -themselves by excess of zeal.</p> -<p>The contest of trumpeters was the only musical -(?) one of these games, though flute-playing -took place on the fourth day, when according to -Krause,<a class="fn" id="fr_21" href="#fn_21">[21]</a> the <i>pentathlon</i> took place. This was a -set of five athletic games; leaping, running, throwing -spear, throwing <i>discus</i>, and wrestling. Here -flute-playing also served to animate the contestants. -The flutes too, considering the purpose for -which they were used, must have been played in a -violent manner.</p> -<p>Harmonides, a young flute-player, on his first -appearance at the games wishing to <i>astonish</i> the -audience, began by giving such a tremendous blast -on his instrument, that he expired on the spot, -probably having burst a blood vessel, and having -literally blown himself out with his first note. -The audience was probably astonished.</p> -<p>The sacred games next in importance, were the -Pythian. These games were at first celebrated by -the Delphians, every ninth year, but about 590 -<span class="smaller">B. C.</span>, the Amphyctions (another Grecian tribe) -obtained the control of them, and instituted them -every fifth year. They took place on a plain near -Delphi, and were in honor of Apollo, commemorating -<span class="pb" id="Page_42">42</span> -his victory over the serpent Python; the good -principle defeating the evil principle, as in Egyptian, -and most other mythologies. Pindar’s odes -have celebrated the victories at some of these -games. Being dedicated to Apollo, it was but -natural that music, (under this head, the Greeks -understood most of the accomplishments of the -muses,) should play the most important part.</p> -<p>Religious poems were chanted, with an accompaniment -upon the lyre or phorminx. The first -poet-musicians who gained the prize were Chrysothemis,<a class="fn" id="fr_22" href="#fn_22">[22]</a> -Philammon, an earlier poet-musician -than Homer, and Thamyris. According to -Pausanius, all these singers were probably priests -of Apollo. The Amphyctions first established -prizes for songs with flute accompaniment, and -for flute <i>solos</i>. Cephallon obtained a prize for -songs accompanied by Kithara, a small lyre, and -Echembrotus one for songs with flute, while -Sacadas of Argos took the prize three consecutive -times for his flute solos. After him came -Pythocritus of Sicyon, who won the prize at these -games six consecutive times, which covers an -interval of <i>thirty years</i> of triumphs.</p> -<p>Athletic sports also were introduced later. The -prizes were, as at Olympia, wreaths only.</p> -<p>The use of the flute both as solo instrument, -and as accompaniment, was however, soon abolished, -it being used as funeral music, and for dirge -playing among the Amphyctions, and therefore -<span class="pb" id="Page_43">43</span> -having too many melancholy associations to -allow of its use in these festive games. Finally -<i>solos</i> on the small lyre (kithara) were allowed -prizes.</p> -<p>It is said that at one of these contests a flute -player gained the prize in a singular manner. -He was playing the straight flute, when the -reed in the mouth-piece became closed by -accident, on which he instantly changed the -position of his instrument, and played it as an -<i>oblique</i> flute; his presence of mind was rewarded, -by winning the prize.</p> -<p>The Nemean games were commemorative of the -slaying of the Nemean lion, by Hercules. There -was no musical contest in the games, but flutes -were used, to stimulate the athletes, and were -probably allowed prizes.</p> -<p>The Isthmian games celebrated upon the Isthmus -of Corinth, whence their name, were similar -to the Nemean; music not being of any importance -in them.</p> -<p>In Chios there has been found a stone on which -the names of the victors in the musical contests -are inscribed. From it we learn that prizes were -given for reading music at sight, rhapsodizing, -accompanying the voice with a small harp played -with the hand, and accompanying with kithara -played partially with the fingers of the left hand, -and partially with a <i>plectrum</i> held in the right hand.</p> -<p>The lesser games of Greece were also not -inconsiderable. The great festival of Athens was -the Panathenæa, held in honor of Athene the -patron goddess of the city. It was established -<span class="pb" id="Page_44">44</span> -according to tradition, about 1521 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span>, and was at -first intended for the citizens of Athens only. It -took place about the middle of July.</p> -<p>At the later Panathenæa, the people of all Attica -used to attend. There seem to have been two -divisions of this festival, a greater and lesser -Panathenæa, the former being celebrated every -four years, the latter every year. The lesser -Panathenæa consisted of recitations, gymnastics, -musical competitions, and a torch race in the -evening, the whole concluding with the sacrifice -of an ox. The greater, was even more extensive. -The Homeric poems were sung, dramatic representation -took place, magnificient processions -marched to the temple of Athene Polias, and the -whole city was full of mirth and gayety. The -prizes were jars of oil made from the sacred tree -on the Acropolis.</p> -<p>Pericles, (fifth century <span class="smaller">B. C.</span>,) gave to music a -greater prominence than ever before in these -games, by erecting a structure especially for musical -entertainments and contests, the Odeum, in -the street of the Tripod; this edifice was very -well adapted in its acoustical properties, for -according to Plutarch’s description, the roof was -dome-shaped, or nearly so, and vast audiences -could hear solos distinctly.</p> -<p>In Sparta, in the month of August (Carneios) -there were celebrated the great Carneian -games, which lasted nine days. In these games -musical contests also took place, and dances of -men, youths, and maidens, as well as gymnastic -<span class="pb" id="Page_45">45</span> -exercises. Sparta also had a special building for -musical purposes. Theodore of Samos erected -the Skias, a building for musical uses, in the -market place. Sparta was in fact, the cradle of -Grecian music.</p> -<p>In the early days, songs were learned and -transmitted down, from mouth to mouth. Homer’s -poems were preserved in this manner for five -hundred years. In Sparta however, they first -began to crystallize into form and regularity. -Yet strange to say, Sparta gave birth to no musicians -of eminence, even though she was so long -the arbiter, and director of Grecian musical taste.<a class="fn" id="fr_23" href="#fn_23">[23]</a></p> -<p>Terpander of Lesbos, one of the founders of -Greek music, came early to Sparta. He is reported -to have gained the prize at the first musical contest -of the Carneian games, <span class="smaller">B. C.</span> 676, and is said to -have studied in Egypt, but he certainly could not -have done so before his first advent in Sparta, for -Egypt was at that date still closed to foreigners, -and had even guards set to prevent the landing of -strangers by the sea.<a class="fn" id="fr_24" href="#fn_24">[24]</a></p> -<p>Terpander gained the Pythian crown four times -in succession, and was the most famous poet-musician -of his time. His fame spread through -all Greece, but it was especially in Sparta that he -won renown, for his high, manly and earnest strains -awoke a sturdy and manly response in the bosoms -of the rugged Spartans. It is probable however -that at the first visit to Sparta, his songs were not -<span class="pb" id="Page_46">46</span> -so powerful. At that time, (676 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span>) he probably -sang chiefly the poems of Homer. We say <i>sang</i>, -but it is not even sure that they had, what we -should call a tune, attached to them; they were -possibly recited in a musical pitch of voice, which -could not be called even a chant.</p> -<p>There was at this time, little music among the -Spartans, and that of rather martial, or else of -religious character; as for example we learn that -the Spartans marched into battle to the sound of -many kitharas, as did also the Cretans, and it was -supposed to have been in honor of the Gods, that -they did so; though Thucydides, more practically, -says that it was only that they might move forward -regularly and in time. On Terpander’s second -visit to Sparta, he changed the entire mode of -Spartan music, and enlarged it. The return -happened in this wise:—</p> -<p>At the beginning of the second Messenian war -Sparta was in great perplexity. Messenia by -alliances with other tribes threatened destruction -from without. Within all was dissension; agriculture -prostrate, antagonism between those who -had lost their lands through the wars and those -who possessed them, a demand for a new distribution -of land, and prospective anarchy. At this -juncture, the Oracle of Delphi was consulted, and -gave reply that “discord would be quelled in -Sparta when the sound of Terpander’s harp was -heard there,” and told the Spartans, also to call -the counsellor from Athens. So Terpander was -sent for, and also the counsellor Tyrtaeus from -Athens.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_47">47</div> -<p>The effect of Terpander’s songs upon the populace -on this occasion is described as something -remarkable; men burst into tears, enemies embraced -each other, and all internal dissension was -at an end.<a class="fn" id="fr_25" href="#fn_25">[25]</a></p> -<p>It is recorded therefore, that Terpander with -his harp had quelled all dissension in Sparta, but -by this anecdote we may see that in what the -ancient Greeks called music, the words really -played the most important part. To show this yet -more clearly, we will here give an instance from -later Athenian history where the same power was -exerted for a similar purpose. A war between -Athens and Megara, for the possession of the -island of Salamis, had resulted in such continued -disaster to Athens, that the Athenians had left -the island to its fate, and it was forbidden upon -penalty of death to broach the subject to the public -again. Solon however, attired himself as a -messenger from the island to the Athenians, and -in this character sang a song which roused such a -martial spirit, that on the instant a large body of -volunteers was formed, who, under Solon, effected -its reconquest.</p> -<p>Terpander and Tyrtæus composed most of their -songs in march rhythm, and after this the Spartans -sang hymns, while marching into battle to -the sound of many kitharas, which were afterwards -displaced by the more penetrating flute.</p> -<p>Terpander also composed love songs, and -banquet songs as well as nomes or hymns, and his -<span class="pb" id="Page_48">48</span> -choruses were sung at all Spartan festivals and -sacrifices, they were taught to Spartan youths and -maidens, and all seemed to vie in doing him -honor. He had really helped the music of Greece -to a higher plane, for it is said that he enlarged -the lyre or phorminx from four strings, to seven, -and also made improvements in the scale.</p> -<p>Contemporary with this poet-musician was -Olympus, who must not however be confounded -with an Olympus who lived six hundred years -previously, that is, about 1250 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span> Plato says -that the music of Olympus was especially adapted -to animate the hearers. Plutarch says that it -surpassed in simplicity and effect, all other music. -He is said to have composed the air which caused -Alexander to seize his arms, when it was sung -to him; according to Aristotle his music filled -all hearers with enthusiasm. Much relating to -Olympus must however be relegated to the land -of myths. It has even been doubted whether -he ever really existed, though that is carrying -scepticism too far.</p> -<p>Among the other characters which existed on -the borderland of Greek musical history, may be -mentioned Polynestos, and Alcman who brought -to Sparta in its full glow, the love song, (Lydian -measure). Alcman seems to have been easily -aroused to sing of female beauty, and composed -some choruses especially for the</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">“Honey-voiced, lovely singing maidens,”</p> -</div> -<p>which were sung by female voices only.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_49">49</div> -<p>The fragments which remain of Alcman’s -verses do not justify the immense fame which he -seems to have enjoyed in Greece. Alcman was -preceded by Thaletas of Crete, who was sent -for by the Spartans 620 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span> to sing to the Gods, -in order that Sparta might be freed from a severe -plague, which was then ravaging the state. The -plague ceased, and Thaletas for a time stood at -the head of all Spartan music. That country as -above mentioned, either would not, or could not -encourage home talent.</p> -<p>Sacadas of Argos came soon after with a yet -more luxurious style, and introduced the flute as -an accompaniment to chorus music.</p> -<p>To this foggy period of history, also belongs -Tisias of Himera, who made an indelible impression -on Greek music. He was the first who regulated -the motions of the chorus, and who reduced -chorus singing to a settled system; from the fact -that at one period of the song, (the <i>epode</i>, or -<i>finale</i>) he made the chorus stand quiet, instead of -dancing he received the nickname of “Stesichorus.” -In some of the works of Stesichorus, one -can easily see the germ of the choruses of Æschylus -or Sophocles.<a class="fn" id="fr_26" href="#fn_26">[26]</a></p> -<p>If in the ancient Grecian music, the composer, -poet, and performer seem to be spoken of in -common, the reader must recollect that in those -days, <i>all three</i> branches of the art were united in -one individual. It will also aid some readers, if -we define here what the functions of the Greek -<span class="pb" id="Page_50">50</span> -chorus were. In the earliest days, the whole -chorus simply sang refrains after the solo of -some cultivated singer; gradually whole compositions -were entrusted to their charge. Pantomimic -action probably always existed in connection with -their songs, as with almost all ancient singing. -Stesichorus first gave them different historical or -mythological subjects to act, in a dramatic manner. -At a later epoch the chorus entered in a -peculiar manner into the action of the drama. -They stood upon the stage as interested spectators -of the various events; they advised the Protagonist -or only individual character<a class="fn" id="fr_27" href="#fn_27">[27]</a> as to his course -of action, and when some startling incident, a -murder for example, had taken place, they would -strongly express their feelings, horror, dismay or -fear, and thereby intensify the effect upon the -audience.</p> -<p>An imitation of the Greek chorus may be found -in Schiller’s “Bride of Messina.”</p> -<p>Stesichorus was deservedly honored as the -founder of Greek chorus music, and a statue was -erected to his memory. Among those next following -his era we find Ibycus, a poet-musician -attached to the court of Polycrates, tyrant of -Samos. This mighty sea king and despot had a -considerable liking for music; for we learn also -that he kept a choir of beautiful boys, whose duty -it was to sing sweet Lydian melodies during his -meals. About 580-70 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span> Alcæus and Sappho -<span class="pb" id="Page_51">51</span> -became leaders in Grecian musical culture, or -poetry, for the two are inseparable. The two -poets seem to have formed a mutual friendship. -Of Sappho we have remaining an ode to Aphrodite -which makes it a matter of regret that the remains -of her poetry are so fragmentary.<a class="fn" id="fr_28" href="#fn_28">[28]</a> At Mytilene -she seems to have gathered around her a large and -elegant circle, composed entirely of females to -whom she taught poetry and music; in fact her -house must have been a musical university for -her list of scholars embraces names from all -parts of Greece. Ottfried Müller<a class="fn" id="fr_29" href="#fn_29">[29]</a> compares her -life, surrounded by all these fair followers, with -that of Socrates surrounded by the flower of -Athenian youth.</p> -<p>Sappho’s career is the more wonderful from the -fact, that among the ancient Greeks, the entire -mission of woman was supposed to consist in -rearing her family, attending to the first education -of her sons, who at an early age passed into the -hands of their teachers, teaching housewife’s -duties to her daughters, and attending to them -herself; according to Pericles, that woman was -most to be prized of whom no one spoke, either -in praise or blame.</p> -<p>Sappho’s poetry had great effect even on the -rough character of Solon, the law giver; hearing -for the first time one of her songs, which his -nephew sang to him, he vehemently expressed the -<span class="pb" id="Page_52">52</span> -wish that he might not die before he had committed -to memory so beautiful a song.</p> -<p>Sappho’s name is almost the only female one in -the whole realm of ancient Greek music, which -was pure, noble, and uncontaminated. Latterly, -even her character has been assailed, but the -accusation has been refuted by Herr Welcker, of -Bonn, (in the <i>Rheinisches Museum</i>,) Ottfried Müller -and other learned writers. After her, music as -practiced by the female sex, was handed over to -the most degraded, (the <i>Hetarae</i>) and seems to -have borrowed from Egypt many lowering qualities,<a class="fn" id="fr_30" href="#fn_30">[30]</a> -including dancing girls and ribald songs.</p> -<p>Anacreon of Teos, introduced into Greece the -light, airy songs, in praise of woman, wine, etc., -“It is no great stretch of fancy,” says a thoughtful -writer,<a class="fn" id="fr_31" href="#fn_31">[31]</a> “to imagine his songs as expressing -our modern <i>Allegretto Grazioso</i>, <i>Andante Scherzoso</i>, -etc.”</p> -<p>From precisely this point however (the lack of -signs of expression in all Greek music) another -writer<a class="fn" id="fr_32" href="#fn_32">[32]</a> deduces the opinion that Greek music -must always have been in a crude state, and by -no means of the beauty which some enthusiasts -ascribe to it.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_53">53</div> -<h2 id="c7"><span class="small">CHAPTER VI.</span> -<br />THE PHILOSOPHERS, AND GREEK SOCIAL MUSIC.</h2> -<p>From the sixth century <span class="smaller">B. C.</span>, music may date its -entrance into the positive sciences, for Pythagoras, -born about 570 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span>, first began to analyze -music from a scientific point of view, and to -ascertain how far it rested upon natural laws. -Pythagoras is said to have been the son of a -wealthy merchant. He was as before mentioned, -one of the earliest Greeks in Egypt, and after -having been instructed for some time by the priests, -had at last the honor of being admitted into the -Egyptian college of priesthood.</p> -<p>After remaining in Egypt twenty-two years, he -spent some time among the Chaldeans, and at last -returned, full of wisdom, to his native Samos. -But here the sensuality of the court of Polycrates -was so little to his taste, that he departed to the -city of Croton in southern Italy, where he founded -the order of Pythagoreans.</p> -<p>With the order itself, we have little to do, but -when we consider that its founder was the pioneer -of scientific musical research, its proceedings -become in some degree interesting.</p> -<p>“All is number and harmony” was the fundamental -<span class="pb" id="Page_54">54</span> -maxim of this philosopher,<a class="fn" id="fr_33" href="#fn_33">[33]</a> and he sought -for the laws in music, therefore, in nature. This -led to some mistakes of course, for the laws of -nature had not been made clear enough for -thorough guidance, in that era. It is said that -Pythagoras one day, passing by a blacksmith’s -shop heard the blows of different hammers sound -the fundamental, fourth, fifth, and octave, and -entering, he weighed the different hammers, -thereby obtaining the proportion of these intervals -to each other.</p> -<p>This story has been proved to be a silly myth, -for the proportions given are wrong. He should -have weighed the anvils not the hammers, and -anvils of such difference in size as would be -requisite to produce these intervals would not be -seen in blacksmiths’ shops.</p> -<p>Pythagoras taught that not the ear, but -mathematics, should be the guide in music. He held -that the universe was constructed on a musical -plan, and was probably the first to introduce -among the Greeks the theory of the music of the -spheres. The fact that man could not hear this -music,<a class="fn" id="fr_34" href="#fn_34">[34]</a> was explained by the statement that the -sounds were either too deep or too high for our -ears. The reasoning was plausible enough, and -has been confirmed by science, for sounds -<span class="pb" id="Page_55">55</span> -of less than sixteen vibrations in a second are inaudible -on account of their depth, and those -exceeding 38,100 vibrations in a second are too -high for the human ear to perceive.<a class="fn" id="fr_35" href="#fn_35">[35]</a> Starting -from this premise Pythagoras formed a scale -founded on the seven planets, as known to the -astronomers of that time. This was its form:</p> -<table class="center"> -<tr><td class="cs">Moon. </td><td class="cs">Mercury. </td><td class="cs">Venus. </td><td class="cs">Sun. </td><td class="cs">Mars. </td><td class="cs">Jupiter. </td><td class="cs">Saturn.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">E </td><td class="c">F </td><td class="c">G </td><td class="c">A </td><td class="c">B </td><td class="c">C </td><td class="c">D</td></tr> -</table> -<p>The sun was Mese, the controlling middle note, -around which all the others circled.</p> -<p>The order of Pythagoreans were held together by -the firmest ties, and Pythagoras has been, not -inaptly, compared in this capacity with Ignatius -Loyola. His adherents, who numbered about -three hundred were, in most cases, wealthy and -noble, and the power of the society was always -upon the side of aristocracy.</p> -<p>Pythagoras was very select in the admission of -members, exercising great vigilance lest improper -or undesirable persons should be allowed to enter; -in this he was guided not a little by his skill in -Physiognomy. The initiates had, it is said, to -pass through a most rigorous and lengthy period -of probation, they were obliged to maintain silence -for five years,<a class="fn" id="fr_36" href="#fn_36">[36]</a> and in other ways had their powers -<span class="pb" id="Page_56">56</span> -of endurance, severely tested. After entering -the brotherhood,<a class="fn" id="fr_37" href="#fn_37">[37]</a> the mode of life was entirely -dictated by Pythagoras. The members were -clothed in pure white. They were forbidden all -animal food, and beans. They had different -grades of advancement among themselves, the -highest being undoubtedly instructed in a purer -religion than that which obtained around them, -though outwardly they conformed with the religion -of the populace. Mathematics, music, and -astronomy were studied, and gymnastics regularly -practised.</p> -<p>Playing upon the lyre was obligatory, and none -of the order went to sleep at night, without having -previously purified his soul, and set it in harmony -through music; and at rising in the morning, the -strength for the day’s labors and duties, was sought -for in the same manner. Pythagoras wrote many -songs as correctives to undue excitement and -passion; he is said once to have brought to reason -a young man beside himself with jealousy and -wine, by the power of a song.</p> -<p>Clinias, a Pythagorean, took up his harp and -played whenever any passion arose in his breast; -to a person who asked him the reason of the -action, he replied, “I play to compose myself.”</p> -<p>While the music of Terpander, Olympus, etc., -was intended for high state and religious purposes, -that of Pythagoras was intended to bring -the art into domestic and inner life. Choruses -<span class="pb" id="Page_57">57</span> -were, however, also chanted by his followers, and -were adapted to various occasions, as for example, -at the opening of Spring, the scholars would -gather in a circle around the harper, who played -the accompaniment, and sing pæans of welcome -to the opening season. Other philosophers also -allowed music to enter into their teachings, though -not to so great a degree, but almost all of them -understood enough of music to form an opinion.</p> -<p>Plato seemed decidedly to object to instrumental -music, for he says “the using of instruments without -the voice is barbarism and charlatanry.”<a class="fn" id="fr_38" href="#fn_38">[38]</a></p> -<p>Aristotle was disposed to allow more freedom, -for he spoke of music as a delicious pleasure, -either alone (instrumental) or accompanied with -voice; but in instrumental solos he admitted the -lyre and kithara only, and rejected the flute, which -he thought not to be a moral instrument, and -only capable of inflaming the passions.</p> -<p>The philosophers as a class were really not very -advantageous to musical progress, for they fought -tooth and nail for the old school of music.</p> -<p>They sought only moral effects by the means of -great simplicity, and any intricate innovations -displeased them; but in spite of their resistance -the art began to improve.</p> -<p>The Skolion, or banquet song had a great -influence on the music of Athens. At the banquet, -or symposium, the harp was passed from -hand to hand, and each person who made any -pretence to education or good breeding was -<span class="pb" id="Page_58">58</span> -expected to be able to improvise or at least to sing -a good <i>skolion</i>.</p> -<p>There was certainly in the time of Pericles, -music enough to choose from, for there is much -evidence that the Athenians of that day possessed -an extensive library of music;<a class="fn" id="fr_39" href="#fn_39">[39]</a> and it was -in this era, the early part of the fifth century -<span class="smaller">B. C.</span>, that the social music reached its height.</p> -<p>Themistocles once being present at a banquet -had the harp (kithara) presented to him, and was -desired to sing his <i>skolion</i>; full of confusion and -shame he was obliged to acknowledge his ignorance -of music, and we can judge of the value in which -the art was held, by the sneers and jests which -were pointed at him. At last stung to the quick -by the sharp witticisms, he retorted, “it is true I -do not know how to play the kithara, but I know -how to raise an insignificant city to a position of -glory.”</p> -<p>The <i>skolion</i> was a really poetical and worthy -song, and must not be confounded with those -lower and vulgar songs which were sung to the -guests by hired jesters and buffoons.<a class="fn" id="fr_40" href="#fn_40">[40]</a></p> -<p>The subjects of the <i>skolion</i> were sometimes of -rather a lofty style; praise of heroes,<a class="fn" id="fr_41" href="#fn_41">[41]</a> calls to the -gods, rules of life, often joyous, sometimes -sedate; but in all of them a less exact rhythm -and style were allowed than in other compositions. -A few have been preserved to our day; one -<span class="pb" id="Page_59">59</span> -begins, “my kingdom is my spear and sword,” -another composed by Chilon contains the following -beautiful thought; “Gold is rubbed upon the -touchstone, and thus is tested, but the soul of man -is tested by the gold, if it be good or evil.” But -the kithara, although used in the <i>skolion</i>, was not -the only instrument of the fashionable young -men of ancient Athens, for the flute found great -favor among them; in fact flute playing grew to -be quite a mania for a time. It was part of the -musical education of youth. Most of the teachers -of the instrument came from Bœotia.</p> -<p>Flute players of ability were held in high honor; -the art of flute playing received such an impetus -that different flute schools were established in -Athens; even rival methods of playing and teaching -existed.<a class="fn" id="fr_42" href="#fn_42">[42]</a></p> -<p>Flutes were played in almost every place where -music was required, to accompany hymns, at worship, -and even sometimes the Greeks represented -the combat of Apollo and the Python on this -instrument, with kithara accompaniment; this -may be considered as the earliest “song without -words” in existence.</p> -<p>The ancients had some other attempts at tone -pictures. Once an Athenian kitharist played to -Dorian, a representation of a storm at sea; on -being asked how he liked it, that ancient wit -answered, “I have seen a better storm in a pot of -<span class="pb" id="Page_60">60</span> -boiling water.” This would make the origin of -the phrase “a tempest in a teapot,” over two-thousand -years old.</p> -<p>Sometimes all Athens was divided into cliques -for this or that flute player; and the price paid for -flutes were appalling, some being sold as high as -three thousand dollars, many flute-makers becoming -immensely wealthy.</p> -<p>It received a slight check however, when Alcibiades, -about 409 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span>, declined to play it, alleging -as a reason, that it spoilt the shape of the mouth. -Alcibiades stood at the head of the fashion as well -as of the state, and after such a <i>dictum</i> the <i>beau -monde</i> of Athens laid aside the flute; but some -ingenious flute maker took alarm, and invented a -mouth-piece which obviated the difficulty, and -which Alcibiades found more to his taste, on which -it resumed its place in popular favor.</p> -<p>In Sparta it led the chorus, and was the military -instrument, but the Spartans disdained to make it -a study, and only felt bound, at this era, to discriminate -between good and bad music.</p> -<p>In some Ionian cities, the human victims were -led to the sacrifice, or to their execution to the -sound of flutes; and this dead march (called the -Nome of Kradias) was said to be peculiarly -depressing.</p> -<p>Plutarch makes a warm defence of the flute, -against the criticisms of Plato and Aristotle. -“The flute” he says “cannot be spared from the -banquet, leads the hymns to the gods, and with its -rich and full tones spreads peace and tranquillity -<span class="pb" id="Page_61">61</span> -throughout the soul;” but we must remember that -this was written at a much later epoch, when flute -playing became more universal than in the days of -Pericles, and when the instrument had probably -been altered and improved.</p> -<p>Flute players sometimes made large fortunes. -Nicomachus was known for his wealth in jewels -acquired by his skill on the instrument.</p> -<p>Lamia was one of the most famous of Athenian -flutists. This female was celebrated through -Greece and Egypt for her skill, as well as for her -wit and beauty. The latter was not overrated, -for a portrait of her has been discovered in a signet, -which amply confirms the accounts of her -charms. Although born in Athens, she went early -to Alexandria, in Egypt, to study her art; somewhat -as our modern musicians go to Italy or -Germany. She was received with open arms at -the Egyptian court, and was detained for a long -time. Captured by Demetrius Polyorcetes, she -soon succeeded in conquering her conqueror, and -on her return to Athens, a temple was built to her, -and she was worshipped under the name of <i>Venus -Lamia</i>. Her powerful “friend” Demetrius, may -have had something to do with this deification, -but at all events, there were still left some Greeks -(Lysimachus for example) who had the manliness -to protest against the desecration, for the character -of Lamia was far different from that of Sappho.</p> -<p>It was not flute players only who earned -immense salaries, for we learn that Amabœus the -kitharist, received nearly one thousand dollars for -<span class="pb" id="Page_62">62</span> -each performance, and all flute-players, and kitharists, -were welcomed and honored at the courts of -Greece, Egypt and Asia.</p> -<p>Ptolemy Philadelphus gave a large musical -festival in Alexandria, Egypt, about 280 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span>, at -which six hundred skilled singers, kitharists and -flutists assisted; there have been larger festivals -in point of numbers in ancient times, but few, -where so much educated talent assisted. Ptolemy -Physcon<a class="fn" id="fr_43" href="#fn_43">[43]</a>, an amiable Egyptian ruler, 146 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span>, -who married his brother’s wife, killed his baby -nephew, or step-son on the wedding day and afterwards -married his niece, or step-daughter (for he -made the relationship very mixed) winding up by -killing all the progeny as <i>finale</i>, seems to have -patronized and enjoyed music, in spite of his -family troubles.</p> -<p>Ptolemy Auletes, 80 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span>, was known as the -“flute lover,” and though king of Egypt was yet -a very skilful virtuoso on this instrument.</p> -<p>We must not omit here to mention a species of -Greek music which was an outgrowth of the -sacred games.</p> -<p>We have already stated how great the honor of -achieving a victory at these games was considered; -and it was very natural that when a whole city -celebrated with joy the triumph of one of its sons, -the poets would also sing in high strains, the -praises of the successful hero. These poems -soon became a necessary adjunct to the festivities, -and may be said to form a school of their own. -<span class="pb" id="Page_63">63</span> -They were chanted by a chorus under the direction -of the composer; and although at first they may -have been spontaneous, yet afterwards they -became entirely a matter of purchase.</p> -<p>When a young man had carried off the victor’s -wreath, he would frequently send word at once to -some famous poet-musician, to write a chorus in -his honor. Sometimes the city itself would order -the poem, and in Athens about 540 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span>, statues -began to be erected to the victors who were natives -of that city.<a class="fn" id="fr_44" href="#fn_44">[44]</a> Simonides, born about 556 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span>, may -be regarded as the founder of this style of composition, -and he certainly was the founder of the -custom of receiving pay for laudatory verses.</p> -<p>His contemporaries sneered greatly at him for -this, and Pindar proves him to have been very -avaricious, but it really seems to have been no -more than just that the poet should have been -compensated for his exertions, as he not only had -to write the poetry and music for the occasion, but -also to drill the chorus and lead the singing.</p> -<p>The ceremony of praise to the victor was either -celebrated at the conclusion of the games, upon -the spot, or upon his return home; sometimes -also in after years, to keep alive the remembrance -of past triumphs.</p> -<p>The festivities were both religious and social. -They began with a procession to the temple, after -which sacrifices were offered, either in the temple, -or in the victor’s house; this was followed by a -banquet, to which came the poet with his chorus, -<span class="pb" id="Page_64">64</span> -and intoned the triumphal ode, the latter being -considered the greatest event of the occasion.<a class="fn" id="fr_45" href="#fn_45">[45]</a></p> -<p>Simonides seems to have been in the market -for all kinds of Epinikia, or triumphal odes. -Leophron of Rhegion, having won a race with -mules at one of these games, ordered a chorus on -the subject from the poet; Simonides felt a little -indignant at the proposal and replied, curtly “I -don’t sing about mules,” but Leophron being -very anxious in the matter, offered a large price, -upon which Simonides reconsidered his determination, -and wrote the ode. It began by saluting the -mules in an ingenious manner, only noticing one -side of their ancestry,—“Hail! oh ye daughters -of the stormy footed horse.”</p> -<p>Simonides was not wholly, however, in this -lower line of poetry; he often competed in public -musical, or poetical contests, and won fifty-six -oxen and tripods by such means. Even at eighty -years of age he added another to his lengthy list -of victories. He was also considered as very -learned, and was sometimes reckoned among the -philosophers.</p> -<p>One of his chief competitors at Athens, was -Lasus of Hermione, who was a practical and -theoretical musician of some eminence.</p> -<p>Among the works of Lasus, there are some -which are curiously constructed. In his hymn to -Diana, and in the Centaurs, the letter S (sigma) -is entirely avoided. The flute-players who -accompanied the choruses greatly disliked the -<span class="pb" id="Page_65">65</span> -hissing sound of S. as it did not blend easily with -their playing, and it was this fact which probably -led Lasus to so curious a style of poetry.</p> -<p>Among the scholars of Lasus was Pindar, (born -in the spring of 522 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span>,) who came from a noble -Theban family. Pindar’s parents were musical, -and there were several flute-players in his family, -but he soon became far more than a mere flute-player. -He came to Athens, to study music, at a -very early age, for after his return to Thebes he -began a further course of studies under Corinna -and Myrtis, two famous poetesses, then in Bœotia, -all of which was done before his twentieth year.</p> -<p>He strove in public contests with the two latter, -but always unsuccessfully; Corinna defeated him -five times, which result, Pausanius thinks, may -have been partly due to her personal charms.</p> -<p>Corinna once offered to beautify Pindar’s early -efforts with mythological allusions, but on his -bringing her a poem, the first six verses of which -touched on every part of Theban Mythology, she -smiled and said: “One must sow seed by handsfull, -not by bagsfull.”</p> -<p>Pindar’s poetic career began very early, for at -twenty years old he wrote his first Epinikion -(triumphal ode), in honor of a youth of the tribe -of Aleuads.<a class="fn" id="fr_46" href="#fn_46">[46]</a> His services were soon sought for -throughout all Hellas; for although he imitated -Simonides in writing for hire, yet his muse was -unquestionably a nobler one, and his <i>Epinikia</i> -bear an air of heartiness which seems to be -<span class="pb" id="Page_66">66</span> -unfeigned. His songs were bolder and truer, and -not altogether composed of flattery, and he seems -to have been an eye-witness of many of the -triumphs which he describes.</p> -<p>He also was engaged as poet to Hiero, of Syracuse, -Alexander, (son of Amyntas of Macedonia,) -Theron of Agrigentum, Arcesilaus, King of -Cyrene, and for several free states; with the two -former he was an especial favorite, and yet his position -never seemed that of a parasite, or a courtier, -for he told them the truth bluntly when occasion -demanded. His life was chiefly spent in the -courts of his various royal friends. He once -resided at the court of Hiero, at Syracuse, for the -space of four years.</p> -<p>He died at the advanced age of eighty years.</p> -<p>The names of Simonides and Pindar may be -considered as the greatest in this branch of Greek -music and poetry; and although the subjects were -of local interest only, yet Pindar has invested -them with such beautiful imagery that he has -shown us (to alter the phrase of an ancient,) that -it is better to be a great man in a small art, than a -small man in a great one.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_67">67</div> -<h2 id="c8"><span class="small">CHAPTER VII.</span> -<br />GREEK THEATRE AND CHORUS.</h2> -<p>Among the many institutions which contributed -to that polished civilization which was the glory of -ancient Greece, none were higher in aspirations, -or more prolific in results, than the Tragedies and -Comedies which were at certain intervals presented -in the Theatre at Athens. The Athenians were -by this agency, brought to a cultivated discrimination -in music and poetry, and as we shall see later, -the choruses being chosen from the body of the -people, and demanding an amount of musical -ability in the members, caused the study of music -to become almost a necessity to all.<a class="fn" id="fr_47" href="#fn_47">[47]</a></p> -<p>In its early days the Drama, (if it be worthy of -the name,) must have been a mere masquerading -on any raised platform. It had its origin in the -festivities of Dionysius (Bacchus), for at the -earliest Dionysian festivals, the populace smeared -their faces in wine lees, and thus disguised, sang -choruses in honor of this god of mirth.</p> -<p>In later times, linen masks were substituted, -but only in the days of Thespis, did the art -assume some regular shape.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_68">68</div> -<p>Comedy may be said to have arisen about 562 -<span class="smaller">B. C.</span>, when Susarion and Dolon travelled around, -caricaturing the vices and follies of their time, -from a rude scaffold.</p> -<p>The first Tragedy was acted in Athens, by -Thespis, from a wagon, in the year 535 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span> In -the same year Thespis received a goat as reward -for playing “Alcestis” at Athens. Goats were -frequently given as rewards for this kind of -composition, and the word Tragedy is derived by -some, from the words Tragos, a goat, Odé, a song, -literally a “goat-song.”</p> -<p>The earliest attempt at dramatic action, with a -plot, or incident to give it connection, was the -representation of the gift of the grape to mankind, -by Dionysius; this required three <i>dramatis -personae</i>, therefore Thespis changed his linen -mask three times.</p> -<p>Solon was not well pleased with the new art; -striking his stick upon the ground he said: “If this -sort of thing were allowed and praised, it would -soon be found in the market-place;” and to Thespis -who was singing a recitation in the character -which he was acting, he said: “Are you not -ashamed to lie so?”</p> -<p>Solon had probably forgotten that when he -aroused the Athenians to the reconquest of Salamis, -he had assumed the character of a herald from the -island. Solon had predicted right however, the -drama became the most cherished institution of -Greece; even in its earliest stages, the state -fostered it, and it always attracted the peons for -<span class="pb" id="Page_69">69</span> -it was both a religious, and popular enjoyment.</p> -<p>The sons of Pisistratus did much in these days -to encourage and stimulate it. They arranged -contests, rewards, etc., with profusion.</p> -<p>The tragedies of Thespis which he both wrote -and acted himself, had but one performer, who, -rapidly changing his mask, assumed various -different characters in the play. The monotony -was soon felt, and in order that dialogues might -be used, a chorus was introduced, and then much -of the action consisted of duets between the -solitary performer, or <i>protagonist</i>, and the chorus.</p> -<p>Phrynicus, a few years later, allowed this -single actor to take both male and female characters; -but the first thorough representation of -tragedy, with its properties carefully attended to, -is due to the great tragic poet Æschylus, who -instructed the actor and the chorus carefully, and -gave attention to thoroughness in its every -department so far as then known.</p> -<p>The platform and auditorium were still uncouth -wooden structures, until a poetical contest took -place between Phrynicus and others, when the -benches were so crowded that the whole structure -gave way and many were injured; after this the -theatres were built of stone.</p> -<p>The performances were still regarded as belonging -to religious rites; the seats were at first built -in a semi-circle around the altar of Dionysius, and -the theatre never became, as with us, an every-day -matter, but was only used at certain Dionysian -festivals, which occurred about three times each -<span class="pb" id="Page_70">70</span> -year. Æschylus aimed very much at the terrible -in his tragedies, and the poets of this era never -sought to “hold the mirror up to nature,” but -rather to represent something awe-inspiring and -supernatural; therefore the actors had to prepare -themselves in many peculiar ways for the stage.</p> -<p>The characters of tragedy were represented as -much larger than human beings; to effect this the -tragedian wore a kind of stilt-shoes with very high -heels, called <i>cothurne</i>, padded out his body in -proportion to his height, lengthened his arms by -adding an artificial hand, and wore a mask of -large size, over his face. The stage upon which -he appeared, was also elevated above that on -which the chorus stood, and the latter not being -artificially enlarged, must have appeared as -pigmies, beside these gigantic heroes.</p> -<p>The voice was pitched in a style corresponding -to the magnitude of the body; it has been suggested<a class="fn" id="fr_48" href="#fn_48">[48]</a> -that the large tragic mask may have -concealed some contrivance for strengthening the -voice; however this may be, it is certain that the -voice of the tragedian needed to be metallic, -solemn and majestic, and that this, though partly -a natural gift, had to be strengthened by long and -severe practice, and a vast amount of physical -strength was also required to move about naturally -when so extremely bundled up.</p> -<p>Lucian in his “<i>De saltatione</i>,” ridicules the -tragic actor’s equipment. He says: “What a -ridiculous thing it is, to see a fellow stalking -<span class="pb" id="Page_71">71</span> -around upon a pair of high heeled boots, with a -terrible mask on, and a wide gaping mouth, as if -he intended to swallow the audience,<a class="fn" id="fr_49" href="#fn_49">[49]</a> not to -mention the unseemly thickness of breast and -body, all of which is done to hide the disproportion -between his extravagant height, and his -meagre body. Bawling aloud, and writhing his -body in a thousand odd gestures;” and then he -alludes to the better singing and acting of previous -time, “but all sense of fitness is lost,” he concludes, -“when Hercules enters singing a mournful -ditty, without either lion’s skin or club.”</p> -<p>With regard to the immovable mask, Ottfried -Müller supposes that the picture is overdrawn, for -facial expression had far less to do with the action -of the drama of that day than we imagine; the -character had not so many changing emotions to -depict, as in modern plays; he says<a class="fn" id="fr_50" href="#fn_50">[50]</a> “we can -imagine an Orestes, or a Medea, with a set -countenance, but never a Hamlet or Tasso.”</p> -<p>We must also remember that the vast extent of -the Athenian Theatre, made it next to impossible -to distinguish much play of feature, and that the -same masks were not worn throughout the play, but -changed at any great change of emotion. Oedipus -in the tragedy by Sophocles, after misfortunes -came upon him, wore a different mask from the -one worn in his days of prosperity.</p> -<p>The first plays represented were relative to the -history of the gods, and demi-gods, but Phrynicus -<span class="pb" id="Page_72">72</span> -made a bold innovation by representing contemporaneous -events upon the stage. He once ventured -to represent the conquest of Miletus, from the -Athenians; the effect, according to Herodotus, was -startling, the whole audience burst into tears, and -the Athenian government forbade any further -plays on that subject, prohibited the piece from -ever being represented again, and fined the poet -heavily.</p> -<p>The contests between rival writers, by simultaneous -production of their pieces was a fruitful -source of jealousy. Æchylus upon being -vanquished in one of these by Sophocles, took his -defeat so much to heart, that he left Athens for -some years, and took up his residence in Sicily.</p> -<p>In the plays of Thespis and Phrynicus, one actor -only was employed; Æchylus enriched his works -by adding a second performer, called the <i>Deuteragonist</i>. -Sophocles went beyond by adding the -third, or <i>Tritagonist</i>, and desired even more, for -in his Oedipus in Colonus, he found that four -players were a necessity, and wrote the tragedy -for that number, but dared not publicly make the -innovation, and therefore this great work remained -unperformed until after his death.</p> -<p>The above mentioned three performers, had -their distinct lines of duty, as we to-day have -upon the stage, actors for each kind of character, -but the distinction was carried to great height on -the ancient stage, for the first actor always came -on the stage from the right entrance, the second -from the left, and the third from the centre.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_73">73</div> -<p>The stage of the Athenian theatre was very -wide but not deep, and the scenery was very simple; -sometimes the house of the chief character -was represented, sometimes the tent of a hero, -but oftenest the entrance of a palace, before which -the entire action of some dramas could take place. -They were always exterior views, and no scenes -of the interior parts of a dwelling were ever used. -The whole active life of the Greek was passed in -the open air, so that it seemed more natural to him -to represent his characters as living similarly. -The female characters were often personated by -boys.</p> -<p>There were many expedients to make the -following of the action of the play easier to the -spectators, in such a vast space; programmes they -had not, opera glasses did not exist, so certain -formulae took the place of both; when standing -on the stage of the Athenian theatre, and facing -the audience, the harbor and city of Athens were -on the left hand, and Attica on the right; a person -entering from the right hand, was therefore presumed -to be a stranger who had come over land; -and from the left as coming from the city.</p> -<p>The stage also possessed some mechanical -effects, such as chariots descending from the skies, -birds or even immense beetles soaring aloft -carrying persons with them, forms arising from the -deep, thunder, lightning, etc. The chorus was an -immense help to the audience in following the -events of the piece, and we must now describe -this characteristic part of Greek tragedy.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_74">74</div> -<p>The dramatic chorus probably appeared first as -Satyrs, the natural attendants of the jolly god -Dionysius, in the plays of Thespis, and were then -numerous and ill disciplined.</p> -<p>Æchylus lessened the part of the chorus in -his tragedies, and they no longer sang an unceasing -duet with the Protagonist, for the addition of -a second actor, made dialogues possible without -their assistance.</p> -<p>The number of <i>Choryeutes</i> (chorus players) in -Æchylus’s tragedies was twelve; Sophocles, and -Euripides had usually fifteen.</p> -<p>In the tragedy of the “Eumenides” there was -a special chorus of fifty members; these were -apparelled as the hideous furies of that name, all -in black, with angry countenances, snakes twining -in their hair, and blood dripping from their eyes; -and suddenly these frightful apparitions appeared -on the stage: the effect was terrible, women -shrieked, and fell in convulsions, and several -children died of fright. This event proves that -the stage effects were rather realistic in those -days.</p> -<p>The chorus was felt as an inconvenience by -Euripides, who yet could not break the shackles -of custom sufficiently to do away with it.</p> -<p>The arrangement of the chorus was changed -when it was transplanted from lyric to dramatic -use. The dithyrambic chorus stood around an -altar singing hymns, and was wholly occupied -with its music: the dramatic chorus stood in the -shape of a square, the director taking good care -<span class="pb" id="Page_75">75</span> -to place the best dressed and handsomest choryeutes -in front.</p> -<p>The songs were accompanied with well regulated -movements, usually of a stately and dignified -character, such as befitted the characters which -they were representing, the parts which they -performed usually being those of Matrons or -Patriarchs, who were best suited to give counsel, -comfort, or admonition to the acting characters of -the drama.</p> -<p>The formation of choruses, was a matter of -legislation. The archon of the city, gave the -task of forming the choruses, to some of the -wealthy citizens, who had the title of <i>Choregus</i>. -This person was not the chorus leader, but the -founder of it. He had authority from the archon -to receive and select able singers; when he had -the organization formed, he engaged a <i>choryphaeus</i> -or director, to instruct the members in singing -and dancing; he engaged flute-players<a class="fn" id="fr_51" href="#fn_51">[51]</a> to accompany -them, and paid a regular salary to them all, -that of the flute-players being higher than that of -the singers. He had to board and lodge them; to -supply them with good beverages during rehearsals; -to see that they received nutritious food, and -such as was good for their voices; to supply them -with masks, and costumes for their parts, and -other duties all tending to the well being of the -chorus. The choregus received no pay for this, -but if in a dramatic contest his chorus was -<span class="pb" id="Page_76">76</span> -adjudged to be the best, he received a wreath as -a reward.</p> -<p>Expensive as this honor was, yet it was sought -after by all the richer class of Athens, as it was -an ostentatious manner of showing their munificence, -for the tragic choruses vied with each other -in the splendor of their attire, their costumes being -superb mantles of gold, and purple. So costly -was it that the saying became a well known -jest, that the way to ruin a man, was to get him -appointed choregus.</p> -<p>The costume of the actors was also rich, without -much reference to the part they were playing. -Hercules came on the stage in purple and gold -instead of with a lion’s skin.</p> -<p>The poet who had just completed a tragedy, and -succeeded in obtaining a hearing for it, applied to -the Archon for a chorus; that functionary, if he -had confidence in the applicant, would assign him -one of the choruses which had already been formed -and on receiving the permission from the <i>choregus</i>, -the composer would set to work, drilling them in -their various songs, attitudes, and movements. -The director did not use a stick for this purpose, -as in modern days, but beat the time with a heavy -pair of iron shoes which he put on for the purpose.<a class="fn" id="fr_52" href="#fn_52">[52]</a> -The chorus of comedy was a less expensive -and smaller affair. The music which it sang was -also less difficult and grand.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_77">77</div> -<p>The comedy chorus consisted of twenty-four -members, who came on the stage in detachments -of six each.</p> -<p>The comedy costumes of both actors and chorus -were something like what we are accustomed to -see in farce or pantomime; there was something -comical and exaggerated about them, which -occasioned mirth of itself. The masks were -decidedly comic, and usually caricatured the countenance -of some public person well known to the -audience. The comedy, especially in the older -days that of Aristophanes sought to teach the -people by holding up to ridicule, all such persons -or measures as seemed to the poet worthy of censure; -therefore it dealt almost exclusively with -the events of the day, and such characters as -Alcibiades, Socrates, Cleon, etc., are constantly -appearing, and in the most mirth-provoking -manner.</p> -<p>It is a matter of regret, however, that Aristophanes -wielded so much influence, for he -brought it to bear against Socrates, whom he was -narrow-minded enough to take as the representative -of Sophistry, and raised a popular feeling -against him by his comedy of “The Clouds,” in -which he attributed the most interested motives to -that grand philosopher.</p> -<p>It is unfortunate for Cleon that the caricature -of Aristophanes was accepted as a portrait, and -he has come down to us only as the noisy impudent -demagogue, as portrayed in “The Knights;” -yet Cleon must have been a rough and sturdy -<span class="pb" id="Page_78">78</span> -leader of the populace, to have attained so much -power.<a class="fn" id="fr_53" href="#fn_53">[53]</a></p> -<p>Aristophanes was aristocratic in his tendencies, -and could not forgive the tanner, for having risen -from his humble sphere.</p> -<p>It required much courage however to attack -the leader of the democracy, with such boldness. -Even the mask makers refused to make the comic -mask of Cleon; and when the mask was obtained -no actor dared to play the character, so that -Aristophanes was obliged to act it himself. Cleon -embroiled Aristophanes in three lawsuits in consequence -of his audacity.</p> -<p>The choruses of these comedies had sometimes -to assume very odd parts, as in the two comedies -of the “Birds,” and the “Wasps,” where they -represented those creatures. The masks were -made to correspond to the character assumed, and -in “The Wasps” each man had a short spear or -sting, which they sometimes thrust out, or drew in, -and the whole chorus would sometimes move about -quickly with a buzzing noise. The wasps were a -satire upon the swarm of Athenian magistrates.<a class="fn" id="fr_54" href="#fn_54">[54]</a></p> -<p>One is forcibly reminded in these plays of the -recent inventions of the French <i>Opera Bouffe</i>.</p> -<p>In the later comedies, private intrigues began to -form the plot, and there was no great difference -between these and the plays of modern times.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_79">79</div> -<h2 id="c9"><span class="small">CHAPTER VII.</span> -<br />THE DANCES OF ANCIENT GREECE.</h2> -<p>The dances of Greece were of considerable -variety, and seem to have been both refined and -coarse in their character. The earliest were probable -merely military manœuvres, which were -performed to songs, or to accompaniment of flute -or kithara: or festival dances at the Bacchanalian -or Dionysian revels. The chief dances may be -classed as the Pyrrhic, the Cordax, and the -Emmeleia.</p> -<p>The chorus itself, in very early times, was, in -some parts of Greece only used to heighten the -effect of a solo song, by its pantomimic dancing.</p> -<p>In Crete, youths and maidens joined hands and -danced in a circle; in the centre of such a circle -sat the musician, who sang to the accompaniment -of a kithara, while the chorus expressed -by their actions, <i>not by singing</i>, the various -emotions which he chanted.</p> -<p>The Pyrrhic, or war dance, was the pride of all -Greece, and all young men studied it.</p> -<p>In Sparta there was a law that all parents should -send their sons, above the age of five years, to the -public place, to have them instructed in the armed -<span class="pb" id="Page_80">80</span> -dance; on these occasions they were led by the -teachers who made them sing hymns, etc., as they -danced. The Pyrrhic was in fact, a mock battle, -in four parts, representing the pursuit, overtaking, -combat, and capture of the enemy, and was used -as drill, to make young men proficient in the use -of their weapons; it was accompanied by flute, -which instrument was the one which the Greeks -thought aroused the energies most.</p> -<p>The origin of the Pyrrhic is given as follows,—When -Zeus, (Jupiter) was born, his father -Kronos, (Saturn) knowing that he should be -dethroned by him sought his life; he was hidden -by the Corybantes, who on Kronos’ coming near, -fearing that the child would be discovered by its -crying, began to dance about, and clashed their -swords and shields, thus drowning its voice and -saving its life.</p> -<p>Dancing was equal, and often combined, with -singing, and was held in the highest estimation by -the upper classes, and even the philosophers of -ancient Greece; though of course only in its higher -branches, the lower being usually abandoned to -paid performers, as we to-day draw a wide distinction -between a fashionable ball-room dance, and a -ballet, though both are called dancing.</p> -<p>Skill in dancing, was a most envied accomplishment, -for it meant both grace, and the talent of -expressing all emotions without words.</p> -<p>Lucian<a class="fn" id="fr_55" href="#fn_55">[55]</a> says the real art of the dance is to -express an action, and gives a long list of mythological -<span class="pb" id="Page_81">81</span> -and historical deeds which were suited -to representation. “The dancer” he says “must -understand history, mythology, rhetoric,” etc.</p> -<p>One person performed the whole dance, no -matter how many characters were included in the -action, and therefore he had to change his dress -sometimes with much rapidity. The Proteus of -the fables, is imagined to have been only a dancer -skilled in sudden changes.</p> -<p>The philosophers not only praised, but practised -the art. Plato led a chorus of dancing boys; and -considered those to be rough, uncouth churls who -disliked so pleasant a gift of the gods.<a class="fn" id="fr_56" href="#fn_56">[56]</a></p> -<p>Alcibiades danced in public, arrayed in great -splendor. Sophocles was a celebrated dancer, and -leader of dancing; while yet a boy, after the Greek -victory at Salamis, he is said to have danced -(according to some, naked) before the trophies.</p> -<p>Socrates often entertained his guests with -dancing, and studied it himself at an advanced -age.<a class="fn" id="fr_57" href="#fn_57">[57]</a></p> -<p>Exact information respecting the dance is lacking, -some commentators deeming it to have been -very like our modern ballet, others maintaining -that there was a vast difference; Czerwinski and -Wieland hold the former opinion, and to all -appearance justly. Some erudite writers have -endeavored to give the most circumstantial -accounts of the ancient manner of dancing.</p> -<p>Meibomius, one of the earliest writers on this -<span class="pb" id="Page_82">82</span> -subject, endeavored to dance an ancient Greek -dance to an ancient Greek tune, before the court -of Sweden, and Scaliger in the sixteenth century -danced the Pyrrhic dance fully armed, before the -Emperor Maximilian;<a class="fn" id="fr_58" href="#fn_58">[58]</a> both assumed far too much -knowledge in the matter.</p> -<p>There were undoubtedly numerous dancing -schools, and possibly also some set figures prescribed -in certain dances, but these figures had no -names attached to them, and cannot be determined -with certainty. The time was marked as in -chorus, by a leader, tapping on the floor with -heavy iron shoes. There are indications that a -dance similar to the Virginia reel, and other -contra dances were known to them; also a dance -which resembled the game of “follow-my-leader,” -where all imitated the postures and gestures of a -leader.</p> -<p>Many variations were allowed; Cleisthenes -having promised the hand of his daughter to the -most successful dancer among her lovers, Hippoclides, -of Athens, tried an innovation on the usual -style; having danced the Emmeleia, or tragic dance -successfully, he ordered the attendants to bring him -a table, upon which he sprang, and standing -on his head gesticulated with <i>his legs</i>. Cleisthenes -indignant at this new departure, exclaimed “Oh -son of Tisander you have undanced your marriage;” -Cleisthenes caring more for his skill -than for his marriage, replied “that is perfectly -immaterial to me.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_83">83</div> -<p>The Emmeleia, was the stately dance belonging -to tragedy, and was the one most practised by the -poets of that time, as they were often obliged -to teach it to the chorus, thus adding the business -of dancing master, to their already numerous -duties.</p> -<p>The Sicinis was a dance of demi-gods, and was -suited to the immense figure of the heroes of -tragedy, already described. There was also a -dance representing Theseus wandering about -in the labyrinth, the figures of which must have -been very twisted and irregular.</p> -<p>There was a species of dancing at banquets -and revels, by paid female performers, at which -the shape and form of the dancer were as lavishly -displayed as in the modern ballet.<a class="fn" id="fr_59" href="#fn_59">[59]</a></p> -<p>The Cordax, or comic dance was throughout -vulgar and unseemly, and no Athenian could dance -it unmasked, without bringing down upon himself -the reproach of the greatest impudence and -immodesty. It was so outrageous that the comic -poets often tried to do without it. Aristophanes, -in “The Clouds” prides himself that he does not -use it in that comedy. The <i>cordax</i> was a dance -wherein the utmost vulgarity was not only allowed -but <i>demanded</i>.<a class="fn" id="fr_60" href="#fn_60">[60]</a></p> -<p>Lucian in his treatise “<i>de Saltatione</i>” intimates -the existence of various other dances which in his -day had fallen into desuetude, as the dance of the -<i>Cranes</i>; also the Phrygian dance, which was only -<span class="pb" id="Page_84">84</span> -to be danced when the performers were drunk, -and jumped about, with uncouth irregular leaps -to the music of the flute.</p> -<p>Lucian also gives a specimen of the raillery of -the people, when the dancer was not suited to the -part; when a small person undertook to act Hector, -they would call out, “we want Hector, not Astyanax.” -To a fat dancer, on making a leap they -called “be careful, you’ll break the stage;” and -to a lean, sickly looking dancer they cried “go -home, and nurse yourself, never mind dancing.” -Such little remarks are not unsuited to the <i>gamins</i> -of the New York or London theatres.</p> -<p>We have dwelt rather long upon Greek Music, -Theatre Chorus, and Dancing, but the subject has -more than usual interest, as in the Greek art, of -all descriptions, we find the seeds from whence -has sprung our own.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_85">85</div> -<h2 id="c10"><span class="small">CHAPTER VIII.</span> -<br />ANCIENT ROMAN MUSIC.</h2> -<p>Art-love was not a distinguishing characteristic -of the ancient Romans, and we are not astonished -therefore, to find them borrowing music from -Etruria, Greece, and Egypt; originating nothing, -and (although the study was pursued by the -Emperors) never finding anything higher in its -practice than a sensuous gratification.</p> -<p>In the earliest days of Rome, the inhabitants -were exclusively farmers, or warriors, and their -first temples were raised to Ceres, or to Mars.</p> -<p>The priests of Ceres came originally from Asia -Minor, and were called the Arval Brotherhood; -flute-playing was a prominent feature in their -rites, and they were all proficient upon that instrument. -Their number was limited to twelve.</p> -<p>The worship of Mars was conducted by the -Salian priests, whom Numa summoned to Rome, -from Etruria. These also used the flute as an -accessory to their sacrificial rites. In these primitive -days of Rome, much was borrowed from the -Etruscans, in style and instruments of music.</p> -<p>The earliest songs of Rome were in praise of -Romulus, and told the story of the twin brothers, -<span class="pb" id="Page_86">86</span> -and the divine origin of the city. They were sung -by choruses of boys. Similar songs were sung -during meals by the elders, with an accompaniment -of flutes; these latter songs being especially -directed to the young men and inciting them to -be worthy of the deeds of their ancestors.<a class="fn" id="fr_61" href="#fn_61">[61]</a></p> -<p>Under the rule of the Emperors, all these -worthy compositions went to decay, and were -replaced by a much more degrading school of -music. At no time, however, was music considered -a necessary part of the education of Roman youth.</p> -<p>There existed in the later days of ancient Rome, -some music schools, but the study was far less -universally pursued, than in Greece, at the same -epoch. The musical course, has been given by -Quintilian, as follows,—</p> -<dl class="undent"><dt>Theoretical</dt> -<dd>1st</dd> -<dd class="t">Arithmetic</dd> -<dd class="t">Physics</dd> -<dd>2nd</dd> -<dd class="t">Harmony</dd> -<dd class="t">Rhythm</dd> -<dd class="t">Metrics</dd> -<dt>Practical</dt> -<dd>Composition</dd> -<dd class="t">Rhythm</dd> -<dd class="t">Melody</dd> -<dd class="t">Poetry</dd> -<dd>Execution</dd> -<dd class="t">Playing Instruments</dd> -<dd class="t">Singing</dd> -<dd class="t">Dramatic Action</dd></dl> -<p>Which makes a rather formidable array, even to -modern eyes.</p> -<p>Among the Roman musical instruments, the -flute was the most popular, and essentially national. -We have already stated, that it was used in the -<span class="pb" id="Page_87">87</span> -worship of their two chief deities; it was in secular -use to a yet greater extent.</p> -<p>This flute (Tibia) was hooped with brass bands, -and had an immense resonance. It was used by -both sexes, but in public, and on most religious -occasions, was played by men.</p> -<p>The frequency with which it was used, made -the art of playing it, a most remunerative one, -and the flute-players soon formed themselves into -a guild, or protective society. This guild had -many privileges accorded to it, and existed for a -period of some centuries. The “Guild of -Dionysian Artists” was a society of later date, -and was a Musical Conservatory, Academy, and -Agency all in one. It flourished greatly under -the patronage of various Roman Emperors, and -for a long time supplied singers and actors to the -Roman world.</p> -<p>Valerius Maximus<a class="fn" id="fr_62" href="#fn_62">[62]</a> has given an anecdote -which shows how powerful, and exacting the -Guild of flute-players could afford to be.</p> -<p>They were one day excluded from the Temple -of Jupiter, where they had been allowed, by -ancient custom, to take their meals; upon which -the entire Guild left Rome, and went to the village -of Tibur near by. This caused great embarrassment, -no religious services could be held, and -scarce any state ceremony properly conducted. -The senate thereupon sent an embassy to induce -them to return; in vain, the angry musicians were -inflexible. The wily embassadors then called the -<span class="pb" id="Page_88">88</span> -inhabitants of Tibur to their aid, and these pretended -to give a great feast, to welcome the flute-players. -At this feast, the musicians were all -made very drunk, and while asleep from the -effects of their liquor, they were bundled into -chariots and driven back to Rome, where all their -old privileges were restored, and newer, and -greater ones added.