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diff --git a/old/66109-0.txt b/old/66109-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 8dbb43a..0000000 --- a/old/66109-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6245 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Young Engineer's Guide, by J. V. Rohan - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Young Engineer's Guide - -Author: J. V. Rohan - -Release Date: August 22, 2021 [eBook #66109] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: deaurider and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK YOUNG ENGINEER'S GUIDE *** - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes: - - Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_ - in the original text. - Equal signs “=” before and after a word or phrase indicate =bold= - in the original text. - Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals. - Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs. - Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected. - - - - - YOUNG ENGINEER’S GUIDE. - - BY - J. V. ROHAN, - - RACINE, WISCONSIN. - - PRICE: - Cloth Bound, $1.00. - Leather Bound, 1.25. - - COPYRIGHT, 1894. - BY - J. V. ROHAN. - - All rights reserved. - - - - -INDEX. - - - PAGE. - Ascending Hills, 150 - Automatic Oiler, 79 - - Banking Fires, 162 - Babbitting Boxes, 188 - Belting, 165 - Blower, 55 - Blow-off Valve, 105 - - Calking Flues, 52 - Check Valve, 107 - Cleaning Flues, 53 - Compression Grease Cup, 108 - Compound Engines, 189 - Connecting Rod, 67 - Crank, 68 - Crank-Pin, 69 - Cross-head, 66 - Cross-head Pump, 91 - Crossing Bridges and Culverts, 156 - Cylinder Cocks, 107 - - Descending Hills, 154 - Differential Gear, 115 - Duties of Engineers, 13 - - Eccentrics, 73 - Eccentric Strap, 73 - Eccentric Rod, 74 - Ejector, 97 - Engine Frame, 67 - Engine Stalled, 155 - Exhaust Nozzle, 55 - - Firing With Coal, 160 - Firing with Wood, 159 - Firing with Straw, 159 - Foaming, 156 - Friction Clutch, 116 - Fusible Plug, 56 - - Gauge Cocks, 106 - Gearing, 113 - General Information, 170 - Governor, 76 - - Heater, 96 - Heating of Journals, 141 - Hints to Purchasers, 9 - Horizontal Tubular Boiler, 15 - - Injector, 83 - - Jet Pump, 97 - - Knocks or Pounds, 137 - - Laying Up a Traction Engine, 163 - Link Reverse, 69 - Link, 72 - Locomotive Boiler, 16 - Low Water Alarm, 57 - - Packing Piston and Valve Rods, 143 - Piston and Rod, 62 - Priming, 157 - - Questions with Answers - concerning Boilers, 30 - Questions with Answers - concerning Engines and Boilers, 119 - Questions with Answers for - Engineers applying for License, 195 - - Return Flue Boiler, 18 - Reversing an Engine, 130 - Reverse Lever, 72 - Rules and Tables, 226 - - Safety Valve, 101 - Setting Plain Slide Valve, 144 - Setting Slide Valve of - Reversing Engine, 147 - Setting Valve Duplex Pump, 150 - Steam Cylinder, 61 - Steam Chest, 63 - Steam Engine, 60 - Steam Gauge, 98 - Steam Pump, 89 - - Testing Piston Rings and Valves, 136 - Throttle, 88 - Traction Engines, 112 - - Valve, 64 - Vertical Boiler, 22 - - Water Tube Boiler, 24 - Water Gauge, 104 - Work-shop Recipes, 186 - Woolf Valve Gear, 74 - - - - -_INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS._ - - - ENGINES. - E. P. Allis & Co., Milwaukee, Wis., 21 - J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co., Racine, Wis., 26, 29, 224 - Gaar, Scott & Co., Richmond, Ind., 36 - Nichols & Shepard, Battle Creek, Mich., 49 - J. I. Case Engine Co., New Britain, Conn., 58 - M. Rumely Co., LaPorte, Ind., 71 - Minneapolis Thresh. Machine Co., Minneapolis, Minn., 111 - Advance Thresher Co., Battle Creek, Mich., 129 - Watertown Engine Co., Watertown, N. Y., 135 - Frick Co., Waynesboro, Pa., 153 - Armington & Sims Engine Co., Providence, R. I., 168 - The Geiser Manufacturing Co., Waynesboro, Pa., 178 - The Ball Engine Co., Erie, Pa., 193 - A. W. Stevens & Son, Auburn, N. Y., 203 - - BOILERS. - S. Freeman & Sons Manuf’g Co., Racine, Wis., 15, 16, 17, 22 - J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co., Racine, Wis., 19 - The Stirling Co., Chicago, Ill., 25 - - FITTINGS. - Thomas Prosser & Son, P. O. Box 2873, New York City, 52 - Frontier Manufacturing Co., Buffalo, N. Y., 54 - The Lunkenheimer Co., Cincinnati, O., 56, 89, 104, 106, 107 - J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co., Racine, Wis., 75, 90, 116 - The Gardner Governor Co., Quincy, Ill., 76 - The Detroit Lubricator Co., Detroit, Mich., 81, 82, 83 - American Injector Co., Detroit, Mich., 84, 87, 97, 98 - Battle Creek Steam Pump Co., Battle Creek, Mich., 93, 94 - The Ashcroft Manuf’ct’g Co., P O Box 2803, N. Y. City, 99, 100 - E. B. Kunkle & Co., Fort Wayne, Ind., 101, 102 - Chas H. Besly & Co., Chicago, Ill., 109 - - - - -PREFACE. - - -Some two years ago the author commenced collecting memoranda of -mechanical and practical information pertaining to the care and -operation of steam engines and boilers, with a view of forming a -systematic digest. - -Being an employee of the J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co. for a number -of years my attention was called to the constant inquiry for a book of -this description from young men mechanically inclined and those running -farm engines and small steam plants. - -By repeated assurance that there was great need for such a work, and -by ready and valuable assistance from personal friends and experts in -mechanical engineering, I have considered it advisable to publish a -practical guide for young engineers. - -The aim has been to place the information contained in the book in the -most simple and compact form, and while it is not intended for the -education of the more advanced engineers, the instructions given will -be found practical in the operation of steam plants of any size. It is -more especially intended for the instruction and guidance of young men -learning to run engines, and those operating farm engines and small -plants, whose experience has been limited. - -After carefully considering the mode of presentation, it was thought -best to adopt the form of a catechism, with the questions and -answers so set forth as to resemble an ordinary conversation; also -to illustrate and give a minute description of the construction and -function of the different parts used in the building of engines and -boilers. - -While the greater part of the information is new, parts have been -compiled from Power, Roper and other mechanical papers and books, -simplified to meet the required aim, for which due acknowledgement is -here given. - - J. V. ROHAN. - Racine, Wis., 1895. - - - - -Young Engineer’s Guide. - - -HINTS TO PURCHASERS. - -In selecting an engine of whatever style, or for whatever purpose it -is very important to get not only a good one, but one that is of the -proper size. Do not entertain the mistaken idea that it is best to have -a larger engine than is required (so that it will do its work easily), -as an engine which is too large for the work required is very wasteful -both of fuel and water. An engine always gives the best results when it -has a fair load. - -In the selection of a farm or traction engine you should look carefully -to the arrangement of the driving gear, the manner in which the engine -and the traction wheels are attached to the boiler, the convenient -arrangement of the throttle lever, reverse lever, steering wheel, -friction clutch lever, independent pump (if used) and injector for easy -operation from the footboard, as the easy control of all these parts -by the engineer saves much time and annoyance and in many instances -may prevent accident which might prove disastrous to both life and -property. - -Always purchase a boiler with sufficient capacity to allow a small -margin beyond its ordinary requirements. Be sure and have the boiler or -boilers properly set so that the best results may be derived from the -fuel burned. Many good boilers are condemned because they do not steam -well on account of bad setting. - -If a locomotive style of boiler, see that it has a large fire box (well -stayed) and a sufficient number of flues to allow of easy firing and -good combustion of the fuel without being obliged to use a forced draft. - -If a return flue boiler see that the main flue is of sufficient size -and of the required ⁵/₁₆ inch thickness of material; also that it has a -mud drum and from four to six hand-holes (the more the better) both top -and bottom for the purpose of keeping the boiler free from scale and -becoming mud burnt and unsafe. - -Remember there is no advantage in carrying low steam pressure in -boilers as it is more economical to carry high pressure rather than -low. The average boiler pressure should be about 80 lbs. per square -inch, which is not too high for safety, nor too low for economy of fuel. - -The purchaser must use his own discretion as to the style of engine -he prefers, a horizontal or vertical, side or center crank, as all -styles are extensively used with equally good results. It is purely a -matter of preference depending, of course, largely upon space or room -available for stationary engine. - -Do not make the mistake of deeming that any kind of a foundation will -answer for a stationary engine. It should be built by a skillful -mason in every case and hard brick or stone and cement used in its -construction. The best is always the cheapest in the end. - -An engine or boiler should never be put in a dark corner or damp -cellar, rather place them when possible in dry well lighted rooms and -so arranged that every part can be reached when necessary without -trouble or delay. Walls and floors should be kept clean and a good -supply of oil cans, wrenches, waste and whatever tools are needed -should be kept in their proper places. - -The purchaser of a traction engine should see that it has a Friction -Clutch as an engine with a clutch is much more practical, convenient -and safe to handle upon the road than one without a clutch. The matter -of brackets, braces, gearing, traction wheels, axle, the manner in -which the engine is mounted upon the boiler should be well considered -as there are many kinds and styles, all of which have their merit “more -or less.” Your own judgment should be used as to the style wanted after -thoroughly studying the various kinds. - -Do not make the too common mistake of thinking a cheap engineer is -the man you want. The engine and boiler are important factors in the -success of your business and no matter how simple and strong they -may be it will pay you to put them in charge of a competent engineer -who is capable of taking the proper care of them. For a small plant, -or traction engine, it is not necessary to have the highest grade of -ability, as there are several grades among engineers; but it is better -to pay a suitable man for competent and faithful work than to pay for -what may happen through the neglect or incompetency of one whose only -recommendation is that he is _cheap_. - -Do not be deceived by imposters claiming to be first-class engineers, -who, the first thing they do, to substantiate their claims, alter the -engine in some way that only deranges it. Be watchful of this and see -that such men do not tamper with the valves and adjustments of the -engine, which are always set properly before it leaves the factory. - - -DUTIES OF ENGINEERS. - -The duties of an engineer are of much more importance and require -a better knowledge of the operating of machinery than is generally -understood. The responsibilities that rest upon him are very great; -this applies to all engineers, but more especially to inexperienced men -who take charge of small plants or farm engines, whose knowledge of -machinery and the dangers connected with the improper handling of it, -is limited. The proper management of boilers and engines is of as vital -importance to prevent accident as their proper construction; as they -are liable to get out of order and become unsafe unless the engineer is -sufficiently informed to know what precautions should be taken under -any and all circumstances that might prove disastrous. - -Not only should an engineer be ever on the alert to guard against -accident, but he should also be capable of keeping the engine, boiler -and appliances in good condition, as the life of the machinery depends -largely upon his competency and the faithful performance of his duties. - -An ENGINEER: - -Should be sober. - -Should be industrious. - -Should be careful. - -Should be faithful to his charge. - -Should keep his engine and its surroundings neat and clean. - -Should keep his engine running smoothly without knocks or pounds. - -Should learn to let “well enough” alone. - -Should never attempt experiments unless he knows what he is about. - -Should have a place for everything and keep everything in its place. - -Should show by the quietness in running and appearance of the engine in -his charge that it is properly cared for. - -Should constantly endeavor to expand his mind as to the management, -construction and care of boilers, engines and their appliances. - -Should carry this book in his pocket for reference as it contains much -valuable information and in a time of need may save much time and -expense, or even prevent a catastrophe. - - - - -Boilers. - - -HORIZONTAL TUBULAR BOILER. - -Q. How is a horizontal tubular boiler constructed? - -A. It has a cylindrical shell, with heads riveted at each end, in which -are placed a large number of tubes, 4 inches or less in diameter. It -is set in brick work, with the furnace at one end, beneath the shell. -The products of combustion pass under the boiler its full length and -return through the tubes or flues to an up-take at the front end. It -is furnished with a man-hole beneath the flues, and hand-holes for -cleaning, and generally has a steam dome. - -[Illustration: Freeman’s Horizontal Tubular Boiler.] - -Q. What are the advantages of a horizontal boiler? - -A. It is simple in form, easy to construct, requires bracing only on -the flat heads, which are sustained their greater part by the tubes, -generates a large amount of steam for the space occupied, and is not -difficult to keep clean with fairly pure feed water. - - -LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. - -Q. How is a locomotive or fire box boiler constructed? - -A. The ends of a cylindrical shell are continued straight down upon -the sides, and enclosed to form a rectangular structure in its lower -portion and conformed to the curvature of the cylindrical shell at the -top. In the rectangular portion is secured a fire box, separated from -the sides and ends by water spaces called “water legs,” and having -its top which is called the “crown sheet” about the center of the -cylindrical shell. An opening is formed in both sheets in rear end of -the fire box door frame. The cylindrical shell has heads riveted at -both ends. These heads have numerous flues open at both ends put in. -All the flat surfaces are stayed to each other at suitable intervals, -and the crown sheet is stayed from the shell. The fuel is thrown in -through the door at the rear, and the products of combustion are -conveyed to further extremity through the tubes or flues. It is -furnished with hand-holes for cleaning and a steam dome. There are two -different styles of fire boxes on Locomotive Boilers, the round bottom -fire box in which the water circulates under the grates, and the square -open bottom fire box. Both kinds are used extensively. - -[Illustration: Freeman Locomotive Boiler.] - -[Illustration: Sectional View Freeman Locomotive Boiler.] - -Q. What advantages have the locomotive or fire box boiler? - -A. It is entirely self-contained, generates steam very rapidly, is -economical in space, and needs no elaborate foundation. - -Q. What disadvantages has the locomotive or fire box boiler? - -A. Expensive first cost, and difficulty in cleaning, especially where -impure feed water is used. - - -RETURN FLUE BOILER. - -Q. Describe the construction of a Return Flue Boiler? - -A. It has a cylindrical shell, with heads riveted at each end, in which -are placed a large main flue, and a number of small flues or tubes, -open at both ends. The top row of flues is placed below the water line. -One end of the main flue is used for the fire box, into which the fuel -is thrown through door at back end and the products of combustion pass -forward through this main flue to an ample smoke box in front end, and -return through the smaller flues or tubes to smoke box at rear end, -which is connected to the smoke stack. They are generally supplied with -steam dome and mud drum, and are used extensively in the construction -of traction engines where straw is used for fuel. They are also -furnished with several hand-holes placed in proper places for cleaning -the boiler. - -[Illustration: Sectional View J. I. Case Return Flue Boiler.] - -Q. What are the advantages of this style of boiler? - -A. Large heating surface, easily repaired and cleaned, simplicity of -construction and compactness. - - -REYNOLDS CORLISS CONDENSING AND NON-CONDENSING ENGINE. - -This engine has a massive, peculiarly constructed frame, being cast in -two parts. The forward part contains the main pillow block bearing, and -the part in which the cross-head runs is cylindrical in shape, and has -bored Guides, and large lateral openings. - -The crank is a large disc plate, and the large heavy fly-wheel serves -the double purpose of a drive pulley and balance wheel. - -The cylinder is supplied with four valves, two at the top and two at -the bottom, and directly upon the bore of the cylinder. The two at the -top are the steam valves, the two at the bottom are exhaust valves, and -receive their motion from a single eccentric acting through the medium -of a wrist plate or vibrating disc, from which the valve connections -radiate. The valve being independently adjusted, the commencement, -extent and rapidity of the movement of each can be most accurately -arranged. The steam valves are controlled by the Governor, which, being -very sensitive to the variation of load, allows just the required -amount of steam to enter the cylinder to keep up the uniform speed. -The exhaust valves being at the lower ends of the cylinder, at the -clearance space, the water of condensation is allowed to escape in -the most thorough manner, without the use of cylinder cocks or other -devices. - -This style of engine is intended for all purposes, but is especially -adapted to heavy and continuous work and where the conditions call for -an engine capable of working under a high steam pressure, also when the -work is of an intermittent character. - -[Illustration: Reynolds Corliss “1890” Engine—Front View.] - - -VERTICAL BOILER. - -[Illustration: Sectional View Freeman Vertical Boiler.] - -Q. How is a Vertical Tubular Boiler generally constructed? - -A. A cylindrical fire box set into the lower part of a vertical -cylindrical shell, the space between forming an annular “water leg.” An -opening is formed in both sheets for the fire door. The top of the fire -box serves as a flue sheet for numerous tubes or flues which extend -through the closed top of the outside shell, and through which the -products of combustion pass to the smoke stack. The upper portions of -the tubes are surrounded by steam. - -Where this style of boiler is made for marine purposes, the upper part -of the tubes is submerged, and is called a submerged-flue boiler. - -Q. What advantages has the vertical type of boiler? - -A. Minimum floor space, portability, low cost of setting, and a wide -allowable variation in the water level. - -Q. What disadvantages has this type? - -A. Liability to leakage in the exposed upper ends of flues where they -are not submerged, deposits from impure water in the “water leg,” in -small sizes insufficient heating surface, though the latter fault can -be corrected by making the boiler very tall. Some of the very large -vertical boilers are remarkably efficient. - - -WATER TUBE BOILER. - -[Illustration: Stirling Water Tube Boiler.] - -Q. How is a water tube boiler constructed? - -A. The Stirling Water Tube Boiler as illustrated, has three upper or -steam domes, the steam space of all of which is connected, while the -water space of the two front domes is connected. All of these three -domes are connected with a lower or mud drum, which is not bricked in, -but is left free to expand and contract. - -The three upper domes are supported on wrought iron beams, which are -entirely free and independent from the brick work. The feed water -enters the rear upper dome, and descends gradually to the lower or -mud drum, being heated in its descent by the escaping gases to a -sufficiently high degree to cause precipitation in the mud drum of all -of the solid or scale bearing matter that the feed water contains. -The water then in the front bank of tubes is chemically pure, and all -danger of scale reduced to a minimum. - -Q. What advantages have the water tube boilers? - -A. One of the great advantages of this style of boilers is its distinct -circulation, being up the front bank of tubes across from the front -upper dome to the middle dome, down the middle bank of tubes to the -lower or mud drum, and up again the front bank of tubes, and so on in -circuit. It also has great steaming capacity, and is economical in -fuel. Steam is taken from the middle dome. - -This marked circulation is a desideratum in boiler practice, and the -Stirling may be said to be the first that has accomplished it to so -great a degree. - -Q. What disadvantages have the water tube boilers? - -A. Expensive first cost of setting them up in brick work. - -[Illustration: J. I. Case Traction Engine.] - - -J. I. CASE TRACTION ENGINE. - -This engine is known as the Center Crank, Rear Gear traction. The -engine is mounted on the center of boiler at the rear end, and rests -upon and is securely bolted to two saddles. The rear saddle also -supports the two outer bearings for the crank shaft. - -The engine frame is cast in one piece, cylindrical in shape, with -bored guides for cross-head, and has large lateral openings. It forms -the front cylinder head at one end, and contains the two pillow block -bearings at the other. - -The cylinder is overhanging and self-lining. - -It has the locomotive type boiler, with open bottom fire box, covered -with an ash pan, and has a steam dome at front end. The outer shell -of this boiler over fire box extends beyond the back head. To this -extension is bolted the two brackets containing the bearings for the -main axle and cross shaft. - -The traction wheels are of the wrought rim steel spoke type, with high -mud cleats bolted diagonally across the entire width of tire. - -The front axle is supplied with a ball-bearing bolster, which supports -the front end of boiler. The engine has the Friction Clutch, Link -Reverse Gear, Long Heater, Independent Pump, Injector, Water Tank -on side, Foot Board with Tool Boxes attached, and all necessary -attachments and fittings to make a complete traction engine, and one -that will be perfectly safe with proper handling. - -The steering wheel and band wheel are on the same side of engine, and -the straight stack and extension front has a spark arrester on the -inside. - -This engine is constructed to burn either coal or wood and with special -arrangement can be made to burn straw. - - -J. I. CASE RETURN FLUE TRACTION ENGINE. - -The foregoing description of the J. I. Case Traction Engine will apply -to this engine in every particular with the exception of the boiler, -the construction of engine, the traction gear and fittings being -exactly the same. - -The boiler however is of the return flue, straw-burner type It is -supplied with a large steam dome on front end and also a mud drum -on under side. The fire box is at the rear end of main flue, and is -covered by an ash pan. The boiler is lagged and jacketed, and the stack -has a screen spark arrester at the top. This engine is intended to burn -straw, but it will burn either wood or coal equally well, and is said -to be very economical in fuel. - -[Illustration: J. I. Case Return Flue Traction Engine.] - - -QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS, - -concerning the operation and care of steam boilers. - -Q. How is steam taken from the boiler? - -A. By suitable piping leading from a steam dome on top of boiler. - -Q. What is a steam dome and how is it made? - -A. A steam dome is cylindrical in shape, is made usually of boiler -plate flanged and riveted over a hole on top of boiler. - -Q. Of what use is a steam dome? - -A. Its use is to afford space for dry steam to collect. - -Q. What is a mud drum, and of what use is it? - -A. The mud drum is cylindrical in shape, made of boiler iron flanged -and riveted over a hole on under side of boiler, in which mud and -sediment may collect, and is of great value on a return flue boiler. - -Q. What are boilers furnished with so that they may be easily cleaned? - -A. Man-holes and hand-holes. - -Q. What are man-holes and hand-holes? - -A. The man-hole is a hole cut in boiler large enough to admit a man and -is covered by a portable plate which can be fastened absolutely tight. -Hand-holes are small holes cut in boiler in convenient places into -which a hose can be placed and the boiler washed out and the mud and -scale removed. Hand-holes are covered with portable plates which can be -fastened absolutely tight. - -Q. How can a boiler be protected from the cold? - -A. By a non-conducting jacket which keeps off the cold, retains the -high temperature of the boiler and prevents the radiation of heat. - -Q. What materials are used for jacketing a boiler? - -A. Plaster, wood, hair, rags, felt, paper and asbestos. - -Q. How are they applied? - -A. Wood is put on in long strips close together like barrel staves, -fastened with hoops and usually covered with sheet iron. The other -materials are put close to the boiler and held in place by sheet iron -or canvas. They are sometimes put on with an intervening air space -between them and the boiler. - -Q. What is the use of air space? - -A. It protects the material from being burned or otherwise injured by -the heat. - -Q. Is there no radiation through these coverings? - -A. Yes, but the loss is very slight, as the temperature of covering -should never rise above what just seems warm to the hand. - -Q. How should you feed water to a boiler? - -A. Continuously during the whole time that steam is being used. - -Q. Will a steam pump feed continuously? - -A. Yes, by running the pump faster or slower according to the amount of -water required. - -Q. Why is a continuous feed preferable? - -A. Because it maintains the water in the boiler at a uniform level and -gives the most perfect action. - -Q. Should precaution be taken in choice of water used in the boiler? - -A. Yes. Always use water that is as clear and free from foreign matter -as can be procured, rain water preferred. - -Q. What is the result of using impure water? - -A. It will form a scale upon the flues and plates on the inside of -boiler. - -Q. What harm does scale do? - -A. In the first place scale is a non-conductor and prevents the heat -of furnace from producing its best effects upon the water and in the -second place it allows the plates and flues to become over heated and -burn. - -Q. How can you prevent the formation of scale? - -A. There are numerous compounds upon the market some of which are known -to be very reliable, but for ordinary purposes sal soda dissolved in -the feed water answers very well. - -Q. What precaution should be taken in the use of sal soda? - -A. Great care should be taken that too much is not used at a time. If -too much is used a great deal of trouble will be caused by the water in -the boiler foaming. - -Q. How often should a boiler be cleaned? - -A. It depends entirely upon the condition of the feed water used and -the amount of service exerted from it. It may vary from once or twice a -week to once in two or three months, or even longer. - -Q. Does a boiler only require the regular cleaning? - -A. No, it should be blown off three or four times a day by the surface -blow-off. - -Q. Should the surface blow-off be left open any length of time? - -A. No, only a few seconds at a time, say from fifteen seconds to a -minute, even longer on larger boilers, but the engineer must use his -own judgement in this matter. - -Q. What does the surface blow-off do? - -A. It blows out all the impurities that arise in the form of scum on -the surface of the water, thus lessening the amount of scale formation. - -Q. How should a boiler be cleaned? - -A. By blowing the water out at a low pressure of steam and after -cooling off wash out and scrape the inside, removing all scale and -sediment. - -Q. How do you blow off your boiler? - -A. By means of a blow-off valve situated at the bottom part of the -boiler. - -Q. When should a boiler be blown off? - -A. When the steam pressure entirely disappears and the