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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b0187c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #66109 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/66109) diff --git a/old/66109-0.txt b/old/66109-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 8dbb43a..0000000 --- a/old/66109-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6245 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Young Engineer's Guide, by J. V. Rohan - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Young Engineer's Guide - -Author: J. V. Rohan - -Release Date: August 22, 2021 [eBook #66109] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: deaurider and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK YOUNG ENGINEER'S GUIDE *** - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes: - - Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_ - in the original text. - Equal signs “=” before and after a word or phrase indicate =bold= - in the original text. - Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals. - Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs. - Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected. - - - - - YOUNG ENGINEER’S GUIDE. - - BY - J. V. ROHAN, - - RACINE, WISCONSIN. - - PRICE: - Cloth Bound, $1.00. - Leather Bound, 1.25. - - COPYRIGHT, 1894. - BY - J. V. ROHAN. - - All rights reserved. - - - - -INDEX. - - - PAGE. - Ascending Hills, 150 - Automatic Oiler, 79 - - Banking Fires, 162 - Babbitting Boxes, 188 - Belting, 165 - Blower, 55 - Blow-off Valve, 105 - - Calking Flues, 52 - Check Valve, 107 - Cleaning Flues, 53 - Compression Grease Cup, 108 - Compound Engines, 189 - Connecting Rod, 67 - Crank, 68 - Crank-Pin, 69 - Cross-head, 66 - Cross-head Pump, 91 - Crossing Bridges and Culverts, 156 - Cylinder Cocks, 107 - - Descending Hills, 154 - Differential Gear, 115 - Duties of Engineers, 13 - - Eccentrics, 73 - Eccentric Strap, 73 - Eccentric Rod, 74 - Ejector, 97 - Engine Frame, 67 - Engine Stalled, 155 - Exhaust Nozzle, 55 - - Firing With Coal, 160 - Firing with Wood, 159 - Firing with Straw, 159 - Foaming, 156 - Friction Clutch, 116 - Fusible Plug, 56 - - Gauge Cocks, 106 - Gearing, 113 - General Information, 170 - Governor, 76 - - Heater, 96 - Heating of Journals, 141 - Hints to Purchasers, 9 - Horizontal Tubular Boiler, 15 - - Injector, 83 - - Jet Pump, 97 - - Knocks or Pounds, 137 - - Laying Up a Traction Engine, 163 - Link Reverse, 69 - Link, 72 - Locomotive Boiler, 16 - Low Water Alarm, 57 - - Packing Piston and Valve Rods, 143 - Piston and Rod, 62 - Priming, 157 - - Questions with Answers - concerning Boilers, 30 - Questions with Answers - concerning Engines and Boilers, 119 - Questions with Answers for - Engineers applying for License, 195 - - Return Flue Boiler, 18 - Reversing an Engine, 130 - Reverse Lever, 72 - Rules and Tables, 226 - - Safety Valve, 101 - Setting Plain Slide Valve, 144 - Setting Slide Valve of - Reversing Engine, 147 - Setting Valve Duplex Pump, 150 - Steam Cylinder, 61 - Steam Chest, 63 - Steam Engine, 60 - Steam Gauge, 98 - Steam Pump, 89 - - Testing Piston Rings and Valves, 136 - Throttle, 88 - Traction Engines, 112 - - Valve, 64 - Vertical Boiler, 22 - - Water Tube Boiler, 24 - Water Gauge, 104 - Work-shop Recipes, 186 - Woolf Valve Gear, 74 - - - - -_INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS._ - - - ENGINES. - E. P. Allis & Co., Milwaukee, Wis., 21 - J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co., Racine, Wis., 26, 29, 224 - Gaar, Scott & Co., Richmond, Ind., 36 - Nichols & Shepard, Battle Creek, Mich., 49 - J. I. Case Engine Co., New Britain, Conn., 58 - M. Rumely Co., LaPorte, Ind., 71 - Minneapolis Thresh. Machine Co., Minneapolis, Minn., 111 - Advance Thresher Co., Battle Creek, Mich., 129 - Watertown Engine Co., Watertown, N. Y., 135 - Frick Co., Waynesboro, Pa., 153 - Armington & Sims Engine Co., Providence, R. I., 168 - The Geiser Manufacturing Co., Waynesboro, Pa., 178 - The Ball Engine Co., Erie, Pa., 193 - A. W. Stevens & Son, Auburn, N. Y., 203 - - BOILERS. - S. Freeman & Sons Manuf’g Co., Racine, Wis., 15, 16, 17, 22 - J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co., Racine, Wis., 19 - The Stirling Co., Chicago, Ill., 25 - - FITTINGS. - Thomas Prosser & Son, P. O. Box 2873, New York City, 52 - Frontier Manufacturing Co., Buffalo, N. Y., 54 - The Lunkenheimer Co., Cincinnati, O., 56, 89, 104, 106, 107 - J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co., Racine, Wis., 75, 90, 116 - The Gardner Governor Co., Quincy, Ill., 76 - The Detroit Lubricator Co., Detroit, Mich., 81, 82, 83 - American Injector Co., Detroit, Mich., 84, 87, 97, 98 - Battle Creek Steam Pump Co., Battle Creek, Mich., 93, 94 - The Ashcroft Manuf’ct’g Co., P O Box 2803, N. Y. City, 99, 100 - E. B. Kunkle & Co., Fort Wayne, Ind., 101, 102 - Chas H. Besly & Co., Chicago, Ill., 109 - - - - -PREFACE. - - -Some two years ago the author commenced collecting memoranda of -mechanical and practical information pertaining to the care and -operation of steam engines and boilers, with a view of forming a -systematic digest. - -Being an employee of the J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co. for a number -of years my attention was called to the constant inquiry for a book of -this description from young men mechanically inclined and those running -farm engines and small steam plants. - -By repeated assurance that there was great need for such a work, and -by ready and valuable assistance from personal friends and experts in -mechanical engineering, I have considered it advisable to publish a -practical guide for young engineers. - -The aim has been to place the information contained in the book in the -most simple and compact form, and while it is not intended for the -education of the more advanced engineers, the instructions given will -be found practical in the operation of steam plants of any size. It is -more especially intended for the instruction and guidance of young men -learning to run engines, and those operating farm engines and small -plants, whose experience has been limited. - -After carefully considering the mode of presentation, it was thought -best to adopt the form of a catechism, with the questions and -answers so set forth as to resemble an ordinary conversation; also -to illustrate and give a minute description of the construction and -function of the different parts used in the building of engines and -boilers. - -While the greater part of the information is new, parts have been -compiled from Power, Roper and other mechanical papers and books, -simplified to meet the required aim, for which due acknowledgement is -here given. - - J. V. ROHAN. - Racine, Wis., 1895. - - - - -Young Engineer’s Guide. - - -HINTS TO PURCHASERS. - -In selecting an engine of whatever style, or for whatever purpose it -is very important to get not only a good one, but one that is of the -proper size. Do not entertain the mistaken idea that it is best to have -a larger engine than is required (so that it will do its work easily), -as an engine which is too large for the work required is very wasteful -both of fuel and water. An engine always gives the best results when it -has a fair load. - -In the selection of a farm or traction engine you should look carefully -to the arrangement of the driving gear, the manner in which the engine -and the traction wheels are attached to the boiler, the convenient -arrangement of the throttle lever, reverse lever, steering wheel, -friction clutch lever, independent pump (if used) and injector for easy -operation from the footboard, as the easy control of all these parts -by the engineer saves much time and annoyance and in many instances -may prevent accident which might prove disastrous to both life and -property. - -Always purchase a boiler with sufficient capacity to allow a small -margin beyond its ordinary requirements. Be sure and have the boiler or -boilers properly set so that the best results may be derived from the -fuel burned. Many good boilers are condemned because they do not steam -well on account of bad setting. - -If a locomotive style of boiler, see that it has a large fire box (well -stayed) and a