</p> -<p>They received the right to give public representations, -and spectacles, in Rome; but at these they -were always masked, the reason given, being their -shame at the manner of their inglorious return to -the city.</p> -<p>Flutes were used at funerals, and it appears that -at one time the luxury and pomp of Roman -obsequies grew so excessive that a law was passed -limiting the number of flute-players on such -occasions to ten.</p> -<p>Only at one time did the flute disappear from any -public worship, and that was when the worship of -Bacchus was introduced into Rome. To this rite -the kithara was used; but this worship which was -somewhat refined, though jovial, among the -Greeks, became among the Romans so debauched -and uxorious, that it was soon prohibited by law.</p> -<p>The flute was used in combination with other -instruments at times. Apuleius speaks of a concert -of flutes, kitharas and chorus, and mentioned its -deliciously sweet effect. It was also used as a -pitch pipe, to give orators a guide in modulating -their voices when addressing an assembly; thus -Caius Gracchus always on such occasions, had a -<span class="pb" id="Page_89">89</span> -slave behind him, whose duty it was to aid him to -commence his orations in a proper pitch, and -when his voice sank too low, or became too shrill, -to call him to better intonation by the sounds of -the flute.</p> -<p>Although the flute was the favorite Roman -instrument, it was by no means the only one. -Trumpets were used to a great extent. A one-toned -trumpet of very loud voice, was used for -battle signals. These were of very large size, -usually of brass, and their sound is described as -“terrible.” There was also a smaller, shepherd’s -trumpet of mellower tone.</p> -<p>Another much used instrument, of peculiar -character, was the <i>sumphonium</i> which did not -differ materially from the modern bag-pipe.<a class="fn" id="fr_63" href="#fn_63">[63]</a></p> -<p>Instruments of percussion, were few, and not -indigenous to the Romans; such as were used came -from the East, and were chiefly used in the worship -of Eastern deities, at Rome. When the -worship of Bacchus was prohibited, they passed -away, with that licentious rite. The most complicated -instrument of the ancient world, appeared -in Rome during the first century of our era. It -was an <i>Organ</i>, not as in the scriptural days a -mere syrinx, or Pans-pipes, but an undoubted -organ somewhat similar in its effect to our -modern instrument.</p> -<p>The instrument is said to have been invented by -Ctesebius of Alexandria, in Egypt, who lived -<span class="pb" id="Page_90">90</span> -about 250 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span> They did not appear extensively -in Rome however, until nearly 300 years later. -This organ has given rise to much fruitless discussion. -In the field of musical history especially, -“a little knowledge” has proved “a dangerous -thing,” for where slight descriptions exist of -instruments or music, latitude is left for every -writer to form his own theory, to fight for it, and -denunciate those who differ from it.</p> -<p>We have seen what a battle was fought over the -three little manuscripts of Greek music, what a -host of differing opinions were held about the -Scriptural word “Selah,” and now about this -hydraulic organ, each writer mounts his hobby -horse, and careers over the field of conjecture. -Vitruvius, has given a full description of the -instrument from personal inspection, but as his -technical terms have lost all significance to -modern readers, and have been translated in -various ways, and as his work contained no diagrams, -or illustrations of the various parts, it is -useless.</p> -<p>Some writers<a class="fn" id="fr_64" href="#fn_64">[64]</a> imagine the organ to have had -seven or eight stops, that is, so many different -<i>kinds</i> of tones, which would place them nearly on -a par with our own. Others<a class="fn" id="fr_65" href="#fn_65">[65]</a> think that they possessed -seven or eight <i>keys</i>, that is so many <i>tones</i> only. -It has been a point of dispute as to what function -the water performed in working it. Vitruvius is -rather hazy on this point, saying only that it is -<span class="pb" id="Page_91">91</span> -“suspended” in the instrument. The water, -when the organ was played was in a state of agitation, -as if boiling.</p> -<p>There are medals still in existence, which were -awarded to victors in organ contests, on which this -instrument is represented, with two boys blowing -or pumping, but the representation is too small to -clear up any doubtful points.</p> -<p>So much is certain, the organs were very powerful -in tone, being therefore the instruments best -adapted to the large amphitheatres of Rome, and -were extremely popular, for it was complained -that young men forsook their other studies to learn -to play them. The only possibility yet remaining -that their construction may be known to us, is in -the chance of discovering one in Pompeii.<a class="fn" id="fr_66" href="#fn_66">[66]</a></p> -<p>The functions of music in Rome were similar, -though in a less degree, to its uses in Greece. At -the sacrifice, the banquet, the contest, and the -theatre, music was always an important adjunct. -Prophets sometimes inspired themselves by it, as -in the east.</p> -<p>There were various games, public and private, -at which competition in music took place. But it -was not, as in Greece, an art of simplicity and -feeling; the love of the extraordinary, the colossal -and <i>outre</i>, the desire for the most vulgar modes -and excess of obscenity, soon degraded the art -from the rude simplicity it possessed in the days -of the republic.<a class="fn" id="fr_67" href="#fn_67">[67]</a></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_92">92</div> -<p>This desire for colossal effects was apparent in -the Roman games. Seneca says that in Nero’s -time, the chorus was more numerous than formerly -the whole audience. Hosts of trumpeters, flute-players, -etc., crowded the stage. It is also well -illustrated in the splendor of the Triumph.</p> -<p>Triumphs were of two kinds, the lesser of which -was called <i>Ovatio</i>, and was decreed for unimportant -or easily-gained victories.</p> -<p>The grand Triumph (for important victories) -was the highest military honor that could be -bestowed.</p> -<p>When it had been decreed by the Senate, the -victorious General entered Rome by the triumphal -gate, where he was met by a procession of the -entire Senate; here he gave an oration in praise -of the valor of his army, and entering his triumphal -chariot, the procession began. The order was as -follows:—</p> -<p>Musicians, singing and playing. These were -chiefly trumpeters, and the singers chanted -triumphal songs.</p> -<p>The Senate and Magistrates.</p> -<p>The animals for the sacrifice, usually oxen, with -their horns gilt, and decked with garlands, -accompanied by the priests.</p> -<p>Music, flute players, to assist at the sacrificial -rites.</p> -<p>Wagons, filled with statues, plate, armor, -ensigns, etc., the spoil captured from the enemy.</p> -<p>The tribute from various countries, usually -golden crowns, or ornaments sent to grace the -occasion.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_93">93</div> -<p>The captive leaders, kings, or generals, with -their wives, in chains.</p> -<p>Lictors with the fasces twined with laurel.</p> -<p>Musicians and dancers dressed as Satyrs, -crowned with gold. In the midst of these was a -mimic, dressed as a female, who by his performance -and gestures, insulted and burlesqued the -captives.</p> -<p>Persons sprinkling perfumes.</p> -<p>The victorious general, dressed in purple and -gold, crowned with laurel; he was seated in a -circular chariot, drawn by four white horses. In -his right hand he held a branch of laurel, in his -left an ivory sceptre, surmounted by an eagle. -His face was painted of a vermilion color, and a -golden <i>bulla</i> hung from his neck.</p> -<p>Sometimes the chariot was drawn by elephants.</p> -<p>The children of the victor were allowed to ride -with him, and he was attended by many relatives -and citizens dressed in white. Behind him stood -a slave carrying a richly gemmed crown, whose -duty it was to admonish him constantly during the -triumph, by whispering in his ear, “Remember -that thou art a man.”</p> -<p>The Military Tribunes followed, and the procession -closed with,—</p> -<p>The whole army, horse and foot, crowned with -laurel, and carrying various ornaments which they -had won in the war.</p> -<p>They sang as they marched, the praises of their -general, and of their own bravery; but sometimes -(for it was a day of license and carnival) -<span class="pb" id="Page_94">94</span> -they sang the coarsest ribaldry and jokes concerning -their leader; thus the army of Julius Cæsar, -sang some very personal and vulgar verses about -him, at his triumph.</p> -<p>The procession moved from the <i>Porta Triumphalis</i>, -along the <i>Via Sacra</i> to the capitol.</p> -<p>All the shops were closed, the temples all open. -The buildings along the route were decorated. -Stands and scaffoldings were erected for the convenience -of spectators. Banquets were spread -before every house, to which all comers were -welcome. It was in short a perfect carnival, but -far exceeding in its proportions that of modern -Rome.</p> -<p>When the procession arrived at the Temple of -Jupiter at the Capitol, several of the captive -leaders were taken from the ranks, and put to -death, for ancient Rome was cruel even in her -rejoicings; the oxen were also sacrificed, and the -wreaths, with which their horns were decorated, -were thrown into the lap of Jupiter’s statue.</p> -<p>In the evening there was a grand banquet to the -victorious General (Imperator), after which he -was escorted to his home with music and song.</p> -<p>Nothing better illustrates the cruel, coarse, and -sensual character of Roman music than that -employed at such a triumph. Loud trumpet tones, -a vile and ungenerous musical pantomime, the -sacrificial music, and rude impromptu songs of -the soldiery were the chief musical accessories of -the greatest popular festival.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_95">95</div> -<h2 id="c11"><span class="small">CHAPTER IX.</span> -<br />MUSIC OF THE ROMAN THEATRE.</h2> -<p>In Rome as in ancient Greece there was a -school of music, which was devoted to the stage; -but it was not held in such high esteem, nor was -it the work of the poet to supply it.</p> -<p>In the French <i>operas bouffes</i> of our day we find -the libretto and music to be the work of different -persons, and in this respect the Roman comedies -resembled them, save that while we rank the -music above the text, the Romans valued the -words far more than the music; but in other -respects there was also much resemblance between -the Roman tragedies and modern <i>Opera Seria</i>. -They divided the music into parts, such as dialogues -or duets, solos, and choruses.</p> -<p>Cicero says that a connoisseur could instantly -determine by the style of the music alone, what -tragedy was being performed; this would indicate -an amount of tone-painting, which justifies our -comparison of the Roman with the modern stage.</p> -<p>The theatres were, as usual, of immense size. -The Emperor Trajan built an Odeum, or music -hall, of which Apollodorus was the architect, -which was capable of seating twelve thousand -spectators. These structures were usually built -<span class="pb" id="Page_96">96</span> -of stone, and in the most thorough manner; there -is however one notable exception to the rule. In -the reign of Tiberius an amphitheatre erected by -Atilius at Fidenæ, fell in during a gladiatorial -contest, and twenty thousand persons lost their -lives.<a class="fn" id="fr_68" href="#fn_68">[68]</a></p> -<p>The music of the stage, tended rather to -virtuosity than to real beauty, the natural result -being, that while Rome possessed many skillful -performers, she had no musical composers of -eminence.<a class="fn" id="fr_69" href="#fn_69">[69]</a> The names of the composers of -music to the comedies of Terence and Plautus are -still extant, but they seem to have enjoyed no -special renown.</p> -<p>Quintilian speaks of the weak and womanish -music of the stage, and Martial in satirizing the -Gaditanian female singers which were so much -sought for in the later days of ancient Rome, says, -that it was the surest sign of a fashionable dandy, -to hear a young man trilling out the latest Gaditanian -ditties.</p> -<p>Many of the theatrical performers and singers -were slaves, who were bought for the purpose, -and the most stringent and cruel measures were -taken to prevent them from ruining their voices -by any kind of debauchery. Theatrical factions -also existed for this or that singer, in which at -times many lives were lost.<a class="fn" id="fr_70" href="#fn_70">[70]</a> Laws were afterwards -enacted, to guard against such riots.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_97">97</div> -<p>Another and less tolerable branch of Roman -public musical diversion was the dance, which -although most skillfully performed by talented -pantomimists, was so indecent in its general -character, and choice of subjects, that it received -strong condemnation from many writers of that -day.</p> -<p>Many anecdotes remain, showing how well acted -this art must have been.</p> -<p>Demetrius, the cynic (in the reign of Nero) -having reproached a dancer, that his art was but -an adjunct to music, the performer caused the -musical accompanists to cease playing, and enacted -the subject of Mars and Venus without music, -and in such a manner that Demetrius was obliged -to retract, and said, “Even your hands seem to -speak.”<a class="fn" id="fr_71" href="#fn_71">[71]</a></p> -<p>The professional dancers, or musical pantomimists, -were most appreciated under the luxurious -reign of the Cæsars. A prince of Pontus once -came to the court of Nero, where he was royally -entertained; as he did not understand the Latin -language, he could not appreciate theatrical -representations, but a celebrated dancer appearing, -he was able to understand his actions from beginning -to end. On his departure, when Nero had -given him presents, he said “If instead, you -would give me this dancer, it would be the greatest -favor of all;” on being asked the reason, he -replied that he had many barbarian neighbors, -whose language he did not understand, and that -<span class="pb" id="Page_98">98</span> -such an unfailing interpreter would be of incalculable -value to him.<a class="fn" id="fr_72" href="#fn_72">[72]</a></p> -<p>We can learn how much these performers -entered into their acting by the following -anecdote. A dancer once acting the part of Ajax, -in a double character dance, became so frenzied, -that he tore the clothes off from the time-beater, -(or conductor of music) seized the flute of the -accompanist and broke it over the head of Ulysses. -The better class of spectators condemned such a -novel exhibition, but the lower orders applauded -vociferously. The performer afterwards became -calm again, but, on being desired to repeat the -performance, he replied that it was sufficient for a -man to make a fool of himself <i>once</i>.<a class="fn" id="fr_73" href="#fn_73">[73]</a></p> -<p>The dance in Rome was esteemed only as an -amusement and sensual enjoyment, and was not -studied by the respectable classes, save sometimes -in connection with singing, in which case it was -not driven to such excess as the pantomime dance -described above; but neither song, instruments, -or dance were studied to any large extent among -the masses of the Roman people.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_99">99</div> -<h2 id="c12"><span class="small">CHAPTER X.</span> -<br />MUSIC OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.</h2> -<p>Under the luxurious reign of the Cæsars, music -attained unusual prominence in Rome, but it was -still the music of virtuosity, rather than true art. -Skillful performers multiplied, while talented -composers did not exist. The choruses were -augmented to the utmost, their numbers exceeding -all previous extent.<a class="fn" id="fr_74" href="#fn_74">[74]</a> New instruments began -also to appear, the sumphonia, the hydraulic -organ, and others. The study of music began to -be fashionable (in some at least of its branches) -and the emperors themselves did not disdain to -practise the art. It is a singular fact, however, -that exactly those emperors who were the greatest -rascals, took the greatest interest in music. -Domitian founded games in honor of Jupiter, in -which he introduced Kithara playing and other -musical contests to amuse the populace. Heliogabalus -sang, danced, played the flute, organ, and -pandura, and was proficient in giving musical -recitations with flute accompaniment. Caligula -studied singing and dancing, and was so fond of -the former, that when at the theatre, he could -scarcely ever refrain from following the melodies -<span class="pb" id="Page_100">100</span> -which the tragedians sang, by humming along -with them. It is related of him,<a class="fn" id="fr_75" href="#fn_75">[75]</a> that during the -height of his power and tyranny, he sent, one -night, a summons to three men of consular rank, -to attend him at once at his palace; in fear and -terror, the three hastened to obey, scarcely doubting -that the night was to be their last on earth; -on arriving, they were most agreeably surprised to -hear the sound of flutes, and the emperor himself -suddenly burst out before them, arrayed in full -theatrical costume, and sang them a song, after -which he bowed and retired, upon which they -were dismissed, and returned to their anxious -families; we can imagine that, under the circumstances, -Caligula received very hearty applause -that night.</p> -<p>Vespasian established musical games, and gave -large sums to actors and singers.<a class="fn" id="fr_76" href="#fn_76">[76]</a></p> -<p>Titus was a good singer and player.</p> -<p>In the later days of paganism, when the music -of the Christian church had already manifested -its power and superiority, the Emperor Julian -endeavored to bolster up the religion of the -ancestors, and fight the church with one of its -own weapons. He therefore sought to make an -extensive reform in the religious and sacrificial -music. He endeavored to form music schools at -Alexandria, in Egypt, where a new school of -singing and composition might be inculcated, and -whence Rome might draw the material for a -<span class="pb" id="Page_101">101</span> -better religious music than had formerly -obtained. In one of his letters, he says: “I -deem no study more worthy of attention than -good music. I desire that you select from among -the population of Alexandria certain well born -lads, who shall be supplied each with two Egyptian -artabai per month, besides rations of corn, -wine and oil, and be provided also with clothes by -the comptroller of the treasury. The boys are to -be chosen for a definite time according to their -voice. Should any give promise of further abilities -to reach a high degree in the science of music, -let them be informed that we propose to offer to -such, very substantial rewards. That the minds -of these lads will, independently of our encouragement, -be benefited by that cleansing power which -perfect music exerts, we may rest assured on the -authority of those who in past times have laid -down excellent regulations on the subject. So -much for the new choristers. As for those now -under the instruction of the music master Dioscurus, -make them act here all the more diligently -to their practice. Since we are prepared to assist -them in whatever way they may choose.”<a class="fn" id="fr_77" href="#fn_77">[77]</a></p> -<p>This beautiful scheme was frustrated by the -death of its great originator, about two years -afterward.</p> -<p>But among all the Roman Emperors, none was -a more passionate virtuoso, and devotee of skillful -music than that incomprehensible monster, Nero. -We shall enter into considerable detail regarding -<span class="pb" id="Page_102">102</span> -this curious emperor, as he may stand as a type -(although an exaggerated one) of the soulless and -sensual musical <i>virtuosi</i> of his era. In giving his -history (so far as it relates to music) we follow -mainly the version of Suetonius.</p> -<p>He studied music in his early youth, and first -appeared publicly in the games of the Roman -youth, entitled the <i>Juvenalia</i>;<a class="fn" id="fr_78" href="#fn_78">[78]</a> here he seems to -have made no remarkable impression, either by -his voice or dramatic action. Immediately on his -accession to the throne, he sent for the famous -harper Terpnus, and took the greatest pleasure in -his performances; it was his habit to sit with him -after supper till late into the night. At last he -began to practice upon the instrument himself; -and at the same time he began to apply himself -assiduously to the cultivation of his voice, although -it is the testimony of all his historians, that his -voice was rather thin and husky.</p> -<p>The care he lavished upon the preservation of -his voice, far out-does that of any modern <i>prima -donna</i>; he would lie on his back during part of -each day, with a sheet of lead on his stomach, or -chest; he used emetics and clysters copiously when -it seemed at all out of order; his food was always -regulated with reference to its effect upon his -voice, and he forbore from eating many fruits and -pickles, because they were prejudicial to it.</p> -<p>He never delivered any addresses to his army -because he feared that he might thereby strain it; -all his speeches to the soldiers were delivered by -<span class="pb" id="Page_103">103</span> -proxy, even though he were present. On all -occasions, he had his voice-master by him, to -caution him whenever he should be in danger of -over-straining, and this instructor was ordered, if -the warning should by any cause be unheeded, to -clap a napkin upon his mouth by way of enforcing -his advice. Through the whole reign of this -emperor however, there was never less misery -than while he was applying himself to his musical -education, or was upon his musical tours.</p> -<p>Encouraged by the improvement (real or -imagined) in his voice, he became desirous of -appearing upon the public stage. The unjust -valuation which he placed upon the art, being -apparent by his remark that “music unheard, was -valueless and unregarded.”</p> -<p>His first public appearance took place at Naples, -<span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 63; while singing, the theatre was shaken -by an earthquake, but Nero was not to be checked, -even by the elements, and sang to the end of his -song.<a class="fn" id="fr_79" href="#fn_79">[79]</a> After the theatre had been vacated, it -fell in; and Nero composed lengthy hymns to the -gods for his escape.<a class="fn" id="fr_80" href="#fn_80">[80]</a></p> -<p>On his return to Rome he was desirous of -showing his skill in that metropolis; at first he -only sang to select audiences of friends at his own -palace, but infatuated with the applause of this -flattering circle, he was only too glad to follow -their suggestion that such a fine voice should not -be hidden.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_104">104</div> -<p>He instituted games in his own honor, entitled -the <i>Neronia</i>, which were celebrated in imitation -of the Greek sacred games, every fifth year; -at these games he had introduced contests of -flute and organ-players; he was too impatient -to wait until the allotted interval should have -expired, but ordered that the games should be -celebrated in advance of their accustomed time, -and placed his name on the list of musical -competitors;<a class="fn" id="fr_81" href="#fn_81">[81]</a> the Senate sought to avert such a -disgrace, by offering to decree the victory to him, -without requiring him to compete, but Nero -answered, that he stood in no need of favor or -protection; that he depended entirely upon himself -and upon his own merits; that he would fairly -enter the lists, and that the decision should come -from the judges.<a class="fn" id="fr_82" href="#fn_82">[82]</a> When his name was called, he -came on in his regular turn, attended by a suite of -high military officials, one of whom bore his harp. -After taking his place he announced that he -would sing the story of Niobe; this he did, and -kept it up for hours, but at the conclusion he -(suddenly changing from singer to emperor) -deferred the awards of the judges for one year, -as this afforded him an opportunity to appear -again in that time.</p> -<p>The people gave on this occasion immense -applause, but whether they were most pleased by -the music, or by the novelty of the whole affair, -is doubtful.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_105">105</div> -<p>But Nero could not wait even the exceptionally -short time which he had set, and appeared at -numerous private shows, which were given from -time to time by private individuals of wealth and -station. For these performances he was glad to -be offered compensation, not from any avaricious -motive, but because it stamped him as a thorough -and professional artist; of course many courtiers -took advantage of this foible and were very glad -to pay him a princely <i>honorarium</i>. He was offered -on one occasion 1,000,000 sesterces for one appearance; -this sum being equivalent to $37,500 -puts the enormous salaries of the modern prima -donna to the blush.</p> -<p>He sometimes sang for two or three days in the -same place, only pausing occasionally to take -refreshments and recuperate, and seldom was any -song of his less than a day in length.</p> -<p>This in itself might have been an easily-avoided -bore under ordinary circumstances, but he prevented -the possibility of a decreasing audience, -by posting sentinels at the doors, and forbidding -all egress. We can judge of the terrible dullness -of these occasions by the fact that some spectators, -at times, jumped from the windows, at the risk of -their limbs, while others feigned death and were -carried out for burial.<a class="fn" id="fr_83" href="#fn_83">[83]</a></p> -<p>There were spies scattered through the -audience, and any inattention to the emperor’s -singing was dangerous. The soldiers chastised -every one who did not applaud properly. If any -<span class="pb" id="Page_106">106</span> -of the lower classes presumed to give adverse -criticism, they were summarily dealt with, while -those of the upper rank who showed their weariness, -were marked out for future vengeance. The -emperor had in reality the life of any subject in -his power, while seemingly only exerting legal -authority; for he had hundreds of informers, -spies and perjurers about his court who could -fasten any charge on any person however high in -station, and the awe-struck senate was always -ready to condemn. Many when charged with any -crime by the emperor’s minions, at once committed -suicide as the shortest way out of the scrape.</p> -<p>Among those who fell under Nero’s displeasure -for not appreciating his music, was the future -emperor Vespasian, who during one of the songs, -fell fast asleep. Nero was with difficulty persuaded -to spare his life, but finally contented himself -with banishing him from the court. The scene -must have been to some extent, ludicrous, when -these poor, bored victims of the emperor-musician, -applauding vehemently, cried out for more. Yet -the applause did not always fall in the right place, -and to obviate this difficulty, the emperor formed -a corps of <i>claquers</i> or professional applauders, -whose duty it was to lead, and direct the applause -at the proper moments. This army of <i>claquers</i> -consisted of many fashionable young men, and -five thousand commoners. They could easily be -distinguished by their elegant attire and curled -locks.</p> -<p>The system pursued was similar to that at -<span class="pb" id="Page_107">107</span> -present used in some of the Parisian theatres; there -was one chief, or leader, and several deputy commanders; -the force was divided into small parties, -and mingled among the <i>bona fide</i> audience, and at -a signal from their chief, there would be applause -of the required kind.</p> -<p>Nero lavished large sums on this <i>corps</i>, and was -ever susceptible of flattery to his musical talents: -on some Alexandrians singing some verses in his -praise, he was so elated that he sent to Alexandria -for more singers and conferred many benefits -upon them.</p> -<p>Once while singing in the Roman theatre, in the -character of Orestes, the murderer of his mother -(which he certainly ought to have acted well, for -Nero killed his own mother) he came on the stage -loaded with chains, on which a young soldier -rushed on the stage to deliver him; this compliment -to the reality of his acting was specially -grateful to Nero.</p> -<p>The passion for acting and singing were with -him almost monomania; during the immense -conflagration of Rome, which he himself had -kindled, (and which burned for six days and seven -nights) he stood upon the tower of Mecaenas, and -was so impressed with the spectacle, that he -hastened to his theatre, put on the appropriate -costume, and sang “The Destruction of Troy:” -hence the proverb “Nero fiddled while Rome -was burning,” which might run more appropriately -“Nero sang because Rome was burning,” for it -was not callousness, as has been implied, but -<span class="pb" id="Page_108">108</span> -rather the reverse of it; a venting of the emotions -caused by the grandeur of the spectacle.</p> -<p>That he had implicit belief in his musical powers, -there can be no manner of doubt, for he had -thoughts of possibly using it as a profession; it -had been foretold that the time should come when -he would be forsaken by all; on which he replied -to the soothsayer “an artist can gain his livelihood -in any country.”</p> -<p>In Greece at the public games, the musical -contests were still an important feature,<a class="fn" id="fr_84" href="#fn_84">[84]</a> and the -cities where they were celebrated, hearing of -Nero’s vanity in music, sent envoys to him -with several golden crowns, as tribute to his -abilities in the art; Nero was gratified beyond -measure, and said that the Greeks had the only -proper appreciation of music. He gave a sumptuous -supper to the envoys, after which they begged -that they might be permitted to hear that divine -voice; Nero, nothing loth, consented, and as -might be expected the Greeks went into ecstasies -of applause. This determined Nero to make a -musical tour through Greece, and attend the -sacred games there.</p> -<p>He started on his journey with a vast retinue, -among which were the entire force of <i>claquers</i>. -Arriving in Greece he ordered the games which -did not fall in that year, to be celebrated out of -course, and also, contrary to all precedent, established -musical contests at the Olympic games, -<span class="pb" id="Page_109">109</span> -that he might have the honor of appearing in -them.<a class="fn" id="fr_85" href="#fn_85">[85]</a></p> -<p>At these games, he appeared with all his -enforced boredom, none being allowed to leave -the theatre, during his performances. The -anxiety and earnestness he displayed in these -contests are almost incredible. He bribed better -artists to allow him to win, and he would address -the judges, telling them that he had made all -study and preparation, and taken all the care -necessary for so important a contest, but the issue -was in their hands, he hoped therefore they would -not regard any purely accidental mishaps. The -judges would thereupon mildly encourage the -timid contestant.</p> -<p>He always adhered strictly to the rules imposed -upon the contestants; he would never spit, or -wipe the perspiration from his forehead; once on -dropping his staff, he was greatly alarmed lest the -accident should lose him the prize, but was reassured -by one of the contestants who told him that -he was sure that the judges had not perceived the -occurrence; after the conclusion of his song, he -fell on his knees, stretching out his hands in -humble supplication for the verdict of the judges. -But when the victory was awarded to him, (as it -was always sure to be) his humility was thrown to -the winds; he then caused his own heralds to -proclaim him as the victor, and soon set up statues -of himself in the various cities, with laudatory -<span class="pb" id="Page_110">110</span> -inscriptions, according to the custom of Greece. -Not content however, with this, he also caused -the statues of all previous victors to be pulled -down and thrown in the sewers.</p> -<p>He took the prize (of course) in every Greek -contest in which he participated. Competition -was freely invited, though not as freely tolerated.</p> -<p>In one of the Grecian contests a musician -entered the lists against him, who was very proud -of his skill, and could not be bought; he contested -the prize so obstinately and skilfully, that Nero’s -soldiers also entered the contest by driving him -to the wall, and killing him in sight of the -audience;<a class="fn" id="fr_86" href="#fn_86">[86]</a> the prize was awarded to Nero.</p> -<p>His return from the tour was made with grand -pomp; on reaching Naples, he had a breach made -in the walls (according to Greek custom) and -made his triumphal entry into the city, through it. -In the same manner he entered Rome and Antium. -In Rome he arrogated to himself a full triumph, -and entered in state; all his prizes to the number -of eighteen hundred were placed in chariots, and -appeared in the procession, each one bearing an -inscription as to where and when it was won. -Statues were set up, and medals struck in honor -of his unprecedented musical success. From this -time forward, until his death he did not abate in -his musical studies or ardor.</p> -<p>Towards the close of his reign, he took much -interest in the water organ, of which we have -previously given a description.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_111">111</div> -<p>When his affairs were at a crisis, soon to be -followed by his death, he still gave most of his -time to his favorite study. One day when -messengers first brought to him the tidings of a -new rebellion, it is related that he spent a few -moments in consultation about these momentous -state affairs, and the rest of the day in showing -to his courtiers some new organs which he said he -intended shortly to introduce into the theatre.</p> -<p>When apprised of the fact that the legions of -Julius Vindex had mutinied, and that that able -general had also declared against him, he was -sufficiently aroused to march against him, but, -ever a maniac on the subject of music, he declared -that he intended to do nothing but appear in the -camp of the rebellious legions, and weep and sing -to them pathetic songs, which should so affect -them that they would at once return to their -allegiance; the next day after the bloodless victory -he promised to appear and sing songs of triumph -in the theatre; and he thought it well that -composers should begin to write the triumphal -odes at once.</p> -<p>In preparing for the expedition, his chief care -was not for instruments of war, but to provide -safe carriage for his musical instruments; many -wagons were filled with these, as he took along -several water organs. But the expedition never -took place, and he never had the chance of testing -the effects of pathetic music upon the Roman -legions, for all the army declared against him and -he suddenly found himself deserted by his court, -<span class="pb" id="Page_112">112</span> -and proscribed by the senate. In his downfall -nothing hurt him more than that his enemies -spoke of him as “that pitiful harper,” and he -constantly appealed to his attendants if any could -excel him in the art.</p> -<p>He at this crisis made a vow that, if his reign -continued peaceably, he would appear in the -games he intended to give in honor of his success -against the insurgents, and play the water organ, -flute and sumphonia, as well as enact a play, and -dance; but these inflictions the Roman people -were spared.</p> -<p>In one night his seemingly strong power -vanished, and he was compelled to fly for his life, -attended only by three or four persons. Having -made his way to the suburban residence of Phaon, -one of his freedmen, it was soon apparent that he -could not escape, and that he must die, either by -the hands of the infuriated Romans, or by his -own. Weeping and sobbing, while his attendants -prepared his grave, almost his last words before -his suicide were “Alas! what an artist the world is -now to lose,” thus in his latest moments, keeping -up that egotism and infatuation for music which -had been one of his ruling characteristics through -life.</p> -<p>The musical side of Nero’s character is certainly -to some extent ludicrous, but there were other -and far darker sides to his hideous character. -These of course are not within our province to -dwell upon, but we have chosen to give a full -description of his musical life that the reader -<span class="pb" id="Page_113">113</span> -may clearly see how little of true art, or love of -art could have existed in so oppressive an atmosphere.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_114">114</div> -<h2 id="c13"><span class="small">CHAPTER XI.</span> -<br />HISTORY OF CHINESE MUSIC.<a class="fn" id="fr_87" href="#fn_87">[87]</a></h2> -<p>In Brande’s dictionary of arts and sciences, -under the head of “Chinese music,” the whole -fabric of Chinese music is swept away in one -short sentence, at the close of which, the -compiler curtly says,—“We ought, perhaps to -apologize for saying <i>so much</i> of it.”</p> -<p>No right minded and just reader will echo -so flippant an opinion; a nation which more than -four thousand years ago, had studied music as an -abstract science and which understood the laws of -musical proportion centuries before Pythagoras -was born, certainly deserves more than a passing -notice from the musical historian, no matter how -barbarous its present music may seem.</p> -<p>The Chinese life and character, while apparently -full of fancy, is in reality quite emptily rational -and pragmatic. In all the scientific facts relating -to music, the Chinese made early and thorough -investigations, but in that inventive inspiration -which is the soul of art, they seem to have been -deficient. They possess a very full account of -their music both of modern and ancient days. -<span class="pb" id="Page_115">115</span> -Their musical history teems with facts, and -anecdotes, dating back far beyond every other -nation except the Egyptian. Their literature -contains a vast number of treatises and comments -on the musical art, many of which are, however, -couched in very mystical and ambiguous language. -In the Imperial library at Pekin, there are four -hundred and eighty-two books on this subject -exclusively.<a class="fn" id="fr_88" href="#fn_88">[88]</a></p> -<p>The invention of music, is ascribed by the -Chinese to supernatural beings.</p> -<p>The emperor Chi-hoang-che, who reigned in the -time of the spirits, is said to have invented the -rules of pronunciation, the written characters of -the Chinese language, and finally music.<a class="fn" id="fr_89" href="#fn_89">[89]</a> A -mythological character named Tong-how composed -the earliest songs.</p> -<p>Kai-tien-chi, the ninth emperor of this spiritual -dynasty, is credited with many of the earliest -songs. He also invented eight kinds of instruments -(which will be described later) the names -of which are certainly poetical enough,—</p> -<p>1. Love the people. 2. The black bird. 3. -Don’t cut the trees. 4. Cultivate the eight -different grains. 5. Chant the celestial doctrines. -6. Celebrate the merits of the sovereign. 7. -Imitate the virtues of the earth. 8. Recall the -memory of all existing things.</p> -<p>These names were probably given to the instruments -from the special songs which each accompanied.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_116">116</div> -<p>Tcho-yung, a successor of the preceding -emperor, is said once to have listened to the songs -of the birds, while the empire was in a state of -profound peace, and their singing caused him to -invent a music which penetrated every where, -speaking to the intelligence, calming the passions -of the heart, causing perfect equilibrium in the -emotions, facilitating and improving the use of -all the senses, and prolonging the life of man.</p> -<p>The name of this music was <i>Tsie-ven</i>—“Temperance -and mercy.”</p> -<p>This beautiful legend of the birds, seems almost -Greek in its poetry, but there exists yet another -mythological bird in the Chinese tales, which is -extraordinarily like the Egyptian Phœnix. The -<i>Foang-hoang</i> was a bird whose nest and abiding-place -was wrapt up in mystery; it appeared in -China only at the birth of a good ruler, and its -coming was always a happy presage to the nation. -The Chinese mythology, so far as it relates to -music, is evidently a traditional history, and -poetically relates actual occurrences, showing -that, in all probability, their music existed, and -was highly esteemed in pre-historic times.</p> -<p>The authentic history of Chinese music may be -said to begin with Fo-hi, the first of the Ty -dynasty, and the founder of the Chinese empire. -He reigned about 2950 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span><a class="fn" id="fr_90" href="#fn_90">[90]</a> All good qualities -seem to have been united in this beneficent ruler; -in all ways he sought to benefit his race.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_117">117</div> -<p>It was not as an amusement, but as a means of -popularizing his thoughts on all sciences, that he -regulated and arranged the system of music. His -first song celebrated his triumph over ignorance -and barbarism; soon after he composed the -“Fisher’s song” in which he relates how he had -taught modes of fishing to the natives. He -invented the kin, a stringed instrument in the -style of the modern zither, but with cords of silk, -and in it he symbolized all manner of things.</p> -<p>He rounded the upper part to represent Heaven; -he flattened the lower part to resemble the earth; -one part of the instrument was called “The abode -of the dragon” (representing the breezes of -Heaven); another part was entitled “The nest of -the Foang-hoang” (to betoken the seasons of -the year). By means of this instrument he -could regulate his heart, and curb his passions.<a class="fn" id="fr_91" href="#fn_91">[91]</a></p> -<p>“Those who would play the Kin,” says the -Chinese commentator, “and draw sounds from it -which can charm, must have a grave countenance -and well regulated interior, they should pick it -lightly, and give a tone neither too high, nor -low.”<a class="fn" id="fr_92" href="#fn_92">[92]</a></p> -<p>Many Chinese writers attribute some of the -inventions which are credited to Fo-hi, to his wife -Niu-va, a supernatural personage who was regarded -as a holy and miraculous virgin in the Chinese -annals.<a class="fn" id="fr_93" href="#fn_93">[93]</a> The truth about Fo-hi seems to be that -<span class="pb" id="Page_118">118</span> -he was a remarkably good man and a benefactor -to his race, and therefore many useful inventions, -and wonderful adventures are attached to his -name, which cannot be authenticated. Some -writers consider him a myth, which is scarcely a -tenable position; others have endeavored to prove -him to be neither more nor less than the Noah of -the Bible. There is little doubt that he made -improvements in Chinese music, and, by exaggeration, -was called its inventor. A Chinese writer in -giving to the invention a greater antiquity, beautifully -says “Music had its cradle in the heart of -man.”</p> -<p>Chin-noung, successor of Fo-hi, was also a good -ruler; his chief works in music seem to have been -some alterations in the <i>Che</i> (a sort of <i>Kin</i>) and he -was able by his playing to turn the heart of man, -from intemperate life, to celestial truth.</p> -<p>Hoang-ti, the next emperor, had music scientifically -investigated and established natural rules to -the art. The reign of Hoang-ti is supposed to -have been about 2,600 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span> In his day music -though practised, was not understood in its natural -elements.</p> -<p>The Chinese even at that day, based all other -sciences on music, and sought to make this art (in -a mystical and hyperbolical way) the foundation -of all others. The emperor therefore ordered -Ling-lun to give his attention to the development -of the laws of music. The fables on the -subject of his researches are innumerable; he -travelled to the north-western part of China and -<span class="pb" id="Page_119">119</span> -took up his abode on a high mountain, near which -was a large growth of bamboos. Ling-lun took a -bamboo, which he cut between two knots; he -removed the pith, and blowing in the tube, a -sound resulted which was of the exact pitch of -the human voice when in its normal state. Not -far off was the source of the Hoang-ho, and Ling-lun -found that the tone of his tube was similar to -the sound given by the waters of that river in -bubbling from the earth; thus was discovered the -first <i>Lu</i>, (or Li) the fundamental tone.</p> -<p>Ling-lun was pursuing his investigations further, -when the Foang-hoang appeared with its mate and -perched upon a neighboring tree. The male -bird sang in six different tones, while the female -also used six, but different from the preceding. -The first note of the mystical Foang-hoang, -was precisely in unison with the reed which -Ling-lun had cut from the bamboo.</p> -<p>On ascertaining this, the fable continues, Ling-lun -cut twelve pieces of bamboo and pitched them -according to the notes of the two songsters; he -found by alternating the sounds of the male with -the female bird, that he had a chromatic scale. -The six tones of the male were called the <i>li-yang</i> -(masculine tones) the other six <i>li-yn</i> (feminine -tones), and throughout all Chinese music, the -distinction between the male and female tones of -the scale still exists. This was the first Chinese -discovery of the proportions of sound, the first -step in the science of Acoustics, and though -covered over with fable and allegory, it really -<span class="pb" id="Page_120">120</span> -preceded the discoveries of Pythagoras by many -centuries; Ling-lun went back to the emperor’s -court and there measured and fixed the pitch of -the Chinese scale forever. Bells were also made -of the official pitch, that it might easily be perpetuated.</p> -<p>Hoang-ti also had immense trumpets made -which imitated “the voice of dragons,” and drums -which sounded “like thunder.” This monarch -was as great and good in all arts and sciences, -as he was in music. He seems to have been -a Chinese “king Alfred.” After him, came Chao-hao, -at whose accession the Foang-hoang again -appeared, intimating thereby another prosperous -reign in this line of good and musical emperors. -Chao-hao invented the idea of marking the divisions -of the night by strokes of a drum, and also -had founded a set of twelve copper bells, to -represent the twelve months of the year. He -used all his efforts to make music popular, and -invented new modes of playing, making the <i>yang</i> -and <i>yn</i> less distinct from each other, that is -uniting the more powerful tones (male) with the -weaker (female). It is said that he first introduced -songs in honor of the ancestors, which -play a very important part in Chinese music, and -that these hymns were performed for the first -time, in honor of the amiable emperor Hoang-ti.</p> -<p>The emperors next following, all protected and -encouraged music. The first songs, that is of -a secular style, were composed about 2456 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span> -At this time also, many new instruments were -<span class="pb" id="Page_121">121</span> -invented, and old ones improved. With the reign -of Yao, 2357 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span>, the chronological record of -Chinese emperors and their doings becomes much -clearer. Under this emperor, China had a season -of great peace and prosperity. He invented the -instrument of musical stones, called the <i>king</i>, -(to be described later) and received the stones -specially adapted to its manufacture, as tribute -from various provinces.</p> -<p>Chun, who succeeded him, though of low birth -(he was nominated to the throne by Yao) continued -to advance the progress of music, and used it, -as the Greek philosophers did later, to prepare -himself for public business.</p> -<p>“It was to the sound of the <i>kin</i>,” says the -Chinese historian,<a class="fn" id="fr_94" href="#fn_94">[94]</a> “that the great emperor -Chun prepared to deal with the affairs of the -empire, and to the melody of the <i>kin</i> is due the -love and care which he constantly gave to his -people.” Chun composed the following song, -words and music, on the above instrument; it may -be taken as a specimen of very early Chinese -improvisation.</p> -<p>“The breeze of midday brings warmth and -dispels sorrow; may it be the same with Chun; -may he be the joy and the consolation of his -people. The breeze of midday causes the grain -to grow, which is the hope of the people; even so -Oh, Chun! be thou the hope and the wealth of thy -subjects,” etc.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_122">122</div> -<p>Chun also wrote a song in praise of agriculture. -In the year 2284 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span>, he established uniformity -of weight and measure, as well as a fixed diapason -throughout the empire, and endeavored to have -all the bells made in just proportions to each other. -He also caused to be composed, a melody celebrating -the nine principal virtues; it was accompanied -with dances, in nine parts and contained nine -modulations; it was named <i>Siao-chao</i> from the -instruments which the dancers held in their -hand.</p> -<p>Chun established five grand ceremonials, in -each of which music bore a part. First, a ceremony -of rejoicing, in honor of Chang-ti (the supreme -being) and of the celestial spirits. Second, a -festival in honor of the ancestors. Third, a -military celebration, in honor of the former -dissensions of the empire having given way to a -tranquil peace. Fourth, a feast dedicated to -courtesy, when the beauties of concord and -goodwill were sung. Fifth and last, a ceremony -in which the inter-dependence of man was -remembered, and the manifold blessings accruing -by mutual beneficence, chanted.</p> -<p>Chun also appointed a superintendent of music, -who was to see that the art was always exercised -in its proper direction.</p> -<p>Kouei was appointed censor, and the instructions -of the emperor to him, are full of good sense. -“Music should follow the sense of the words.” -“It should be simple and unaffected.” “Music -is an expression of the soul of the musician;” such -<span class="pb" id="Page_123">123</span> -sentiments as these show a keen appreciation of -the art, which seems all the more singular when -we think of the peculiar music to which it relates. -The music of the time of Chun, is rapturously -eulogized by Confucius.</p> -<p>Yu, the great, only followed the example of his -predecessors in setting to music the most moral -precepts and praising virtue, in song. It may -perhaps have been this association of high -thoughts and ideas, the noble character of the -poetry, which gave music such a charm in the -eyes of the ancient Chinese. Yu made use of -some primitive instruments, in a new and very -laudable manner;<a class="fn" id="fr_95" href="#fn_95">[95]</a> desirous of being easily -accessible to all his subjects, he caused to be -placed at a gate of his palace, five instruments of -percussion, which were to be struck by any -applicant, according to the nature of his business -with the emperor.</p> -<p>A large bell announced a person who desired to -complain of an injustice; a drum signified a -communication respecting the manners of the -empire; and a small bell, private or confidential -business; a <i>tam-tam</i>, a public or private misfortune; -a tambourine, an accusation of crime which -was appealed from some lower tribunal to the -adjudication of the emperor.</p> -<p>This kindly emperor, regulated what was still -deficient in music, and did it so thoroughly that -no further changes were necessary until the Hia -dynasty became extinct. The last of the above -<span class="pb" id="Page_124">124</span> -mentioned dynasty was (for a change) a most -vicious emperor. Kie was, according to the -chroniclers, a sort of Mongolian Caligula, and his -memory is execrated.</p> -<p>The next dynasty, called Chang, after a prosperous -series of emperors, also ended with an -atrocious tyrant called Tchow, who invented a -luxurious style of music, and is said to have first -established the feast of lanterns. He was deprived -of throne and life by violence.</p> -<p>Ou-wang a later ruler, is chiefly celebrated for -his military music, for which he seems to have had -a <i>penchant</i> and of which he composed considerable. -One of his pieces was intended for performance -while the army formed itself in order of battle.</p> -<p>In his day, the discipline of music was very -thoroughly attended to. Every ceremony and -rite had its appropriate music attached; the musicians -had to undergo two examinations each year, -and all innovations either in composition, or in -the shaping of musical instruments was jealously -guarded against. No special features appear in -the musical history of China during the next few -reigns.</p> -<p>In the reign of Koang-tsee, a valuable treatise -on music was published, which is still highly -esteemed. At this era also were established -Mandarins of music and of the dance. At this -epoch flourished the great Kong-fu-tsee, or Confucius, -the leader of Chinese thought and philosophy.</p> -<p>This sage’s name was simply Kong, but his -disciples added the title, <i>fu-tsee</i>, which makes the -<span class="pb" id="Page_125">125</span> -meaning of the whole, Kong, the instructor, or -master. This was Latinized by the Jesuit missionaries -into Confucius. This philosopher cultivated -the study of music and seems to have esteemed -it as highly as the Greek philosophers did a -century later. He revised and arranged many of -the old books on musical ceremonies and rites. -He learnt the art in a distant province, as in his -native place music was but little known.</p> -<p>While in the kingdom of Tchi, Confucius heard -some of the ancient music of the days of Chun -performed. The effect on him was so marvellous, -that for three months he scarcely could eat, for -thinking of it. “I should never have believed,” -he said, “that composers could reach such a -pinnacle of perfection.”<a class="fn" id="fr_96" href="#fn_96">[96]</a></p> -<p>It is also said that Confucius was an excellent -performer on the musical stones of the <i>king</i>. -Once while playing on this instrument a passer by -struck with the beauty of his performance, -paused to listen, and exclaimed “surely one who -can play thus, must have his soul occupied with -great thoughts.”</p> -<p>In the later days of his wanderings, when he -was reduced to the extremity of poverty and -starvation, he sang and played as usual, showing -no signs of depression or despondency. One of -his disciples ventured a reproach, asking how he -could sing when they were all famishing; he -replied; “the wise man seeks by music, to -strengthen the weakness of his soul, the thoughtless -<span class="pb" id="Page_126">126</span> -one uses it to stifle his fears.” The facts -relating to Confucius, his wanderings and life are -full of anecdotes relating to his extreme love of -the art, and are probably authentic. The family -of Confucius still exists in his native province, -having passed intact through sixty-eight or sixty-nine -generations; they are honored by special -privileges and distinctions and are the most notable -hereditary aristocracy of China. It may be -mentioned here, that all the philosophers and -literati of the empire were musicians as well: in -this respect strongly resembling the sages of -Greece.</p> -<p>The theatre began to progress greatly in this -era, (sixth century <span class="smaller">B. C.</span>), and one emperor was -censured for devoting too much time to his comedians, -and too little to the worthy celebration of -the ancestral feast. The arts received a severe -check when the Tchin or Tsin dynasty obtained -control of the entire realm. These were in reality -the first who united the various provinces under -one rule, and who bore, with right, the title of -Hoang, or emperor. It is from this dynasty that -China takes its name (Tchina or Tsina). One of -this set of conquerors, Tchi-chi-hoang-ti, desirous -of obliterating the memories of former glories, -which might prove prejudicial to his own, attempted, -in 245 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span>, a proscription of all science and -art.</p> -<p>He commanded all ancient books to be burnt, -and especially caused strict search to be made for -the books which Confucius had collected and -<span class="pb" id="Page_127">127</span> -revised. Only works on agriculture and medicine -were to be spared. A large number of literary -persons who had concealed part of their books -were put to death; yet many continued to risk -their lives to preserve the fruits of ancient culture. -Books were hidden in walls of houses, in tombs, -and buried in the earth, whence they were long -afterward recovered. The emperor in proclaiming -this war on literature gave as his reason that -the ancient books did not suit that era, that they -were a hindrance to progress, that they caused -the people to neglect agriculture which was -the only substantial happiness of a nation, and -that they gave to the people liberty to censure -the sovereign, and by consequence, fostered -disobedience and rebellion. Of course in this -universal persecution, music did not fare better -than the other arts. All instruments were ordered -to be destroyed and made over after new models. -The bells which had given the standard pitch up -to that time, were melted down, and many of them -used for the purpose of founding colossal statues -to deck the entrance of the imperial palace. But, -according to La Fage,<a class="fn" id="fr_97" href="#fn_97">[97]</a> it was much easier for the -musicians to evade the emperor’s decree, and save -their instruments, than for the literati to save their -precious books. There were few instruments and -they were less rigorously sought after, and it was -an easy matter to conceal bells or the <i>kings</i> -(musical stones) by burying them in the earth -whence they could be exhumed intact at any later -<span class="pb" id="Page_128">128</span> -period. Therefore in spite of the exertions of the -emperor, the ancient traditions and arts could not -be wholly extinguished; a spark still remained -from which the torch of science and art could be -re-lit.</p> -<p>It was this despotic emperor, however, who -built the <i>Wan-li-chang</i> or great wall of China, -therefore his influence upon the empire was not -wholly exerted for evil, but rather directed towards -the establishment of himself and descendants -as permanent rulers of China. The rule was -short however, for in 206 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span> the <i>Han</i> dynasty -governed the empire. The first of this family, -named Kao, endeavored to repair the ravages -made in the field of learning by the Tsin despots.</p> -<p>He caused extensive search to be made in order -that the ancient pitch, division of tone, and system -of modulation might be discovered. It was -partially unavailing, for we learn that though -music was established in all its splendor under the -subsequent reign of Vow-ti, yet many writers of -that era (about 140 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span>) assert that the art of -regulating the heart by means of music, was -irretrievably lost, and that it only seemed to -inflame the baser passions.</p> -<p>In fact at this time, music was chiefly an -adjunct of the theatre, and each day brought -forth new comedies, concerts, or ballets. A terrible -scandal was created in the reign of Tching-ti -(an emperor who reigned shortly after) by that -sovereign taking one of his beautiful <i>corps de -ballet</i>, to wife.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_129">129</div> -<p>These ballet dancers seem also to have been -talented singers, and were of similar station, -though far inferior in talents, to the <i>Hetaræ</i> of -ancient Greece. In the time of the last named -ruler, there were found on the bank of a river, -sixteen ancient musical stones or <i>kings</i>, and the -fact that the sovereign esteemed this one of the -most glorious events of his reign, shows how -earnest and persistent was the endeavor to reclaim -the old school of music from oblivion.</p> -<p>Between the years <span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 8, and 23, many books -relative to music were written; the Chinese, however, -assert that all of these were founded on a -false system and contained many errors. About -<span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 60, the president of the tribunal of rites -and music, made great efforts to collect the -remains of ancient knowledge, and place music -once more upon its old, pure basis. The work -written by him was highly esteemed by the literati -but unfortunately, the musicians had become used -entirely to the newer, and less pure style of music, -and were too lazy to care about learning any -new modes; therefore all manner of difficulties -were placed in the way of Pao-yé, and the reform -was unsuccessful.</p> -<p>Tching-ti, <span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 280, had at his court ten thousand -women, who were all proficient singers and -players. Ngai-ti, one of his successors, tried to -remedy the luxury and effeminacy which had -crept into every department of music. He -dismissed all his musicians, except those who -performed at sacred rites, or in military music -<span class="pb" id="Page_130">130</span> -(these being countenanced by ancient usage) and -all the troupes of singing girls were also broken up. -The poor musicians thus thrown out of employment -numbered four hundred and forty. The -singing girls were yet more numerous.</p> -<p>These reforms seem to have been of short -duration, for almost always, after an emperor who -enthusiastically attacked these abuses, came one -who with equal fervor, protected them.</p> -<p>One sovereign, <span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 289, had at his palace five -thousand actresses, and the fourth successor of -the reformer who dismissed his musicians, named -Tsin-ou-ti, although a lover of music, was also a -great lover of luxury. His greatest delight was -to enervate the officials of high rank by inviting -them to carousals which he would extend far into -the night, and when the censors remonstrated -with him on his course, he heard them patiently; -he would then invite them to dinner for the same -day, and there cause them to drink so copiously -that they had to be carried home.<a class="fn" id="fr_98" href="#fn_98">[98]</a></p> -<p>An emperor who reigned about 503 <span class="smaller">A. D.</span> banished -comedy and music from the palace, and also -established the funeral festival in honor of Confucius, -in which sacred music played a part.</p> -<p>Tay-tsung, who ascended the throne <span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 626, -was an active and thorough reformer in music as -in all other arts which needed his helping hand. -In the year 640, he turned his attention, after -having brought the empire to a state of peace, to -bringing music back to its ancient and pristine -<span class="pb" id="Page_131">131</span> -glory. In pursuance of this design, he ordered -that everything relating to ancient music, books -as well as instruments, should be sent to his court. -An immense quantity of books, fragments, -memoirs, old and new instruments, etc., were -discovered and collected, which were handed over -to a committee of <i>savans</i>, whose duty it was to -retain the good, reject the bad, and systematize the -whole. Much was discovered by this means; -books were printed and the art of music received -a strong impetus; but still the Chinese held that -the full beauty of the ancient art could not be -unearthed, perhaps because they could find nothing -in it equaling their expectations: but Tay-tsung -for his efforts in the matter, was ever after -held in the highest esteem by the Chinese, who -rank him with the great and good rulers, Hoang-ti, -Yao, etc.</p> -<p>Tay-tsung also composed, or caused to be composed, -a war dance, accompanied with the -appropriate music; it was intended to inspire the -soldiers with virtue and courage, and to make -them emulate heroes.</p> -<p>Under the emperors who came immediately after, -comedy and theatrical representations flourished. -The musicians were always kept within the limits -of their caste however. A chief comedian once -permitted himself to make an allusion to state -affairs, in a play; the emperor listened to him -with much attention, (the Chinese politeness is -such that they will accord the most respectful -attention to a person whom they would like to -<span class="pb" id="Page_132">132</span> -strangle,) but after the performance called the -actor aside and told him that he kept his troupe -to amuse, not to advise him, and sent the poor -fellow into exile.</p> -<p>Another time a very talented musician committed -a murder, and was sentenced to death therefor; -several officials endeavored to obtain his -pardon, and a number of musicians presented a -petition to the emperor acknowledging that the -culprit was very guilty and fully deserved his -fate, but that his talents in music could not be -replaced, and that therefore his life should be -spared. The emperor’s reply was a worthy one, -“you fear damage to the art of music” said he, -“but I fear damage to the laws and government of -the empire.” The sentence was executed. One -emperor dared to raise a musician to special rank, -and thus defied the strong respect for caste, which -existed in China.</p> -<p>Y-tsung, the causer of this great scandal, had -in his service a great performer, named Li-ko-ki, -who was an especial favorite. One day when -Li-ko-ki had composed a specially agreeable song, -the emperor, without considering his profession, -gave him the post of captain of the guards. It -caused an immense excitement among the sticklers -for etiquette, for all previous emperors, when they -gave office to their musicians, first caused them -to renounce their profession, while Li-ko-ki still -continued in the practice of music; the emperor -however carried his point. Y-tsung also showered -other unusual honors upon the members of this -<span class="pb" id="Page_133">133</span> -profession, for it was his custom to give a dozen -festivals each month, when the musical <i>corps</i> -were allowed to eat at his own table.</p> -<p>In traveling, of which he was very fond, he -rarely took along less than five hundred musicians.</p> -<p>Under the last prince of the Tang dynasty -there came many disasters upon the Chinese -empire, and the successful inroads of the Tartar -invaders, were most of all prejudicial to music; at -one time the emperor was forced to fly from the -capital, his palace was pillaged, and the musical -instruments in it, either destroyed, or carried off -to Tartary. When peace had been concluded and -tranquillity reigned again, there was an earnest -effort made to manufacture new instruments, but -in doing this, great obstacles had to be surmounted, -the models were dispersed or lost, and the -official pitch was uncertain. A great search was -made for the set of bells which represented the -authorized ancient scale, but in vain; large sums -were offered to the Tartars if they would make -restitution of those which had been carried off at -the sacking of the imperial palace, but these -savages, after long delays, replied that they could -not ascertain what had become of the captured -instruments.</p> -<p>Thus another disturbing influence was imported -into the Chinese music; but it was still as -highly-prized an art as of old, for soon after these -calamities came rulers who were passionately -devoted to it; Tchowang-song, gave two provinces -to a pair of favorite musicians; and a -<span class="pb" id="Page_134">134</span> -subsequent emperor (<i>a la Nero</i>) took to the stage -himself, in spite of the horror of his remonstrating -censors.</p> -<p>Music and art took a new impetus under the -Song dynasty (<span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 960 to 1279), and very many -books were written, on music especially, but alas! -there was now so much uncertainty in the field -of ancient (and therefore in Chinese eyes correct) -music, that the commentators fell into the same -pit which engulfed the modern decipherers of -ancient Greek music, i. e., they speedily came to -all kinds of varying and irreconcilable conclusions. -One thing they resolved however, which was that -the bells which gave the official scale were not -correct; they therefore founded a new set, which -were so satisfactory to the emperor and his -advisers, that the former ordered his own official -bells to be given to the founders for recasting. -The musicians were very ill pleased with the new -system, although obliged to conform to it, and -yet determined that all trace of the ancient scale -should not be lost. They managed by connivance -with some officials to save a complete set. The -bells were indeed removed from the tribunal of -music and rites, but instead of being thrown into -the furnace, they were with the tacit consent of -high authorities, buried in a court-yard of the -palace, and long afterward exhumed.</p> -<p>Tsai-yu, one of the later emperors, studied -deeply to place music on a secure footing,<a class="fn" id="fr_99" href="#fn_99">[99]</a> and it -<span class="pb" id="Page_135">135</span> -is remarkable that his researches into the proportions -of tones, led him to the same results that -were <i>afterwards</i> discovered by the best acousticians -of Europe.</p> -<p>Kang-Hi, in the year 1678-9, worked for the art -in an extraordinary manner; he founded an -academy of music, and made his third son -president of the institution; he wrote a work, -“The true method of the Ly-lu,” in four books, -and had a fifth added “<i>concerning European -music</i>.”