water is at -boiling point, if boiler is set in brick work. - -Q. Why not blow off under a full head of steam? - -A. Because when blown off under pressure there is heat enough remaining -in the shell and flues to bake the scale upon the interior, thus -rendering it exceedingly difficult to remove. - -Q. In what condition is the scale after blowing off at low pressure. - -A. Some may be baked hard and attached to the flues and shell, but the -greater part will be soft and slushy so that it can be easily removed. - -Q. How is this slush removed from the boiler? - -A. If a fire box or return flue boiler, all the hand-hole plates should -be removed and as much of the slush as possible raked out; then a -hose is inserted and a stream of water forced in which will carry the -remainder out. The hose should be placed in the top holes first. - -Q. Is it a good idea after blowing off a boiler to fill it with water -again without delay? - -A. No. Because the boiler is hot, and if cold water is put in before it -is thoroughly cooled off the boiler will be subjected to severe strains -caused by the sudden contraction of the metal that is expanded by the -heat, which will injure it to a greater or less degree. - -[Illustration: Garr-Scott Traction Engine.] - - -GARR-SCOTT TRACTION ENGINE. - -This engine, as will be seen by examining the cut, is of the Side -Crank, Side Gear style, the engine of which is mounted upon a long -heater, to which the cylinder and the main pillow block bearing are -attached, and is supplied with the bar or locomotive guides for -cross-head. - -It is fitted with the Link Reverse peculiar to their own style of -manufacture, also Injector, Friction Clutch, Cross-head Pump, Governor, -Syphon for filling Tank on front end, Automatic Sight-Feed Lubricator, -and large Foot Board with Tool Boxes attached. - -The boiler is of the locomotive or round bottom fire box type, with -dome on front end, and is mounted upon the traction wheels with axle -arms attached to the sides of boiler, which are supplied with springs. -The front axle is attached to the boiler with a bolster arrangement, -which is also supplied with a spring. - -The traction wheels are made practically in one piece, having the -spokes cast in both hub and rim, the cast iron rim being chilled faced, -with the mud cleats cast on. - -The smoke stack is supplied with a screen suitable for burning either -wood or coal. It has a patent steering attachment, the hand wheel of -which is on the same side of engine as the band wheel. - -The engine and boiler are supplied with all the necessary fittings to -make them convenient and safe with proper handling. - -Q. When should a boiler be filled after being blown off and cleaned? - -A. A boiler should not be filled under any circumstances until it is -about the same temperature as the water used to fill it. - -Q. How are the hand-hole plates put back in position? - -A. The plate that covers the hole is put on the inside of the boiler -and held in position against the plate by a bolt attached to it and -passing out through a yoke which straddles the hole upon the outside -and serves as a brace against which the bolt acts. - -Q. How is a leak prevented? - -A. By placing packing between the hand-hole plate and the boiler plate. - -Q. What is the best kind of packing to use for this purpose? - -A. Two or three ply sheet rubber is the best, cut in the form of a ring -to fit the bearing surface of the plate. - -Q. Can any other material be used? - -A. Yes, hemp or cotton packing. When this is used it should be pulled -out in fine shreds and thoroughly oiled before putting in position. Use -as little as possible. - -Q. Do the metals need any preparation? - -A. Yes, all the old packing that may have burned on the metal should -be thoroughly scraped off, also the scale should be removed from the -vicinity so that the packing will have a smooth and even surface to -bear against. - -Q. How are man-hole plates put in position? - -A. In the same manner as the hand-hole plates. - -Q. What is required of an engineer or fireman in the care of a boiler? - -A. He should watch carefully all the parts that are exposed to any -steam and see that they do not become unduly weakened by corrosion -or accident. All the working parts and fittings should be examined -daily and be repaired or replaced as soon as they show signs of wear -or weakness. The steam gauge and safety valve should receive constant -care and both should be tested frequently, the one by the other, and -the steam gauge by a standard in order that it may be known to be in -perfect order. When scale forming water is used the feed pipe should be -frequently uncoupled and examined and all sediment removed. The check -valve should be examined frequently to see that it seats properly so -that water cannot leak from boiler in this way and the utmost care -should be taken in regard to the consumption of fuel. - -Q. In case of accident how should an engineer conduct himself? - -A. With the utmost coolness. - -Q. If the water gauge glass breaks, what should be done? - -A. The upper and lower gauge valves should be closed immediately. - -Q. Can a new glass be put in at once? - -A. No, because a new glass is cold, and if put in position and steam -turned on, the sudden heat and expansion would be apt to crack it. - -Q. When can a new glass be put in? - -A. After the boiler has been cooled off. - -Q. What is to be done in the meantime? - -A. The boiler must be run by the use of the gauge cocks alone. - -Q. What is to be done if the gauge cocks leak? - -A. If the leak is in the seat, that part should be taken out and -re-ground and refitted. This should be done at once. - -Q. What harm is done by a leaky gauge cock? - -A. It allows the water to run down over the face of the boiler, which -tends to corrode it. - -Q. When the leak is where the gauge cock is screwed into the boiler, -what is to be done? - -A. As soon as the boiler is cooled down examine and see if the gauge -cock can be screwed up another turn. If so try that, then if the leak -is not stopped the gauge cock must be taken out and a new one put in -its place, or the thread of the old one so repaired that there will be -no leak. - -Q. Why not screw up the leaky gauge cock when the boiler is under -pressure? - -A. Because there is great danger of breaking the cock, thereby placing -the engineer or fireman in great peril. - -Q. What should be done in case a gauge cock is accidentally broken off? - -A. Open the furnace door and if possible partially bank the fire, close -the damper and allow the water to blow out at the hole until steam -alone comes out. In the meantime get a piece of soft pine six or seven -feet long and whittle down one end until it will about fit and jam -it into the hole. Work it around until the jet of steam is stopped. -Fasten the stick in temporarily and stop the engine if not already -done. It will now depend on the condition of the break and the position -of the surrounding parts as to the means to be employed. The stick -should be cut off short and firmly driven into the hole and braced or -tied securely. The engineer or fireman must use his own ingenuity for -this work. - -Q. Can a boiler be worked in this condition? - -A. Yes, by the use of the gauge glass to determine the level of water. - -Q. Should a boiler be run in this condition continually? - -A. No. A new gauge cock should be supplied as soon as possible. - -Q. When a gauge cock becomes stopped up what should be done? - -A. After steam is down, the front or outer part may be taken off and a -stiff wire run into it to open the clogged tube. - -Q. Is it simply necessary to get the wire through? - -A. No, the wire should be worked back and forth until all the deposit -or scale is thoroughly cleaned out. - -Q. In case the steam gauge gets out of order what should be done? - -A. There should always be an extra gauge on hand that may be put to -use. If there is no extra steam gauge, the engine should be shut down -until the gauge can be repaired. - -Q. Why not continue running by using the safety valve? - -A. Because it is very dangerous and should never be attempted. - -Q. How much variation from the actual pressure can be allowed on steam -gauge before it is repaired? - -A. None. As soon as suspected of being even slightly out of order it -should be repaired. - -Q. In case the pump does not work what should be done? - -A. Supply the boiler by the injector. - -Q. What is to be done where there is no injector? - -A. First, care should be taken that the water in the boiler does not -fall below the second gauge cock or out of sight in the gauge glass, -then stop the engine and bank the fire. When this is done, examine the -packing around the plunger to see that it does not leak air, then -examine the valves of the pump to ascertain whether they are worn and -leak. If this be the case they must be reseated at once. If the valves -are all right, work the pump and open the side valve in the delivery -pipe to see if the pump draws water. If no water appears, the trouble -is probably in the suction pipe. - -Q. How can this be remedied? - -A. First examine the strainer at end of suction pipe or hose to see if -it is stopped up; if it is, clean it out and try the pump. If it works, -the difficulty is remedied. If the strainer is clean, examine the pipe -or hose from end to end to see that it is perfectly air tight; if not, -it should be made so. - -Q. If the delivery pipe is choked, how can it be cleaned? - -A. Close the globe valve next to boiler, and then examine the check -valve to see if it is all right. If it is choked or filled with -sediment, take out the valve, clean the shell and re-seat the valve; if -the check is all right, disconnect the pipe and clean out if necessary. - -Q. What if this pipe and check valve are all right? - -A. Let the boiler cool off, then blow off the water, disconnect the -pipe between check and boiler, where the difficulty will probably be -found, and clean thoroughly. - -Q. How can check valve and delivery pipe be choked with water that has -already passed through the injector or valves of the pump? - -A. The water may contain quantities of lime which are deposited from -the heated water upon the interior of the pipe, which will thus be -gradually decreased in size until the hole is too small to answer the -purpose. - -Q. When the communication between the water gauge and boiler is -interrupted, what should be done? - -A. The glass should be blown out frequently by opening the drip cock -at the bottom, then shut the upper valve, allowing the water to blow -through the lower valve until the water runs free and clear. Then shut -the lower valve and open the upper one and blow through in like manner. - -Q. In case of low water what should be done? - -A. Cover the fire quickly with fresh coal or damp ashes, close the -lower draft door, and allow the furnace to cool. Never dash water into -the furnace to check the fire, it is dangerous. - -Q. Why not draw or dump the fire? - -A. Because it would result momentarily in stirring up an intense heat, -cooling can be effected more rapidly by covering the fire and checking -the draft. - -Q. Should the pop or safety valve be opened? - -A. No. Never let more steam out of the boiler in this condition than -can be avoided. - -Q. Should the engine be stopped or the throttle valve be closed? - -A. No. A sudden stoppage of the outflow of steam will cause the water -level to fall. The first thing to be looked after is to subdue the heat -which is the source from which trouble may arise. - -Q. Should the feed water supply be turned on? - -A. No. _Leave it alone._ Should the pump or injector be running, the -water level will be recovered gradually as the boiler cools down. If -the feed is not on, the sudden admittance of water on the overheated -surfaces will cause a disaster. The feed should not be turned on until -sufficient time has been allowed to avert such danger. - -Q. Are there any appliances by which to guard against accident from low -water? - -A. Yes. Alarms to call attention by blowing a whistle or ringing a bell -when the water is below a certain level. Also fusible or safety plug -placed in the heating surface of boiler most liable to be overheated -from lack of water. - -Q. Of what use is the safety valve? - -A. To prevent the accumulation of pressure above a given point. - -Q. Should water be left in the boiler when not in use? - -A. No. It is better to draw out all the water and properly clean the -boiler before leaving. - -Q. What should be done in case a grate bar breaks and drops out of -place? - -A. If no other bar is at hand, it might be repaired with a heavy stick -of wood. - -Q. How can this be done? - -A. By cutting the stick in such a shape as to fit the space made by the -broken bar, then cover with ashes before the fire spreads over it. - -Q. Will the stick burn out? - -A. Yes, but it will last for several hours. - - -NICHOLS & SHEPARD TRACTION ENGINE. - -This engine is also of the Side Crank, Side Gear pattern, the engine -is mounted upon the side of the boiler, upon a long heater, which -is securely bolted to the boiler by three brackets. It is of the -Locomotive Guide pattern, and has a cross-head pump. The cylinder rests -its full length upon the heater and is lagged. It has the link reverse -gear and plain slide valve, Friction Clutch, Injector, Automatic Sight -Feed Lubricator, Governor, Extension Front and Straight Stack. The hand -steering wheel is on the opposite side from the band wheel. - -The boiler is of the round bottom fire box style with double riveted -seams, and has a dome in the center, and is mounted upon the wheels in -the rear with a wrought iron axle which passes around underneath the -boiler and is held in place by brackets attached to the side of the -boiler. - -These brackets contain springs. - -The traction wheels are of the cast iron rim style, with wrought -iron spokes cast in both rim and hub and mud cleats are cast on rim. -The foot board is furnished with a water tank and tool box and all -necessary fittings and attachments are supplied to make a complete -traction engine. - -[Illustration: Nichols & Shepard Traction Engine.] - -Q. What harm would result from firing for a short time without the bar? - -A. None to speak of to furnace or grate bars, but the quantity of air -admitted to the fire box would make it exceedingly hard to keep up -steam and the hole thus made would cause a great loss of fuel. - -Q. What should be done if a bar in a rocker grate should fall out? - -A. Take a piece of flat wrought iron and cut it to fit the bearings, -this will do for some time and will not interfere with the rocking -of the bars. Or, take a heavy piece of plank, covering the opening -completely, and cover the plank carefully with ashes, surrounding it on -all sides to protect it as much as possible from the fire. - -Q. Will not this latter prevent the rocking of the grate? - -A. Yes, and it can only be cleaned by raking out from underneath. - -Q. How should such difficulties be avoided? - -A. A good engineer will always have on hand at least two or three extra -grate bars. - -Q. Should a boiler be forced beyond its normal capacity? - -A. Never force a boiler beyond its normal capacity, as such excessive -firing distorts the fire sheets and results in leaks and fractures. - -Q. Should intense fires be started in or under boilers? - -A. Never build an intense fire in or under a boiler until the shell is -well heated. Hot fires in or under cold boilers hurry their destruction. - - -CAUTION. - -Never blow out the boiler under high steam pressure or fill it again -with cold water when the boiler is hot, as either one of these is -likely to fracture the transverse riveting and is dangerous. - -Do not feed the water to the boiler irregularly. The slower the water -goes through the heater the more heat it takes up. To fill the boiler -to three gauges and then shut off the feed until the water level is -again down, the exhaust steam, after it has heated the water standing -in heater, passes off without leaving any of its heat, and then turning -on the feed water again much faster than needed, the water has not time -to take up so much heat as if the feed were slow and regular. Much bad -effect on the boiler is due to the difference in temperature at the -time when the feed is off and on. - -_Never calk a boiler under steam pressure unless you are tired of -life._ - - -CALKING FLUES. - -Q. In case the boiler flues become leaky, can they be tightened? - -A. Yes, by the use of a tool called an “expander,” which is generally -kept in stock by the boiler manufacturer. - -[Illustration: Prosser’s Spring Expander.] - -Q. Can an unskilled person expand and tighten the flues of his boiler -without the aid of an expert or boiler maker? - -A. Yes, if he is careful and follows these instructions, viz: - -First clean the ends of the flues and flue sheet of all dirt, soot and -cinders, and place the expander within the leaky flue, being careful to -have the shoulder of the tool well against the head and end of flue. -Now, with a light hammer drive in the taper expanding pin and after -two or three blows of the hammer, jar the pin out, turn the expander -a little and drive in pin as before, removing the pin and turning -expander again until a full turn has been made. - -Great care must be taken in expanding flues not to expand them so hard -as to stretch or enlarge the hole containing flue in the flue sheet, -thereby loosening the adjoining flue. After all the loose flues have -been carefully expanded, take the beading tool and place the long or -guide end within the flue, then with the aid of a light hammer the ends -of flues can be gradually beaded or calked against the flue sheet, -rendering them perfectly tight. With a little practice, a careful man -can do a neat job of calking, thereby avoiding loss of time and expense -in being obliged to call a boiler maker. An expander and calking tools -should be among the tools of every engineer, as many little leaks that -may occur in a steam boiler, although they may not be dangerous, give -it a bad appearance and should be calked and stopped by the engineer. - - -CLEANING FLUES. - -Q. How are boiler flues cleaned? - -A. There are two ways of cleaning flues, viz: with a steam blower and -a scraper. The latter is more commonly used and when properly applied -does its work most efficiently. - -The scraper is screwed on the end of a rod of sufficient length to -allow it to pass through the flue, and when cleaning, the scraper -should be passed forward and backward through the flue or least two or -three times, to insure all the soot and ashes being removed. - -[Illustration: Wilson Pat. Flue Scraper.] - -The cleaning of flues should be done systematically, as often as -required to keep them clean, as clean flues not only add greatly to the -steaming capacity of the boiler, but make a great difference in the -amount of fuel used. - -If the flues are allowed to become covered inside with soot and ashes, -the formation of which becomes a non-conductor for heat, the product of -combustion passes through the flues without leaving more than one-half -as much heat as it would otherwise leave if the flues were clean. - - -BLOWER. - -=The Blower= consists of a small pipe attached to the steam dome or top -of the boiler with a globe or angle valve, and is situated near the -stack. This pipe enters the stack just above the boiler, the end being -bent up toward the top of stack and reduced to a very small opening. -When steam is turned on through this pipe, it displaces the air in the -stack, causes a partial vacuum in the smoke box, and the air rushes -through the grates, fuel and flues to replace that which is blown out -by the blower, and the draught can be increased as much as desired. - - -EXHAUST NOZZLE. - -=The Exhaust Nozzle=, as generally constructed, is an elbow attached -to the end of the exhaust pipe in the smoke box or smoke stack of the -boiler, the end of which points upward, with the opening reduced so -that the exhaust steam will be forced up the stack, and thereby produce -the same effect as a blower. - -The opening in the exhaust nozzle should never be made so small as to -check the exhaust steam to any great degree, and cause back pressure -in the cylinder, as the power of the engine would be diminished. The -opening should be as large as possible, and still produce sufficient -draught to keep the required steam pressure. - - -FUSIBLE PLUG. - -[Illustration: Lunkenheimer Fusible Plug.] - -=A Fusible Plug= is a short brass bolt which has a hole running through -its center, filled with a metal that melts at a low temperature. This -plug is screwed into the crown sheet directly over the fire, and as -long as it is covered with water the metal will not melt and run out; -but should the water become low, exposing the crown sheet to the -intense heat of the fire, the metal will run out, and the steam rushing -through the hole puts out the fire and many times saves the crown sheet -from injury. - -Q. In what condition would the plug become useless and of no value? - -A. By allowing it to become covered on the inner end with scale and -sediment. It should be unscrewed and occasionally examined, at least -two or three times during the season, and all scale and dirt removed -from the end of the plug before replacing. Examine the crown sheet to -see that no scale has formed over the hole to prevent the water from -reaching the plug. - -Q. How can a plug that has melted out be refilled? - -A. Unscrew the plug from crown sheet and cap one end with clay, then -melt the lead or babbitt metal in a shovel, spoon, or even a piece of -bent sheet iron, and refill the plug. Now, with a light hammer, close -the ends tight, and screw the plug into the crown sheet. - - -LOW WATER ALARM. - -A low water alarm is an instrument attached to a boiler, and so -arranged and constructed that when the water in the boiler gets to a -certain level, whereby it is becoming dangerously low, the alarm is -given by the blowing of a whistle or ringing of a bell. - - -J. I. CASE AUTOMATIC HIGH SPEED ENGINE. - -This style of Automatic Engines combines simplicity, compactness, -direct action, lightness of moving parts, automatic lubrication, and -perfect regulation. - -[Illustration: J. I. Case Automatic Pedestal Engine.] - -It is made in three main varieties: The Pedestal Engine, the Bracket -Engine, and the Hanger Engine. The illustration represents the -Pedestal type, the upright frame of which is cast in one piece, and -encloses and protects the principal moving parts, its lower part being -a reservoir for oil, into which the crank-pin dips at every revolution, -affording a simple and efficient means of lubrication. - -The piston is connected directly with the crank shaft, thus doing -away with the cross-head, wrist-pin and guides. The piston being thus -connected at one end to the crank-pin, it travels back and forth at its -other extremity through the bore of the cylinder. The latter by reason -of its shape is free to turn in its casing, and is therefore rocked by -the vibrating piston rod through an arc sufficient to open and close -the steam and exhaust ports on its face. - -The cut-off valve is of the plug type, and receives its motion from the -shaft cut-off governor, attached to the balance wheel. - -The center crank shaft runs in two large bearings which are bolted -securely to the side of the frame. Access to the inside of the frame -can be had by taking off the plates from either side. - -The J. I. Case High Speed Engines range in size from 2½ to 25 horse -power, the speed of which ranges from 900 down to 550 revolutions per -minute, and can be used in any capacity. - - -STEAM ENGINES. - -All styles of engines both large and small should receive proper -attention. All the vibrating and moving parts should be kept well -oiled and free from grit and dirt. If this is neglected, the friction -of the moving parts will soon wear away the metal and induce pounding -and cause what is called “lost motion,” which detracts greatly from -the power of the engine, and if allowed to run in this condition will -soon necessitate large expense for repairs and shorten the life of the -engine. - -Tighten all the boxes as they wear, being careful not to get them -too tight. Keep the piston rod and valve rod well packed with a good -quality of soft packing. Keep the valve or valves set properly to give -the required amount of lap and lead and an equal cut-off at the end of -each stroke whether working in full gear or notched up. - -Keep the cross-head shoes fitted properly in the guides, being careful -to keep the piston rod in line. If the above instructions are followed, -your engine will run smoothly and do good service. - -[Illustration: Sectional View of Simple Engine, Showing Cylinder, Steam -Chest, Plain Slide Valve, Steam and Exhaust Ports, Piston and Rod, -Engine Frame, Cross-head, Connecting Rod, Crank Disc, and Rocker Arm -and Rod for Operating Valve.] - - -STEAM CYLINDER. - -=The Steam Cylinder= is that part of an engine in which the piston -travels; it also contains the steam and exhaust ports and is one of the -most expensive, as well as essential, parts of an engine. The cylinder -should be made of the best quality of cast iron, and the greatest care -taken in boring it perfectly true and round. It should be counter-bored -at each end to allow the piston in its travel to overlap at the end of -each stroke. Without the counter-bore, a shoulder would be formed at -both ends of the cylinder as it became worn by the piston rings, which -in time would cause a knock or pound at the end of every stroke; the -only remedy being to have the cylinder re-bored. - -Special attention should be paid to keeping the cylinder well oiled -with the best quality of cylinder oil to prevent it from being cut by -the piston rings. If allowed to run dry and cut, it will cause no end -of trouble. - -The size of cylinder is not always the measure of the power of the -engine. The power depends upon the heating surface of the boiler and -steam pressure; as the piston speed can always be increased, by running -the engine faster, until the maximum evaporating capacity of the boiler -is reached. - - -PISTON AND ROD. - -=The Piston= is another very important part in the construction of -an engine, and it conveys the power of the steam to the crank. It is -composed of a piston head, on which are placed the piston rings held in -position by the follower plate, and is securely attached to the piston -rod. Great care should be taken in the construction of the piston rings -to have them fit the cylinder perfectly tight, at the same time to have -the least possible friction. Piston rings should always be made of a -softer metal than the cylinder so that the greater part of the wear -will be upon the rings instead of the cylinder, as the rings can easily -be replaced. - -There are a great many kinds of packing for piston rings, but the most -commonly used at the present time are the steam packing rings. The -character, accuracy in construction and condition of the piston make -a great difference in the quantity of fuel consumed and the amount of -power developed by the engine. - -=The Piston Rod= connects the piston to the cross-head and is generally -made of steel. Where the piston rod enters the cylinder, a steam tight -joint is obtained by the use of a soft, pliable packing placed in the -stuffing box, and held in position by the stuffing box gland. - -This box is kept packed just tight enough to prevent leaking, by -drawing up the stuffing box gland when required. This can be repeated -until the packing is all used up, when box must be repacked. - - -STEAM CHEST. - -=The Steam Chest= contains the valve, and can be on either side of -cylinder as may best suit the style of engine. Steam is admitted into -the steam chest, and passes into the cylinder by the action of the -valve. - -Many engine builders cast cylinder and steam chest in one piece, while -others cast them separately and bolt them together. The only advantage -of the former over the latter is the absence of one less joint to keep -packed. - -[Illustration: Steam Chest and Plain Slide Valve.] - -The steam ports are the two openings through which the steam is -admitted to the cylinder. - -The exhaust port is the opening through which the exhaust or waste -steam passes out of the cylinder. - - -VALVE. - -There are a great many kinds of valves used on steam engines, namely, -the Corliss, Slide, Rocker, Balance, Rotary, etc., but the one most -commonly used on farm engines is the plain slide valve, which has been -generally adopted by all the larger engine builders in this country. -It is simple in design, and when properly set does its work very -efficiently. They are less complicated than others and are easily set; -they are made in many different designs, but