sufficient number of flues to allow of easy firing and -good combustion of the fuel without being obliged to use a forced draft. - -If a return flue boiler see that the main flue is of sufficient size -and of the required ⁵/₁₆ inch thickness of material; also that it has a -mud drum and from four to six hand-holes (the more the better) both top -and bottom for the purpose of keeping the boiler free from scale and -becoming mud burnt and unsafe. - -Remember there is no advantage in carrying low steam pressure in -boilers as it is more economical to carry high pressure rather than -low. The average boiler pressure should be about 80 lbs. per square -inch, which is not too high for safety, nor too low for economy of fuel. - -The purchaser must use his own discretion as to the style of engine -he prefers, a horizontal or vertical, side or center crank, as all -styles are extensively used with equally good results. It is purely a -matter of preference depending, of course, largely upon space or room -available for stationary engine. - -Do not make the mistake of deeming that any kind of a foundation will -answer for a stationary engine. It should be built by a skillful -mason in every case and hard brick or stone and cement used in its -construction. The best is always the cheapest in the end. - -An engine or boiler should never be put in a dark corner or damp -cellar, rather place them when possible in dry well lighted rooms and -so arranged that every part can be reached when necessary without -trouble or delay. Walls and floors should be kept clean and a good -supply of oil cans, wrenches, waste and whatever tools are needed -should be kept in their proper places. - -The purchaser of a traction engine should see that it has a Friction -Clutch as an engine with a clutch is much more practical, convenient -and safe to handle upon the road than one without a clutch. The matter -of brackets, braces, gearing, traction wheels, axle, the manner in -which the engine is mounted upon the boiler should be well considered -as there are many kinds and styles, all of which have their merit “more -or less.” Your own judgment should be used as to the style wanted after -thoroughly studying the various kinds. - -Do not make the too common mistake of thinking a cheap engineer is -the man you want. The engine and boiler are important factors in the -success of your business and no matter how simple and strong they -may be it will pay you to put them in charge of a competent engineer -who is capable of taking the proper care of them. For a small plant, -or traction engine, it is not necessary to have the highest grade of -ability, as there are several grades among engineers; but it is better -to pay a suitable man for competent and faithful work than to pay for -what may happen through the neglect or incompetency of one whose only -recommendation is that he is _cheap_. - -Do not be deceived by imposters claiming to be first-class engineers, -who, the first thing they do, to substantiate their claims, alter the -engine in some way that only deranges it. Be watchful of this and see -that such men do not tamper with the valves and adjustments of the -engine, which are always set properly before it leaves the factory. - - -DUTIES OF ENGINEERS. - -The duties of an engineer are of much more importance and require -a better knowledge of the operating of machinery than is generally -understood. The responsibilities that rest upon him are very great; -this applies to all engineers, but more especially to inexperienced men -who take charge of small plants or farm engines, whose knowledge of -machinery and the dangers connected with the improper handling of it, -is limited. The proper management of boilers and engines is of as vital -importance to prevent accident as their proper construction; as they -are liable to get out of order and become unsafe unless the engineer is -sufficiently informed to know what precautions should be taken under -any and all circumstances that might prove disastrous. - -Not only should an engineer be ever on the alert to guard against -accident, but he should also be capable of keeping the engine, boiler -and appliances in good condition, as the life of the machinery depends -largely upon his competency and the faithful performance of his duties. - -An ENGINEER: - -Should be sober. - -Should be industrious. - -Should be careful. - -Should be faithful to his charge. - -Should keep his engine and its surroundings neat and clean. - -Should keep his engine running smoothly without knocks or pounds. - -Should learn to let “well enough” alone. - -Should never attempt experiments unless he knows what he is about. - -Should have a place for everything and keep everything in its place. - -Should show by the quietness in running and appearance of the engine in -his charge that it is properly cared for. - -Should constantly endeavor to expand his mind as to the management, -construction and care of boilers, engines and their appliances. - -Should carry this book in his pocket for reference as it contains much -valuable information and in a time of need may save much time and -expense, or even prevent a catastrophe. - - - - -Boilers. - - -HORIZONTAL TUBULAR BOILER. - -Q. How is a horizontal tubular boiler constructed? - -A. It has a cylindrical shell, with heads riveted at each end, in which -are placed a large number of tubes, 4 inches or less in diameter. It -is set in brick work, with the furnace at one end, beneath the shell. -The products of combustion pass under the boiler its full length and -return through the tubes or flues to an up-take at the front end. It -is furnished with a man-hole beneath the flues, and hand-holes for -cleaning, and generally has a steam dome. - -[Illustration: Freeman’s Horizontal Tubular Boiler.] - -Q. What are the advantages of a horizontal boiler? - -A. It is simple in form, easy to construct, requires bracing only on -the flat heads, which are sustained their greater part by the tubes, -generates a large amount of steam for the space occupied, and is not -difficult to keep clean with fairly pure feed water. - - -LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. - -Q. How is a locomotive or fire box boiler constructed? - -A. The ends of a cylindrical shell are continued straight down upon -the sides, and enclosed to form a rectangular structure in its lower -portion and conformed to the curvature of the cylindrical shell at the -top. In the rectangular portion is secured a fire box, separated from -the sides and ends by water spaces called “water legs,” and having -its top which is called the “crown sheet” about the center of the -cylindrical shell. An opening is formed in both sheets in rear end of -the fire box door frame. The cylindrical shell has heads riveted at -both ends. These heads have numerous flues open at both ends put in. -All the flat surfaces are stayed to each other at suitable intervals, -and the crown sheet is stayed from the shell. The fuel is thrown in -through the door at the rear, and the products of combustion are -conveyed to further extremity through the tubes or flues. It is -furnished with hand-holes for cleaning and a steam dome. There are two -different styles of fire boxes on Locomotive Boilers, the round bottom -fire box in which the water circulates under the grates, and the square -open bottom fire box. Both kinds are used extensively. - -[Illustration: Freeman Locomotive Boiler.] - -[Illustration: Sectional View Freeman Locomotive Boiler.] - -Q. What advantages have the locomotive or fire box boiler? - -A. It is entirely self-contained, generates steam very rapidly, is -economical in space, and needs no elaborate foundation. - -Q. What disadvantages has the locomotive or fire box boiler? - -A. Expensive first cost, and difficulty in cleaning, especially where -impure feed water is used. - - -RETURN FLUE BOILER. - -Q. Describe the construction of a Return Flue Boiler? - -A. It has a cylindrical shell, with heads riveted at each end, in which -are placed a large main flue, and a number of small flues or tubes, -open at both ends. The top row of flues is placed below the water line. -One end of the main flue is used for the fire box, into which the fuel -is