<a class="fn" id="fr_100" href="#fn_100">[100]</a> In a proclamation concerning the -diminution of the number of court-musicians, -Kang-hi says, “Music has power to quiet the -heart, and therefore was beloved by our sages. -They also could while enjoying themselves at its -practice, benefit themselves, because the fundamental -principles of government are contained in -the art of music. But such a comparison scarcely -is suitable to virtuosity. Why, therefore, expend -money on it? I approve of the action of Ngai-Ti, -(a former emperor) in discharging them.”</p> -<p>The knowledge of European music, which this -emperor attained, in opposition to all previous -custom in China, came through the Jesuit missionary -Pereira, a Portuguese by birth; and Grimaldi, -a missionary of the Propaganda. He found it -(contrary to the custom of the Chinese) quite to his -taste.<a class="fn" id="fr_101" href="#fn_101">[101]</a> He was particularly astounded by the -ability of Father Pereira to set down in notes, and -<span class="pb" id="Page_136">136</span> -sing any melody, after a single hearing. He begged -his two guests to prepare a work containing -the elements of European harmony, and on their -completion of it, he had it printed at his palace in -a sumptuous manner, and as an especial honor, he -had his own name added to it as their coadjutor. -He now forced his musicians to learn and to play -French, German and Italian music; they did so -quite exactly, but most mechanically and with -much unwillingness, for it was contrary to all -their ideas of art or propriety. Kang-hi saw that -the effort would be useless unless he used severe -measures in enforcing his reform, and like a wise -man he yielded and allowed his performers to -return to their own beloved style of music. But -the spirit of reform was yet in him, and so far as -he was able, he introduced many innovations and -many alterations into all departments of Chinese -music.</p> -<p>He made a proclamation saying that the old -instruments though very good were quite worn -out, and that as new ones were necessary, he had -prepared a list of the ones required. One of these -<i>instruments</i>, can scarcely be called a musical one, -as it was simply a flag, which was to be displayed -during the continuance of the musical performance.</p> -<p>Kang-hi is spoken of with much rapture by the -Jesuit missionaries, for he was not only European -in his taste for music; he not only tolerated, but -greatly favored Christianity, and at one time it -was feared by his court, that he was about to -<span class="pb" id="Page_137">137</span> -embrace that faith. The real secret of his intimacy -with the Catholic missionaries, seems to have been -only a great desire on his part, to acquire new -information.</p> -<p>He was greatly interested in the mechanism of -a clavichord, which the fathers brought with them -to China, and ordered two of his musicians to take -lessons from them, upon the instrument; the -pupils made very little progress, as they were -rather unwilling students.</p> -<p>It was not only in the emperor’s court, at this -epoch, that European music began to be known; -many persons throughout all the empire, sought -to pave the way to Imperial favor by studying the -new art. The method of Father Pereira had been -sent into each province by the emperor, and the -ancient <i>Li</i> were for a time eclipsed by the <i>Do, re, -mi</i>, etc., of the “western barbarians.” It might -have been a permanent reform, but for the fact -that the Chinese had always been accustomed to -associate their music in a peculiar manner, with -virtue and morality; each tone represented some -moral precept, each species of the eight varieties -of sound represented to their mind some high -thought or noble virtue; it was this association of -ideas, which evoked the eulogies of Confucius, -and it was this time-honored custom which prevented -European music from obtaining any foothold -among them. When, a short time after, -Amiot endeavored to ingratiate himself with the -Mandarins by means of his music, he failed -utterly, through the same cause.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_138">138</div> -<p>He thus relates his effort:—</p> -<p>“I understood music passably well; I played -the traverse flute and the clavichord; I used all -these little talents to make myself welcome to the -Chinese. On different occasions during the first -years of my stay in Pekin, I never failed to -endeavor to convince those who heard me, that -our music, excelled that of their own country.”</p> -<p>It is to be remembered that these were educated -persons, able to compare and to judge; persons of -the first rank, who honoring the French missionaries -with their kindness, came often to their -abode to entertain themselves with them, with -various matters relative to the sciences or arts -cultivated in China.</p> -<p>“The cyclops,” “The savages,”<a class="fn" id="fr_102" href="#fn_102">[102]</a> the most -beautiful sonatas, the most melodious airs of the -flute, none of these made any impression on the -Chinese.</p> -<p>“I saw upon their countenances only a cold and -vacant look, which announced to me that I had -not touched them in the least. One day I asked -them how they liked our music, and begged that -they would tell me frankly what they thought. -They answered in their politest way, that <i>our -melodies were not made for their ears, nor their -ears for our melodies</i>, it was not therefore surprising, -they could not find beauties in our melodies, -as they could in their own.”</p> -<p>“The melodies of our music,” said a distinguished -doctor (in the service of his majesty, -<span class="pb" id="Page_139">139</span> -the emperor); “the melodies of our music pass -from the ear to the heart, and from the heart to -the soul. We feel them, and we understand them; -those which you have just played, have no such -effect upon us. The airs of our ancient music -were something quite different; one needed but -to hear them, to be ravished with them. Our -books give to them the most pompous eulogies; -but they tell us at the same time, that we have, in -a great measure, lost the excellent method by -which the ancients produced such marvellous -effects.”<a class="fn" id="fr_103" href="#fn_103">[103]</a> It is interesting to place these remarks -beside the reiterated opinion of many writers that -the Chinese music is not worthy of being called -“music” at all; and then to turn to that most -proper definition of the art,—“Music is the art of -moving the feelings by combinations of sounds.”</p> -<p>The same obstacles exist to-day against change -in the music of the Chinese, as in the days of -Kang-hi.</p> -<p>This emperor, in his later days added to the -long list of his musical efforts, a volume treating -of dances, and also a collection of the most -celebrated ancient songs. The missionary who -mentions this latter work,<a class="fn" id="fr_104" href="#fn_104">[104]</a> assures us that he -dares not translate it, lest he should be accused of -placing the sentiments of the most noble psalms -in the mouth of the Chinese.</p> -<p>During Kang-hi’s reign the flute became quite -fashionable in China, the people becoming -<span class="pb" id="Page_140">140</span> -infatuated with it; Kang-hi himself became proficient -in its use, but on finding, later, that he had -not benefited himself in any way by its use he -gave up the practice.</p> -<p>Young-tching, his successor, published new -rules for music and assigned a special music in -honor of agriculture and husbandry, which was to -be performed each year. He did not take to the -Jesuits as kindly as his predecessor, for from <span class="smaller">A. D.</span> -1724 to 1732 he was busily engaged in expelling -them from China.</p> -<p>Khian-long, his son, succeeded him in 1736. -There is nothing remarkable in the history of -Chinese music from his day to the present time.</p> -<p>Lord Macartney’s embassy (1793) took place -during the long reign of this emperor. Many -persons were attracted to the embassy’s rooms by -the European band which each evening gave a -concert. Among the most assiduous of these -visitors was the chief of the emperor’s orchestra; -charmed with the sound of some of their instruments, -yet absolutely refusing to accept of them -as a present, he sent several painters to take -designs of them on paper. These artists laid -clarinets, flutes, bassoons, etc., on immense -sheets of paper, on which they traced the exact -shape and size of each, while underneath they -wrote remarks giving the exact dimensions of -each aperture, valve and tube.</p> -<p>The chief announced his determination of making -similar instruments from these models, but in -different proportions, which he proposed to fix for -<span class="pb" id="Page_141">141</span> -himself. The result of the experiment is unknown.</p> -<p>The later emperors have all had long reigns, and -left music in <i>status quo</i>, the last emperor Hien-fung -being only remarkable for his constant drunkenness. -Let us now examine more minutely the -order of music which has inspired such disgust to -European ears, and such rapture to the Chinese -from the earliest ages down to the present time.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_142">142</div> -<h2 id="c14"><span class="small">CHAPTER XII.</span> -<br />CHINESE MUSIC AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.</h2> -<p>The Chinese have from the very earliest times -divided musical sounds into eight classes, and -imagined that in order to produce them, nature -had formed eight kinds of sonorous bodies. They -divided them as follows:—</p> -<p>1. The sound of skin, produced from the -tanned skin, or parchment of various animals. -2. The sound of stone. 3. Of metal. 4. Of -baked clay. 5. Of silk, used in the form of -strings as we use cat-gut, or wire. 6. Of wood, -used often in instruments of percussion. 7. Of -bamboo, used in flutes. 8. Of calabash, a species -of gourd, out of which a peculiarly constructed -instrument was manufactured.</p> -<p>Of the skins of animals, many different instruments -are made, all of which may be designated -under the general name of drums, but the Chinese -possess various kinds of drums of all shapes -and sizes.<a class="fn" id="fr_105" href="#fn_105">[105]</a> The most ancient variety of these -was the <i>Tou-kou</i>, which signifies earth drum, so -called because its body was made of baked clay, -over each end of which was drawn the skin. An -instrument of this description was both fragile -<span class="pb" id="Page_143">143</span> -and unwieldy; its disadvantages soon caused the -clay to be replaced by wood, out of which all -subsequent drums were made, the size and shape -being varied according to the uses for which they -were destined. Nothing is said in the ancient -writings as to what varieties of wood were used -in the manufacture of the earliest drums, but -tradition has it, that at first the wood of the cedar -and mulberry, as also sandal wood, were the most -used.</p> -<p>The Chinese possess eight kinds of drums. 1. -The <i>tsou-kou</i>, which had the shape of a barrel, -and was fixed upon a pole which ran through its -body. 2. The Yn-kou, similar to the above, but -the body more elongated, and the staff or pole -which supported it usually thrust into the -earth to keep it firmly in position, while that of -the tsou-kou stood upon a cross piece at its base.<a class="fn" id="fr_106" href="#fn_106">[106]</a> -3. A variety of the <i>tsou-kou</i> called hiuen-kou, of -very large size; on each side of this drum is -attached a small drum, in shape like a kitchen -pot, one of which is to be struck lightly, the other -heavily. 4. The kin-kou, another keg-shaped -drum mounted upon a pedestal; it is about six -feet long, and six feet in diameter. It receives -different names according to the way it is -decorated; thus, if it bears on its case paintings -of storms, it would be called lei-kou; but if it is -ornamented with birds of good omen, such as the -<i>foang-hoang</i>, or white swans, it is called <i>lou-kou</i>.<a class="fn" id="fr_107" href="#fn_107">[107]</a> -<span class="pb" id="Page_144">144</span> -5. The great tao-kou, which is still used to give -the signal for the commencement of a song, is -about one foot in length and diameter. 6. The -little tao-kou, a cross between a drum and a baby’s -rattle, is about seven inches long, mounted upon -a stick, and through the centre of its case a string -is passed; at each end of this string are knots; -when this drum is played, the performer twirls it -about rapidly, the knots fly against the skin, and -produce a sort of rattle or drumming. This drum -is used to show the completion of a verse or division -of any musical composition. It is also used in -funeral processions and at commemorative -ceremonies.<a class="fn" id="fr_108" href="#fn_108">[108]</a> 7. The <i>ya-kou</i>, a small drum which -is filled with rice grains. The skin of this drum -is not only tanned but is boiled afterwards in pure -water. The sound of this instrument is soft and -pleasant. 8. The <i>po-sou</i> is a drum of cylindrical -shape, and is placed upon a small table; it is played -sitting; in all other respects it is like the <i>ya-kou</i>.</p> -<p>These are the eight varieties of drums known -to the Chinese; many of them are still in use; -there are also some varieties of military drums -which do not differ much from the preceding.</p> -<p>It is customary to cover not only the case, but -the faces and sticks of the drums with paintings.</p> -<p>Drums are used in China to give the hour at -night, to announce persons desiring audience, at -some palaces, and for many other purposes as well -as for music. The Chinese also sometimes muffle -their drums (in all religious ceremonies which -<span class="pb" id="Page_145">145</span> -take place in presence of the emperor) effecting -this not in our manner, but by covering the instrument -with ornamented draperies of cloth, which -absorb part of the sound.</p> -<h3 id="c15">OF THE SOUND OF STONE.</h3> -<p>The custom of making a systematic use of -stone, in music, is peculiarly a Chinese institution. -In the <i>Chouking</i>, one of the most ancient -of Chinese chronicles, we read that already in the -almost mythological days of Yao and Chun, -the Chinese had observed that certain kinds of -stone were adapted to giving out musical sounds, -and that these tones occupied the place between -the sound of metal and of wood, being less -sharp and penetrating than the former, and more -sonorous than the latter, and more brilliant and -sweet than either.</p> -<p>Even in those days they carved and shaped the -stones, in order to extract from them the regular -notes of their scale, and made instruments of -them which even to-day are used in China, and -are named <i>king</i>.</p> -<p>These musical stones were highly valued, and -received as tribute as early as 2250 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span> Those -found on the surface of the earth, and near the -banks of the rivers, were most esteemed, as it -was supposed that their exposure gave clearness -and purity to their tone.</p> -<p>These stones, called <i>Yu</i>, are found near the -mountain streams and torrents of Yun-nan. -They are of extreme hardness and are polished in -<span class="pb" id="Page_146">146</span> -the same manner as agate and precious stones. -Large specimens are extremely rare; those which -Amiot saw at the Imperial palace, were three feet -by one foot eight inches in size, but they were -considered unique.</p> -<p>Their weight (specific gravity) is also very -wonderful, for stones which seem to be not too -heavy a burden for one man, require four men to -move them.<a class="fn" id="fr_109" href="#fn_109">[109]</a> Those in the palace were of many -colors, milk-white, sky-blue, indigo-blue, yellow, -orange, pale green, sea-green, red and gray. -Those most esteemed were of a single color -throughout, though when five colors blended, it -was considered a valuable specimen. It may be -mentioned in this connection that the number five -seems to acquire a mystical significance among -the Chinese, for their music has five principal -tones, they recognize five elements, five virtues, -five senses, five duties, and five principal ceremonies.<a class="fn" id="fr_110" href="#fn_110">[110]</a></p> -<p>Some of these stones resemble marble, and -others seem to be petrifactions of some sort. We -are unaware whether those belonging to the -emperor have been examined by any recent -geologist. The Duke de Chaulnes in the last -century, came to the conclusion that the stone -was marble, but that its organization differed in -some respects from ours; and that iron entered -into its composition.</p> -<p>It is very difficult to complete an octave with -<span class="pb" id="Page_147">147</span> -the best of musical stones. In carving and ornamentation -they require most skillful manipulation -lest the pitch be endangered.</p> -<p>Under the Han dynasty a most harmonious <i>king</i> -was presented to the emperor. The designs -traced upon the stones were not quite satisfactory -to that potentate; on endeavoring to alter slightly -the fashion of the stones, the pitch of the instrument -was irrevocably lost, and its harmony -destroyed forever.<a class="fn" id="fr_111" href="#fn_111">[111]</a> The <i>king</i> has from time -immemorial been played by striking the stones -with a stick or mallet of hard wood. The skill of -the player is shown in the degree of shading he -can impart to the tones, by varying the force of -his blows. Of all instruments, the Chinese claim -that the <i>king</i> blends best with the human voice. -The entire Chinese chronicles teem with praises of -this peculiar instrument. Confucius was thrown -into ecstatic bliss on hearing it for the first time. -The musical work entitled <i>Li-ki</i> says: “the harmonious -sound of the <i>king</i> invites the sage to think -of the end of life. When he hears it, he thinks -of death, and fortifies himself in his love of duty.” -But this passage refers only to the great <i>king</i> -made of <i>Yu</i> (the finest melodious stones), which -was only played on great religious occasions; it is -not singular that this instrument should be -associated with religious thoughts. There were -other kinds of <i>kings</i> which were used on lesser -occasions. In the imperial palace were several of -<span class="pb" id="Page_148">148</span> -smaller size, called <i>pien-king</i>, which were composed -of sixteen stones each. The <i>tse-king</i> consisted of -one large stone, and is used to give the pitch to -other instruments, to signalize the commencement -of a tune, and according to some writers, was -anciently used to beat the time throughout a -composition.</p> -<p>The shape of the stones is much like a carpenter’s -square; and if sixteen of these tools were -suspended from a clothes horse, the shape at -least of the <i>king</i> would be attained; but in the -most ancient specimens the stones are shaped -with much more diversity, fishes, bats, and other -quaint forms appearing with much ingenuity in -the different pieces. The only modern instrument -of similar style to the <i>king</i>, which is known to -American readers, is the glass-harmonica, where -short strips of glass, being struck by a mallet, give -out a melodious, but not very manageable tone, -and any person performing on the <i>musical glasses</i>, -not by friction, but by percussion, can give a fair -representation of the music of the favorite instrument -of China.</p> -<h3 id="c16">OF THE SOUND OF METAL.</h3> -<p>Bells have been in China from the earliest ages -the most esteemed of instruments. At first their -duty was to be a sort of tuning fork; one bell -being made for chief or fundamental tone, and -eleven others giving the various semitones. These -bells were much different from our church and -tower bells; they rather resemble large hand bells, -<span class="pb" id="Page_149">149</span> -but were of somewhat greater weight. The -smallest bells were used in an instrument called -<i>Pien-tchoung</i>, which consisted of sixteen of them, -tuned in unison with the sixteen stones of the -king. We have already spoken of the efforts -made to suppress the bells, and through them, the -authentic pitch of Chinese music, by one of the -conquering emperors.</p> -<h3 id="c17">OF THE SOUND OF BAKED CLAY.</h3> -<p>Of this the Chinese made a deep-toned whistle, -with five to seven apertures called <i>Hiuen</i>. This -was probably the primitive instrument in China, -as it is mentioned as already existing before the -reign of Hoang-ty, about 2637 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span> An ancient -Chinese Dictionary speaks of the two varieties of -these, saying, “the larger hiuen should be of the -size of a goose egg, the smaller, of that of a -hen.”</p> -<h3 id="c18">OF THE SOUND OF SILK.</h3> -<p>Under this head come all Chinese stringed -instruments, for where we use catgut, the celestials -use silken cords. Even in the semi-mythical -age of Fo-hi, they made a simple instrument by -extending threads of silk upon a board of light -wood. Little by little the board was shaped to its -purpose better; gradually also, the strings were -laid with more precision and exactness, and the -cords gave out tones deep or high, according to -the tension to which they were subjected, or the -number of threads of which they were composed; -thus by insensible degrees came into existence -<span class="pb" id="Page_150">150</span> -the <i>kin</i>, the leading stringed instrument of the -Chinese empire. In size, it is larger than all -Eastern stringed instruments except the harp, its -length being five feet, six inches. It has seven -cords which are tuned as follows:—</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0"><span class="smaller">DO, RE, FA, SOL, LA, DO, RE,</span></p> -</div> -<p>giving it only five tones. The pentatonic character -of this instrument is observable in all Chinese -music, and causes a slight resemblance between -that music and the Scotch. There are several -varieties of the <i>kin</i>. The large, medium, and -small, only differ in their size, and have each -seven cords, but there is a much larger instrument -of the same species, which is called the <i>che</i>, which -has twenty-five strings, and is nine feet long; it -is said that in ancient days there were <i>ches</i> made -which had fifty strings.</p> -<p>Both the <i>che</i> and <i>kin</i> were, in true Chinese -fashion, made to convey numberless morals and -symbols. The breezes of Heaven, the four seasons, -the five elements, and the universe were all -in some manner dragged into the formation of -these instruments. The <i>kin</i> represented life, the -<i>che</i> death, and before performing upon either, the -player went through certain ceremonies to fit -himself for the task, and lighted some perfumed -tapers, which were kept burning throughout the -performance. To perform on the <i>kin</i>, the Chinese -held that one must be well advanced in wisdom -and sagacity. Of the <i>che</i>, there exist four different -kinds, the great, medium, small and very small; -<span class="pb" id="Page_151">151</span> -all these differ in size but not in their number -of strings, each possessing twenty-five. Amiot<a class="fn" id="fr_112" href="#fn_112">[112]</a> -found the <i>che</i> to be a more agreeable instrument -than any known in Europe in his day (1750 circa), -as the softer sounds of the silken cords were preferable -to the metallic sound of the wires of the -clavichord.</p> -<p>We have no instrument in our music which -corresponds to the <i>kin</i>, or <i>che</i>; but the zither if -trebled in length, and strung with silk instead of -wire would give a very exact idea of this finest of -Chinese instruments.</p> -<h3 id="c19">THE SOUND OF WOOD.</h3> -<p>The Chinese have from remotest antiquity, used -wooden instruments of percussion; it is most -natural that the earliest of instruments used -by man, should have been of wood, but it is also -natural that most nations should have laid aside -these primitive and toneless instruments. Not so -the Chinese however; their wooden instruments -are still used as they were four thousand years ago; -for the historians date their invention from the -mysterious reign of Fo-hi.</p> -<p>These instruments are the <i>tchu</i>, the <i>ou</i>, and the -<i>tchung-tou</i>, all of which celebrate and typify the -most profound moral precepts, <i>a la Chinois</i>.</p> -<p>The <i>tchu</i> is a plain wooden box, about a foot -and a half deep, in which a hammer is fastened; -by introducing the hand into a small aperture, -<span class="pb" id="Page_152">152</span> -made for that purpose in the side of the instrument, -the hammer is agitated, and swaying from -side to side, produces a sort of tattoo on both -sides of the box. This scarcely can be called -<i>music</i> for it is doubtful if the sound is even -rhythmic; but it is not the sound alone which -captivates the Chinese ear, the symbol attached to -it moves the Chinese heart, for the sages assure -us that this clatter represents (in some mysterious -way) the advantages of the social intercourse of -men, and the mutual benefits of society. The -<i>tchu</i> is placed at the <i>north-east</i> of the other instruments -and is played at the commencement of a -composition.</p> -<p>The <i>ou</i> is an image of a sleeping tiger, and is a -symbol of the power which man has over all other -creatures. It is placed at the <i>north-west</i> of the -other instruments, and is played at the close of a -piece of music. Along the back of this image is -a row of pegs; when the instrument is well played, -six tones can be extracted from these wooden -pegs, but usually the performance is ended by the -player running the stick, by which the pegs are -struck, swiftly along the whole row, and finishing -with a couple of blows upon the tiger’s head. -This is repeated three times as <i>finale</i>.</p> -<p>The <i>tchung-tou</i> cannot really be classed among -musical instruments, since they are only the -wooden plates upon which music was sometimes -written; their moral is obvious; they bring back -to memory the great invention of communication -by means of written characters. But they also -<span class="pb" id="Page_153">153</span> -participate somewhat in the general clatter produced -by the other wooden instruments; they are -about fourteen inches long, and one inch wide, -are twelve in number, to commemorate the twelve -sounds of the scale, and serve to beat the measure -of the music, by being struck lightly against the -palm of the left hand. The twelve pieces are -attached to each other by means of cords.</p> -<p>There is besides, a military instrument of wood -(though also scarcely to be classed as musical) -which is carved in the form of a fish, and is -suspended in front of the general’s tent. When -any person requires to see that official, he has but -to strike this fish with two wooden sticks which -are lying near by, and the audience is immediately -granted; so greatly have the Chinese reduced -language to various musical sounds, that by the -mode of striking with the sticks, the applicant -intimates, in a general manner, concerning what -description of business the audience is requested.</p> -<p>There also exist in China a few other instruments -of wood, from which regular series of tones -can be produced, and upon which tunes can be -played, but these latter seem not to be really -Chinese in their origin, and are spoken of by the -musical commentators of the country, as “strange -instruments which have come into use in China.”</p> -<h3 id="c20">THE SOUND OF BAMBOO.</h3> -<p>It seems, at first sight, as if this class of instruments -should be placed under the head of “wood;” -but the Chinese draw a very wide distinction -<span class="pb" id="Page_154">154</span> -between wood and bamboo, holding the latter in -especial esteem, as being of all vegetation, the -most useful to man; and they claim that nature in -producing it, fitted it especially to the art of -music. It is true that it required no great inventive -faculty to extract tones from the hollow -sticks of bamboo, and it is possible that music -drawn from the bamboo was the earliest of the -Chinese empire. One of the most famed of -instruments made of this reed, is called the <i>Koan-tsee</i>. -This is simply a set of pan’s pipes, arranged -according to Chinese tonality; the superior (male) -tones, called <i>yang</i> being given to one instrument, -and the inferior (female) called <i>yn</i> to another, so -that to have a melody in any modulations performed, -two instruments and two musicians were -required. This arrangement was too awkward to -last forever; finally the two instruments were -united in one, and instead of being weakly bound -together by cord, as were the twelve pipes of the -<i>koan-tsee</i>, two strips of thin board held the tubes -in place; the number of pipes was also increased -from twelve, to sixteen, and the new instrument -called the <i>siao</i>.<a class="fn" id="fr_113" href="#fn_113">[113]</a></p> -<p>Of course the Chinese possess flutes, as well as -other instruments of bamboo. The <i>yo</i> and <i>ty</i> are -in some respects similar to our flutes, save that -they have usually but three holes, and the tones -have therefore to be produced by a more skillful -use of the breath than is required on the European -<span class="pb" id="Page_155">155</span> -flute. An instrument of the flute family the use -of which has become somewhat obsolete, is the -<i>tche</i>. This is different from all other flutes, and -is now but little played in China. The <i>embouchure</i> -is exactly in the middle, both ends are stopped, -and on each side of the <i>embouchure</i> are three -holes. It was considered the most difficult of all -flutes to play.</p> -<h3 id="c21">THE SOUND OF CALABASH.</h3> -<p>The calabash is a gourd of pumpkin shape, but -somewhat smaller. In the instrument which we -are about to describe, we shall see that the calabash -(called <i>pao</i> by the Chinese) really emits no -sound, but serves only as an air reservoir for one -of the most wonderful instruments of ancient -times. The <i>cheng</i>, which is the only instrument -in which the calabash is used, is in fact a <i>portable -organ</i>, and when we consider that this intricate -instrument was invented about four thousand -years ago, we are lost in astonishment that the -invention did not lead to greater results; yet the -Chinese have frequently, in other sciences as well, -advanced to the threshold of great discoveries.</p> -<p>We will not detail to the reader, all the legends, -symbols, and mythology attached to the <i>cheng</i>; suffice -it to say that animal, mineral and vegetable -nature is represented by it, and that to each part of it -is appended some mystical meaning. The gourd is -pierced and cleaned, and an aperture made for -the air to enter, then the ends of from thirteen to -twenty-four pipes of bamboo are inserted into as -<span class="pb" id="Page_156">156</span> -many holes cut in the gourd; each of these pipes -contains in it a tongue of copper or gold, the -vibration of which causes the sound; beneath -this is a hole cut in the bamboo, through which -aperture the air rushes without giving any sound, -but when the hole is stopped by pressing a finger -upon it, the air having no other outlet, is forced -up the pipe, and striking the metallic tongue, -gives out an agreeable reed sound. A curved -mouth-piece through which the performer is to -blow, is introduced at the centre of the gourd. -The <i>cheng</i> contains all the elements of the reed -organ, and it would be a simple matter to produce -harmonies with it, and yet with this instrument in -the world for four thousand years, it remained -for moderns (comparatively speaking,) to discover -the art of combining different sounds; but the -invention of so well-conceived a reed instrument -in such remote ages, certainly entitles the ancient -Chinese to the utmost respect of their unconscious -imitators, the Europeans.</p> -<h3 id="c22">MISCELLANEOUS INSTRUMENTS.</h3> -<p>There exist in China, some instruments which -are not classed with either of the above eight -kinds of tone. These we have thought best to -group under the head of “miscellaneous,” though -they are quite as important as any of the preceding, -except perhaps, the <i>king</i>, <i>cheng</i>, and <i>kin</i>. -The Chinese have long possessed a peculiar variety -of fiddle, which at first appearance much resembles -a mallet with cords stretched from the -<span class="pb" id="Page_157">157</span> -head to the handle; but the head of this primitive -fiddle is hollow, and holds a sounding board, -though a very small one, of gazelle’s skin. The -sounds drawn from this oriental fiddle are said to -set one’s teeth on edge; it is said to be the most -execrable of all Chinese instruments. The invention -of this fiddle cannot be ascribed to the -Chinese, as it probably came from India originally. -There also exist several Chinese instruments of a -kind much resembling our guitars or banjos. -The number of strings on these are variable.<a class="fn" id="fr_114" href="#fn_114">[114]</a></p> -<p>From remote antiquity, the Chinese have -understood the ductility of metal, and it is not -surprising that the trumpet is, with them, one of -the oldest of instruments. These trumpets are -made of all sizes and most peculiar shapes.<a class="fn" id="fr_115" href="#fn_115">[115]</a> It -appears that they are intended to give but two -tones each, although being made of all sizes, a -complete scale can be arranged by collecting ten -or twelve of them. The music of them (as with -the ancient Greeks) is judged only by the degree -of loudness with which it is given, and even when -several play together, there is no attempt at -harmony, but each trumpeter repeats his two -notes with vigor and persistency; the result is -said to be most distressing to European ears. -Yet it is possible to extract beautiful music even -from single-toned trumpets, for in Russia, most -exquisite melodies are rendered by bands of -trumpeters, each of whom performs but one -<span class="pb" id="Page_158">158</span> -note, in the same manner as troupes of bell-ringers -give whole pieces of music with small hand bells.</p> -<p>Tom-toms and gongs also appear frequently in -the music of the empire; these are chiefly used to -keep the time of the orchestra; there is also -an instrument analogous to these, which consists -of a series of metal basins, (usually of -copper) from eight to ten in number, set -in a frame. The whole instrument looks not -unlike a cooking range with all its utensils. These -basins are struck with a mallet, and produce -sounds similar to, but less harsh than the gongs. -The name of this unique apparatus is <i>yin-lo</i>.</p> -<h3 id="c23">THE SOUND OF THE VOICE.</h3> -<p>Singular to relate, the Chinese have in their -classification of eight musical sounds, utterly -omitted to make any mention of the sound of the -human voice. In all their great ceremonies, -such as hymns of praise to Heaven, and commemoration -of the ancestors, songs are used, but never, -on these occasions are female voices allowed. In -fact, the female, in music, occupies about the -same position in China, as she once did in ancient -Greece; the better class of respectable matrons -do not study any art whatever; and the less -respectable and the slaves, are allowed to perfect -themselves in many arts of pleasing, among which -a study of the lower branches of music, as well as -a certain degree of general education is included. -A slave is far more marketable with musical -talents than without. But women always participated -<span class="pb" id="Page_159">159</span> -in orchestral music, and in a manner rather -astonishing to us; they sometimes played the -wind instruments. The singular custom of allowing -the weaker sex to play the part requiring the -strongest lungs was quite universal among ancient -nations, and the Chinese may be regarded as a -nation who have kept their ancient usages almost -intact. It is seldom however, that women assist -in any concerts whatever; the instrumental playing -as well as the singing being almost always -wholly rendered by men.</p> -<p>Few travellers have heard a musical Chinese -lady sing, and those who have enjoyed this rare -event, say it is the most torturing of all Chinese -music; from the <i>nose</i> and throat issue the most -droning and hideous sounds, and they seem to pile -Ossa upon Pelion in the way of unnatural tones.</p> -<p>Although the female voice is therefore lacking -in the concerted music of this singular people, -the parts sometimes run very high for male voice -and the singers for these parts are procured in the -same manner in which the papal choir in the last -century, procured its highest male voices.<a class="fn" id="fr_116" href="#fn_116">[116]</a></p> -<p>Of the divisions of the vocal parts in singing, -very little is as yet known, although many books -must exist upon the subject, which have hitherto -been inaccessible to foreigners. The natural -voice of the Chinese is rather high, and very high -tenors are not at all rare in the empire.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_160">160</div> -<p>The voice in China is trained to much flexibility -by the exigencies of the language, for the Chinese -is in one sense, the most musical of languages, as -a word acquires half a dozen different significations -according to the pitch of voice, or inflection -with which it is pronounced.</p> -<p>The number of different words in the whole -Chinese tongue does not exceed three hundred -and fifty; all the additional ones, are simply -variations of these by lowering, or raising the -voice. This leads the foreigner into endless -complications and misunderstandings; for example, -the word <i>tchu</i> pronounced clearly with the -vowel of medium length, means “master,” but -by extending the vowel a trifle it signifies “hog;” -it also means “column,” and “cookery.” The -syllable “<i>po</i>” has eleven different meanings—“glass,” -“boil,” “captive,” “prepare,” etc., -each of which must be pronounced with a different -pitch and inflection.<a class="fn" id="fr_117" href="#fn_117">[117]</a> Among the original words -are some which decidedly are taken from nature, -such as “<i>tchung</i>,”—“bell,” “<i>miaou</i>,”—“cat,” -but these are very few.</p> -<p>Some authors have endeavored to show from -these facts, that the Chinese is in all respects -a musical language, but this can hardly be -conceded, for the inflections spoken of, are so -slight as to escape the European ear, which surely -would not be the case if they were really musical -notes, since we have seen that Father Pereira, in -the last century, was able to note down at first -<span class="pb" id="Page_161">161</span> -hearing, and imitate any Chinese song. The -people in conversation give the voice a flute-like -sound, but this has scarcely arisen from any -special musical quality in the language itself.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_162">162</div> -<h2 id="c24"><span class="small">CHAPTER XIII.</span> -<br />CHINESE MUSICAL COMPOSITIONS AND CEREMONIES.</h2> -<p>The most ancient music with the Chinese as -with all people, seems to have consisted of -hymns to the Deity, rendering thanks to Him -for the benefits given to man in the various -departments of labor. These were divided -according to the class which used them, into -agricultural, military, piscatorial, etc. Very -soon after these, there came into existence that -reverential ceremony in memory of the ancestors, -which is so characteristically Chinese, and which -became, of all their festivals, the most important -and the most musical.</p> -<p>This ceremonial as conducted by the emperor is -as follows. In the vestibule of the hall are -retainers who bear a particular kind of standards, -which show that the coming of the sovereign is -expected. Here also are seen bells, drums, and -musicians, as well as officers of the guards, all -standing in symmetrical figure, and motionless in -their position. On entering the hall one sees, -right and left, the performers on the <i>cheng</i> and -<i>king</i>, and the minor instruments, all arranged in -their proper order. In the middle are placed the -<span class="pb" id="Page_163">163</span> -dancers, in uniform and each holding in hand the -instrument which they are to use in their evolutions. -Near the end are placed the players of the -<i>che</i> and <i>kin</i> as well as the performers on the style -of drum called the <i>po-sou</i>, and the singers. -Finally, at the lower end of the hall are seen the -representations of the ancestors themselves, either -in the form of portraits, or of simple tablets -bearing the name of each. Before these is a table -on which stand flowers and libations. Each performer -and instrument is placed in an allotted -position. For example, the bell is at the south-west, -the <i>cheng</i> at the north-west, the drum at the -south-east, the flute at the north-east, and the -table at the south; and this arrangement is never -departed from.</p> -<p>When the signal announcing the approach of -the emperor is heard, the singers and musicians, -slowly and with great majesty, begin the hymn of -honor, while the emperor, with stately and dignified -tread, advances to the table at the south of -the hall.<a class="fn" id="fr_118" href="#fn_118">[118]</a> It is a moment of holy awe (somewhat -akin to the instant when the Host is elevated in -Catholic churches) for the spirits of the departed -are supposed at this time to come down from -Heaven to their descendants. We give here an -English paraphrase of the words of part of this -hymn, which we have translated from the version -of Father Amiot.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_164">164</div> -<h3 id="c25">Hymn to the Ancestors.<a class="fn" id="fr_119" href="#fn_119">[119]</a></h3> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">When’er I think of you</p> -<p class="t0">Oh ancestors so great,</p> -<p class="t0">Then to the highest Heaven</p> -<p class="t0">My soul I elevate.</p> -<p class="t0">There in th’ immensity</p> -<p class="t0">Of the eternal springs</p> -<p class="t0">Of Fame which cannot die</p> -<p class="t0">And constant happiness</p> -<p class="t0">Are your immortal souls.</p> -<p class="t0">The vision transport brings</p> -<p class="t0">Your valor has reward</p> -<p class="t0">Your virtues Heaven doth bless</p> -<p class="t0">Around your joyous souls</p> -<p class="t0">Each new delight it flings.</p> -<p class="t0">Ineffable your joy</p> -<p class="t0">Your constant happiness.</p> -<p class="t0">If I in spite of faults</p> -<p class="t0">And of insufficience</p> -<p class="t0">Am called on by the high</p> -<p class="t0">Decrees of Providence,</p> -<p class="t0">To fill upon the Earth</p> -<p class="t0">The very highest place</p> -<p class="t0">’Tis but because I am</p> -<p class="t0">Descendant of your race.</p> -<p class="t0">Although I never may</p> -<p class="t0">In your great footsteps move</p> -<p class="t0">Yet I will care display</p> -<p class="t0">Throughout my life’s high course</p> -<p class="t0">That every act of mine</p> -<p class="t0">Shall to descendants prove</p> -<p class="t0">That I lived not in vain</p> -<p class="t0">And need not feel remorse.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_165">165</div> -<p>In giving this, necessarily weak, translation of -the opening part of the hymn, we have endeavored -to preserve the short Iambics of the Chinese -version; but in the Chinese there are only eight -lines to the first division, therefore four lines of -the translation correspond to one of the original. -After the chorus has sung as far as this, which is -only an exordium, or manner of worthily preparing -for the following exercises, the emperor -prostrates himself three times, touching his forehead -to the earth each time, and then taking -the libations, offers them up to the departed: -meanwhile the chorus sing the second part of the -hymn, still in the name of the emperor.<a class="fn" id="fr_120" href="#fn_120">[120]</a> In this -he again alludes <i>per</i> chorus, to his noble descent, -and thanks them for leaving their abode of bliss -to visit him, and humbly prostrated, begs to render -homage to them, and entreats that they will -accept the libations offered, as a testimonial of -profound respect and perfect love.<a class="fn" id="fr_121" href="#fn_121">[121]</a> After offering -these, the emperor prostrates himself nine -times to the earth, and then resumes his position -in front of the table, while the chorus sing the -third part of the hymn. During this final division -of the music, the spirits which descended at the -first part are supposed to be reascending to -Heaven. In the third part the emperor (still by -proxy) states how mean and pitiful he feels, after -such illustrious predecessors, and tells how heavy -<span class="pb" id="Page_166">166</span> -the burdens of state are to him, and thanks his -ancestors for their spiritual assistance. He concludes -with the statement that he can do very -little to testify his appreciation of all their benefits, -but what he is able to do he has done.</p> -<p>“Three times with respect, have I offered the -triple sacrifice; not being able to do more, my -vows are satisfied.” The hymn being finished, -the emperor retires with his ministers and <i>cortege</i> -in the same order in which they entered the hall. -The music continues until he has reached his own -apartments. Dancers participate in this ceremony -and are sumptuously clad and really assume a <i>role</i> -of much importance. As with the ancient Greeks -and Romans, they are not to be thought of as -being jumpers or twirlers; they express by their -motions the sentiments which actuate the emperor -as he eulogizes his ancestors, expresses his own -unworthiness, his gratitude, pride, and other -emotions. The music of this august ceremonial, -is entirely written in whole notes, without any -change of rhythm whatever. It is rather monotonous -than distressing to our ears.</p> -<p>This is not the case with other vocal compositions -of the Chinese; nearly all travellers agree -in saying that their music, in this branch especially, -resembles far more the cries of the nocturnal cat -than the human voice. The composers seem to -have an aversion to progression by degrees, in -their songs, and a decided <i>penchant</i> for long skips. -We do not intend a slur upon the Scotch music -when we say that there are points of resemblance -<span class="pb" id="Page_167">167</span> -between the Chinese music and the former. Some -Chinese airs (given by Irwin and Barrow<a class="fn" id="fr_122" href="#fn_122">[122]</a>) show -this resemblance startlingly. Although the Chinese -understand the division of the chromatic scale -perfectly well, yet they never use it; five tones -are all they ordinarily employ; these are</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0"><span class="smaller">FA, SOL, LA, DO, RE,</span></p> -</div> -<p>omitting even the semitone of our diatonic scale. -Some of their most eminent theorists have maintained -that the notes pienkoung (si) and pienche -(mi) are as useless to music as a sixth finger -would be to the hand.</p> -<p>It will be observed that the semitone progression -is not used in China, and though known, is -universally proscribed and avoided; it is this which -occasions the peculiarities of Chinese music. On -this subject we cannot refrain from re-quoting an -article on Chinese music, which appeared in the -“China Mail,” a Hong-Kong newspaper, in 1845.<a class="fn" id="fr_123" href="#fn_123">[123]</a></p> -<p>“One possessed of a musical ear, and at all -conversant with the musical art, cannot fail, on his -arrival in this country, to be struck with the -peculiarities of what is esteemed music here. -He notices at once, that the characteristics of -western melody, are almost wholly wanting. -Nearly every note seems out of place, and there -is neither beginning, middle nor end, to the airs -he listens to. Instead of a theme which is -developed and embellished by the whole performance, -he hears a hurry-skurry of notes, apparently -<span class="pb" id="Page_168">168</span> -flung together without link or affinity; and -even the confusion of sounds to make it worse, -instead of finishing in a quiescing cadence, passes -beyond what is looked for as the last note, and -sometimes ends with what we should call a flatted -keynote, leaving the listeners in a most uncomfortable -state of suspense and uncertainty as to what -may follow. For my own part, I have not been -able as yet to discover whether the Chinese -recognise such a thing as a keynote among the -parts of song, or whether their composers begin, -continue, and end their tunes <i>ad libitum</i>.”</p> -<p>We have inserted the above that the reader may -judge how strongly the music distresses the -musical European at first hearing; but it is also -not to be forgotten that the Eastern, (Hindoo and -Arabian) music had a similar effect upon persons -who a year later were obliged to acknowledge that -they had begun to find beauty, and take pleasure -in it.</p> -<p>Of other court musical ceremonies, the emperor’s -birthday, the harvest sacrifice, the feast of -agriculture, and the fifteenth day of the first -moon, are the most important. The first occasion -is described by Lord Macartney, who heard it on -the 17th of September, 1793. It began with a slow -majestic sound of deep-toned bells and muffled -drums, in the distance. This impressive music -was occasionally interrupted by sudden pauses; -with equal suddenness the whole force of singers -and instrumentalists would burst out with their -utmost strength, while the entire court bowed -<span class="pb" id="Page_169">169</span> -their faces to the earth as often as the refrain was -sung:—“Bow down your heads ye inhabitants of -the earth, bow down your heads before the great -Kien-long.”</p> -<p>The emperor was not visible during these -ceremonies.</p> -<p>Among the secular pieces, collected by Amiot, -is one which demands especial notice; it is an -instrumental representation of a battle. It will -be recollected that fifty years ago, many popular -European compositions took this shape. “The -battle of Navarino,” “the battle of Prague,” -“Waterloo,” etc., were the out-crops of this -mania: the Chinese certainly have better instruments -than we had, wherewith to represent the -din of combat.</p> -<p>In the accompaniment of songs, the Chinese -seem to stand, as regards their harmony, about -where Europe stood in the middle ages, for they -use as sole and only harmony, when playing on -the <i>kin</i>, a succession of <i>fourths and fifths</i>.<a class="fn" id="fr_124" href="#fn_124">[124]</a></p> -<p>The constant use of instruments of percussion, -in slow and monotonous songs, is one of the most -tiresome institutions of the Chinese music; almost -all the tunes are taken at an <i>andante</i> or <i>adagio</i> -pace, and it is but just to say, that the Chinese -chiefly dislike European music because it is often -played quickly.</p> -<p>“To what purpose” they ask, “should one dance -and hurry in this manner, and how can such -<span class="pb" id="Page_170">170</span> -things penetrate to the soul? With us” they add -proudly, “all is done calmly, and without precipitation.<a class="fn" id="fr_125" href="#fn_125">[125]</a>”</p> -<p>It must be acknowledged, that the Chinese love, -and take pride in music, that is, in their own kind. -In every great state ceremony, in theatres, in -religion, it everywhere plays the leading <i>role</i>.</p> -<p>One of the nine tribunals which have charge of -the general affairs of the empire, is charged with -the care of music, rites, and ceremonies; and the -mandarins of music are considered of much -higher rank than the mandarins of mathematics, -and have their college in the enclosure of the -imperial palace.</p> -<p>The fondness for the art is apparent in all classes, -and music is used on almost every occasion of -festivity, high or low. The streets of the cities -are full of peripatetic musicians, who earn their -living by catering to the general public, somewhat -as the organ grinders do with us.</p> -<p>The feast of lanterns is the greatest of all -popular Chinese festivals; it takes place on the -fifteenth day of the first moon, and corresponds -to a New Year’s feast. On this occasion every -part of the immense cities of the empire glows -with the light of innumerable lanterns, while -fire-works and decorations are seen on all sides. -In the streets are seen large <i>Lantern Theatres</i>, -that is to say, edifices made of paper; on the -inside, which is brightly illuminated, is a stage -whereon actors and singers give plays and concerts. -<span class="pb" id="Page_171">171</span> -Another great festival, where music plays -a leading part, takes place on the fifteenth day of -the eighth moon. On this evening the Chinese -imagine that a <i>hare</i> is seen in the moon, and to -the sound of many instruments, the entire population -turn out to look at it. It is customary for -friends to send each other cakes, on which the -figure of a hare is moulded, in sugar. Concerts -are an important accessory to this festival with -both rich and poor; the former make every effort -to secure the best singers and performers for their -entertainment on this holiday; the latter, not -being able to have the more delicate instruments -content themselves with a clatter of basins, pots -and frying-pans, and make with these a sort of -burlesque concert.</p> -<p>At each full moon there takes place a festival -in which gongs and cannons rather than musical -instruments are heard. Besides these festivals -which are celebrated throughout the empire, -there are also local ones, which are numberless. -The richest class generally keep their private -troupe of musicians, whom they own almost as -slaves. Often also they educate young children -of both sexes, in the musical art with the utmost -care, in order that when grown up they may swell -the ranks of their musical retinue. Among these are -often special artists whom they will not allow to -appear on ordinary occasions, but reserve to -perform before their own family, or intimate -friends to whom they wish to show especial honor; -at such times, the ordinary performers are sent -away.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_172">172</div> -<p>Among the strolling musicians, there are many -who make their living by going to private festivals -of the middle classes, such as weddings, birthdays, -and other rejoicings, even when uninvited; these -are similar to our ball room musicians, but also -bear some resemblance to the itinerant performers -of early Eastern nations. In Poland there still -exists a similar class.</p> -<p>For the poorer class, there are also, numerous -blind musicians, who travel from house to house, -sometimes in bands, sometimes alone. We have -already compared these to our own organ-grinders, -but they differ from them in one particular; they -do not rely so much upon making music indiscriminately, -but go, with much tact, to those -places where their services are likely to be -required.</p> -<p>In China the custom of celebrating the birthday -anniversary is universal; these wandering -minstrels recollect the date of the birth of each -individual for miles around, with unerring exactness, -and when a birthday <i>fete</i> occurs in any -family, they may calculate with some degree of -certainty that the music will come without being -sent for.</p> -<p>There are other occasions, where these shrewd -disciples of the muses can turn an honest penny; -if a skillful physician has saved the life of the wife -or child of some rich man no higher compliment -can be given to him (besides his fee) by the -grateful nabob, than to invite him to a great feast, -and to send an escort of eight musicians to convey -<span class="pb" id="Page_173">173</span> -him thither, besides bringing him numerous -presents.</p> -<p>Music is employed at funerals, but the friends -of the deceased, are not allowed to perform it; -for months after, etiquette forbids their touching -any musical instruments.</p> -<p>The mourning for a parent, or grandparent is -very strict and protracted. In China filial love -and obedience are the virtues most insisted upon. -If the descendants give forth any musical sounds -at all it is only to howl dismally a chant respecting -the virtues of the defunct; there are many of -these compositions, or “lamentations” in existence, -of which the poetry is by no means despicable. -When the funeral ceremony is taking place, -some trumpets and a drum placed at the door, -announce the arrival of visitors who come with -their condolences to the afflicted family. After -the body is buried with the ancestors, the <i>bonzes</i>, -(Chinese priests) chant the office of the dead, for -nine days, and in the procession itself drums, -trumpets, tam tams, flutes, etc., play a discordant -dirge.</p> -<p>We have already mentioned the wooden fish -suspended at the tent door of military commanders -to summon them to audiences concerning public -and private affairs. Mandarins have, in like -manner, a drum in the outer hall of their palaces, -by means of which they can be summoned to give -audience to any applicant; they are obliged to -give immediate attention to the complaint of any -person beating the drum, but woe to the audacious -<span class="pb" id="Page_174">174</span> -drummer who does not have some very especial -wrong to complain of; he is immediately soundly -bastinadoed.</p> -<p>At eclipses of the moon, the Chinese use their -musical instruments in a purposely hideous -manner. This is done to frighten away the dragon -which is supposed to be eating up the orb of -night. Instruments of percussion are chiefly -used on this occasion. The same instruments -(i. e. gongs, drums, trumpets and tam-tams) are -used to aid the marching of the army.</p> -<p>The <i>musical language</i> such as we use in directing -the movements of cavalry and artillery, is much -more extended, though differently used in China; -such musical signals are used in commanding -civil as well as military personages. Various trades -have their especial songs also, which they sing at -their work.</p> -<p>But the music of China, although extending -into every department of social and official life, -is totally incapable of any advancement. Musical -martinets are continually exclaiming against the -changes in style of composition, which innovators -are constantly introducing into <i>our</i> art,<a class="fn" id="fr_126" href="#fn_126">[126]</a> but it -is these changes which give the surest signs of -real life and intrinsic merit to modern music.</p> -<p>In China, precisely as formerly in ancient -Egypt, no such changes are possible; the music -for each and every event is as carefully mapped -<span class="pb" id="Page_175">175</span> -out and adhered to, as is the cut of the garments, -or the exchange of civilities among this precise -people.<a class="fn" id="fr_127" href="#fn_127">[127]</a></p> -<p>If ever change takes place in their musical -system it will assuredly be a gravitation towards -the European, as they have in a certain measure -a comprehension, theoretically at least, of our -system of semi-tones, but could by no means -conceive of, and accurately produce the third and -quarter tones of Indian music. We have already -related the ineffectual movement towards western -style, made in the last century; during the embassy -of 1793, Macartney observed many indications of -inclination for our system, such as the use of the -violin,<a class="fn" id="fr_128" href="#fn_128">[128]</a> the notation of music upon ruled paper, -and interest in the band concerts given at his -rooms each evening. He also found in the -emperor’s palace at <i>Yuen min-yuen</i>, an English -musical clock, made by Geo. Clarke, Leadenhall -Street, London, which played many selections -from the “Beggar’s Opera.”<a class="fn" id="fr_129" href="#fn_129">[129]</a> It is certainly not -too venturesome to predict, in spite of the jarring -of their music upon us, that they may yet develop -a taste for some of the coarser branches of ours.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_176">176</div> -<h2 id="c26"><span class="small">CHAPTER XVI.</span> -<br />THE CHINESE THEATRE AND DANCES.</h2> -<p>Although the Chinese are passionately fond of -plays, yet they do not possess a good fixed theatre -in their chief cities; for those edifices which are -regularly used for this purpose are never of a good -class, and many of them are even considered disreputable. -The cream of the theatrical troupes -are reserved for private entertainments; when a -number of people of the middle class desire a -comedy, they club together and engage a troupe. -The upper classes, as already stated, have always -their private comedy company. They have also -their private halls for dramatic representations.</p> -<p>The Chinese, have like ourselves, Comedies, -Tragedies, Farces, Ballets, etc., and the music -attached to them is always of the style of the -play. There is an excellent description of the -ceremonies and social etiquette used at a private -dramatic entertainment, given by Du Halde.<a class="fn" id="fr_130" href="#fn_130">[130]</a> -He says, ... “It was then, four or five of the -principal comedians were seen entering the hall, -in rich costumes; they made a profound bow all -together, and struck the earth four times with their -forehead.... They arose and their chief -<span class="pb" id="Page_177">177</span> -addressing one of the principal guests, presented -to him a book composed of long tablets, on which -were written, in golden letters, the names of fifty -or sixty comedies, which they knew by heart, and -any of which they were ready to perform on the -spot if desired; from this book they begged the -guest to make a choice. The guest excused himself -and handed the volume politely to a second -guest, with a sign of invitation; the second guest -passed it to the third with the same ceremonies, -the third to the fourth, etc. All excused themselves, -and finally the book was returned to the -comedian, who yielded at last, opened the book, -and ran his eye over the list a moment, and then -decided upon a comedy which he thought would -prove agreeable to all the company. Should there -be any inconvenience in producing any particular -play, the comedian-in-chief is expected to announce -it; one of these inconveniences would be, for -example, that one of the chief characters of the -play bore a name similar to that of one of the -guests. After the choice the comedian shows to -the guests the name of the play which he has -chosen, and each one signifies by a nod of the -head, his approval. The representation begins -with some music which is essentially Chinese and -noisy. It is performed with metal basins, drums, -flutes, fifes, and trumpets. The play is often -performed at a banquet, and after the guests have -finished their meal, the comedians take their -places at the table; after a short refreshment the -guests are recalled and the play proceeded with, -<span class="pb" id="Page_178">178</span> -or a new farce is chosen and performed as dessert.”</p> -<p>Many of the plays are not destitute of poetry -and plot. It may not be uninteresting to give a -short sketch of the style of incidents woven -into their plays by Chinese authors.</p> -<p>The following is an outline of the plot of a -play performed before the English embassy, Lord -Macartney’s, in the latter part of the last century; -it was given in a private theatre, by a private -troupe.</p> -<p>“An emperor of China and his empress are -living in supreme felicity, when on a sudden his -subjects revolt. A civil war ensues, battles are -fought; and at last, the arch-rebel, who is a general -of cavalry, overcomes his sovereign, kills him -with his own hand, and routs the imperial army.</p> -<p>The captive empress then appears upon the -stage, in all the agonies of despair, naturally -resulting from the loss of her husband, and her -dignity, as well as the apprehension of that of -her honor. Whilst she is tearing her hair, and -rending the skies with her complaints, the -conqueror enters, approaches her with respect, -addresses her in a gentle tone, soothes her sorrows -with his compassion, talks of love and adoration, -and like Richard the Third with Lady Anne, in -Shakespeare, prevails, in less than half an hour, -on the Chinese princess to dry up her tears, to -forget her deceased consort, and to yield to a -consoling wooer. The piece concludes with a -wedding and a grand procession.”<a class="fn" id="fr_131" href="#fn_131">[131]</a></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_179">179</div> -<p>Engel, who quotes the above plot, well says<a class="fn" id="fr_132" href="#fn_132">[132]</a> -“how interesting would it be to the student of -national music, to possess an exact notation of the -music belonging to this scene ‘(the empress -complaints)’ and to ascertain in what manner the -intense emotions and vehement passions represented -are expressed in the Chinese musical compositions.”</p> -<p>The above plot is curious in its Shakespearian -resemblance, and seems to be a drama of the -superior order, for Lord Macartney was shown the -highest and best side of Chinese life and art; the -comedies of the people are less refined and of -broader touches. We give as companion piece to -the above, a comedy plot which is a favorite one -with Chinese authors as well as the public.</p> -<p>The emperor Vouti, having lost one of his -wives, whom he tenderly loved, had recourse to a -celebrated magician, who assured him that his -spouse was not dead as supposed, for she had -bought of him the elixir of immortality; she -still existed, but lived chiefly in the moon from -whence the magician promised he could cause her -to descend as often as desired. The emperor -caused to be erected, under the superintendence -of the magician, a very high tower, to facilitate -her descent; he also often assisted at the incantations -of the wizard, but as the fair immortal did -not respond, the imposter, fearing the anger of -his royal master, invented a new stratagem to -avert this unpleasant conclusion. He wrote upon -<span class="pb" id="Page_180">180</span> -a piece of silk a counterfeit letter from the dear -defunct giving various pretended reasons as to -why she could not return personally to the royal -lover; this letter is given by the sorcerer to a -cow, who is then led by him to the emperor -to whom he confesses that some involuntary -crime has, for the present, interrupted his intercourse -and influence with the immortal beings, -but that in the stomach of the cow he has -perceived something; Vouti commands that the -animal be opened on the spot, and the silken -message is discovered; the magician is already -enjoying his triumph when it is perceived that the -characters of the communication are in his own -handwriting. He is at once condemned to death, -and the emperor thenceforth renounces magicians, -immortal elixirs, etc., etc.<a class="fn" id="fr_133" href="#fn_133">[133]</a></p> -<p>It is well known that the Chinese often give, on -the stage, a representation of the life of the hero -of the play from early infancy (sometimes even -<i>from birth</i>) to death, and these representations -last weeks in their performance; every action -being done deliberately; for example, if a performer -smokes a pipe, he does not give a whiff -or two and then go on with the action, but calmly -and placidly smokes it out to the last puff.</p> -<p>Fairy spectacles, the Chinese also possess, in -which Genii appear and disappear, as well as -birds and beasts endowed with the power of -speech. Their farces are of a much broader -character, and often in these, the clownish, awkward -<span class="pb" id="Page_181">181</span> -character is a European or an American; -they heartily enjoy all his mishaps, even his manner -of lifting his hat and bowing, being held up to -ridicule; it is very much the same kind of -pleasure as we “western barbarians” enjoy in -seeing such farces as “<i>Ici on parle Francais</i>” or -“The Perplexed Dutchman,” where the habits of a -Frenchman, and German, are the mirth-provoking -element; or of a piece with the character of Sir -Hugh Evans and Dr. Caius, in Shakespeare’s -“Merry Wives of Windsor.”</p> -<p>There is another point of resemblance in -Shakespeare, to the Chinese drama: his following -of the life of Henry <span class="smaller">VI.</span> so closely and extensively -(through three parts) suggests the more extensive -life-history-dramas of the celestial empire. But -the Chinese also give the “outside barbarians” a -thrust, <i>au serieux</i>; for in their plays the devil often -appears, dressed as a European.</p> -<p>In the music of their dramas, the Chinese are -decidedly Wagnerian, for not only do they use a -great many loud instruments (chiefly of percussion) -but they illustrate with them the action of the -drama; when an actor enters into a combat at -arms, the orchestra pound away at their instruments -with redoubled vigor. The characters often -sing long <i>arias</i> to the accompaniment of these -voice-drowning instruments.<a class="fn" id="fr_134" href="#fn_134">[134]</a> There is much -spoken action as well as song in these dramas, -which therefore approach more nearly to our -<i>vaudevilles</i> than any thing else.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_182">182</div> -<p>Choruses are few in Chinese pieces, but sometimes -the air is sung by many voices, in order to -emphasize it, and make it more plainly perceptible -above the racket of the orchestra.</p> -<p>The Chinese have also many tragedies and -comedies wherein no music whatever is employed. -The actors in these, assuming the ordinary conversational -tone.</p> -<p>Conjugal infelicity and infidelity, form a staple -plot with these, and the same inappropriate and -ludicrous entering into detail is apparent in them.<a class="fn" id="fr_135" href="#fn_135">[135]</a></p> -<p>Movable scenes are not used, and the most -infantile devices are used when a rapid change is -necessary; a general having to depart on a distant -expedition, mounts a hobby horse, or even a cane, -and using a small whip with one hand, imitates -riding, (three or four times around the theatre -being sufficient) and then, announcing that he has -arrived at his destination, goes on with his speeches -without any embarrassment. This is but one -example of the many where the dramatists draw -heavily upon the imagination of their audiences.