the principle of each is -the same. - -The slide valve is constructed to slide upon the smooth surface of -the valve seat, in which are contained the two steam ports for the -admission of steam to each end of the cylinder, and also the exhaust -port through which the exhaust or waste steam passes out of the -cylinder. - -The slide valve is operated by the eccentrics, which are attached to -the main crank shaft of the engine and revolve with it, the object of -the eccentrics being to move the slide valve back and forth upon its -seat to admit the steam alternately through the steam ports to the -cylinder. - -The valve gear is a most important detail and one upon which the -economy of fuel in a great measure depends, and any derangement in this -part of an engine causes an immediate increase in the fuel consumed and -decrease in the power of the engine. - -In a properly constructed valve the slide upon the seat should be -reduced to the smallest possible amount, and should be so designed as -to give an equal cut-off and release at both ends of the cylinder, -whether working full gear or notched up. - -The engine should also have the same power whether working forward or -backward, and the cut-off should be as sharp as possible. - -The more perfect the valve gear the more the engine can be notched up, -and thus allow the steam to expand in the cylinder to its utmost. The -engine which can be notched up the most is the most economical in fuel -and water. - - -CROSS-HEAD. - -[Illustration: Cross-head.] - -=The Cross-head= is of cast iron and connects the piston rod to the -connecting rod, and is that part of an engine where the motion is -changed from vibrating to rotary. The piston rod is fastened securely -to it, while the connecting rod is attached by wrist-pin. On a V guide -or bored guide engine frame the cross-head is supplied with adjustable -shoe slides that can be adjusted to take up their wear and fit the -guides properly, also to keep the piston rod in line. On a bar or -locomotive guide engine the cross-head is adjusted by removing the -liners from between the bars. - - -ENGINE FRAME. - -=The Engine Frame= is the large casting which contains the bored, V -shaped or locomotive guides for cross-head shoes. It also contains the -pillow block for crank shaft at one end and the cylinder is bolted to -the other. They are made in many different styles and shapes, but all -answer the same purpose. - - -CONNECTING ROD. - -=The Connecting Rod= on an engine is the connection between the -cross-head and crank-pin; it is generally made of wrought iron or -steel, with brass boxes at each end held in position by wrought straps. -These straps are attached to the connecting rod by gibs and keys. -Connecting rods are sometimes made with mortised ends to receive the -brass boxes, which are held in place by wedge block and adjusting -screw. The latter style is used principally on the larger makes of -engines. While the connecting rod with mortised ends are considered a -little the safest, the straps on the ends of rods are most commonly -used. The brass boxes at ends of connecting rod are adjustable to take -up the wear by use of the gibs and keys, and they should be adjusted as -frequently as there is any lost motion discovered at the crank-pin or -cross-head, which will be indicated by a knocking or pounding as the -crank passes over the centers. - -[Illustration: Connecting Rod.] - - -CRANK. - -=The Crank= is that part of an engine by which the effect of the steam -acting against the piston is converted into work. There are two kinds, -Side and Center crank. The term Side crank refers to a disc plate or -a crank attached to one end of a shaft and in which is placed the -crank-pin. When the shaft extends to the right the engine is called a -right hand engine, and when it extends to the left it is called a left -hand engine. - -The term Center crank refers to a shaft with the crank in the center, -the shaft extending equally both ways and so constructed as to be very -well balanced. It is optional as to which gives the best results as -both kinds are used upon all sizes of engines. - - -CRANK-PIN. - -=The Crank-Pin= connects the connecting rod and crank. It is made of -steel, and special care should be taken to keep the crank-pin well -oiled. If allowed to run dry and cut, it will soon heat and ruin both -pin and boxes. If once allowed to become cut, it will be impossible to -prevent it from heating. - - -LINK REVERSE. - -=The Link Reverse= is composed of two eccentrics and rods, link, block -and slide, also lever and quadrant for holding link in any position. -The duty of the link is to reverse the engine by simply throwing the -reverse lever backward and forward. The speed of the engine can also be -reduced and increased by the same operation. - -[Illustration: Link Reverse.] - - -RUMELY TRACTION ENGINE. - -In the construction of this engine, which is of the side crank, rear -gear style, it will be seen that the engine is in a different position -upon the boiler from the ordinary side crank, having the cylinder -forward, and the crank shaft at the rear end. The frame is of the -girder pattern, with overhanging cylinder attached to one end, the -pillow block bearing at the other, and is secured to the boiler by two -brackets. - -The engine is supplied with a Cross-head Pump, Link Reverse Gear, -Friction Clutch, Automatic Oiler, Governor, Large Cylindrical Water -Tank on the side, and Tool Boxes upon the Platform. - -The boiler is of the round bottom fire box or locomotive style, has the -dome in front, and the ash pan is in the lower part of the fire box. - -It is mounted upon the traction wheels by brackets attached to the rear -end of the boiler, which contain the main axle. The front end rests -upon a trussed axle. - -The traction wheels are high, and are of the wrought iron rim direct -spoke type. The loose traction wheel is furnished with a locking device -for securing it to the axle. - -In the arrangement of the engine and the high traction wheels, the -driving or band wheel is placed between one of the traction wheels -and the boiler. The necessary fittings are furnished with both boiler -and engine to keep them in good running order and perfectly safe if -properly handled. - -[Illustration: Rumely Traction Engine.] - - -LINK. - -=The Link= is that part which holds the link block and is connected at -each end to the eccentric rods; it is used only on reversing engines. -The link is made on a curve, so that when the link block is at either -extreme end the valve is operated to its full movement. When the block -is in the center of link, the valve covers both ports and prevents the -ingress of steam to the cylinder. - -=The Link Block= is attached to the slide which connects it to the -valve rod. The valve rod connects the slide and valve, and where it -enters the steam chest is packed in like manner to the piston rod. - - -REVERSE LEVER. - -=The Reverse Lever= is that part of the valve gear connected with the -link for raising and lowering it, thereby changing the travel of the -valve and reversing the motion of the engine. When the reverse lever -is placed in the center notch of quadrant, the lap of slide valve -should cover both steam ports, preventing any steam from entering the -cylinder, thus stopping the engine. In moving this lever from the -center notch, it either drops or raises the link as the case may be, -increasing the travel of the valve and allowing steam to enter the -cylinder. When the reverse lever is thrown into the outside notch of -quadrant at either end you get full travel of the valve which gives -full power of engine, providing you have sufficient steam pressure. - - -ECCENTRICS. - -=The Eccentric= on an engine is for the purpose of moving the valve -back and forth upon the valve seat and has a throw equal to the travel -of the valve. The throw of eccentric is caused by the wheel or plate -being bored to one side of its true center, and generally equals -one-half the travel of the valve. If more or less, the difference is -caused by the use of rocker arm or similar devices for increasing or -diminishing the throw of eccentric as the case may be. The eccentric is -accurately fitted and fastened to the main shaft of the engine with set -screws or key. - - -ECCENTRIC STRAP. - -=The Eccentric Strap= is that part of the engine in which the eccentric -revolves, and is attached to link by the eccentric rod. It should be -kept well oiled to secure a free and easy movement to the link. - -On reversing engines there are two eccentrics exactly alike, one -connecting with upper end of link, the other with lower end by the -eccentric straps and rods. In this case the eccentric rod that is -moving the valve is the one nearest to the link block. When the lever -is in the center notch the link is also in the center of its travel. -In this case, both of the eccentric rods move an equal distance and -the link vibrates back and forth, but as the block is in the center -it gives no motion to the valve, and as the valve, having sufficient -lap, covers both ports when the lever is in this position prevents the -ingress of steam to the cylinder, consequently no motion. - - -ECCENTRIC ROD. - -=The Eccentric Rod= connects the eccentric to the link, two being used -on a reversing engine. On a simple engine only one eccentric rod is -used and is connected to a rocker arm which is attached to the valve -rod. - - -WOOLF VALVE GEAR. - -=The Woolf Valve Gear= is used in connection with an engine to reverse -its motion. It is arranged with one eccentric attached to the crank -shaft the strap of which has a long arm cast on, to which the eccentric -rod that moves the valve is attached. This arm is also supplied with a -roller, which runs in a slot on a rocking head. This head is held in -position by a box and is connected to the reverse lever by a rod. By -throwing the reverse lever to either end of the quadrant, the position -of the rocking head is so placed that the roller in the slide operates -the eccentric strap, rod and valve, and the engine will run in the -direction desired. By throwing the reverse lever to the opposite end of -the quadrant, the position of the rocking head is so changed that it -will reverse the motion of the valve, and the engine will run in the -opposite direction. - -[Illustration: Woolf Valve Gear.] - -The Quadrant being notched, the point of cut-off can be regulated with -the reverse lever, according to the load; by placing it in the last -notch in quadrant when full power of engine is required, or notching it -up when doing light work, the same as with the link reverse gear. - - -GOVERNOR. - -=The Governor= contains a valve so constructed and connected with the -weighted balls that an increase of speed of the engine throws out the -balls, which raises the arms attached to valve rod, thereby closing the -valve and thus decreases the flow of steam through the governor valve -and reduces the speed of engine until the governor balls are again in -their true position. Now, when the speed decreases and the weighted -balls rise above their true position, the valve opens, allows more -steam to enter the cylinder and the speed of the engine increases until -the engine is again running at its proper speed. - -[Illustration: Gardner Governor.] - -Governors are used to regulate the quantity of steam required to run an -engine at a uniform speed under variation of load, and to run properly -they should be kept perfectly clean and free from the accumulation of -gummy substances caused by using inferior oil, which has a tendency to -interfere with the free and easy movement of the different parts. - -Q. If you desire to run your engine faster or slower with the throttle -valve wide open, how can it be done? - -A. Some makes of governors are provided with regulating screws at the -top; by turning the hand nut in one direction you lengthen the valve -stem and reduce the steam opening in the governor valve, which reduces -the speed. - -To increase the speed of the engine the handle nut is turned the -opposite direction, which shortens the stem and increases the opening -in governor valve, allowing more steam to enter the cylinder and the -speed is proportionately increased. - -The Gardner Governors are provided with a hand screw at the side for -regulating the speed, as will be seen by examining the accompanying -cut. It also has a Sawyer’s Lever for opening the valve to its full -extent, and a belt tightener. - -Q. Will the handle nut stay in position after once being set to a -certain speed? - -A. Not unless the check nut directly over the handle nut is screwed -down tight to prevent the stem from changing its position. - -Q. Is a governor liable to cause trouble and fail to govern the engine -properly? - -A. All governors are more or less delicate in construction and must be -kept clean and well oiled, the belt must not be allowed to slip, nor -must it be so tight as to cause the governor to work hard. The small -stuffing box that packs the valve stem should never be screwed down -steam tight, as it causes too much friction on the stem and prevents -the balls from operating it, and the engine will run unsteadily and -spasmodically. Always allow the stuffing box to leak a little, then you -know it is not too tight. - -First class governors may sometimes be condemned for not regulating -the engine to a uniform speed, when a good cleaning, oiling or -loosening of the valve stem stuffing box nut would allow them to work -perfectly. - - -AUTOMATIC OILER. - -=An Automatic Oiler= is used on an engine to keep the cylinder, piston -and valve lubricated, and is most essential for the safety and easy -operation of these parts. It works automatically and is supplied with a -glass tube through which the oil can be seen passing into the cylinder. -The feed can be regulated to allow just the required amount of oil to -pass into the cylinder. - -Where a sight-feed automatic oiler is used on an engine there can be no -excuse whatever for the engineer to allow the cylinder to run dry and -cut, as he at all times can see whether oil is passing into it or not. - -Q. How do you fill an automatic oiler? - -A. Close valves D and E, open valve G to draw off the water. Close -valve G and take out filling plug C, fill A with oil and replace plug -C, then open valve D, and the flow of oil to the cylinder can be -regulated with valve E. - -Q. Will the oil feed as soon as the oiler is filled? - -A. No; time must be given for sight-feed glass and condensing chamber -to fill with water of condensation. - -[Illustration: DESCRIPTION. - - =A.= Oil Reservoir. - =C.= Filler Plug. - =D.= Water Feed Valve. - =E.= Regulating Valve. - =F.= Condensing Chamber. - =G.= Drain Valve. - =H.= Sight-Feed Glass. - =L.= Plug to Insert Glass. - =K.= Connection to Steam Pipe or Steam Chest. - =Q.= Drain Valve for Sight-Feed Glass. - -Single Connection Detroit Oiler.] - -Q. How is a double connection automatic oiler attached? - -A. First, the steam pipe must be drilled and tapped above the throttle -with ½ or ¾ inch gas tap, as may be necessary to receive the oil -discharge pipe of oiler and put oiler in place. Then tap the steam pipe -about 18 inches if possible above the top of the condensing chamber and -fit in a ¼ inch gas pipe for steam connecting tube, which attaches to -the top of condensing chamber. (See illustration.) - -[Illustration: Double Connection Detroit Oiler.] - -Where the steam pipe cannot be tapped 18 inches above the condensing -chamber, it may be tapped lower down and the steam connecting tube -of required length be bent in a horizontal coil. With the single -connection oiler it is only necessary to drill and tap one hole in the -steam pipe. - -[Illustration: Double Connection Detroit Oiler.] - -Q. Should oiler become clogged, how can it be cleaned? - -A. Open the valves, by which steam can be forced through it, and all -the passages will be cleaned. This can be done without stopping the -engine. - -Q. If oiler is not in use and in danger of freezing, what should be -done? - -A. Leave valves D, G and E open, and all water will be drained off. - -Q. If the glass tube in oiler should get broken, what should be done? - -A. Shut valves D and E, remove broken glass and replace with new. - -Q. How can oil be prevented from sticking to lubricator glasses? - -A. A very simple remedy is to fill the glass with glycerine and let the -oil feed through it. - - -INJECTOR. - -=An Injector= is an automatic machine attached to a boiler, for -injecting or forcing water into it and at the same time heating the -water to a very high temperature, which saves fuel and prevents the -danger of sudden contraction of the plates and flues. It can be used -independently and is indispensable on a farm engine. - -In piping an injector to boiler, use as short and as straight pipes as -possible and especially avoid short turns. Take steam directly from -boiler, and have a globe valve in steam pipe close to injector; have -the water suction or supply pipe independent of any other connection, -and it must be supplied with a globe valve close to injector. This -pipe and connections must be absolutely air tight; the slightest leak -will cause trouble. The discharge pipe to boiler must be supplied with -a tight and reliable check valve. If valve leaks, the injector will -become hot and cause no end of annoyance. It is a good plan to put a -stop valve between check and boiler in discharge pipe, so that check -valve maybe taken off and repaired, or a new one put on without loss -of time. A foot of straight pipe screwed into the overflow assists in -starting an injector, especially at low pressure. - -[Illustration: American U. S. Injector.] - -Q. How do you start an injector to work? - -A. To start an injector, open the suction valve wide, then open steam -valve. If water appears at the overflow, close and open quickly the -suction valve, opening only about ¼ of a turn if at low steam pressure, -and one turn or more if at high steam pressure, regulating the water -supply according to steam pressure. The injector is controlled entirely -by the valve in suction pipe, or by the suction lever after the steam -is turned on. - -Q. Will an injector work with hot supply water? - -A. An injector will not work if the water that is delivered from the -tank is too hot to condense the steam. - -Q. What are the principal causes of an injector not working accurately? - -A. Leak in suction pipe, supply cut off by strainer being clogged, -loose lining inside the hose, leak in the stem of valve, too little -steam pressure to lift, dirt in the tubes, red lead blown or drawn -in through steam or supply pipe, bad check valve, not lift enough or -none at all, new boiler full of grease, wet steam, obstruction in the -connection to the boiler. - -If injector fails, examine at all of these points before condemning. -The most common trouble is a leaky suction. - -In describing the method of connection and operating an injector the -foregoing may have to be modified in some instances, as there are a -great many different kinds and styles of injectors which operate and -connect differently, but the above if followed carefully and with a -little discretion will be found useful. - -Bear in mind, however, that the injector does not start to work to -boiler as soon as it gets the water. At first the water will run out -of the overflow. At this point you start the injector working to the -boiler by closing and opening the water valve as quickly as possible -_with a jerk, or as nearly with one motion as you can_. - -Q. How do you find the maximum and minimum capacity of injectors? - -A. Injectors are controlled entirely by the suction valve after steam -is turned on. To find the maximum capacity of an injector after -starting, gradually open the suction valve in supply pipe until steam -“breaks” and water comes out of the overflow, then start the injector -again and you will know about how far the suction valve can be opened -without causing the “break.” - -To find the minimum capacity of the injector, manipulate the suction -valve in the same manner in exactly the opposite direction. - - -DIRECTIONS FOR OPERATING WORLD INJECTOR. - -See that the injector is shut off when put on, by turning the handle -as far to the right as it will go. To start, turn handle to the left -one-quarter turn; when the water appears at the overflow, turn the -handle slowly to the left as far as it will go, and the injector will -be working to the boiler. - -[Illustration: American World Injector.] - -If steam is high and lift long, the injector will lift the water -better if the handle is turned a little less than a quarter of a turn, -until the water appears at overflow—then start to boiler as before. - -If you have valves in steam and suction pipes, be sure and open them -before starting. - -Q. How high will an injector draw its supply? - -A. About twenty feet is the limit. - -Q. How hot does an injector deliver water? - -A. From 150 degrees to 200 degrees, according to the steam pressure and -the proportions of its capacity at which injector is working. - -Q. How should the jets be cleaned when they become scaled? - -A. By soaking in diluted muriated acid, about one part acid to ten -parts water. - - -THROTTLE. - -=The Throttle= on an engine is the valve which allows the steam to -enter or be shut off from the cylinder and should always be left wide -open on a governor engine when running, as the governor regulates the -quantity of steam required to run it at its proper speed and is much -more economical. - -There are different styles of valves used for throttles, such as Globe -Valves, Butterfly Valves, Disc Valves, etc. - -[Illustration: Lunkenheimer Throttle Valve.] - -The Lunkenheimer is a double disc valve, and is operated by the handle -or rod attachment, and requires no lock or ratchet. - - -STEAM PUMP. - -=An Independent Steam Pump= is virtually an engine with two cylinders, -one for the steam piston, the other for the water piston or plunger, -and is used in connection with a steam boiler for supplying it with -water. The discharge pipe of a pump is generally connected with a feed -water heater of some sort, which heats the water to a high temperature -before entering the boiler, though there is a late pattern of steam -pump which delivers the feed water to the boiler at about the same -temperature as the injector. The cylinder of steam pump should always -be well oiled before starting in the morning and stopping at night. The -stuffing boxes on piston and valve rod should in all cases be kept well -filled with soft and moist packing. If the packing is allowed to become -dry and hard, it will cut the rod, inducing leakage and necessitating -repairs. When a steam pump is not in use in cold weather all the drain, -drip and pet cocks should be left open, to allow the water to run out. -While most farm engines are furnished with an independent steam pump, -some are equipped with what is called a cross-head pump. - -[Illustration: J. I. Case Steam Pump.] - -=A Cross-Head Pump= is operated by a plunger attached to the cross-head -of engine and has two valves, a supply and a discharge valve, also is -supplied with an air chamber. This style of pump is available only when -engine is running. Engines with a cross-head pump should always be -supplied with an injector to be used in case of failure of pump to work -and while engine is shut down. The cross-head pump is connected to the -heater in the same manner as an independent pump. - -Q. How high will the steam pump lift water? - -A. A steam pump will lift or draw water about 33 feet, as with one -inch area, 33 feet of water will weigh 14.7 lbs., but the pump must be -in very good order to lift 20 feet and all pipes must be absolutely -air tight. A pump will give better satisfaction lifting from 10 to 15 -feet. No pump however good will lift hot water, for the reason that as -soon as air is expelled from the barrel of the pump the vapor occupies -the space, thereby destroys the vacuum and interferes with the supply -of water. When necessary to pump hot water, place the pump below the -supply, so that the water will flow into the valve chamber. Always have -a strainer at lower end of suction or supply pipe. A pump should be set -up so that it is accessible for inspection, cleaning and repairs, and -so that the shortest and straightest suction and delivery pipes can be -used. - - -MARSH STEAM PUMP. - -=The Marsh Steam Pump= is so constructed that the exhaust steam may -be turned into the suction, thereby condensing its exhaust steam and -returning it with its heat to the boiler, thus heating the feed water -to a high degree. - -The pump is automatically regulated and can never run too fast to take -suction, or should the water supply give out when the throttle valve is -wide open no injury can occur to the moving parts. - -The steam valve, though nicely fitted, moves freely in the central bore -of the steam chest, and has no mechanical connection with other moving -parts of the pump, but is actuated to admit, cut off and release the -steam by live steam currents which alternate with the reciprocation of -the piston. - -Each end of the valve is made to fit the enlarged bore of the steam -chest, and it is due to these large valve heads, which present -differential areas to the action of steam and the perfect freedom of -the valve to move without hindrance from other mechanical arrangements -or parts, that the flow of steam into the pump is automatically -regulated. - -[Illustration: MARSH PUMP. - -Capacity 10 to 35 Horse-Power.] - -The steam valve does not require setting, as it has no dead center and -will always start when steam is admitted. - -The steam piston is double and each head is provided with a metal -packing ring. The piston rod is made of Tobin bronze, the stuffing -boxes and water piston are made of brass, and the water cylinder is -brass lined. The water valves may be removed for inspection by simply -taking off the air chamber. - -[Illustration: View of Marsh Steam Pump, Showing Water Valves, Steam -Valves, Suction Chamber and Piston.] - - -DIRECTIONS FOR SETTING UP AND RUNNING. - -Before connecting the steam pipes, blow out with steam pressure the -chips and dirt in the steam pipes. Always use the union furnished with -the pump. It has a gauze gasket in it to catch the dirt that may get -into the valve. Before starting pump, open air cock in delivery pipe -and turn exhaust lever back, away from the air chamber. Then open -throttle valve wide and allow pump to exhaust into the air until it -takes suction, when deflecting lever may be thrown forward toward air -chamber and cold water in the pump will condense the exhaust and return -it to the boiler. - -If pump refuses to work, the difficulty is to be looked for in the -valve chest. Do not take off the chest. The valve may be taken out and -cleaned but _never_ filed. _The valve must be returned through same end -as taken from._ Before closing, be sure that the head is screwed tight -on the valve, using the socket wrench furnished. - -When the pump is stopped, pull the exhaust lever back, so the condensed -steam from leak of throttle valve will not go into the pump. It is -safer also in cold weather to take off head of water end. Slight but -constant lubrication adds much to the regular working of the pump. -Be sure there are no leaks in the suction pipe, and when water is -raised more than 10 feet, a foot valve should be put in. Compress the -packings on piston rod as little as possible and yet prevent the escape -of steam. Before leaving the pump in cold weather, break the suction -and allow it to run empty for a minute with all the cocks open, then -be sure the throttle valve is closed tight. When necessary, pack the -joints under the steam chest, side plate and air chamber with manilla -paper or thin rubber. - - -HEATER. - -=The Heater= is used on an engine in connection with a boiler for -heating the feed water before it enters the boiler under steam -pressure. It is usually constructed of a shell of cast or boiler iron -into which live or exhaust steam is admitted. This shell usually -contains a series of pipes or a coil of pipe, through which the feed -water is forced by the pump, the water thereby being heated to a high -temperature before entering the boiler. - - -EJECTOR. - -=An Ejector= is a machine for lifting water from various depths and -forcing it to various heights with steam pressure, as follows: - -With 20 pounds steam pressure an ejector will lift water to a level -from 16 or 17 feet below and force it to a height of 15 or 16 feet. - -[Illustration: American Ejector.] - -With 60 pounds steam pressure will lift 20 feet and force to a height -of 60 feet. - -With 100 pounds steam pressure will lift 23 feet and force to a height -of 107 feet. - -An ejector may be placed in any position to suit the convenience in -piping; they require but