thrown through door at back end and the products of combustion pass -forward through this main flue to an ample smoke box in front end, and -return through the smaller flues or tubes to smoke box at rear end, -which is connected to the smoke stack. They are generally supplied with -steam dome and mud drum, and are used extensively in the construction -of traction engines where straw is used for fuel. They are also -furnished with several hand-holes placed in proper places for cleaning -the boiler. - -[Illustration: Sectional View J. I. Case Return Flue Boiler.] - -Q. What are the advantages of this style of boiler? - -A. Large heating surface, easily repaired and cleaned, simplicity of -construction and compactness. - - -REYNOLDS CORLISS CONDENSING AND NON-CONDENSING ENGINE. - -This engine has a massive, peculiarly constructed frame, being cast in -two parts. The forward part contains the main pillow block bearing, and -the part in which the cross-head runs is cylindrical in shape, and has -bored Guides, and large lateral openings. - -The crank is a large disc plate, and the large heavy fly-wheel serves -the double purpose of a drive pulley and balance wheel. - -The cylinder is supplied with four valves, two at the top and two at -the bottom, and directly upon the bore of the cylinder. The two at the -top are the steam valves, the two at the bottom are exhaust valves, and -receive their motion from a single eccentric acting through the medium -of a wrist plate or vibrating disc, from which the valve connections -radiate. The valve being independently adjusted, the commencement, -extent and rapidity of the movement of each can be most accurately -arranged. The steam valves are controlled by the Governor, which, being -very sensitive to the variation of load, allows just the required -amount of steam to enter the cylinder to keep up the uniform speed. -The exhaust valves being at the lower ends of the cylinder, at the -clearance space, the water of condensation is allowed to escape in -the most thorough manner, without the use of cylinder cocks or other -devices. - -This style of engine is intended for all purposes, but is especially -adapted to heavy and continuous work and where the conditions call for -an engine capable of working under a high steam pressure, also when the -work is of an intermittent character. - -[Illustration: Reynolds Corliss “1890” Engine—Front View.] - - -VERTICAL BOILER. - -[Illustration: Sectional View Freeman Vertical Boiler.] - -Q. How is a Vertical Tubular Boiler generally constructed? - -A. A cylindrical fire box set into the lower part of a vertical -cylindrical shell, the space between forming an annular “water leg.” An -opening is formed in both sheets for the fire door. The top of the fire -box serves as a flue sheet for numerous tubes or flues which extend -through the closed top of the outside shell, and through which the -products of combustion pass to the smoke stack. The upper portions of -the tubes are surrounded by steam. - -Where this style of boiler is made for marine purposes, the upper part -of the tubes is submerged, and is called a submerged-flue boiler. - -Q. What advantages has the vertical type of boiler? - -A. Minimum floor space, portability, low cost of setting, and a wide -allowable variation in the water level. - -Q. What disadvantages has this type? - -A. Liability to leakage in the exposed upper ends of flues where they -are not submerged, deposits from impure water in the “water leg,” in -small sizes insufficient heating surface, though the latter fault can -be corrected by making the boiler very tall. Some of the very large -vertical boilers are remarkably efficient. - - -WATER TUBE BOILER. - -[Illustration: Stirling Water Tube Boiler.] - -Q. How is a water tube boiler constructed? - -A. The Stirling Water Tube Boiler as illustrated, has three upper or -steam domes, the steam space of all of which is connected, while the -water space of the two front domes is connected. All of these three -domes are connected with a lower or mud drum, which is not bricked in, -but is left free to expand and contract. - -The three upper domes are supported on wrought iron beams, which are -entirely free and independent from the brick work. The feed water -enters the rear upper dome, and descends gradually to the lower or -mud drum, being heated in its descent by the escaping gases to a -sufficiently high degree to cause precipitation in the mud drum of all -of the solid or scale bearing matter that the feed water contains. -The water then in the front bank of tubes is chemically pure, and all -danger of scale reduced to a minimum. - -Q. What advantages have the water tube boilers? - -A. One of the great advantages of this style of boilers is its distinct -circulation, being up the front bank of tubes across from the front -upper dome to the middle dome, down the middle bank of tubes to the -lower or mud drum, and up again the front bank of tubes, and so on in -circuit. It also has great steaming capacity, and is economical in -fuel. Steam is taken from the middle dome. - -This marked circulation is a desideratum in boiler practice, and the -Stirling may be said to be the first that has accomplished it to so -great a degree. - -Q. What disadvantages have the water tube boilers? - -A. Expensive first cost of setting them up in brick work. - -[Illustration: J. I. Case Traction Engine.] - - -J. I. CASE TRACTION ENGINE. - -This engine is known as the Center Crank, Rear Gear traction. The -engine is mounted on the center of boiler at the rear end, and rests -upon and is securely bolted to two saddles. The rear saddle also -supports the two outer bearings for the crank shaft. - -The engine frame is cast in one piece, cylindrical in shape, with -bored guides for cross-head, and has large lateral openings. It forms -the front cylinder head at one end, and contains the two pillow block -bearings at the other. - -The cylinder is overhanging and self-lining. - -It has the locomotive type boiler, with open bottom fire box, covered -with an ash pan, and has a steam dome at front end. The outer shell -of this boiler over fire box extends beyond the back head. To this -extension is bolted the two brackets containing the bearings for the -main axle and cross shaft. - -The traction wheels are of the wrought rim steel spoke type, with high -mud cleats bolted diagonally across the entire width of tire. - -The front axle is supplied with a ball-bearing bolster, which supports -the front end of boiler. The engine has the Friction Clutch, Link -Reverse Gear, Long Heater, Independent Pump, Injector, Water Tank -on side, Foot Board with Tool Boxes attached, and all necessary -attachments and fittings to make a complete traction engine, and one -that will be perfectly safe with proper handling. - -The steering wheel and band wheel are on the same side of engine, and -the straight stack and extension front has a spark arrester on the -inside. - -This engine is constructed to burn either coal or wood and with special -arrangement can be made to burn straw. - - -J. I. CASE RETURN FLUE TRACTION ENGINE. - -The foregoing description of the J. I. Case Traction Engine will apply -to this engine in every particular with the exception of the boiler, -the construction of engine, the traction gear and fittings being -exactly the same. - -The boiler however is of the return flue, straw-burner type It is -supplied with a large steam dome on front end and also a mud drum -on under side. The fire box is at the rear end of main flue, and is -covered by an ash pan. The boiler is lagged and jacketed, and the stack -has a screen spark arrester at the top. This engine is intended to burn -straw, but it will burn either wood or coal equally well, and is said -to be very economical in fuel. - -[Illustration: J. I. Case Return Flue Traction Engine.] - - -QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS, - -concerning the operation and care of steam boilers. - -Q. How is steam taken from the boiler? - -A. By suitable piping leading from a steam dome on top of boiler. - -Q. What is a steam dome and how is it made? - -A. A steam dome is cylindrical in shape, is made usually of boiler -plate flanged and riveted over a hole