</p> -<p>The actor on entering (in the play) begins by -announcing his name and telling the audience why -and wherefore he has come; this is done to -simplify the following of the action, as in some -dramas there are hosts of characters and one -player often assumes many <i>roles</i>.</p> -<p>Such puerility is caused partly by the small size -of the stages, which would not admit a host of -performers, and partly by the fact that many of -<span class="pb" id="Page_183">183</span> -the characters in a Chinese play are comparatively -unimportant, appearing once, and then vanishing -forever; in fact at the end of some of the Chinese -dramas, one is considerably mystified as to the fate -of many of the characters, as the author, unlike -the European and American dramatists, who make -everybody (except the villain) happy in the last -act, only deems it necessary to follow out closely -the career of his hero and heroine, and they -being once dead, the other characters are allowed -to wind up in a very sudden and, to us, very -unsatisfactory manner. The musical part of -these dramas is often quite long, and whenever -the actor desires to express much feeling, he falls -into music. Sometimes it is introduced in a most -unnatural manner; in one tragedy, a wife having -murdered her husband is sentenced to be <i>flayed -alive</i>; after the execution of the sentence, she -returns to the stage wholly bereft of her skin, -(this is depicted with true Chinese realistic effect, -the body of the performer being painted in exact -imitation of nature in such a hideous plight) and -she then and there sings a song to excite the pity -of the infernal spirits. The song is full of -screeches and howls, and lasts half an hour.<a class="fn" id="fr_136" href="#fn_136">[136]</a> -Let us not be too hasty in smiling at such absurd -stage effects; there is an opera still performed on -our own stage, where an innocent Jewess is boiled -in oil, as <i>finale</i>, and as to the inappropriateness of -a long song, under such circumstances, there is a -<span class="pb" id="Page_184">184</span> -long chorus in a French opera of the last century, -where the mayor of the village having fallen into -the water, the anxious choristers sing for many -minutes, that “he will he drowned unless he is -speedily helped out;” decidedly we must not -smile too broadly at the Chinese, as yet.</p> -<p>Sir John Barrow<a class="fn" id="fr_137" href="#fn_137">[137]</a> speaks of the theatre, which -he visited, as a mere “Shed of Bamboo.” He -says: “In the farther division of the building, a -party of comedians were engaged in the midst of an -historical drama, when we entered; but on our -being seated they broke off, and coming forward, -made before us an obeisance of nine genuflexions -and prostrations, after which they returned to their -labors, keeping up an incessant noise and bustle -during our stay. The heat of the day, the thermometer -standing at eighty-one degrees, in the open -air, and at least ten degrees higher in the building, -the crowds that thronged to see the strangers [this -was in 1792, when Europeans were great rarities -in China] the horrible crash of the gongs, kettle -drums, trumpets, and squalling flutes, were so -stunning and oppressive that nothing but the -novelty of the scene could possibly have detained -us a moment.”</p> -<p>“The most entertaining, as well as the least noisy -part of the theatrical exhibition, was a sort of -interlude, performed by three young women, for -the amusement it would seem of the principal -actress, who sat as a spectator, in the dress and -character of some ancient queen, whilst an old -<span class="pb" id="Page_185">185</span> -eunuch, very whimsically dressed, played his antic -tricks like a scaramouch, or buffoon in a Harlequin -entertainment.”</p> -<p>“The dialogue in this part, differed entirely from -the querulous and nearly monotonous recitation -of the Chinese, being light and comic, and -occasionally interrupted by cheerful airs, which -generally concluded with a chorus. These airs -rude and unpolished as they were, appeared to be -regular compositions, and were sung in exactly -measured time. One in particular attracted our -attention, whose slow, melancholy movement -breathed the kind of plaintiveness so peculiar to -the native airs of the Scotch, to which indeed it -bore a close resemblance.” [We have before -spoken of this resemblance, which proceeds from -both scales, Chinese and Scotch, being pentatonic, -or five toned.] “The voices of the women are shrill -and warbling, but some of their cadences were not -without melody. The instruments at each pause -gave a few short flourishes, till the music gradually -increased in loudness by the swelling and deafening -gong. Knowing nothing of the language we -were of course as ignorant of the subject as the -majority of an English audience is at an Italian -opera.” Thus speaks Barrow of his first impressions -of a Chinese theatre, but he probably fell into -two errors; the <i>women</i>, whom he mentions were -in all likelihood, eunuchs; and the theatre itself, -being public, was of inferior style to those private -establishments which are the pride of the rich -mandarin class.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_186">186</div> -<p>It is singular, however, that the noise of the -gong, tamtam, trumpet, etc., are inseparable from -all Chinese dramatic performances: although the -noise is deafening, and the voices of the actors are -sometimes drowned in spite of their shouting -themselves hoarse, yet this pandemonium only -gives tranquil delight to the Chinese spectator -whether he be of high or low class. It is so -extraordinary a fact that physiologists and -anatomists have endeavored to prove that the -cause is due to a peculiar formation of the -Chinese ear.<a class="fn" id="fr_138" href="#fn_138">[138]</a></p> -<p>Certain it is that the Chinese are so passionately -fond of the drama, that they will sometimes pass -many hours in succession in this noisy entertainment.</p> -<p>There is a tremendous number of comedians in -China; most of them are purchased in early infancy -by the chiefs of troupes, and by them trained in -music, singing, declamation, pantomime, and -dance. It is a species of slavery, not very unlike -that of old Rome, but is not always life-long.</p> -<p>Some comedians, especially the chiefs, acquire -large fortunes in the exercise of their calling, but -the caste is so looked down upon, by the general -public, and the facility of confiscating their fortune -is so great, that they seldom attempt to leave -the profession, or make any display of their -wealth, lest it should be seized under any pretext -<span class="pb" id="Page_187">187</span> -by some mandarin, in which case (in spite of the -theoretical justice of China) it would probably be -beyond recovery.<a class="fn" id="fr_139" href="#fn_139">[139]</a></p> -<p>We may mention here, a peculiar mode of paying -actors, in Cochin China.</p> -<p>The occasion described is an entertainment, the -expenses of which were borne by the Quong, or -provincial governor. An Englishman who was -present, thus speaks of the affair,—“The Quong -was there squatted on a raised platform in front of -the actors, with a small drum before him, supported -in a diagonal position, on which he would strike a -tap every time any part of the performance -pleased him; which was also a signal for his purse -bearer to show a small string of about twenty -<i>cash</i> to the actors. To my taste this spoiled the -effect of the piece; for every time the <i>cash</i> fell -among them, there would be a silence, and the -next moment a scramble for the money; and it -fell so frequently as almost to keep time with the -discordant music of the orchestra.</p> -<p>The actors were engaged by the day, and in this -manner received their payment, the amount of -which depended upon the approbation of the -<i>Quong</i>, and the number of times he encored them -by tapping his drum. I could see that many of -them paid far more attention to the drum than -they did to their performance; though I suppose -the amount thrown to them is equally divided. -Sometimes the string on which the <i>cash</i> was tied, -unluckily broke, and the money flew in all directions; -<span class="pb" id="Page_188">188</span> -by which some of the by-standers profited, -not being honorable enough to hand it up to the -poor actors.<a class="fn" id="fr_140" href="#fn_140">[140]</a></p> -<p>This was a public performance and took place in -a large shed, before a numerous audience. Often -the theatrical performances are allowed to take -place in the Joss-houses or houses of worship, the -<i>bonzes</i> or priests being wise enough not to offer -any obstacles to a mode of amusement so thoroughly -loved and appreciated by all the Chinese.</p> -<p>It is somewhat singular, and yet in keeping -with the custom of the most ancient nations, that -the Chinese should at the same time enjoy the -drama so keenly, and despise the performers of -it. The comedians are kept as thoroughly within -their caste as musicians were in Egypt, four -thousand years ago. Parents in China have almost -unlimited power over their children (filial love -and obedience is the highest of Chinese virtues,) -they may sell them as slaves, or in some instances -kill them, but they are not allowed to sell them to -the troupes of strolling comedians, or to magicians. -Any person so selling them is punished with one -hundred blows of the bamboo, and any go-between -or middle-man, in such transactions, receives a -similar dose; any person of free parentage, -marrying an actor or actress, is punished in the -same manner, in spite of the precedent of several -emperors. The crime of intimacy with actresses -is punishable with sixty blows, but this is easily -<span class="pb" id="Page_189">189</span> -eluded, and the law seems to be obsolete. This -punishment is not attended with much infamy; -the bastinado is in fact the lightest of Chinese -punishments. When the number of blows does -not exceed twenty, there is no disgrace whatever -attached to the infliction: it is then considered only -a paternal chastisement; the emperor himself often -orders this correction to be administered to high -officials for slight faults, and afterwards treats -them as if nothing had happened. After such -paternal punishment is inflicted, the victim goes -on his knees to the judge, bows his head three -times to the earth, and <i>thanks him</i> for the care he -has given to the education of his subject.<a class="fn" id="fr_141" href="#fn_141">[141]</a></p> -<p>It is significant that the “State Gazette” of -Pekin, which will often enter into details concerning -the death of a private soldier, and give -eulogies to the military valor of the most humble, -does not even mention the decease of the most -brilliant and well-known comedian, no matter how -much applause may have been accorded to him -while living.</p> -<p>In such a country as China, it is easily imagined -that there exists a large troupe of “comedians to -the emperor.” These although not more superbly -costumed than those of some rich mandarins, are -clothed in a peculiar manner. Of course it would -not be allowable to turn their backs upon the -emperor, and yet often the action of the play, -might demand that they turn around. This -dilemma is overcome by allowing them to wear -<span class="pb" id="Page_190">190</span> -two masks, one on the face, the other at the back -of their head, and thus, Janus-like, they can -always face the emperor. Their clothing is in -consequence different from that of ordinary actors, -having two fronts and no back.<a class="fn" id="fr_142" href="#fn_142">[142]</a></p> -<p>The <i>corps</i> of singers, declaimers and musicians -of all kinds belonging to the Imperial court, is of -course very large.</p> -<p>The dances of China, are as with all Eastern or -ancient nations, purely pantomimical, there are -few pirouettes and skips as in our <i>ballet</i>. The -names and subjects of some of the earlier dancers, -will show this conclusively; “The labors of -Agriculture,” “Joys of the Harvest,” “The -fatigues of War,” “The pleasures of Peace,” -“The skill of Hunting,” etc. These all show a -primitive style of the art, and are not far removed -from the dances we shall find in vogue among the -most crude children of nature, such as the -Australians, the Bushmen, or the Tasmanians. -The Chinese possess (as did the Egyptians) a -number of gymnastic performances similar to our -clog, ballet, and comic dances, but these come a -long way after the dance proper, in the estimation -of the people; the word <i>ou</i> which signifies dance, -does not apply to them. We cannot be surprised -if from earliest times the regulation of the dance -has been a matter of State legislation.</p> -<p>The ancient emperor was allowed eight dances, -with eight performers to each, his full troupe -containing sixty-four members. Kings of Provinces -<span class="pb" id="Page_191">191</span> -had six dances of six performers, thirty-six in -all; and thus through all the upper ranks, literary -doctors being allowed only two dances of two -performers each. Only certain instruments were -allowed as accompaniment, and the direction of -the whole was always to be in charge of various -musical doctors. There also existed dances which -were called “little dances,” as they were taught to -children at a tender age; the names of some of -these are interesting; “the Dance of the Flag,” -danced in honor of the spirits of earth and the -harvests, so called because the dancers waved -small banners; “The Dance of the Plumes,” in -honor of the spirits of the four quarters of the -world, in which the young dancers carried a plume -of white feathers, attached to a short stick; “The -Dance of the Foang-hoang,” which was danced to -induce the assistance of the mysterious bird -(already described) in times of drought, and in -which the dancers held plumes of feathers of five -colors; “the Dance of the Ox Tail,” in which -each dancer swings an ox tail; “The Dance of -Javelins,” where this weapon was brandished in -honor of river and mountain spirits; and finally, -“the Dance of Man,” in which the hands were -quite free, no accessories being used.</p> -<p>The “Javelin Dance,” was not altogether -pleasing to the great philosopher Confucius. He -condemns it as being too war-like, and the gestures -accompanying it, as too savage; as a whole he -thought it liable to inspire cruel sentiments. He -preferred the “Dance of the Plumes,” as containing -<span class="pb" id="Page_192">192</span> -all the chief elements of the “Javelin Dance” -without tendency to cruelty. In the palace, the -sons of the emperor only, were permitted to -the “Dance of the Plumes.”</p> -<p>At the epoch, when these dances were at their -zenith, the emperors had a peculiar way of showing -by them their approbation, or condemnation -of their viceroys. When the viceroy was presented -at court, if his administration seemed good -to the emperor, he was welcomed by numerous -and lengthy dances; if, on the contrary his -government seemed worthy of censure, the dances -were both short and few.</p> -<p>The following were the customs observed in -presenting them:—Long before the dance began, -a drum was sounded “to dispel from the minds of -the spectators any thoughts unsuited to the -occasion.” On the arrival of the performers, -they took three steps forward and put themselves -in an attitude, calculated to impress the beholders; -a sort of <i>tableau vivant</i>. The entrance was always -accompanied with a slow movement of the music, -which gradually augmented both in speed and -volume, until the <i>finale</i>, when the climax having -been reached, the music had attained a presto -movement, and the dancers retired with precipitation -in order that the interest might not have -time to flag.</p> -<p>Sometimes the dancers carried a small shield -with bell attached.</p> -<p>The Chinese sages deeply regret the loss of -these ancient dances; (for like all excellent customs -<span class="pb" id="Page_193">193</span> -the modern writers claim that they were at their -best in “the good old times,”) it seems that the -ancient Chinese, endeavored in the dance, to -reproduce an easily-comprehended allegory of the -natural actions of men; the movements, gestures, -attitudes, and evolutions, all to be natural and -easily understood by the spectators. Since the -days of Confucius, this simple style of dancing -has fallen greatly to decay.</p> -<p>In those days many of the emperors of China -studied and understood the art of dancing. History -shows many such “Davids” (although not -so well known as Israel’s royal dancer) in the -dynasties of the empire. Autumn was the favorite -season for the study of dancing, as the “feast of -ancestors” takes place in the Spring, and the -pupils were ready to exhibit their proficiency at -that great event. The ancient practice of imperial -dancing, was continued even as recently as 1719, -when one of the sons of Kang-hi, of the age of -twenty, performed before the emperor and his -court. There are also mandarins whose duty it is -to dance before the emperor; the pantomime of -these is especially graceful and dignified. They -advance slowly two by two, their limbs and bodies -moving gently to the time of a tranquil music; -they turn around without quitting their relative -positions, and after a series of gestures made in -perfect unison, and some symmetrical evolutions, -they make the salute of honor, and retire. This -dance seems to be only a formal expression of -homage to the emperor. The dress of these -<span class="pb" id="Page_194">194</span> -officials is uniform, and elegant, fine silk capes, -caps, etc., the only difference of costume being -the buttons, with which the top of the caps are -ornamented; the different color of these being -indicative of greater or lesser rank. This <i>corps</i> -of dancers is recruited from the wealthiest and -greatest families of the empire.</p> -<p>In the dances, every detail is strictly systemized -and observed; the very positions are calculated -according to the points of the compass; thus one -dancer is always placed at the north-west, another -at the north-east, the entrance is to be made from -a fixed cardinal point, the exit at another; all is -rule and precision.</p> -<p>The number of dancers is not at present limited -to that given above (sixty-four for the emperor, -thirty-six for viceroys, etc.) as the ancient standard. -At times of great festivity, the dancers -of the Imperial court are reckoned by hundreds. -Such <i>grandes ballets</i>, are almost always symmetrical -and in concerted movements; but there are -also <i>solo</i> dances; in these <i>pas seuls</i> the dancer -often accompanies himself with both song and -instrument. This proves how slow and majestic -the motions must be.</p> -<p>In dances, females very often appear, but in -private only. Mandarins frequently own female -dancers and singers, whose performances are -reserved for their own families. It is but rarely, -and as a mark of especial honor, that they allow -some intimate friend to view the dancing of these -slaves.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_195">195</div> -<p>Spectacular pantomimes, such as delight the theatre-goers -at Christmas time in Europe and America, -find also a congenial atmosphere in China; a most -beautiful one was performed in the presence of the -emperor, and Lord Macartney, in 1793. In this -representation the object seemed to be, to illustrate -upon the stage, the wonders and fertility of the -world, or an allegory of the intermarriage of earth -and ocean. The earth gave forth in this pantomime, -a large number of its animals, and products; -elephants, tigers, dragons, ostriches and eagles, -as well as oaks, pines, bamboos, and other specimens -of vegetation appeared upon the stage; -while upon a lower stage, the ocean sent forth -whales, dolphins, porpoises, and also vessels, rocks, -weeds, sponges, and coral. Each of these creations -was true to life, and in many of them were -concealed actors who represented the motions and -habits of the animals in a manner quite natural. -After these products of earth and sea had performed -several evolutions separately, each division -moving in a separate circle, all united and came -to the front of the stage, where a farther series of -movements was enacted; suddenly the entire mass -of actors divided, moving swiftly to the right and -left in order to give place to the whale, who -seemed a sort of commander in chief. This -immense fish then advanced to the front of the -stage, opposite the box in which the emperor was -seated; on arriving here, he lifted his head and -spurted an enormous mass of water, amounting to -many barrels full, into the pit of the theatre; -<span class="pb" id="Page_196">196</span> -where (holes having been bored to receive it) it -swiftly disappeared.<a class="fn" id="fr_143" href="#fn_143">[143]</a></p> -<p>This performance seemed to give the greatest -delight to the Chinese part of the audience. The -music attached to this spectacle, was as usual of -the most deafening character.</p> -<p>Of the lower order of dances, such as tumbling, -harlequinades, etc., the Chinese have a vast variety; -even puppet shows (<i>marionettes</i>) are greatly used -by them, and plays with simple plots, very skilfully -given by their means. This is the story represented -at one of them;—An unfortunate princess is -kept prisoner in a castle surrounded by dragons: -to her comes a bold warrior, who after many -combats with dragons, wild beasts and other -horrible creations, succeeds in killing, vanquishing -and dispersing them. He is recompensed by -receiving the hand of the grateful princess, and -the whole concludes with processions, tournaments -and other festivities.<a class="fn" id="fr_144" href="#fn_144">[144]</a></p> -<p>As to the musical part of all these lesser performances, -it is nearly always present, and ever of -the peculiar style which has filled every traveller -(so far as we know <i>without exception</i>), with utter -distaste. The juggling performances, of which -there are many, both public and private, are -accompanied throughout with the above described -orchestra. Feats of skill, performed by troupes of -children are especially admired by the Chinese, and -<span class="pb" id="Page_197">197</span> -much sought for. The children begin their training -in these arts, very young.</p> -<p>Boat races have also their music, which is -evidently intended to inspirit the oarsmen. The -following is a description of such an event, (so -far as it relates to music).</p> -<p>“On each side of the little mast that supports -the national flag, are two men, who leave off -striking the tum-tum, and executing rolls upon -the drum, whilst the mariners leaning over their -oars, row on vigorously, and make the dragon -junk, skim rapidly over the water.</p> -<p>Whilst these elegant boats are contending with -each other, the people throng the quays, the shore -and the roofs.... They animate the rowers -with their cries and plaudits; they let off fireworks; -they perform at various points, deafening music, -in which the sonorous noise of the tum-tum, and -the sharp sound of a sort of a clarinet, giving -perpetually the same note, predominate over all -the rest. The Chinese relish this infernal harmony.”<a class="fn" id="fr_145" href="#fn_145">[145]</a></p> -<p>We have dwelt with some detail upon the music -of the Chinese, for we consider these people, -musically as well as ethnologically and philologically -a series of contradictions, and especially -differing from all our conceived notions of right -and propriety: a nation where music is heartily -loved, and taught to youth,<a class="fn" id="fr_146" href="#fn_146">[146]</a> and yet where -<span class="pb" id="Page_198">198</span> -musical progress is almost unknown; where goodness -and love are taught in the most beautiful -writings, and where greater cruelties are practised -than anywhere else on earth. They differ from us -on almost every point. We mourn in black, they -in white; we respect crowns as badges of honor, -they the boots; we build solid walls, they make -them hollow; we pull a boat, they push it; we -place the orchestra in front of the stage; they -behind it; with us children fly kites, with them, -men; we scratch the head when puzzled, they, the -antipodes of it, etc, etc.<a class="fn" id="fr_147" href="#fn_147">[147]</a></p> -<p>A nation so strange cannot be judged flippantly -or speedily; only a short time since we held the -Japanese in the rank of the semi-civilized; now -they are making giant strides on the highway of -<span class="pb" id="Page_199">199</span> -progress. Who dare say that the Chinese may -not yet experience a similar awakening? At -present their heaviest drawbacks, in music, as -well as in all civilization, seem to be, a senseless -clinging to ancient usages; an education of the -head, and not of the heart; an etiquette which -becomes both ludicrous and burdensome in its -requirements;<a class="fn" id="fr_148" href="#fn_148">[148]</a> a totally false position of woman; -and a theoretically competitive, but practically -<span class="pb" id="Page_200">200</span> -corrupt public service. There have recently been -unmistakeable signs of progress, and, once begun, -it is more than probable that the reform will be -thorough and swift as it has thus far been with -their neighbors. In such case, China will be of -far higher interest to the world than she has been -to us in our describing her as—a curiosity shop.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_201">201</div> -<h2 id="c27"><span class="small">CHAPTER XVII.</span> -<br />MUSIC OF JAPAN.</h2> -<p>It is a singular fact, that while the Japanese -have in all ages given a great deal of attention to -poetry the kindred art of music has been suffered -to remain almost neglected. Their musical system -has never been carefully formed or elucidated, -and although they may vie with the Chinese in -the beauty of their poetical effusions, in the field -of music their research is nothing, when compared -with the immense patience and study which the -latter people have given to the subject.</p> -<p>Although there are few treatises on the art, -yet the practice of music is now deemed an essential -part of the education of a Japanese young -lady, for contrary to Chinese custom, we find that -in Japan, the female sex are proficient in the art.</p> -<p>Although at first glance there seems to be much -affinity between Japanese and Chinese music, -(so much so, that it seems natural to suppose that -the former was an outgrowth of the latter) yet, -upon closer analysis, these resemblances are found -to be few, and the contradictions many and irreconcilable.</p> -<p>The Japanese songs do not appear to have been -founded on the Chinese pentatonic scale, but rather -upon the <i>chromatic</i>.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_202">202</div> -<p>It is very possible, that the music of Japan had -its rise long ago, within the limits of the island. -Unfortunately, in this branch of history, we can -as yet, come to no definite conclusion; the absence -of all knowledge of the system (if there be one -worthy of the name) on which their melodies are -formed, and the very slight knowledge of the -ancient history of the people, confine us altogether -to conjecture and inference. That China exerted -some influence upon the musical style of Japan, -is undeniable. In the year (<span class="smaller">A. D.</span>) 57, an embassy -was sent from the island, to the Emperor of -China, with presents. The return of this expedition, -brought to the (at that time) totally rude and -uncultivated people, the fruits of the older Chinese -civilization, and it was probably at that epoch, -that the Chinese instruments, which still exist in -Japan, were introduced.</p> -<p>The instruments of Japan, though resembling, -are much cruder than their Chinese, prototypes. -The <i>che</i>, of China, is found under the name of -<i>koto</i>. It is larger than the <i>che</i>, but has fewer -strings; the latter are of silk, lightly lacquered. -The <i>sam-sin</i> is a guitar, with a very long neck, -and has three strings. These instruments are -among the indispensable articles of the wedding -outfit of every bride.<a class="fn" id="fr_149" href="#fn_149">[149]</a></p> -<p>Of wind instruments they have many styles of -flutes and a trumpet, made of a conch shell.<a class="fn" id="fr_150" href="#fn_150">[150]</a> -The <i>cheng</i> (small mouth organ) is also possessed -<span class="pb" id="Page_203">203</span> -by them. It is called in Corean dialect <i>saing-hwang</i>.<a class="fn" id="fr_151" href="#fn_151">[151]</a> -Gongs, tamtams, and noisy instruments -of percussion, the Japanese possess in profusion; -they have also a curious instrument, quite like the -Egyptian sistrum,<a class="fn" id="fr_152" href="#fn_152">[152]</a> formed of two sonorous metallic -rings upon a light frame work, which give -forth a tinkling and jingling upon being shaken, -or struck with a small stick.<a class="fn" id="fr_153" href="#fn_153">[153]</a> The <i>ko-kiou</i> -is a kind of violoncello played with a bow; the -birva is a similar instrument, which is picked -with a <i>plectrum</i>. The same plectrum is used in -performing upon the <i>sam-sin</i>. The clarionet is -used very frequently; it is made of bamboo, like -the flute. There is also an eight-holed flageolet. -Among the instruments of percussion, are wooden -rattles; stone drums like bowls, which stand on -low frames; a musical drum made of leather; the -<i>tam-tam</i>, or portable tambourine; gongs of all -shapes, such as shields, fishes, tortoises, etc., -producing all tones grave and piercing; bells, -and kettle drums.</p> -<p>The tambourines which accompany the character -dances, are sometimes played two at a time; -one being held under the arm, the other in the -left hand.<a class="fn" id="fr_154" href="#fn_154">[154]</a> There is a picture extant, representing -a Japanese concert, in which there is one -melodious instrument (a flute) against <i>six</i> instruments -of percussion, such as bells, cymbals and -drums.<a class="fn" id="fr_155" href="#fn_155">[155]</a></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_204">204</div> -<p>The Japanese ladies not only play the various -instruments, but study singing, assiduously. The -language is well adapted to vocal efforts, being -one of the most melodious and soft of the East; -it approaches the Italian in its smoothness; it is -monosyllabic,<a class="fn" id="fr_156" href="#fn_156">[156]</a> but not varying with the pitch of -the voice, as the Chinese does. (The written -characters have been derived from the Chinese.) -The very alphabet, or the nearest Japanese -approach to it, is converted into a short song, -which is characteristic of the materialistic views -of the people.</p> -<p>The poetic setting of the “Irova” (as this -is called) runs thus:—</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">“Color and light pass away</p> -<p class="t0">In our world nothing is permanent</p> -<p class="t0">The present day has disappeared</p> -<p class="t0">In the profound abyss of nothingness.</p> -<p class="t0">It was but the pale image of a dream;</p> -<p class="t0">It causes in our bosoms no regret.”<a class="fn" id="fr_157" href="#fn_157">[157]</a></p> -</div> -<p>Nothing can give a stronger picture of the -philosophy of Buddhism and its influence upon the -Japanese mind.</p> -<p>Buddhism was so well suited to the temper of -the people, that upon its introduction into the -country (<span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 552) it almost absorbed the ancient -style of worship (Sintuism), and has, at the present -time, so altered that superstition, that the prevailing -aspiration of one branch, even of that creed, is an -escape from trouble into nothingness. The mode -<span class="pb" id="Page_205">205</span> -of worship is exceedingly simple, and in the -main, joyous; there is no thought of supplication -to their deities; for as they regard these as being -in a state of bliss, they deem that the sight of any -person in distress, must be painful to them, and -therefore, when in trouble, they avoid going to -religious exercises. In fact on the days of religious -festivals, they behave in a manner which we -should call decidedly immoral, but they do it with -the best of motives, for they argue that nothing -can please the gods more than to see mortals -enjoying themselves heartily; and on this plea, -both Buddhists and Sintuists indulge in all kinds -of excesses on holidays.</p> -<p>Music does not play a very important part in -the religious ceremonies of Japan. The Sintuists, -who worship the Kami, or demi-gods, employ -choirs on some occasions, and bear in all their -ceremonies, some resemblance to the Catholic -rites; this resemblance is yet more striking in the -Buddhist religion; so much so, that a pious divine<a class="fn" id="fr_158" href="#fn_158">[158]</a> -on beholding their customs, came to the conclusion -that the whole was a parody by Satan, upon the -Catholic church.</p> -<p>The annual <i>fetes</i> instituted in honor of the -chief Kami, consist almost wholly in ceremonies -of purification. On the day before the chief -solemnity, the priests march in procession, with -tapers, to the temple where the arms and other -objects which belonged to the demi-god, are kept -in a reliquary called <i>mikosi</i>. According to the -<span class="pb" id="Page_206">206</span> -priests, the <i>mikosi</i> is the earthly dwelling place of -the <i>Kami</i>; a sort of terrestrial throne, for -occasional inhabitance; and each year it must -undergo a thorough purification, in order to be -acceptable to the hero. The reliquary is emptied -and brought to the river; a certain number of -priests carefully wash it, while others kindle a -series of huge fires, to keep away the evil <i>genii</i>. -The <i>kagoura</i>, or sacred choir, play soft and pleasant -music, in order to appease the Kami, who is -temporarily deprived of his earthly dwelling; they -make as much haste as possible to restore it to him, -which is done by placing the relics again in the -reliquary.</p> -<p>The temple itself undergoes a purification lasting -several days, at the same time. Sometimes the -Buddhists send out collectors for their temples, -who sing and play, quite musically, in front of the -doors of persons from whom they expect to obtain -a gratuity; they continue at each door until the -heart of the proprietor is softened, or his patience -gone, when the door is opened and the singers -rewarded civilly.<a class="fn" id="fr_159" href="#fn_159">[159]</a></p> -<p>In order that the similarity of the Buddhist and -Christian rites may be remarked, we give the -description of the interior of a temple during -worship, as seen by a European traveller.<a class="fn" id="fr_160" href="#fn_160">[160]</a></p> -<p>“A hundred kneeling devotees were present; a -large shrine, with a gilt image in its recess; two -large globular lamps, and two burning candles, -<span class="pb" id="Page_207">207</span> -immensely long and thick; as also numerous gold -and porcelain vases, holding lighted tapers, and -surrounded by a forest of artificial flowers, were -the objects that most riveted his attention. On -both sides of this magnificent and richly gilded -shrine were two smaller ones, each illuminated -with lighted candles and perfumed tapers, burning -with colored flame; the effect of which was very -beautiful. In front of the principal altar, within -an enclosure, knelt six shaven-headed priests (the -latter, and physicians shave the whole of the hair -off their heads), robed in crimson silk, and white -crape; the centre and chief of whom engaged -himself in striking a small saucer-shaped bell, -while four more of the number performed a similar -duty with padded drumsticks on hollow vessels -of lacquered wood, which awoke a dull, monotonous -sound. They kept good time, playing in -unison, and toning their prayers to their music in -chanting. At the conclusion of this singing and -drumming they bent their foreheads to the floor, -after which they arose and repaired to the smaller -shrines, where a ceremony made up of gesticulation -and a solemn reading of prayers, took place. -In the meantime, the audience knelt, with their -eyes directed to the ground, and gave some time -to silent prayer.”</p> -<p>Music bore a part also in the funeral ceremonies -of some sects in Japan. The priest sang a eulogy -of the dead, just before the funeral pile was set on -fire.<a class="fn" id="fr_161" href="#fn_161">[161]</a></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_208">208</div> -<p>The order of “mountain priests” use a few -instruments of sound (rather than music) in their -wanderings. They have a staff with a copper -head, to which are fastened four rings, also of -copper, which they shake on uttering certain -words in their prayers. They also carry a shell -called <i>forano-kai</i>, to which a tube is attached, and -which they use as a trumpet. They blow a blast -upon this instrument (which in tone resembles -the horn of a cowherd) whenever they see any -travellers approaching, as a summons to them to -give some charity to the order.<a class="fn" id="fr_162" href="#fn_162">[162]</a></p> -<p>There also exist several orders of a semi-ecclesiastical -character; among which may be mentioned -the society of blind men. One branch of this -society gives the following legend as to its origin. -Kakekigo, a general much renowned for his valor -and supernatural strength, fought under a prince, -named Feki, against the famous hero, Joritomo. -In a great battle Feki was killed, and Kakekigo -taken prisoner. Joritomo, far from desiring to put -him to death, sought by every means to attach him -to his own army. One day, when he was pressing -him very close to enter into his service, upon -whatever terms he pleased, the captive general -returned him the following resolute answer:—“I -was once the faithful servant of a kind master. -Now that he is dead no other shall boast of -possessing my faith and friendship. I owe even -my life to your clemency; and yet such is my -misfortune, that I cannot set my eyes on you, but -<span class="pb" id="Page_209">209</span> -with a design, in revenge of him and me, to cut -off your head. Therefore, these designing instruments -of mischief, I will offer to you, as the only -acknowledgement of your generous behavior -towards me which my unhappy condition will allow -me to give you.” Saying this, he plucked out his -eyes, and presented them, on a salver, to Joritomo; -who, astonished at so much magnanimity and -resolution, instantly set him at liberty.</p> -<p>Kakekigo then retired into the province of Fiuga, -where he learned to play upon the birva (a musical -instrument mentioned above), and founded -the society of the Feki-blind, of which he himself -was the first head. Many of the members of this -society apply themselves to music, in which -capacity they are employed at the courts of Princes -and great men, as also upon public solemnities, -festivals, processions, weddings, and the like. The -society does not solicit charity, but its members -all strive to be self-supporting, as well as of -mutual assistance to each other. Whoever is once -admitted as a member, must remain so for life.<a class="fn" id="fr_163" href="#fn_163">[163]</a></p> -<p>The Birva, mentioned above, is a great favorite -with the masses, especially when played by the -Feki musicians, who still make it their chief -instrument. It has been known in Japan for -twelve hundred years;<a class="fn" id="fr_164" href="#fn_164">[164]</a> and one of the most beautiful -lakes in Japan, near Kiota is named Birva -Lake, from its shores resembling the outline of -that instrument.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_210">210</div> -<p>The religious chanting of some of the larger -sects, is quite impressive. Mr. Sile, Professor of -History and Philosophy at the Imperial University -of Yeddo, says:—“Some of the chants are very -impressive; especially those of the Buddhists; -they have a kind of sepulchral solemnity about -them, and when performed responsively by large -companies of Bonzes, on either side of a gloomy -temple, in front of a shadowy half-illumined -shrine, they sound like the mournful wailings of -prisoners, not of hope, but of despair.”<a class="fn" id="fr_165" href="#fn_165">[165]</a></p> -<p>The peculiarity of the performance lies in this: -every man chants, not on a given key, but on -that which best suits his natural voice. The time -is well kept, but the key notes are as various as -each voice that sings; as each one is allowed to -choose his own pitch. The effect is good; it giving -that blurred and massive sound, which is observed -when a large congregation repeats the “Lord’s -Prayer” together; but the inflections and intervals -are more marked and effective. Instrumental -music is also sometimes present. The -bonzes clad in heavy, sacerdotal vestments, -officiate to an accompaniment of gongs and tambourines.</p> -<p>The solemn entry of the high priest into the -choir, makes an immediate diversion in the -monotony of the service. This grand dignitary -is clad as richly as the bishops and arch-bishops of -the west; red cloak, green silk stole, and white -embroidered robes. He is followed by a young -<span class="pb" id="Page_211">211</span> -acolyte, dressed chiefly in white, who accompanies -his master, step by step, to offer to him, at an -understood signal, a cup of tea from a portable -vessel which he carries with both hands.<a class="fn" id="fr_166" href="#fn_166">[166]</a></p> -<p>Some of the Buddhist bonze-houses are celebrated -for their luxury, the number of their -priests, their magnificent attire, and the theatrical -grandeur of their religious ceremonies. There -are also endless numbers of retainers, heralds, -grooms and porters, attached to the monasteries. -The bonzes often give theatrical spectacles, in -which dancers and comedians appear. A very -curious piece is given on the fifteenth day of the -sixth month. It is a sword dance, or military -pageant, performed entirely by the priests. -Buddhism in Japan has been a most flexible and -conciliatory religion. It has succeeded so easily -against the older Japanese religion of Kami, or -hero-worship, because its introducers saw what -customs had become rooted in the Japanese heart, -and retained them. Thus we find the worship of -heroes, tolerated in the Buddhist faith, as well as -every spectacle and sound, calculated to please -the senses of the people. It also steered clear of -the rock upon which Christianity split (in Japan), -that is, the alienation of the people from their -rulers or sovereign.</p> -<p>Players of secular music, are numerous everywhere -in Japan, but few of them have any idea -of time or notation. Blind musicians (of the -fraternity above mentioned, and of another called -<span class="pb" id="Page_212">212</span> -the Buffetz) are numerous and much encouraged -by the people, probably on account of their infirmity. -Women and girls form the bulk of the -secular players and singers. Most of these have -been brought up to this from childhood, and (as -with the ancient Greeks,) the possession of a -musical and literary education often goes hand in -hand with considerable laxity of morals.</p> -<p>The practice of music is, therefore, not held in -any great esteem among men, as the few males -who devote themselves to it are chiefly itinerants. -The secular songs are often plaintive in character, -but at times also quite stirring and fiery.</p> -<p>In Japan, as in some other Eastern countries, -it is not unusual to find persons among the upper -classes, who, while disdaining to study the art -themselves, yet are very fond of listening to the -performances of hired musicians. The taste -seems to run entirely in the direction of melody, -and not at all towards harmony; although they -have a knowledge of a rude kind of harmony, -consisting of melodies played upon two or more -instruments tuned a fifth apart, thus forming an -endless succession of consecutive fifths. This -harmony, or a plain melody played in unison, they -prefer to the finest (or, in fact, any) European -music. Our readers will recollect the answer -made by the Chinese mandarin to Pere Amiot, -relative to his opinion on the respective worth of -Chinese and European music. A similar reply was -given by a Japanese nobleman to Dr. Müller, -when asked to give an opinion on our music,—“European -<span class="pb" id="Page_213">213</span> -music may please women, children, -and common people, but Japanese gentlemen may -not endure it.”</p> -<p>In singing, the Chinese custom of using falsetto -tones, obtains also in Japan. One peculiar taste -for Western music exists among the Japanese; -they like, and purchase many of our music boxes, -and many are made in Switzerland especially for -the Chinese and Japanese market. These contain -two Chinese airs; but it is said that the people -would enjoy them even more, if there were no -harmonies attached. The entire instrumental -music of Japan, partakes of a tinkling character, -suggestive of a music box.</p> -<p>Secular singing is an indispensable adjunct of -banqueting and feasting. These are frequently -enlivened by songs and the sound of stringed -instruments.<a class="fn" id="fr_167" href="#fn_167">[167]</a></p> -<p>The Japanese have a great <i>penchant</i> for excursions, -banquets and lively enjoyments; they have -been, not inaptly, called the “Parisians of the -West;” hence it is not surprising to find houses of -entertainment scattered broadcast throughout the -realm. In these tea houses, every kind of dissipation, -from the most innocent, to the reverse, is -found, often under the same roof. The most -aristocratic of these resorts, have a numerous staff -of attendants, among which are singers, dancers, -and guitar-players. Although these establishments -appear disreputable in European eyes, yet the -Japanese gentleman does not hesitate to take his -<span class="pb" id="Page_214">214</span> -wife and children thither, for a pleasure jaunt. -When we consider that the Japanese are the -most careful people in the world regarding the -education and behavior of their wives and children, -we cannot attribute this seeming incongruity to -negligence.</p> -<p>In tea houses of an inferior rank, when female -dancers and musicians are not among the assistants, -they may be sent for, and engaged by the hour. -These women never enter the lower class of tea-houses, -unless thus sent for. In this respect, as -well as by the correctness of their behavior, they -are to be distinguished from the lower order of -street musicians and dancers at fairs. These are -not allowed to perform in private houses; the law -compels them to confine their music to such -places as are subject to police regulations. Theatres -being included in this category, they often -appear there, at the request of performers in the -plays, in order to figure in the ballet.<a class="fn" id="fr_168" href="#fn_168">[168]</a></p> -<p>In Yeddo, many of the tea houses are built -along the banks of the river; and in this case, they -have large family boats or gondolas attached, -which they let out by the hour, to such parties -(and there are many) as desire to take their recreation -upon the water. Guitar players and refreshments -are furnished with these boats.</p> -<p>The lower classes are passionately fond of -listening to story tellers and singers, and these, as -in other Eastern countries, give open air performances, -<span class="pb" id="Page_215">215</span> -trusting to their ability to delight their -audience, for a voluntary recompense.</p> -<p>Every day at the close of working hours, one -may see groups of artizans, and laborers, as well -as many women of the working classes, either at -the door of the workshop or at a street corner, -arranged in a semi-circle around the story-teller.</p> -<p>National legends and romances are usually given -only by those women who have made a profession -of music and singing. This branch of street -singers forms a large class; they are less roving -than the others, and sometimes of rather a high -order of talent, as compared with their more -itinerant associates. The most distinguished of -them have three or four musicians as accompanists, -and do not themselves play upon any instrument. -The effect of these combinations is said sometimes -to be very charming, when heard and seen on a -summer’s evening, in a light bamboo frame work, -hung round with vines, and lighted with paper -lanterns.</p> -<p>Humbert has given the subject of some of these -legendary songs, and they are found to be of a -most sensational description. A few examples -will suffice to prove this.</p> -<p>“Asahina-Sabro charges a troop of enemies, -and passes through them, lifting with his right -hand, a soldier wearing a casque and cuirass, -and spinning him round in the air, while with the -left hand he kills two equally redoubtable warriors -with one blow of his mace.”<a class="fn" id="fr_169" href="#fn_169">[169]</a></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_216">216</div> -<p>“Nitan-nosiro, the dauntless hunter, astride -on the back of a gigantic wild boar, which has -flung down, and trodden under its hoofs, all the -companions of the hero, holds the furious monster -between his knees, and plunges his cutlass into -its shoulder.”</p> -<p>“Sonsige, one of the horsemen of the Mikado, -finds his comrades squatting around a checker -board; he spurs his horse, and with one bound, it -stands in the centre of the board, as motionless as -any bronze equestrian statue.”</p> -<p>“Tame-tomo desired to conquer the island of -Fatsisis. As he mercifully desired to avoid bloodshed, -he set about convincing the islanders that -resistance was useless. He therefore summoned -the two strongest men of the race of the Ainos -(the ancient inhabitants of Japan) and, seated -calmly upon a mass of rock, he presented his bow -to them, holding it by the wood and ordering them -to try and bend it. Each seized it with both -hands, and setting their heels against the wood of -the bow, they leaned back with all their weight, -and pulled the string with all their strength. -Every effort was in vain; the bow only yielded -when Tame-tomo took it delicately between the -finger and thumb of his right hand, and shot an -arrow which was immediately lost in the clouds.”</p> -<p>It must be remembered, however, that these -highly spiced romances are the especial pabulum -of the lower classes; and it may be ranked considerably -higher than the musical recreation of the -working classes of China.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_217">217</div> -<p>The laborers of Japan, sometimes sing while at -their toil, in a measured but cheerful manner.<a class="fn" id="fr_170" href="#fn_170">[170]</a> -Before leaving the subject of Japanese songs, it -may be interesting to note that in the days of -Kæmpfer, the Japanese were as curious about -our songs, as we are to hear those of barbaric -nations; for the emperor and his court, insisted -upon that grave historian dancing, and singing -before them.<a class="fn" id="fr_171" href="#fn_171">[171]</a> On one of these interesting occasions -the historian basely deceived the imperial -Japanese searcher after knowledge; for on being -commanded to sing, he sang to the emperor, a -love ditty, which “he had formerly composed -for a lady, for whom he had a particular esteem;” -and upon the emperor inquiring the meaning of -the song, he answered that it was an ode of praise, -in honor of the emperor and his court.<a class="fn" id="fr_172" href="#fn_172">[172]</a> Let us -hope that the Japanese will not lead our investigators -astray in such a manner.</p> -<p>The court of Japan had, at that era, musicians -attached to its service, though by no means on the -grand scale of the Chinese court. The empress -had her private band, consisting of players upon -the birva, the koto, and the samsinn. Theatrical -representations were sometimes added to music. -A corps of young comedians played little operas, -or executed character dances, some grave and -slow, in which a long mantle was worn; others -lively and playful, the dancers appearing suddenly -<span class="pb" id="Page_218">218</span> -and with appropriate movements, in the disguise -of birds or butterflies.</p> -<p>The court ladies had their private boxes at the -theatre and at the circus of wrestlers; many of -these customs still exist at the Japanese court -but not with the spirit and life of former days.</p> -<p>Processional music is, in Japan, similar to that -described in “Chinese Music,” noisy and distressing; -but it is by no means so generally used as in -China. In some processions it is not present at -all. The emperor formerly appears to have had -no music in his pompous cavalcades, for a description -of one of these pageants (written in the -seventeenth century), thus concludes:</p> -<p>“It is at the same time in the utmost silence -that the procession proceeds. No one is heard to -speak a word. Neither the spectators in the -streets, nor those who form the procession, make -the least noise. It can only be perceived by the -sound of men’s footsteps, and the tramping of -horses.”<a class="fn" id="fr_173" href="#fn_173">[173]</a></p> -<p>At the ecclesiastical processions, which take -place on days devoted to special <i>Kami</i>, (similar to -the saints days of Europe), and called <i>Matsouri</i>, -the music consists of the fifes, drums, and gongs -of the bonzery. Of course these processions vary -in proportion to the popularity of the special -Kami or saint. The greatest <i>Matsouri</i> which -takes place at Yeddo, is that given in honor of -Zinmou, the founder of the empire. Even those -who do not believe in Kami-worship, attend this -<span class="pb" id="Page_219">219</span> -feast to show respect to their country, and it has -become a patriotic as well as religious occasion. -Over a million of spectators, annually view this -procession. In the ranks appear an image of the -patron of sacred dancing, borne on a large drum; -and the sacred gong of the priests. The band -on this occasion is large, and flutes, trumpets, -big drums, cymbals, gongs, and tambourines are -among the instruments carried. The expenses of -the lesser <i>Matsouri</i> are often defrayed by the -people of a street or quarter which is specially -devoted to the <i>Kami</i> in whose honor it is held.</p> -<p>Many of the customs above alluded to are sensibly -losing their hold on the populace, since the -recent introduction of our civilization; this is -especially the case with such customs as come -under government surveillance. The military -music for example, has been remodelled on the -European plan; regimental bands in French style -(that is with a preponderance of drums), are now -attached to the Japanese national army. The -trumpet calls are said to be played with much -aptitude by the Japanese performers, but in the -matter of time-keeping by the band, and keeping -step to the music by the soldiers, exactness is yet -far from being attained.<a class="fn" id="fr_174" href="#fn_174">[174]</a> In the theatre and its -music, there is, as yet, not so great a change from -former days, yet there are many European customs -to be found there (though probably not all derived -from Europe), and the theatre differs from that -of China, in having a curtain in front of the stage; -<span class="pb" id="Page_220">220</span> -in being often built upon a permanent site; and -in other particulars.</p> -<p>The plays although sometimes quite as minute -in details as the Chinese, are much shorter, lasting -usually about two hours; and are often much -wittier.</p> -<p>There has been a peculiar manner of presenting -these plays; if five plays are to be performed in -one day, the following mode has sometimes been -adopted.<a class="fn" id="fr_175" href="#fn_175">[175]</a></p> -<p>The performers go through the first act of the -first play, then the first act of the second play, -and so on until the five <i>first acts</i> have been given. -They then take the <i>second</i> act of each play in -succession, and so on, until all the last acts are -given. The object of this custom is to enable -spectators to see one act, go away, and come again -in time for the next act.</p> -<p>Often, however, the spectators remain throughout -the entire day, and in that case refreshments -are openly consumed. It is also thought correct -for ladies to change their dress as often as possible -during the day, so that there is as much change of -costume, in front of the stage as upon it. In the -Japanese comedies there is generally a large -amount of love making. The tragedies deal -chiefly with the exploits of the mythological -heroes, and are expressed in verse, sometimes -declaimed, sometimes sung.<a class="fn" id="fr_176" href="#fn_176">[176]</a> The terrific combat -is an acknowledged essential of this order of -plays.<a class="fn" id="fr_177" href="#fn_177">[177]</a></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_221">221</div> -<p>The effect of the martial scenes is much -increased by a bass drum, called “taiko” (after -a celebrated ancient warrior), which is sometimes -played with a smaller one called “kakko.”<a class="fn" id="fr_178" href="#fn_178">[178]</a></p> -<p>The building where these plays take place is -very plain. The theatre at Matsmai, the capital -city of the Island of Jesso, is thus described.<a class="fn" id="fr_179" href="#fn_179">[179]</a></p> -<p>“It is a large and pretty high building; at the -back is a stage which with us, has a raised floor. -From the stage to the front wall, where the -entrance is situated, two rows of seats are placed -for the spectators. In the middle where we have -the pit, there is a vacant space in which straw -mats are laid down for the spectators. As this -space is much lower than the stage, those in front -do not intercept the view from those behind. -Opposite the stage, where in our theatre the -galleries and chief boxes are situated there are -only a bare wall, and the door for entrance.</p> -<p>There were no ornaments in the interior; the -walls were not even painted. The dresses and -decorations are kept in a separate building.”</p> -<p>In Yeddo this is far different and keeps more -pace with civilization, and, as Yeddo supplies the -surrounding provinces with both actors and plays, -the change is spreading throughout the empire. -The plays begin at six or seven, <span class="smaller">P. M.</span>, and last -(without the before-mentioned alternations) until -one or two o’clock in the morning. Theatres are -exceedingly numerous in the city; each has its -<span class="pb" id="Page_222">222</span> -own arms or design, by which it is called; and -these are painted upon banners and lanterns, -which are hung from a tower upon the roof of -each establishment. We give as complement to -the above description of the Matsmai theatre, the -following picture of a leading theatre at Yeddo.</p> -<p>“The interior of the theatre forms a long -square. There are two ranges of galleries, the -upper containing the best places in the theatre. -Numbers of ladies are to be seen there in full -dress, that is to say, covered up to their -eyes in crape dresses and silk mantles.<a class="fn" id="fr_180" href="#fn_180">[180]</a> The -whole of the remainder of the house is occupied -exclusively by men.</p> -<p>The floor of the house as seen from a distance, -resembles a draught board. It is divided into -compartments containing from eight to twelve -places each, most of which are hired by the year -by the citizens who take their children regularly -to the play. There are no lobbies. Every one -walks to his place on the planks which enclose the -compartments at the height of the spectators’ -shoulders, who squat on their heels, or crouch on -little stools. There is neither a ladder nor staircase, -by which to get down into the midst of them. -The men hold out their arms to the women and -children. The settling of the audience in its -place forms a very picturesque part in the preliminaries -of the representation. Tobacco and -refreshments are served during the whole evening -<span class="pb" id="Page_223">223</span> -by koskeis, or servants, along the before-mentioned -gang planks. On two sides of the pit are two -bridges of planks, which also communicate with -the boards of the stage; the first is nearest to one -of the doors; the second, which is four planks -wide, forms an angle with the extremity of the -boxes. On this bridge certain heroic or tragic -comic personages perform their part, and the -ballet is danced. The house is lit by paper lanterns -tied to the galleries; there is no chandelier -from the roof, which is perfectly flat, the cupola -being unknown in Japanese architecture. Large -lanterns are however, sometimes held up to the -roof, in order to light up the performance of the -acrobats, especially that of the ‘flying men,’ -who cross the theatre by means of cleverly -contrived mechanism.</p> -<p>The curtain which hangs before the stage, is -ornamented by a gigantic inscription in Chinese -characters, and surmounted by a target with an -arrow in the centre. This is a symbol of the -talent and tact which the actors are about to -display, and signifies that they expect to ‘hit the -bull’s eye’ of the audience’s wishes.”<a class="fn" id="fr_181" href="#fn_181">[181]</a></p> -<p>The performance generally lasts till one o’clock -<span class="smaller">A. M.</span>, and usually consists of a comedy, a tragedy, -an opera with a ballet, and two or three interludes -of acrobats, wrestlers and jugglers.</p> -<p>The tragedy we have already partly described -as of a mythological sensational type. In the -comedy it is often customary for the audience to -<span class="pb" id="Page_224">224</span> -address the actors, and the latter answer in kind; -thus frequently a brisk fire of <i>repartee</i> is kept up -which delights the audience far more than the -play itself. It is very rare in any of these pieces -that more than two actors are upon the stage -together. In the ballet the performers are richly -attired, and sometimes wear several dresses of -light silk, one above the other; as they dance -they detach a few of these vestments and allow -them to hang from their waist, a cloud of airy -texture seemingly voluminous, but in reality very -light.<a class="fn" id="fr_182" href="#fn_182">[182]</a> The Japanese plays are sometimes preceded -by a prologue in which much of the action -is described (<i>a la</i> Greek chorus) but not the -<i>denouement</i>.<a class="fn" id="fr_183" href="#fn_183">[183]</a> The performance of the jugglers -is most to the popular taste, for it is not unusual -to find the restaurants (with which each theatre -is surrounded, and which cater to the same class -of custom) quite crowded during the entire performances, -but the moment that the gong gives -the signal for the commencement of the juggling, -they are at once deserted, every one hastening -back to his seat in the theatre. The principal -parts of the performance are announced not -with a bell or with music, but by striking a small -wooden stick upon the stage.</p> -<p>Sometimes the actors pass through the audience -on their way to the stage, in order to give the -spectators an opportunity to admire their appearance -and costume, as closely as possible.<a class="fn" id="fr_184" href="#fn_184">[184]</a> The -<span class="pb" id="Page_225">225</span> -appearance of infernal personages on the stage is -always accompanied with lightning.</p> -<p>The principal characters of the drama are -accompanied on the stage by a couple of attendants, -each carrying a long stick at the end of -which is a lighted candle. The use of these -candles is amusing; they show to the audience -what they ought to admire. If the actor’s facial -expression be peculiar, his attitude graceful, his -dress fine, or his weapons elegant, the candle is at -once held to the part, to attract attention.</p> -<p>With regard to the literary merit of the -Japanese drama, not enough is yet known whereon -to base a detailed analysis, but it is safe to say -that the art is yet in its infancy. It is singular, -that, while we regard some of the situations in -their plays as exceedingly indelicate, they, on -their part, condemn our drama as totally immoral, -and would not tolerate such plays as “Hamlet,” -“School for Scandal,” etc.</p> -<p>The key to the enigma is this,—they allow every -license to unmarried ladies, but the married state -is with them inviolable. They therefore tranquilly -witness plays which would put “Camille” to the -blush, but allow nothing which involves post-marital -intrigue. Some of their actors are quite -skillful; there is one at present upon the Yeddo -stage, who performs the part of a man possessed -with the soul of a cat, and the blending of -human and feline character is said to be marvelous.</p> -<p>The caste of actors, as in China, is rather low; -<span class="pb" id="Page_226">226</span> -the comedians being in least repute. Although -the theatre is so well patronized, yet it is only by -the middle and lower classes; very few aristocrats -even of the lesser nobility ever attending, and -these even disguise themselves.</p> -<p>Of course, it was to be imagined that the Jesuits -would not (at the time of their mission in Japan) -neglect so straight a road to the popular attention, -as the drama. In their church at Nagasaki (more -than two centuries ago), they represented a play -in the style of the mediæval miracle plays, representing -the birth of Christ. The parts were taken -by the neophites and native students at the college -of the order. Everything passed off in the -best possible manner, as well in the appointments -of the theatre, as in the ease and smoothness of -the acting, and it would have been applauded in -any European theatre.<a class="fn" id="fr_185" href="#fn_185">[185]</a></p> -<p>It may be interesting to the reader to peep into -the green room of a Japanese theatre, during -performance. It is thus described,—</p> -<p>“In these places none but men are to be seen, -excepting from time to time some servants, or the -artists’ wives who bring refreshments to their -husbands, or come to give the last touch to their -toilet before they go on the stage in the costume -of either sex. In the midst of the general disorder -we find some very characteristic groups. Here -are musicians occupied in refreshing themselves, -and indifferent to everything else until the signal -to return to their posts shall reach them; there, -<span class="pb" id="Page_227">227</span> -two actors are rehearsing together the attitudes -and gestures which in a few moments are to -delight the spectators; and another sitting on his -heels, before a looking glass placed upon the floor, -is painting his face and adjusting his feminine -head-dress. A young devil beside him, has thrown -back his mask, with his horns and mane over his -shoulders and is fanning himself, while the chief -of the wrestlers, is tranquilly smoking his pipe, in -the midst of the acrobats.</p> -<p>Among the crowd, carpenters are coming and -going, carrying the screens and partitions for the -next scene; the machinist is working a trap -through which a whirlwind of flame is about to -escape; and the piece is going on outside to the -accompaniment of drum beating, amid the conversation -of the public in the house, and that of -the disengaged actors.”<a class="fn" id="fr_186" href="#fn_186">[186]</a></p> -<p>Such briefly, is the condition of music and the -drama in Japan, but such astounding changes are -taking place throughout every part of the life of -this enterprising people, that a description which -is appropriate at present, may be a record of past -customs, ten years hence. Already there is a -tendency in upper circles towards Western music, -but this may be rather a result of fashion (which -is being rapidly <i>Europeanized</i>) rather than of -genuine appreciation; even the present empress of -Japan has, it is said, a real taste for European -music and instruments. She is a good performer -upon the piano-forte.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_228">228</div> -<p>As with the Chinese, the customs in general of -the Japanese are at total variance with our own; -to show respect we take off our hat, they their -shoes. We get up, they sit down, (it is the height -of impoliteness to receive a visitor standing.)<a class="fn" id="fr_187" href="#fn_187">[187]</a></p> -<p>We turn the back as a mark of incivility, they -as a token of respect;<a class="fn" id="fr_188" href="#fn_188">[188]</a> their mixture of the truest -modesty with the greatest license, must ever -remain an enigma to us. Since then, we cannot -in other respects, judge this remarkable people, it -behooves us, in the field of music, to study them -without preconceived ideas of the art. That -music is in an undeveloped state with them, is -undoubtedly true; the absence of treatises and -system proves it; but what direction the art will -take in its development can only be settled by -time. That it will not remain stationary in the -midst of change, is a foregone conclusion.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_229">229</div> -<h2 id="c28"><span class="small">CHAPTER XVIII.</span> -<br />MUSIC OF SAVAGE NATIONS.</h2> -<p>The music of savage tribes, should properly -begin a chronological account of the music of -the world. It can scarce be doubted that the -strains which to-day delight the ears of the -rudest peoples, were similar to those which gave -pleasure to the uncultivated denizens of the earth -in pre-historic times. The scientific inquirer, -even to-day, finds unexpected points of resemblance -in music of nations and tribes, separated -from each other in distance, custom, climate and -religion; resemblances which are so numerous -that they can only be accounted for by the -hypothesis that the strains have come down from -an earlier, homogeneous race. Of course the -earliest efforts of primitive man were rather -rhythmical than musical, and even at present the -music of the least civilized races is altogether -rhythmical. The ease of the discovery that a -regular clapping of the hands, or stamping of the -feet, or striking two pieces of wood together, -could produce a pleasing effect, is so apparent -that it puts all discussion as to the origin of -music, out of sight; a fortunate occurrence, since -there are enough points of dispute yet left for our -wiseacres to contend over.</p> -<p>The discovery of drums and horns also came -<span class="pb" id="Page_230">230</span> -almost directly from nature; and here the musical -instruments of primitive man stopped; and -here also (in drums, clappers of wood, and trumpets) -the catalogue of musical instruments, of the -more savage peoples, of the present, ceases.