three connections, steam, suction and delivery. - - -JET PUMP. - -=A Jet Pump= is a machine used for drawing water and discharging it -above the surface level. It will draw water to a level from 10 or 15 -feet below and discharge it at a height of about one foot to every -pound steam pressure applied. - -A jet pump has three connections, steam, suction and delivery, and may -be placed in any position to suit convenience in piping. - -[Illustration: American Jet Pump.] - - -STEAM GAUGE. - -=A Steam Gauge= is an instrument used for indicating in pounds the -amount of steam pressure upon each square inch of surface of the -boiler. It is very delicately constructed, and should not be tampered -with after once being set to indicate correctly. If a steam gauge is -found not to indicate the exact pressure in the boiler it should be -sent to the factory for repairs. Never attempt to repair it unless all -the appliances for so doing are at hand. - -A steam gauge should always be placed on a boiler with a syphon, or by -tying a knot in the pipe between it and the boiler, so that the steam -may condense, thereby allowing the water to operate it. If steam is -allowed to enter, the heat would tend to expand the tube in the gauge -and it would indicate more than the real pressure. - -A steam gauge is usually constructed with a hollow, flat tube, called -the Bourdon spring. This tube is bent in a simple curve and fastened -at one end, the other end is free and by a simple clock work actuates -the pointer which indicates upon the dial the steam pressure per square -inch upon the boiler. - -[Illustration: Ashcroft Steam Gauge.] - -[Illustration: Interior Ashcroft Steam Gauge.] - -Q. What should be done in case the steam gauge becomes defective? - -A. When the steam gauge has become broken by freezing or otherwise, and -there is none on hand, the engineer may run by setting the safety valve -so that it will blow off within from ten to fifteen pounds less than it -is ordinarily set at, and then by careful firing, run until a new gauge -can be procured, which should be done without delay. - -Some engineers have been known to make a practice of running without a -steam gauge. - -Q. Would you recommend this method? - -A. No, it must be resorted to only in case of a sudden accident and -where shutting down would cause great loss. Every engineer should have -an extra steam gauge on hand, to be used in case of accident to the one -in use. - - -SAFETY VALVE. - -=Safety Valves=, or pop valves, as they are sometimes termed, are made -in many different kinds and styles, but the one most commonly used on -a farm engine is constructed with a coil spring, which is adjustable, -to allow the valve to pop off at a certain pressure. When the pressure -exceeds this amount, it raises the valve from its seat and allows the -surplus steam to escape. It should be set with the steam gauge, to -allow a little margin of steam pressure over that which is necessary to -drive the load, and should be compared with the steam gauge frequently -to see that it works accurately. It is furnished with a lever for -raising the valve, which should be raised occasionally to see that it -operates freely. - -[Illustration: Kunkle Safety Valve.] - -[Illustration: Kunkle Safety Valve, Sectional.] - -The safety valve being set with steam gauge, the gauge should be -watched when safety valve blows off. If it indicates more or less than -the gauge something is wrong, the valve marked incorrectly or the -steam gauge is out of order. In case the safety valve and steam gauge -do not register alike, the valve should be examined to see that the -valve is not stuck in its seat, and should be thoroughly cleaned of -all sediment; then put back in place again and compared with the steam -gauge as before. If they do not register alike, the gauge should be -examined. - -Q. Is not a safety valve attached to a boiler to prevent explosion and -loss of life? - -A. The Safety Valve is only intended to prevent an explosion from -excessive steam pressure, and should never be set to hold more than -the required pressure to give the rated power for which the engine is -designed. - - -GLASS WATER GAUGE. - -=A Glass Water Gauge= is a device attached to a boiler to show the -level of water in the boiler. It consists of a glass tube ten or -twelve inches long, with an angle valve attached at each end. The -lower valve enters the boiler below the water line, the top valve -enters the boiler above the water line in the steam space. The ends of -the glass are made steam and water tight by means of rubber gaskets and -stuffing boxes. As water will seek its own level, the height of water -in the boiler will show a corresponding height in the glass, and the -engineer at a glance knows just how high the water in the boiler is -above the flues and crown sheet. - -[Illustration: Lunkenheimer Water Gauge.] - - -BLOW OFF VALVE. - -=The Blow Off Valve= is an angle or globe valve attached to the -lower part of a boiler for the purpose of blowing off the sediment -accumulated by the use of impure water, and should be used more or less -frequently according to the condition of the water used, but never less -than once a week. There is also a surface blow off which is attached -to the boiler at about the safe water level for the purpose of blowing -off the scum which accumulates on top of the water. This scum should be -blown off once or twice a day. - - -GAUGE COCK. - -=A Gauge Cock= is a stop cock attached to a boiler to ascertain the -height of water in the boiler. There are generally two and sometimes -three gauge cocks attached to a boiler. The lower one enters the boiler -as low down as it is deemed safe to allow the water to get, while the -upper one enters the boiler sufficiently high to avoid getting too much -water. Where three gauges are used, the middle one enters the boiler at -about the proper water level. They should be opened frequently to keep -them free from corrosion, being sure to close them tightly to prevent -leaking. - -[Illustration: Lunkenheimer Gauge Cock.] - - -CYLINDER COCKS. - -=Cylinder Cocks= are used in connection with the cylinder to allow the -water accumulated by the condensing of steam in the cylinder to escape, -and should be opened every time the engine is started or stopped. -This should never be neglected, as great damage may be caused by the -breaking of the follower plate or cylinder head. They should also be -left open when engine is shut down, and at night in cold weather to -prevent freezing and the consequent damage. - -[Illustration: Lunkenheimer Cylinder Cock.] - - -CHECK VALVE. - -=A Check Valve= is the valve on the feed pipe between pump or injector -and the boiler. The check valve is so constructed that the pressure of -the feed water from the pump or injector lifts the valve from its seat -and the water passes into the boiler. Immediately after the pressure -from the pump or injector is released, the pressure from the boiler -closes this valve and prevents the water from being forced back into -the pump or injector. There are two check valves used in connection -with a pump, one on suction, the other on deliver pipe. - -Q. How can check valves that get stuck open be closed? - -A. By simply tapping them slightly with a light hammer. - -Q. Should this be practiced? - -A. No, when they stick at all they should be opened and thoroughly -cleaned as soon as pressure can be shut off. - - -COMPRESSION GREASE CUP. - -=Compression grease cups= are used extensively on engines for -lubricating the crank-pin and wrist-pin, also pillow block bearings -for crank shaft; in fact this method of lubrication for all kinds of -bearings and journals is becoming universally adopted. - -In construction the Besly Bonanza Cup is simple and durable. The outer -casing is threaded and fits tightly over the bottom part of cup. After -the cup has been put in place, remove the top part, fill it with Helmet -oil or grease and screw it on the lower part for two or three threads. -The cup is then in working order. - -[Illustration] - -To insure a plentiful supply of grease to the journal or bearing, all -that is necessary is to give the top part of cup an occasional turn. - -C. H. Besly & Co.’s Helmet Solid Oil is for use in compression cups, -and is a perfect lubricant, in fact it is said to be the best. - - -MINNEAPOLIS TRACTION ENGINE. - -The engine is supplied with a return flue, straw, wood and coal burning -boiler. The shell of the main flue is cylindrical in shape, but tapers -toward the front end. By this arrangement the return flues can be set -lower at the front end, which it is claimed has some advantage in -protecting front end of flues when ascending steep hills. - -The steam used is superheated by being conducted through a pipe which -extends from the top of the dome on the inside of boiler through the -front head and smoke stack to the steam chest. - -The engine is of the Side Crank, Side Gear style, the frame of which is -the girder pattern with bored guides, and has an overhanging cylinder -attached to one end, and contains the pillow block bearing at the other. - -It is fitted with the Woolf Valve Gear for reversing, Friction Clutch, -Cross-head Pump, Injector, Syphon for filling water tank on front end, -and a large Foot Board with Tool Boxes attached. The wheels are of -steel, and the traction or drive wheels are furnished with malleable -mud cleats extending diagonally across the entire width of tire. - -The boiler is safe with proper care, economical in fuel, and the -engine moves over the road rapidly. Although simple in its general -construction, it has all the appliances and fittings necessary on a -traction engine. - -[Illustration: Minneapolis Traction Engine.] - - -TRACTION ENGINES. - -=Traction Farm Engines= are becoming more generally used each year, and -to supply the increasing demand for traction engines, the manufacturers -have spared no expense or mechanical skill to place upon the market -the latest improvements in this line, and a great many kinds of this -class of engine now made in the United States are simply perfect. They -travel over the roughest roads, up and down steep hills with heavy -loads, and the engine is at all times entirely under the control of the -engineer. In fact, there is no class of engines that has had a more -marked advancement toward perfection in the past few years than the -farm traction engine. - -As this class of engines in the majority of cases goes into the hands -of men inexperienced in the handling of machinery, they are subjected -to the very hardest usage and neglect, which, of course, hastens their -destruction. Every purchaser of an engine should acquire sufficient -knowledge of the operating and handling of it so that he will know when -it is properly cared for. - -No engine has to run at more variable speeds than a traction engine. -It is very important for this reason that the steam ports should be of -sufficient area to admit of a very high piston speed, and allow the -steam to follow the piston at the necessary velocity. Small ports are -useless, as when the link is notched up, and the travel of the valve -thereby reduced, the openings are too cramped for the steam to pass -in and out of the cylinder comfortably. The result is, that the slide -valve is forced off its seat and the engine primes as soon as any great -speed is attained. It is easy to tell by the sound of the exhaust if -the ports are rightly proportioned, and whether running at high or low -speed, the engine should give a clear and distinct exhaust at every -stroke of the piston. - - -GEARING. - -The power of the traction engine is transmitted to the traction wheels -by a series of gearing, all of which should be made from accurately cut -patterns to insure the teeth meshing perfectly to prevent them from -cutting and grinding out, and of sufficient strength to withstand the -very rough usage to which they are subjected. The gearing of an engine -should never be run without first greasing them thoroughly with a good -quality of solid oil or axle grease, for if once you allow the teeth to -cut, it will be impossible to stop them from cutting, the result being -they will soon be ruined. The gearing on traction engines are placed -in many different positions for transmitting the power to the traction -wheels, as will be seen by examining the different illustrations given -in this book. - -On a side gear engine the power is transmitted from a small pinion -on the main shaft to an intermediate gear, from this gear to the -differential gear on cross shaft which is placed under the cylindrical -part of the boiler against the fire box. To this shaft are keyed two -small pinions at each end, which mesh in large spur gears fastened -securely to the traction wheels. - -On a rear gear engine the power is transmitted from the small pinion -on crank shaft to large spur gear attached to one end of cross shaft, -which crosses the boiler at the rear end. To the other end of this -shaft is attached a small pinion that meshes in the large differential -gear which is attached to traction wheel and main axle. - - -DIFFERENTIAL GEAR. - -The gearing on a traction engine must be so designed as to allow one -of the ground or traction wheels to run faster than the other, when -turning engine either to right or left on the road. To accomplish -this, the Differential Gear is made use of, and answers all purposes -admirably. - -The Differential Gear on many styles of engines is attached to the -cross shaft, while on others it is secured to the main axle, and, as -generally constructed, consists of one large spur gear, having three or -four bevel pinions placed in it at equal distances apart and from the -center of main gear. These pinions revolve loosely on pins secured to -the gear, and the spur gear runs loosely on the cross shaft or axle. -At each side of the spur gear are placed bevel gears, meshing into the -bevel pinions, one of which is keyed fast to the shaft or axle, while -the other is firmly bolted to small pinion that drives the traction -wheel, or to hub of the traction wheel, which also runs loosely on its -axle. - -This device allows one drive wheel to remain idle while the opposite -wheel may revolve as fast as is required to make the turn. - -Differential Gears should be kept well greased with solid oil or axle -grease to prevent the cogs from being cut and wearing away rapidly. - - -FRICTION CLUTCH. - -This attachment on a traction engine is almost indispensable as it -allows the engineer to give the whole power of the engine instantly to -the traction gear in getting the engine out of bad places, or to move -the engine backward or forward with so little apparent effort as to be -almost imperceptible, while the engine may be running at full speed; -also for tightening the main drive belt when attached to machinery -without stopping the engine. - -[Illustration: J. I. Case Friction Clutch.] - -The friction clutch shown in illustration is constructed as follows: -The friction pulley is constructed with a friction ring upon its arms, -the outer ring acting as a guard or protection, the friction ring being -turned accurately to receive the wooden shoes attached to the driving -arm; these wooden friction shoes are fitted to the outer surface of the -ring as well as the inner, all being connected to one set of levers; -so when force is applied to engage the friction to start the engine -there is no tendency or danger of bursting the rim, as the pressure -is equal on both sides of it. The pulley is keyed to the crank shaft, -while the driving arm, with driving pinion secured firmly to it, runs -loosely upon the shaft. Upon the hub of driving arm is placed a sliding -sleeve with lever attached, which connects with toggle levers beneath -the sliding pieces which contain the wooden friction shoes, the whole -being operated by the sliding strap from footboard of engine near by -the reverse lever. This makes a strong and convenient arrangement for -transmitting power. - -Many other styles of clutches are made by engine builders, adapted to -their particular style of engines, a common way being to have the shoes -tighten against the inner rim of the fly-wheel. This is not deemed as -good an arrangement, for the reason that the pressure or strain is all -outward against the rim, though their being used extensively indicates -good results. - -When operating a friction clutch, always draw or push the lever over -gradually. By doing this the engine will start slowly and easily, while -if the lever is jammed over suddenly, the engine will start with a -jerk, which is liable to damage the traction gear. The latter should -never be done unless absolutely necessary to get the engine out of bad -places on the road. - - -QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS, - -Concerning the Operation and Care of Steam Engines and Boilers. - -Q. What should be done first, after receiving a new engine, to prepare -it for running properly? - -A. If a traction or farm engine, remove the box containing the fittings -and tools, from the fire box, and see that the grates are in their -proper places. Also take out the tools which are packed in the smoke -box at front end of boiler. Then, with waste or rags well saturated -with kerosene, turpentine or benzine, wipe off all the grease that the -manufacturer has put on to protect the bright work from rusting. After -this has been thoroughly done, clean every oil hole and bearing found -upon the engine, of all dirt and cinders. Special attention should -be given to this, as if dirt and cinders are allowed to remain, the -bearings will cut and heat. - -Q. After this is done thoroughly, what next? - -A. Take all the fittings from the box and clean them carefully, fit -each oil cup to its proper place and screw them in tightly with a -wrench, to prevent them from working loose and falling off while engine -is running on the road. - -Fill all cups with good oil, lard oil for bearings, good cylinder oil -for the automatic oiler, which oils the cylinder and valve, and solid -oil for both grease cups at crank and cross-head. Then put the steam -gauge, the glass water gauge, gauge cocks, safety valve, whistle, -surface blow-off and blow-off valves, cylinder cocks, governor belt, -etc., in their proper places; all fittings should be screwed up tight -with a wrench. Examine the stuffing boxes and see that they are all -well packed and cleaned. - -Q. The fittings all being attached, what next? - -A. Proceed to fill the boiler with water by unscrewing the cap from -filling plug located on top of boiler near the steam dome, screw funnel -on plug, and fill boiler with as clean soft water as is obtainable. - -Q. How much water is required in the boiler before starting fire? - -A. Fill the boiler until the water shows about one and one-half inches -in the glass water gauge, or have a free flow of water from the lowest -gauge cock. - -Q. After the boiler is filled with water to the proper level, what -next? - -A. Start a moderate fire with dry wood in the furnace or fire box, and -open the draught damper wide. Add fuel slowly, and while steam is being -raised take your oil can and wrench and examine the engine thoroughly -at all its parts. See that every screw and bolt is tight and that none -of the oil holes have been overlooked. - -If a traction engine, examine all the gearing and see that all gears, -axles and bearings are thoroughly greased and oiled—grease for gears -and axles, oil for bearings. - -If firing with coal, keep the grates well covered with a thin layer. -Do not throw in large lumps or too much fresh coal at one time. A thin -fire lightly and frequently renewed, is the most economical. - -Q. Is the natural draught of the boiler enough to enable steam to be -raised quickly? - -A. No. The boiler and water being cold the fire will not burn briskly, -but as soon as steam pressure shows upon the steam gauge, turn on the -blower, which will force and increase the draught; then with good fuel, -any desired steam pressure can be raised quickly. - -Q. Must the blower be used when the engine is running to keep up -sufficient steam pressure? - -A. No. When the engine is started, the exhaust steam is discharged from -the cylinder first through the heater, then into smoke stack, producing -the same effect as the blower. - -Q. If the boiler steams too fast, what should be done? - -A. Simply close the damper. Do not open the fire door, as the fire door -should never be opened unless absolutely necessary, nor should it be -kept open longer than is needed, as the cold air admitted through it -injures the boiler and is wasteful of fuel. - -Q. After sufficient steam is raised, how do you proceed to start the -engine? - -A. Before turning steam on the engine, go to the fly-wheel and turn it -a few times to see that everything is all right and no obstacle in the -way to prevent the engine from running when steam is applied, being -sure to leave the crank-pin off the center to enable the steam to start -the engine when throttle valve is opened. Next, open both the cylinder -cocks, then the throttle valve just a trifle to allow a little steam -to enter the cylinder, to warm it and expel the water of condensation. -Then open the throttle gradually, and if everything is right, the -engine will move off faster and faster until the proper speed is -attained. After engine is thoroughly heated and is working dry steam, -close the cylinder cocks and set the automatic oiler to work. - -Q. How do you obtain the proper speed, and how is the engine made to -run steadily with the steam pressure so varied? - -A. The proper speed and steadiness in running is maintained by the use -of the governor, which receives its motion from the engine shaft by -means of a belt. - -Q. Are the bearings of a new engine liable to heat when first started -up? - -A. Not if proper attention is given to them. When starting a new engine -the first time, it should be stopped frequently and the moving parts -and bearings carefully examined. Feel of all the bearings, the link -block, the eccentrics, crank-pin, cross-head, etc., to ascertain if -they are heating. If they are, slacken up the boxes a little, but not -enough to make them knock or pound. Always be careful not to loosen or -tighten bearings or keys too much; just a trifle at a time, but do it -often, until the bearings and boxes run cool, but tight. If this is -done carefully, the engine will run smoothly and quietly. - -Q. After the engine is started, what should be done next? - -A. Fill the tank on the engine with water and start the injector to -work, so that the proper level of water may be kept in the boiler. The -independent pump, if used, should now be fitted, connected and tried, -to see if it is in proper shape to feed the boiler. If a cross-head -pump is used, it should be fitted and attached to water supply with the -suction hose. In this case when the engine is running, the pump can be -regulated to supply the required amount of feed water. - -Q. How is the boiler supplied with water while the engine is stopped? - -A. By the independent pump or injector. - -Q. Has the independent pump sufficient capacity to supply the boiler -with water under all conditions? - -A. Yes, always, when running at a reasonable speed. - -Q. Why should an injector be furnished if the pump will supply the -boiler? - -A. Many times through carelessness or otherwise the pump is prevented -from working by dirt, straw, chips and other obstructions which find -their way into the pump and hold the valves from their seats. In this -case it is necessary to take the pump apart and remove the obstructions -wherever found, which would necessitate stopping the engine and -allowing the steam to go down, involving a large loss of time. Whereas -if the engine is also supplied with an injector, should the pump fail, -the injector can immediately be started and the pump examined at -leisure without loss of time and avoiding all danger of explosion. - -Q. Should the supply of feed water be continuous while the engine is -running? - -A. Yes. Gauge the speed of the independent pump so that it will furnish -the required amount of water to the boiler. Regulate the feed of a -cross-head pump, by the suction valve. By so doing, the boiler steams -easier, the flues are not so liable to leak, and a uniform steam -pressure can be easily maintained more economically. - -Q. How is a boiler supplied when engine is in motion? - -A. By the independent or cross-head pump. - -Q. When should the injector be used in preference to the independent -pump? - -A. There being no exhaust steam when engine is not running, no benefit -is derived from the heater. Now, as cold water should never be forced -into a hot boiler the injector becomes of great value, as it heats the -feed water to a very high temperature before it enters the boiler. - -Q. Is there any independent steam pump made that heats the feed water -before it goes into the boiler? - -A. See Marsh Pump description. - -Q. When engine, pump, and injector are found to be working properly, -what next? - -A. If a traction engine, the engine should be reversed several times. -This can be done by throwing the reverse lever forward and backward, to -ascertain whether the valve is so set that engine will run equally well -both ways; then the traction gear may be tried. If engine is supplied -with a friction clutch, by simply pressing the clutch lever gradually -until the friction shoes take hold, the engine will start slowly upon -the road. This can be done while engine proper is running at full speed. - -The clutch lever should be held in one hand when first starting, so -that in case of anything being wrong with gearing, it can be stopped -immediately by quickly loosening the lever. With the other hand, -the steering wheel should be operated to guide the engine upon the -road. When all is found to be working properly, and you wish to run -the engine any distance, the clutch lever should be placed in notch -provided for it; this will hold the friction shoes securely to the -wheel, and the engine will move along the road at full speed. - -Q. If the engine has no friction clutch, how do you proceed to start -the gearing? - -A. Stop the engine and place the reversing lever in center notch, slide -the spur pinion on main shaft into gear and open the throttle valve -wide; then with the reverse lever in one hand (the steering wheel in -the other) you can start engine upon the road by throwing the lever -backward or forward, which should be done gradually at first, so that -engine will start slowly. If all is right, by throwing the reverse -lever in the last notch in quadrant, the engine will travel its full -speed upon the road. - -Q. How should a traction engine be first started upon the road, forward -or backward? - -A. Always forward, as you can see where you are going and can guide the -engine more easily. - - -ADVANCE TRACTION ENGINE. - -In illustration is given the engine side of the Advance Engine, which -is of the side crank, side gear type, with the engine placed at forward -end of boiler. - -The cylinder is overhanging, and is bolted to the cylindrical formed -engine frame which forms the front head. The frame is attached to the -boiler with two brackets, and it contains the bored cross-head guides -and pillow block bearing. - -The engine has the Marsh Reverse Gear, Marsh Pump, Friction Clutch -attached to band wheel, Injector, Governor and all necessary fittings. - -The boiler is the locomotive round bottom fire box style, with dome in -center. It is mounted upon the traction wheels with axle arms attached -to brackets bolted to the sides of fire box, in which are placed -springs. - -The spokes of the wheels are cast in both hub and rim, the latter -having mud cleats cast on. The platform has both Water Tank and Tool -Box attached, and the steering wheel and band wheel are on the same -side of the engine. - -The chains for the steering attachment are supplied with springs. - -[Illustration: Advance Traction Engine.] - -Q. How should you guide a traction engine? - -A. There is no fixed rule for guiding a traction engine upon the road. -It must be learned by experience. Good judgment is required to make -a success of it. One man should always handle both reverse lever and -steering wheel when guiding an engine. - -Q. How should the steering chains be put on a traction engine? - -A. The chains should be so put on, that when the steering wheel is -turned to the right, the engine turns to the right; when wheel is -turned to the left, the engine turns to the left. - - -REVERSING AN ENGINE. - -To reverse the motion of a plain Slide Valve engine, remove the cover -of steam chest and place the engine on the dead center. Observe the -amount of lead or opening that the valve has on the steam end, then -loosen the eccentric and turn it around on the shaft, in the direction -the engine is