on top of boiler. - -Q. Of what use is a steam dome? - -A. Its use is to afford space for dry steam to collect. - -Q. What is a mud drum, and of what use is it? - -A. The mud drum is cylindrical in shape, made of boiler iron flanged -and riveted over a hole on under side of boiler, in which mud and -sediment may collect, and is of great value on a return flue boiler. - -Q. What are boilers furnished with so that they may be easily cleaned? - -A. Man-holes and hand-holes. - -Q. What are man-holes and hand-holes? - -A. The man-hole is a hole cut in boiler large enough to admit a man and -is covered by a portable plate which can be fastened absolutely tight. -Hand-holes are small holes cut in boiler in convenient places into -which a hose can be placed and the boiler washed out and the mud and -scale removed. Hand-holes are covered with portable plates which can be -fastened absolutely tight. - -Q. How can a boiler be protected from the cold? - -A. By a non-conducting jacket which keeps off the cold, retains the -high temperature of the boiler and prevents the radiation of heat. - -Q. What materials are used for jacketing a boiler? - -A. Plaster, wood, hair, rags, felt, paper and asbestos. - -Q. How are they applied? - -A. Wood is put on in long strips close together like barrel staves, -fastened with hoops and usually covered with sheet iron. The other -materials are put close to the boiler and held in place by sheet iron -or canvas. They are sometimes put on with an intervening air space -between them and the boiler. - -Q. What is the use of air space? - -A. It protects the material from being burned or otherwise injured by -the heat. - -Q. Is there no radiation through these coverings? - -A. Yes, but the loss is very slight, as the temperature of covering -should never rise above what just seems warm to the hand. - -Q. How should you feed water to a boiler? - -A. Continuously during the whole time that steam is being used. - -Q. Will a steam pump feed continuously? - -A. Yes, by running the pump faster or slower according to the amount of -water required. - -Q. Why is a continuous feed preferable? - -A. Because it maintains the water in the boiler at a uniform level and -gives the most perfect action. - -Q. Should precaution be taken in choice of water used in the boiler? - -A. Yes. Always use water that is as clear and free from foreign matter -as can be procured, rain water preferred. - -Q. What is the result of using impure water? - -A. It will form a scale upon the flues and plates on the inside of -boiler. - -Q. What harm does scale do? - -A. In the first place scale is a non-conductor and prevents the heat -of furnace from producing its best effects upon the water and in the -second place it allows the plates and flues to become over heated and -burn. - -Q. How can you prevent the formation of scale? - -A. There are numerous compounds upon the market some of which are known -to be very reliable, but for ordinary purposes sal soda dissolved in -the feed water answers very well. - -Q. What precaution should be taken in the use of sal soda? - -A. Great care should be taken that too much is not used at a time. If -too much is used a great deal of trouble will be caused by the water in -the boiler foaming. - -Q. How often should a boiler be cleaned? - -A. It depends entirely upon the condition of the feed water used and -the amount of service exerted from it. It may vary from once or twice a -week to once in two or three months, or even longer. - -Q. Does a boiler only require the regular cleaning? - -A. No, it should be blown off three or four times a day by the surface -blow-off. - -Q. Should the surface blow-off be left open any length of time? - -A. No, only a few seconds at a time, say from fifteen seconds to a -minute, even longer on larger boilers, but the engineer must use his -own judgement in this matter. - -Q. What does the surface blow-off do? - -A. It blows out all the impurities that arise in the form of scum on -the surface of the water, thus lessening the amount of scale formation. - -Q. How should a boiler be cleaned? - -A. By blowing the water out at a low pressure of steam and after -cooling off wash out and scrape the inside, removing all scale and -sediment. - -Q. How do you blow off your boiler? - -A. By means of a blow-off valve situated at the bottom part of the -boiler. - -Q. When should a boiler be blown off? - -A. When the steam pressure entirely disappears and the water is at -boiling point, if boiler is set in brick work. - -Q. Why not blow off under a full head of steam? - -A. Because when blown off under pressure there is heat enough remaining -in the shell and flues to bake the scale upon the interior, thus -rendering it exceedingly difficult to remove. - -Q. In what condition is the scale after blowing off at low pressure. - -A. Some may be baked hard and attached to the flues and shell, but the -greater part will be soft and slushy so that it can be easily removed. - -Q. How is this slush removed from the boiler? - -A. If a fire box or return flue boiler, all the hand-hole plates should -be removed and as much of the slush as possible raked out; then a -hose is inserted and a stream of water forced in which will carry the -remainder out. The hose should be placed in the top holes first. - -Q. Is it a good idea after blowing off a boiler to fill it with water -again without delay? - -A. No. Because the boiler is hot, and if cold water is put in before it -is thoroughly cooled off the boiler will be subjected to severe strains -caused by the sudden contraction of the metal that is expanded by the -heat, which will injure it to a greater or less degree. - -[Illustration: Garr-Scott Traction Engine.] - - -GARR-SCOTT TRACTION ENGINE. - -This engine, as will be seen by examining the cut, is of the Side -Crank, Side Gear style, the engine of which is mounted upon a long -heater, to which the cylinder and the main pillow block bearing are -attached, and is supplied with the bar or locomotive guides for -cross-head. - -It is fitted with the Link Reverse peculiar to their own style of -manufacture, also Injector, Friction Clutch, Cross-head Pump, Governor, -Syphon for filling Tank on front end, Automatic Sight-Feed Lubricator, -and large Foot Board with Tool Boxes attached. - -The boiler is of the locomotive or round bottom fire box type, with -dome on front end, and is mounted upon the traction wheels with axle -arms attached to the sides of boiler, which are supplied with springs. -The front axle is attached to the boiler with a bolster arrangement, -which is also supplied with a spring. - -The traction wheels are made practically in one piece, having the -spokes cast in both hub and rim, the cast iron rim being chilled faced, -with the mud cleats cast on. - -The smoke stack is supplied with a screen suitable for burning either -wood or coal. It has a patent steering attachment, the hand wheel of -which is on the same side of engine as the band wheel. - -The engine and boiler are supplied with all the necessary fittings to -make them convenient and safe with proper handling. - -Q. When should a boiler be filled after being blown off and cleaned? - -A. A boiler should not be filled under any circumstances until it is -about the same temperature as the water used to fill it. - -Q. How are the hand-hole plates put back in position? - -A. The plate that covers the hole is put on the inside of the boiler -and held in position against the plate by a bolt attached to it and -passing out through a yoke which straddles the hole upon the outside -and serves as a brace against which the bolt acts. - -Q. How is a leak prevented? - -A. By placing packing between the hand-hole plate and the boiler plate. - -Q. What is the best kind of packing to use for this purpose? - -A. Two or three ply sheet rubber is the best, cut in the form of a ring -to fit the bearing surface of the plate. - -Q. Can any other material be used? - -A. Yes, hemp or cotton packing. When this is used it should be pulled -out in fine shreds and thoroughly oiled before putting in position. Use -as little as possible. - -Q. Do the metals need any preparation? - -A. Yes, all the old packing that may have burned on the metal should -be