</p> -<p>But among the more advanced tribes of savages, -we shall find instruments that will cause us to -coincide with Solomon’s opinion, that “there is -nothing new under the sun.”</p> -<p>With these, who did not stop contented at the -rude percussion and trumpet instruments, the -next step was probably to cut reeds of various -lengths and to discover that the length regulated -the tone. Here was the first real discovery in -music, for no sooner were high and deep tones -known than pleasant alternations would suggest -themselves, and as a consequence, melodies (however -uncouth) sprang into being. Possibly at -the same mystic era, the tension of the sinews -of some animal, left exposed to the breeze, -would fore-shadow string music. Then a thought -was required to find that the sounds varied with -tension of the sinews, and that a frame on which -several threads and sinews were extended in -different degrees of tension, could be made to -give the same variety of tones, but of different -quality of sound (<i>timbre</i>) from the reed pipes. -This already made demands upon the inventive -faculties, and in the infancy of music, as in the -modern orchestra, stringed instruments take the -lead.<a class="fn" id="fr_189" href="#fn_189">[189]</a></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_231">231</div> -<p>It is improbable, however, that all nations went -the same road in these discoveries. Accident had -much to do with it. The conch shell, among a -tribe near the sea, the horn, with a hunting -people, and, with people situated near the -bamboo forests, the “pans pipes,” would be the -first of instruments. Instruments of the order of -flutes, were also of easy fabrication, and the -knowledge that they are so wide-spread among -savages all the world over, is internal evidence -that they were “natural” instruments.</p> -<p>Without sketching further the probable progress -of musical invention, we shall now describe some -of the instruments and songs used by the people -of the world who are yet in a state of nature. -But first let us mention some instruments, which -have been handed down to us from an immensely -remote and ante-civilized period.</p> -<p>The antiquarians in classifying the progress of -pre-historic races from their earliest emergence -from barbarism, have called that age, when the -use of metal became first known,—the Bronze -Age; as at that time smelting not being known, -the use of iron was not understood, and metal -implements were fashioned of copper, which -could be beaten by the hammer (of stone) into -the required shape, even when cold.</p> -<p>Of this mysterious epoch, a most interesting -relic has been discovered, in the shape of a musical -instrument. In a sepulchre, in a deep ravine, -in Schleswig, were found very recently, a number -of ornaments of bronze and gold (silver as well -<span class="pb" id="Page_232">232</span> -as iron, was not then used), and also the horns -of many oxen. In the midst of this, lay a very -large <i>trumpet</i> of bronze; a sure token of the -existence of manufactured musical instruments, -thousands of years ago. This unique instrument -when blown, gives forth a deep, grave, and sonorous -tone. In common with all the barbarian -trumpets, it has but one tone. It is at present in -the Museum of Copenhagen, but was exhibited -at the Paris Exposition of 1867.<a class="fn" id="fr_190" href="#fn_190">[190]</a></p> -<p>The second of these instruments is more ancient -still. The age preceding the knowledge of the -uses of metal by early man, is called the Stone -Age. At this period the rude implements of use -and ornament were made either of soft substances, -such as wood, ivory, and horn, or else of stone. -Even in this crude epoch, instrumental music -seems to have existed, and not in its rudest form, -for a specimen has fortunately been preserved, -which, if authenticated fully, will show a degree -of musical taste at a most unexpected period. In -an ancient <i>dolman</i>, or sepulchre near Poictiers -was found a partly completed <i>flute</i> made of a -stag’s horn. The distances of the holes, and -shape of the mouth-piece, show an aptitude of -construction and an experience in acoustics; but -the instrument evidently belongs to the later -period of the Stone Age.</p> -<p>But the third instrument is more interesting -yet. It was discovered by M. Lartet in a ravine, -along with bones of animals now extinct in -<span class="pb" id="Page_233">233</span> -France. It is also a flute (straight, and with -mouth piece), with finger holes.<a class="fn" id="fr_191" href="#fn_191">[191]</a> It is made of -the bone of a reindeer, which seems a proof positive -of its being made at a time when the climate -and zoology of France were totally different from -the present. From the skulls found in tombs and -caves of this period, it appears impossible that -man could have been developed sufficiently at -that time to construct an article of pleasure, such -as this. The skulls are said to greatly resemble -those of the present natives of Australia. Yet -their possessors must have had a vastly superior -intelligence to the latter.</p> -<p>It is no great leap in fact, although it may be in -time, to leave the savages of our own ancient -race, and describe the musical customs of the -savages of another, and inferior one. Therefore, -we will leave the discussion of the above three -instruments and their makers to Anthropological -and Ethnological societies, and pass on to the -examination of the barbarian of the present age.</p> -<p>One of the most curious facts in savage music -is to be found in New Zealand. It is almost -universally conceded that harmony was unknown -to Europeans until the tenth century; yet in -New Zealand for unknown ages, a combination of -simple thirds in a short vocal strain<a class="fn" id="fr_192" href="#fn_192">[192]</a> has been -known. It only illustrates the assertion of the -force of accident, in the rise of music.</p> -<p>Here was a savage tribe of cannibals who came -<span class="pb" id="Page_234">234</span> -upon a most important musical idea (to be sure, -in a crude state, but still the germ of the -Harmonic theory) probably long before its acceptance -among civilized nations.</p> -<p>Another strange savage song is that which was -sung by the aborigines of Canada, at the time of -Cartier’s taking possession in the name of the -King of France (<span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 1537). The curious fact -here, was not in the music, but in the words, in -as much as the word “Alleluia” occurred in it. -This strange coincidence made some early writers -conclude that the inhabitants were Hebrews,<a class="fn" id="fr_193" href="#fn_193">[193]</a> -probably the lost tribes; it is needless to say, that -the surmise, was not borne out by any further -researches.</p> -<p>In describing the music of barbarian races, we -find that its sister art, dancing, is closely connected -with it, and that it is impossible to separate -the two. In the lowest tribes, the dance is the -most prominent part of the musical efforts of the -people. The Australians, who are considered, -from the conformation of their skulls, and legs, to -be nearest to the brute creation, have many -interesting dances. The most important of these -is the “Cobbongo Corrobboree,” or great mystery -dance. It is performed by the inhabitants of the -far interior of the island. We subjoin the account -of a witness of this event.</p> -<p>The time selected for this great event is every -twelfth moon, and during her declination. For -several days previous, a number of tribes, whose -<span class="pb" id="Page_235">235</span> -territories adjoin one another, congregate at a -particular spot, characterised by an immense -mound of earth, covered with ashes (known -amongst the white inhabitants as “a black’s -oven”), and surrounded by plenty of “couraway” -or water holes.</p> -<p>To this place, they bring numbers of kangaroos, -possums, emus, and wild ducks, and a large -quantity of wild honey, together with a grass -from the seed of which they make a sort of bread.</p> -<p>“Upon the evening on which the ‘corrobboree’ -is celebrated, a number of old men (one from each -tribe) called ‘wammaroogo,’ signifying medicine-men, -or charm-men, repair to the top of the -mound, where, after lighting a fire they walk -round it, muttering sentences, and throwing into -it portions of old charms which they have worn -round their necks for the past twelve months.”</p> -<p>“This is continued for about half an hour, -when they descend, each carrying a fire-stick, -which he places at the outskirts of the camp, and -which is supposed to prevent evil spirits from -approaching. As soon as this is over, during -which a most profound silence is observed by all, -the men of the tribe prepare their toilets for the -‘corrobboree,’ daubing themselves over with -chalk, red ochre, and fat.”<a class="fn" id="fr_194" href="#fn_194">[194]</a></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_236">236</div> -<p>“While the men are thus engaged, the gentler -sex are busy arranging themselves in a long line, -and in a sitting posture, with rugs made of possum -skins, wound round their legs, and a small stick -called ‘mulla mulla’ in each hand. A fire is lit -in front of them, and tended by one of the old -charmers. As the men are ready, they seat themselves, -cross-legged, like tailors, and in regular -serried file, at the opposite side of the fire to the -women, while one of the medicine-men takes up -his position at the top of the mound, to watch the -rising of the moon which is the signal for ‘corrobboree.’”</p> -<p>All is now still; nothing disturbs the silence, -save the occasional jabber of a woman or child, -and even that, after a few minutes, is hushed. -The blaze of the fire throws a fitful light along -the batallion-like front of the black phalanx, and -the hideous faces, daubed with paint and smeared -with grease, show out at such a moment to anything -but advantage. As soon as the old gentleman -who has been “taking the lunar” announces -the advent of that planet, which seems to -exercise as great an influence over the actions of -these people, as over many of those amongst ourselves, -the “corrobboree” commences.</p> -<p>“The women beat the little sticks together,<a class="fn" id="fr_195" href="#fn_195">[195]</a> -keeping time to a peculiar monotonous air, and -<span class="pb" id="Page_237">237</span> -repeating the words, the burden of which may be -translated in this manner,—</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">‘The kangaroo is swift,</p> -<p class="t">But swifter is Ngoyulloman;</p> -<p class="t0">The snake is cunning,</p> -<p class="t">More cunning is Ngoyulloman, etc.’</p> -</div> -<p>Each woman using the name of her husband, or -favorite in the tribe.”</p> -<p>“The men spring to their feet with a yell that -rings through the forest, and brandishing their -spears, and boomerangs commence their dance, -flinging themselves into all sorts of attitudes, -howling, laughing, grinning, and singing; and -this they continue until sheer exhaustion compels -them to desist, after which they roast and eat the -product of the chase gathered for the occasion, -and then drop off to sleep one by one.”<a class="fn" id="fr_196" href="#fn_196">[196]</a></p> -<p>We have already expressed our opinion that -the dance (pantomimic) first sprang into existence -when some savage finding his own limited -language (perhaps even, he had none) inadequate -to describe to his companions, some deed of hunting -or war which he had performed, reproduced -the feat in actions, to give a more perfect understanding -of it. If song be as old as speech, -dancing may be said to be as old as gestures.</p> -<p>We are not surprised, therefore, to find among -the Australians, dances which represent such -events. In the “frog dance,” the performers -paint themselves as usual, and then, squatting -upon their haunches, jump around in a circle -<span class="pb" id="Page_238">238</span> -imitating the motions of the frog. The “Emu -dance” represents the chase after that swift -running bird. The performer who takes the part -of the Emu, imitates its fleet, long strides, and -gives out the low rattling drumming sound which -is the bird’s only note.</p> -<p>In the “canoe dance” men and women stationed -in two lines, imitate the graceful motions of -paddling a canoe.</p> -<p>There is a dance “with partners” prevalent in -the southern part of Australia. Both sexes -participate in it. Each man carries a belt of -possum skin, or human hair, which he keeps -stretched tight, holding one end in each hand. -The men all sit down in a circle while a woman -takes her place in the middle; one of the men -then dances up to her, jumping from side to side, -and swaying his arms in harmony with his movements. -The woman also begins swaying and -jumping in time with him, as he approaches her, -and after a short <i>pas de deux</i> they dance back to -their places, while the centre is occupied by a -fresh couple.</p> -<p>A strange dance was celebrated by the Tasmanians -at each full moon. The various tribes -assembled at some trysting place, and while the -women prepared the fire, and fenced off a space -for the dance, the men retired to adorn themselves -with paint, and to fasten branches of bushy -twigs to their ankles, wrists and waists. The -women being seated at the front of the space, -one of the oldest among them, strode forward, -<span class="pb" id="Page_239">239</span> -calling by name, one of the performers, whom she -reviled as a coward, and challenged to come -forward and meet her charge, and answer it.</p> -<p>The warrior was swift enough in his response, -and, bounding through the fire, into the circle, he -recounted his deeds of valor in both chase and -war. At every pause he made, his female admirers -took up the list of his praises, vaunting his actions -in a sort of chant which they accompanied with -extemporized drums, made of rolled kangaroo -skins.</p> -<p>“Suddenly upon some inspiring allegro movement -of the thumping hand, thirty or forty grim -savages would hound successively through the -furious flames, into the sacred arena, looking like -veritable demons on a special visit to <i>terra firma</i>; -and, after thoroughly exhausting themselves, by -leaping in imitation of the kangaroo, around and -through the fire, they vanish in an instant. After -this, the old lady who was the origination of all -the hubbub, gave a signal, upon which, all the -females rose, and quite unadorned, gave a series -of acrobatic performances around the fire, that -were strange and wonderful to behold. The main -point being however, with each of them, to outscream -her sister singers.”<a class="fn" id="fr_197" href="#fn_197">[197]</a></p> -<p>In the dances of Australia and Tasmania, only -the rudest instruments of percussion are used, -and the chants are not musical, though sometimes -(rarely) the attitudes are graceful. A far more -musical and poetical people, are the New Zealanders -<span class="pb" id="Page_240">240</span> -who as we have already mentioned, intuitively -knew of harmony before the Europeans. -Many of their love, war, and religious songs have -real sentiments of beauty in them, and the gift of -improvising poems and songs is much prized -among them. Singular to state, they (unlike all -other savage races) do not use the drum in their -accompaniment. The <i>pahu</i> (drum) is only used -by them to give military signals.<a class="fn" id="fr_198" href="#fn_198">[198]</a> Their chief -instrument is the flute, which is usually made from -a human thigh bone; often that of a fallen enemy. -When this is the case, the instrument is more -than ordinarily prized, and is worn around the -neck. It is played through the nose, by placing -the nostril against the aperture, and blowing; -stopping the other nostril with the finger.</p> -<p>The native New Zealander sings in all his -sports and labours, and in spite of his <i>penchant</i> -for human flesh, is of a light and joyous temperament. -Every incident of war, chase or love is -commemorated by an extemporized song. Sometimes -these songs live for generations after their -signification has passed away; and thus it is, that -in many of the songs of this people, words are -found, of which, neither the singers nor audience -understand the meaning. One song (<i>E’Haka</i>) is -accompanied with much mimicry; when giving -this, the performers sit down in a circle, throw off -their upper mats, and sing in concert, making -meanwhile the wildest of gestures, and turning -up their eyes so that only their whites are visible.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_241">241</div> -<p>Their canoe song is very animating, and is often -accompanied by the primitive nose flute mentioned -above.</p> -<p>The words (improvised) are such as “pull -away! pull away! pull away.” “Dig into the -water.” “Break your backs,” etc., and are -shouted with stentorian lungs, but not unmusically.</p> -<p>But their greatest song and dance is the war-dance. -In this they far excel all other savage -tribes the world over. Their movements although -extremely violent, are made with a precision and -unity, to which all other races are strangers. A -description of this unique performance speaks of -it as follows.</p> -<p>“They begin by smearing the whole of their -clothing and painting their faces with scarlet -ochre, so as to make themselves as hideous as -possible. When they assemble for the dance they -arrange themselves in lines usually three deep, -and excite their naturally passionate dispositions -to the highest pitch by contorting their faces, and -thrusting out their tongues as an act of defiance, -interspersing these gestures with shouts, yells and -challenges to the enemy. The dance itself begins -with stamping the feet in perfect time with each -other, the vigor of the stamp increasing continually, -and the excitement increasing in similar -proportion. Suddenly with a yell, the whole body -of men leap sideways into the air, as if actuated -by one spirit, and as they touch the ground, come -down on it with a mighty stamp that makes the -<span class="pb" id="Page_242">242</span> -earth tremble. The war song is raised, and in -accordance with its rhythm, the men leap from -side to side, each time coming down with a thud, -as of some huge engine.”<a class="fn" id="fr_199" href="#fn_199">[199]</a></p> -<p>The New Zealander often entertains himself -with sham fights,<a class="fn" id="fr_200" href="#fn_200">[200]</a> but nothing has so intense an -effect upon him as the music and action of this -rhythmic war-dance. Even when actual war is -not impending, he will enter into it with a vigor -that is terrible. It transforms him for the time -into a monomaniac, and absorbs his whole -nature; even when the dance is given in honor -of a stranger, it is dangerous to go too near the -Maori (native New Zealander) until he has -become more tranquil.</p> -<p>On one occasion a party of New Zealanders, -visiting a European ship, were requested to give an -exhibition of their war-dance on board. They -did so, beginning without much excitement, but -gradually their leaps became so fierce and powerful -that the captain was afraid that they would -break the deck; he begged of them to desist, but -in vain; he might as well have spoken to a whirlwind. -His voice was drowned in the shouts and -singing of the frenzied warriors. The chief of -the party, showed the influence of its charms, in -a ludicrous manner:—</p> -<p>He had been presented on his arrival, with a -full suit of naval uniform, and he stalked around -the deck, in all the dignity of new clothes. He -<span class="pb" id="Page_243">243</span> -cheerfully allowed his followers to begin the war-dance, -but he himself looked on with conscious -dignity; but after the excitement had continued a -few minutes, he too was drawn into its vortex. -At first a gentle swaying of his body, in time with -the music was all: then a little <i>sotto voce</i> singing, -then he joined in the rhythm stamping, and -finally, forgetting his new finery, he sprang into -line and danced more enthusiastically than any of -them; so much so, that the clothes soon split, and -at the end of the dance he presented a very seedy -appearance. It is needless to say that the dance -could not in any way be checked, and found its -conclusion only when all the dancers were reduced -to a state of complete exhaustion.</p> -<p>With all savage people, song, dance and poetry -are indissolubly united; a fact which goes far to -prove the “naturalness” of the old Greek music. -In the Malaysian archipelago we find a similar -style of music, to that described above; but we -find the natural instrument of barbarians, the -drum, far more plentifully used.</p> -<p>The Javanese have two kinds of drums, both -made of copper, but differing in size and pitch. -The sound is like that of a distant bell, and as -they are used in sets, the compass often reaches -an octave. The larger set, called <i>Salendro</i> contains -but five tones in this interval; the general -effect of this set is <i>major</i>. The smaller set, called -<i>Pelog</i>, contains seven drums to the octave, and is -minor in style. The natives themselves speak of -the <i>Salendro</i> as being masculine, and the <i>Pelog</i> as -being more tender and feminine in its <i>effect</i>.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_244">244</div> -<p>The songs of Java (as also of other islands in -the Malay archipelago) are strongly suggestive of -the Scotch popular ballads, and can readily be -reproduced in our scale.</p> -<p>It is not customary to sing the written poems, -with an instrumental accompaniment unless there -is dancing simultaneously. As in French poetry -and song, many letters, usually mute, are sounded, -so in the Javanese much license of pronunciation -is allowed in song, which would be condemned in -prose. There are some traces of inflection and -accent, altering the meaning of a word; thus -“<i>boten</i>” signifies “<i>no</i>,” but when the accent is -placed on the first syllable, it signifies a haughty -or peremptory refusal, but when on the latter, a -mild and regretful one.</p> -<p>The Javanese have three styles of musical -compositions, the great, medium, and lesser. The -latter is used for the popular songs, the former for -the higher flights of poetry.</p> -<p>Very often one can hear an old native, on a -holiday occasion, singing of the great deeds of the -ancient princes; the subjects of his ballads, are -often borrowed from the <i>babads</i>, or popular -legends of the country, and he accompanies himself -with a species of stringed instrument. He -sings of the glories and fall of the kingdom of -Pad-jad-jaran, and praises and laments those royal -heroes. Many of the love songs of the Malays -are written in the form of question and answer, -as follows,—</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_245">245</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">“Where do the swallows go to bathe?</p> -<p class="t0">They go to bathe in the forest brook.</p> -<p class="t0">What has my loved one promised to me?</p> -<p class="t0">She has promised to chat a little with me,” etc.</p> -</div> -<p>This questioning and answering is not confined -to their music, for the Javanese are passionately -fond of conundrums.<a class="fn" id="fr_201" href="#fn_201">[201]</a> The imagery of their -poems and songs is of the simplest and most -natural description, fields, flowers, trees, rivers, -etc., appear <i>ad infinitum</i> in their literature.<a class="fn" id="fr_202" href="#fn_202">[202]</a> -Their early historical legends are full of Gods in -human form, of giants, and miracles; somewhat -resembling in this the Hindoo allegories.</p> -<p>Theatrical representations, of course form a -large part of both Malaysian and Polynesian popular -amusements. In Java, national history is -preserved not only by the ballads, but by pantomimic -representations; in the latter, little puppets -made of leather, wood, or paper, and sometimes -masked performers, appear. The performance is -accompanied by orchestral music, certain stringed -instruments of which are only played by women. -Some of the representations are given at night -behind a white curtain, and resemble what, with -us, are called, “shadow pantomimes;” these are -performed mostly by females, and often last all -night, breaking up, at times, as late as six in the -morning.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_246">246</div> -<p>At all Javanese <i>fetes</i>, music is played, and -every native is expected to entertain such wandering -musicians as apply to him. A refusal is apt to -cost dearly, as the irate musicians stone the dwelling -of the obdurate one.<a class="fn" id="fr_203" href="#fn_203">[203]</a></p> -<p>M. Scherzer, connected with the Austrian -Round-the-world expedition in 1857 (in the frigate -Novara), was not highly delighted with the -Javanese pantomime dancing and music;<a class="fn" id="fr_204" href="#fn_204">[204]</a> he -says:</p> -<p>“Conversation was carried on with difficulty, -for an incessant and stupefying noise was kept -up with the <i>gammelong</i>, or orchestra of bells. -Bayaderes, very scantily clothed, and excessively -ugly, executed sentimental and religious dances -of a most tedious description.</p> -<p>Stiff, slow, and thin, these damsels jumped like -forks, with motions as graceful as those of old -semaphores. The governor was kind enough to -explain to us, that the dance was meant to represent -the touching history of four sisters, who, lost -in the forest, implored from the divinity the -return of their mother.</p> -<p>This was followed by another choregraphic -entertainment, a dance of eight warriors, accompanied -by the perpetual <i>gammelong</i>. The same -delectable music, delighted the ears of those who -were without in the court-yard. Hideous masks, -on foot and on horseback, circulated there amidst -the crowd; a Mussulman priest was also howling -<span class="pb" id="Page_247">247</span> -fearfully, as he danced on hot ashes, near to a -mass of burning wood; others jumped in and -danced away frantically. At last the priest himself -joined them, and the shouts and gesticulations -became furious. This representation had -probably some signification of religious expiation, -at least it would have been deemed as such in -ancient mysteries.”</p> -<p>After this followed conjuring tricks of a wonderful, -though sanguinary description, “and then -the infernal <i>gammelong</i> began again.” Then -came excellent fireworks. “At last the <i>gammelong</i> -ceased its stunning noise.”</p> -<p>During Captain Cook’s voyage round the world, -Banks and Solander, two of his best associates -witnessed (<span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 1769) a pantomime in one of the -Society islands. It was of a comic nature, and -contained music and dancing. The subject was -the adventures of a thief, including his capture.<a class="fn" id="fr_205" href="#fn_205">[205]</a> -In Cook’s second voyage, Forster observed a comic -opera in the Society islands, which appear closely -allied to the above. Actors and actresses appeared -in this play, the first act of which concluded with -a burlesque beating of three of the participants. -The commencement of the second act was -announced by the musicians beating their drums.<a class="fn" id="fr_206" href="#fn_206">[206]</a></p> -<p>In the Tonga islands, the actors of these musical -dramas recite sentences which are answered by -a chorus of singers. There is a great variety in -their movements and groupings. Occasionally -<span class="pb" id="Page_248">248</span> -they sing slowly, and afterwards quickly for about -a quarter of an hour. Sometimes they form a -semi-circle, assume a bending position, and sing -in a subdued tone of voice, a soft air, which is -soon followed again by a loud and vehement -declamation.</p> -<p>It is a singular fact that some of the races most -addicted to cannibalism are also much addicted to -music. We have seen this already in the case of -the New Zealanders; it will be fully as apparent -with the most cannibalistic race of the globe,—the -Fiji Islanders. With them, music teaching is a -remunerative art, and any one who has composed -a new song or dance, can earn a large quantity of -goods by teaching it. Their musical instruments -are poor and few; they consist of pipes, flutes, -drums, and trumpets. The trumpets are merely -conch shells, blown through an aperture in the -side.</p> -<p>The flutes are nose-flutes, played by putting the -aperture under one nostril, closing the other with -the thumb of the left hand, and blowing. The -pipes are a species of pandean pipes made of -bamboo.</p> -<p>The dances are very carefully got up, and more -resemble military movements than dances, the -similitude being increased by the martial array of -the dancers, who are all dressed as if for war, -their faces painted with scarlet, their bodies -powdered black, and their best clubs or spears in -their hands. They execute intricate manœuvres, -marching in various figures, wheeling, halting, -<span class="pb" id="Page_249">249</span> -and stamping their feet in exact time to the -rhythm of the song, and the beat of the drum.</p> -<p>Sometimes several hundred men are engaged in -the dance, while the musicians are twenty or thirty -in number. The scene at one of these dances is -very picturesque, but it wants the furious energy, -which gives such fiery animation to the war-dance -of the New Zealanders; the movements, though -correct in point of time, being comparatively -dull and heavy. In order to enliven it a little -more, a professional buffoon is usually introduced -upon the scene, who performs sundry grotesque -movements, and is usually applauded for his exertions. -Music and dancing are always used at the -celebration of a marriage.<a class="fn" id="fr_207" href="#fn_207">[207]</a> Mr. Seeman in a -recent work<a class="fn" id="fr_208" href="#fn_208">[208]</a> says of the entertainment called -<i>Kalau Rere</i>, that, “with its high poles, streamers, -evergreens, [these cannibals are very tasty in -their personal adornments, wreaths of flowers, -evergreens, etc., being much used], masquerading, -trumpet shells, chants, and other wild music, is -the nearest approach to dramatic representation, -the Fijians seem to have made, and it is with -them, what private theatricals are with us. Court -fools, in many instances hunchbacks, are attached -to the chief’s establishment.”</p> -<p>The music of the remaining races of Oceanica, -does not differ very materially from the above-described -forms. Many of the instruments found -in use among the Malays, have had their origin in -<span class="pb" id="Page_250">250</span> -China and India,<a class="fn" id="fr_209" href="#fn_209">[209]</a> and therefore the description of -them has not been made so minute as that of the -instruments of those countries. Summed up -briefly, we find that the taste for rhythm is <i>every -where</i> prevalent; for instruments of percussion, -almost so, (the New Zealanders forming a notable -exception here), and that the prevailing impulse -of these races, on hearing rhythmic music, is to -dance.</p> -<p>We now proceed to the examination of the -music of another large division of the human -race.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_251">251</div> -<h2 id="c29"><span class="small">CHAPTER XIX.</span> -<br />AFRICAN MUSIC.</h2> -<p>In describing the music of the natives of Africa, -we will place in contrast the modes of the two -extremes of the scale of intelligence.</p> -<p>The Kaffir is certainly as far in advance of the -Bushman, as we are in advance of the native -Indian. The Kaffir is peculiar in music; very -deficient in melody, he is almost perfect in rhythm -and time-keeping. He is fond of singing in company, -and in fact is a rather convivial person -altogether. At social meals, while the food is -cooking, the guests often amuse themselves by -singing together until the repast is in readiness. -The subjects of the songs are various; love songs, -and war songs being held in equal favor, but the -Kaffir is always specially pleased with any song -that relates to the possession of cattle; and being -a cattle-owning people, they have many songs -celebrating their favorite subject.</p> -<p>Many of the Kaffir’s musical effects would seem -most ludicrous to us. Sudden contrasts, have, to -him, a special attraction, and it is not unusual to -hear him give the highest squeaks of falsetto, -and the deepest bass grunts, alternately.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_252">252</div> -<p>Loudness in singing is his great end and aim, -and to effect sudden <i>sforzando</i> effects, he has a -peculiar method, i. e.—the choruses of the songs -are usually meaningless, being often a mere -reiteration of the words e-e-e-<i>yu</i> (which may be -called the African “fol de roi de ray”), and -when, after shouting with full lungs on the <i>e-e-e</i>, the -singer desires more power on the <i>yu</i>, he effects it -by giving himself a sound thump in the ribs with -his elbows; this produces a marked emphasis on -the syllable, and the result, when two or three -hundred singers do this simultaneously is startling. -The Kaffir, contrary to our practise, <i>sits -down</i>, when he sings.</p> -<p>One of their favorite songs, is used at husking -festivals. “The dry heads of maize are thrown -in a heap upon the hard and polished floor of the -hut, and a number of Kaffirs sit in a circle round -the heap, each being furnished with the ever -useful <i>knobkerry</i> (a stick or club, very like a -<i>shillelagh</i>, but with a knob at one end). One of -them strikes up a song, and the others join in full -chorus beating time with their clubs, upon the -heads of the maize. This is a very exciting -amusement for the performers, who shout the -noisy chorus at the highest pitch of their lungs, -and beat time by striking their knobkerries upon -the grain. With every blow of the heavy club -the maize grains are struck from their husks, and -fly about the hut in all directions, threatening -injury, if not absolute destruction to the eyes of -all who are present in the hut. Yet the threshers -<span class="pb" id="Page_253">253</span> -seem to enjoy an immunity which seems to be -restricted to themselves and blacksmiths; and -while a stranger is anxiously shading his eyes -from the shower of hard maize grains, the -threshers themselves do not give a thought to the -safety of their eyes, but sing at the top of their -voices, pound away at the corn cobs, and make the -grains fly in all directions, as if the chorus of the -song were the chief object in life, and the preservation -of their eyesight were unworthy of a -thought.”<a class="fn" id="fr_210" href="#fn_210">[210]</a></p> -<p>The war-songs of the Kaffirs are fiery and -exciting, though in a less degree than those of -New Zealand.</p> -<p>Their poetry is full of metaphor, and alliterative -enough to be admitted into the opera -of the future. The participants sit in a circle, -sometimes three or four deep, with their knees -well drawn up, and sing, beating rhythmic accompaniment -upon the ground, twirling their <i>assagais</i> -(javelins), and occasionally enlivening the proceedings -with an ear-piercing whistle, or deafening -shout.</p> -<p>We give an English version (Mr. Shooter’s) -of two of these, merely premising that much of -the native beauty is said to be lost in the transposition -to a foreign tongue.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_254">254</div> -<h3 id="c30">PRAISE OF DINGAN. -<br /><span class="small">A VERY CELEBRATED CHIEF.</span></h3> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t2">“Thou needy offspring of Umpikazi</p> -<p class="t2">Eyer of the cattle of men,</p> -<p class="t2">Bird of Maube, fleet as a bullet,</p> -<p class="t2">Sleek, erect, of beautiful parts.</p> -<p class="t2">Thy cattle like the comb of bees.</p> -<p class="t2">O head too large, too huddled to move,</p> -<p class="t0">Devourer of Moselekatze, son of Machobana,</p> -<p class="t0">Devourer of Swazi, son of Sobuza,</p> -<p class="t2">Breaker of the gates of Machobana,</p> -<p class="t2">Devourer of Gundave of Machobana</p> -<p class="t2">A monster in size,<a class="fn" id="fr_211" href="#fn_211">[211]</a> of mighty power,</p> -<p class="t">Devourer of Ungwati of ancient race,</p> -<p class="t">Devourer of the kingly Uomapé;</p> -<p class="t">Like Heaven above, raining and shining.”</p> -</div> -<p>The other is an Alexandrian lament of the lack -of nations to conquer. It is in honor of Tchaka, -(a renowned warrior and chief).</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">“Thou hast finished, finished the nations!</p> -<p class="t0">Where will you go out to battle now?</p> -<p class="t0">Hey! Where will you go out to battle now?</p> -<p class="t0">Thou hast conquered kings!</p> -<p class="t0">Where are you going to battle now?</p> -<p class="t0">Thou hast finished, finished the nations!</p> -<p class="t0">Where are you going to battle now?</p> -<p class="t0">Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!!</p> -<p class="t0">Where are you going to battle now?”</p> -</div> -<p>From the extracts it will be seen that flattery is -not confined to European courts; the Kaffir carries -<span class="pb" id="Page_255">255</span> -it still further, for in addition to his own proper -name (which it is deemed ill omened to speak) -everybody of any rank, receives a number of <i>isi-bonges</i> -or praise-names, alluding to some action -or peculiarity. It is customary on all formal -occasions, to recite several of these <i>isi-bonges</i>, -just as a European nobleman on official ceremonies -desires to have all his titles proclaimed. In -songs, of course, the invention of these is unlimited. -Thus the great Panda, a renowned ruler of -enormous fatness, is spoken of as,—</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">“A swallow which fled in the sky,”</p> -<p class="t0">“A swallow with a whiskered breast,”</p> -<p class="t0">“Ramrod of brass,”</p> -<p class="t0">“Thigh of the bullock of Inkakavini.”</p> -<p class="t0">“Thou art an <i>Elephant</i>.”</p> -<p class="t0">“Monarch who art black,” etc., etc.</p> -</div> -<p>Such songs of praise are sung with great relish -by full choruses. Violent gestures are used to -heighten the effect. The songs are in unison, no -harmonic divisions being attempted.</p> -<p>The instruments of the Kaffir are few and crude; -the whistle before mentioned, although giving but -one tone, is a great favorite. It is so shrill that -it can be heard above the wildest din of the -<i>ensemble</i>.</p> -<p>A rude flute or flageolet is also sometimes -used; but the most-used instrument, is a primitive -harp with <i>one string</i> only, and whose tones though -light and sweet can scarcely be heard at six yards -distance. It is an ordinary bow with a string of -<span class="pb" id="Page_256">256</span> -twisted hair, and a hollow gourd attached at the -centre of the wood to give resonance. A ring is -passed along the string, to raise or lower the tone, -which is produced by striking the cord with a -short stick, or <i>plectrum</i>. The bow is about five -feet long, and exactly resembles the usual weapon, -which however is not used in war by the Kaffirs.</p> -<p>Although the resources of this instrument are -so extremely limited, the musicians of this people -are content to sit for hours, listening to its monotonous -sound.</p> -<p>Let us now turn to the degraded black brother -of the foregoing race, the Bushman. His amusements -are two;—singing and dancing.</p> -<p>The dance of the Bushman is to European eyes -a most uninteresting one; as there is scarcely any -motion or gesture at all in it, save that which is -made by <i>one leg</i>. Standing on one foot, the -performer shakes the other, (to which a string of -rattles, made from the ears of the spring-bok are -attached) occasionally giving his body a twist, and -singing vigorously all the while, changing the -foot, however, from time to time.</p> -<p>The spectators keep the rhythm by a constant -and regular clapping of hands and a monotonous -singing.</p> -<p>A water-drum, which is merely a wooden bowl, -into which a little water has been poured, and -over which a skin is tightly drawn, is struck -regularly in time with the movements of the -dancer; the latter when partially exhausted, falls -upon the floor, but still singing and kicking in time -with the music; after a short rest of this description, -<span class="pb" id="Page_257">257</span> -he jumps up and continues as at first. When -utterly exhausted, he retires among the spectators -and unfastening his leg-rattles, hands them to the -next dancer. The music to this odd performance -is <i>not</i> in unison; the dancer sings one air, the -spectators another, and the drum gives a species -of “ground bass” to the whole.</p> -<p>While engaged in this interesting occupation of -shaking one leg, the Bushman is completely -oblivious of all other considerations, as if he were -entranced. Discordant as the music seems to us -when annotated by the travellers who have heard -it, yet these same authorities are almost unanimous -in declaring that the effect is extremely -pleasant.</p> -<p>The most peculiar instrument of the Bushmen, -is the <i>goura</i>, which is shaped like a bow, but has -at one end of the string, a piece of quill inserted; -this quill is blown upon in the same manner that -we use a jew’s-harp. Women play upon this -instrument, but hold it perpendicularly, and do -not breathe upon it, but strike it with a stick, and -then catch it up, quickly to their ear, to listen to -the tones. When thus played, it is called, a <i>joum-joum</i>.</p> -<p>All the airs played upon this primitive instrument -seem to come by chance rather than skill, -and the performer never seems able to play the -same tune twice. But the same or better music -could be drawn from a much more compact and -portable instrument; therefore the <i>goura</i> has now -been almost superseded by a European competitor, -<span class="pb" id="Page_258">258</span> -and the favorite instrument of the African -Bosjesman now is the <i>Jew’s-harp</i>.</p> -<p>They also possess a rude banjo-like instrument -from which comparatively fair music could be -produced, but the Bushmen are content to strum -it without method, and take the music as fortune -sends it. A drum completes the list of Bushman -instruments; it is sometimes played with sticks -and sometimes with the fist. It can be heard at a -considerable distance.</p> -<p>In contrasting these two extremes of African -races, it is singular to remark, that the superiority -in music, if there be any, must be conceded to the -lower race.</p> -<p>We find much that is curious and worthy of -note in the music of those mysterious tribes of -central Africa, who have so recently become -known to us through the researches of Schweinfurth, -Stanley, and Baker.</p> -<p>Among the best known of these tribes, may be -mentioned the Nyam-Nyams, a set of most inveterate -cannibals, whose very name comes from the -sound of gnawing at food, and was given them on -account of their man-eating propensities. Their -chief musical instruments are mandolins or small -harps of four strings each, drums (mostly of wood,) -bells of iron, whistles and pipes. Many of these -instruments are very symmetrically formed, and -tastily carved, for in wood, iron, and clay designing -the Nyam-Nyams are very expert. Schweinfurth -thus describes their -music,<a class="fn" id="fr_212" href="#fn_212">[212]</a>—“They -<span class="pb" id="Page_259">259</span> -have an instinctive love of art. Music -rejoices their very soul. The harmonies they -elicit from their favorite instrument, the mandolin, -seem almost to thrill through the chords of their -inmost nature. The prolonged duration of some -of their musical productions is very surprising.” -Piaggia has remarked that he believed a “Nyam-Nyam -would go on playing all day and all night, -without thinking to leave off either to eat or -to drink,” and although quite aware of the voracious -propensities of the people, it seems very -probable that he was right.</p> -<p>One favorite instrument there is, which is something -between a harp and a mandolin. It resembles -the former in the vertical arrangement of its -strings, whilst in common with the mandolin, it -has a sounding-board, a neck, and screws for -tightening the strings.</p> -<p>The sounding board is constructed on strict -acoustic principles. It has two apertures; it is -carved out of wood, and on the upper side it is -covered with a piece of skin; the strings are -tightly stretched by means of pegs, and are sometimes -made of fine threads of bast, and sometimes -of the wiry hairs from the tail of the giraffe.</p> -<p>The music is very monotonous and it is difficult -to distinguish any melody in it. It invariably is -an accompaniment to a moaning kind of recitative -which is rendered with a decided nasal intonation.</p> -<p>“I have not unfrequently seen friends marching -about arm in arm, wrapt in the mutual enjoyment -<span class="pb" id="Page_260">260</span> -of the performance, and beating time to every -note by nodding their heads.”</p> -<p>“There is a singular class of professional -musicians who make their appearance decked out -in the most fantastic way, with feathers, and -covered with a promiscuous array of bits of wood -and roots, and all the pretentious emblems of -magical art, the feet of earth-pigs, the shell of -tortoises, the beaks of eagles, the claws of birds, -and teeth in every variety. Whenever one of this -fraternity presents himself, he at once begins to -recite all the details of his travels and experiences, -in an emphatic recitative, and never forgets to -conclude by an appeal to the liberality of his -audience, and to remind them that he looks for a -reward either of rings of copper, or of beads.”<a class="fn" id="fr_213" href="#fn_213">[213]</a></p> -<p>With some slight differences these men may be -found throughout Africa; almost everywhere -they are sought for and their talents enjoyed, but -they themselves held in contempt. Among the -Nyam-Nyams, their appellation in itself (“Nzangah”) -implies contempt, being similar to that -which is applied to despised and outcast women.</p> -<p>Contrary to the custom of almost all other -savages, the Nyam-Nyams delight most in gentle -music; some of the minstrels sing so softly that it -is impossible to hear them a few yards off. The -light Mandolin accompaniment is in good accord -with this <i>pianissimo</i> style of music.</p> -<p>Their dances, given by male and female performers, -are wonderfully swift, intricate and -pleasant.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_261">261</div> -<p>A great “Congo” or dance was given by some -of these people to Col. C. Chaillé Long, an -American officer on the staff of the Khedive of -Egypt, who made a very interesting expedition to -the Makraka Nyam-Nyams, and Lake Victoria -Nyanza in 1874. He thus describes the scene:—<a class="fn" id="fr_214" href="#fn_214">[214]</a></p> -<p>“Invitations had been sent to all the Nyam-Nyam -lasses, who came even from as far as -Parafio, and did honor to the occasion by brightening -up their copper and iron fastenings, and in -putting on fresh fig leaves. The loose bands that -encased their ankles, kept perfect time in loud -clanking sound to music really euphonious, and of -a symphony that my unmusical ear I regret cannot -translate here, evoked from a Sinon-like -wooden horse, that was beaten on its sides with -drum-sticks, or by parallel banana trees that were -traversed by different sized pieces of dry wood, -upon which several performers beat successively.</p> -<p>This musical instrument, as well as drums and -horns, the latter made of Elephants’ tusks, were -very similar to those I had seen at Ugunda....</p> -<p>The Sheik, a robust, powerfully developed man, -led his brave warriors in the dance, holding in his -hand, a curiously-shaped sword, his insignia of -office, whilst the round little forms of hundreds -of Nyam-Nyam maidens followed, each with giddy -swiftness as the “cancan” fantasia became fast -and furious. The festivity continued until the -‘wee sma hours’ of the morning.”</p> -<p>The trumpets of the Nyam-Nyam are more -generally used as war signals than as musical -<span class="pb" id="Page_262">262</span> -instruments; they are blown through a hole in the -side, and not at the end; therefore the mode of -performing upon them, rather resembles our style -of flute playing.<a class="fn" id="fr_215" href="#fn_215">[215]</a></p> -<p>Another musical nation of Central Africa is -the Karague; travellers who have visited them -have given more or less detailed accounts of their -instruments and festivities. Capt. Speke had the -unusual honor of a serenade from the royal court -band. The king after receiving a present of some -beads, cloth wire, and a tin box, was so delighted -that he sent his own band to give Speke a tune.</p> -<p>The performers used reed instruments (made in -telescopic fashion) and marked the time by hand-drums. -At first they marched and countermarched, -playing meanwhile much in the manner of -Turkish regimental bands; but this was soon -changed to a species of “horn-pipe,” which all -the musicians danced, playing furiously meanwhile.<a class="fn" id="fr_216" href="#fn_216">[216]</a></p> -<p>Another bit of musical ceremony which Speke -witnessed, will at once remind the reader of the -great “Zapfenstreich” or grand tattoo practised -sometimes in the German army. At the new -moon the king surrounds himself with numerous -drummers (Speke saw thirty-five); these strike up -together, gradually increasing to a deafening noise; -this is followed by a milder kind of music, similar to -that described above. The object of the ceremony -is to call in all the king’s warriors to renew their -<span class="pb" id="Page_263">263</span> -oath of fealty.<a class="fn" id="fr_217" href="#fn_217">[217]</a> The time keeping is said to be -very exact, and the drummers burst forth again -and again during the night. The war drum of the -Karague is beaten by women.</p> -<p>A kind of guitar exists among this people, and -six of the seven strings which it possesses accord -perfectly with our own diatonic scale, the seventh -string only, being discordant. Their wind instruments -are flageolet and bugle, or at least similar -to them.</p> -<p>Among the nations adjacent to those already -mentioned are the Bongo.</p> -<p>We again quote from the valuable work of the -most musical traveller who has visited this section,—Schweinfurth.<a class="fn" id="fr_218" href="#fn_218">[218]</a></p> -<p>“The Bongo, in their way are enthusiastic -lovers of music; and although their instruments -are of a very primitive description, and they are -unacquainted even with the pretty little guitar of -the Nyam-Nyams, which is constructed on perfectly -correct acoustic principles, yet they may be -seen at any hour of the day, strumming away and -chanting to their own performances. The youngsters -down to the small boys are all musicians. -Without much trouble and with the most meagre -materials they contrive to make little flutes; they -are accustomed also to construct a monochord, -which in its design reminds one of that which -(known as the Gubo of the Zulus) is common -throughout the tribes of Southern Africa. This -<span class="pb" id="Page_264">264</span> -consists of a bow of bamboo, with the string -tightly strained across it, and this is struck by a -slender slip of bamboo.</p> -<p>The mouth of the player performs the office of -sounding board; he holds the instrument to his -mouth with one hand, and manages the string -with the other. Performers may often be seen -sitting for hours together with an instrument of -this sort; they stick one end of the bow into the -ground, and fasten the string over a cavity covered -with bark, which opens into an aperture for -the escape of the sound. They pass one hand -from one part of the bow to the other, and with -the other they play upon the string with the -bamboo twig, and produce a considerable variety -of buzzing and humming airs which are really -rather pretty. This is quite a common pastime -with the lads who are put in charge of the goats. -I have seen them apply themselves very earnestly -and with obvious interest to their musical practice, -and the ingenious use to which they apply -the simplest means for obtaining harmonious -tones testifies to their penetration into the secrets -of the theory of sound.</p> -<p>As appeals however to the sense of sound, the -great festivals of the Bongo abound with measures -much more thrilling than any of these minor -performances. On these occasions the orchestral -results might perhaps be fairly characterised as -cats’ music run wild.</p> -<p>Unwearied thumping of drums, the bellowings -of gigantic trumpets, for the manufacture of -<span class="pb" id="Page_265">265</span> -which, great stems of trees come into requisition. -Interchanged by fits and starts with the shriller -blasts of some smaller horns, make up the burden -of the unearthly hub-bub which re-echoes miles -away along the desert; meanwhile women and -children by the hundred fill gourd flasks with little -stones, and rattle them as if they were churning -butter; or again at other times they will get some -sticks or faggots and strike them together with -the greatest energy.</p> -<p>The huge wooden tubes which may be styled -the trumpets of the Bongo, are by the natives -themselves, called “manyinyee;” they vary from -four to five feet in length, being closed at the -extremity and ornamented with carved work -representing a man’s head, which not unfrequently -is adorned with a pair of horns. The other -end of the stem is open, and in an upper department, -towards the figure of the head, is the orifice -into which the performer blows with all his might.</p> -<p>There is another form of manyinyee, which is -made like a huge wine bottle; in order to play -upon it, the musician takes it between his knees -like a violincello, and when the build of the -instrument is too cumbrous he has to bend over -it as it lies upon the ground.</p> -<p>“Little difference can be noticed between the -kettle drums of the Bongo, and those of most -other North African Negroes. A section is cut -from the thick stem of a tree, the preference -being given to a tamarind when it can be procured, -this is hollowed out into a cylinder, one end being -<span class="pb" id="Page_266">266</span> -larger than the other. The ends are then covered -with two pieces of goat skin, stripped of the hair -which are tightly strained, and laced together -with thongs.</p> -<p>At the nightly orgies a fire is invariably kept -burning to dry the skin, and to tighten it, when it -has happened to become relaxed by the heavy -dews.”</p> -<p>A short description of the signal horns of the -Bongo is also given by our musical traveller; -some of them resemble fifes, and many are made -of antelope horns.</p> -<p>Regarding the singing of the Bongo, Schweinfurth -is quite descriptive and as the deductions he -arrives at are very similar to those we have -ascribed to primitive or natural men, we introduce -the passage without alteration.<a class="fn" id="fr_219" href="#fn_219">[219]</a></p> -<p>“Difficult were the task to give any adequate -description of the singing of the Bongo. It must -suffice to say that it consists of a babbling recitative, -which at one time suggests the yelling of a -dog, and at another the lowing of a cow, whilst it -is broken over, and again by the gabbling of -a string of words which are huddled up one into -another. The commencement of a measure will -always be with a lively air, and every one without -distinction of age or sex will begin yelling, -screeching, and bellowing with all their strength; -gradually the surging of voices will tone down, -the rapid time will moderate, and the song be -hushed into a wailing melancholy strain.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_267">267</div> -<p>“Thus it sinks into a very dirge such as might be -chanted at the grave, and be interpreted as -representative of a leaden and a frowning sky, -when all at once, without note of warning, there -bursts forth the whole fury of the negro throats; -shrill and thrilling is the outcry, and the contrast -is as vivid as sunshine in the midst of rain.”</p> -<p>“Often as I was present at these festivities I -never could prevent my ideas from associating -Bongo music with the instinct of imitation which -belongs to men universally. The orgies always -gave me the impression of having no other object -than to surpass in violence the fury of the -elements: adequately to represent the rage of a -hurricane in the tropics, any single instrument -must of course be weak, poor, and powerless, -consequently they hammer at numbers of their -gigantic drums with powerful blows of their heavy -clubs. If they would rival the bursting of a -storm, the roaring of the wind, or the plashing of -the rain, they summon a chorus of their stoutest -lungs; whilst to depict the bellowing of terrified -wild beasts, they resort to their longest horns; and -to imitate the songs of birds, they bring together -all their flutes and fifes.</p> -<p>Most characteristic of all, perchance is the deep -and rolling bass of the huge ‘manyinyee’ as -descriptive of the rumbling thunder. The penetrating -shower may drive rattling and crackling -among the twigs and amid the parched foliage of -the woods; and this is imitated by the united -energies of women and children, as they rattle the -<span class="pb" id="Page_268">268</span> -stones in their gourd-flasks, and clash together -their bits of wood.”</p> -<p>The dances of these people are similar in wildness -to their music. The performers wear iron -rings, with balls attached, around their ankles, -and clash these together with such energy that -their feet are often bathed in blood.</p> -<p>The Mittoo tribe rank very high among the -African tribes, in their musical attainments; their -melodies are quite agreeable to the cultivated ear -and the pains which they take in mastering the -intricacies of a musical composition, recall to the -mind the difficulties which beset the path of the -civilized musical student.</p> -<p>We have seen a transcription of one of their -songs, which would require but little alteration to -transform it into a very fair “slumber song.”</p> -<p>Many of them are quite skillful upon the flute, -and have been described by Nubian travellers as -equal to the best Frankish (European) performers -who reside in Cairo.</p> -<p>The Monbuttoo also have a strong passion for -music, so much so that the king sometimes dances -before his wives and subjects, to the accompaniment -of the royal band.</p> -<p>In his court concerts he has horn-men, who can -modulate their tones from infinite tenderness to -the sound of a lion’s roar; and can perform upon -a horn so cumbrous that it can scarcely be held, -passages of runs, trills and shakes, which would -be even difficult upon a flute.</p> -<p>Court fools, jesters and mimics also appertain -<span class="pb" id="Page_269">269</span> -to the King of the Monbuttoo—Munza; they have -also a sort of national hymn, more noisy than -musical. The words are monotonous and much -repeated,—</p> -<p>“Ee, ee, tchupy, tchupy, ee, Munza, ee!” will -do as a sample line. The king stands up and <i>beats -time</i>, with all the gravity of a musical conductor. -His <i>baton</i> is made of a wicker worked sphere filled -with pebbles, and attached to a short stick, in fact -exactly what we should call a baby’s rattle. -When he approves the performance or gets -excited, he joins in the chorus with a stentorian -“B-r-r-r-r——” which shakes the house.</p> -<p>It is singular that music boxes should be popular -with Africans who indulge in such noisy -effects, yet such is the fact; there is no present so -desired by Negro potentates as a music box with -bells and drums.</p> -<p>Explorers can find no surer road to the heart of -an African chief than by a present of one of -these mechanisms. Sir Samuel Baker had great -trouble with King Kabba Rega (of the tribe of -the Unyori,) about a music box.<a class="fn" id="fr_220" href="#fn_220">[220]</a> Speke and -Schweinfurth both found them among the most -treasured possessions of the savage chieftains. -Kabba Rega’s reason for prizing the box above all -other musical instruments, is unique; on hearing it -play, for the first time, he remarked,—“It is more -convenient than an instrument which requires -study, as you might set this going at night, to -play you to sleep, when you were too drunk to -<span class="pb" id="Page_270">270</span> -play it yourself even if you knew how to do it.”<a class="fn" id="fr_221" href="#fn_221">[221]</a> -The national hymn of this monarch, bears -considerable resemblance to the first part of the -well known air—“Three Blind Mice.”<a class="fn" id="fr_222" href="#fn_222">[222]</a></p> -<p>We have not space to describe fully the rites -and music of that curious people, the Abyssinians; -two examples of their musical ceremonies must -suffice.</p> -<p>A funeral procession (reported by an American -eye witness) consisted of about one hundred and -fifty people, old and young, preceded by a few -priests; every few minutes the <i>cortege</i> would halt -to shriek and howl. The priests (clad in cotton -robes with broad scarlet bands) were acting in a -frantic manner; tearing off their turbans, pulling -their hair, then folding their hands on their -breasts and looking inexpressibly miserable.</p> -<p>They carried Arabic parchment books, illuminated -with quaint figures and devices, and now and -then chanted prayers to some favorite saint,<a class="fn" id="fr_223" href="#fn_223">[223]</a> very -dolefully, though with strong lungs and nasal -intonation. Numerous genuflections were made, -always accompanied with long drawn howls of -extreme agony. At the lowering of the body -into the grave, they chanted a prayer, of which -the following is a translation,—</p> -<p>“Werkena, son of Yasous, who was the son of -Tekee, is dead. Rejoice, oh ye people! He has -gone to his rest with Abraham, with Isaac, and -<span class="pb" id="Page_271">271</span> -with Jacob. Let us pray for those who still live, -and pray for the soul just gone to doom. From -vengeance and stern judgment, pray that his soul -be delivered. How can the souls be delivered -from tribulation? By long prayers. Pray, then, -that he be sheltered by Father Abraham, that he -may walk in safety by the side of Moses and the -prophets, Amen, and Amen!”<a class="fn" id="fr_224" href="#fn_224">[224]</a></p> -<p>After the grave was closed, the major part of -the mourners followed in the train of a musician, -who was discoursing lively tunes on an oboe, and -one of the priests, who had been mourning so -vigorously, offered to show strangers over his -cathedral for the consideration of one dollar.</p> -<p>A fitting contrast to this, is the musical ovation -tendered to the British Army, after the conquest -of King Theodore, April, 1868. The natives came -in great numbers to sing praises. They chose -for the subject of their psalm, the twenty-second -chapter, of the second book of Samuel, (David’s -song), beginning:—“The Lord is my rock, and -my fortress,” and they sang it with David’s own -fervor; and, to make it quite realistic, in imitation -of his dancing before the ark, the Abyssinian -clergy brought out an imitation of an ark, five -yards in length, one yard in breadth, and a foot in -height. It was covered with a scarlet cloth, -embroidered with gold, and above it was a -representation of a mercy-seat of crimson silk, -surmounted by a canopy of similar stuff; candlesticks, -lavers, priests’ robes, hyssops, communion -<span class="pb" id="Page_272">272</span> -cups, pixes, chalices, crosses of brass, silver and -gold, mitres, etc., figured in the religious paraphernalia -employed. The Neophytes kept up a -deafening, jingling clang; or, with instruments -of wood and brass, one stringed banjoes, clanking -brass cymbals kept a rhythmic time, which swelled -louder and louder as they drew near the headquarters -of the army.</p> -<p>“The priests (out of respect for their office) -took the front position, and one of them, with a -semi-ludicrous air, struck up the first note of the -impromptu stanzas which were to celebrate the -British conquest of Abyssinia.”</p> -<p>“As he warmed to his theme, and his voice -rose to enthusiasm, the motley assembly, at the -waving of a crucifix, chimed in with chorus, which, -sung with stentorian lungs, had a tremendous -effect. After the chorus, six priests clad in cotton -stoles headed by the sub-hierarch, took the eulogy -up at a very low key, which soon, however, rose -so high and shrill in a protracted continuity of -sound, that one momentarily expected to hear -their lungs crack, ending with a stormy chorus as -before. Then, forming themselves into a circle, -a hundred of them commenced a dignified sailing -round their neighbors, to the right and left, their -togas getting inflated with the movement, weaving -each into another, until it might have been -imagined that they had manufactured some -complicated knot, on the gordian principle; but, -soon taking the reverse method, they reached -their former positions in time. The singing went -<span class="pb" id="Page_273">273</span> -on louder and louder, and the choragus giving the -warning clap, the whole multitude clapped their -hands; the women and children struck up the -silver-toned ‘li, li, li,’ performing a dance -similar to the Chinese hop and skip.”</p> -<p>“They then formed triplets and massed themselves -together, when a shrill note from the boys, -sent them into a confused whirl, round and round, -the sub-hierarch and his six assistants going -faster and faster, as they acquired momentum, -clapping their hands, singing louder than ever, -the head priest ducking his body lower and lower, -and more energetic, until the dance and the -excitement which they all labored under, assumed -the appearance of a jubilee medley, composed of -waltzes, Dervish-dances, sarabands, fandangos, -pirouettes and chasses, the three latter performed -by the most youthful of the assembly.”</p> -<p>“It must not be forgotten, that all this time the -ark and mercy-seat—minus the cherubim—(which -was totally omitted from this Abyssinian -imitation), stood on the ground near the priests, -while a choice number of infantine neophites, -manfully rang the merriest chimes, and the -instruments of Juniper-wood, the one-stringed -banjos, and cymbals, made as much discordant -music as was possible under the circumstances. -The Ethiops before concluding the entertainment, -raised<a class="fn" id="fr_225" href="#fn_225">[225]</a> once again the Canto Trionfale.”</p> -<p>The effect Mr. Stanley says, had a wonderful -charm, and the blending of the mass of women’s -<span class="pb" id="Page_274">274</span> -and children’s voices with the larger and deeper -tones of the bass, was like the whistling of a -gale in a ship’s shrouds, blending with the deeper -roar of a tempest.</p> -<p>We cannot give a better idea of the hold which -music has upon the average native Negro, than -by narrating an incident which befell Sir Samuel -Baker, in the Shooli country.</p> -<p>He held a review of his troops March 8, 1872, -and after a sham fight, firing of rockets, etc., the -troops marched up and down a hill, with the band -playing. The natives assembled in considerable -numbers and viewed the manœuvres with much -delight; but the brass band music was the crowning -point of their enjoyment. We sub-join his -description of its effect upon these children of -nature.</p> -<p>“The music of our band being produced simply -by a considerable number of bugles, drums, and -cymbals, aided by a large military bass-drum, -might not have been thought first-rate in Europe, -but in Africa it was irresistible.”</p> -<p>“The natives are passionately fond of music; -and I believe the safest way to travel in these -wild countries, would be to play the cornet, if -possible, without ceasing, which would ensure a -safe passage. A London organ-grinder would -march through Central Africa, followed by an -admiring and enthusiastic crowd, who, if his -tunes were lively, would form a dancing escort of -the most untiring material.”</p> -<p>“As my troops returned to their quarters, with -<span class="pb" id="Page_275">275</span> -the band playing rather lively airs, we observed -the women racing down from their villages, and -gathering from all directions towards the common -centre. As they approached nearer, the charms -of music were overpowering, and halting for an -instant they assumed what they considered the -most graceful attitudes, and then danced up to -band.”</p> -<p>“In a short time my buglers could scarcely -blow their instruments for laughing at the extraordinary -effect of their performance. A fantastic -crowd surrounded them as they halted in our -position among the rocks, and every minute -added to their number.”</p> -<p>“The women throughout the Shooli are entirely naked; -thus the effect of a female crowd, -bounding madly about as musical enthusiasts, -was very extraordinary; even the babies were -brought out to dance; and these infants strapped -to their mothers’ backs, and covered with pumpkin -shells, like the young tortoises, were jolted -about, without the slightest consideration for the -weakness of their necks, by their infatuated -mothers.”</p> -<p>“As usual among all tribes of Central Africa, -the old women were even more determined -dancers than the young girls. Several old -Venuses were making themselves extremely ridiculous, -as they sometimes do in civilized countries, -when attempting the allurements of younger -days.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_276">276</div> -<p>“The men did not share in the dance, but -squatted upon the rocks in great numbers to -admire the music and to witness the efforts of -their wives and daughters.”<a class="fn" id="fr_226" href="#fn_226">[226]</a></p> -<p>Sir Samuel Baker also once used music for -quite a different purpose. He was quartered near -the town of Masindi, where dwelt Kabba Rega, -King of the Unyori, when one evening, he -noticed a most unusual stillness in the town, -where ordinarily drunken songs and horn-blowing -were the rule. Suddenly there sounded the deep -tones of a <i>nogara</i>, or drum. This ceased in a -moment; and then came a burst of terrific noise, -which caused every man in camp to rush to his -post. It was a din, caused by many thousands -yelling and shrieking like maniacs. At least a -thousand drums were beating; horns, whistles, -and every instrument which could add to the -confusion, was blowing and sounding, yet no -human being was visible.