wanted to run, until the valve has exactly the same -amount of lead at the other end; then turn the engine to the opposite -center, to determine whether the lead at this end is the same as at -the other; then place the crank at half stroke top and bottom, and see -that the port openings are equal in both positions, and replace cover. - -Q. What is dead center? - -A. The dead center of an engine is the point where crank and piston rod -are in an exact line. - -Q. What is a half stroke? - -A. It is the point reached by the piston after traveling exactly -one-half its travel. - -Q. What is the meaning of “lost motion”? - -A. Lost motion is looseness of the connecting rod at crank or -wrist-pin, or looseness of the link or link block, cross-head and -guides, main crank shaft and pillow block, caused by friction and -wearing away of the metals and the neglect to take up the wear. - -The lost motion in all parts of an engine should be taken up -frequently, to keep it running smoothly, but care must be taken not to -tighten bearings or keys too tight. - -Q. What is lap and lead? - -A. Lap is the position of the valve which extends or laps over the edge -of the ports when the valve is in its central position. That on the -inside of the D is the inside or exhaust lap, while that at the ends of -the valve is the outside lap and affects the admission and cut-off. - -Lead is the amount of opening which is given to the port by the valve -when the engine is on the center. - -Lead on a valve is the admission of steam into the cylinder before the -piston completes its stroke. - -Q. How much “lead” should a valve have? - -A. There is no general rule for the amount of lead that would be best -suited for all makes of engines. It must be determined by the design or -construction, speed and work required, to produce the best results for -economy and quietness in running. - -Q. What is a throttle engine? - -A. A throttle engine is one in which the speed is controlled by -throttling the steam with a governor, as opposed to an automatic engine -in which the speed is regulated by varying the point of cut-off at the -valve. - -Q. What is the difference between a stroke and a revolution? - -A. A stroke is the movement of the piston, from one end to the other of -cylinder. A revolution takes two strokes of piston. - -Q. How are steam packing rings put on the piston head? - -A. Remove the back cylinder head and take the piston and rod out of -the cylinder, and stand it “head up.” Then place the inside of the -ring, opposite to the opening, against the side of the piston head next -to you; gradually press the ring open with your hands, and it can be -easily slipped over the head and put in place. - -Q. How is a piston put into cylinder? - -A. It is always entered from the back end in horizontal engines. The -rings (if steam packing) should be carefully placed in position and -compressed by the hand if piston is small, but if large, curved blocks -of wood or a band of sheet iron can be used to support them until they -enter cylinder. When the piston rod passes through the stuffing box, it -should be supported at outer end to prevent cutting. - - -WATERTOWN HIGH SPEED ENGINE. - -The frame of this engine is very heavy, with longitudinal and cross -ribs securely bracing it. It forms the lower guide for cross-head, and -contains the pillow block bearings at the front end. It also forms the -front cylinder head, to which the cylinder is bolted. The working parts -are placed as low in the frame as is possible, so that the strain is -brought in line with the line of greatest resistance. - -The double disc center crank shaft allows of two small heavy band -wheels, one of which has the shaft governor attached to the inside, -that operates the valve automatically to give the point of cut-off in -accordance with the variation of load. - -The valve is of a special design, and so constructed as to admit steam -to the cylinder port through four different openings. It also exhausts -steam through four different openings at once. - -The engine frame rests its whole length and is securely bolted to the -sub-base, which is bolted to the floor, and the smaller sizes need no -elaborate foundations. - -This style of engine ranges in size from 35 to 350 horse-power -approximately, the speed of the smaller ones ranging from 275 to 325 -revolutions, and of the larger from 160 to 185 revolutions, and are -used extensively where high speed is required, and where the load is of -an intermittent character. - -[Illustration: Watertown High Speed Engine.] - - -TESTING PISTON RINGS AND VALVES. - -To ascertain whether the piston rings and valves are leaking or not, -first place a block of wood about four inches long upon the guide for -cross-head and against the front cylinder head. Then turn the engine -“over” until the cross-head comes back tight against the block. This -will place the valve of a simple engine in such a position that steam -would be admitted to cylinder through front steam port. If a reversing -engine, throw the reverse lever in the last notch in end of quadrant -that would allow the engine to run “over”. Then take off the back -cylinder head, and open the throttle valve wide. If steam blows out -past the piston, it would indicate that the rings were not tight. In -case steam packing rings are used, they should be refitted or replaced -by new ones. If adjustable rings are used, they should be adjusted to -stop the leak, care being taken not to get them too tight. If the steam -blows out through the back port, the slide valve is not tight and it -will require refitting, as will also the valve seat. - -If a very small amount of steam blows through, new rings or adjustment -would not be necessary, as the waste of steam or back pressure -resulting from it would amount to very little. - -This test should be tried occasionally with a full head of steam on, -to assure of the piston rings and valve being tight, as leaky pistons -and valves are very wasteful of steam, sometimes causing priming, and -greatly diminishing the power of the engine. Never run your engine with -leaky piston or valve. Have them properly fitted at once. - -After making the test, and repairing if necessary, replace the cylinder -head, and be sure to remove the wood block from the guides. - - -KNOCKS OR POUNDS. - -The Knocks or Pounds of steam engines are frequently caused by -lost motion in the crank and wrist-pin boxes, valve rod and valve, -cross-head and link; looseness of the piston rod, pillow block or main -bearings, follower plate, or eccentrics; the slide valve having not -enough or too much lead, the exhaust being cut off too soon or too -late, shoulders being worn in each end of the cylinder by the packing -rings not traveling over the counter-bore at the end of each stroke; -or shoulders may be worn in the guides by the cross-head slides, or -they may not be adjusted properly to fit the guides; boiler may foam, -causing the water to be drawn over in cylinder; the piston rings may -leak, thus causing cushioning; and as the crank approaches the centers, -steam occupies the space between the cylinder head and piston, causing -a tremendous strain upon the engine; the piston rod being packed too -tight, the boxes and pins being worn flat or oval; the key in driving -pulley may be loose. - - -TO REMEDY KNOCKS OR POUNDS OF A STEAM ENGINE. - -While it is hardly possible to prescribe a remedy for all cases, if -the following practical methods are closely followed they will be -found to be very useful, although in many instances the remedy must be -determined by the circumstances of the individual case. - -The knock or pound of boxes in connecting rod at cross-head or crank -pin or the valve rod, may be remedied by taking out the boxes, and -filing off the top and bottom inside edges sufficiently to allow them -to just come together and not fit the pin too tightly. In replacing -them, be careful not to key them up too tight. - -Where there is not sufficient draught in the key or gib, place a liner -in front or behind the boxes. - -Knocks or pounds in the link may be remedied (if the link block has too -much play in the link) by reducing the liners in each end of the link -enough to fit the block properly. - -The knocks or pounds of piston are caused by the rod becoming loose -in the head; and if allowed to continue, will destroy the fit of -the rod in the hole. It may be remedied under such circumstances by -removing the rod, re-boring the hole and bushing it perfectly true, and -refitting the rod. - -Knocks or pounds of follower plate are generally caused by dirt -accumulating in the hole, which will not allow the bolts to enter far -enough to take up the lost motion of the plate, or the bolts may be too -long. To remedy this, remove the accumulation of dirt from the hole, or -shorten the bolts. - -The knocks or pounds in main crank shaft, if caused by the bearings -being worn oval or out of round, may be remedied by removing the shaft; -true it up in a lathe, and refit or re-babbitt the boxes. - -The knock or pound in eccentrics is generally caused by the eccentric -straps being too loose upon the eccentrics, which can be remedied by -reducing the liners in the straps to allow them to fit perfectly. - -The knock or pound in slide valve caused by being improperly set, may -be remedied by taking off the steam chest bonnet and re-adjusting the -valve so as to give the same amount of lead at each end of stroke. -This being done, and the valve well proportioned and the connections -properly fitted, there should be no knocks or pounds from this cause. - -The knock or pound in cylinder caused by shoulders being worn in it, -can be remedied by re-boring the cylinder, being sure to make the -counter bore of sufficient depth to allow the piston rings to overlap -them at the end of each stroke. - -The knock or pound on guides caused by shoulders being worn on them, is -remedied by planing the guides and making the shoe slides of sufficient -length to overlap the guides at either end when crank is on the center. - -The knock or pound caused by the cross-head slides not fitting the -guides properly, may be remedied by adjusting them both top and bottom -to fit the guides closely, being careful not to get them too tight, -which causes undue wear and strain upon the frame. - -The knock or pound caused by wrist-pin or crank-pin becoming worn flat -or oval, may be remedied by filing them perfectly round. - -The knock or pound caused by the piston leaking, which causes -cushioning, can be remedied only by having a tight piston. - -The knock or pound caused by the driving pulley key being loose, can be -remedied by driving the key in its seat; or if a defective key, replace -by a new one perfectly fitted. - -If the knocks or pounds are caused by lost motion in any of the -revolving, reciprocating or vibrating parts of an engine, they may be -detected and located by placing the finger upon the different parts -while the engine is running very slowly or worked back and forth by -hand. - - -HEATING OF JOURNALS. - -The heating of journals and reciprocating parts of an engine may be -attributed to the following causes: - -Improper proportions and fitting, unsuitable material, want of -homogeneity between the metals of which the journals and bearings are -composed, the revolving or reciprocating parts not being in line, -the boxes being keyed up too tight, sand or grit getting into the -journals, improper lubricating, etc. The last mentioned cause is very -complicated, as the conditions of weight of load, area of surface -subject to pressure, velocity of movement, etc., must be taken into -consideration. - -To remedy the heating of journals which is caused by the revolving or -reciprocating parts not being in line, the engine or shaft must be put -in line. - -When caused by the boxes or bearings being too tight, they must be -loosened a very little at a time until bearings run cool. Apply plenty -of good oil. - -Clean the boxes and journals thoroughly, and see that the oil holes are -not stopped up; also see that the oil-cups are clean, to assure of the -oil getting to the bearings freely. - -Oiling frequently, using a little oil at a time, gives the best results -and is the most economical. - - -PACKING PISTON AND VALVE RODS. - -When the piston or valve rod of an engine or pump needs re-packing, -take off the stuffing box gland, remove all the old packing carefully, -and replace with new. - -If a patent packing is used, it should be cut in suitable lengths -diagonally across the packing, making the angle of one end opposite -from that of the other, so that when ends are brought together they -will make a splice joint. The joint of each ring of this packing should -be placed at opposite sides of the rod, and the stuffing box filled, -the gland replaced and screwed up just tight enough to stop leakage. -If hemp packing is used, take about the amount required and pick it to -pieces, removing all sticks, lumps or hard substances. Then twist it -into three compact cords, saturate well with oil or tallow, and braid -the cords together tightly. Then wind this braid around the rod until -stuffing box is full, replace the stuffing box gland, and screw up as -before described. - -Care should be taken not to screw the packing in stuffing boxes too -tight, as it not only increases the friction on the rod and diminishes -the power of the engine, but will have a tendency to flute the rod. If -the rod is once fluted, it will be very difficult to stop leakage at -this joint. - -When stuffing box of water piston of pumps needs re-packing, the same -rule will apply, with the exception that little or no grease or tallow -should be used upon the packing. - -Always keep piston and valve rod packing in a clean place, as any dirt -or gritty substance that may become attached to it will have a tendency -to cut the rod. - - -SETTING A PLAIN SLIDE VALVE. - -First, take up all “lost motion” and place the engine on the center. -This is done by putting the wrist-pin, crank-pin and center of the -main shaft in line. To do this accurately, turn the engine until the -cross-head is about half an inch from the end of its stroke, and mark -the position of the cross-head on the guide. - -Place a marker against the edge of the fly-wheel, and make a mark on -the fly-wheel opposite the marker, then turn the engine until the -cross-head completes the stroke and comes back to the mark made on the -guide. - -The crank will now be as much below the center as it was above before. -In this position make another mark upon the fly-wheel opposite the -marker. - -Now, midway between the two marks on the fly-wheel, when turned -opposite the marker will put the engine on dead center. Next, remove -steam chest cover and place the eccentrics about one-quarter turn ahead -of the crank in the direction the engine is to run. If the engine is to -run “over”, place the throw of eccentric up. If it is to run “under”, -place throw of eccentric down. - -Then set eccentric carefully at such a point that the valve will have -just commenced to open say ¹/₃₂ of an inch on the end that should -be taking steam. If there is a rocker arm used which reverses the -direction of the motion, i. e., making the valve stem move in the -opposite direction from the eccentric rod, the eccentric must be set -behind the crank, when the engine is to run “over”, in order that the -port may open as the engine turns forward; but if a rocker arm is used -merely to multiply the motion without changing the direction, proceed -as though there was no rocker arm at all. Next, measure the “lead” -which you have given to the valve at end which you have set. This is -easily done by pushing a wedge-shaped stick or piece of soft wood -into the port opening. The edge of the valve and port will mark the -distance it goes in. Turn the engine upon the other center, which will -be found as before described, and see if the lead is the same at both -ends of the valve. If it is, the engine is properly set. If it is not, -move the valve on the stem towards the end having the greatest amount -of lead, a distance equal to one-half the difference in the leads. If -the equalized lead is more than is necessary, set the eccentric back a -little. - -There are numerous methods of attaching the stem to the valve. A common -way is with jam-nuts. With this arrangement it is only necessary to -turn back the nuts on end towards which the valve is to be moved, an -amount which will allow the given movement; then, turn the other nuts -until the valve is forced into place to travel equal distance both ways -from its center position. When the stem screws directly into the valve, -the connection to the rocker arm or guide must be taken apart, and the -stem screwed into or out of the valve enough to give it the required -position. After the valve is set, replace the steam chest cover, and -secure the eccentric perfectly tight with the set-screws, to prevent it -from slipping. - - -SETTING SLIDE VALVE OF REVERSING ENGINES. - -The Link Reverse Being Used. - -First, see that all the lost motion in the connecting rod, pillow -block bearings and cross-head is taken up; then throw the reverse -lever in last notch in quadrant, which would allow the engine to run -“over”; then, remove the steam chest cover. Next, loosen eccentric -(the eccentric rod of which is in direct line with the valve rod), -turn the eccentric completely around, and watch the valve to see -whether it laps the steam ports exactly the same amount at both ends, -or travels an equal distance from its central position both ways. If -it does, the valve is in proper position upon the rod. If it does not -travel equally, the valve must be made to do so by adjusting it upon -the valve rod, which is done by lengthening or shortening the rod, by -use of jam-nuts, with which the rod is usually furnished. After this -is done accurately, place the engine upon its forward center. This -is done by turning the engine forward until the cross-head is about ½ -inch from end of its stroke and mark the position of the cross-head -upon the guide; then, with the use of long tram or dividers, mark from -any convenient point on the frame to the band wheel or disc, and mark -both points with prick-punch. Again turn the engine forward until the -cross-head completes its stroke and comes back to the mark made on the -guide; then, with the same long tram or dividers, mark the band wheel -or disc as before from the prick mark already made on the frame. - -Midway between punch marks on band wheel or disc, which can be found -by use of dividers, will give the point which will place the engine -on the “center” by turning engine back far enough to allow the long -tram or divider to fit in punch mark on frame, and center punch mark -on band wheel or disc. Now turn the eccentric over in the direction in -which the engine is to run, until the valve gives the proper amount -of lead on the front of steam port, which is about ¹/₃₂ of an inch, -and fasten eccentric with set-screw. Then turn engine over the way it -is to run, and place it upon its back center. This is done exactly -as before described for forward center, and if the valve is properly -proportioned, it will give the required ¹/₃₂ of an inch lead on the -back steam port, and valve will be properly set for running in this -direction. - -Now throw the reverse lever in the last notch in opposite end of -quadrant, which would allow the engine to run “under”, then loosen the -other eccentric (the eccentric rod of which is in a direct line with -the valve rod), and proceed same as described when engine is running -“over”, to get valve to lap both steam ports equally. Then place engine -upon either center and move the eccentric in opposite direction from -the other eccentric until the valve gives the ¹/₃₂ of an inch lead to -steam port, fasten the eccentric and place the engine upon opposite -center, and the amount of lead should be the same on both steam ports, -and the valve properly set. - -The valve being set, replace the steam chest cover, and secure the -eccentrics perfectly tight by screwing the set-screws up hard to -prevent them from slipping. - -Always set the valve so as to run the engine backwards or “under” -first. - - -TO SET VALVES OF DUPLEX PUMP. - -Set the pistons at mid-stroke, and set the valves which are worked from -the opposite side at mid-stroke also, and it will be right at all other -points. The mid position of the valve can be obtained by moving it back -and forth the amount of its lost motion, and dividing it so that the -lead or opening on both sides will be the same. - - -ASCENDING HILLS. - -Q. How do you ascend a hill with a traction engine? - -A. When approaching a hill which you have to climb with a traction -engine, see that about two inches of water shows in the glass gauge -when engine is on a level. Open draft door wide, stir the fire and -get it to burn briskly, and get up a good head of steam. Put reverse -lever in last notch, then open throttle gradually, allowing just the -necessary amount of steam to pass into the cylinder to keep the engine -pulling steadily up the hill. Always start up the hill slowly; do not -attempt to go up a hill at full speed, but go slowly and steadily, -keeping the speed as uniform as possible by opening or closing the -throttle as the case may be. Never attempt to go up a hill on a -decreasing steam pressure, as there is a great liability to become -stalled, in which case great damage may be done to the front end of -flues. Always start on a rising steam pressure; then you know the -boiler is making steam, which assures a steady ascent, as at every -exhaust of the engine on an increasing or steady pressure the power -becomes stronger, while at every exhaust on a decreasing pressure the -power becomes weaker. Keep a uniform supply of water in the boiler at -all times by use of either the pump or injector. Always when going up -hill keep the draft door wide open until the steam gauge indicates that -the pressure has risen almost to the blow-off point, then close the -damper. Never allow steam to blow off when going up hill, as it will -cause the water to raise and be carried over into the cylinder, greatly -diminishing the power of the engine. Do not under any circumstances -allow your engine to be stopped when going either up or down hill, as -great damage may be done to the boiler. - - -FRICK TRACTION ENGINE. - -The illustration of the left side of the Frick Traction given on -opposite page represents it as being a Center Crank, Rear Geared -traction engine. - -This engine is constructed with an overhanging cylinder, bolted to the -cast iron engine frame, which contains the locomotive style guides and -both pillow block bearings for the crank shaft. It has a Cross-head -Pump connected with long heater, has a specially designed Reverse Gear, -also a Friction Clutch attached to the band wheel. - -The round bottom fire box boiler swings in a channel iron frame, which -reaches from front axle to the rear of the boiler, around the fire box, -to which it is attached, and has a spring in front end only. - -The wheels are made entirely of iron, with forged spokes and wrought -tire, with high mud grouters bolted on. - -On the channel iron frame in front of fire box is placed a heavy -plank, to which two large water tanks are attached on either side. The -steering wheel and band wheel are on opposite sides of engine and it -has all the necessary fittings, so that with proper handling it will -be found perfectly safe and reliable. The platform in rear is also -supported upon the channel iron frame. - -[Illustration: Frick Traction Engine.] - - -DESCENDING HILLS. - -Q. How do you descend a hill with a traction engine? - -A. When approaching a hill which you wish to descend with a traction -engine, see that the water in the boiler is at the regular height, -or two inches in glass gauge when engine is on the level. Close the -draught door to ash pan and open damper in smoke box when about to -descend. Close the throttle almost tight, allowing just a little steam -to enter cylinder, then take hold of the reversing lever, and the speed -of the engine can be governed so as to descend at any speed desired, -or be stopped, if absolutely necessary by throwing the lever into last -notch. - -Do not stop while going down hill unless absolutely necessary, as there -is great danger of melting out the fusible plug and damaging the crown -sheet, as the water is much lower over the crown sheet when going down -hill with the required amount of water in the boiler than at any other -time. - -When it is absolutely necessary to stop the engine for a short time -when descending a hill, do not turn on the pump or injector; but open -the fire door, allowing the cold air to pass over the fire, which will -protect the crown sheet. This should never be done, though, except in -extreme cases. - - -ENGINE STALLED. - -There is no standard rule by which a traction engine can be gotten -out of bad places upon the road, as one rule would not apply to all -situations, though a few suggestions on this subject may be beneficial. - -When the engine is in a bad mud hole, or on a very sandy road, and the -driving wheels will not take hold, but simply turn around, the best -way to get out of the fix is to hitch a good team of horses to it and -pull it out with what assistance the engine can give. Though in many -cases, if a quantity of straw, stones or brush, as may be most handy, -is placed under the driving wheels and the power applied, the wheels -may get a footing and the engine will come out all right. Old boards or -rails placed in the same manner will produce the same result. - -It should be understood, however, that if the driving wheels do not -take hold, but simply turn around in the sand or mud, the engine should -be stopped at once and some of the aforesaid remedies tried. If you -continue to work the engine under such circumstances, it will become -more difficult to get out of the mire, as the wheels sink deeper in at -every revolution. - - -CROSSING BRIDGES AND CULVERTS. - -Before crossing a bridge or culvert with a traction engine, examine the -stringers and floor carefully to ascertain whether it is in condition -to hold the engine or not. If it appears a little weak, by laying heavy -plank across for the traction wheels to run on, it may be crossed in -safety, though the crossing of small bridges and culverts must be done -with judgment, to prevent accident and delay. - - -FOAMING. - -Foaming is the violent agitation of the volume of water in the boiler; -it occurs only in dirty boilers and where dirty feed water is used, -which causes the water to become saturated with foreign matter, such as -lime, sediment, mud, oil or grease, etc. - -The steam trying to escape through the scum formed by these -impurities, raises the whole mass from the surface of the water in -large bubbles, and causes a general frothing or foaming condition of -the water level, which is indicated by the dirty appearance of the -gauge cocks and joints and the cutting of piston rod and cylinder by -the gritty matter carried over by the steam. Foaming does not result in -carrying over so much water, but a foamy boiler does not produce as dry -steam as one that is kept perfectly clean. - -Q. How do you prevent a boiler from foaming? - -A. To remedy foaming, or prevent it, requires frequent blowing off from -the surface of the water the scum which causes it, and the use of pure -feed water. It may be stopped for a while by closing the throttle valve -for an instant, to give the water and scum a chance to settle. - - -PRIMING. - -Priming in a steam boiler is the carrying over of large quantities of -water by the steam to the engine, and may occur in a perfectly clean -boiler. It is usually caused by too great a demand on the capacity of -the boiler, too sudden and fierce firing, or after steam pressure is -lowering, an increasing demand is made for it. It is usually a radical -defect in the construction or capacity of the boiler, and is most -frequently the result of insufficient steam space, small evaporating -capacity, and lack of good circulation. - -Priming is indicated by the water rising and lowering in the glass -gauge more or less violently, by the clicking sound in the steam -cylinder of engine as the piston forces the water from end to end, and -by the regular shower of water falling from the exhaust. - -Q. How do you remedy priming? - -A. There are several remedies for priming, none of which will apply -effectually in all cases. Where insufficient capacity is the cause, -the only remedy is a larger boiler. In others, it may be prevented -by carrying the water level lower, if same can be done with safety, -or taking steam from side of dome instead of top, or increasing the -size of steam pipe, or taking out the top row of flues, and in boilers -that have no steam dome, a long dry pipe