thoroughly scraped off, also the scale should be removed from the -vicinity so that the packing will have a smooth and even surface to -bear against. - -Q. How are man-hole plates put in position? - -A. In the same manner as the hand-hole plates. - -Q. What is required of an engineer or fireman in the care of a boiler? - -A. He should watch carefully all the parts that are exposed to any -steam and see that they do not become unduly weakened by corrosion -or accident. All the working parts and fittings should be examined -daily and be repaired or replaced as soon as they show signs of wear -or weakness. The steam gauge and safety valve should receive constant -care and both should be tested frequently, the one by the other, and -the steam gauge by a standard in order that it may be known to be in -perfect order. When scale forming water is used the feed pipe should be -frequently uncoupled and examined and all sediment removed. The check -valve should be examined frequently to see that it seats properly so -that water cannot leak from boiler in this way and the utmost care -should be taken in regard to the consumption of fuel. - -Q. In case of accident how should an engineer conduct himself? - -A. With the utmost coolness. - -Q. If the water gauge glass breaks, what should be done? - -A. The upper and lower gauge valves should be closed immediately. - -Q. Can a new glass be put in at once? - -A. No, because a new glass is cold, and if put in position and steam -turned on, the sudden heat and expansion would be apt to crack it. - -Q. When can a new glass be put in? - -A. After the boiler has been cooled off. - -Q. What is to be done in the meantime? - -A. The boiler must be run by the use of the gauge cocks alone. - -Q. What is to be done if the gauge cocks leak? - -A. If the leak is in the seat, that part should be taken out and -re-ground and refitted. This should be done at once. - -Q. What harm is done by a leaky gauge cock? - -A. It allows the water to run down over the face of the boiler, which -tends to corrode it. - -Q. When the leak is where the gauge cock is screwed into the boiler, -what is to be done? - -A. As soon as the boiler is cooled down examine and see if the gauge -cock can be screwed up another turn. If so try that, then if the leak -is not stopped the gauge cock must be taken out and a new one put in -its place, or the thread of the old one so repaired that there will be -no leak. - -Q. Why not screw up the leaky gauge cock when the boiler is under -pressure? - -A. Because there is great danger of breaking the cock, thereby placing -the engineer or fireman in great peril. - -Q. What should be done in case a gauge cock is accidentally broken off? - -A. Open the furnace door and if possible partially bank the fire, close -the damper and allow the water to blow out at the hole until steam -alone comes out. In the meantime get a piece of soft pine six or seven -feet long and whittle down one end until it will about fit and jam -it into the hole. Work it around until the jet of steam is stopped. -Fasten the stick in temporarily and stop the engine if not already -done. It will now depend on the condition of the break and the position -of the surrounding parts as to the means to be employed. The stick -should be cut off short and firmly driven into the hole and braced or -tied securely. The engineer or fireman must use his own ingenuity for -this work. - -Q. Can a boiler be worked in this condition? - -A. Yes, by the use of the gauge glass to determine the level of water. - -Q. Should a boiler be run in this condition continually? - -A. No. A new gauge cock should be supplied as soon as possible. - -Q. When a gauge cock becomes stopped up what should be done? - -A. After steam is down, the front or outer part may be taken off and a -stiff wire run into it to open the clogged tube. - -Q. Is it simply necessary to get the wire through? - -A. No, the wire should be worked back and forth until all the deposit -or scale is thoroughly cleaned out. - -Q. In case the steam gauge gets out of order what should be done? - -A. There should always be an extra gauge on hand that may be put to -use. If there is no extra steam gauge, the engine should be shut down -until the gauge can be repaired. - -Q. Why not continue running by using the safety valve? - -A. Because it is very dangerous and should never be attempted. - -Q. How much variation from the actual pressure can be allowed on steam -gauge before it is repaired? - -A. None. As soon as suspected of being even slightly out of order it -should be repaired. - -Q. In case the pump does not work what should be done? - -A. Supply the boiler by the injector. - -Q. What is to be done where there is no injector? - -A. First, care should be taken that the water in the boiler does not -fall below the second gauge cock or out of sight in the gauge glass, -then stop the engine and bank the fire. When this is done, examine the -packing around the plunger to see that it does not leak air, then -examine the valves of the pump to ascertain whether they are worn and -leak. If this be the case they must be reseated at once. If the valves -are all right, work the pump and open the side valve in the delivery -pipe to see if the pump draws water. If no water appears, the trouble -is probably in the suction pipe. - -Q. How can this be remedied? - -A. First examine the strainer at end of suction pipe or hose to see if -it is stopped up; if it is, clean it out and try the pump. If it works, -the difficulty is remedied. If the strainer is clean, examine the pipe -or hose from end to end to see that it is perfectly air tight; if not, -it should be made so. - -Q. If the delivery pipe is choked, how can it be cleaned? - -A. Close the globe valve next to boiler, and then examine the check -valve to see if it is all right. If it is choked or filled with -sediment, take out the valve, clean the shell and re-seat the valve; if -the check is all right, disconnect the pipe and clean out if necessary. - -Q. What if this pipe and check valve are all right? - -A. Let the boiler cool off, then blow off the water, disconnect the -pipe between check and boiler, where the difficulty will probably be -found, and clean thoroughly. - -Q. How can check valve and delivery pipe be choked with water that has -already passed through the injector or valves of the pump? - -A. The water may contain quantities of lime which are deposited from -the heated water upon the interior of the pipe, which will thus be -gradually decreased in size until the hole is too small to answer the -purpose. - -Q. When the communication between the water gauge and boiler is -interrupted, what should be done? - -A. The glass should be blown out frequently by opening the drip cock -at the bottom, then shut the upper valve, allowing the water to blow -through the lower valve until the water runs free and clear. Then shut -the lower valve and open the upper one and blow through in like manner. - -Q. In case of low water what should be done? - -A. Cover the fire quickly with fresh coal or damp ashes, close the -lower draft door, and allow the furnace to cool. Never dash water into -the furnace to check the fire, it is dangerous. - -Q. Why not draw or dump the fire? - -A. Because it would result momentarily in stirring up an intense heat, -cooling can be effected more rapidly by covering the fire and checking -the draft. - -Q. Should the pop or safety valve be opened? - -A. No. Never let more steam out of the boiler in this condition than -can be avoided. - -Q. Should the engine be stopped or the throttle valve be closed? - -A. No. A sudden stoppage of the outflow of steam will cause the water -level to fall. The first thing to be looked after is to subdue the heat -which is the source from which trouble may arise. - -Q. Should the feed water supply be turned on? - -A. No. _Leave it alone._ Should the pump or injector be running, the -water level will be recovered gradually as the boiler cools down. If -the feed is not on, the sudden admittance of water on the overheated -surfaces will cause a disaster. The feed should not be turned on until -sufficient time has been allowed to avert such danger. - -Q. Are there any appliances by which