</p> -<p>The dragoman, on being questioned by the -commander, laughed, and said it was “to make -him <i>afraid</i>, and exhibit the large number of people -collected in the town.”</p> -<p>Gen. Baker on ascertaining this determined to -act as though it were a compliment which he felt -bound to return. He ordered the regimental -band to strike up, and play their loudest. This -nonchalance had its effect, for, after a short time, -the bugles, drums, and clashing cymbals of his -own band, were the only sounds heard; the -tumult in Masindi had subsided, and soon Gen. -<span class="pb" id="Page_277">277</span> -Baker ordered his own musicians to cease playing, -and all was again perfectly still.<a class="fn" id="fr_227" href="#fn_227">[227]</a></p> -<p>We close this account of the music of some of -the savage tribes of the earth, with a description -of a farewell dance, given to Stanley, by the -Wanyamwezi of Singiri, which is well worthy of -a place, as showing the powers of improvisation -of the Africans.</p> -<p>“It was a wild dance, with lively music, four -drums giving the sonorous accompaniment, being -beaten with tremendous energy and strength. -Everyone (even Stanley himself) danced with -great fervor, and combined excited gesticulations, -with their saltatory efforts. But after the close of -this war-like music, came a total change; all -dropped on their knees, and in sorrowful accents -sang a slow and solemn refrain, of which the -following is a literal translation,—</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0"><i>Solo</i>:—‘Oh, oh, oh! the white man is going home.</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0"><i>Chorus</i>:—Oh, oh, oh! going home! going home! oh, oh, oh!</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0"><i>Solo</i>:—To the happy island on the sea,</p> -<p class="t3">Where the beads are plenty, oh, oh, oh!</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0"><i>Chorus</i>:—Where the beads, etc.</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0"><i>Solo</i>:—While Singiri has kept us, oh, very long</p> -<p class="t3">From our homes, very long, oh, oh, oh!</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0"><i>Chorus</i>:—From our homes, etc.</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0"><i>Solo</i>:—And we have had no food for very long,</p> -<p class="t3">We are half-starved, oh, for so long Bana Singiri.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_278">278</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0"><i>Chorus</i>:—For so very long, oh, oh, oh! Bana Singiri, Singiri, Singiri! Oh! Singiri!</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0"><i>Solo</i>:—Mirambo has gone to war</p> -<p class="t3">To fight against the Arabs;</p> -<p class="t3">The Arabs and Wangwana</p> -<p class="t3">Have gone to fight Mirambo.</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0"><i>Chorus</i>:—Oh, oh, oh, to fight Mirambo,</p> -<p class="t3">Oh! Mirambo, Mirambo, etc.</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0"><i>Solo</i>:—But the white man will make us glad,</p> -<p class="t3">He is going home! For he is going home,</p> -<p class="t3">And he will make us glad! Sh, sh, sh.</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0"><i>Chorus</i>:—The white man will make us glad! Sh, sh, sh.</p> -<p class="t3">Sh——sh-h-h——, sh-h-h-h-h-h</p> -<p class="t3">Um-m—mu——um-m-m—sh!’”<a class="fn" id="fr_228" href="#fn_228">[228]</a></p> -</div> -<p>Mr. Stanley says that the rhythm and melody -were beautiful, and the general effect fine.</p> -<p>It is curious to contrast this quiet and pathetic -farewell with the bombastic “Where are you -going to battle now?” previously given; and it is -also noticeable, that the power of improvisation -which is so well developed in the African Negro, -is fully sustained by his descendents in America.</p> -<p>It will be an interesting task to the student to -compare the slave-music, especially the camp-meeting -songs of the American Negroes, with the -various descriptions of songs given above. The -same fervor of expression, and gradually growing -excitement, and the same exaggeration of feeling -will be perceived at once.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_279">279</div> -<p>It is not too much to say, that the Negro race -may be, when refined and toned down, the most -universally and thoroughly musical race on the -face of the globe.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_280">280</div> -<h2 id="c31"><span class="small">CHAPTER XX</span> -<br />MUSIC OF THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH.</h2> -<p>We now resume the chronological chain of -musical history, from the termination of “Ancient -Greek music;” for the music of the Christian -church took its rise, from the melodies of Ancient -Greece. Yet it is probable that the earliest -Christian melodies were not according to the -classical Grecian type, but rather conformed to -the popular in style. This has always been the -case in the rise of a new sect with sagacious -leaders. The Jews on leaving Egypt, yet sang -the popular melodies dear to their hearts, by -association of childhood and youth; only at a later -period, only when these songs were no longer -so endeared to them did David introduce such -reforms, as gave to the Hebrew music a distinctive -style. So, also, it was with the Christian -church in its earliest days; it would have been -positively injudicious, at first, to have attempted a -reform; and therefore, the old popular melodies -of Greece and Rome, were set to new words and -exerted a new influence.</p> -<p>Music has been, with every religion, the most -powerful accessory of the Faith; but with none -more than with Christianity. It had the additional -advantage, of being in an advancing state -<span class="pb" id="Page_281">281</span> -(under the charge of able directors, who fully saw -the power of the art when made popular) while -the music of the Pagan church was greatly declining. -The great emperor Julian, foresaw the -result, and used great efforts to secure a better -class of music for the Roman sacrifices, but without -avail.</p> -<p>With regard to the Christian music of the time -of the apostles, we have only tradition, but these -traditions have so much probability, that they -acquire some degree of authority.</p> -<p>Eusebius assures us that St. Mark taught the -first Egyptian Christians how to chant their -prayers: St. John Chrysostom affirms (in his -sixth homily) that the Apostles wrote the first -hymn. In Rome (according to Tertullian) the -chants were given in a deep tone, and not in a -sustained manner, at one part of the service, and -with strong accents, and flexible voice at another. -The Fathers of the church almost all bear testimony -that the music of the service generally -partook of the habitual style of singing of each -nation.</p> -<p>Kiesewetter, one of the most careful of the -students of Ancient Greek music, maintains that, -while the early Christians borrowed much from -Greece, yet from the first, the tendency was -rather away from, than in the path of the Greek -style. Brendel in his essays coincides with this -opinion.<a class="fn" id="fr_229" href="#fn_229">[229]</a></p> -<p>The cause of this, so far as Rome and Greece -<span class="pb" id="Page_282">282</span> -are concerned, is very apparent. The apostles -and their followers, started unencumbered in the -musical field. The theory of Greek music was a -most difficult one to master, and the converts were -at first almost wholly among the humbler classes. -It would have been impossible to have trained -them in the elaborate Hellenic school, therefore, -the more ear-catching melodies were at first used, -combined probably with a simple chant. The -same cause operated in the foundation of a newer -and simpler theory of music; hence, although our -modern music is the child of the ancient Greek -school, yet it did not go in the same course, or -arrive at the same goal which would have resulted, -had the old Greek civilization been continued two -thousand years longer.</p> -<p>We hold that the Greeks were too much devoted -to the plastic arts, ever to have brought music -deeply into the inner life.</p> -<p>Before the liturgy had been well established, -improvisation was much employed; a result always -to be anticipated when uncultivated persons -become musical. At the evening meal, the twenty-third -Psalm was usually chanted.<a class="fn" id="fr_230" href="#fn_230">[230]</a> Other -passages of scripture were also used, such as -Exodus <span class="smaller">XV.</span>, and Daniel <span class="smaller">III.</span></p> -<p>When the water was passed around for the -washing of hands, each one of the company was -asked in turn to praise God in song, and the selection -might either be taken from Scripture, or -improvised, according to the taste or ability of -<span class="pb" id="Page_283">283</span> -the performer.<a class="fn" id="fr_231" href="#fn_231">[231]</a> Some of the best of these -effusions were unquestionably preserved and possibly -even admitted into the regular service of the -church. The songs may have been rough and -uncouth, but they were given with a fervor which -compensated for any short-comings. They were -unaccompanied, for two reasons; first, it would -have been difficult to have formed an instrumental -accompaniment to such variable and primitive -songs, (sometimes a mere intonation of the voice, -scarcely to be called music or even chanting); and -second, because all the instruments of the heathen -were in daily use at the sacrifices and theatres; -and it would have seemed sacrilegious to have -used them in the celebration of a Christian festival.<a class="fn" id="fr_232" href="#fn_232">[232]</a></p> -<p>The summing up of the legends, surmises, and -few statements concerning the music of the earliest -Christians, are well expressed in Ambros.<a class="fn" id="fr_233" href="#fn_233">[233]</a></p> -<p>We can conclude regarding the music of the -earliest Christian times, that it was at first a -species of Folk-song, founded upon the school of -music then in vogue, but elevated and impregnated -with a new religious spirit. But this simplicity -soon was changed: profiting by the experience -of the Romans in uniting all art and beauty in -their theatres, (whereby the theatre grew, and the -church declined;) the early Christians soon found -it wise to unite every art, in the service of their -<span class="pb" id="Page_284">284</span> -church. It is also probable that much of the -music was borrowed from that of the Hebrews. -This is more natural when we reflect that Christianity -was at first a continuation (or reorganization) -of Hebrew rites and the apostles were all well -acquainted with the ceremonies of the Jewish -church.</p> -<p>The chanting of the scriptures which took -place in the latter worship, was undoubtedly -transplanted into the Christian service.<a class="fn" id="fr_234" href="#fn_234">[234]</a> Many of -the early psalms and canticles were sung in caves -and subterranean retreats in which places the -proscribed and persecuted worshippers were -obliged to seek refuge, and where they still kept, -up with undeviating regularity the practice of -their ceremonies.</p> -<p>Pliny the younger on being made pro-consul of -Bithynia was especially charged by the emperor -Trajan, to find accusations against the Christians -there, the number of whom was augmenting daily. -A letter of his, supposed to have been written in -the third year of the second century of our era,<a class="fn" id="fr_235" href="#fn_235">[235]</a> -contains the following regarding the new religion.</p> -<p>“They affirm that their fault, and errors have -only consisted of this;—they convene at stated -days, before sunrise, and sing, each in turn, verses -in praise of Christ, as of a God; they engage -themselves, by oath, not to do any crime, but -never to commit theft, robbery, or adultery, never -to break faith, or betray a trust. After this they -<span class="pb" id="Page_285">285</span> -separate and afterwards reassemble to eat together -innocent and innocuous dishes.”<a class="fn" id="fr_236" href="#fn_236">[236]</a></p> -<p>At a later period (the fourth century) all proselytes -and new converts were not admitted to sing -in the church with the baptized. The new converts -presented themselves before the hierarch, (a -dignitary who was charged with the duty of classifying -the catechumens in different orders) and -expressed to him the desire of joining the church. -If the questions of the priests were satisfactorily -answered, he placed his hand on the head of the -applicant and gave him the benediction with the -sign of the cross, and afterwards inscribed his -name among the number of candidates for baptism. -The catechumen had not the right to enter -the church. He might linger around the porticos, -but was on no account allowed to join in the -prayers, except in a low voice, and in the hymns -not at all, until he had received the rite of baptism.</p> -<p>The candidates for baptism were divided into -various classes. Even after baptism there were -three orders of Christians, and those who had -fallen into disgrace with the church, were sometimes -disciplined by being reduced for a few years -<span class="pb" id="Page_286">286</span> -to the rank of auditors at the services. These were -not allowed to join in the congregational singing, -and were sometimes not even admitted to the body -of the church edifice unless called there.</p> -<p>It is presumable that the right to join in the -singing was, during the first two or three centuries, -highly prized.</p> -<p>Little by little the spirit of improvement crept -into the unskilled but soul-felt music of the early -Christian church. It seems rather strange to find -in the very germs of the religion, a silent, yet real -contest between congregational and paid singing; -and to find the same evils creeping in with the -employment of singers in those early times, that -we see in the present days of quartette choirs. In -the days of Origen (about the middle of the -second century) all the congregation sang together.</p> -<p>St. John Chrysostom says,—</p> -<p>“The psalms which we sing united all the voices -in one, and the canticles arise harmoniously in -unison. Young and old, rich and poor, women, -men, slaves and citizens, all of us have formed -but one melody together.”<a class="fn" id="fr_237" href="#fn_237">[237]</a></p> -<p>A better picture of the full congregational -singing of the primitive Christians cannot be -given. The custom of allowing both sexes to -sing together, was abolished by the Synod of -Antioch in <span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 379, and it was then decided that -the men only should be allowed to sing the psalms.</p> -<p>In <span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 481, the council of Laodicea ordained -<span class="pb" id="Page_287">287</span> -that the clerks only (called canonical singers -“<i>Canonicos Cantores</i>,”) should be allowed to sing -during the service.<a class="fn" id="fr_238" href="#fn_238">[238]</a> The abuses which accompany -paid singing, appeared even in the second century. -Singers found themselves sought after in proportion -to their talents, and therefore (in the absence -of an exact method of notation) sought to make -those talents more conspicuous by an introduction -of florid ornaments and cadenzas into their music; -they gradually forgot, or disregarded the old -traditional style of singing, and sought only to -excite the admiration of the masses by exhibiting -to the best advantage the power and agility of -their voices.</p> -<p>It was, without doubt, to remedy this abuse -that Pope Sylvester <span class="smaller">I</span>, who occupied the pontifical -chair, <span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 320, founded a school in Rome for -the formation of singers.<a class="fn" id="fr_239" href="#fn_239">[239]</a> At this time also, the -choir had its own gallery or place in the church -assigned to it, and every art was called into play -to impress and enthrall the worshipper. Sculpture, -Painting, Architecture and Music combined, -as they had previously done for Pagan theatres -and amusements, to render the church a beautiful -as well as holy resort. Charity combined in some -instances with policy; for we learn that a singing -school founded in <span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 350, by pope Hilary, was -called an orphan asylum (orphanotrophia), and -here the education of clerks for the church, was -commenced at a very tender age.<a class="fn" id="fr_240" href="#fn_240">[240]</a></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_288">288</div> -<p>These schools did much to re-establish a dignified -and worthy style of sacred singing. Yet -there was great need of a sweeping reform; for as -there existed no really fixed system, the differences -in singing were almost as numerous as the various -existing churches. Before speaking of this reform, -we will briefly outline the progress of music -in Christian communities outside of Rome.</p> -<h3 id="c32">GREEK CHURCH.</h3> -<p>The Greek church, from the very beginning, -paid great attention to music in all its details. -The first institution of the mass, is attributed to -St. James the lesser, first bishop of Jerusalem, -who died a martyr in <span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 62. This mass is still -in existence. There are also existing, masses by -the two great luminaries of the Greek Church, -Sts. John Chrysostom and Basilius, who flourished -in the last half of the fourth century.</p> -<p>Although there are doubts expressed as to -whether St. John Chrysostom wrote the one -attributed to him, yet it is certain that the mass -was used in Constantinople (of which city he was -the Patriarch) as long ago as the end of the fourth -century, and was not materially changed until the -eighth century. It is entitled “The mystery of -the divine Eucharist.”<a class="fn" id="fr_241" href="#fn_241">[241]</a></p> -<p>The <i>hymns</i>, which at first were not used at all in -the Roman church, were one of the brightest -ornaments of the Greek. The verses and ancient -tunes of these hymns were at first well adapted to -<span class="pb" id="Page_289">289</span> -each other; but, by the constant introduction of -embellishments, shakes, and cadenzas, the connection -was soon lost.</p> -<p>This taste for ornamentation in sacred music -was driven to far greater excess in the Greek -church, than even in Rome; the taste <i>fioritura</i> -is to-day, and always has been, a characteristic of -most Eastern nations. This is driven to such -excess in the Greek church, that (in the churches -of the Orient, at least), the hymns are executed -by two singers, one of whom sings the hymns, -while the other sustains the key note or principal -tone only.</p> -<p>This note the singer gives out with regularity -and monotony, its only object being to keep the -principal singer in bounds and to prevent him -from straying away from the key on account of -the numerous trills and <i>fiorituri</i> which he is -expected to introduce into the song.</p> -<p>It may be well to mention here, as we shall not -recur to the music of the Eastern Greek church -again, that its style of notation, and singing has -altered very little, in the course of centuries; it is -totally different from that of all other countries, -and consists wholly of signs, which are not in any -manner measured off into bars, but somewhat -resemble the chants of the Catholic church. The -notes are only relative in value, and the scale on -which the melodies are founded, may be represented -thus,—</p> -<table class="center"> -<tr><td class="c">Re, </td><td class="c">Mi, </td><td class="c">Fa, </td><td class="c">Sol, </td><td class="c">La, </td><td class="c">Si, </td><td class="c">Do, </td><td class="c">Re.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">Pa, </td><td class="c">Bou, </td><td class="c">Ga, </td><td class="c">Di, </td><td class="c">Ke, </td><td class="c">Zô, </td><td class="c">Ne, </td><td class="c">Pa.</td></tr> -</table> -<div class="pb" id="Page_290">290</div> -<p>Every embellishment is represented by a character; -rising and falling inflections by others, and -comparative length of notes by yet others.</p> -<p>It will therefore be seen that although the -notation is decidedly complicated, there is a comprehensible -system followed, by consulting which, -we attain certain information as to one branch of -the early church.<a class="fn" id="fr_242" href="#fn_242">[242]</a></p> -<p>The works found in the old monasteries of the -Orient are almost invaluable to the musical antiquary. -We believe that many more will yet be -discovered among the monks of Mt. Athos, those -strange and illiterate custodians of some of the -rarest manuscripts in existence, relative to this -subject.<a class="fn" id="fr_243" href="#fn_243">[243]</a></p> -<p>We are sorry that a thorough description of -this subject (though full of interest) would demand -much space and many engravings. The effect of -the singing of this church in its oriental branches -is very similar to that of the Hebrews in their -services of the present day.</p> -<h3 id="c33">SYRIAN CHURCH.</h3> -<p>We now turn to the early Christian church of -Syria, founded by the Apostles Paul and Barnabas.</p> -<p>One of the earliest in existence, the church of -Antioch soon became the metropolis of Syrian -Christianity. Yet it was in this church also that -the first heresy took place, by the rise of the -<span class="pb" id="Page_291">291</span> -Gnostics (disciples of science); one of this sect, -named Bardesanes, founded a separate denomination -of these, and was the first who composed -hymns in the native tongue, and adapted them to -melodies. He composed one hundred and fifty -psalms in imitation of David.</p> -<p>But greatest of all the musicians of the Orthodox -Christian church of Syria, was Ephraem -Syrus. He is still called “Harp of the Holy -Spirit” in many churches who yet honor him -and celebrate his feast.</p> -<p>He was a monk of Syria, born of poor parents, -in a village of Mesopotamia. At eighteen years -of age he was converted and baptized, and soon -retired to a desert spot to practice penitence and -piety. It was in this retreat that he composed his -voluminous sermons, hymns, etc., all of which -have much poetic beauty and oriental imagery.<a class="fn" id="fr_244" href="#fn_244">[244]</a> -He wrote fifteen hymns on the “Nativity,” -fifteen on “Paradise,” fifty-two on “Faith,” -and “The Church,” fifty-one on “The Virginity,” -eighty-seven against “Heresy,” and “The -Arians,” eighty-five “Mortuary,” fifteen moral -hymns, etc. His writings on the <i>Peshito</i> or Syriac -version of the scriptures are still of use to the -theological student.</p> -<p>He arranged the music to his hymns, and he -himself speaks of having arranged sixty-six of -them in the style of Bardesanes.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_292">292</div> -<p>Many of the songs and prayers in the Syrian -liturgy, ascribed to St. Ephraem are spurious. It -is related that at the first interview between him -and St. Basilius, the former was endowed by the -Holy Ghost with sudden power to speak Greek, -and the latter Syriac, thus giving them a choice -of languages in which to converse.</p> -<p>It is impossible to give a thorough account of -the music of the Syrian Church, as although the -first instruments mentioned in the Bible (the taboret, -a tambourine held in one hand and struck -with the other, and Kinnor, a seven stringed -triangular harp) are Syrian, yet the people have -never, from time immemorial, written down their -melodies, but always handed them down orally, -father to son, or teacher to pupil.</p> -<p>The mass in Syrian liturgy, is very different in -its form, from the Catholic: there is neither <i>Kyrie -Eleison</i>, <i>Gloria</i>, nor <i>Epistle</i>, contained in it.</p> -<p>There are two distinct sects in the Syrian -church; the first Ephraemitic, or followers of the -Orthodox saint; the second, heretical and followers -of Jacob Baradaeus, a Syrian monk of the -sixth century. These are called Jacobites, and -hold Eutychian doctrines.</p> -<p>The music of the latter is ornamented to excess; -that of the Ephraemitic rite nobler and plainer.</p> -<h3 id="c34">THE ARMENIAN CHURCH.</h3> -<p>The rise of Christianity among the Armenians, -goes back to the third century, but they early -developed the doctrines of Eutychius, and the -Monophysites. At times, portions of the Armenian -<span class="pb" id="Page_293">293</span> -church have adhered to the Western church, -but in its rites it far more resembles the Eastern -Greek church. The language is well adapted for -song.</p> -<p>Their most ancient religious songs were written -by <i>Sahac</i>, the great <i>Katholicos</i>, or patriarch of the -church; the psalms were sung by them to popular -melodies.</p> -<h3 id="c35">THE CHURCHES OF AFRICA.</h3> -<p>St. Mark is considered as the Apostle of Egypt -and founder of the church of Alexandria; the -liturgy used by this church is said to have been -written by him; but many manuscripts exist -which point to St. Basilius as its author, and it -bears internal evidence that St. Mark could not -have written it, for among the prayers for the -dead, it names many saints, martyrs, bishops, etc., -<i>including St. Mark</i>.</p> -<p>The songs of the early Christians here, as -throughout the Orient, were hymns, psalms, and -anthems of which the melodies were taken from -the popular music of the day.</p> -<p>The Coptic church in its liturgy entirely resembled -the Greek church of Egypt, and in looking -over its ritual, one continually meets with translations -of the liturgies of St. Basil, St. Cyrille, or -St. Gregory Nazianzen. In the National Library, -of Paris there is also a Coptic translation of the -Liturgy of St. Mark.</p> -<p>The music of the Coptic church is very much -embellished, and of inordinate length; for, owing -<span class="pb" id="Page_294">294</span> -to the practice of the singers to vocalise upon one -syllable sometimes to the length of <i>several minutes</i><a class="fn" id="fr_245" href="#fn_245">[245]</a> -the vespers alone, often attain the length of -<i>four or five hours</i>.</p> -<p>As the rules of worship of the Copts do not -allow them either to kneel or to sit down during -services, they are obliged to support themselves -by placing under their arm-pits, a long crutch, in -order not to drop from fatigue.</p> -<p>This race is degenerating fast, and will soon -disappear under the despotic sway of the Arabs. -Their number is about one hundred and fifty -thousand. Few of them understand the Coptic -language, and although part of the service is sung -in that tongue, it is usually afterwards explained -in Arabic. Their modulations in singing are very -bold, constant, and fatiguing; so much so, that -long before the end of the song, all remembrance -of any key-note, is lost.</p> -<p>All writers agree in speaking of their music, as -tiresome in the extreme. This proceeds from -three causes;—their extraordinary length, their -insignificant melody, and the constant repetition -of the syllables and vowels of a single word, whereby -it is made almost impossible to follow the sense -of the text. This fault is not confined to the -Coptic sect only, but is largely found in the Greek -church throughout the Orient. Fetis gives a -strong example of one case, taken from an -Eastern Hymnal, it runs as follows,—</p> -<p>Aga-a-a-a-a-a-aate-e-e-e-e mara ky-y-y-ri-i-i-i-i-ou.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_295">295</div> -<p>Each of the vowels is given separate from -the others, and the effect is ludicrous in the -extreme. The Copts do worse than this; after -mincing a word into such minute fragments, -they go back and re-mutilate the first syllable, -then again the second, then perhaps the first two, -and so on for a long time before they give the -word complete like the Syrians.</p> -<p>The Copts have no musical notation whatever, -and it is a most curious fact in music, that they -should be able to recollect such lengthy songs, -devoid of any apparent melody, or sequence, -and hand them down traditionally, from generation -to generation; they must possess either -phenomenal memories, or an insight to a connection -of ideas in their songs, which has escaped -European perception. These remarkable descendants -of the ancient Egyptians, hate other Christian -sects with much more fervor than they do the -Mohammedans.</p> -<p>Of the Abyssinian Church we have already -spoken, (see chapters on “African Music”);—there -is little more to add. They have different -modes of singing for different grades of sacred -festivals. Responses made by the people or the -choir, enter largely into their mass. The number -of choristers is from eight to twelve, and they -have all powerful voices; this is in fact a prime -necessity, as at the door of the church, during -service, a constant din of drums, cymbals, and -sistrums is kept up.</p> -<p>On certain days, the priests and people have a -<span class="pb" id="Page_296">296</span> -grand religious dance, to the sound of these -instruments, while the chorus sing a litany and -all mark the time by a clapping of hands.</p> -<h3 id="c36">GENERAL SYNOPSIS OF EARLY CHRISTIAN MUSIC.</h3> -<p>That the art of music was esteemed among the -more educated of the early Christians is very -strongly shown by a fresco in the cemetery of -Domitilla (in Rome). This painting which seems -to be of the first or second century of our era, -represents Christ as Orpheus, charming all nature -by his music.<a class="fn" id="fr_246" href="#fn_246">[246]</a> It is probably only an allegorical -figure, representing his divine gifts, but the figure -must be a shock to all who are accustomed to see -the face of Jesus, as drawn by the Leonardo da -Vinci. Instead of the meek and beautiful form, -we see here a lank loosely-built young man, sitting -in a very uncomfortable attitude, on a rock, and -twanging away at a four-stringed lyre.</p> -<p>Regarding the origin of the present pictures of -Christ (although not strictly belonging to our -subject) we are tempted to make the following -remarks.</p> -<p>It is believed by some scholars that the head of -Christ was first copied from the statue of Jupiter -(or the Greek Zeus), which was, in the early -centuries regarded as the most perfect model of -manly beauty. It is scarcely to be doubted that -the general model of the Pagan sculptures was -followed in the early representations of the -<span class="pb" id="Page_297">297</span> -Saviour. But the style of portraits was altered in -consonance with the description handed down by -good authorities.</p> -<p>A brass medal with a head of Christ on one -side, was discovered in 1702, in some Druidical -ruins, at Aberfraw, Wales, which although of a -later era than that assigned to it, is of great -antiquity, and coincides with the pictures of -to-day.</p> -<p>There exists a letter ascribed to Publius Lentulus -and directed to the emperor Tiberius, which -describes Jesus. Although it is apocryphal, yet it -was certainly written in the days of the primitive -Christians. It is translated as follows,—<a class="fn" id="fr_247" href="#fn_247">[247]</a></p> -<p>“There hath appeared in these, our days, a -man of great virtue, named Jesus Christ, who is -yet living among us, and of the Gentiles, is -accepted as a prophet, but his disciples call him -the Son of God. He raiseth the dead, and cures -all manner of diseases; a man of stature somewhat -tall and comely, with very reverend countenance, -such as the beholders both love and fear; -his hair the color of chestnut, full ripe, plain to -his ears, whence downward it is more orient, -curling and waving about his shoulders.”</p> -<p>“In the midst of his head is a seam or partition -of the hair, after the manner of the Nazarites; -his forehead plain and very delicate; his face -without a spot or wrinkle, beautified with the -most lovely red; his nose and mouth so formed -that nothing can be reprehended; his beard -<span class="pb" id="Page_298">298</span> -thickish, in color like his hair, not very long but -forked; his look innocent and mature, his eyes -gray, clear, and quick. In reproving he is terrible; -in admonishing, courteous and fair spoken; pleasant -in conversation mixed with gravity.”</p> -<p>“It cannot be remarked that any one saw him -laugh, but many have seen him weep. In proportion -of body, most excellent; his hands and arms -most delicate to behold. In speaking, very temperate, -moderate and wise. A man for his singular -beauty, surpassing the children of men.”</p> -<p>From this letter of the predecessor of Pontius -Pilate (?) the two earliest known portraits of -Christ (in the Calixtine and Pontine catacombs -at Rome) were probably sketched and the model -has been followed up to our day.</p> -<p>But there is another description, by St. John of -Damascus, which is much more in keeping with -the Jewish type, of which he supposes the Saviour -probably may have had some trait.</p> -<p>According to him, Christ had beautiful eyes, -but the eyebrows meeting; a regular nose, flowing -locks, a black beard, and a straw colored -complexion, like his mother.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_299">299</div> -<h2 id="c37"><span class="small">CHAPTER XXI.</span> -<br />THE AMBROSIAN AND GREGORIAN CHANT.</h2> -<p>St Ambrose, the first real reformer in the music -of the Christian Church, was born <span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 333, -probably at Treves, where his father who was -prefect of Gaul, often resided. He is said to -have received an auspicious omen even in his -cradle; a swarm of bees alighted upon him during -his slumber, and the astonished nurse saw that -they did not sting him, but clustered around his -lips; his father, remembering a similar wonder -related of Plato, predicted a high destiny for his -son. He was therefore, thoroughly educated in -his youth, and soon was sent with Satyrus, his -brother, to Milan to study law.</p> -<p>He soon became so eminent in this profession, -that he was appointed (<span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 369) prefect of upper -Italy and Milan. In <span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 374 he was unanimously, -and against his will, chosen bishop of Milan.</p> -<p>Once in the chair, however, he ruled with vigor -and great sagacity, making numerous and necessary -reforms in church regulations and discipline.<a class="fn" id="fr_248" href="#fn_248">[248]</a></p> -<p>We shall only follow his musical career. Unfortunately, -although there are some remains in the -<span class="pb" id="Page_300">300</span> -Milanese church-chant of to-day, we have but -little proof of the nature of his reforms. That it -was deeply impressive we have the testimony of -St. Augustine who eulogises, without accurately -describing it,<a class="fn" id="fr_249" href="#fn_249">[249]</a> but it is certain that his reforms -were founded in part upon the Greek music, and -that in the Gregorian and Ambrosian chants of -the church, we have a legitimate descendant of the -ancient Greek music. The reader must remove -one impression from his mind; the music of the -early Christians, though certainly crude, was by no -means simple; on the contrary, it contained many -flourishes and rapid embellishments, most of -which were of oriental origin. The reform was -in the nature of simplicity, and added dignity to -a service, which already, in its words, possessed -beauty and poetry.</p> -<p>He cast aside much of the cumbrous nomenclature -of the Greek modes, and retained of them -only what was beautiful and easily comprehended. -He did not aim at any sweeping reform, as is -evident from his letter to his sister St. Marcellina, -wherein he says that he is endeavoring to regulate -the mode of singing the hymns, canticles and -anthems in his own church,<a class="fn" id="fr_250" href="#fn_250">[250]</a> and St. Augustine<a class="fn" id="fr_251" href="#fn_251">[251]</a> -says that it was done after the manner of the -churches of the Orient.</p> -<p>The modes which he chose for his compositions -were the following:—</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_301">301</div> -<table class="center"> -<tr><td class="l">First mode:— </td><td class="c">D, </td><td class="c">E, F, </td><td class="c">G, </td><td class="c">A, </td><td class="c">B, C, </td><td class="c">D,</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="c">re </td><td class="c">mi fa </td><td class="c">sol </td><td class="c">la </td><td class="c">si do </td><td class="c">re</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Second do. </td><td class="c">E, F, </td><td class="c">G, </td><td class="c">A, </td><td class="c">B, C, </td><td class="c">D, </td><td class="c">E,</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="c">mi fa </td><td class="c">sol </td><td class="c">la </td><td class="c">si do </td><td class="c">re </td><td class="c">mi</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Third do. </td><td class="c">F, </td><td class="c">G, </td><td class="c">A, </td><td class="c">B, C, </td><td class="c">D, </td><td class="c">E, F,</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="c">fa </td><td class="c">sol </td><td class="c">la </td><td class="c">si do </td><td class="c">re </td><td class="c">mi fa</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Fourth do. </td><td class="c">G, </td><td class="c">A, </td><td class="c">B, C, </td><td class="c">D, </td><td class="c">E, F, </td><td class="c">G,</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="c">sol </td><td class="c">la </td><td class="c">si do </td><td class="c">re </td><td class="c">mi fa </td><td class="c">sol</td></tr> -</table> -<p>It will be seen that the semi-tones are immovable, -and therefore occur in different positions in -each mode, by the change of the key-note; being -respectively,—</p> -<table class="center"> -<tr><td class="l">First mode, semitones </td><td class="c">2-3, </td><td class="c">6-7</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Second ” <span class="hst">”</span> </td><td class="c">1-2, </td><td class="c">5-6</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Third ” <span class="hst">”</span> </td><td class="c">4-5, </td><td class="c">7-8</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Fourth ” <span class="hst">”</span> </td><td class="c">3-4, </td><td class="c">6-7</td></tr> -</table> -<p>It was this distinction which gave to each mode -its peculiar character.</p> -<p>Not only did St. Ambrose reinstate these -modes, but he composed many beautiful compositions -in them. Many of the so-called Ambrosian -chants and hymns, were not written by him, but -after his manner; but some ten of the ancient -hymns, including “<i>Veni Redemptor Gentium</i>,” -“<i>Eterna Christi munera</i>,” etc., are from his own -pen.</p> -<p>The Cathedral of Milan still uses <i>Aeterne rerum -conditor</i>; <i>Deus Creator omnium</i>; <i>Veni Redemptor -omnium</i>; <i>Splendor Paternæ gloriæ</i>; <i>Consors -paterni luminis</i>; and <i>O Lux Beata Trinitas</i>.<a class="fn" id="fr_252" href="#fn_252">[252]</a></p> -<p>Some of these are of rare beauty, and remain -<span class="pb" id="Page_302">302</span> -as monuments of the cultivated taste of this -pioneer in church music. The composition of the -“<i>Te Deum Laudamus</i>,” has been ascribed to St. -Ambrose, and St. Augustine; but it was composed -nearly a century after their death. Among other -persons to whom this beautiful production has -been assigned, may be mentioned St. Hilary, St. -Abundius, St. Sisebut, and St. Nicat; but it may -be safely affirmed that its real author has never -been discovered.</p> -<p>The greatest boon bestowed on the church by -St. Ambrose was the rhythmical hymn, mentioned -above, all of which, and many others he wrote -for the Cathedral which he built at Milan.</p> -<p>“The entire accent, and style of chanting as -regulated by him, was undoubtedly an artistic -and cultivated improvement on that of preceding -church services, such as would naturally result -from the rare combination of piety, zeal, intellect, -and poetical and musical power by which he was -distinguished.” The Ambrosian chant was eventually -merged, but certainly not lost in that vast -repertory of plain song, (whether then ancient or -modern,) which we now call Gregorian, from the -name of the next great reformer of church music, -St. Gregory the Great.<a class="fn" id="fr_253" href="#fn_253">[253]</a> St. Ambrose died <span class="smaller">A. D.</span> -397; it was but a short time afterwards that the -great invasion of the northern barbarians took -place. The history of the vicissitudes of the -ecclesiastical music, during the general disruption -of Europe and the western civilization, which -<span class="pb" id="Page_303">303</span> -followed, can only be imagined; but scarcely had -a calm been re-established, when, at a period when -the reforms and inventions of St. Ambrose had -not been vitiated or lost, the great reformer of -church music arose, and re-instated the art upon -a firmer pedestal than ever.</p> -<p>Gregory, the Great, born about <span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 540, and -pope from September 3, 590, to March 12, 604, -was of an illustrious Roman family. His father -Gordianus, was a senator, and Felix <span class="smaller">III.</span>, one of the -early pontiffs, was among his ancestors. He was -one of the most remarkable, zealous, and intelligent -of the fathers of the church.</p> -<p>We have here only to follow his musical work, -but in every branch of work connected with his -church, he was most eminent. He founded six -monasteries in Sicily alone. He voluntarily resigned -an honorable office, to leave the world, and -seek retirement in the monastery of St. Andrew, -which he himself had founded at Rome. On this -occasion he gave to the poor all his wealth, and -declining the abbacy of his own convent, began -with the ordinary monastic life, about 575.</p> -<p>He wished to attempt the conversion of the Britains, -(moved thereto by the well known incident -of seeing some beautiful Anglo-Saxon youths -exposed for sale in the Roman market place), but -was prevented by the clamor of the populace who -refused to lose him. Like St. Ambrose, he was -called to office entirely against his will, and, on -being made pontiff, he seems to have excelled in -every department of his administration; thus -<span class="pb" id="Page_304">304</span> -much, to show that music was but one of the fields -in which this wonderful man exercised his talents.</p> -<p>He collected the available church music, he -added to it by composing new hymns and anthems, -he arranged them for the various special days of -the year, he invented or amplified the system of -ecclesiastical composition, and took care that the -reforms should be permanent, by having most -things relative to his musical labors, written out -in a lasting manner.<a class="fn" id="fr_254" href="#fn_254">[254]</a></p> -<p>These reforms he began about <span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 599. He -did not discard the four modes of St. Ambrose, -but rather extended them; and yet (through the -great personal popularity of St. Ambrose), the -Milan Cathedral kept the Ambrosian chant -unadulterated, for centuries after the establishment -of the Gregorian.</p> -<p>As late as the latter half of the fifteenth -century, Franchinus Gafor speaks of the Gregorians and -Ambrosians as partizans. Of course, in -order to secure uniformity, the rulers of Europe, -sought to dwarf the workings of the Ambrosian -system, and Charlemagne even ordered the -Ambrosian books to be burnt. Although, as above -stated, there was nothing antagonistic in the two -systems, yet their musical results seem to have -had a material difference, for Radulf of Tongern -an unimpeachable witness of the fourteenth -century, who heard both methods in their purity, -says that he found the Ambrosian chanting, -widely different from the Roman (Gregorian); -<span class="pb" id="Page_305">305</span> -the former being strong and majestic, while the -latter was sweet-toned, and well arranged.<a class="fn" id="fr_255" href="#fn_255">[255]</a> This -distinction is utterly meaningless to us, for the -Gregorian chant is certainly majestic and strong, -at least to our ears.</p> -<p>Gregory also founded a singing school in Rome, -which was large enough to occupy two good-sized -edifices. In this he probably taught personally.</p> -<p>There have been shown as relics of his instruction, -the couch on which he sat while teaching, -and the rod with which the boys were corrected, or -awed into giving proper attention to their studies.</p> -<p>The amplification which he made in the Ambrosian -scale was the addition of four tones or plagal -modes, and also that he totally abolished the -difficult Greek nomenclature, such as <i>para-mese</i> -and <i>proslambanomenos</i>, and gave the names of -the first seven letters of the Roman alphabet, to -the seven notes, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, in -the same manner as used to-day. There is no -question but that the scale founded by Gregory, -had a diatonic character, but as to the number of -systems of tones employed, authorities differ, and -even the books of music of Gregory’s own compilation -(one of which was chained to the altar at -St. Peters, to fix the standard of tone for ever -and ever) do not clear up the difficulty, for the -number differs.</p> -<p>But the system gradually settled itself, and -eight tones only (our ordinary diatonic scale -<span class="pb" id="Page_306">306</span> -tones) were found practicable for composition and -singing.</p> -<p>Gregory’s system was founded on the division -of the octave into two intervals; a perfect fifth and -perfect fourth. The fifth was, next to the octave, -the most important interval.</p> -<p>The added modes (called plagal, signifying -“oblique, sideways”), were so called to distinguish -them from the authentic tones or keys (D, E, F, -G, A), a synopsis of the entire set of tones would -be as follows,—</p> -<table class="center"> -<tr><td class="c">A, </td><td class="c">B, </td><td class="c">C, </td><td class="c">D, </td><td class="c">E, </td><td class="c">F, </td><td class="c">G, </td><td class="c">A, </td><td class="c">B, </td><td class="c">C, </td><td class="c">D,</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="4" class="cl">plagal 4,</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c"> </td><td class="c"> </td><td class="c"> </td><td colspan="5" class="cl">authentic 5,</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c"> </td><td class="c"> </td><td class="c"> </td><td class="c"> </td><td class="c"> </td><td class="c"> </td><td class="c"> </td><td colspan="4" class="cl">plagal 4.</td></tr> -</table> -<p>There were four authentic modes, viz.,—D, -E, F and G, and four plagal, as follows,—A, -B, C and D.</p> -<p>To give a description that would be at all -adequate, of the system of Gregory, would require -much space, and many plates and engravings. -We shall therefore touch but lightly on the tone -systems and notations of the early and middle -ages. The founding of the scale from a fifth and -fourth, led to one grave mistake; these intervals -were supposed to be of prime importance, and -more perfect than others, and finally were employed -in harmonies which were decidedly harsh. -But to such an extent did the evil spread that no -composition (in the dark ages) was thought to be -pure or classic, without containing a series of -<span class="pb" id="Page_307">307</span> -fourths, fifths, and octaves, and an invariable -close upon an empty fifth. Thirds were rejected -as totally impure. But these faults are not of -Gregory’s origination, and he must ever stand as -the man who made the connecting link between -the old Greek music and our own.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_308">308</div> -<h2 id="c38"><span class="small">CHAPTER XXII.</span> -<br />MUSIC IN EUROPE FROM THE FIFTH CENTURY.</h2> -<p>In proceeding to briefly sketch the curious facts -of musical history in the dark ages, we shall -necessarily confine ourselves to pointing out only -what is chiefly remarkable, and shall not enter -into the field of dispute regarding systems and -notations, for this period of Musical History is -a very hazy one. It is but natural to suppose, -that when general barbarism spread over Europe, -music was not likely to be either much practised -or written about. The last writer on the previous -systems was Boethius (the last of old Roman -writers), who lived at about the same epoch as -Gregory (he was put to death by Theodoric, the -Goth, <span class="smaller">A. D.</span> 525).</p> -<p>In his work, he uses the letters of the alphabet, -to designate musical notes, but does not repeat -the letters at the octave; his nomenclature therefore -does not end at G, but continues on, to <i>N</i>, -<i>O</i>, and <i>P</i>.<a class="fn" id="fr_256" href="#fn_256">[256]</a></p> -<p>Musical progress was at a stand still from the -time of Gregory, until the reign of the Carlovingian -kings. Charlemagne at the end of the -<span class="pb" id="Page_309">309</span> -eighth, and beginning of the ninth centuries, took -all art and music under his powerful protection. -He loved to compare himself with King David, -and had in many respects, good reason to, for he -possessed both the virtues and the failings of that -ancient monarch.</p> -<p>He gathered about him a number of musical -and literary friends, and we can judge of the -pleasant manner of their intercourse by the names -of antiquity which each one was known by. -Alcuin, was dubbed Flaccus Albinus; Riculf, Archbishop -of Mayence,—Damoetas; Arno,—Aquila; -Angilbert,—Homerus, etc.<a class="fn" id="fr_257" href="#fn_257">[257]</a></p> -<p>In addition to the literary and musical schools -founded throughout his empire, in his own palace -was one devoted to the education of the children -of his servants. Books were read, and music -sung to his courtiers, during the hours of dining -or other leisure.</p> -<p>The singing at his court, he often conducted -himself, and every one was obliged to participate. -If a stranger arrived, he was also obliged to -stand with the chorus, and even if he could not -sing, at least to make the semblance of doing so.</p> -<p>In the conservation of ancient legendary songs -Charlemagne was very active, and many which -have come down to our day, owe their existence -to his wise and thoughtful care.<a class="fn" id="fr_258" href="#fn_258">[258]</a></p> -<p>In church music he was, most of all, interested, -and remarked with much concern, the variations -<span class="pb" id="Page_310">310</span> -between the Gregorian and French singing. To -put an end to the matter, he sent to Stephen <span class="smaller">IV.</span>, -the reigning pope, for ecclesiastical singers; the -latter responded by sending, (in imitation of the -twelve apostles,) twelve clerical singers to teach -his empire.</p> -<p>But these twelve apostles, turned out to be <i>all</i> -Judases, for jealous of the rising civilization of -France, they agreed among themselves, not to aid -in its rise. When therefore, they had been -received at the French court with every honor, -and were sent to their various fields of labor, it is -said, they began to sing in a most wretched manner, -and not content with that, they <i>taught</i> this -abomination to their pupils. But when Charlemagne -celebrated Christmas at Tours that year, -and in Paris the succeeding year, he heard other -Roman vocalists sing in a manner totally different, -and lost no time in making complaint to the pope, -who, calling back the untrustworthy teachers, -punished them, some with banishment, and some -with perpetual imprisonment; and in order that a -similar deceit might not again be practised, he -persuaded Charlemagne to send two French -Ecclesiastics to Rome, where under Papal supervision -they learned the true Gregorian style of -song.<a class="fn" id="fr_259" href="#fn_259">[259]</a></p> -<p>There also exists another anecdote of the ruling -of Charlemagne in church singing, which will -<span class="pb" id="Page_311">311</span> -show how high partizan feeling ran in musical -matters at this era. It is as follows,—</p> -<p>“The most pious King Charles having returned -to celebrate Easter at Rome with the apostolic -Lord, a great quarrel ensued during the festival, -between the Roman and Gallic singers. The -French pretended to sing better and more agreeable -than the Italians; the Italians, on the contrary, -regarding themselves as more learned in Ecclesiastical -music, in which they had been instructed by -St. Gregory, accused their competitors of corrupting, -disfiguring, and spoiling the new chant. -The dispute being brought before our sovereign -lord the king, the French, thinking themselves -sure of his countenance and support, insulted the -Roman singers; who, on their part, emboldened -by superior knowledge, and comparing the musical -abilities of their great master, St. Gregory, -with the ignorance and rusticity of their rivals, -treated them as fools and barbarians.”</p> -<p>“As their altercation was not likely to come to a -speedy issue, the most pious King Charles asked -his chanters which they thought to be the purest -and best water, that which was drawn from the -source at the fountain-head, or that which after -being mixed with turbid and muddy rivulets, was -found at a great distance from the original spring?”</p> -<p>“They exclaimed unanimously, that all water -must be most pure at its source; upon which our -lord the King, said, ‘mount ye then up to the -pure fountain of St. Gregory, whose chant ye -have manifestly corrupted.’ After this our lord -the king, applied to Pope Adrian (the first) for -<span class="pb" id="Page_312">312</span> -singing masters to convert the Gallican chant; -and the pope appointed for that purpose Theodore -and Benedict, two chanters of great learning and -abilities, who had been instructed by St. Gregory -himself; he likewise granted to him <i>Antiphonaria</i>, -or choral-books of that saint, which he had himself -written in Roman notes.”</p> -<p>“Our lord the King, on his return to France, -sent one of the two singers granted him by the -Pope, to Metz, and the other to Soissons; commanding -all the singing masters of his kingdom to -correct their <i>antiphonaria</i>, and to conform in all -respects to the Roman manner of performing the -church service.”</p> -<p>“Thus were the French <i>antiphonaria</i> corrected, -which had before been vitiated, interpolated, and -abridged at the pleasure of every choir man, and -all the chanters of France learned from the -Romans that chant which they now call the -French chant, which is entirely as the Roman -except that the French do not execute the tremulus -and vinnulas, the bound and staccato notes -(<i>collisibiles vel secabiles voces</i>), with facility, and -give a rather rude and throaty manner of singing. -The best style of singing remained in Metz, and -as superior as Rome is to Metz, so superior is -Metz to the rest of France, in its school of singing.”<a class="fn" id="fr_260" href="#fn_260">[260]</a></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_313">313</div> -<p>Both the above anecdotes, although quoted very -frequently, must be taken <i>cum grano salis</i>, for as -Ambros and Fetis well observe, the two singers, -if they had received instruction from Gregory, -and also taught in the era of Charlemagne, must -have been about <i>two hundred years of age</i>, which -is certainly too old for active service. Another -historian gives the names of the envoys as <i>Petrus</i> -and <i>Romanus</i>, and it is certain that one of these -did go to Metz, and that a famous school of singing -was founded at Soissons about the same time. -Both the teachers, also must have instructed the -French, in the musical characters then used in -notation, and known by the name of <i>Neumes</i>.</p> -<p>The <i>Neumes</i> which were in use for musical -writing from the eighth to the twelfth century -were short lines, twirls, and hooks, which were -written above the words of a song to denote the -melody.</p> -<p>The origin of these marks, is buried in oblivion, -for they seem to have been developed, not at one -time, but gradually, and from the simplest beginnings. -Although we have not space to describe -the theories concerning them, a short explanation -of them is necessary, for from these Neumes -gradually came our modern system of notation. -At first these marks were only meant as guides to -memory; to aid the singer to sing an air which he -had previously learned. Thus the first bar of -“Home Sweet Home,” would be represented by -a <i>Scandicus</i> signifying three upward moving -tones, the first two short, the last one long.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_314">314</div> -<p>The exclamation and interrogation point, are in -language, what <i>Neumes</i> were at first in music, -they roughly sketched out the inflection of the -voice. The connection between them, and our -modern notation is very evident; in our musical -notation the requirements of the eye, have been -well attended to; not entirely perhaps, as regards -the length of notes, but certainly in the matter of -ascending and descending passages, etc.;<a class="fn" id="fr_261" href="#fn_261">[261]</a> the old -Greek notation, with its upturned and fragmentary -letters, meant nothing to the untutored eye; -but the <i>Neumes</i> of the middle ages, were the first -attempt to express a meaning <i>by their arrangement</i>. -Thus the <i>tripunctum</i> (<img class="inline" src="images/n1.jpg" alt="tripunctum" width="55" height="50" />) would denote three -notes ascending, though not which ones; it might -mean</p> -<table class="center"> -<tr><td class="c">C, </td><td class="c">D, </td><td class="c">E, </td><td class="c">or </td><td class="c">E, </td><td class="c">F, </td><td class="c">G, </td><td class="c">or </td><td class="c">F, </td><td class="c">G, </td><td class="c">A,</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">do, </td><td class="c">re, </td><td class="c">mi, </td><td class="c"> </td><td class="c">mi, </td><td class="c">fa, </td><td class="c">sol, </td><td class="c"> </td><td class="c">fa, </td><td class="c">sol, </td><td class="c">la,</td></tr> -</table> -<p>etc., the <i>bipunctum</i> (<img class="inline" src="images/n2.jpg" alt="bipunctum" width="37" height="45" />) -two ascending, or (<img class="inline" src="images/n3.jpg" alt="bipunctum" width="37" height="48" />) -descending notes; the <i>plica ascendens</i> -(<img class="inline" src="images/n4.jpg" alt="plica ascendens" width="46" height="45" />) an -upward spring of a third, etc.</p> -<p>It being a system which was evolved by slow -degrees, it is not astonishing that there are various -signs, about which opinions differ. The system -though seemingly barbarous, was in reality an -improvement; although not developed so extensively -as the Greek notation which preceded it, it -bore the germ of a more natural style of musical -characters.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_315">315</div> -<p>But the constant change of, and addition to the -<i>Neumes</i>, bore evidence, that it was but a pathway -to a more complete system. The next great -reformer in music gave his attention to abolishing -the uncertainty which clung around the <i>pneumata</i>.</p> -<p>Hucbald, Monk of St. Amand, in Flanders, -(born about 840, died 932,) made the first practical -effort to fix notes permanently. To him is -due the germ of the idea which afterwards -culminated in the modern clefs and staff.</p> -<p>He took (unfortunately) the Greek system for -his starting point, and this led him into many -errors, and much lessened the permanent value -of his work. He took the tetrachord (or succession -of four notes) as the foundation of music, -but he applied it in a most strange manner; his -scale was as follows:<a class="fn" id="fr_262" href="#fn_262">[262]</a></p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">G, A, B flat,</p> -<p class="t0">C, D, E, F,</p> -<p class="t0">G, A, B natural,</p> -<p class="t0">C, D, E, F sharp,</p> -<p class="t0">G, A, B, C sharp,</p> -</div> -<p>it will be readily seen that the above scale contains -some incongruities, which are precisely similar to -those noticed in the music of the Hindoos; that -is the octave comes out a semi-tone sharp; B natural -being octave to B flat, F sharp to F, etc.</p> -<p>Naturally, in singing it is not to be conceived -that the singers took any such outlandish system -as to substitute this for an octave, but it must -have allowed great license to the singers, -<span class="pb" id="Page_316">316</span> -and the whole must have given rise to much -ambiguity.</p> -<p>His improvement in the method of notation -consisted (a perfect anticipation of clef and staff) -in placing the letters of the notes employed, -before each line of the words, and then writing -each syllable of the song, opposite to (and level -with) the note to which it belonged. As he -adopted the clumsy Greek method of lettering -(using only four letters, and placing them upright, -reversed, backwards, and sideways) we will give -an example with English letters.<a class="fn" id="fr_263" href="#fn_263">[263]</a></p> -<table class="center"> -<tr><td class="lb">A </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">a- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="lb">G </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">da- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">te </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">num </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="lb">F </td><td class="lb">Lau- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">mi- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">de- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="lb">E </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">do- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">e </td><td class="lb"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="lb">D </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">cœlis</td></tr> -</table> -<p>The words being “Laudate Dominum de -cœlis.”</p> -<p>The harmony of Hucbald was as peculiar and -barbaric as his scale system.</p> -<p>He followed the principle of the ancients in -treating intervals of thirds and sixths as <i>dissonances</i>, -and therefore did not allow them to appear in -his works. In common with some of his predecessors, -he held that the only pure intervals -were fifths and fourths. To us this succession of -discords appears most appalling, but it is probable -that in the practical use of music it was ameliorated -somewhat. At this time when the organ -was in such a primitive state that the organist -struck the keys heavily with his <i>fist</i> in playing, -<span class="pb" id="Page_317">317</span> -the left fist was sometimes allowed to hold a tone -(in the manner of an organ point), while the right -played a succession of tones with the singers. -The constant rejection of sixths and thirds as -impure intervals, must ever remain a mystery to -us; yet the effect of even this harsh and uncouth -singing was deep on those who heard it. History -tells us that King Canute was deeply impressed -on hearing the monks chant, while being rowed -in his boat, near a monastery, and a lady upon -hearing the music of the first organ erected in -France, went raving mad, from excess of emotion.</p> -<p>We will leave the rude harmonies of Hucbald, -with a final example showing the succession of -fourths used in his <i>organum</i> (or art of composing).</p> -<p>The letters T, and S, signify tone and semitone.</p> -<table class="center"> -<tr><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">Do- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="lb">T </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">mini </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="lb">T </td><td class="lb">Sit </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">oria </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">in </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">cula </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">bitur</td></tr> -<tr><td class="lb">S </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">glo- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">Do- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">sae- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">ta </td><td class="lb"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="lb">T </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">mini </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">lae- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="l">} etc.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="lb">T </td><td class="lb">Sit </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">oria </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">in </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">cula </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">bitur</td></tr> -<tr><td class="lb">S </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">glo- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">sae- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">ta </td><td class="lb"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="lb">T </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">lae- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"></td></tr> -</table> -<p>Sometimes four voices were thus written on a -staff of fifteen lines. Although this system was -so cumbrous, yet the right path had been attained, -and the progress was continual; little inventions -followed one upon the other, and many of the -modern usages in music date their rise to this -obscure age of Musical History.</p> -<p>The next great name, in the art, is that of Guido -<span class="pb" id="Page_318">318</span> -Aretino, or of Arezzo, a monk of the Benedictine -order, born at Arezzo. He flourished about <span class="smaller">A. D.</span> -1030 though the date of his birth and death, is -not accurately known. His work has had more -influence in shaping modern music, than that of -any one before him. Yet much of his life and -work belongs to the hazy realm of legend. He -attained such celebrity that every invention to -which his successors could not find a father, was -attributed to him.</p> -<p>Guido’s great success lay in the fact that he was -a <i>specialist</i>. He did not undertake, like Gregory -and Ambros, to shine in all art, science, and -enterprise; his position precluded that; he says -“The ways of Philosophers are not mine, I only -occupy myself with what can be of use to the -church, and bring our little ones (the scholars) -forward.”</p> -<p>There was need of such a man; for though -music teachers were sought in every country -at this time, and those from Italy, Greece, France -and even Germany, were highly prized, yet there -were many who presumed on this state of affairs, -and the consequence was that incompetent teachers -were the rule. To remedy this great evil was -the aim of Guido’s life.</p> -<p>He says some of these would-be teachers, “If -they sang in their aimless manner, every day, for -a hundred years, they would not invent even the -slightest new Antiphon, and he who cannot easily -and correctly sing a new song, by what right can -he call himself a musician or singer?</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_319">319</div> -<p>“At the service of God, it too often sounds, -not as if we were praising Him, but as if we were -quarrelling, and scolding among ourselves.”</p> -<p>He devoted himself greatly, to the teaching of -a most important branch of singing, i. e., <i>sight -reading</i>, and soon brought his cloister class to -such perfection in this that they astonished all -beholders. He was not however, as mild-mannered -a reformer as his predecessor in art, -Hucbald. His bitter sarcasms on his brother -monks, soon brought a result, and he found himself -though not actually chased from his convent, -yet ostracized in it.</p> -<p>But he was well able to sustain such a strife, -and continued his work with zeal unabated. His -style of teaching sight reading was far in advance -of his competitors, for he taught his scholars to -sing intervals, not by referring to the monochord, -but instead of it to think of some similar interval -in any hymn well known to them, thus combining -thought, memory and musical ear, in a practical -manner.</p> -<p>He was struck with the regularly ascending -intervals of the first syllables of each line of the -hymn in honor of St. John, and with the inspiration -of genius attached the syllables ut, re, mi, -fa, sol, la, to the notes, and caused his scholars to -memorize each interval, thus forming a new and -easily comprehended system of <i>Solfeggio</i>. The -hymn which inspired this wonderful stride in -music runs,</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_320">320</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0"><i>Ut</i>—queant laxis.</p> -<p class="t0"><i>Re</i>—sonare fibris.</p> -<p class="t0"><i>Mi</i>—ra gestorum.</p> -<p class="t0"><i>Fa</i>—muli tuorum.</p> -<p class="t0"><i>Sol</i>—ve polluti.</p> -<p class="t0"><i>La</i>—bia reati.</p> -<p class="t0">Sancte Johannes.</p> -</div> -<p>The fame of his wonderful results in choir-training, -soon reached Rome, and the Pope, John -<span class="smaller">XIX.</span>,<a class="fn" id="fr_264" href="#fn_264">[264]</a> sent an invitation to the still ostracized -monk, to come to Rome.</p> -<p>Guido is credited with having made many -changes in the notation and harmony of his day. -The hexachord system is attributed (justly or -unjustly) to him. He also is said to have introduced -lines of different colors into the staff, for -the purpose of aiding the singer to recognize certain -notes with more facility. He says in his -<i>Micrologus</i><a class="fn" id="fr_265" href="#fn_265">[265]</a> -“In order that sounds may be discerned -with certainty, we mark some lines with -various colors, so that the eye may immediately -distinguish a note, in whatever place it may be. -For the third of the scale [C] a bright saffron -line. The sixth [F] adjacent to C is of bright -vermilion, and the proximity of others to these -colors, will be an index to the whole. If there -were neither letter, nor colored lines to the -Neumes, it would be like having a well without -a rope—the water plentiful, but of no use to those -who see it.”