with perforated top may be of -benefit. - -Q. What are other causes and remedies for priming? - -A. The piston rings may leak badly. If they do, they should be -replaced, or made to fit cylinder perfectly. The cylinder may be badly -cut by the rings. If it is, it should be re-bored and new piston rings -put in. - -The slide valve may be cut, and leak. In this case the valve will need -re-planing and scraping, also the valve seat. If the valve is not -properly set, it may also cause priming. The exhaust nozzle may be -clogged with burnt oil and sediment; if it is, clean it out thoroughly. - - -FIRING WITH WOOD. - -Always keep a level fire. Fill every open space as fast as the wood -burns out. Allow as little cold air to pass through the fire as -possible. _Never stir a wood fire._ Fire quickly, and keep the door -shut as much as possible. - - -FIRING WITH STRAW. - -To start the fire, push a small forkful of dry straw into funnel in -fire door, leaving the small end of funnel pressed full; then touch -the match to it. Begin at once to push in the straw regularly, a small -quantity at a time, being very careful not to clog the main flue, and -allowing ample time for straw to burn. - -The fire should be raked down frequently, as the burned straw leaves a -charred mass over the grates. This should be done when the funnel is -full of straw, thus allowing no cold air to pass through the funnel -into the main flue. Clean out the ash pan frequently, so that the -natural draught may not be checked. Do not open blower until gauge -shows ten or fifteen pounds steam pressure. - -After steam is raised to the necessary pressure, the feeding should be -regular, using small forkfuls of straw, keeping the funnel full all the -time, and raking down at short intervals. Use as dry straw as it is -possible to obtain. - -The above will apply to any style or make of straw-burning engines. - - -FIRING WITH COAL. - -After fire is well started with wood, throw coal into the center of -grate, and do not disturb it until it is well ignited and burning -briskly; then break the fire down and put in a shovel or two of coal, -and so continue keeping the grates covered with a thin layer. - -Always aim to put in fresh coal on a rising head of steam pressure. -Never pile coal against the flue sheet or keep the fire box too full. -Nothing is gained by the latter, but much is lost. - -Q. Which is the more economical to burn, wet or dry coal? - -A. Dry. If your coal is wet, you simply have to evaporate that much -more water, which goes out of the stack instead of to the engine. - -Q. How much water will one pound of coal evaporate? - -A. One pound of coal will, under very favorable circumstances, -evaporate twelve pounds of water, but the average evaporative power -of anthracite coal is 9½ pounds of water, and semi-bituminous coal is -9⁹/₁₀ pounds. - -Q. If cold air is allowed to strike the flue sheet and flues, what is -the result? - -A. It will eventually cause them to leak. - -Q. How should a fire be regulated in case of temporary stoppage by -accident or otherwise under full head of steam? - -A. Close the damper and keep the fire door closed; then open small door -in smoke box or the damper in chimney. - -Q. Why not leave the fire door open? - -A. Because it would allow the cold air to come in contact with flue -sheet and flues, and consequent damage to boiler. - - -BANKING FIRES. - -To bank a fire in a furnace, push the fire in a heap at the back of the -furnace against the flue sheet; leaving a large portion of the grate -open, to allow the air caused by the natural draught to pass up over -the fire to the flues; then cover it over with fine coal or a layer of -dry ashes, and see that the draught door is closed to prevent draught -as much as possible. - -This being done, the fire will last over night, and when ready to start -again in the morning, all that is necessary to do is to rake the fire -over the grates, open the damper and apply more fuel. - -Q. What benefit is derived from banking the fire? - -A. By banking the fire, the water in the boiler is kept warm over night -and steam is raised quickly in the morning, saving time and fuel. - -Q. When leaving a banked fire, is it practicable to shut the water out -of the glass or water column? - -A. Yes. In freezing weather, this may be done by closing the valve at -the top and bottom of the glass; and open pet cock beneath. Care should -be taken, however, to open them before the fire is started in the -morning. - - -LAYING UP A TRACTION ENGINE. - -Q. How should you prepare your engine and boiler for laying up through -the winter, to protect them from frost and injury? - -A. While steam is on, clean your boiler and engine thoroughly outside, -scrape off all oil, grease and scale; after which apply a good coat of -asphaltum paint to the boiler and smoke stack. If no paint can be had, -lamp black and linseed oil will answer. If this cannot be had, take -rags, saturate them with grease or oil, and go over them with that. - -Now open the blow-off valve, and blow the water off with a low pressure -of steam, after which take out all the hand-hole plates and wash the -boiler out thoroughly, removing all the mud and scale; then replace the -hand-hole plates, close the blow-off valve and fill the boiler nearly -full of water, after which pour in a gallon of black oil upon the water. - -After this is done, open the blow-off valve again and allow the water -to run out. The oil will follow the water down and cover the whole -inside of boiler with a coating of oil, making as good a protection -against rust as can be found. - -Next, remove all the brass fittings, such as lubricator, steam gauge, -safety valve, injector, check valves, pump valves, gauge cocks, water -gauge, etc., etc. - -Disconnect all pipes where water may lodge, in order to prevent -freezing. Every pipe and valve allowed to freeze will surely burst. -Unscrew all stuffing boxes and remove the packing; for unless this is -done, another season you will find parts badly rusted where the packing -was allowed to remain. - -Take off all cylinder cocks, pet cocks, etc., from the heater and pump. -All fittings should be carefully packed and laid away. Clean the flues -and fire box, also the ash pan, and do not neglect to paint the ash pan -both inside and outside. - -Remove the back cylinder head, roll the engine forward and smear the -inside of cylinder with tallow, or oil if no tallow can be had. Place -the head back again and smear all the bright work, such as piston rod, -connecting rod, etc., with grease. Do not forget to cover top of smoke -stack, to keep out water and snow. - -If the foregoing directions are followed carefully you will find -another season that your engine will be clean, free from rust and ready -to serve you faithfully without any trouble or delay in starting, -either in time or expense. - - -BELTING. - -Do not tax belts by overloading. Keep them free from accumulation of -dust, grease and all animal oils, as these are injurious to both rubber -and leather belts. - -Special care should be taken to protect the edges of rubber belts from -all animal oils, as they are liable to rot the belt. - -Always run the grain (or hair) side of leather belts on the pulley, as -it gives greater driving power, hugs the pulley closer, is less liable -to slip, and will drive 30 per cent. more than the flesh side. - -Rubber belts will be greatly improved and their life prolonged, by -putting on with a brush, and letting it dry, the following mixture: - -Equal parts of black lead and litharge mixed with boiled oil; add -enough Japan to dry it quickly. In case the rubber peels off, the same -mixture can be used. - -In comparison to leather belts, 4-ply rubber is equivalent to a single -leather belt and 6-ply rubber to double leather belt. - -=To find the length of a belt=, add the diameter of the two pulleys -together, divide the result by 2 and multiply the quotient by 3¹/₇; -then add to this product twice the distance between the centers of -shafts. - -=When piecing a belt when pulleys are changed=, multiply the difference -of the diameters of the pulleys by 1½, the product will be the length -of the piece required. - -The seam side of rubber belt should always be placed outside and not -next to pulley. In case the belt slips, coat the side next to pulley -with boiled linseed oil or soap. - -=In lacing a belt=, begin in the center and be careful to keep both -ends exactly in line. Lace both ends equally tight and do not cross -the lace on the pulley side of belt. Great care should be taken that -the ends butting together be cut perfectly square; if not, the belt -will stretch more on one side than the other, which greatly impairs its -worth. - -Q. What is the practical limit of belt speed? - -A. Belts should not be run much over 5000 feet per minute. - -Q. How then is the capacity of a belt affected by its speed? - -A. It varies directly as the speed. A given belt will transmit twice -the horse-power if its speed is doubled within limits. - -Q. Is the capacity of a belt affected by its width? - -A. Yes, the capacity varies directly as the width. If a two inch belt -will transmit one horse-power, two such belts will transmit two horse -power; and this is true whether they are run separately or joined into -a four inch belt. - -To preserve cotton or Gandy belting, apply with a brush a little common -paint to pulley side of belt while running, to be followed shortly -afterwards by a little soft oil or grease to preserve its flexibility. - -If the edges of the belt become frayed from the use of belt guides or -forks, the loose threads may be cut off without injury to the belt. - -If the belt slips at first, consequent to the surface being ruffled by -unrolling, apply a little grease, oil or soap to the pulley side to -make it grip. - -[Illustration: Armington & Sims High Speed Engine.] - - -ARMINGTON & SIMS HIGH SPEED ENGINE. - -The cylinder and steam chest of this engine are cast in one piece and -bolted securely to the engine frame, which forms the front cylinder -head. The cylinder is lagged with mineral wool and jacketed to prevent -radiation, and it is overhanging and self-lining. - -The valve is a hollow piston valve, the body of which is steel -tubing with cast iron ends. It receives its motion from the shaft -governor, attached to one of the band wheels, which regulates the -cut-off automatically according to the variation of load. The steam -is exhausted at each end of the valve by very direct passages which -quickly free the cylinder, preventing back pressure. - -The engine frame is cast heavy and rigid, and contains the locomotive -guides for cross-head and the pillow block bearings for the crank shaft. - -The double disc center crank shafts allow of two small heavy band -wheels being used. - -The base of this engine is cast in one piece, to which the engine frame -is securely bolted, and with this arrangement, the engine needs no -expensive foundation. - -The engine is simple and self-contained, ranging in sizes from 11 to -450 horse-power, and is intended to run at the very high speed of -from two hundred to three hundred and fifty revolutions per minute -according to size, and is used extensively in driving electric lighting -machinery, and where high speed and continuous work is desired. - - -GENERAL INFORMATION. - -_Never condemn an engine_ that is entirely new to you because it does -not start off at your first effort. Study all the directions furnished -by the maker. Perhaps you have overlooked some points that are of more -importance than you imagine. - -The above will apply to other machinery as well as engines. - -_When starting a new engine_ be sure that everything is in readiness. -Turn it over by hand to see that all the revolving and reciprocating -parts run freely. Start it very slowly under steam pressure and apply -plenty of good oil. After it has run a short time and everything is -working properly turn on more steam and continue to do so until the -engine is running at its rated speed. To start it at full speed under -steam pressure may result in great damage or totally destroy the engine. - -_An accurate machine_ which is thoroughly reliable is necessarily -costly, but is of more value than another which merely serves a purpose. - -_Engineers or firemen_ in charge of a steam boiler should blow out the -water gauge and gauge cocks every morning in order to remove the soft -mud which settles in them at night when the boiler is at rest. If this -is neglected, the soft mud may become baked in them which might lead to -disastrous results. - -_Every steam boiler_ for whatever purpose employed, should be opened, -cleaned, thoroughly examined and tested at least every six months, and -with muddy feed water once a week would not be too often. - -_By blowing out_ the gauge cocks regularly you not only ascertain the -height of the water in the boiler, but it prevents them from becoming -choked with sediment or mud. - -_Do not allow_ the gauge cocks, glass water gauge or steam gauge to -become filthy, as it shows lack of care, and furnishes evidence that -the engineer who is not particular in this part of his duty is not -reliable in others of equal or more importance. - -_Upon entering_ the boiler room in the morning an engineer or fireman -should always ascertain whether the valves or cocks which connect the -water gauge with the boiler are open or shut, otherwise he may be -deceived by the appearance of the water in the tube. This precaution -should never be neglected. - -_If an engineer or fireman discovers_ that there is too much water in -the boiler he should blow it down to the proper level, but in doing so -he must exercise judgment, vigilance and care, especially if there is a -fire in the furnace. - -_Never allow the gauge cocks_ to leak at all when it is practicable to -repair them, for the longer they leak the more difficult they are to -repair, as under the escape of water or steam the metal wastes rapidly. - -_An engineer or fireman_ should often remove the ashes from under the -boiler, or from ash pan; if allowed to accumulate, they retard the -draft and interfere with combustion, thereby causing waste of fuel and -interfere with the evaporating efficiency of the boiler. Also keep -grates clear of clinkers; for if allowed to accumulate, they produce -the same result. - -_Should it become necessary_ to blow down the water at intervals, the -engineer or fireman should stand by the blow-off cock and not allow his -attention to be diverted to anything else, as in a very short space of -time the water may become so low as to induce stoppage or endanger the -safety of the boiler. - -_Engineers should_ always be cautious when they stop or start an engine -with a heavy pressure of steam in the boiler, as the vent given to the -steam when starting, and the check it receives when stopping, may exert -such a pressure as to strain, crack, or rupture the boiler. - -_The drip cocks_ in the cylinder should be left open when the engine is -standing still, and they should not be closed until after the engine -has been started and made several strokes or revolutions. - -_Do not open the throttle valve_ to its full extent in starting after -the engine has been standing over night, as the quantity of steam -condensed by being brought in contact with the cold pipe (particularly -if it is a long one) may result in breaking the follower plate, -springing the piston rod, or knocking out the cylinder head. - -_After opening the gauge cocks_ to ascertain the height of water in the -boiler, they should be closed tightly to prevent leakage. - -_It may have been discovered_ that when gauge cocks are closed after -being blown out, they leak badly; this is often due to the fact that -mud or sand has become attached to the seat of the valve. The easiest -way to remedy this difficulty is to open the cocks and let them blow -out for some time, as the friction of the water in its escape will in -all probability remove the obstacle. - -_Glass water gauges_ may be cleansed by removing the glass; then tying -a piece of cotton waste or lamp wicking to a splint of wood, applying -soap or acetic acid, and passing it through the inside of the tube; -then replace the glass, and when steam is raised close the lower valve, -open the drip cock, and the steam blowing through will wash the glass -perfectly. - -_To cut a glass gauge tube._—If a glass gauge is too long, take a -three-cornered file and wet it, hold the tube in the left hand with -the thumb and fore-finger at the place where you wish to cut, saw it -quickly and lightly two or three times with the edge of the file, and -it will mark the glass. Now, take the tube in both hands, both thumbs -being on opposite sides of the mark and about an inch apart, then try -to bend the glass, using your thumbs as fulcrums and it will break at -the mark which has weakened the tube. - -_Never touch_ the inside of the water gauge glass with iron or wire, as -while the glass may be cut on the outside with a file, the slightest -touch of steel or iron on the inside will cause an abrasion, the result -of which is that the glass will crack and become useless. - -_Water gauge glasses_ frequently break because the steam and water -connections are not in line, because the stuffing boxes are screwed -down too tight, and sometimes in cold weather when struck by a cold -draught of air admitted through an open door or window. - -_An engineer or fireman should_ never fill a boiler with cold -water while the boiler is hot, as the injurious effect produced by -contraction is similar to that produced by blowing out at a high -pressure, and if persisted in will result in permanent injury to the -boiler. - -_Exhaust steam will heat_ water to 212° Fahr. under atmospheric -pressure. - -_Ten degrees extra heat_ in feed water means one per cent. saving in -fuel. - -_Before blowing out the boiler_ the engineer or fireman should remove -all the fire from the furnace, as a small quantity left in the corners, -or attached to the bridge wall, might spring a seam or cause a plate to -bulge. - -_Every engineer should know_ that unequal expansion and contraction -is one of the evils which limit the longevity and endanger the safety -of all classes of steam boilers; consequently the blowing out, the -refilling, the starting of fires and the regulation of the draught -should be done with judgment. - -_It is not necessary_ to fill a boiler with cold water above the second -gauge cock, as the water expands under the process of the formation of -steam and it will be found that there is a sufficiency of water in the -boiler when steam is raised. - -_Single riveted seams_ are equal to 56% of the original strength of the -sheet; double riveted seams are equal to 70%, and triple riveted seams -are equal to 85%. Triple riveted seams, however, are very seldom used -unless for some special purpose, as they are too heavy and thick, and -would burn out rapidly if exposed to fire. - -_In making calculations_ on the strength of boilers, the factor 56 -should be employed instead of 100, as 44% of the strength of the plate -is lost by punching the holes for the rivets. - -_It should be understood_ that machine riveted seams in steam boilers -are superior to hand made seams, as the machine thoroughly upsets the -rivet and brings the two sheets in such close contact as to produce -friction between the sheets at the lap, which of itself is an element -of strength. - -_Boilers do not improve_ by standing idle; they will rust very rapidly. - -_Never use sharp chisels_ to cut the scale from boiler plate, as the -cutting of the plate does more harm than good. Use only a light hammer. - -_In patching a boiler_ be careful not to make a pocket in which -sediment may collect to cause another injury to the sheet and never put -a steel patch upon an iron boiler as the two metals expanding unequally -will induce trouble. - -_Never forget_ to allow for expansion when running long lines of steam -pipe, whether for heating or power, as the neglect of this precaution -leads to the formation of immense crooks or bends in the line of pipe -wonderful to behold. There must be a slip joint somewhere in long lines -of steam piping, unless expansion is allowed for. - -_Valves stick_ on their seats because they are frequently shut when -cold, and when heated by the steam the valve stem becomes lengthened, -and presses the valve hard into the seat. - -[Illustration: Geiser Traction Engine—Right Side.] - - -GEISER TRACTION ENGINE. - -The cut opposite represents the right side of the Peerless, Side Crank, -Rear Gear Traction Engine. - -The main engine frame is of the girder pattern, and contains the guides -and pillow block bearing. It also forms the front cylinder head, -to which the cylinder is bolted. The cylinder is overhanging, and -connected to the long feed water heater by the exhaust pipe. - -The valve is of the piston type. The reverse gear is the Landis Patent -Reverse and Variable Cut-off. It has the Cross-head Pump connected with -a long Feed Water Heater, Governor, Injector, and the locomotive style -of boiler swings in an iron frame, to which it is attached, and rests -upon springs at both back and front ends. - -The smoke stack is water lined, and traction wheels have wrought iron -rims with high grouters and wood spokes. The platform has two steel -tanks for water and tools, and the steering wheel and band wheel are on -opposite sides of the engine. - -_Slide valves should be fitted_ to their seats by filing and scraping, -and never by the use of emery and oil. The piston rod and valve rod may -be packed with braids of hemp or cotton wicking, with rings cut from -patent packing of various kinds or metallic packing. - -_To clean brass articles_ with acid is a great mistake, as with such -treatment they very soon become dull. Sweet oil and putty powder -followed by soap and water, is one of the best mediums for brightening -brass and copper. - -_To frost brass work_ and give it an ornamental finish, boil the -article in caustic potash, rinse in clean water and dip in nitric acid -until all oxide is removed; then wash quickly, dry in box-wood sawdust, -and lacquer while warm. - -_The best material_ for grinding in valves and stop cocks is pulverized -glass. It is superior to emery for this purpose. Fine sand may be used. - -_To remedy a leaky_ angle, check or globe valve, it should be taken -apart, and the valves ground to fit their seats properly with either -fine sand, pulverized glass or emery. - -_A lever stuck_ between the spokes of the fly-wheel of an engine for -the purpose of starting it, is a very dangerous instrument, it is -liable to get caught and do a great amount of damage. If a lever is to -be used, be sure that the steam is first turned off. - -_A cubic inch of water_ evaporated under ordinary atmospheric pressure -is converted into one cubic foot of steam (approximately). - -_Steam at atmospheric pressure_ flows into a vacuum at the rate of -about 1550 feet per second, and into the atmosphere at the rate of 650 -feet per second. - -_Condensing engines require_ from 20 to 30 gallons of water -to condense the steam represented by every gallon of water -evaporated—approximately; for most engines we say from 1 to 1½ gallons -per minute per indicated horse-power. Jet condensers do not require -quite as much water for condensing as surface condensers. Surface -condensers require about 2 square feet of tube (cooling) surface per -horse-power of steam engine. - -_The best designed boilers_ well set, with good draught and skillful -firing, will evaporate from 7 to 10 lbs. of water per pound of -first-class coal. The average result is from 25 to 60 per cent. below -this. - -_When you have_ your boiler furnace to repair, and cannot get fire -clay, take common earth mixed with water, in which you have dissolved a -little salt; use same as fire clay, and your furnace will last fully as -long. - -_To make iron take bright polish_ like steel, pulverize and dissolve -the following articles in one quart of hot water: Blue vitriol 1 oz., -borax 1 oz., prussiate of potash 1 oz., charcoal 1 oz., salt 7½ pt.; -then add one gallon of linseed oil, mix well, bring your iron or steel -to the proper heat, and cool in the solution. - -_To write inscriptions on metal_, take 4 oz. of nitric acid and 1 oz. -of muriatic acid, mix and shake well together, then cover your metal -surface to be engraved, with bees-wax or soap, write your inscription -plainly in the wax clear to the metal, then apply the mixed acids, -carefully filling each letter. Let it remain from three to five minutes -according to appearance desired, then throw on water, which stops the -etching process, scrape off the bees-wax or soap, and the inscription -is complete. - -_To remove rust from steel._—Brush the rusted steel with a paste -composed of ½ oz. cyanide potassium, ½ oz. castile soap, 1 oz. -whiting, and enough water to make a paste; then wash the steel in a -solution of ½ oz. cyanide potassium and 2 oz. of water. - -_A solvent for rust._—It is often very difficult, and sometimes -impossible, to remove rust from articles made of iron. Those which are -most thickly coated are most easily cleaned by being immersed in, or -saturated with, a solution of chloride of tin. The length of time they -should remain in this bath is determined by the thickness of the rust, -generally twelve to twenty-four hours is long enough. The solution -ought not to contain a great excess of acid if the iron itself be -not attacked. On taking them from the bath, the articles are rinsed -first in water, then in ammonia, and quickly dried. The iron when thus -treated has the appearance of dull silver; a simple polishing gives it -its normal appearance. - -_One of the best varnishes_ for smoke stacks or steam pipes is good -asphaltum dissolved in oil of turpentine. - -_Iron or steel immersed_ warm in a solution of carbonate of soda -(washing soda) for a few minutes will not rust. - -_Cement to fasten iron to stone._—Take 10 parts of fine iron filings, -30 parts of plaster of Paris, and ½ part of sal ammoniac; mix with -weak vinegar to a fluid paste and apply at once. - -_Cement for joints._—Paris white, ground, 4 lbs.; litharge, ground, 10 -lbs.; yellow ochre, fine, ½ lb.; ½ oz. of hemp, cut short; mix well -together with linseed oil to a stiff putty. This cement is good for -joints on steam or water pipes; it will set under water. - -_The average consumption of coal_ for steam boilers is 12 pounds per -hour for each square foot of grate surface. - -_One ton of coal_ is equivalent to two cords of wood for steam purposes. - -_Doubling the diameter_ of a pipe increases its capacity four times. - -_A cubic foot_ of water contains 7½ gallons. - -_A gallon weighs_ 8⅓ pounds. - -_Water expands_ ¹/₉ of its bulk in freezing. - -_Ice weighs_ 56½ pounds per cubic foot. - -_Engineers can judge_ of the condition of their machinery by the tone -it gives out while running. Every make of engine has a peculiar tone -of its own. The engineer becomes accustomed to that, and any departure -from it at once excites a suspicion that all is not right. The engineer -may not know what is the matter, he may have no ear for music, but the -change in tone of his machine will be instantly perceptible and will -start him upon an immediate investigation. - -_An Indicator_ is an instrument used to determine the indicated -horse-power of an engine; it shows the action of the steam in the -cylinder and serves as a guide in setting valves to get the greatest -amount of energy from the steam used. - -_Atmospheric pressure_ is the weight of the air. - -_To take lime from injector tubes_, mix one part muriatic acid and ten -parts soft water. Immerse tube in this mixture over night. - -_Compound for Cooling Heavy Bearings._—For cooling heavy pillow block -bearings, or the steps of upright shafts, the following will be found -very valuable: Four pounds of tallow, one-half pound of sugar of lead, -three-fourths pound plumbago. When the tallow is melted (not boiling) -add sugar of lead and let it dissolve; then put in the plumbago, and -stir the whole mass until cold. - -_A mixture_ of soft soap and black lead makes an excellent lubricant -for gears, as it lessens the abrasion and noise and has the advantage -over tallow of not becoming hard. It is also easily removed should it -become necessary to clean the parts on which it has been used. - -_The axles and axle arms_ of a traction engine should be well greased -or oiled before moving, to prevent them from being cut and wearing both -hub and axle rapidly. - - -WORKSHOP RECIPES. - -LOAM.—Mixture of brick, clay and old foundry sand. - -PARTING SAND.—Burnt sand scraped from the surface of castings. - -BLACK WASH.—Charcoal, plumbago and size. - -BLACKENING FOR MOLDS.—Charcoal powder, or in some instances fine coal -dust. - -MIXTURE FOR WELDING STEEL.