to guard against accident from low -water? - -A. Yes. Alarms to call attention by blowing a whistle or ringing a bell -when the water is below a certain level. Also fusible or safety plug -placed in the heating surface of boiler most liable to be overheated -from lack of water. - -Q. Of what use is the safety valve? - -A. To prevent the accumulation of pressure above a given point. - -Q. Should water be left in the boiler when not in use? - -A. No. It is better to draw out all the water and properly clean the -boiler before leaving. - -Q. What should be done in case a grate bar breaks and drops out of -place? - -A. If no other bar is at hand, it might be repaired with a heavy stick -of wood. - -Q. How can this be done? - -A. By cutting the stick in such a shape as to fit the space made by the -broken bar, then cover with ashes before the fire spreads over it. - -Q. Will the stick burn out? - -A. Yes, but it will last for several hours. - - -NICHOLS & SHEPARD TRACTION ENGINE. - -This engine is also of the Side Crank, Side Gear pattern, the engine -is mounted upon the side of the boiler, upon a long heater, which -is securely bolted to the boiler by three brackets. It is of the -Locomotive Guide pattern, and has a cross-head pump. The cylinder rests -its full length upon the heater and is lagged. It has the link reverse -gear and plain slide valve, Friction Clutch, Injector, Automatic Sight -Feed Lubricator, Governor, Extension Front and Straight Stack. The hand -steering wheel is on the opposite side from the band wheel. - -The boiler is of the round bottom fire box style with double riveted -seams, and has a dome in the center, and is mounted upon the wheels in -the rear with a wrought iron axle which passes around underneath the -boiler and is held in place by brackets attached to the side of the -boiler. - -These brackets contain springs. - -The traction wheels are of the cast iron rim style, with wrought -iron spokes cast in both rim and hub and mud cleats are cast on rim. -The foot board is furnished with a water tank and tool box and all -necessary fittings and attachments are supplied to make a complete -traction engine. - -[Illustration: Nichols & Shepard Traction Engine.] - -Q. What harm would result from firing for a short time without the bar? - -A. None to speak of to furnace or grate bars, but the quantity of air -admitted to the fire box would make it exceedingly hard to keep up -steam and the hole thus made would cause a great loss of fuel. - -Q. What should be done if a bar in a rocker grate should fall out? - -A. Take a piece of flat wrought iron and cut it to fit the bearings, -this will do for some time and will not interfere with the rocking -of the bars. Or, take a heavy piece of plank, covering the opening -completely, and cover the plank carefully with ashes, surrounding it on -all sides to protect it as much as possible from the fire. - -Q. Will not this latter prevent the rocking of the grate? - -A. Yes, and it can only be cleaned by raking out from underneath. - -Q. How should such difficulties be avoided? - -A. A good engineer will always have on hand at least two or three extra -grate bars. - -Q. Should a boiler be forced beyond its normal capacity? - -A. Never force a boiler beyond its normal capacity, as such excessive -firing distorts the fire sheets and results in leaks and fractures. - -Q. Should intense fires be started in or under boilers? - -A. Never build an intense fire in or under a boiler until the shell is -well heated. Hot fires in or under cold boilers hurry their destruction. - - -CAUTION. - -Never blow out the boiler under high steam pressure or fill it again -with cold water when the boiler is hot, as either one of these is -likely to fracture the transverse riveting and is dangerous. - -Do not feed the water to the boiler irregularly. The slower the water -goes through the heater the more heat it takes up. To fill the boiler -to three gauges and then shut off the feed until the water level is -again down, the exhaust steam, after it has heated the water standing -in heater, passes off without leaving any of its heat, and then turning -on the feed water again much faster than needed, the water has not time -to take up so much heat as if the feed were slow and regular. Much bad -effect on the boiler is due to the difference in temperature at the -time when the feed is off and on. - -_Never calk a boiler under steam pressure unless you are tired of -life._ - - -CALKING FLUES. - -Q. In case the boiler flues become leaky, can they be tightened? - -A. Yes, by the use of a tool called an “expander,” which is generally -kept in stock by the boiler manufacturer. - -[Illustration: Prosser’s Spring Expander.] - -Q. Can an unskilled person expand and tighten the flues of his boiler -without the aid of an expert or boiler maker? - -A. Yes, if he is careful and follows these instructions, viz: - -First clean the ends of the flues and flue sheet of all dirt, soot and -cinders, and place the expander within the leaky flue, being careful to -have the shoulder of the tool well against the head and end of flue. -Now, with a light hammer drive in the taper expanding pin and after -two or three blows of the hammer, jar the pin out, turn the expander -a little and drive in pin as before, removing the pin and turning -expander again until a full turn has been made. - -Great care must be taken in expanding flues not to expand them so hard -as to stretch or enlarge the hole containing flue in the flue sheet, -thereby loosening the adjoining flue. After all the loose flues have -been carefully expanded, take the beading tool and place the long or -guide end within the flue, then with the aid of a light hammer the ends -of flues can be gradually beaded or calked against the flue sheet, -rendering them perfectly tight. With a little practice, a careful man -can do a neat job of calking, thereby avoiding loss of time and expense -in being obliged to call a boiler maker. An expander and calking tools -should be among the tools of every engineer, as many little leaks that -may occur in a steam boiler, although they may not be dangerous, give -it a bad appearance and should be calked and stopped by the engineer. - - -CLEANING FLUES. - -Q. How are boiler flues cleaned? - -A. There are two ways of cleaning flues, viz: with a steam blower and -a scraper. The latter is more commonly used and when properly applied -does its work most efficiently. - -The scraper is screwed on the end of a rod of sufficient length to -allow it to pass through the flue, and when cleaning, the scraper -should be passed forward and backward through the flue or least two or -three times, to insure all the soot and ashes being removed. - -[Illustration: Wilson Pat. Flue Scraper.] - -The cleaning of flues should be done systematically, as often as -required to keep them clean, as clean flues not only add greatly to the -steaming capacity of the boiler, but make a great difference in the -amount of fuel used. - -If the flues are allowed to become covered inside with soot and ashes, -the formation of which becomes a non-conductor for heat, the product of -combustion passes through the flues without leaving more than one-half -as much heat as it would otherwise leave if the flues were clean. - - -BLOWER. - -=The Blower= consists of a small pipe attached to the steam dome or top -of the boiler with a globe or angle valve, and is situated near the -stack. This pipe enters the stack just above the boiler, the end being -bent up toward the top of stack and reduced to a very small opening. -When steam is turned on through this pipe, it displaces the air in the -stack, causes a partial vacuum in the smoke box, and the air rushes -through the grates, fuel and flues to replace that which is blown out -by the blower, and the draught can be increased as much as desired. - - -EXHAUST NOZZLE. - -=The Exhaust Nozzle=, as generally constructed, is an elbow attached -to the end of the exhaust pipe in the smoke box or smoke stack of the -boiler, the end of which points upward, with the opening reduced so -that the exhaust steam will be forced up the stack, and thereby produce -the same effect as a blower. - -The opening in the exhaust nozzle should