</p> -<p>While Guido does not lay claim to having -invented the colored lines, it is probable that he -<span class="pb" id="Page_321">321</span> -brought them, by his influence into much more -general use.</p> -<p>He certainly invented a modification of the -line system of Hucbald. Instead of the inverted -letters, and fragments of letters which the latter -used, he employed the vowels only, to designate -the pitch, thus,—</p> -<table class="center"> -<tr><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="l"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">tu- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lz">u</td></tr> -<tr><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">so- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">os </td><td class="lz">o</td></tr> -<tr><td class="lb">F </td><td class="lb">ri- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">ri </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">lis </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">u- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lz">i</td></tr> -<tr><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">ve- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">ter </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">ber- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lz">e</td></tr> -<tr><td class="lb">Ma- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">a </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">Ma- </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb">a </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lb"> </td><td class="lbz">a</td></tr> -</table> -<p>“Maria, veri solis mater, ubera tuos.”</p> -<p>Guido, altered Hucbald’s <i>Organum</i> in so far, -that he rejected consecutive fifths, as being too -harsh, and substituted a series of consecutive -fourths as being milder.</p> -<p>It may not be out of place to remark here, that -the present scrupulous avoidance of all consecutive -fifths, in modern composition of strict school, -is simply a reaction from the rude taste of past -centuries, which employed them <i>ad nauseum</i>; -there is no valid reason for their complete ostracism, -any more than there was cause for the banishing -of all sixths and thirds from the harmony -of our ancestors. To Guido is also attributed the -invention of the method of the harmonical hand -(Guidonian hand, as it has been named after its -supposed originator). This consisted of marking -certain notes and musical signs on the tips of the -fingers, and by this means more readily committing -them to memory. As before stated, many -<span class="pb" id="Page_322">322</span> -of the inventions credited to Guido, are only -adaptations. The Sol-faing system was almost -an accidental occurrence; yet only genius can -derive full profit from accidents. The hymn -which gave rise to it (quoted above), is a most -prosaic invocation to St. John to save the throats -of the singers from hoarseness, in order that they -may fittingly sing his praise. A very diplomatic -way of requesting it.</p> -<p>Musical history in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh -centuries is at its darkest; hence little is positively -known of the life of Guido. It is certain that he -was in great favor at Rome, and that other countries -applied to him for his musical services to -reorganize their ecclesiastical chanting, and also -that his health failing, he returned to his monastery, -forgetting and forgiving the ill treatment he -had received there, and in its cloisters peacefully -ended his days.</p> -<p>The date of his decease is not known.</p> -<p>Other names appear in this misty epoch in -musical history. Franco of Cologne, Walter -Odington, an English Monk, Heeronymus von -Maehren, etc., wrote works upon the theory of -music, while Adam de la Hale (of Arras, France) -wrote music in four-part harmony, about the year -1280. But in the midst of this darkness there -came a glorious sunburst in the shape of chivalric -bands who elevated music to a broader sphere by -adding to the ecclesiastical chanting a secular -school of composition, both warlike and lyrical.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_323">323</div> -<h2 id="c39"><span class="small">CHAPTER XXIII.</span> -<br />THE ANCIENT BARDS.</h2> -<p>While Rome and Milan were devoting themselves -almost entirely to ecclesiastical music, there -had sprung up among the barbarian nations a -school of music more consonant to their habits, -being warlike in its style, and having for its -object the celebration of the heroes of each country, -and the inciting of their descendants to similar -deeds of glory. From earliest days Wales has -possessed a guild of such singers, who were, in -fact, the historians of the country, at a time when -written books would have been nearly useless. -The songs of the Welsh bards have been preserved -traditionally by that people; while the songs of -the druids who preceded them have been allowed -to pass into utter oblivion, the latter having, -evidently, not taken deep root in Welsh soil.</p> -<p>At the commencement of the sixth century, -the bards of Wales exerted all their energies of -exhortation to animate their countrymen in the -strife with the Saxon invaders, and when Wales -was conquered by Edward <span class="smaller">I.</span>, (1284) he dreaded -their influence so much that he is said to have -<span class="pb" id="Page_324">324</span> -persecuted them and put them to death. The -bards in Wales had an organization similar to -that which we shall presently find among the -troubadours and minne-singers. They were divided -into two classes,—poets, and musicians. Each -of these classes were subdivided into three divisions. -The first class of poet-bards was composed -of those who understood history, and dabbled somewhat -in sorcery, thus being held in awe as prophets -and diviners. The second class consisted of bards -attached to private families, whose duties were to -chant the praises of the heroes of their particular -house. The third class were the heraldic bards, -who wrote the national annals and prescribed the -laws of etiquette and precedence. These must -have exerted a powerful influence on a nation -which clung so strictly to ceremony and the privileges -of lineage.</p> -<p>The musicians were also divided into three -classes, of which the first were harpers, and possessed -the title of Doctors of Music; the second -class were the players upon the <i>crouth</i> or <i>chrotta</i>, -a smaller stringed instrument; the third class consisted -of the singers. Many laws and regulations -were made to define the privileges of each class, -and the classification of new bards took place at -an assemblage called the Eisteddfod, which met -triennially, and conferred degrees. The highest -degree could only be obtained after nine years -faithful study. From the thirteenth century -Wales also possessed a class of wandering musicians -entitled, “<i>Clery dom</i>.” The harps used -<span class="pb" id="Page_325">325</span> -were various, though the three-stringed one was -the national instrument. One variety was made -of leather, strung with wire, and is said to have -been peculiarly harsh; another called <i>isgywer</i> was -so small that it could be played on horseback; -another was strung with hair. The order of the -bards was hereditary to some extent. King Howel -Dha issued edicts regarding them (fixing their -rank) about 940 <span class="smaller">A. D.</span>, and in 1078 the whole -order was reformed and full regulations made by -Gryffith ap Conan. In spite of the persecutions -to which they were subjected, the order was sustained -for centuries, and <i>Eisteddfods</i> were held -under royal commission down to the reign of -Queen Elizabeth.</p> -<p>In Ireland minstrelsy has had a foothold in all -times. There is a legend that about the year 365 -<span class="smaller">B. C.</span>, there occurred in Ireland the first triumph -of poetry and music. A young prince, driven -from his throne by a usurper, was so moved by a -song which his betrothed wrote and caused Craftine, -a celebrated bard, to sing to him, that he -resolved on hazarding a supreme effort to regain -his crown, and succeeded in driving the usurper -from his kingdom.</p> -<p>The Irish claim that they were the originators -of the Welsh system of bards, but this statement -seems to be founded rather on national pride -than upon fact, for it is probable that the borrowing -was upon the other side. But it is certain -that the Irish have ever possessed musical taste -and skill.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_326">326</div> -<p>Gyraldus Cambriensis (who wrote in the twelfth -century) says of them: “The aptitude of this -people for performing upon musical instruments -is worthy of attention.”</p> -<p>“They have in this respect, much more ability -than any nation I have ever seen. The modulations -are not with them slow and sad, like those -of the instruments of Britain, to which we are -accustomed, but the sounds, though rapid and -precipitate, are yet sweet and soothing.”<a class="fn" id="fr_266" href="#fn_266">[266]</a> The -harp was, as in Wales, the national instrument. -The bards were a hereditary class, and their guild, -as in Wales, had three divisions; the <i>Filedha</i>, -who sang both about religious and martial subjects, -and were also heralds to the nobility; <i>Braitheamhain</i>, -who chanted the laws; and the <i>Seanachaidehe</i>, -who were the musical and poetical -chroniclers and historians. Their influence and -privileges were fully as great as those of their -Welsh brethren, and they had many valuable -possessions of land. Their skill was universally -acknowledged up to their conquest by Henry <span class="smaller">II.</span>, -but from that epoch the profession began to -decline, although noble families still made it a -point of honor to keep private bards to sing to -them of the deeds of the ancestors of their -house.</p> -<p>The influence which these songs exerted in -fomenting rebellion was such, that severe laws -were promulgated against them in England, and -<span class="pb" id="Page_327">327</span> -under Elizabeth all the Irish bards who were -captured, were hanged.</p> -<p>The last Irish hard existed as late as the eighteenth -century.</p> -<p>Turlogh O’Carolan was born 1670, and died -1737; worthily closing the long reign of the fiery -minstrel guild of Ireland.</p> -<p>Scotland’s bardism, was similar to that of -Wales and Ireland, but the ranks and privileges -are less known. The bag-pipe was played as -much as the harp, and there was much analogy in -the ancient music of Ireland and Scotland. The -scale on which the Scotch pieces were founded, -bears much resemblance to the Chinese, and to -some of the Hindoo modes.</p> -<p>In England there were also bards, but there -was not an order, as in the preceding countries, -and at a time when these heraldic singers were so -highly honored in Wales, the singers and musicians -of England were held in very slight social -estimation. The irruptions of the Danes, and -Norsemen generally, upon England in the ninth, -tenth and eleventh centuries, brought a taste of -the forcible Northern <i>sagas</i> along with them, and -when King Canute held the throne, bards and -“<i>gleemen</i>,” were protected and favored, for King -Canute was very fond of song. He, himself, -wrote a song which was for a long time the -favorite ballad of England.</p> -<p>The circumstances which prompted it were as -follows:—</p> -<p>He was being rowed near the Monastery of -<span class="pb" id="Page_328">328</span> -Ely, in the evening, when the sound of the monks -singing their vesper chants, came across the -water; he was greatly moved by the beauty of -the song, which, with the accessories of the tranquil -evening, the rippling water, and the measured -stroke of the oars, caused him to improvise upon -the spot, a song which soon spread among the -peasantry as well as the higher classes.</p> -<p>Only one stanza has been preserved of this -interesting effusion,—</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">“Merie sungen the muneches binnen Ely,</p> -<p class="t0">Tha Cnute Ching, reu ther by</p> -<p class="t0">Rowe cnihtes, næw the land,</p> -<p class="t0">And here we thes muneches sæng,”</p> -</div> -<p>which may be rendered in English thus:—</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">“Sweetly sang the Monks of Ely,</p> -<p class="t0">As King Canute rowed there by,</p> -<p class="t0">Row men, nearer to the shore</p> -<p class="t0">And hear we these Monks’ song.”</p> -</div> -<p>The minstrels of England from the first, took -a more peaceful and religious turn than those of -Wales and Ireland. The most of the really -authentic pieces of their era, take the shape of -Christmas carols.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_329">329</div> -<h2 id="c40"><span class="small">CHAPTER XXIV.</span> -<br />THE TROUBADOURS AND MINNE-SINGERS.</h2> -<p>We now come to an era in music, where the -most cultivated minds gave their attention to the -art; and where it is no longer confined to the -narrow channels of ecclesiastical, and even heraldic -and martial use, but finds a broader outlet in -the subjects of Love, and Nature. The troubadours -were gentlemen (often knights), who held -themselves totally distinct from those musicians -who wrote for pay. The rise of chivalry in the -middle ages, elevated woman from an unjustly -low position, to an absurdly high one. She was -held to be the arbiter of Fate; the Queen to whom -all service was due; and was almost religiously -worshipped. From this exaggerated devotion -arose the school of troubadour and minne-singer -composition. When knights racked their brains, -as to what new offering they could bring to their -lady, it was but natural that they should find, in -the combination of poetry and song, a series of -never-ending tributes with which they could pay -homage to their chosen one.</p> -<p>It is easy to imagine that once launched into -<span class="pb" id="Page_330">330</span> -this fertile field, they would not wholly confine -themselves to Love, but that an occasional poem -on Nature, or War, would attest their versatility -so that even the puerile “Courts of Love,” of -the chivalric age, brought a general onward impulse -to art; it was not to be expected that the -knights could step at once from a condition of -rudeness, to a state of culture, and it is not surprising -to see a vast exaggeration of politeness, -where little had been before.</p> -<p>In the beautiful country of Provence (South -France), this branch of art took its rise. The -lyrical songs of the troubadours were written in -the Provencal tongue, which soon became, for all -South France the court language for amatory -poetry. It was called also the <i>Langue d’oc</i> (from -the affirmative “<i>Oc</i>,” or “yes”), to distinguish -it from the <i>Lingua di Si</i> (Italian) and the -<i>Langue d’öil</i> (North France); the name afterwards -was attached to another province of -France. The Trouvères, were the poets and -minstrels of North France, and wrote in the -<i>langue d’öil</i>. They wrote chiefly epic poetry, -(fables, tales and romances), while the lyrical -school was left to their southern competitors.</p> -<p>The troubadours composed and sang their own -songs, but did not play their own accompaniments; -that branch of music was turned over to -hired musicians, called <i>jongleurs</i>.</p> -<p>Celebrated troubadours had often several <i>jongleurs</i> -in their employ. Those who made music a -means of gaining a livelihood, were classed much -<span class="pb" id="Page_331">331</span> -lower. All in fact who did not invent (“<i>Trobar</i>,” -to find, or invent, whence comes the word trobador) -their own songs, but sang or accompanied -others, were called <i>jongleurs</i>, which was about as -ordinary a trade as that of our perambulating -“jugglers;” whose name is only a corruption -of the more ancient calling.</p> -<p>The troubadours had a position which was even -better than that of the bards of Wales or Ireland. -They also made a livelihood of music, but in a far -more genteel way than their humbler assistants, -who were proscribed for so doing. The first -thing the troubadour did, on practising his art -was to seek out some person on whom to bestow -his heart. This person was almost invariably a -married lady. To her, he would then dedicate all -his lays; he would (bestowing upon her, an -assumed name), sing of her beauties, and entreat -her favors; he would sneer at the charms of other -dames, and sometimes satirize them.</p> -<p>The feelings of the husband during all this can -“better be imagined than described.”</p> -<p>Yet often the dame, may have been totally -indifferent to his ardor. We feel sure that at -times this was the case, for husbands are known -to have begged their wives to accept the troubadour’s -flattery, and keep him on, with slight -encouragement.</p> -<p>Meanwhile the singers went on from Court to -Court, received as equals, by the highest; flattered -and sought for by the most brilliant circles, -and fairest ladies. Often they attached themselves -<span class="pb" id="Page_332">332</span> -to some particular prince, and gained his -favor and enriched themselves by singing <i>sirventes</i> -(songs of service) in his honor, and in derision of -his enemies.</p> -<p>The nobles and kings of that era, also took up -the Troubadour’s lyre, at times. Richard <span class="smaller">I.</span>, -Alfonso <span class="smaller">X.</span>, William <span class="smaller">IX.</span> Count of Poitiers and -others were famous for their efforts in this line, -and they richly patronized such troubadours as -sought them.</p> -<p>The gifts with which a successful song was -rewarded, were of course influenced by the liberality -of the giver. Horses, richly caparisoned, -elegant vestments, and money, are mentioned in -this connection.<a class="fn" id="fr_267" href="#fn_267">[267]</a> Meanwhile the troubadours -occasionally display the utmost contempt for their -assistants, the before mentioned <i>jongleurs</i>, and -reproach nobles, in some verses, with receiving -such persons (who play at village fairs, dance on -the tight rope, and exhibit performing monkeys), -into their castles. Yet not all of the poets shared -in this feeling, for Boccaccio tells us that Dante -loved to associate with the musicians who set his -<i>canzone</i> to music. In the thirteenth century, -Guirant Riquier (called the “last of the troubadours”) -complains to the king of Castile, Alfonso -<span class="smaller">X.</span>, of the decadence of the troubadour’s art, and -attributes it to the indiscriminate mixing of -troubadours and jongleurs, in popular estimation. -He says—“You know that all men live in classes -differing and distinguished from each other. -<span class="pb" id="Page_333">333</span> -Therefore it seems to me that such a distinction -of names ought also to be made amongst the -joglars; for it is unjust that the best of them -should not be distinguished by name as well as -they are by deed. It is unfair that an ignorant -man of small learning, who knows a little how to -play some instrument, and strums it in public -places, for whatever people will give him, or one -who sings low ditties to low people about the -streets and taverns, and takes alms without shame -from the first comer,—that all these should indiscriminately -go by the name of joglars ... -for joglaria was invented by wise men to give joy -to good people by their skill in playing on instruments.... -After that came the troubadours -to record valiant deeds, and to praise the good, -and encourage them in their noble endeavor.... -But in our days, and for some time past, -a set of people without sense and wisdom have -undertaken to sing and compose stanzas and play -on instruments,”<a class="fn" id="fr_268" href="#fn_268">[268]</a> etc.</p> -<p>The poor troubadour desired the king to classify -them, and to title the best. The king’s answer is -extant, wherein he endeavored to do so, but as -the real essence and life had departed from the -whole institution, it was unavailing.</p> -<p>The troubadours often had poetical combats, -when they would indulge in a verse-battle about -some “Law of Love,” and the judges were -selected from the fairest and wittiest of the noble -dames. These were called the “Courts of Love.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_334">334</div> -<p>The muse of some of them seems to have taken -a most curious turn, for there are still in existence -some “<i>Essenhamens</i>,” or books of etiquette for -young ladies, which emanated from these lyrical -pens, which are of the quaintest description. -We reproduce a quotation from one, written by -“Amanieus des Escas, called God of Love.”<a class="fn" id="fr_269" href="#fn_269">[269]</a></p> -<p>In this treatise we are supplied with a minute -account of the accomplishments expected from a -well educated young lady, and of the bad habits -most prejudicial to her character. The poet is -supposed to be addressing a noble damsel living at -the court of some great baron, as a sort of ‘lady -help’ to his wife; this being a not unusual, and -undoubtedly a most efficient method of polite -education in Provence. The young lady has -accosted Amanieus on a lonely walk, asking for his -advice in matters fashionable. This the poet at -first refuses to tender, alleging that “you (the -damsel) have ten times as much sense as I, and -that is the truth!” But after his modest scruples -are once overcome, he launches forth into a flood -of good counsel. He systematically begins with -enforcing the good old doctrine of ‘early to rise,’ -touches delicately on the mysteries of the toilet, -such as lacing, washing of arms, hands, and head, -which, he sententiously adds, ought to go before -the first mentioned process, and, after briefly -referring to the especial care required by teeth -and nails, he leaves the dressing room for the -church, where a quiet undemonstrative attitude is -<span class="pb" id="Page_335">335</span> -recommended; the illicit use of the eyes and -tongue being mentioned amongst the temptations -peculiarly to be avoided.</p> -<p>Directions of similar minuteness assist the -young lady at the dinner table; the cases in which -it would be good taste, and those in which it -would be the reverse, to invite persons to a share -of the dishes within her reach are specified; and -the rules as to carving, washing one’s hands -before and after dinner, and similar matters, leave -nothing to be desired. ‘Always temper your -wine with water, so that it cannot do you harm,’ -is another maxim of undeniable wisdom.</p> -<p>After dinner follows the time of polite conversation -in the sala (drawing room), the arbour, or -on the battlements of the castle; and now the -teachings of Amanieus become more and more -animated, and are enlivened occasionally by practical -illustrations of great interest. “And if at -this season,” he says “a gentleman takes you -aside, and wishes to talk of courtship to you, do -not show a strange or sullen behavior, but defend -yourself with pleasant repartees. And if his talk -annoys you; and makes you uneasy, I advise you -to ask him questions, for instance:—‘Which -ladies do you think are more handsome, those of -Gascony or of England, and which are more -courteous, and faithful, and good? And if he -says those of Gascony, answer without hesitation; -Sir, by your leave, English ladies are more courteous -than those of any other country. But if he -prefers those of England, tell him Gascon ladies -<span class="pb" id="Page_336">336</span> -are much better behaved, and thus carry on the -discussion, and call your companions to you to -decide the questions.’”</p> -<p>We also give two extracts from the poems of that -famous troubadour, Bertrand De Born. He was -a poet far more given to martial songs, than to -the lyrical muse. His enemies dreaded his pen -as much as his sword. He describes his belligerent -qualities without any exaggeration, for he -was literally never contented except when at war -with some of his neighbors. One of his poems -(addressed to a lady) begins smoothly enough, -but before he is half done, he breaks into an -abrupt praise of fighting.</p> -<p>In the following, he warns Williams of Gordon, -against Richard of Poitou, and hurls invective at -the latter.</p> -<p>“I love you well,” Bertrand says, “but my -enemies want to make a fool and a dupe of you, -and the time seems long to them before they see -you in their ranks.” “To Perigeux, close to the -wall, so that I can throw my battle axe over it, -I will come well armed, and riding on my horse, -Bayard; and if I find the glutton of Poitou<a class="fn" id="fr_270" href="#fn_270">[270]</a> he -shall know the cut of my sword. A mixture of -brain and splinters of iron he shall wear on his -brow.”</p> -<p>Here follows a frank avowal of his delight in -war.</p> -<p>“All day long,” he says, “I fight, and am at -work, to make a thrust at them and defend myself, -<span class="pb" id="Page_337">337</span> -for they are laying waste my land, and burning -my crops; they pull up my trees by the roots, -and mix my corn with the straw. Cowards and -brave men are my enemies. I constantly disunite -and sow hatred among the barons, and then -remould and join them together again, and try to -give them brave hearts and strong; but I am a -fool for my trouble, for they are made of base -metal.”</p> -<p>We cannot better take leave of the troubadours -than by giving two additional specimens of the -writing of Bertrand de Born.</p> -<p>The first is an ingenious poem. He has quarreled -with his lady, and as a means of reconciliation -he borrows from all the famous beauties of -his time, their special charm, and gives them all -to his love. The second song will explain itself.<a class="fn" id="fr_271" href="#fn_271">[271]</a></p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">Domna, puois de mi no us cal,</p> -<p class="t0">E partit m’aretz de vos, &c.</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">Lady, since thou hast driven me forth,</p> -<p class="t">Since thou, unkind, hast banished me,</p> -<p class="t0">(Though cause of such neglect be none,)</p> -<p class="t">Where shall I turn from thee?</p> -<p class="t4">Ne’er can I see</p> -<p class="t0">Such joy as I have seen before,</p> -<p class="t0">If, as I fear, I find no more</p> -<p class="t0">Another fair, from thee removed,</p> -<p class="t0">I’ll sigh to think I e’er was loved.</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">And since my eager search were vain,</p> -<p class="t">One lovely as thyself to find;</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_338">338</div> -<p class="t0">A heart so matchlessly endow’d,</p> -<p class="t">Or manner so refined,</p> -<p class="t4">So gay, so kind,</p> -<p class="t0">So courteous, gentle, debonair,—</p> -<p class="t0">I’ll rove, and catch from every fair</p> -<p class="t0">Some winning grace and form a whole,</p> -<p class="t0">So glad (till thou return) my soul.</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">The roses of thy glowing cheek,</p> -<p class="t">Fair Sembelis, I’ll steal from thee;</p> -<p class="t0">That lovely smiling look I’ll take,</p> -<p class="t">Yet rich thou shalt be,</p> -<p class="t4">In whom we see</p> -<p class="t0">All that can deck a lady bright,</p> -<p class="t0">And your enchanting converse, light,</p> -<p class="t0">Fair Ellis, will I borrow too,</p> -<p class="t0">That she in wit may shine like you.</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">And from the noble Chales, I</p> -<p class="t">Will beg that neck of ivory white,</p> -<p class="t0">And her fair hands of loveliest form</p> -<p class="t">I’ll take; and speeding, light,</p> -<p class="t4">My onward flight</p> -<p class="t0">Earnest at Roca Choart’s gate,</p> -<p class="t0">Fair Agnes I will supplicate</p> -<p class="t0">To grant her locks, more bright than those</p> -<p class="t0">Which Tristan loved on Iseult’s brows.</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">And Audiartz, though on me thou frown,</p> -<p class="t">All that thou hast of courtesy</p> -<p class="t0">I’ll have,—thy look, thy gentle mien,</p> -<p class="t">And all the unchanged constancy</p> -<p class="t4">That dwells with thee.</p> -<p class="t0">And Miels de Ben, on thee I’ll wait</p> -<p class="t0">For thy light shape so delicate,</p> -<p class="t0">That in thy fairy form of grace</p> -<p class="t0">My lady’s image I may trace</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_339">339</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">The beauty of those snow-white teeth</p> -<p class="t">From thee, famed Faidit, I’ll extort,</p> -<p class="t0">The welcome, affable and kind,</p> -<p class="t">To all the numbers that resort</p> -<p class="t4">Unto her court.</p> -<p class="t0">And Bels Miraills shall crown the whole,</p> -<p class="t0">With all her sparkling flow of soul;</p> -<p class="t0">Those mental charms that round her play,</p> -<p class="t0">For ever wise, yet ever gay.</p> -</div> -<hr /> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t2">Be in play lo douz temps de paseor</p> -<p class="t3">Que fais fuelhas e flors venir;</p> -<p class="t2">E play mi quant aug la baudor</p> -<p class="t3">Dels auzels que fan retentir</p> -<p class="t5">Lor chan per lo boscatge;</p> -<p class="t2">E plai me quan rey sus els pratz</p> -<p class="t3">Tendas e parallos fermetz;</p> -<p class="t2">Quan rey per campanhas rengatz</p> -<p class="t3">Cavalliers ab carals armatz.</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">The beautiful spring delights me well,</p> -<p class="t">When flowers and leaves are growing;</p> -<p class="t0">And it pleases my heart to hear the swell</p> -<p class="t">Of the birds’ sweet choruses flowing</p> -<p class="t4">In the echoing wood</p> -<p class="t0">And I love to see, all scatter’d around,</p> -<p class="t0">Pavillions, tents, on martial ground;</p> -<p class="t4">And my spirit finds it good</p> -<p class="t0">To see, on the level plains beyond,</p> -<p class="t0">Gay knights and steeds comparison’d.</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">It pleases me, when the lances bold</p> -<p class="t">Set men and armies flying;</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_340">340</div> -<p class="t0">And it pleases me, too, to hear around</p> -<p class="t">The voice of the soldiers crying;</p> -<p class="t4">And joy is mine</p> -<p class="t0">When the castles strong, totter and crack;</p> -<p class="t4">And I see the foemen join,</p> -<p class="t0">On the moated floor all compass’d round</p> -<p class="t0">With the palisade and guarded mound.</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">Lances and swords, and stained helms,</p> -<p class="t">And shields dismantled and broken,</p> -<p class="t0">On the verge of the bloody battle scene,</p> -<p class="t">The field of wrath betoken;</p> -<p class="t4">And the vassals are there,</p> -<p class="t0">And there fly the steeds of the dying and dead;</p> -<p class="t0">And where the mingled strife is spread,</p> -<p class="t4">The noblest warriors care</p> -<p class="t0">Is to cleave the foeman’s limbs and head,—</p> -<p class="t0">The conqueror less of the living than dead.</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">I tell you that nothing my soul can cheer,</p> -<p class="t">Or banqueting or reposing,</p> -<p class="t0">Like the onset cry of “charge them” rung</p> -<p class="t">From each side as in battle closing,</p> -<p class="t4">Where the horses neigh,</p> -<p class="t0">And the call to “aid” is echoing loud;</p> -<p class="t0">And there on the earth the lowly and proud</p> -<p class="t4">In the foes together lie;</p> -<p class="t0">And yonder is piled the mangled heap</p> -<p class="t0">Of the brave that scaled the trench’s steep.</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">Barons! your castles in safety place,</p> -<p class="t">Your cities and villages too,</p> -<p class="t0">Before ye haste to the battle scene,</p> -<p class="t">And, Papiol! quickly go,</p> -<p class="t">And tell the lord of “Oc and No,”</p> -<p class="t0">That peace already too long hath been.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_341">341</div> -<p>The Trouvères, were, as before intimated, the -poet-musicians of North France. They wrote in -a much more matter-of-fact manner than the -troubadours, and wrote in the <i>Langue d’öil</i>, while -the latter wrote in the <i>Langue d’oc</i>; two tongues -as dissimilar as French and Italian, or English -and Dutch.</p> -<p>There existed lady troubadours and trouvères; -the works of some of them are extant, and do not -in any way compare unfavorably with those of -the other sex. Of course there are several -solitary cases where the Norman poet would write -a love song, and the Provencal a fable, but the -general tendency was as above indicated.</p> -<p>Contemporary with the troubadours and trouvères, -there arose in Germany, a similar order of -singers, whose productions have been preserved, -even more copiously than those of the southrons.</p> -<p>The minne-singers began their career in Germany, -under the glorious reign of Barbarossa, -(Frederic <span class="smaller">I.</span>) in the last half of the twelfth century. -The first name which we meet with is Henry of -Veldig, yet it is a singular fact that he, the first -of a new order of singers, begins by complaining -of the decadence of the true minne-lied (love-song.) -The word minne-singer means simply -love-singer, i. e.—singer of love-songs. We give -here, a verse of this early love-song, and have -endeavored to give a translation, preserving the -original metre (as nearly literal as possible) below -it.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_342">342</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">“Do man der rehten minne pflag</p> -<p class="t">Da pflag man ouch der ehren;</p> -<p class="t0">Nu mag man naht und tag</p> -<p class="t">Die bösen sitte leren:</p> -<p class="t0">Swer dis nu siht, und jens do sach,</p> -<p class="t">O we! was der nu clagen mag</p> -<p class="t0">Tugende wend sich nu verkehren.”</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">“When true love had its proper sway,</p> -<p class="t">Then honour too, was nourished</p> -<p class="t0">But now by night and day</p> -<p class="t">All evil ways are cherished,</p> -<p class="t0">Who knows the past and present way,</p> -<p class="t">Oh Woe! how well complain he may</p> -<p class="t0">Since every virtue now has perished.”</p> -</div> -<p>Almost all the lays of the minne-singers were -written in the Swabian dialect which was then the -court language of Germany. As a rule, their -grace and elegance of diction was superior to that -of the troubadours. They did not, like the latter, -hire accompanists, or jongleurs, but played their -own accompaniments on a viol. As in the South, -emperors, princes, and knights, were proud to be -known as minne-singers.</p> -<p>There exists a little epigram (ascribed to Frederic -<span class="smaller">II.</span>,) which we are tempted to reproduce, as it -gives an insight to the qualities which were -esteemed at that time.</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">“I like a cavalier Frances,<a class="fn" id="fr_272" href="#fn_272">[272]</a></p> -<p class="t">And a Catalonian dame;</p> -<p class="t0">The courtesy of the Genoese</p> -<p class="t">And Castilian dignity</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_343">343</div> -<p class="t0">The Provence songs,<a class="fn" id="fr_273" href="#fn_273">[273]</a> my ears to please,</p> -<p class="t">And the dance of the Trevisan;</p> -<p class="t0">The graceful form of the Arragoneze</p> -<p class="t">And the pearl of the Julian;<a class="fn" id="fr_274" href="#fn_274">[274]</a></p> -<p class="t0">An English face and hands to see,</p> -<p class="t0">And a page of Tuscany.”<a class="fn" id="fr_275" href="#fn_275">[275]</a></p> -</div> -<p>The love songs of the Germans were not so fiery -as those of Provence; while the adoration of the -troubadour for his love went all lengths, the German -knight rendered to his own a much quieter, -(and chaster) species of homage. There were not -such criminal passions (often ending in murder at -the hands of the outraged husband) as in France. -In epic poems this school was very successful, and -that stateliest of German poems, “The <i>Nibelungen-lied</i>,” -dates from about this time, although its -author is not known.</p> -<p>The preservation of many of the songs of the -Minne-singers is due to Rudiger of Manesse, a -senator of Zurich (fourteenth century). To those -who are desirous of seeing the main part of his -collection we cannot do better than to recommend -the excellent work of F. von der Hagen, (“<i>Minne-sänger</i>,” -<i>Manessische Sammlung</i>), in which all -the gems of this early growth of mediæval poetry -are given. One peculiar species of their songs -were called “<i>Wacht-lieder</i>” (Watch-songs), and -represent the pleading of the knight, with the -watchman of the castle, for admittance to his -love; or the warning of the watchman to the lover -<span class="pb" id="Page_344">344</span> -in the castle, to avoid discovery by leaving while -it was yet dark. We present the reader with a -specimen (author unknown).</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">Vor tags ich hort, in liebes port, wohl diese wort,</p> -<p class="t">Von wächters mund erklingen;</p> -<p class="t0">Ist jeman ji, vorborgen hie, derachte wie,</p> -<p class="t">Er mog hindannen sprengen, &c.</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">I heard before the dawn of day</p> -<p class="t">The watchman loud proclaim;—</p> -<p class="t0">“If any knightly lover stay</p> -<p class="t">In secret with his dame,</p> -<p class="t0">Take heed the sun will soon appear;</p> -<p class="t0">Then fly, ye knights, your ladies dear,</p> -<p class="t">Fly ere the day-light dawn.</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">“Brightly gleams the firmament,</p> -<p class="t">In silvery splendor gay,</p> -<p class="t0">Rejoicing that the night is spent,</p> -<p class="t">The lark salutes the day:</p> -<p class="t0">Then fly, ye lovers, and begone!</p> -<p class="t0">Take leave before the night is done,</p> -<p class="t">And jealous eyes appear.”</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">That watchman’s call did wound my heart,</p> -<p class="t">And banished my delight;</p> -<p class="t0">“Alas, the envious sun will part</p> -<p class="t">Our loves, my lady bright.”</p> -<p class="t0">On me she looked with downcast eye,</p> -<p class="t0">Despairing at my mournful cry,</p> -<p class="t">“We tarry here too long.”</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">Straight to the wicket did she speed;</p> -<p class="t">“Good watchman spare thy joke!</p> -<p class="t0">Warn not my love, till o’er the mead</p> -<p class="t">The morning sun has broke:</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_345">345</div> -<p class="t0">Too short, alas! the time, since here</p> -<p class="t0">I tarried with my leman dear,</p> -<p class="t">In love and converse sweet.”</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">“Lady, be warn’d! on roof and mead</p> -<p class="t">The dew-drops glitter gay,</p> -<p class="t0">Then quickly bid thy leman speed,</p> -<p class="t">Nor linger till the day;</p> -<p class="t0">For by the twilight did I mark</p> -<p class="t0">Wolves hyeing to their covert dark,</p> -<p class="t">And stags to covert fly.”</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">Now by the rising sun I view’d</p> -<p class="t">In tears my lady’s face;</p> -<p class="t0">She gave me many a token good,</p> -<p class="t">And many a soft embrace,</p> -<p class="t0">Our parting bitterly we mourn’d;</p> -<p class="t0">The hearts which erst with rapture burn’d,</p> -<p class="t">Were cold with woe and care.</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">A ring, with glittering ruby red,</p> -<p class="t">Gave me that lady sheen,</p> -<p class="t0">And with me from the castle sped</p> -<p class="t">Along the meadow green;</p> -<p class="t0">And whilst I saw my leman bright,</p> -<p class="t0">She waved on high her ’kerchief white;</p> -<p class="t">“Courage! To arms!” she cried.</p> -</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">In the raging fight each pennon white</p> -<p class="t">Reminds me of her love;</p> -<p class="t0">In the field of blood, with mournful mood</p> -<p class="t">I see her ’kerchief move;</p> -<p class="t0">Through foes I hew where’er I view</p> -<p class="t">Her ruby ring, and blithely sing,</p> -<p class="t0">“Lady, I fight for thee.”</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_346">346</div> -<p>But the glory of the minne-singers was but -short; the emperors of the house of Swabia, had -fostered the art, by allowing an unheard-of liberty -of speech and thought; with the downfall of that -house (1256 <span class="smaller">A. D.</span>) the church regained a continually-increasing -ascendancy, and this liberty was -again fettered. Song and poetry, especially of an -amatory or frivolous (?) character were condemned, -and the place of the pleasant school of -minne-singer poetry was usurped by paraphrases -of the Scriptures, hymns or legends, written -either in very weak German or bad Latin; the -school of German poetry took a very long retrograde -step. Before leaving the minne-singers, a -word must be said of their fables and tales; in -these we find many modern ideas in a quaint and -ancient dress, proverbs abound, and many tales -of Roman History. “Don’t set the wolf to guard -the Sheep,” “Never borrow trouble,”</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">“The king must die,</p> -<p class="t0">And so must I,”</p> -</div> -<p>and many other sage thoughts.</p> -<p>The tales are sometimes very prettily told. We -have thought it worth while to translate one, -which we believe, has not yet been seen in an -English dress.</p> -<p>As far as possible we have adhered to the -abruptness and quaintness of the original.</p> -<p>“At one time there was a king, who had but -one son, who was very dear to him; the son -demanded leave of absence from his father, and -said that he wished to see the world, and wished -<span class="pb" id="Page_347">347</span> -to make friends. Then the king spoke ‘that -pleases me well; but see that you do not have -your labor in vain.’ The son was made ready for -his journey, and remained seven years away; -after that he returned to his home and his father, -which pleased the father very much, and he said,—‘Dear -son: how many friends hast thou earned -in these three years? Then the son answered -‘only three; the first I love better than myself; -the second as much as myself; and the third, not -as well as myself.’ The father said ‘It is well -to have friends, and it is well to try them; I counsel -you to kill a hog, and put it in a sack, and go -in the night to your friends and say, you met an -old enemy on the street and killed him, and are -afraid that if the dead body should be found on -you, it would cost you your life, and beg him -that he should, in such extremity, help you, and -that he will allow you to bury the body in his -house, that it may not be found on you; so you -shall find out if you have good friends.’</p> -<p>This advice pleased the son well, so he went -back again to the city where he knew he should -find his friends; and killed one night, a hog, and -did as his father had advised him to, and came to -the friend whom he loved better than himself. -When this one had heard his story, he said:—‘you -killed him yourself, so suffer for it yourself; -if it were found by me it would cost me my life; -but because we are good friends and comrades, -when you are caught, and when they are about to -bill you, I will go to you, and will console you, -<span class="pb" id="Page_348">348</span> -and will buy many ells of cloth for you, wherein -they may wind you and bury you; because you -loved me more than yourself.’ When he heard -this, he answered nothing but went to the other -friend whom he loved as much as himself, and -knocked at his door with the same tale as he had -told to the first; this one said:—‘Dear one! do -you suppose I am such a simpleton that I want to -die for you? If it is found here then I must die; -but if they kill you, then I will comfort you, -because that we are friends, and will do it the -best I can, since we must all die.’ When he -heard this, he parted from him, and came to the -third friend whom he did not love as well as himself. -This one asked what was in the sack, which -he came with. He said:—‘I can not say well, -but I need help in this day; yet know that it has -been my fate to kill a man, and I carry his body -on my back, and if it is caught by me, then I -must die, therefore I call on you for counsel; -This one spoke;—‘Give me here the body, and -let me carry it myself, for I will even die for you,’ -and when he opened the sack he found that only -a dead hog lay therein. After that the son went -home and told the whole story to his father.”<a class="fn" id="fr_276" href="#fn_276">[276]</a></p> -<p>The end is of rather startling abruptness; we -should have liked to have heard of the rewards -and punishment, <i>a la</i> modern novel.</p> -<p>One song took its rise at this time which is even -to-day a popular one, the world over. We refer to -<span class="pb" id="Page_349">349</span> -the music of the song now known as, “We won’t -go Home till morning,” or “For he’s a jolly good -fellow;” and known in France as “Malbrook -s’en va-t-en Guerre.” This was a favorite air at -the time of the crusades, and the crusaders often -made it resound before Jerusalem.</p> -<p>The Arabs first knew the melody and have -retained it to this day. The Arab fellahs will -listen apathetically to the whole repertoire of a -European orchestra; but the moment that the -above tune is played, the whole aspect changes, -and instead of a lifeless audience, the performers -have the most enthusiastic of listeners.<a class="fn" id="fr_277" href="#fn_277">[277]</a> In the -course of descent from the Crusaders and ancient -musicians, the tune has become a little quicker -but is not changed in any material respect.</p> -<p>Some time after the decline of Minne-singing, -an attempt was made to revive its glories, by -musical competitions, somewhat similar in style; -but the essence of the real “Minne” was gone; -it was no longer the knight singing to his love, or -telling in unaffected verse, the beauties of -Nature. Instead of this, there was a competition -of burgers and tradespeople, affecting a passion -foreign to their nature, and caring far more for a -stilted style of verse, than for the subject of it. -Such were the Meister-singers;<a class="fn" id="fr_278" href="#fn_278">[278]</a> Nuremburg was -their chief seat, and like all the tradesmen of that -age, they made their Guild a very close one. No -one could be admitted as a Master, unless he -<span class="pb" id="Page_350">350</span> -invented a new style of rhyme. Almost all the -members came from the lower classes, and the -result of such tyros endeavoring to strike out -paths which would have been difficult even to -genius, can be imagined.</p> -<p>Hans Sachs (a Nuremberg shoe-maker) and a -couple of others, were probably all that sang with -real poetic feeling.</p> -<p>Their songs were also accompanied with music. -There was a severe set of rules regulating the -poetical and musical contests; and the Guild -spread over all Germany; the last vestige of it -did not disappear until as recently as 1839.</p> -<p>But while this stultified mode of music was -going on in Nuremberg, a truer musical plant was -growing beside it: at this time the Volks-lied -(folk song) took its rise in Germany.</p> -<p>The first form of the volks-lied was religious, -and it was of a simplicity which adapted it to the -wants of the people. The pedantry of the Meister-singers -had an excellent effect upon this class -of composition, for it added counterpoint and -harmony (even if driven to excess) to a class of -music which was able to bear it.</p> -<p>Another order of music was that connected with -the miracle plays, where scriptural events were -represented upon the stage, with music. Much -of this music was taken bodily from the ecclesiastical -chants of the period.</p> -<p>With the commencement of the reformation, -the music of Germany was lifted to a very elevated -sphere, in being applied to the stately chorals -<span class="pb" id="Page_351">351</span> -which came into general use, through the efforts -of Luther, who himself composed some of them. -Luther had a most musical nature, which left its -imprint upon his whole epoch.</p> -<p>It is related of him, that he spent the largest -part of the night before he appeared to define his -doctrines before the Diet of Worms, playing on -his lute, in order to give composure and firmness -to his thoughts.</p> -<p>He ranked music next to theology, and said:—“I -am not ashamed to acknowledge, that next to -divinity there is no study which I prize so highly -as that of music.”</p> -<p>With the reformation, the epoch of modern -music may be said to begin. Of course there was -both crudity and pedantry in the art, but the -Meister-singers, although they yet existed centuries -later, had ceased to exert an influence.</p> -<p>There are but few curious facts, which are not -generally known, from that age, to our own. Yet -we think a brief sketch of the growth of some -branches of our music, will not be uninteresting -to the general reader, even if the facts have lost -the relish of novelty.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_352">352</div> -<h2 id="c41"><span class="small">CHAPTER XXV.</span> -<br />CURIOSITIES OF THE OPERA. -<br />MODERN COMPOSERS, AND CONCLUSION.</h2> -<p>Our series of sketches now draws towards its -close. The rise of the many-voiced harmony in -Italy, France, Germany, England, and the Netherlands, -the contrapuntal works of Palestrina, -Dufay, De Lattre, etc., come rather under the -head of the history and science of music, than -within the scope of a work which only endeavors -to collect the curiosities of the art, and things not -generally known. But in the rise and progress -of the opera, we find some interesting facts which -belong to our subject, and which bring our chain -of sketches down to the music of our own times.</p> -<p>The opera was the legitimate offspring of the -Miracle plays of the Middle ages, which were only -sacred operas or oratorios, wherein some events -in the life of a holy personage were represented -with songs and acting. The first opera (being -exactly like a “mystery play,” except that the -subject was a secular one) was “Orpheus,” by -Angelo Poliziano, and was performed in Rome in -1480. The libretto was by Cardinal Riario (nephew -of Pope Sixtus <span class="smaller">IV.</span>)</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_353">353</div> -<p>Pope Clement <span class="smaller">IX.</span>, wrote seven librettos for -operas. All was not sung in these: they were -rather tragedies with choruses.<a class="fn" id="fr_279" href="#fn_279">[279]</a></p> -<p>In 1500 the popes possessed a theatre, with -decorations and machinery. The paintings in -this edifice were by Balthazar Peruzzi, who may -be said to be the father of scene painting. His -scenery is said to have been very realistic.</p> -<p>Julian de Medicis, brother of Leon <span class="smaller">X.</span>, on being -proclaimed a citizen of Rome gave public plays, -and had a comedy of Plautus presented for two -days, the music of which was much admired.</p> -<p>In 1574, Claudio Merulo, organist at St. Mark’s, -composed music to a drama, which was performed -in the presence of Henry <span class="smaller">III.</span>, of France.</p> -<p>Vincent Galileo, father of the astronomer, and -Giovanni Bardi invented the recitative at about -the same time.</p> -<p>Peri and Caccini, two of the best musicians of -Florence were engaged by two rich noblemen to -write for them a complete opera; <i>Dafne</i>, produced -in Florence (1597,) was the result, and was the -first complete opera in modern form; these -composers were therefore the originators of the -opera.</p> -<p>An opera by the same writers was given at the -wedding of Henry <span class="smaller">IV.</span>, and Marie de Medici. -Rinucci, the author of the <i>libretti</i> of both the -above was silly enough to imagine that Marie de -Medici loved him, and followed her into France -<span class="pb" id="Page_354">354</span> -the ridicule which he received for his conceit -soon sent him back to Italy.</p> -<p>The score of “Orpheus,” by Monteverde, -1608, allows us to see the construction of his -orchestra.</p> -<p>There were,—</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">2 Clavichords,</p> -<p class="t0">2 Lyres, or Grand Viols (13 strings),</p> -<p class="t0">10 Violas,</p> -<p class="t0">3 Bass Viols,</p> -<p class="t0">2 Double Bass,</p> -<p class="t0">1 Double Harp (2 rows of strings),</p> -<p class="t0">2 Small French Violins,</p> -<p class="t0">2 Great Guitars,</p> -<p class="t0">2 Organs (wood),</p> -<p class="t0">4 Trombones,</p> -<p class="t0">1 Pair of Regals (small organ),</p> -<p class="t0">2 Cornets,</p> -<p class="t0">1 Small Flute,</p> -<p class="t0">1 Clarion,</p> -<p class="t0">3 Sourdines (muted trumpets).</p> -</div> -<p>These instruments gave to each chorus and -character a different effect, thus the double basses -accompanied Orpheus; the viols, Euridice; the -trombones, Pluto; the regals, Apollo. The shepherd’s -choruses were accompanied by flute, cornets, -sourdines and clarion, and most singular of -all, Charon sang to the light tones of the <i>guitar</i>.<a class="fn" id="fr_280" href="#fn_280">[280]</a></p> -<p>In Italy, from this time forth, opera followed -opera.</p> -<p>In France it was not known till much later -<span class="pb" id="Page_355">355</span> -plays “with songs” were known however, and -one of these, “in the Italian style,” was performed -in Paris, before the King and Royal -family, on the occasion of the victory of the Duke -of Guise at Calais, 1558.</p> -<p>The chief representations for years after, lay -rather in the direction of ballets, than of operas. -Religious plays also still were given at Paris, but -after the ordinance, of 1548, that no Catholic -ceremony should be represented on the stage, -they disappeared.<a class="fn" id="fr_281" href="#fn_281">[281]</a></p> -<p>The theatres, that is those which were public, -were at this time very poorly appointed, but -through the constant festivities of the court, -many inventions came into use.</p> -<p>The Court of France had always a <i>penchant</i> for -music, the drama, and dancing. Henry <span class="smaller">IV.</span>, was -very fond of the latter.</p> -<p>Louis <span class="smaller">XIII.</span>, cultivated music with much success, -he composed many airs, and several motets which -he had performed in his Chapel. Music was his -ordinary recreation when he could not go hunting. -At the siege of La Rochelle, there being no musicians -or singers with the army, he himself wrote -out the vespers for Pentecost, that they might be -ready in time. Three weeks before his death, and -after he had received the extreme unction, feeling -himself somewhat better, he begged Nyert, his -first <i>valet de garderobe</i> to sing a paraphrase of -David, which he had set to music, to give thanks -to God.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_356">356</div> -<p>Saint-Martin and Campeforte who were present, -each sang a part, and thus made a concerted piece -which they sang around the bed, the king from -time to time joining in with his own voice.</p> -<p>He also wrote a “<i>de Profundis</i>,” which was -sung over him after his death.<a class="fn" id="fr_282" href="#fn_282">[282]</a> The words -still exist which were written by him for his now -well-known “Amaryllis;” they were written for -Madame de Hauteforte, and one of the verses -runs:—</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">Tu crois, o beau soleil!</p> -<p class="t0">Q’ua ton eclat rien n’est pareil;</p> -<p class="t0">Mais quoi! tu palis</p> -<p class="t0">Auprès d’Amaryllis.<a class="fn" id="fr_283" href="#fn_283">[283]</a></p> -</div> -<p>Tallement speaks of a concert given once where -one of his songs was sung four times, the king -beating the measure. To these gatherings he -would admit none who were not musical, and no -women whatever, “for” said he, “<i>they cannot -keep silent</i>."<a class="fn" id="fr_284" href="#fn_284">[284]</a></p> -<p>Under Louis <span class="smaller">XIV.</span>, the opera became well known -in France, nor was it any longer a borrowed spectacle, -for Lulli in 1664 associated himself with -Moliere in writing; the latter furnishing the -<i>libretti</i>, which were in themselves of the best -order. In 1672 he built a permanent opera house, -(Academie Royale de Musique) and thus gave to -France, what it had never before possessed,—a -national opera.</p> -<p>There were, to be sure, a few French operas, -<span class="pb" id="Page_357">357</span> -before his enterprise; one given at Paris, by -Cardinal Mazarin, in 1645; one entitled “Akébar, -King of Mogul,” by the Abbeé Mailly and “La -Pastorale en musique,” by Cambert,<a class="fn" id="fr_285" href="#fn_285">[285]</a> but these -do not deprive Lulli of the claim of being the -“founder of French opera.”</p> -<p>La Fontaine tried to write some <i>libretti</i> for -Lulli, which were total failures, and declined by -the musician.</p> -<p>The King (Louis <span class="smaller">XIV.</span>), was passionately fond -of Lulli’s music, and would hear scarcely any -other.</p> -<p>About this time, the idea of <i>whistling and -hissing</i> to show disapproval, was invented. It -is said that Corneille’s “<i>Baron de Fondrieres</i>” -has the questionable honor of being the first play -that ever was hissed.</p> -<p>The hiss, spread rapidly, but on some one -having injudiciously hissed the opera of Orpheus, -by the sons of Lully, the hiss was interdicted by -law in 1690.<a class="fn" id="fr_286" href="#fn_286">[286]</a></p> -<p>The repression was not very effectual, and -innumerable epigrams (some of which still exist),<a class="fn" id="fr_287" href="#fn_287">[287]</a> -showed the derision of the public.</p> -<p>The singers of Lulli’s operas had all the faults -of their later brethren. Dumenil, the tenor, used -to steal the jewelry of the <i>prime donne</i>, and get -intoxicated with the baritone. He is said to have -drank six bottles of champagne every night, and -only the sixth deteriorated his performance.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_358">358</div> -<p>Marthe Le Rochois, another of the troupe, on -being accused of too much intimacy with the -bassoon of the orchestra, exhibited a promise of -marriage from the fond performer, written on the -back of an <i>ace of spades</i>.</p> -<p>Mlle. de Maupin was the wildest scapegrace the -stage ever saw: her adventures read like the most -improbable sensational novel, and would take as -much space to reproduce.</p> -<p>England’s first opera was performed in 1656. -It was entitled the “Siege of Rhodes,” and was -composed by five persons in collaboration. Musicians -and players were at this time held in low -esteem, and were liable to arrest as vagabonds at -almost any moment.</p> -<p>England possessed in Henry Purcell (1658-1695) -a musician of whom any country might be -proud. This composer soon turned his pen to the -writing of operas; the music to “The Tempest” -was excellent, while his “King Arthur” contains -music which is still loved by Englishmen everywhere.</p> -<p>Now that opera was established firmly, the -rivalries of the singers at once began.</p> -<p>In 1726 a bitter rivalry sprang up in London -between Cuzzoni and Faustina Bordoni, in which -the whole town took part. It lasted over two -years, and was throughout causeless, as the styles -of the two were entirely dissimilar, Bordoni being -unapproachable in the lightness and rapidity of -her runs and embellishments, and Cuzzoni excelling -<span class="pb" id="Page_359">359</span> -in the pathetic quality, and breadth of her -tones.<a class="fn" id="fr_288" href="#fn_288">[288]</a></p> -<p>But to follow the absurdities which constantly -arose in the rivalries of the various composers, -singers and performers, would require, not one, -but very many volumes by itself; we need only -allude to the disputes and rivalries between Gluck -and Piccini (in the composition of operas,) the -singers Mara and Todi, in France, and Billington -and Mara in London.</p> -<p>The names of those who have established a -reputation as wonderful operatic singers, also -make a formidable list. Among the very greatest -may however be mentioned Farinelli (male soprano) -Catalani, and Lablache, and among the most -successful of operatic writers, Gluck, Mozart, -Meyerbeer, Rossini, Verdi, Gounod. Of course -many names could be added, but these may stand -as representatives.</p> -<p>It is not singular that the great masters, Händel, -Beethoven and Mendelssohn failed in this branch -of composition. None of them had the ability -to stoop to the musical <i>finesses</i>, and <i>coups de -theatre</i>, which were necessary to make a successful -opera. They might have succeeded, if the pure -style of Gluck, with <i>libretti</i> taken from the Greek -tragedies, had continued, for these were in their -vein. But the public demanded a more spicy -operatic diet which they were not able or desirous -to finish.</p> -<p>It is well that it was so, for to this fact we owe -our grandest oratorios.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_360">360</div> -<p>Händel had trouble enough with opera, before -he finally left it. He had a temper which was -simply frightful (and an appetite which was the -same), and when he came in contact with the -conceited and irascible singers of his day, an -explosion was sure to follow.</p> -<p>Cuzzoni (who had the sweetest of voices, and -the harshest of tempers), was the hardest of all -for him to get along with.</p> -<p>One day she refused absolutely to sing a part -which he had assigned to her; his patience, small -at the best, gave out totally, and he was going to -throw her out of the window, when she hurriedly -gave her consent to sing.</p> -<p>Händel’s losses and trials as operatic manager, -temporarily drove him crazy.</p> -<p>Rossini also had his troubles in the operatic field. -Once a manager, whose <i>libretti</i> he was bound by -contract to set to music, took offence at some -action of the composer, and sought to revenge -himself by writing a wretched opera for him. -The result nearly brought both to ruin, for Rossini -retorted by writing a terribly poor score to the -words; in the overture, during an <i>allegro</i> movement, -the violins were arranged so as to stop at -every bar, and tap the tin shades of their lamps -with their bows. The audience nearly demolished -the theatre. The “Barber of Seville” was a -failure at its first performance.</p> -<p>There is a note to be made here, of a passage in -one of his operas, which is of interest to conductors.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_361">361</div> -<p>The overture to “William Tell” had been played -from its first representation, August 3, 1829, for -more than thirty years, with a major trill in the -violincello at the cadence of the first part; (the -andante at the beginning of the work), but on -the 16th of November, 1861, the piece was played -before the composer, who stigmatized as “a great -fault,” the major trill in the third measure of the -cadence.<a class="fn" id="fr_289" href="#fn_289">[289]</a> “It should be minor” he said. And -since that date it has been played so. But it is -very uncertain whether the abrupt remark was not -a mere whim of the composer. The trill is more -satisfactory with G sharp, than with G natural; -the earlier editions have none of them any mention -of a minor trill and it is scarcely possible that “a -great fault” like this, should have escaped notice -so long.</p> -<p>Meyerbeer, was in all respects, a person well -calculated to popularize opera. He knew how to -work up dramatic effects, in which he was well -seconded by his French librettists, and he did not -hesitate at any innovation to ask if it were classical, -or belonged to pure art; and he succeeded far -better than the martinets who condemned him.</p> -<p>At the first representation of his “<i>Robert le -Diable</i>,” an accident occurred which nearly resulted -in disaster. In the last act, Bertram, the tempter, -has to descend to the infernal regions, alone; -Levasseur (who performed the character) leaped -down the trap, and Robert (represented by the -tenor Nourrit), who should have remained on -<span class="pb" id="Page_362">362</span> -earth, saved by the prayers of Alice,—after a -moment of indecision (not remembering the -denouèment) <i>leaped after him</i>.</p> -<p>There was general consternation on the stage, -for all thought that Nourrit was injured. In the -audience they must have thought that the opera -had a rather immoral ending, since Bertram, the -tempter, had triumphed over the prayers of Alice.</p> -<p>Fortunately the mattresses had not been removed; -and Bertram was vastly astonished to find -that he had bagged his victim after all; he asked -Nourrit in amazement.—“Has the plot been -changed?” but Nourrit recollecting his mistake, -hastened back to the stage, where the audience -were astonished to see him reappear, but soon -grasping the situation burst into loud applause.</p> -<p>The curiosities of the opera of to-day are even -greater than those of twenty years since, for the -world has found an iconoclastic composer who is -endeavoring to reform all that went before him, -by pulling it to pieces. Yet he has done opera -precisely the service which it at present needed, -in showing composers the importance of bestowing -a greater attention upon the libretto, and elevating -the orchestra as well as the scene painter to -their proper places; his idea that an opera should -be a “perfect chrysolite,” a complete picture in -all its accessories, is the true one, though his -mode of effecting it may not be.</p> -<p>His zeal has allowed him to commit a ludicrous -“curiosity of music” in attacking almost all -that the Jews have ever done in music, and -<span class="pb" id="Page_363">363</span> -endeavoring to depreciate the most prominent -talent of that race; a talent which has been -acknowledged ever since the days of the Babylonian -captivity.</p> -<p>Yet a still greater curiosity (and the most recent -of all) has been written by one of his defenders. -Of course his attacks upon all who differed from -him, provoked retorts innumerable; these have -been collected and published in a compact form, -and the work is entitled “A Dictionary of Impoliteness.”</p> -<p>With this “curiosity” our catalogue appropriately -ends. We have not mentioned some of the -great names in music (Haydn, Cherubini, Palestrina, -Schumann, Schubert, etc.), and have -touched but lightly upon others. They did not -seem to come within our scope.</p> -<p>The incidents in the lives of the musical -giants have all been sought out by persons possessing -facilities which no American writer can have, -and are generally so well known that they can no -longer be called curious. We have endeavored to -show that music is a very uncertain and fickle art, -and continually changing, and that there never -can be <i>absolute</i> laws laid down in this free art, as -if it were a fixed science. If we have done this -and amused our readers at the same time, we -consider our work brought to a satisfactory conclusion.</p> -<p class="tbcenter"><span class="smaller">THE END.</span></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_364">364</div> -<h2 id="c42"><span class="small">FOOTNOTES</span></h2> -<div class="fnblock"><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_1" href="#fr_1">[1]</a>Krause.—Geschichte der Musik. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_2" href="#fr_2">[2]</a>The Raagni is the popular mode of singing in India; it is a free -Fantasia, or improvisation. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_3" href="#fr_3">[3]</a>Wm. Jones; Music of India. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_4" href="#fr_4">[4]</a>Ambros. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_5" href="#fr_5">[5]</a>Krause. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_6" href="#fr_6">[6]</a>Plutarch, of Isis and Osiris. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_7" href="#fr_7">[7]</a>Herodotus, Hist. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_8" href="#fr_8">[8]</a>Plutarch, of Isis and Osiris. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_9" href="#fr_9">[9]</a>Petronius. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_10" href="#fr_10">[10]</a>Champollion. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_11" href="#fr_11">[11]</a>Lepsius, Abt. 2 Pl., 86e. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_12" href="#fr_12">[12]</a>Wilkinson, p. 240. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_13" href="#fr_13">[13]</a>Wilkinson, v. 2, p. 222. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_14" href="#fr_14">[14]</a>V. 3, p. 83. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_15" href="#fr_15">[15]</a>Abtheilung, 3, page 106. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_16" href="#fr_16">[16]</a>Hist. Gen. de la Mus. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_17" href="#fr_17">[17]</a>Doubts have been expressed concerning the genuineness even of -these. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_18" href="#fr_18">[18]</a>Lloyd. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_19" href="#fr_19">[19]</a>Lloyd, Age of Pericles, Vol. II., p. 222. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_20" href="#fr_20">[20]</a>Ambros, Gesch. d. Musik, p. 237. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_21" href="#fr_21">[21]</a>Olympia, p. 106. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_22" href="#fr_22">[22]</a>The nome, or hymn for which Chrysothemis, gained the prize, -celebrated the victory of Apollo over the serpent Python. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_23" href="#fr_23">[23]</a>Gevært, Mus. de l’antiquite, p. 45. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_24" href="#fr_24">[24]</a>Chappell, Hist. of Mus., p. 32. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_25" href="#fr_25">[25]</a>Diodorus. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_26" href="#fr_26">[26]</a>Ambros Ges. d musik, p. 265, v. 1. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_27" href="#fr_27">[27]</a>Later there were more characters added, but at first, the whole -action consisted of dialogues between a solitary actor and the chorus. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_28" href="#fr_28">[28]</a>Jullien however, thinks Sappho in common with many other -ancient poets much overrated. Theses Supplementaires, p. 439. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_29" href="#fr_29">[29]</a>Geschichte der Griech. Lit. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_30" href="#fr_30">[30]</a>Lucian, Lapithæ. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_31" href="#fr_31">[31]</a>Ambros, Gesch. d. musik, v. 1, p. 260. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_32" href="#fr_32">[32]</a>Jullien, Theses Supplementaires, p. 130. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_33" href="#fr_33">[33]</a>The very title “philosopher” was of his own coining, for previous -sages called themselves Sophos (wise), but he preferred the better name -of Philosopher (lover of wisdom). -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_34" href="#fr_34">[34]</a>Some of the pupils of Pythagoras, maintained that he only of all -men had heard the harmony of the spheres. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_35" href="#fr_35">[35]</a>The sense of sound differs in different ears. In Chappell’s Histy. -of Music, page 251, an account is given of a wire of sixty-four feet in -length, arranged by Sir F. A. Gore Ouseley, to sound the C, four -octaves below C in the bass clef. The note was inaudible, but when -taken at half length some of the listeners heard it, while at quarter -length it was audible to all. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_36" href="#fr_36">[36]</a>See Lucian, Auction of Philosophers. Some say two years. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_37" href="#fr_37">[37]</a>Women were also admitted, but probably only to attendance on -lectures, not to membership. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_38" href="#fr_38">[38]</a>Legum II. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_39" href="#fr_39">[39]</a>Lloyd, Ages of Pericles, Vol. 2, p. 239. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_40" href="#fr_40">[40]</a>See Lucian, Lapithæ. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_41" href="#fr_41">[41]</a>Ottfried Müller, V. I, p. 343. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_42" href="#fr_42">[42]</a>Socrates intimates that the hiring of a large retinue of servants, -and the purchase of an expensive flute, went very far towards establishing -a reputation as a skillful flutist. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_43" href="#fr_43">[43]</a>Physcon was a nickname signifying thick belly. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_44" href="#fr_44">[44]</a>Müller, Gesch. d. Griech. Lit. v. 1, p. 380. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_45" href="#fr_45">[45]</a>Müller, Gesch. v. 1, p. 399. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_46" href="#fr_46">[46]</a>Müller, Ges. v. 1, p. 394. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_47" href="#fr_47">[47]</a>At seven years old the study was usually commenced. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_48" href="#fr_48">[48]</a>See O. Müller, Gesch. v. 2, p. 44 -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_49" href="#fr_49">[49]</a>The lips of the tragic mask were usually half open. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_50" href="#fr_50">[50]</a>Gesch. d. Griech. Lit. p. 44 -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_51" href="#fr_51">[51]</a>Some Dithyrambic poets kept a band of flute-players to accompany -their choruses. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_52" href="#fr_52">[52]</a>There was, and possibly is still, in some parts of Italy, a custom -analogous to this, when the director of the orchestra marked time by -rapping his baton regularly on his music stand instead of simply waving -it. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_53" href="#fr_53">[53]</a>Thucydides also gives an unfavorable picture of Cleon. Grote in -his History of Greece, defends Cleon’s character. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_54" href="#fr_54">[54]</a>Müller, p. 207, v. 2. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_55" href="#fr_55">[55]</a><i>De Saltatione</i> -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_56" href="#fr_56">[56]</a>Czerwinski, Geschichte d. tanz kunst, p. 19. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_57" href="#fr_57">[57]</a>Lucian, <i>de Saltatione</i>. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_58" href="#fr_58">[58]</a>Czerwinski, Gesch. d. Tanz k. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_59" href="#fr_59">[59]</a>Phillina, in dialogues of the Hetaræ. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_60" href="#fr_60">[60]</a>O. Müller, Gesch. d. Griech. Lit. v. 2, p. 210. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_61" href="#fr_61">[61]</a>Valerius Maximus, Book 2, x. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_62" href="#fr_62">[62]</a>Book 2. s. iv -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_63" href="#fr_63">[63]</a>These are still used in Italy, and their performers are called Zam -pognari. The derivation is obvious. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_64" href="#fr_64">[64]</a>Chappell, in his History of Music, is the most lucid of these. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_65" href="#fr_65">[65]</a>See Fetis’ Hist. Gen. de la Musique. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_66" href="#fr_66">[66]</a>Fetis, Hist. v. 8. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_67" href="#fr_67">[67]</a>Gevært, Hist. de la Mus. de l’ant. p 56. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_68" href="#fr_68">[68]</a>Tacitus, Bk. IV. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_69" href="#fr_69">[69]</a>Gevært, Mus. de l’ant. p. 58. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_70" href="#fr_70">[70]</a>Tacitus, Bk. I. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_71" href="#fr_71">[71]</a>Lucian, <i>de Saltatione</i>. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_72" href="#fr_72">[72]</a>Lucian, <i>de Saltatione</i>. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_73" href="#fr_73">[73]</a>Lucian, ibid. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_74" href="#fr_74">[74]</a>Seneca. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_75" href="#fr_75">[75]</a>Suetonius, Calig. LIV. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_76" href="#fr_76">[76]</a>Suetonius, Vesp. XIX. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_77" href="#fr_77">[77]</a>Letters of Julian, No. 56. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_78" href="#fr_78">[78]</a>Tacitus, Bk. XX. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_79" href="#fr_79">[79]</a>Suetonius, XX. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_80" href="#fr_80">[80]</a>Tacitus, XV. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_81" href="#fr_81">[81]</a>Suet. Nero, XXI. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_82" href="#fr_82">[82]</a>Tacitus, Bk. XXI. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_83" href="#fr_83">[83]</a>Suetonius, Nero. XXIII. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_84" href="#fr_84">[84]</a>See chapter on Games of Greece. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_85" href="#fr_85">[85]</a>Nero however sometimes took part in other contests, he was as -poor and persistent a charioteer as magician. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_86" href="#fr_86">[86]</a>Tacitus, Book XVI. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_87" href="#fr_87">[87]</a>In the early historical part of this article, we have mainly followed the dates used by La Fage. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_88" href="#fr_88">[88]</a>Ambros, Gesch. d. Mus. p. 20, v. 1. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_89" href="#fr_89">[89]</a>Amiot, Abrege Chron. p. 201. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_90" href="#fr_90">[90]</a>Chinese annals claim that their empire was founded 80,000 or 100,000 -years <span class="smaller">B. C.</span> Fo-hi’s reign is fixed by some at about 2,250 <span class="smaller">B. C.</span> -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_91" href="#fr_91">[91]</a>Amiot, De la Mus. des Chinois, p. 54. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_92" href="#fr_92">[92]</a>Amiot, p. 57. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_93" href="#fr_93">[93]</a>It is singular that a similar personage exists in the Hindoo -mythology. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_94" href="#fr_94">[94]</a>Quoted by La Fage, Hist. de Mus., p. 47. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_95" href="#fr_95">[95]</a>La Fage, p. 50. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_96" href="#fr_96">[96]</a>Amiot, de la Mus. des Chinois, p. 11. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_97" href="#fr_97">[97]</a>P. 63. Mus. des Chinois. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_98" href="#fr_98">[98]</a>La Fage, 69. De Mailla, 191. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_99" href="#fr_99">[99]</a>Amiot, de la Mus. de Chin., p. 33. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_100" href="#fr_100">[100]</a>Ambros, Gesch. der Musik, p. 27, v. 1. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_101" href="#fr_101">[101]</a>Ambros, Gesch. d Mus. p. 32. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_102" href="#fr_102">[102]</a>Pieces for the Clavichord in the style of Rameau. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_103" href="#fr_103">[103]</a>Amiot, Mus. des Chinois, p. 3. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_104" href="#fr_104">[104]</a>Cibot, Essai sur les Caracteres Chinois. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_105" href="#fr_105">[105]</a>Amiot, de la Mus. de Chin., p. 35. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_106" href="#fr_106">[106]</a>Figures 2 and 3, pl. 1, Amiot, des Chin. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_107" href="#fr_107">[107]</a>Figures 4 and 6, pl. 2, Amiot. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_108" href="#fr_108">[108]</a>Figure 7, pl. 2, Amiot. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_109" href="#fr_109">[109]</a>Amiot, Essai sur les pierres sonores. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_110" href="#fr_110">[110]</a>L’Abbé Roussier, Annotations sur Amiot. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_111" href="#fr_111">[111]</a>The chronicle says “it was mute forever,” but this was meant as -hyperbole. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_112" href="#fr_112">[112]</a>De la Mus. des Chin., p. 60. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_113" href="#fr_113">[113]</a>There are two kinds of <i>siao</i>, the great and the small. The latter -has the same number of tubes, but pitched an octave higher. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_114" href="#fr_114">[114]</a>Fetis, Hist. Gen de la Mus. VI. 1, p. 66-67. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_115" href="#fr_115">[115]</a>Fetis, p. 73. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_116" href="#fr_116">[116]</a>“Les Chinois ont remplacé les voix des femmes par celles des casrats. -Les chirurgiens Chinois sont arriveés a pratiquer l’operation avec -une addresse singuliere et presque sans souffrance pour le sujet.” La -Fage, Mus. des Chin., p. 150. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_117" href="#fr_117">[117]</a>La Fage, Mus. des Chin., p. 241. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_118" href="#fr_118">[118]</a>Amiot, Mus. des Chinois, p. 179. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_119" href="#fr_119">[119]</a>In singing this the chorus speaks in the name of the emperor. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_120" href="#fr_120">[120]</a>Amiot, des Chin., p. 180. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_121" href="#fr_121">[121]</a>The offerings are viands, libations, and perfumes, the latter being -burnt as incense by the emperor. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_122" href="#fr_122">[122]</a>Copied by Ambros, in Gesch d mus. v. 1, p. 34-5. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_123" href="#fr_123">[123]</a>Quoted by Fetis, Hist. Gen. de la Mus. v. 1, p. 62. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_124" href="#fr_124">[124]</a>Amiot, p. 171. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_125" href="#fr_125">[125]</a>La Fage, des Chinois, p. 269. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_126" href="#fr_126">[126]</a>First it was Haydn, then Handel, then Mozart, then Beethoven -and to-day Wagner (a few years ago, Schumann) whose bold eagle-flights -dismayed the more timid owls. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_127" href="#fr_127">[127]</a>“Among the Chinese themselves, society chiefly consists of certain -stated forms, and expressions, a calm, equal, cold deportment, hypocritical -attentions, and hyperbolical professions.” Barrow’s Life of -Macartney, v. 2, p. 414. The curious reader will also find a very full -description of Chinese social etiquette, in the “<i>Description de la -Chine</i>,” by Pere Du Halde, pages 115 to 154, vol. 2. Rules are given -for set formalities, even on the slightest occasions, such as, the opening -of a conversation when visiting (p. 126), the exit, the rising from table -after meals, (138), etc., etc. It is possible, that in the customs of this -people, we may see a living reproduction of some traits of the ancient -Egyptians -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_128" href="#fr_128">[128]</a>Barrow’s life of Macartney, v. 2, p. 231. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_129" href="#fr_129">[129]</a>Ibid, v. 2, p. 217 -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_130" href="#fr_130">[130]</a>Desc. de la Chine. T. II. p. 132. In La Fage’s quotation the page is -given as 112, probably an oversight, or a later edition. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_131" href="#fr_131">[131]</a>Account of Lord Macartney’s embassy, by Sir George Staunton. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_132" href="#fr_132">[132]</a>Musical Myths and Facts, vol. 2, p. 163. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_133" href="#fr_133">[133]</a>La Fage Mus. des. Chinois T. 1. p. 302 -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_134" href="#fr_134">[134]</a><i>Leit motiven</i> however the Chinese have <i>not</i>!! -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_135" href="#fr_135">[135]</a>De Guignes, Voyage a Peking v. 2, p. 325. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_136" href="#fr_136">[136]</a>It would however, be as unjust to judge average Chinese plays by -this one instance as to judge of the Shakesperian drama by “Titus -Andronicus.” -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_137" href="#fr_137">[137]</a>Voyage to Cochin China, p. 295. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_138" href="#fr_138">[138]</a>In like manner physiologists at one time endeavored to account for -the peculiar singing of the Tyrolese peasantry (called the “yodel”) by -the theory that the Tyrolese throat was shaped differently from throats -in general. Anatomy exploded the assumption. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_139" href="#fr_139">[139]</a>La Fage, Mus. des Chinois, v. 1, p. 311. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_140" href="#fr_140">[140]</a>Edward Brown, Adventures In Cochin China, p. 221, quoted by -Engel Mus. Myths and facts, vol. 2, p. 157. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_141" href="#fr_141">[141]</a>DuHalde, Description de l’emp. de la Chine. T. 2, p. 156. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_142" href="#fr_142">[142]</a>LaFage, Mus. des. Chin., T. 1, p. 313. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_143" href="#fr_143">[143]</a>Barrow’s life of Macartney, v. 1, pp. 341-2 -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_144" href="#fr_144">[144]</a>Ibid, p. 337. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_145" href="#fr_145">[145]</a>Ainsworth, around the world, p. 102. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_146" href="#fr_146">[146]</a>The following is a short synopsis of Chinese education. “When -choosing a wet-nurse, the mother must seek a modest, virtuous, affable, -discreet, respectful, exact and prudent woman. When the boy can carry -his hand to his mouth he is weaned, and taught to use his right hand -in eating; at the age of six, teach him the simplest numbers, and the -names of most important parts of the globe; at the age of seven separate -him from his sisters, and let him neither eat nor sit with them; at -the age of eight teach him the rules of politeness and civility, which he -must observe when entering or leaving a house, or when he is with his -elders; at nine teach him the calendar; at ten send him to the public -school and give him no more cotton-stuffed garments, they will be too -warm for his age. The school-master is to give him knowledge of -reading, writing and arithmetic. At thirteen, let him study music, -that he may sing poetry, and that the wise maxims contained in the -verses, be engraven on his memory. At fifteen he is to learn archery -and riding. As for girls, when they have attained the age of ten -years, they are not to be allowed to go out of doors; teach them to -speak sweetly, to have an affable air, and to understand all household -duties.” Book of ancient rites quoted in Pere du Halde’s Descrip. de la -Chin., T. 2, p. 438. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_147" href="#fr_147">[147]</a>Ainsworth, p. 102. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_148" href="#fr_148">[148]</a>A good example of the ludicrous side of this over politeness, may -be given here. The host in China will constantly press his guest to -accept of things which the latter is <i>expected</i> to refuse; the host is also -required by etiquette to depreciate himself and extol his guest, which -the latter returns in kind. An English gentleman having resigned himself -to his interpreter, the following dialogue (like that in Kinglake’s -“Eothen,”) takes place:—</div> -<div class="fncont"><i>Interpreter.</i> His excellency has long looked forward to this day.</div> -<div class="fncont"><i>Chinese Dignitary.</i> I meet him now as an old friend, and request to -know his honorable age.</div> -<div class="fncont"><i>Int.</i> His excellency has profitlessly passed —— years.</div> -<div class="fncont"><i>Chinese Dig.</i> The ears of his excellency are long, and betoken great -ability.</div> -<div class="fncont"><i>Int.</i> Ah! oh! he is unworthy of the compliment.</div> -<div class="fncont"><i>Chinese Dig.</i> You have had an arduous journey.</div> -<div class="fncont"><i>Int.</i> We deserved it, etc.</div> -<div class="fncont">A similar “call” is described in Ainsworth’s “all around the world,” -p. 106.</div> -<div class="fncont">“At last we begged to take our leave, and began violently to ‘tsing-tsing,’ -a ceremony which consists in clasping your hands before your -breast, and making a crouching baboon-like gesture; it is the equivalent -of shaking hands, only one shakes one’s own hands.... Our -host insists on following us to our chairs. We remonstrate; ‘stop! -stop! we are unworthy,’ say we. ‘What language is this’ he replies. -‘We are really unworthy’ we reiterate. ‘You are in my house,’ he -insists; and so we back to our chairs, perpetually imploring him not to -accompany us, which he vehemently resists, until at last, when we are -in our chairs, he reluctantly consents to return, apologising to the -last, for being so rude as to leave us even then.” -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_149" href="#fr_149">[149]</a>Japan, Aime Humbert, p. 173. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_150" href="#fr_150">[150]</a>Ambros, Gesch. d. Mus. v. 1, p. 38. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_151" href="#fr_151">[151]</a>Ibid, 39. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_152" href="#fr_152">[152]</a>See Article on Egypt. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_153" href="#fr_153">[153]</a>Fetis, Hist. de la Mus. v. 1, p. 84. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_154" href="#fr_154">[154]</a>Humbert’s Japan, p. 174. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_155" href="#fr_155">[155]</a>Siebold, Pantheon of Nipon, part C, plates -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_156" href="#fr_156">[156]</a>Or more properly, agglutinate. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_157" href="#fr_157">[157]</a>Humbert, Japan, p. 42. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_158" href="#fr_158">[158]</a>Abbe Huc, Travels in Thibet. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_159" href="#fr_159">[159]</a>S. Osborne, Japanese Fragments. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_160" href="#fr_160">[160]</a>Mr. Oliphant, in Elgin’s Mission to Japan. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_161" href="#fr_161">[161]</a>Thunberg, Voyage to Japan, p. 351, Sherwood’s Edition. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_162" href="#fr_162">[162]</a>Kaempfer, Hist. of Japan (Pinkerton), p. 745. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_163" href="#fr_163">[163]</a>Kaempfer, Hist. of Japan, p. __. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_164" href="#fr_164">[164]</a>Dr. Müller, Journal of the German Eastern Asiatic Society. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_165" href="#fr_165">[165]</a>Letter to the “Leisure Hour,” June 9, 1877. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_166" href="#fr_166">[166]</a>Humbert, Japan, p. 248. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_167" href="#fr_167">[167]</a>Caron’s Account of Japan (Pinkerton), p. 633. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_168" href="#fr_168">[168]</a>Humbert, Japan, p. 295. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_169" href="#fr_169">[169]</a>Humbert, Japan, p. 258. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_170" href="#fr_170">[170]</a>Thunberg, Voyage to Japan (Sherwood’s Ed.), p. 293. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_171" href="#fr_171">[171]</a>Kæmpfer’s history of Japan, p. 815 (Pinkerton’s). -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_172" href="#fr_172">[172]</a>Ibid, p. 818. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_173" href="#fr_173">[173]</a>Caron’s Account of Japan (Pinkerton’s ed.), p. 611. v. 7. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_174" href="#fr_174">[174]</a>Dr. Müller; paper read before the German Asiatic Society. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_175" href="#fr_175">[175]</a>Wood’s Natural History of Man, v. II, p. 849. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_176" href="#fr_176">[176]</a>La Fage, Hist. gen. de la musique, v. I, p. 376. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_177" href="#fr_177">[177]</a>Wood’s Nat. Hist. of Man, v. II, p. 850. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_178" href="#fr_178">[178]</a>Dr. Müller, German East. Asiatic Society. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_179" href="#fr_179">[179]</a>Japan and the Japanese. Capt. Golownin, v. II, p. 149. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_180" href="#fr_180">[180]</a>Worn one above the other. Sometimes six or seven dresses are -worn in this manner by one fair fashionable. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_181" href="#fr_181">[181]</a>Humbert’s Japan, p. 336. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_182" href="#fr_182">[182]</a>Thunberg. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_183" href="#fr_183">[183]</a>La Fage, Hist. de la Mus. v. I, p. 375. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_184" href="#fr_184">[184]</a>Engel, Mus. Myths and Facts, v. II, p. 164. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_185" href="#fr_185">[185]</a>La Fage, Hist. de la Mus. v. I, p. 376. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_186" href="#fr_186">[186]</a>Humbert, Japan, p. 337. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_187" href="#fr_187">[187]</a>All Round the World, p. 206. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_188" href="#fr_188">[188]</a>Thunberg, p. 307. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_189" href="#fr_189">[189]</a>Ambros, Gesch. d. Musik, v. I, p. 4. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_190" href="#fr_190">[190]</a>Comettant, Mus. et Musiciens, p. 586. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_191" href="#fr_191">[191]</a>Fetis, Hist. gen. de la Mus., v. I, p. 26. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_192" href="#fr_192">[192]</a>Ambros, Gesch. d. Musik, p. 10, v. I. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_193" href="#fr_193">[193]</a>See Fetis, Hist. gen. de la Mus. v. I, p. 15. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_194" href="#fr_194">[194]</a>The effect of this in some Australian dances, is said to be very -striking. The favorite device, is to draw the outline of a skeleton, on -the front of the body, with white paint. As the dancers twirl round, -the pattern is plainly perceptible when their faces are turned toward -the spectator, but when their black backs are turned, the whole -vanishes, and gives the impression of a number of ghastly skeletons, -alternately appearing and disappearing, by the dim flicker of the firelight. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_195" href="#fr_195">[195]</a>Here we see one of the earliest traits of primitive music. The use -of a plain, rhythmic accompaniment, without tune. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_196" href="#fr_196">[196]</a>From the “Illustrated London News,” Oct. 8, 1863. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_197" href="#fr_197">[197]</a>Wood’s Nat. Hist. of Man, v. I, p. 68. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_198" href="#fr_198">[198]</a>Meinicke, Inseln des Stillen Oceans, v. I, p. 329. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_199" href="#fr_199">[199]</a>Wood’s Hist. of Man, v. I, p. 162. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_200" href="#fr_200">[200]</a>Meinecke, Inseln d still. Oceans, v. I, p. 330. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_201" href="#fr_201">[201]</a>A conundrum from Java may be interesting to the reader. Here is -one,—</div> -<div class="fncont"><i>Q.</i>—What is lower than the knee, yet higher than the mountain?</div> -<div class="fncont"><i>A.</i>—The road which crosses the mountain. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_202" href="#fr_202">[202]</a>De Backer, L’Archipel Indien, p. 185. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_203" href="#fr_203">[203]</a>De Backer, L’Archipel Indien, p. 207. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_204" href="#fr_204">[204]</a>Quoted in Ainsworth, Round the World, p. 246. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_205" href="#fr_205">[205]</a>Engel’s Musical Myths, e. c., v. 2, p. 150. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_206" href="#fr_206">[206]</a>A voyage round the World (Cook’s) Forster, p. 398, v. 1. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_207" href="#fr_207">[207]</a>Wood’s Nat. History of Man, v. 1, p. 285. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_208" href="#fr_208">[208]</a>An account of a Government mission to the Fiji Islands, p. 116. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_209" href="#fr_209">[209]</a>Fetis, Histoire de la Mus., v. 1, p. 96. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_210" href="#fr_210">[210]</a>Wood’s Nat. History, v. 2, p. 288. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_211" href="#fr_211">[211]</a>All Kaffir chiefs aspire to obesity as an emblem of rank. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_212" href="#fr_212">[212]</a>The Heart of Africa, v. 2, p. 29. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_213" href="#fr_213">[213]</a>Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa, v. 2, p. 30. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_214" href="#fr_214">[214]</a>Central Africa, or Naked Truths about Naked people, p. 278. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_215" href="#fr_215">[215]</a>Wood’s Nat’l History of Man, v. 2, p. 498. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_216" href="#fr_216">[216]</a>Journal of the discovery of the source of the Nile, by Capt. Speke, -page 210. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_217" href="#fr_217">[217]</a>Captain Speke’s Journal, p. 222. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_218" href="#fr_218">[218]</a>Heart of Africa, v. 1, p. 287. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_219" href="#fr_219">[219]</a>Heart of Africa, v. 1, p. 289. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_220" href="#fr_220">[220]</a>Ismailia, By Sir S. W. Baker, page 391. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_221" href="#fr_221">[221]</a>Ismailia, p. 355. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_222" href="#fr_222">[222]</a>See “Ismailia,” p. 372. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_223" href="#fr_223">[223]</a>It will be recollected that the Abyssinians belong to a sect of the -Christian Church. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_224" href="#fr_224">[224]</a>Coomassie and Magdala, by H. M. Stanley, p. 310 -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_225" href="#fr_225">[225]</a>Coomassie and Magdala, page 488. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_226" href="#fr_226">[226]</a>Ismailia, page 282. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_227" href="#fr_227">[227]</a>Baker’s “Ismailia,” page 351. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_228" href="#fr_228">[228]</a>Stanley’s “How I found Livingstone,” page 622. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_229" href="#fr_229">[229]</a>Brendel, Gesch. d. Musik, p. 7. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_230" href="#fr_230">[230]</a>According to Clemens Romanus, a contemporary of St. Paul. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_231" href="#fr_231">[231]</a>Tertullian, Apologia, 39. Evidently a custom derived from the -<i>skolion</i> of Greece. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_232" href="#fr_232">[232]</a>Ambros, Geschichte d. Musik, v. II, p. 5. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_233" href="#fr_233">[233]</a>Gesch. d. Musik, v. II p. 11 -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_234" href="#fr_234">[234]</a>Marcillac, Histoire de la Mus. Modern, p. 25. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_235" href="#fr_235">[235]</a>Fetis, Histoire Gen. de la mus, v. 4, p. 6. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_236" href="#fr_236">[236]</a>Letters, v. 5, p. 7.</div> -<div class="fncont">Affirmabent autem, hanc fuisse summan vel culpæ suæ, vel erroris -quod essent soliti stato die ante lucem convenire; carmenque Christo, -quasi Deo, dicere secum invicem; seque sacramento non in scelus -aliquod obstringere, sed ne furta, ne latrocinia, ne adulteria committerent -ne fidem fallerent, ne depositum appellati abnegarent, quibus -peractis morem, sibi discedendi fuisse, rursusque coeundi ad capiendum -cibum, promiscium tamen et innoxium. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_237" href="#fr_237">[237]</a>Quoted by Fetis, Histoire Gen. d. l. Mus., v. 4, p. 7. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_238" href="#fr_238">[238]</a>Fetis. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_239" href="#fr_239">[239]</a>Marcillac, Histoire de la Mus. Moderne, p. 27. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_240" href="#fr_240">[240]</a>Ambros, Geschichte d. Mus., v. 2, p 13. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_241" href="#fr_241">[241]</a>Fetis, Histoire Gen. de la Mus., v. 4, p. 17. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_242" href="#fr_242">[242]</a>A good explanation of the system -is to be found in Fetis, v. 4, pp. 29-56. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_243" href="#fr_243">[243]</a>See Curzon’s “Monasteries of the Levant,” or Proust’s “Voyage on -Mt. Athos.” -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_244" href="#fr_244">[244]</a>Some excellent German translations of the hymns, have been made -by Zingerle, and are to be found in the “Zeitschrift d. Deutschen -Morgenl. Gesellschaft.” -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_245" href="#fr_245">[245]</a>Fetis, Histoire Gen. T. 4. p 90. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_246" href="#fr_246">[246]</a>Rambosson, Harmonies du Son, p. 21. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_247" href="#fr_247">[247]</a>King’s “Ten Thousand Wonders,” p. 241. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_248" href="#fr_248">[248]</a>Marcillac, Hist. de la Mus. Moderne, p. 28, and Brendel, Gesch. d -Mus. p. 9. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_249" href="#fr_249">[249]</a>Confessions, Book IX., Chap. 6. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_250" href="#fr_250">[250]</a>Ambros, Geschicht der Musik, vol. 2, p. 14. Fetis, Biographie -Univ. v. 1. p. 85. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_251" href="#fr_251">[251]</a>Confess, IX., 7. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_252" href="#fr_252">[252]</a>Fetis, Hist. Gen de la Mus., v. 4, p. 135. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_253" href="#fr_253">[253]</a>Grove’s Dictionary of Music and Musicians, part 1, vol. 1, article -“Ambrosian chant,” by Rev. Thomas Helmore. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_254" href="#fr_254">[254]</a>Ambros, Gesch. d. Mus., v. 2, p. 43. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_255" href="#fr_255">[255]</a>Ambros, v. 2, p. 45. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_256" href="#fr_256">[256]</a>These latter letters may however, only refer to the diagrams, and -not to musical notes. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_257" href="#fr_257">[257]</a>Epoch men, by Sam’l Neal, p. 43. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_258" href="#fr_258">[258]</a>Vie de Charlemagne, Guizot, T. 3, p. 151. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_259" href="#fr_259">[259]</a>Ambros Gesch. d. Mus., v. 2, p. 94. We must remind the reader -that “Gregorian” music, does not always refer to the compositions of -Gregory, but simply means the singing used at Rome, as the “Ambrosian” -means the style used at Milan. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_260" href="#fr_260">[260]</a>Monachus Engolismensis (the monk of Angouleme), an anonymous -writer of this era, in his <i>Vita Caroli Magni.</i> quoted by J. J. -Rousseau, in his Dictionnaire de Musique article “Chant,” also by -Crowest, Mus. Anecdotes, v. 2, p. 239; Fetis, v. 4, p. 279; Ambros, v. -2, p. 94, etc., etc. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_261" href="#fr_261">[261]</a>It has been suggested by some recent writers on this subject, that -even this should be met by forming the notes of various lengths, thus, -a whole note ———, a half note ——, a quarter —, etc., but this -difficulty can be obviated, in spacing, by any good music engraver, -and does not require so radical a change. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_262" href="#fr_262">[262]</a>The semitone falling always between the second and third note, is -the only regularity apparent. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_263" href="#fr_263">[263]</a>Stainer’s Dictionary, p. 311. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_264" href="#fr_264">[264]</a>There is some ambiguity regarding the title of this pontiff. Some -authorities call him John <span class="smaller">XX.</span>, and the next John (1276) the <span class="smaller">XXI.</span> -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_265" href="#fr_265">[265]</a>Quoted by Stainer and Barrett, Dict. p. 314. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_266" href="#fr_266">[266]</a>Topog. Hibern., 3 C. 1. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_267" href="#fr_267">[267]</a>“The Troubadours,” F. Hueffer, p. 61. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_268" href="#fr_268">[268]</a>Quoted by Hueffer, “Troubabours,” p. 72. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_269" href="#fr_269">[269]</a>Hueffer, p. 274-5. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_270" href="#fr_270">[270]</a>Richard. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_271" href="#fr_271">[271]</a>Taylor’s “Lays of the Minnesingers,” p. 229. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_272" href="#fr_272">[272]</a>French. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_273" href="#fr_273">[273]</a>Those of the Troubadours. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_274" href="#fr_274">[274]</a>This line is vague in its meaning. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_275" href="#fr_275">[275]</a>Taylor’s “Minne-singers,” p. 98. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_276" href="#fr_276">[276]</a>Fabeln und Erzehlungen aus d. zeiten d. minne-sanger. Von Bodmer -and Breitlinger Zurich, 1757, p. 247. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_277" href="#fr_277">[277]</a>Rambosson, Harmonies du Son, p. 46. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_278" href="#fr_278">[278]</a>Anglice—Master-singers. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_279" href="#fr_279">[279]</a>L’Opera Italien. Castil-Blaze, p. 20. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_280" href="#fr_280">[280]</a>L’Opera Italien. Castil-Blaze, p. 26. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_281" href="#fr_281">[281]</a>Curiosites Theatrales, Fournel (Paris), p. 17. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_282" href="#fr_282">[282]</a>Bibliotheque de Poche, v. VIII., p. 345. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_283" href="#fr_283">[283]</a>Ibid, vol. II., p. 811. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_284" href="#fr_284">[284]</a>Historiette d. la Marechale de Themines, book 5, p. 196. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_285" href="#fr_285">[285]</a>Edwards’ History of the Opera, vol. 1, p. 15. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_286" href="#fr_286">[286]</a>Curiosites Theatrales, Fournel, p. 161. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_287" href="#fr_287">[287]</a>See Annals Dramatiques, <span class="smaller">VII.</span>, p. 165. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_288" href="#fr_288">[288]</a>L’Opera Ital. Castil-Blaze, p. 128. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_289" href="#fr_289">[289]</a>Deldeves. Curiosites Musicales, p. 215. -</div> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_365">365</div> -<h2 id="c43"><span class="small">INDEX.</span></h2> -<p class="center"><a class="ab" href="#index_A">A</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_B">B</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_C">C</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_D">D</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_E">E</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_F">F</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_G">G</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_H">H</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_I">I</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_J">J</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_K">K</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_L">L</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_M">M</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_N">N</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_O">O</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_P">P</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_Q">Q</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_R">R</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_S">S</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_T">T</a> <span class="ab">U</span> <a class="ab" href="#index_V">V</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_W">W</a> <span class="ab">X</span> <a class="ab" href="#index_Y">Y</a> <span class="ab">Z</span></p> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_A">A</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Abyssinian Music</span> <a href="#Page_270">270</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Æschylus</span> <a href="#Page_74">74</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">African Music</span> <a href="#Page_251">251</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Amanieus, troubadour</span> <a href="#Page_334">334</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Amaryllis</span> <a href="#Page_356">356</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Ambrosian Chant</span> <a href="#Page_299">299</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Ancestors, feasts of</span> <a href="#Page_186">186</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Aristotle</span> <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Armenian Church</span> <a href="#Page_292">292</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_B">B</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Bamboo Instruments</span> <a href="#Page_153">153</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Banquet Music, Egyptian</span> <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Banquet Music, Grecian</span> <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Banquet Music, Japanese</span> <a href="#Page_213">213</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Barbarians, Music of</span> <a href="#Page_229">229</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Bards, ancient</span> <a href="#Page_323">323</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Bardesanes</span> <a href="#Page_291">291</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Bells</span> <a href="#Page_148">148</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Bertrand du Born</span> <a href="#Page_336">336</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Bœthius</span> <a href="#Page_308">308</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Bongo Songs</span> <a href="#Page_267">267</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Brahma, legend of</span> <a href="#Page_8">8</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_C">C</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Caligula</span> <a href="#Page_99">99</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Canadian, curious song</span> <a href="#Page_234">234</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Canute</span> <a href="#Page_328">328</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Caste of musicians, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Caste of musicians, Egyptian</span> <a href="#Page_18">18</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Chant, Ambrosian</span> <a href="#Page_299">299</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Chant, Gregorian</span> <a href="#Page_303">303</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Charlemagne</span> <a href="#Page_308">308</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Cheng</span> <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Chinese ceremonies</span> <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Chinese compositions</span> <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Chinese music</span> <a href="#Page_114">114</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Chinese a musical language</span> <a href="#Page_160">160</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Chinese music resembles Scotch</span> <a href="#Page_166">166</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Chinese songs, earliest</span> <a href="#Page_115">115</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Chinese songs</span> <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Chinese theatre and plays</span> <a href="#Page_176">176</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Chinese whistle</span> <a href="#Page_149">149</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Chorus, a terrible</span> <a href="#Page_74">74</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Chorus, Greek</span> <a href="#Page_74">74</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Christian, early customs</span> <a href="#Page_287">287</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Christian, early music</span> <a href="#Page_283">283</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Christian churches of Africa</span> <a href="#Page_293">293</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Chun, Song of</span> <a href="#Page_121">121</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Clavichord in China</span> <a href="#Page_137">137</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Confucius</span> <a href="#Page_124">124</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Conservatories in ancient Egypt</span> <a href="#Page_25">25</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Coptic Hymns</span> <a href="#Page_294">294</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Crusaders’ songs</span> <a href="#Page_349">349</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Cuzzoni</span> <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></dt> -</dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_366">366</div> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_D">D</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Dances, Australian</span> <a href="#Page_234">234</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Dances, Bushmen</span> <a href="#Page_256">256</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Dances, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_176">176</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Dances, Egyptian</span> <a href="#Page_21">21</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Dances, Fiji Islands</span> <a href="#Page_248">248</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Dances, Grecian</span> <a href="#Page_79">79</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Dances, Roman</span> <a href="#Page_97">97</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Dances, Savage</span> <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Dances, Tasmanian</span> <a href="#Page_238">238</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Dances, War</span> <a href="#Page_241">241</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Destruction of musical instruments</span> <a href="#Page_133">133</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Dictionary of Impoliteness</span> <a href="#Page_363">363</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Drums, African</span> <a href="#Page_265">265</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Drums, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_143">143</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Drums, used to mark the hour</span> <a href="#Page_144">144</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Drums, Javanese</span> <a href="#Page_243">243</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Drums, water</span> <a href="#Page_256">256</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_E">E</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Egyptian music</span> <a href="#Page_15">15</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Egyptian Muses</span> <a href="#Page_16">16</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Egyptian banquets</span> <a href="#Page_17">17</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">English Bards</span> <a href="#Page_327">327</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Essenhamens</span> <a href="#Page_334">334</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">European music in China</span> <a href="#Page_135">135</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_F">F</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Female musicians, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_129">129</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Female musicians, Greek</span> <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Female musicians, Troubadours</span> <a href="#Page_341">341</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Festivals, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_170">170</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Festivals, Theban</span> <a href="#Page_21">21</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Fiddle, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Fiji Islanders, Music</span> <a href="#Page_248">248</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Flute, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_139">139</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Flute, Egyptian</span> <a href="#Page_23">23</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Flute, Grecian</span> <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Flute, Kaffir</span> <a href="#Page_255">255</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Flute, Roman</span> <a href="#Page_86">86</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Flute, Prehistoric</span> <a href="#Page_232">232</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Flute-playing at Grecian Games</span> <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Foang-hoang</span> <a href="#Page_116">116</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Fo Hi, the Chinese Noah</span> <a href="#Page_116">116</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Folk Songs</span> <a href="#Page_350">350</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Funeral music, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_173">173</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Funeral music, Egyptian</span> <a href="#Page_19">19</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Funeral music, Japanese</span> <a href="#Page_207">207</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Funeral music, Roman</span> <a href="#Page_88">88</a></dt> -</dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_367">367</div> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_G">G</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Games of Greece</span> <a href="#Page_35">35</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Goura—African Instrument</span> <a href="#Page_257">257</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Greek Church, music of</span> <a href="#Page_288">288</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Greek music, ancient</span> <a href="#Page_35">35</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Greek Hymns</span> <a href="#Page_35">35</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Greek Scale</span> <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Gregorian Chant</span> <a href="#Page_303">303</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Gregorian Chant in France</span> <a href="#Page_310">310</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Guido d’Arezzo</span> <a href="#Page_318">318</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Guitar, African</span> <a href="#Page_263">263</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Guitar, Hindoo</span> <a href="#Page_14">14</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_H">H</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Handel</span> <a href="#Page_360">360</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Harmony, Egyptian</span> <a href="#Page_19">19</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Harps, African</span> <a href="#Page_255">255</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Harps, Egyptian</span> <a href="#Page_23">23</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Harps, Hebrew</span> <a href="#Page_26">26</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Hebrew music</span> <a href="#Page_26">26</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Hebrew music, resemblance to Negro</span> <a href="#Page_33">33</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Hermes, Egyptian god</span> <a href="#Page_15">15</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Hindoo music</span> <a href="#Page_8">8</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Hissing, when first began</span> <a href="#Page_357">357</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Hucbald</span> <a href="#Page_315">315</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Hymns, Christian, ancient</span> <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Hymn, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Hymn, Greek</span> <a href="#Page_35">35</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_I">I</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Instruments, African</span> <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Instruments, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_142">142</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Instruments, East Indian</span> <a href="#Page_13">13</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Instruments, Egyptian</span> <a href="#Page_24">24</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Instruments, Greek</span> <a href="#Page_59">59</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Instruments, Hebrew</span> <a href="#Page_29">29</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Instruments, Hindoo</span> <a href="#Page_13">13</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Instruments, Japanese</span> <a href="#Page_202">202</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Instruments, Kaffir</span> <a href="#Page_255">255</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Instruments, Roman</span> <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Irish Bards</span> <a href="#Page_325">325</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Irova, Japanese</span> <a href="#Page_204">204</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_J">J</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Japanese music</span> <a href="#Page_201">201</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Jews, music of modern</span> <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Jewsharps in Africa</span> <a href="#Page_258">258</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Jongleurs</span> <a href="#Page_331">331</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Julian, reforms of Emperor</span> <a href="#Page_100">100</a></dt> -</dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_368">368</div> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_K">K</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Kaffir songs</span> <a href="#Page_251">251</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Kin, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_150">150</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">King, Chinese instrument</span> <a href="#Page_147">147</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Kithara, Greek instrument</span> <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_L">L</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Laborers’ songs, Egyptian</span> <a href="#Page_18">18</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Lamia</span> <a href="#Page_61">61</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Laws relative to music, Egyptian</span> <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Legends of music, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Legends of music, Egyptian</span> <a href="#Page_15">15</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Legends of music, Hindoo</span> <a href="#Page_8">8</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Legends of music, Japanese</span> <a href="#Page_215">215</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Legends of music, Javanese</span> <a href="#Page_244">244</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Louis <span class="sc">Xiii.</span></span> <a href="#Page_355">355</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Louis <span class="sc">Xiv.</span></span> <a href="#Page_357">357</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_M">M</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Malay music</span> <a href="#Page_243">243</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Meistersingers</span> <a href="#Page_349">349</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Melody, Hindoo</span> <a href="#Page_12">12</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Melody, an old</span> <a href="#Page_348">348</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Meyerbeer</span> <a href="#Page_361">361</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Military music, African</span> <a href="#Page_262">262</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Military music, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Military music, Greek</span> <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Military music, Japanese</span> <a href="#Page_219">219</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Minnesingers</span> <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Mode, Ambrosian</span> <a href="#Page_301">301</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Mode, Gregorian</span> <a href="#Page_365">365</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Musical Buildings</span> <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Musical course Roman</span> <a href="#Page_86">86</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Music as a means of inspiring fear</span> <a href="#Page_276">276</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Music boxes in Africa</span> <a href="#Page_269">269</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Music boxes, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_175">175</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_N">N</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Nero, musical history of</span> <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Neumes</span> <a href="#Page_313">313</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">New Zealand, Harmony in</span> <a href="#Page_233">233</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">New Zealand songs</span> <a href="#Page_240">240</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Nose-flutes</span> <a href="#Page_248">248</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Notation</span> <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Nyam-Nyams, Music of</span> <a href="#Page_258">258</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_O">O</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Olympic Games</span> <a href="#Page_39">39</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Opera</span> <a href="#Page_352">352</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Orchestra, an old</span> <a href="#Page_354">354</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Organ, ancient Rome</span> <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Organ, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Organ, Hebrew</span> <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dt> -</dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_369">369</div> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_P">P</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Pantomimes, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_195">195</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Pantomimes, Roman</span> <a href="#Page_97">97</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Pantomimes, Javanese</span> <a href="#Page_243">243</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Persecution of musicians</span> <a href="#Page_126">126</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Philosophers and music</span> <a href="#Page_53">53</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Pindar</span> <a href="#Page_65">65</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Pianoforte in Japan</span> <a href="#Page_227">227</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Poems of the Troubadours</span> <a href="#Page_338">338</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Power of Music</span> <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Power of Music in Africa</span> <a href="#Page_274">274</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Processional music, Egyptian</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Processional music, Japanese</span> <a href="#Page_218">218</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Processional music, Roman</span> <a href="#Page_92">92</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Processional music, Savage</span> <a href="#Page_263">263</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Provençal songs</span> <a href="#Page_330">330</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Psaltery</span> <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Ptolemy</span> <a href="#Page_62">62</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Pythagoras</span> <a href="#Page_53">53</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Pythian Games</span> <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_Q">Q</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Quarrel between choirs</span> <a href="#Page_311">311</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Quarrel between singers</span> <a href="#Page_358">358</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_R">R</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Ragas, Hindoo</span> <a href="#Page_9">9</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Religious music, Abyssinian</span> <a href="#Page_269">269</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Religious music, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Religious music, Christian</span> <a href="#Page_280">280</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Religious music, Greek</span> <a href="#Page_35">35</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Religious music, Hebrew</span> <a href="#Page_26">26</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Religious music, Japanese</span> <a href="#Page_205">205</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Religious music, Roman</span> <a href="#Page_86">86</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Rhythm, Egyptian</span> <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Rhythm of savage nations</span> <a href="#Page_229">229</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Riquier, Guirant</span> <a href="#Page_332">332</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">“Robert,” accident at first performance</span> <a href="#Page_361">361</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Roman, ancient music</span> <a href="#Page_85">85</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Roman Empire, music of</span> <a href="#Page_99">99</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Rossini</span> <a href="#Page_360">360</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Royal dancers</span> <a href="#Page_193">193</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Royal musicians</span> <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></dt> -</dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_370">370</div> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_S">S</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Salaries, ancient Greece</span> <a href="#Page_61">61</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Salaries, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_187">187</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Salaries, Nero</span> <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Sappho</span> <a href="#Page_61">61</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Savage music</span> <a href="#Page_229">229</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Scale, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_167">167</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Scale, East Indian</span> <a href="#Page_11">11</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Scale, Grecian</span> <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Scale, Hindoo</span> <a href="#Page_11">11</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Scale, Japanese</span> <a href="#Page_201">201</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Scale, modern</span> <a href="#Page_320">320</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Scale, Religious, Greek</span> <a href="#Page_289">289</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Schofer, Hebrew horn</span> <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Schools of music, Egypt</span> <a href="#Page_25">25</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Schools of music, Rome</span> <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">“Selah!” meaning of</span> <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Signals, musical Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Simonides</span> <a href="#Page_63">63</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Sistrum</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Skolion</span> <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Societies, or Guilds of Musicians, Roman</span> <a href="#Page_87">87</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Songs, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Stesi-chorus</span> <a href="#Page_49">49</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Stones, musical</span> <a href="#Page_145">145</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Stringed instruments</span> <a href="#Page_149">149</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Syrian Church</span> <a href="#Page_290">290</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_T">T</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Tales of the Minnesingers</span> <a href="#Page_346">346</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Terpander</span> <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Theatre, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_176">176</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Theatre, Greek</span> <a href="#Page_67">67</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Theatre, Japanese</span> <a href="#Page_219">219</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Theatre, Javanese</span> <a href="#Page_245">245</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Theatre, Roman</span> <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Timbrel</span> <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Time marked by bells</span> <a href="#Page_120">120</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Time marked by drums</span> <a href="#Page_120">120</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Tone-picture, Grecian</span> <a href="#Page_59">59</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Treatises on music, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_135">135</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Triumphs, Roman</span> <a href="#Page_92">92</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Triumphal Odes, Greece</span> <a href="#Page_62">62</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Trumpeter, a great</span> <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Trumpets, African</span> <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Trumpets, Chinese</span> <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Trumpets, pre-historic</span> <a href="#Page_231">231</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Trumpets, Russian</span> <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Troubadours</span> <a href="#Page_329">329</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_V">V</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Vina, Indian instrument</span> <a href="#Page_13">13</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Violin, Hindoo</span> <a href="#Page_13">13</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Volkslied</span> <a href="#Page_350">350</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_W">W</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Wagner</span> <a href="#Page_362">362</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">War Song</span> <a href="#Page_284">284</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Watch Song</span> <a href="#Page_344">344</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Welsh Bards</span> <a href="#Page_324">324</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">“William Tell,” an error in</span> <a href="#Page_361">361</a></dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Wood instruments of China</span> <a href="#Page_151">151</a></dt> -</dl> -<dl class="indexlr"> -<dt class="center b" id="index_Y">Y</dt> -<dt><span class="jl">Yu, Chinese musician</span> <a href="#Page_132">132</a></dt> -</dl> -<h2 id="trnotes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2> -<ul> -<li>Silently corrected a few typos.</li> -<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li> -<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li> -<li>Created a Table of Contents based on the chapter headings.</li> -</ul> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CURIOSITIES OF MUSIC ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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