—One part sal ammoniac, ten parts borax, -pounded together and fused until clear. Then it is poured out and after -cooling, reduce to powder. - -RUST-JOINT CEMENT.—(Quickly setting.) One part sal ammoniac in powder -(by weight), two parts flour of sulphur, eighty parts iron borings, -made into a paste with water. - -RUST JOINT.—(Slowly setting.) Two parts sal ammoniac, one part flour of -sulphur, 200 parts iron borings. The latter cement is the best if the -joint is not required for immediate use. - -RED LEAD CEMENT FOR FACE JOINTS.—One part white lead, one part red -lead, mixed with linseed oil to the proper consistency. - -CASE HARDENING.—Place horn, hoof, bone dust, or shreds of leather, -together with the article to be case hardened, in an iron box; subject -to blood red heat, then immerse the article in cold water. - -CASE HARDENING WITH PRUSSIATE OF POTASH.—Heat the article, after -polishing, to a bright red; rub the surface over with prussiate of -potash; allow it to cool to dull red, and immerse it in water. - -CASE HARDENING MIXTURES.—Three parts of prussiate of potash, one part -sal ammoniac; or, one part of prussiate of potash, two parts sal -ammoniac and two parts bone dust. - -GLUE TO RESIST MOISTURE.—One pound of glue, melted in two quarts of -skim-milk. - -MARINE GLUE.—One part of India rubber, twelve parts mineral naphtha or -coal tar. Heat gently, mix, and add twenty parts of powdered shellac. -Pour out on a slab to cool. Heat to about 250 degrees and it is ready -for use. - -GLUE CEMENT TO RESIST MOISTURE.—One part glue, one part black rosin, -¼ part red ochre, mixed with the least possible quantity of water; or, -four parts of glue; or, one part oxide of iron, one part of boiled oil -(by weight). - - -BABBITTING BOXES. - -When the babbitt in a box is badly worn, and needs re-babbitting, -remove the cap, take out the shaft and chip all the old babbitt out of -both box and cap; then replace the shaft in the box, and line it up -perfectly level and square by putting liners in between the shaft and -the edges of the box; then put stiff putty around the shaft and against -the box at both ends, to prevent the babbitt from running out; then -heat the babbitt metal until it runs freely, and pour it into the box -until it is full; then put on the cap, and place about the same amount -of liners between its ends and the top of the shaft as was put under -the shaft, with long liners of sheet iron or tin extending from one end -to the other of the box, parallel with and on both sides of the shaft; -then put putty around the shaft and against the cap at both ends; heat -the metal again, and pour it in through the oil hole. After it is cool, -remove the cap and liners, drill out the oil hole and replace the cap, -being careful to put just enough liners under it so that the box will -be tight and still have the shaft run cool. - - -COMPOUND ENGINES. - -The Compound Engine dates from the year 1781, when Hornblower, a -contemporary of Watt, conceived the idea of utilizing the force in the -exhaust steam of the simple engine in a second cylinder. - -From his crude design, the constant progress of experiment has -developed the marvelous engines now used in ocean steamers, and in both -large and small power plants, also on locomotives. Some of the compound -engines built in the early part of the century show results, according -to the records, not far behind the best attainable in modern times. - -The era of the Compound locomotive engine began in Europe in 1876, but -in this country half a dozen years would almost cover its history. - -However, in this short time, its advantages in putting to profitable -use the entire force of the steam supplied, has been so clearly shown, -that it has evidently come to stay. Its availability as an efficient, -economical, powerful high speed locomotive, demonstrates the value of -the Compound as a farm traction engine, and makes it plain that it will -be extremely serviceable on this class of engines. - -The Compound Traction Engines belonging to the class known as the -“Woolf,” or continuous expansion type, are so constructed that the -steam passes directly from the high pressure to the low pressure -cylinder without the intervention of any receiving chamber or steam -chest. This arrangement is considered much better adapted to traction -engine work, and to produce superior results under the varying -conditions of this class of work than the “cross” compound, or what -is generally styled the “receiver” type of compound engines, in which -the high pressure cylinder exhausts into a receiver connected with the -steam chest of the low pressure cylinder. - -In the Woolf Compound as constructed, the cylinders are either cast -in one piece, end to end, or cast separately and bolted together in -substantially the same way, in order that perfect alignment can be -secured by boring both cylinders at the same operation. This makes it -not only easy to get them in line at the start, but it prevents any -possibility of their getting out of line, which is a very important -feature. - -The pistons of both cylinders are upon the one rod, thus requiring -only one cross-head, connecting rod and crank. There is but one steam -chest, in which a valve is placed, with such relation to the valve -seat which contain the ports leading to both cylinders, that it -performs the double function of first admitting the steam to the high -pressure cylinder, cutting off the admission at the proper time to -allow expansion to take place there, and after high pressure piston has -reached the end of its stroke, passing on the steam to the low pressure -cylinder, where it is further expanded and exhausted in the usual -manner after its work is done. - -The valve is specially designed with cavities so arranged as to -co-operate in increasing the area of opening to double the amount -obtainable with an ordinary valve having the same travel. - -Without some special provision, the full power of the compound engine -cannot be exerted in starting, as the steam operates primarily on the -high pressure piston only, which has led to the condemnation of the -compound as a traction engine. This objection has been thoroughly -overcome in the Woolf by means of a “converting valve,” rendering -it possible to admit steam directly to the large or low pressure -cylinder, thus largely increasing the power obtainable from the -engine, even when exerting its maximum power as a compound. This -arrangement can be used not only in starting, but also in cases of -emergency, such as climbing steep hills, getting out of bad places on -the road, or disposing of an especially tough cut in sawing, etc. - -Without increasing the boiler pressure beyond that ordinarily used, the -compound engine gets fully one-third more force out of the steam used -than is at present obtainable with the simple engine as commonly worked. - -In other words, the compound will show results compared favorably with -a good condensing simple stationary engine doing the same work. - -[Illustration: Ball Tandem Compound Engine.] - - -BALL TANDEM COMPOUND ENGINE. - -The heavy case iron base is cast in two sections, the rear part being -securely bolted to the front section. To the front section is also -bolted the main engine frame. This frame contains the bar guides for -the cross-head, and pillow block bearing for the double disc crank -shaft, and also forms the front head for the low pressure cylinder, -which is securely bolted to it. - -The high pressure cylinder is attached to the low pressure cylinder by -two brackets securely bolted, and is supported by a pedestal, bolted -to the rear part of base. By this arrangement, both the high and low -pressure pistons are upon the same piston rod, which necessitates of -but one cross-head, connecting rod and crank. - -The valve of the high pressure cylinder is operated and completely -under the control of the automatic shaft governor attached to one of -the band wheels, while the valve of the low pressure cylinder receives -its motion from a single eccentric on crank shaft at opposite side of -engine. - -When engine is running, the steam enters the high pressure cylinder -first, and after performing its work there, exhausts through the -receiver pipe into the low pressure cylinder, and there exerts its -minimum force by expansion, and passes out to the condenser, if used, -or exhausts into the open air. - - - - -EXAMINATION OF ENGINEERS APPLYING FOR A LICENSE. - - -QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS. - -Q. How long have you run an engine? - -Q. Have you done your own firing? - -Q. What kinds of engines have you run? - -Q. What would be your first duty if called upon to take charge of an -engine? - -A. To ascertain the exact condition of the boiler and all its -attachments, such as safety valve, steam gauge, water gauge and cocks, -pump, injector, blow-off valve, etc.; also the engine. - -Q. How often would you blow off your boiler? - -A. Once a week or month, according to the condition of feed water used. - -Q. How many feet of heating surface is allowed per horse-power by -builders of boilers? - -A. From 12 to 15 square feet for flue and tubular boilers. - -Q. How much steam pressure will be allowed on a boiler 40 inch -diameter, ⅜ thick, 60,000 pounds T. S., ⅛ T. S. factor of safety? - -A. One-sixth of tensile strength of plate multiplied by thickness of -plate, divided by one-half of the diameter of boiler gives safe working -pressure. - -Q. How do you estimate the strength of a boiler? - -A. By its diameter and thickness of material, single or double riveted. - -Q. Which is the stronger, single or double riveted? - -A. Double riveted is from 14 to 18 per cent. stronger than single. - -Q. What is the use of a mud drum on a boiler? - -A. To collect all the sediment from the water used in the boiler. - -Q. What causes sediment to accumulate in boilers? - -A. The use of impure or muddy water. - -Q. How often should it be blown out? - -A. Three or four times a day. - -A. How much grate surface do boiler makers allow per horse-power? - -A. About two-thirds of a square foot. - -Q. What is the steam dome of a boiler used for? - -A. For dry steam to collect in. - -Q. Of what use is a safety valve on a boiler? - -A. To prevent overpressure. - -Q. What is your duty with reference to it? - -A. Open it once or twice a day to see that it is in good order. - -Q. Of what use is a check valve? - -A. To prevent the water in boiler from returning into the pump or -injector. - -Q. What effect has cold water on hot boiler plates? - -A. It will fracture them. - -Q. How should the gauge cocks be located on a boiler? - -A. So that the lowest gauge cock is about 1½ inches above the top row -of flues. - -Q. Where should the blow-off valve be located? - -A. At the bottom of the fire box in locomotive style of boiler, or in -the mud drum when used. - -Q. How would you have check valve arranged? - -A. With a stop cock between the boiler and check valve. - -Q. Does a man-hole in the top shell of boiler weaken it? - -A. Yes, to a certain extent. - -Q. How many valves in a common plunger pump? - -A. Two, a receiving and a discharge valve. - -Q. How are they situated? - -A. One at suction, the other at discharge end. - -Q. How do you find the proper size of safety valve for boiler? - -A. Two square feet of grate surface is allowed for one inch area of -common lever valve, or three square feet of surface to one inch area of -spring valve. - -Q. Why do pumps fail to work at times? - -A. Leak in the suction, leak around the plunger, leaky check valve, or -valve out of order. - -Q. Why do injectors fail to work at times? - -A. Leak in suction, grit or dirt under seat of valve, or valve not -seated properly. - -Q. How often should a boiler be examined and tested? - -A. Twice a year at least. - -Q. How would you test a boiler? - -A. By tapping it with a light hammer, and hydrostatic test, using warm -water. - -Q. Where does the feed water enter the boiler? - -A. Below the water level, where the feed water will not strike the -heated plates. - -Q. What causes priming of boilers? - -A. Too high water, not steam space enough, dirty feed water, -misconstruction of boiler, or engine being too large for its capacity. - -Q. How can you keep boilers clean or remove scale from them? - -A. By regularly cleaning them thoroughly, and by the use of compounds. - -Q. If you found a thin plate in your boiler what would you do? - -A. Patch it on the inside, first cutting out the damaged part. - -Q. Why cut out the damaged part of sheet, when putting on a patch? - -A. To allow the water to rest against the patch to protect it from the -intense heat. - -Q. What would be the result if the damaged part of sheet was not cut -out? - -A. The water not coming in contact with the patch, it would soon bulge -from the heat and crack. - -Q. Why patch it on the inside? - -A. Because the action that has weakened the plate before will act upon -the patch, when this is worn it can be replaced. - -Q. If you found you had to put on several patches what would you do? - -A. Reduce the steam pressure. - -Q. If you found a blister what would you do? - -A. Cut it out and put a patch on the fire side. - -Q. If you found a plate buckled or sagged what would you do? - -A. Put a stay bolt through the center of the sag. - -Q. What would you do with a cracked plate? - -A. Cut out the damaged part and put a patch over it. - -Q. How would you change the water in a boiler when steam is up? - -A. By supplying more feed water and opening the surface blow-off at -short intervals. - -Q. When blowing off a boiler, would you leave the blow-off cock to -attend to other work? - -A. Never. - -Q. What would you do to relieve the pressure on the boiler if the -safety valve was stuck and steam constantly rising? - -A. Cover the fire with coal or ashes, close draught door and open -damper in smoke box; work off the steam with the engine and when boiler -has cooled down put the safety valve in working order. - -Q. What may be the result if you allow the water in the boiler to get -low? - -A. Burning of the crown sheet and flues and perhaps cause an explosion. - -Q. Would you turn feed water into a boiler in which the water was very -low? - -A. Never, without first pulling the fire or covering it with dry ashes -and allowing the steam to go down. - -Q. If you allow water in the boiler to get too high what would be the -result? - -A. It would cause priming or foaming. - -Q. Is priming or foaming dangerous to an engine? - -A. Yes. It may cause breaking of cylinder head and wrecking of the -engine. - -Q. What are other causes for foaming or priming of a boiler? - -A. Dirty and impure water. - -A. W. STEVENS TRACTION ENGINE. - -The position of the side crank engine upon the boiler allows of having -the Rear Gear traction attachment. - -The Engine frame, guides for cross-head, cylinder, steam chest, -saddles, brackets and both pillow block bearings for crank shaft are -cast in one piece and bolted to the boiler. - -The frame is cast oval, and cross-head guides are of the locomotive -style. - -The Engine is furnished with a Friction Clutch, a specially designed -Reversing Gear, Governor, Marsh steam pump, Injector; and is mounted -upon an open bottom fire box locomotive boiler, with ash pan under fire -box and dome at rear end. - -The boiler is mounted upon the traction wheels by brackets bolted to -the rear end, which contain the boxes for the main axle and cross shaft. - -The traction wheels are of the cast iron rim type, with spokes cast in -both rim and hub. - -The steering wheel and band wheel are on opposite sides of boiler, and -both engine and boiler are supplied with all necessary fittings. - -[Illustration: A. W. Stevens Traction Engine.] - -Q. How would you stop foaming? - -A. Close the throttle long enough to show the true level of water. If -the level of the water is sufficiently high, feeding and blowing off -will usually correct the difficulty. - -Q. What would you do if you discovered the water gone from sight in the -water glass? - -A. Pull the fire or cover it over with dry ashes, and allow the boiler -to cool off as quickly as possible; and would not open or close any of -the steam outlets. - -Q, What is a traction engine? - -A. A traction engine is an engine the power of which is transmitted to -the driving or ground wheels by a combination of gearing. - -Q. What is an exhaust pipe? - -A. The pipe through which the exhaust steam escapes from cylinder to -smoke stack. - -Q. What is the feed pipe? - -A. The pipe through which the feed water passes from pump or injector -to the boiler. - -Q. What is the steam pipe? - -A. The pipe through which steam is taken from the dome to the steam -chest. - -Q. What is a pet cock? - -A. A small cock used in check valves, pipes and places where draining -off water is necessary to prevent freezing. - -Q. What is clearance in a steam cylinder? - -A. It is the space between the cylinder head and piston head when the -latter is at end of the stroke. - -Q. What is “cushion” in a steam cylinder? - -A. Cushion is the compression of steam let in through the lead of the -valve in the clearance of the cylinder, and is for the purpose of -catching the weight of the piston and rod, cross-head and connecting -rod when the engine reaches the end of each stroke. It also keeps the -engine from pounding. - -Q. How much water would you blow off at any one time while running? - -A. Never blow off more than one gauge. - -Q. What are your general views regarding boiler explosions? - -A. The greatest causes are from ignorance, carelessness and neglect. - -Q. What precaution should you take if necessary to stop with a heavy -fire in the furnace? - -A. Close the draught door, and put the injector or pump at work. - -Q. What is the proper height to carry water in the boiler? - -A. About 2½ inches above top row of flues. - -Q. At what pressure should you blow off a boiler? - -A. At a pressure not to exceed ten pounds. - -Q. If you wished to increase the power of an engine what would you do? - -A. Increase its speed or get higher steam pressure. - -Q. How do you find the horse-power of an engine? - -A. Multiply the speed of piston travel in feet per minute by the total -effective pressure upon the piston in pounds, and divide the product by -33,000. - -Q. What is meant by “brass bound”? - -A. Brass bound means that the half brasses touch each other and cannot -be driven up any closer by the key. - -Q. How would you remedy a brass bound box on crank-pin or wrist-pin? - -A. Take off the boxes and file off the top and bottom edges, being -careful not to take off too much. - -Q. Does a perfect fitting or an imperfect fitting valve have the most -friction? - -A. An imperfect fitting one. - -Q. How would you refit an imperfect fitting or leaky valve? - -A. It should be re-faced on a planer or filed and scraped until it fits -seat perfectly tight. - -Q. How is a steam engine rated? - -A. By amount of horse-power developed. - -Q. What is a foot-pound? - -A. One pound of force exerted through one foot of space. - -Q. How many foot-pounds are required to lift 100 pounds one foot? - -A. One hundred. - -Q. How many foot-pounds required to lift one pound 100 feet? - -A. One hundred. - -Q. To lift 110 pounds through 300 feet how many foot-pounds required? - -A. 300 × 110 = 33,000 foot-pounds. - -Q. Would that equal one horse-power? - -A. Yes, if done in one minute. - -Q. Suppose it took two minutes? - -A. Then there would be only half a horse-power, or 33,000 ÷ 2 = 16,500 -foot-pounds per minute. - -Q. Is it correct to say “horse-power per minute” or “horse-power per -hour”? - -A. No. When an engine is working at the rate of 10 horse-power, it is -doing 10 horse-power all the time. It is an error to assume that such -an engine is doing 10 horse-power per minute, and 10 × 60 equals 600 -horse-power per hour. When it is said that an engine uses 20 pounds of -steam per horse-power per hour, it is meant that this amount of steam -is used per hour for each horse-power developed. - -Q. How is the foot-pounds of work done by a steam engine, found? - -A. Multiply the average pressure per square inch during the stroke by -the number of square inches in the piston, and by the number of feet -through which the piston has moved. - -Q. What do you understand by the “mean effective pressure”? - -A. The mean pressure is the average pressure pushing the piston through -the stroke, which is about one-third the pressure in the boiler. There -is generally some back pressure working against it, therefore the -“effective” pressure is only the difference between the two. It can -only be determined accurately by measurements from an indicator diagram. - -Q. What is a single acting engine? - -A. An engine in which the steam acts on one side of the piston only. - -Q. How do you find the “piston’s speed”? - -A. On double acting engines, multiply the stroke in inches by two and -by the number of revolutions per minute and divide by 12. - -Q. Why multiply the stroke in inches by 2? - -A. Because in double acting engines there are two working strokes to -each revolution. - -Q. Why do you divide by 12? - -A. To reduce the inches to feet. - -Q. How is the “piston’s speed” of a single acting engine found? - -A. Multiply the stroke in inches by the revolutions per minute and -divide by 12. - -Q. What is the horse-power developed by an engine, say 12 × 24 inch, -running 125 revolutions per minute, with 40 pounds mean effective -pressure? - - A. Area = 12 × 12 × .7854 = 113.0976 sq. ins. - - Piston speed = 24 × 2 × 125 ÷ 12 = 500 feet per minute. - - M. E. P. = 40 lbs. - - Then (113.0976 × 500 × 40) - ————————————————————— = 68.544 H. P. - 33000 - -Q. What is a single valve engine? - -A. It is an engine in which a single valve controls the admission and -distribution of steam to both ends of the cylinder, or a common slide -valve engine. - -Q. What is a four valve engine? - -A. An engine which has separate steam and exhaust valves for each end -both top and bottom of cylinder, such as a Corliss engine. - -Q. Into what three classes are engines divided with reference to the -manner in which they are governed? - -A. Throttling engines, Automatic cut-off and Governor engines. - -Q. What is an Automatic cut-off engine? - -A. An engine in which the amount of steam supplied is automatically cut -off at various points in the stroke, in accordance with the load and -pressure. In Throttling engines the volume admitted is constant and the -pressure varied. In Automatic cut-off engines, steam is admitted at -the highest available pressure, and the volume is varied to meet the -requirements of the load. In Governor engines, the steam is admitted -and cut off by the governor. - -Q. What is a throttle governed engine? - -A. An engine in which the amount of steam supplied is regulated by -changing the pressure at which it enters the cylinder in accordance -with the variation of the load. - -Q. What is a Governor engine? - -A. An engine in which the supply of steam is regulated by the governor. - -Q. Into what classes may the Automatic cut-off engine be divided? - -A. Into two classes: The four valve engine, in which the cut-off is -usually effected by a detaching mechanism or trip under the control of -the governor; the single valve engine, in which the point of cut-off is -varied by changing the amount of travel of the valve. - -Q. Give examples of the single valve type. - -A. High speed, self-contained engines which have shaft governors. - -Q. What are their advantages? - -A. High rotative speed, compactness, portability, light weight and -simplicity. - -Q. Are they more economical than the four valve engine? - -A. No; the four valve engines are the more economical. - -Q. Give a prominent example of the four valve engine. - -A. The Reynold’s Corliss. - -Q. What is meant by an engine running “over”? - -A. The top of the drive wheel running away from the cylinder. - -Q. What is meant by an engine running “under”? - -A. The top of the drive wheel running towards the cylinder. - -Q. Which way are engines generally run? - -A. “Over.” - -Q. What advantages do engines have in running “over”? - -A. The pressure of the cross-head on engines running over, is always -downward upon the guides; for when the pressure is on the head end -of the piston, the pressure against the connecting rod which is -pointing upward, reacts by pressing the cross-head down upon the lower -guide, and when the pressure is on the crank end of the cylinder, the -cross-head will be dragging the crank, and as the crank is below the -center line, it will pull the cross-head down upon the lower guide, -while if the engine is running under, the pressure of the cross-head -will be upon the top guide, both on the outward and inward strokes, and -unless the cross-head is nicely adjusted to its guides and the guides -are perfectly parallel, the cross-head will be lifted when subjected -to thrust, and will fall on the center by its own weight, causing the -engine to pound. - -Q. At what point in the stroke is the pressure on the cross-head -greatest with a uniform pressure in the cylinder? - -A. When the crank is at right angles to the guide. - -Q. How does the relative length of the connecting rod affect this -pressure? - -A. The longer the connecting rod as compared with the crank, the less -will be the pressure on the guides. - -Q. What is the usual ratio of connecting rod to crank? - -A. The connecting rod is from four to six times the length of the crank. - -Q. Are there any objections to a long connecting rod? - -A. A long connecting rod makes a long engine, and makes extra cost in -the bed or frame and the room occupied. The longer rod is heavier, and -brings extra weight upon the cross-head, guides and crank-pin. The long -rod also lacks stiffness unless excessively heavy. - -Q. What determines the length of the crank? - -A. The stroke. - -Q. What limits the stroke? - -A. The piston’s speed limits the length of stroke allowable with a -given rotative speed, or the number of revolutions per minute with a -given stroke. - -Q. What is the practical limit of piston’s speed? - -A. Engines of from four to six foot stroke can run at from seven to -eight hundred feet piston’s speed per minute. Those of shorter stroke -should not run over six hundred feet. - -Q. Why do high speed engines have a short stroke in comparison with the -diameter of their cylinders? - -A. So that they can run at a high rate of speed without exceeding the -limit of piston’s travel. - -Q. What is the office of the fly-wheel? - -A. It maintains a uniformity of motion of the crank, notwithstanding -the unequal moving force upon the crank-pin. - -Q. Is the force upon the crank-pin unequal, even when the pressure from -the cylinder is uniform throughout the stroke? - -A. Yes. No matter what the pressure on the piston is, it has no effect -in turning the engine when the crank is in line with the guides, which -is termed “on the center.” As the crank gets away from the centers, the -effect of a given pressure becomes greater, and reaches its maximum -when the crank is nearly at right angles with the guides. - -Q. How does the fly-wheel counteract the jerky motion of the crank -which would result from this? - -A. By its tendency to resist an excessive moving force, and by its -momentum keeps the engine in motion when the moving force is deficient. - -Q. What would you do if the cylinder gets worn or cut from too tight -rings or lack of oil? - -A. Rebore the cylinder. - -Q. What would you do if the crank-pin heats, gets worn or cut? - -A. If bent it should be turned true again; if not bent it can be filed -and polished perfectly true by hand. - -Q. What would you do if the main bearings heat? - -A. Loosen the caps and apply plenty of good oil. If this does not stop -it take off the caps, examine the oil holes to ascertain why the oil -does not reach the bearing. If the bearings have become rough and cut, -the shaft will have to be smoothed again. - -Q. Would any harm result from starting an engine with the drip cocks -closed? - -A. Yes, the condensed steam filling the space would smash the cylinder -or piston head. - -Q. What do you mean by atmospheric pressure? - -A. The weight of the atmosphere, which is 14.7 lbs. per square inch at -sea level. - -Q. How hot can you get water with exhaust steam under atmospheric -pressure? - -A. 212° Fahr. - -Q. Does atmospheric pressure have any influence on the boiling point? - -A. It does. - -Q. Would you run an engine with throttle wide open, or partly open? - -A. Wide open on governor engines, as it is more economical. - -Q. How many pounds of water required per horse-power for the best -engines? - -A. From 25 to 30 pounds. - -Q. At what temperature has iron the greatest tensile strength? - -A. About 600 degrees. - -Q. How much water is consumed (in pounds) per hour per indicated horse -power? - -A. From 25 to 60 pounds. - -Q. How much steam