never be made so small as to -check the exhaust steam to any great degree, and cause back pressure -in the cylinder, as the power of the engine would be diminished. The -opening should be as large as possible, and still produce sufficient -draught to keep the required steam pressure. - - -FUSIBLE PLUG. - -[Illustration: Lunkenheimer Fusible Plug.] - -=A Fusible Plug= is a short brass bolt which has a hole running through -its center, filled with a metal that melts at a low temperature. This -plug is screwed into the crown sheet directly over the fire, and as -long as it is covered with water the metal will not melt and run out; -but should the water become low, exposing the crown sheet to the -intense heat of the fire, the metal will run out, and the steam rushing -through the hole puts out the fire and many times saves the crown sheet -from injury. - -Q. In what condition would the plug become useless and of no value? - -A. By allowing it to become covered on the inner end with scale and -sediment. It should be unscrewed and occasionally examined, at least -two or three times during the season, and all scale and dirt removed -from the end of the plug before replacing. Examine the crown sheet to -see that no scale has formed over the hole to prevent the water from -reaching the plug. - -Q. How can a plug that has melted out be refilled? - -A. Unscrew the plug from crown sheet and cap one end with clay, then -melt the lead or babbitt metal in a shovel, spoon, or even a piece of -bent sheet iron, and refill the plug. Now, with a light hammer, close -the ends tight, and screw the plug into the crown sheet. - - -LOW WATER ALARM. - -A low water alarm is an instrument attached to a boiler, and so -arranged and constructed that when the water in the boiler gets to a -certain level, whereby it is becoming dangerously low, the alarm is -given by the blowing of a whistle or ringing of a bell. - - -J. I. CASE AUTOMATIC HIGH SPEED ENGINE. - -This style of Automatic Engines combines simplicity, compactness, -direct action, lightness of moving parts, automatic lubrication, and -perfect regulation. - -[Illustration: J. I. Case Automatic Pedestal Engine.] - -It is made in three main varieties: The Pedestal Engine, the Bracket -Engine, and the Hanger Engine. The illustration represents the -Pedestal type, the upright frame of which is cast in one piece, and -encloses and protects the principal moving parts, its lower part being -a reservoir for oil, into which the crank-pin dips at every revolution, -affording a simple and efficient means of lubrication. - -The piston is connected directly with the crank shaft, thus doing -away with the cross-head, wrist-pin and guides. The piston being thus -connected at one end to the crank-pin, it travels back and forth at its -other extremity through the bore of the cylinder. The latter by reason -of its shape is free to turn in its casing, and is therefore rocked by -the vibrating piston rod through an arc sufficient to open and close -the steam and exhaust ports on its face. - -The cut-off valve is of the plug type, and receives its motion from the -shaft cut-off governor, attached to the balance wheel. - -The center crank shaft runs in two large bearings which are bolted -securely to the side of the frame. Access to the inside of the frame -can be had by taking off the plates from either side. - -The J. I. Case High Speed Engines range in size from 2½ to 25 horse -power, the speed of which ranges from 900 down to 550 revolutions per -minute, and can be used in any capacity. - - -STEAM ENGINES. - -All styles of engines both large and small should receive proper -attention. All the vibrating and moving parts should be kept well -oiled and free from grit and dirt. If this is neglected, the friction -of the moving parts will soon wear away the metal and induce pounding -and cause what is called “lost motion,” which detracts greatly from -the power of the engine, and if allowed to run in this condition will -soon necessitate large expense for repairs and shorten the life of the -engine. - -Tighten all the boxes as they wear, being careful not to get them -too tight. Keep the piston rod and valve rod well packed with a good -quality of soft packing. Keep the valve or valves set properly to give -the required amount of lap and lead and an equal cut-off at the end of -each stroke whether working in full gear or notched up. - -Keep the cross-head shoes fitted properly in the guides, being careful -to keep the piston rod in line. If the above instructions are followed, -your engine will run smoothly and do good service. - -[Illustration: Sectional View of Simple Engine, Showing Cylinder, Steam -Chest, Plain Slide Valve, Steam and Exhaust Ports, Piston and Rod, -Engine Frame, Cross-head, Connecting Rod, Crank Disc, and Rocker Arm -and Rod for Operating Valve.] - - -STEAM CYLINDER. - -=The Steam Cylinder= is that part of an engine in which the piston -travels; it also contains the steam and exhaust ports and is one of the -most expensive, as well as essential, parts of an engine. The cylinder -should be made of the best quality of cast iron, and the greatest care -taken in boring it perfectly true and round. It should be counter-bored -at each end to allow the piston in its travel to overlap at the end of -each stroke. Without the counter-bore, a shoulder would be formed at -both ends of the cylinder as it became worn by the piston rings, which -in time would cause a knock or pound at the end of every stroke; the -only remedy being to have the cylinder re-bored. - -Special attention should be paid to keeping the cylinder well oiled -with the best quality of cylinder oil to prevent it from being cut by -the piston rings. If allowed to run dry and cut, it will cause no end -of trouble. - -The size of cylinder is not always the measure of the power of the -engine. The power depends upon the heating surface of the boiler and -steam pressure; as the piston speed can always be increased, by running -the engine faster, until the maximum evaporating capacity of the boiler -is reached. - - -PISTON AND ROD. - -=The Piston= is another very important part in the construction of -an engine, and it conveys the power of the steam to the crank. It is -composed of a piston head, on which are placed the piston rings held in -position by the follower plate, and is securely attached to the piston -rod. Great care should be taken in the construction of the piston rings -to have them fit the cylinder perfectly tight, at the same time to have -the least possible friction. Piston rings should always be made of a -softer metal than the cylinder so that the greater part of the wear -will be upon the rings instead of the cylinder, as the rings can easily -be replaced. - -There are a great many kinds of packing for piston rings, but the most -commonly used at the present time are the steam packing rings. The -character, accuracy in construction and condition of the piston make -a great difference in the quantity of fuel consumed and the amount of -power developed by the engine. - -=The Piston Rod= connects the piston to the cross-head and is generally -made of steel. Where the piston rod enters the cylinder, a steam tight -joint is obtained by the use of a soft, pliable packing placed in the -stuffing box, and held in position by the stuffing box gland. - -This box is kept packed just tight enough to prevent leaking, by -drawing up the stuffing box gland when required. This can be repeated -until the packing is all used up, when box must be repacked. - - -STEAM CHEST. - -=The Steam Chest= contains the valve, and can be on either side of -cylinder as may best suit the style of engine. Steam is admitted into -the steam chest, and passes into the cylinder by the action of the -valve. - -Many engine builders cast cylinder and steam chest in one piece, while -others cast them separately and bolt them together. The only advantage -of the former over the latter is the absence of one less joint to keep -packed. - -[Illustration: Steam Chest and Plain Slide Valve.] - -The steam ports are the two openings through which the steam is -admitted to the cylinder. - -The exhaust port is the opening through which the exhaust or waste -steam passes