will be evaporated from one cubic inch of water under -atmospheric pressure? - -A. About one cubic foot, approximately. - -Q. How much coal is consumed per hour per indicated horse-power? - -A. From two to seven pounds. - -Q. How much does one cubic foot of fresh water weigh? - -A. 62½ pounds. - -Q. How much does one cubic foot of iron weigh? - -A. 486⁶/₁₀ pounds. - -Q. What does one square foot of half inch boiler iron weigh? - -A. Twenty pounds. - -Q. For steam purposes, how much wood is required to equal one ton of -coal? - -A. About 4000 pounds of wood. - -Q. Of what does coal consist? - -A. Carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, hydrogen, oxygen and ash. - -Q. What are their relative proportions? - -A. There are different proportions in different specimens of coal. The -average per cent is carbon eighty, nitrogen one, sulphur two, hydrogen -five, oxygen seven, ash five. - -Q. Of what is air composed? - -A. It is composed of nitrogen and oxygen in the proportion of -seventy-seven of nitrogen and 23 of oxygen. - -Q. Of what does water consist? - -A. Hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of one of hydrogen to eight of -oxygen by weight. - -Q. What are the different kinds of heat? - -A. Latent heat, sensible heat, and sometimes total heat. - -Q. What is meant by latent heat? - -A. Heat that does not affect the thermometer and which expends itself -in changing the nature of a body, such as turning ice into water or -water into steam. - -Q. Under what circumstances do bodies get latent heat? - -A. When they are passing from a solid to a liquid state, or from a -liquid to a gaseous state. - -Q. How can latent heat be recovered? - -A. By bringing the body back from a state of gas to a liquid, or from a -liquid to a solid. - -Q. If the power is in coal, why should we use steam? - -A. Because steam has some properties which make it an invaluable agent -for applying the energy of the heat to the engine. - -Q. What is steam? - -A. It is an invisible elastic fluid generated from water by the -application of heat. - -Q. What are its properties which make it so valuable to us? - -A. First. The ease with which we can condense it. - -Second. The small space which it occupies when condensed. - -Third. Its great expansive power. - -Q. What do you understand by the term “horse-power”? - -A. A horse-power is equivalent to raising 33,000 pounds one foot per -minute. - -Q. What do you understand by “lead” on an engine valve? - -A. Lead on a valve is the admission of steam into the cylinder before -the piston completes its stroke. - -Q. What are considered the greatest improvements on the stationary -engine in the past forty years? - -A. The Corliss valve gear, the governor, the compound and triple -expansion. - -Q. What is meant by triple expansion engine? - -A. A triple expansion engine has three cylinders using the same steam -expansively in each one. - -Q. What is the clearance of an engine as the term is applied at the -present time? - -A. Clearance is the space between the cylinder head and the piston head -with the ports included. - -Q. What is the principal which distinguishes a non-condensing from a -condensing engine? - -A. Where no condenser is used, and the exhaust steam is open to the -atmosphere, it is a non-condensing engine. - -Q. Why do you condense steam? - -A. To form a vacuum and thus remove the atmospheric and back pressure -that would otherwise be on the piston, thereby getting more useful work -out of the steam. - -Q. What is meant by vacuum? - -A. A space void of all pressure. - -Q. How can you maintain a vacuum? - -A. By the steam used being constantly condensed by the cold water or -cold tubes, and the air pump constantly clearing the condenser. - -Q. Why does condensing the used steam form a vacuum? - -A. Because a cubic foot of steam at atmospheric pressure shrinks into -about one cubic inch of water. - -Q. What is a condenser as applied to an engine? - -A. The condenser is that part of an engine into which the exhaust steam -enters and is condensed. - -Q. About how much gain is there by using the condenser? - -A. Seventeen to twenty-five per cent. where cost of water is not -figured. - -Q. What do you understand by the use of steam expansively? - -A. Where steam admitted at a certain pressure is cut off and allowed to -expand to a lower pressure. - -Q. How many inches of vacuum gives the best result in a condensing -engine? - -A. About 25 inches. - -Q. What is meant by a horizontal compound tandem engine? - -A. One cylinder being back of the other with two pistons on the same -rod. - -Q. What do you understand by lap? - -A. Outside lap is that portion of the valve which extends beyond the -ports when valve is placed on the center of its travel; inside lap is -that portion of valve which projects over the ports on inside or toward -the middle of the valve. - -Q. Of what use is lap? - -A. It gives expansion to the steam in the cylinder. - -Q. What is the dead center of an engine? - -A. The point where the center of shaft, center of wrist-pin and center -of piston rod are in the same straight line. - -Q. From what cause do belts have power to drive shafting? - -A. By friction and cohesion. - -Q. When would you oil an engine? - -A. Before starting it and as often while running as is necessary. - -Q. What is the tensile strength of American boiler iron? - -A. 40,000 to 60,000 pounds per square inch. - -Q. What are the principal defects found in boiler iron? - -A. Imperfect welding, brittleness, low ductility. - -Q. What is the advantage of steel as a material for boiler plate? - -A. Tensile strength, ductility, homogeneity, malleability and freedom -from laminations and blisters. - -Q. What are the disadvantages of steel as a material for boiler plate? - -A. It requires greater care in working than iron and is subject to -flaws induced by the pressure of gas bubbles in the ingots from which -the plates are made. - -Q. How far apart should stay bolts be put in a boiler? - -A. They vary from 4 to 6 inches apart, depending on thickness of -plates, size of stay bolts and amount of steam pressure to be carried. - -[Illustration: J. I. Case Portable Skid Engine.] - - - - -J. I. CASE PORTABLE SKID ENGINE. - - -The engine frame is of the girder pattern, cast in one piece, and -contains the guides for cross-head and pillow block bearing. It also -forms front head of cylinder to which it is firmly bolted. The cylinder -is supported and firmly attached to the large feed water heater, and -both cylinder and frame are entirely disconnected from the boiler. The -heater forms a support for front end of boiler. The engine is placed -diagonally with the boiler, allowing the crank shaft to pass over the -fire box end. This permits the use of a very large band wheel. The -outer end of shaft is supported by a pillow block attached to a large -bracket bolted to the boiler. - -The locomotive style of boiler has a large steam dome in center and an -ash pan under fire box. It is supported upon the long wooden skids by -brackets bolted to the sides of boiler, the heater being also bolted to -the skids. - -The independent pump is connected to the heater, and bolted to skid. - -The engine has a Plain Slide Valve, which receives its motion from the -rocker arm, operated by the eccentric and rod. It has Governor, Steam -Gauge, Pop Valve and all necessary fittings. These engines range in -size from 20 to 30 horse-power, and are extensively used for driving -portable saw mills. - - - - -RULES AND TABLES. - - -_To find the steam pressure_ on slide valve, multiply the unbalanced -area of valve in inches by pounds pressure of steam per square inch, -add weight of valve in pounds, and multiply the sum by 0.15. - -_Safety boiler pressure_ according to the United States Government -rule is as follows: Multiply ⅛ of the lowest tensile strength found -on any plate in the cylindrical shell by the thickness expressed in -inches or part of an inch of the thinnest plate in the same cylindrical -shell, and divide by the radius or half the diameter, also expressed -in inches, and the sum will be the pressure allowable per square inch -of surface for single riveting, to which add 20 per centum for double -riveting. - -_To find the water pressure_ on steam pipes leading from boiler to -steam gauge, divide the difference in height between the highest point -of pipe and the center of steam gauge by 2³/₁₀; the result will be the -pressure exerted by the water in the pipe in pounds upon the gauge. - -_Area of a Circle._—To find the area of a circle when the diameter is -given, multiply the diameter by itself, or in other words square the -diameter and multiply the result by .7854. - -Ex. Diameter 5 inches, 5 × 5 = 25 × .7854 = 29.635 area. - -_Circumference of a Circle._—To find the circumference of a circle when -the diameter is given, multiply the diameter by 3.1416. - -Ex. Diameter is 5 inches. 5 × 3.1416 = 15.708 inches circumference. - -_Diameter of a Circle._—To find the diameter of a circle when the -circumference is given, multiply the circumference by .31831. - -Ex. Circumference 20 inches. 20 × .31831 = 6.362 diameter. - -_To find the pressure_ of pounds per square inch of a column of water, -multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. Approximately, we -generally call every foot elevation equal to one-half pound pressure -per inch, this allows for ordinary friction. - -_To find the diameter_ of a pump cylinder to move a given quantity of -water per minute (100 feet of piston being the standard of speed), -divide the number of gallons by 4, then extract the square root and the -product will be the diameter in inches. - -_To find the horse-power_ necessary to elevate water to a given height, -multiply the total weight of water in pounds by the height in feet and -divide the product by 33000 (an allowance of 25% should be added for -friction, etc.). - -_The area of the steam piston_ multiplied by the steam pressure, gives -the total amount of pressure that can be exerted. The area of the water -piston multiplied by the pressure of water per square inch gives the -resistance. A margin must be made between the power and the resistance -to move the piston at the required speed—say 50%. - -_To find the capacity_ of a cylinder in gallons, multiply the area in -inches by the height of stroke in inches, which gives the total number -of cubic inches; divide this amount by 231 (which is the cubic contents -of a gallon in inches), the product is the capacity in gallons. - - -RULES FOR CALCULATING THE SPEED OF GEARS AND PULLEYS. - -In calculating for pulleys, multiply or divide by their diameter in -inches. - -In calculating for gears, multiply or divide by the number of teeth -required. - -The driving wheel is called the “driver,” and the driven wheel the -“driven.” - -PROBLEM 1.—To find the diameter of the driver when the revolutions of -the driver and driven and the diameter of the driven are given. - -RULE.—Multiply the diameter of driven by its number of revolutions, and -divide by the number of revolutions of the driver. - -PROBLEM 2.—To find the diameter of the driven to make the same number -of revolutions in the same time as the driver, when the diameter and -revolutions of driver are given. - -RULE.—Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions, -and divide the product by the required number of revolutions. - -PROBLEM 3.—To find the number of revolutions of the driven when the -diameter or number of teeth and number of revolutions of the driver and -the diameter or number of teeth of the driven are given. - -RULE.—Multiply the diameter or number of teeth of the driver by its -number of revolutions, and divide by the diameter or number of teeth of -the driven. - -PROBLEM 4.—To find the number of revolutions of the driver when the -diameter of the driven and the number or revolutions of driven are -given. - -RULE.—Multiply the diameter of driven by its number of revolutions, and -divide by the diameter of the driver. - - -SHAFTS AND PULLEYS. - -To find the size of pulley needed to give the main shaft a certain -number of revolutions, multiply the diameter of fly-wheel in inches by -the number of revolutions of the engine, and divide by revolutions of -main shaft. - -To find the revolutions of main shaft when diameter of its pulley is -given, multiply the diameter of fly-wheel in inches by its number of -revolutions, and divide by the diameter of pulley in inches. - -To find diameter of fly-wheel needed to drive a pulley at a given -number of revolutions, multiply the diameter of pulley in inches by -its number of revolutions, and divide by number of revolutions of the -engine. - -To find revolutions of an engine with a given fly-wheel to drive a -pulley at a given number of revolutions, multiply the diameter of -pulley in inches by its number of revolutions, and divide by the -diameter of fly-wheel in inches. - -Rule for finding the amount of heating surface in a locomotive boiler: - -Find surface of flues by multiplying the diameter by 3.14 to get -circumference, and multiply this product by the length of the flue, -then multiply this result by the number of flues in the boiler, and -divide by 144 to get number of square feet of surface in the flues. - -Multiply length and width of fire box for number of square inches in -crown sheet, then multiply the length and height of the fire box and -the result by two, which gives the number of square inches in the -sides; then multiply the width and height and multiply the result by -two, which gives the number of square inches in the ends, from which -subtract number of square inches in space left for door and flues—then -add all these results together and divide by 144 to get the number -of square feet in the fire box. Add same to number of square feet of -flues, and the total will be the number of square feet in the boiler. - -By dividing number of square feet by rated horse-power of boiler will -give number of square feet of heating surface to each horse-power. - - - - -_=TABLES.=_ - - -=ALLOYS.= - - ============================+====+=======+=====+=====+=====+===== - ALLOYS. |Tin.|Copper.|Zinc.|Anti-|Lead.|Bis- - | | | |mony.| |muth. - ----------------------------+----+-------+-----+-----+-----+----- - Brass, engine bearings | 13 | 112 | ¼ | | | - Tough Brass, engine work | 15 | 100 |15 | | | - Tough, for heavy bearings | 25 | 160 | 5 | | | - Yellow Brass, for turning | | 2 | 1 | | | - Flanges to stand brazing | | 32 | 1 | | 1 | - Bell Metal | 5 | 16 | | | | - Babbitt’s Metal | 10 | 1 | | 1 | | - Brass Locomotive Bearings | 7 | 64 | 1 | | | - Brass, for straps and glands| 16 | 130 | 1 | | | - Muntz’s Sheathing | | 6 | 4 | | | - Metal, to expand in cooling | | | | 2 | 9 | 1 - Pewter |100 | | | 17 | | - Spelter | | 1 | 1 | | | - Statuary Bronze | 2 | 90 | 5 | | 2 | - Type Metal, from | | | | 1 | 3 | - Type Metal, to | | | | 1 | 7 | - | | | | | | - SOLDERS. | | | | | | - For Lead | 1 | | | | 1½ | - For Tin | 1 | | | | 2 | - For Pewter | 2 | | | | 1 | - For Brazing (hardest) | | 3 | 1 | | | - For Brazing (hard) | | 1 | 1 | | | - For Brazing (soft) | 1 | 4 | 3 | | | - For Brazing (soft) or| 2 | | | 1 | | - ----------------------------+----+-------+-----+-----+-----+----- - - -CIRCUMFERENCE AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. - - ======+==========+=========== - Diam-| Circum- | Area. - eter.| ference. | - ------+----------+----------- - ¹/₃₂ | .0981 | .00076 - ¹/₁₆ | .1963 | .00306 - ⅛ | .3926 | .01227 - ³/₁₆ | .5890 | .02761 - ¼ | .7854 | .04908 - ⁵/₁₆ | .9817 | .07669 - ⅜ | 1.178 | .1104 - ⁷/₁₆ | 1.374 | .1503 - ½ | 1.570 | .1963 - ⁹/₁₆ | 1.767 | .2485 - ⅝ | 1.963 | .3067 - ¹¹/₁₆ | 2.159 | .3712 - ¾ | 2.356 | .4417 - ¹³/₁₆ | 2.552 | .5184 - ⅞ | 2.748 | .6013 - ¹⁵/₁₆ | 2.945 | .6902 - 1 | 3.141 | .7854 - | 3.534 | .9940 - ¼ | 3.927 | 1.227 - | 4.319 | 1.484 - ½ | 4.712 | 1.767 - | 5.105 | 2.073 - ¾ | 5.497 | 2.405 - | 5.890 | 2.761 - 2 | 6.283 | 3.141 - | 6.675 | 3.546 - ¼ | 7.068 | 3.976 - | 7.461 | 4.430 - ½ | 7.854 | 4.908 - | 8.246 | 5.411 - ¾ | 8.639 | 5.939 - | 9.032 | 7.491 - 3 | 9.424 | 7.068 - ¼ | 10.21 | 8.295 - ½ | 10.99 | 9.621 - ¾ | 11.78 | 11.044 - 4 | 12.56 | 12.566 - ¼ | 13.35 | 14.186 - ½ | 14.13 | 14.904 - ¾ | 14.92 | 17.720 - 5 | 15.90 | 19.635 - ¼ | 17.49 | 21.647 - ½ | 17.27 | 23.758 - ¾ | 18.06 | 25.967 - 6 | 18.84 | 28.274 - ¼ | 19.63 | 30.679 - ½ | 20.42 | 33.183 - ¾ | 21.20 | 35.784 - 7 | 21.99 | 38.484 - ¼ | 22.77 | 41.282 - ½ | 23.56 | 44.178 - ¾ | 24.34 | 47.173 - 8 | 25.13 | 50.265 - ¼ | 25.91 | 53.456 - ½ | 26.70 | 56.745 - ¾ | 27.48 | 60.132 - 9 | 28.27 | 63.617 - ¼ | 29.05 | 67.200 - ½ | 29.84 | 70.882 - ¾ | 30.63 | 74.662 - 10 | 31.41 | 78.539 - ¼ | 32.20 | 82.516 - ½ | 32.98 | 86.590 - ¾ | 33.77 | 90.762 - 11 | 34.55 | 95.033 - ¼ | 35.34 | 99.402 - ½ | 36.12 | 103.86 - ¾ | 36.91 | 108.43 - 12 | 37.69 | 113.09 - ¼ | 38.48 | 117.85 - ½ | 39.27 | 122.71 - ¾ | 40.05 | 127.67 - 13 | 40.84 | 132.73 - ¼ | 41.62 | 137.88 - ½ | 42.41 | 143.13 - ¾ | 43.19 | 148.48 - 14 | 43.98 | 153.93 - ¼ | 44.76 | 159.48 - ½ | 45.55 | 165.13 - ¾ | 46.33 | 170.87 - 15 | 47.12 | 176.78 - ¼ | 47.90 | 182.65 - ½ | 48.69 | 188.69 - ¾ | 49.48 | 194.82 - 16 | 50.26 | 201.06 - ¼ | 51.05 | 207.39 - ½ | 51.83 | 213.82 - ¾ | 52.62 | 220.35 - 17 | 53.40 | 226.98 - ¼ | 54.19 | 233.70 - ½ | 54.97 | 240.52 - ¾ | 55.76 | 247.45 - 18 | 56.54 | 254.46 - ¼ | 57.33 | 261.58 - ½ | 58.11 | 268.80 - ¾ | 58.90 | 276.11 - 19 | 59.69 | 283.52 - ¼ | 60.47 | 291.03 - ½ | 61.26 | 298.64 - ¾ | 62.04 | 306.35 - 20 | 62.83 | 314.16 - ½ | 64.40 | 330.06 - 21 | 65.97 | 346.36 - ½ | 67.54 | 363.05 - 22 | 69.11 | 380.13 - ½ | 70.68 | 397.60 - 23 | 72.25 | 415.47 - ½ | 73.82 | 433.73 - 24 | 75.39 | 452.39 - ½ | 76.96 | 471.43 - 25 | 78.54 | 490.87 - ½ | 80.10 | 510.70 - 26 | 81.68 | 530.93 - ½ | 83.25 | 551.54 - 27 | 84.82 | 572.55 - ½ | 86.39 | 593.95 - 28 | 87.96 | 615.75 - ½ | 89.53 | 637.94 - 29 | 91.10 | 660.52 - ½ | 92.67 | 683.49 - 30 | 94.24 | 706.86 - ½ | 95.81 | 730.61 - 31 | 97.38 | 754.76 - ½ | 98.96 | 779.31 - 32 | 100.5 | 804.24 - ½ | 102.1 | 829.57 - 33 | 103.6 | 855.30 - ½ | 105.2 | 881.41 - 34 | 106.8 | 907.92 - ½ | 108.3 | 934.82 - 35 | 109.9 | 962.11 - ½ | 111.5 | 989.80 - 36 | 113.0 | 1017.8 - ½ | 114.6 | 1046.3 - 37 | 116.2 | 1075.2 - ½ | 117.8 | 1104.4 - 38 | 119.3 | 1134.1 - ½ | 120.9 | 1164.1 - 39 | 122.5 | 1194.5 - ½ | 124.0 | 1225.4 - 40 | 125.6 | 1256.6 - ½ | 127.2 | 1288.2 - 41 | 128.8 | 1320.2 - ½ | 130.3 | 1352.5 - 42 | 131.9 | 1385.4 - ½ | 133.5 | 1418.6 - 43 | 135.0 | 1452.2 - ½ | 136.7 | 1486.1 - 44 | 138.2 | 1520.5 - ½ | 139.8 | 1555.2 - 45 | 141.3 | 1590.4 - ½ | 142.9 | 1625.9 - 46 | 144.5 | 1661.9 - ½ | 146.0 | 1698.2 - 47 | 147.6 | 1734.9 - ½ | 149.2 | 1772.0 - 48 | 150.7 | 1809.5 - ½ | 152.3 | 1847.4 - 49 | 153.9 | 1885.7 - ½ | 155.5 | 1924.4 - 50 | 157.0 | 1963.5 - ½ | 158.6 | 2002.9 - 51 | 160.2 | 2042.8 - ½ | 161.7 | 2083.0 - 52 | 163.3 | 2123.7 - ½ | 164.9 | 2164.7 - 53 | 166.5 | 2206.1 - ½ | 168.0 | 2248.0 - 54 | 169.6 | 2290.2 - ½ | 171.2 | 2332.8 - 55 | 172.7 | 2375.8 - ½ | 174.3 | 2419.2 - 56 | 175.9 | 2463.0 - ½ | 177.5 | 2507.1 - 57 | 179.0 | 2551.7 - ½ | 180.6 | 2566.7 - 58 | 182.2 | 2642.0 - ½ | 183.7 | 2687.8 - 59 | 185.3 | 2733.9 - ½ | 186.9 | 2780.5 - 60 | 188.4 | 2827.4 - ½ | 190.0 | 2874.7 - --------+----------+----------- - - -EFFECTIVE PRESSURE OF STEAM ON PISTON. - - With different rates of expansion, boiler pressure - being assumed as 100 lbs. per square inch. - - Steam cut off at ¾ of stroke = 90 lbs. effective pressure. - “ “ “ ⅔ “ “ = 80 “ “ “ - “ “ “ ½ “ “ = 69 “ “ “ - “ “ “ ⅓ “ “ = 50 “ “ “ - “ “ “ ¼ “ “ = 40 “ “ “ - - -MEASURE OF LENGTH. - - 12 inches 1 foot. - 3 feet 1 yard. - 2 yards 1 fathom. - 16½ feet 1 rod. - 4 rods 1 chain. - 10 chains 1 furlong. - 8 furlongs 1 mile. - 3 miles 1 league. - - -MEASURE OF VOLUME. - - A cubic foot has 1728 cubic inches. - An ale gallon has 282 “ “ - A standard or wine gallon has 231 “ “ - A dry gallon has 268.8 “ “ - A bushel has 2150.4 “ “ - A cord of wood has 128 “ feet. - A perch of stone has 24.75 “ “ - A ton of round timber has 40 “ “ - A ton of hewn timber has 50 “ “ - A box 19⅜ × 19⅜ ins., 19⅜ ins. deep, contains 1 barrel. - A “ 12¹⁵/₁₆ × 12¹⁵/₁₆ “ 12¹⁵/₁₆ ins. deep, “ 1 bushel. - A “ 8⅛ × 8⅛ “ 8⅛ ins. deep, “ 1 peck. - A “ 6⁷/₁₆ × 6⁷/₁₆ “ 6⁷/₁₆ ins. deep, “ ½ “ - A “ 4¹/₁₆ × 4¹/₁₆ “ 4¹/₁₆ ins. deep, “ 1 quart. - An acre contains 4840 sq. yds. - 209 feet long by 209 feet broad is 1 acre. - - -LIQUID MEASURE. - - A barrel holds 31½ gallons. - A hogshead holds 63 “ - A tierce “ 42 “ - A puncheon “ 84 “ - A tun “ 252 “ - - -BARREL MEASURE IN WEIGHT. - - A barrel of flour is 196 pounds. - A barrel of pork is 200 “ - A barrel of rice is 600 “ - A firkin of butter is 56 “ - A tub of butter is 84 “ - - -WEIGHT OF CAST IRON BALLS. - - Lbs. - 2 inch diameter 1.09 - 2½ “ “ 2.13 - 3 “ “ 3.68 - 3½ “ “ 5.84 - 4 “ “ 8.73 - 4½ “ “ 12.42 - 5 “ “ 17.04 - 5½ “ “ 22.68 - 6 “ “ 29.48 - 6½ “ “ 37.44 - 7 “ “ 46.76 - 7½ “ “ 57.52 - 8 “ “ 69.81 - - - - -WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. - - -AVOIRDUPOIS OR COMMERCIAL WEIGHT. - - 16 drachms 1 ounce. - 16 ounces 1 pound. - 14 pounds 1 stone. - 28 pounds 1 quarter. - 4 quarters 1 cwt. - 2240 pounds 1 long ton. - 2000 pounds 1 ton. - - -SQUARE MEASURE. - - 144 square inches 1 square foot. - 9 “ feet 1 “ yard. - 30¼ “ yards 1 “ rod. - 40 “ rods 1 “ rood. - 4 “ roods 1 “ acre. - 640 “ acres 1 “ mile. - - -TABLE OF DISTANCE. - - A mile is 5280 feet or 1760 yards. - A knot is 6086 feet. - A league is 3 miles. - A fathom is 6 feet. - A metre is 3 feet 3⅜ inches. - A hand is 4 inches. - A palm is 3 “ - A span 9 “ - A hair is equal to ¹/₄₈ of an inch. - A line is equal to ¹/₁₂ of an inch. - - -SHRINKAGE OF CASTINGS. - - Cast Iron, ⅛ inch per lineal foot. - Brass, ³/₁₆ inch per lineal foot. - Lead, ⅛ inch per lineal foot. - Tin, ¹/₁₂ inch per lineal foot. - Zinc, ⁵/₁₆ inch per lineal foot. - - -WEIGHT OF ROUND AND SQUARE ROLLED IRON PER LINEAL FOOT. - - =======+==========+========= - Inch. | Round. | Square. - -------+----------+--------- - ¼ | .165 | .211 - ⅜ | .373 | .475 - ½ | .663 | .845 - ⅝ | 1.043 | 1.320 - ¾ | 1.493 | 1.901 - ⅞ | 2.032 | 2.588 - 1 | 2.654 | 3.380 - 1⅛ | 3.359 | 4.278 - 1¼ | 4.147 | 5.280 - 1⅜ | 5.019 | 6.390 - 1½ | 5.972 | 7.604 - 1⅝ | 7.010 | 8.926 - 1¾ | 8.128 | 10.352 - 1⅞ | 9.333 | 11.883 - 2 | 10.616 | 13.520 - 2⅛ | 11.988 | 15.263 - 2¼ | 13.440 | 17.112 - 2⅜ | 14.975 | 19.066 - 2½ | 16.588 | 21.120 - 2⅝ | 18.293 | 23.292 - 2¾ | 20.076 | 25.560 - 2⅞ | 21.944 | 27.939 - 3 | 23.888 | 30.416 - 3¼ | 28.040 | 35.704 - 3½ | 32.512 | 41.408 - 3¾ | 37.332 | 47.534 - 4 | 42.464 | 54.084 - 4¼ | 47.952 | 61.055 - 4½ | 53.760 | 68.448 - 4¾ | 59.900 | 76.264 - 5 | 66.350 | 84.480 - 5¼ | 73.172 | 93.168 - 5½ | 80.304 | 102.24 - 5¾ | 87.776 | 111.75 - 6 | 95.552 | 121.66 - 6¼ | 103.70 | 132.04 - 6½ | 112.16 | 142.81 - 6¾ | 120.96 | 154.01 - 7 | 130.04 | 165.63 - 7¼ | 139.54 | 177.67 - 7½ | 149.32 | 190.13 - 7¾ | 159.45 | 203.02 - 8 | 169.85 | 216.33 - 8¼ | 180.69 | 230.06 - 8½ | 191.80 | 244.22 - 8¾ | 203.26 | 258.80 - 9 | 215.04 | 273.79 - 9¼ | 227.15 | 289.22 - 9½ | 239.60 | 305.056 - 9¾ | 252.37 | 321.33 - 10 | 265.40 | 337.92 - 10¼ | 278.92 | 355.30 - 10½ | 292.68 | 372.70 - 10¾ | 306.80 | 390.80 - 11 | 321.21 | 409.00 - 12 | 382.20 | 486.70 - -------+----------+--------- - - -TABLE OF THE CAPACITY OF CISTERNS IN GALLONS - -For Each 10 Inches of Depth. - - =========+========= - Diam. | - in Feet.| Gallons. - ---------+--------- - 2 | 19.5 - 2½ | 30.6 - 3 | 44.06 - 3½ | 59.97 - 4 | 78.33 - 4½ | 99.14 - 5 | 122.40 - 5½ | 148.10 - 6 | 176.25 - 6½ | 206.85 - 7 | 239.88 - 7½ | 275.40 - 8 | 313.33 - 8½ | 353.72 - 9 | 396.56 - 9½ | 461.4 - 10 | 489.2 - 11 | 592.4 - 12 | 705.0 - 13 | 827.4 - 14 | 959.6 - 15 | 1101.6 - 20 | 1958.4 - 25 | 3059.9 - ---------+-------- - - The American Standard gallon contains 231 cubic - inches, or 8⅓ pounds of pure water. A cubic foot - contains 62.3 pounds of water, or 7.48 gallons. - Pressure per square inch is equal to the depth or - head in feet multiplied by .433. Each 27.72 inches - of depth gives a pressure of one pound to the square - inch. - -MELTING POINT OF METALS, ETC. - - Names. °Fahr. - - Platina 4590 - Antimony 842 - Bismuth 487 - Tin 475 - Lead 620 - Zinc 700 - Cast Iron 2100 - Gold 2192 - Wrought Iron 2900 - Steel 2500 - Copper 2000 - Glass 2377 - Beeswax 151 - Sulphur 239 - Tallow 92 - Silver 1832 - - -WEIGHT OF METALS PER CUBIC FOOT. - - Lbs. - Brass 525 - Copper 550 - Gold 1210 - Iron, Cast 450 - Iron, Wrought 485 - Lead, cast 710 - Silver 655 - Steel 490 - Tin, cast 456 - Zinc 450 - - -HORSE-POWER LINE SHAFTING. - -Will transmit with Safety, Bearings say 8 to 10 ft. centres. - - ----------+--------- - Diam. of | Horse - Shaft in | Power in - Inches. | one Rev. - ----------+--------- - ¹⁵/₁₆ | .008 - 1³/₁₆ | .0156 - 1⁷/₁₆ | .027 - 1¹¹/₁₆ | .043 - 1¹⁵/₁₆ | .064 - 2³/₁₆ | .091 - 2⁷/₁₆ | .125 - 2¹¹/₁₆ | .166 - 2¹⁵/₁₆ | .216 - 3³/₁₆ | .272 - 3⁷/₁₆ | .343 - 3¹¹/₁₆ | .424 - 3¹⁵/₁₆ | .512 - 4⁷/₁₆ | .728 - 4¹⁵/₁₆ | 1.00 - 5⁷/₁₆ | 1.328 - 5¹⁵/₁₆ | 1.728 - 6⁷/₁₆ | 2.195 - 6¹⁵/₁₆ | 2.744 - 7⁷/₁₆ | 3.368 - 7¹⁵/₁₆ | 4.096 - 8⁷/₁₆ | 4.912 - 8¹⁵/₁₆ | 5.824 - 9⁷/₁₆ | 6.848 - ----------+--------- - - For Jack Shafts, or main section of Line Shafts, - allow only three-fourths of the horse-power given - above, and also provide extra bearings wherever - heavy strains occur, as in main belts or gears. - -HALF-ROUND, OVAL AND HALF-OVAL IRON. - -Weight per Lineal Foot. - - ===========+============+===========+============+========== - Size | Size | Weight | Size | Weight - Half Round.| Oval. | per foot. | Half Oval. | per foot. - -----------+------------+-----------+------------+---------- - ⅜ | ⅜ × ³/₁₆ | .186 | ⅜ × ³/₃₂ | .093 - ⁷/₁₆ | ⁷/₁₆ × ⁷/₃₂ | .253 | ⁷/₁₆ × ⁷/₆₄ | .127 - ½ | ½ × ¼ | .331 | ½ × ⅛ | .166 - ⅝ | ⅝ × ⁵/₁₆ | .517 | ⅝ × ⁵/₃₂ | .259 - ¾ | ¾ × ⅜ | .744 | ¾ × ³/₁₆ | .372 - ⅞ | ⅞ × ⁷/₁₆ | 1.013 | ⅞ × ⁷/₃₂ | .507 - 1 | 1 × ½ | 1.323 | 1 × ¼ | .662 - 1⅛ | 1⅛ × ⁹/₁₆ | 1.624 | 1⅛ × ⁹/₃₂ | .812 - 1¼ | 1¼ × ⅝ | 2.067 | 1¼ × ⁵/₁₆ | 1.034 - 1½ | 1½ × ¾ | 2.976 | 1½ × ⅜ | 1.488 - 1¾ | 1¾ × ⅞ | 4.050 | 1¾ × ⁷/₁₆ | 2.026 - 2 | 2 × 1 | 5.290 | 2 × ½ | 2.645 - -----------+------------+-----------+-------------+--------- - - -WEIGHT OF FLAT ROLLED IRON, PER FOOT. - - =========+============+========== - Breadth. | Thickness. | Weight. - ---------+------------+---------- - 1 in. | ⅛ | .422 - | ¼ | .845 - | ⅜ | 1.267 - | ½ | 1.690 - | ⅝ | 2.112 - | ¾ | 2.534 - | ⅞ | 2.956 - 1¼ in. | ⅛ | .528 - | ¼ | 1.056 - | ⅜ | 1.584 - | ½ | 2.112 - | ⅝ | 2.640 - | ¾ | 3.168 - | ⅞ | 3.696 - | 1 | 4.224 - | 1⅛ | 4.752 - 1½ in. | ⅛ | .633 - | ¼ | 1.266 - | ⅜ | 1.900 - | ½ | 2.535 - | ⅝ | 3.168 - | ¾ | 3.802 - | ⅞ | 4.435 - | 1 | 5.069 - | 1⅛ | 5.703 - | 1¼ | 6.337 - | 1⅜ | 6.970 - 1¾ in. | ⅛ | .739 - | ¼ | 1.479 - | ⅜ | 2.218 - | ½ | 2.957 - | ⅝ | 3.696 - | ¾ | 4.435 - | ⅞ | 5.178 - | 1 | 5.914 - | 1⅛ | 6.653 - | 1¼ | 7.393 - | 1⅜ | 8.132 - | 1½ | 8.871 - | 1⅝ | 9.610 - 2 in. | ⅛ | .845 - | ¼ | 1.689 - | ⅜ | 2.534 - | ½ | 3.379 - | ⅝ | 4.224 - | ¾ | 5.069 - | ⅞ | 5.914 - | 1 | 6.758 - | 1⅛ | 7.604 - | 1¼ | 8.448 - | 1⅜ | 9.294 - | 1½ | 10.138 - | 1⅝ | 10.983 - | 1¾ | 11.828 - | 1⅞ | 12.673 - 2¼ in. | ⅛ | .950 - | ¼ | 1.900 - | ⅜ | 2.851 - | ½ | 3.802 - | ⅝ | 4.752 - | ¾ | 5.703 - | ⅞ | 6.653 - | 1 | 7.604 - | 1⅛ | 8.554 - | 1¼ | 9.505 - | 1⅜ | 10.455 - | 1½ | 11.406 - | 1⅝ | 12.356 - | 1¾ | 13.307 - | 1⅞ | 14.257 - | 2 | 15.208 - | 2⅛ | 16.158 - 2½ in. | ⅛ | 1.056 - | ¼ | 2.112 - | ⅜ | 3.168 - | ½ | 4.224 - | ⅝ | 5.280 - | ¾ | 6.336 - | ⅞ | 7.392 - | 1 | 8.448 - | 1⅛ | 9.504 - | 1¼ | 10.560 - | 1⅜ | 11.616 - | 1½ | 12.672 - | 1⅝ | 13.728 - | 1¾ | 14.784 - | 1⅞ | 15.840 - | 2 | 16.896 - | 2⅛ | 17.952 - | 2¼ | 19.008 - | 2⅜ | 20.064 - 2¾ in. | ¼ | 2.323 - | ½ | 4.647 - | ¾ | 6.970 - | 1 | 9.294 - | 1¼ | 11.617 - | 1½ | 13.940 - | 1¾ | 16.264 - | 2 | 18.587 - | 2¼ | 20.910 - | 2½ | 23.234 - 3 in. | ¼ | 2.535 - | ½ | 5.069 - | ¾ | 7.604 - | 1 | 10.138 - ---------+------------+---------- - - -HORSE-POWER BELTING. - -Will transmit with Safety. - - =========+======================== - Width of | Horse-Power per 100 - Belt in | feet Velocity of Belt. - Inches. +---------+------------- - | Single | Double - | Belt. | Belt. - ---------+---------+------------- - 1 | .09 | .18 - 2 | .18 | .36 - 3 | .27 | .55 - 4 | .36 | .73 - 5 | .45 | .91 - 6 | .55 | 1.09 - 7 | .64 | 1.27 - 8 | .73 | 1.46 - 9 | .82 | 1.64 - 10 | .91 | 1.82 - 11 | 1.00 | 2.00 - 12 | 1.09 | 2.18 - 14 | 1.27 | 2.55 - 16 | 1.45 | 2.91 - 18 | 1.64 | 3.27 - 20 | 1.82 | 3.64 - 22 | 2.00 | 4.00 - 24 | 2.18 | 4.36 - 28 | 2.55 | 5.09 - 32 | 2.91 | 5.82 - 36 | 3.27 | 6.55 - 40 | 3.64 | 7.27 - ---------+---------+------------- - - In the calculations for horse-power in the above - table, the belt is assumed to run about horizontally, - the semi-circumference of smaller pulley has been - considered as the ordinary arc contact of belt. 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