out of the cylinder. - - -VALVE. - -There are a great many kinds of valves used on steam engines, namely, -the Corliss, Slide, Rocker, Balance, Rotary, etc., but the one most -commonly used on farm engines is the plain slide valve, which has been -generally adopted by all the larger engine builders in this country. -It is simple in design, and when properly set does its work very -efficiently. They are less complicated than others and are easily set; -they are made in many different designs, but the principle of each is -the same. - -The slide valve is constructed to slide upon the smooth surface of -the valve seat, in which are contained the two steam ports for the -admission of steam to each end of the cylinder, and also the exhaust -port through which the exhaust or waste steam passes out of the -cylinder. - -The slide valve is operated by the eccentrics, which are attached to -the main crank shaft of the engine and revolve with it, the object of -the eccentrics being to move the slide valve back and forth upon its -seat to admit the steam alternately through the steam ports to the -cylinder. - -The valve gear is a most important detail and one upon which the -economy of fuel in a great measure depends, and any derangement in this -part of an engine causes an immediate increase in the fuel consumed and -decrease in the power of the engine. - -In a properly constructed valve the slide upon the seat should be -reduced to the smallest possible amount, and should be so designed as -to give an equal cut-off and release at both ends of the cylinder, -whether working full gear or notched up. - -The engine should also have the same power whether working forward or -backward, and the cut-off should be as sharp as possible. - -The more perfect the valve gear the more the engine can be notched up, -and thus allow the steam to expand in the cylinder to its utmost. The -engine which can be notched up the most is the most economical in fuel -and water. - - -CROSS-HEAD. - -[Illustration: Cross-head.] - -=The Cross-head= is of cast iron and connects the piston rod to the -connecting rod, and is that part of an engine where the motion is -changed from vibrating to rotary. The piston rod is fastened securely -to it, while the connecting rod is attached by wrist-pin. On a V guide -or bored guide engine frame the cross-head is supplied with adjustable -shoe slides that can be adjusted to take up their wear and fit the -guides properly, also to keep the piston rod in line. On a bar or -locomotive guide engine the cross-head is adjusted by removing the -liners from between the bars. - - -ENGINE FRAME. - -=The Engine Frame= is the large casting which contains the bored, V -shaped or locomotive guides for cross-head shoes. It also contains the -pillow block for crank shaft at one end and the cylinder is bolted to -the other. They are made in many different styles and shapes, but all -answer the same purpose. - - -CONNECTING ROD. - -=The Connecting Rod= on an engine is the connection between the -cross-head and crank-pin; it is generally made of wrought iron or -steel, with brass boxes at each end held in position by wrought straps. -These straps are attached to the connecting rod by gibs and keys. -Connecting rods are sometimes made with mortised ends to receive the -brass boxes, which are held in place by wedge block and adjusting -screw. The latter style is used principally on the larger makes of -engines. While the connecting rod with mortised ends are considered a -little the safest, the straps on the ends of rods are most commonly -used. The brass boxes at ends of connecting rod are adjustable to take -up the wear by use of the gibs and keys, and they should be adjusted as -frequently as there is any lost motion discovered at the crank-pin or -cross-head, which will be indicated by a knocking or pounding as the -crank passes over the centers. - -[Illustration: Connecting Rod.] - - -CRANK. - -=The Crank= is that part of an engine by which the effect of the steam -acting against the piston is converted into work. There are two kinds, -Side and Center crank. The term Side crank refers to a disc plate or -a crank attached to one end of a shaft and in which is placed the -crank-pin. When the shaft extends to the right the engine is called a -right hand engine, and when it extends to the left it is called a left -hand engine. - -The term Center crank refers to a shaft with the crank in the center, -the shaft extending equally both ways and so constructed as to be very -well balanced. It is optional as to which gives the best results as -both kinds are used upon all sizes of engines. - - -CRANK-PIN. - -=The Crank-Pin= connects the connecting rod and crank. It is made of -steel, and special care should be taken to keep the crank-pin well -oiled. If allowed to run dry and cut, it will soon heat and ruin both -pin and boxes. If once allowed to become cut, it will be impossible to -prevent it from heating. - - -LINK REVERSE. - -=The Link Reverse= is composed of two eccentrics and rods, link, block -and slide, also lever and quadrant for holding link in any position. -The duty of the link is to reverse the engine by simply throwing the -reverse lever backward and forward. The speed of the engine can also be -reduced and increased by the same operation. - -[Illustration: Link Reverse.] - - -RUMELY TRACTION ENGINE. - -In the construction of this engine, which is of the side crank, rear -gear style, it will be seen that the engine is in a different position -upon the boiler from the ordinary side crank, having the cylinder -forward, and the crank shaft at the rear end. The frame is of the -girder pattern, with overhanging cylinder attached to one end, the -pillow block bearing at the other, and is secured to the boiler by two -brackets. - -The engine is supplied with a Cross-head Pump, Link Reverse Gear, -Friction Clutch, Automatic Oiler, Governor, Large Cylindrical Water -Tank on the side, and Tool Boxes upon the Platform. - -The boiler is of the round bottom fire box or locomotive style, has the -dome in front, and the ash pan is in the lower part of the fire box. - -It is mounted upon the traction wheels by brackets attached to the rear -end of the boiler, which contain the main axle. The front end rests -upon a trussed axle. - -The traction wheels are high, and are of the wrought iron rim direct -spoke type. The loose traction wheel is furnished with a locking device -for securing it to the axle. - -In the arrangement of the engine and the high traction wheels, the -driving or band wheel is placed between one of the traction wheels -and the boiler. The necessary fittings are furnished with both boiler -and engine to keep them in good running order and perfectly safe if -properly handled. - -[Illustration: Rumely Traction Engine.] - - -LINK. - -=The Link= is that part which holds the link block and is connected at -each end to the eccentric rods; it is used only on reversing engines. -The link is made on a curve, so that when the link block is at either -extreme end the valve is operated to its full movement. When the block -is in the center of link, the valve covers both ports and prevents the -ingress of steam to the cylinder. - -=The Link Block= is attached to the slide which connects it to the -valve rod. The valve rod connects the slide and valve, and where it -enters the steam chest is packed in like manner to the piston rod. - - -REVERSE LEVER. - -=The Reverse Lever= is that part of the valve gear connected with the -link for raising and lowering it, thereby changing the travel of the -valve and reversing the motion of the engine. When the reverse lever -is placed in the center notch of quadrant, the lap of slide valve -should cover both steam ports, preventing any steam from entering the -cylinder, thus stopping the engine. In moving this lever from the -center notch, it either drops or raises the link as the case may be, -increasing the travel of the valve and allowing steam to enter the -cylinder. When the reverse lever is thrown into the outside notch of -quadrant at either end you get full travel of the valve which gives -full power of engine, providing you have sufficient steam pressure. - - -ECCENTRICS. - -=The Eccentric= on an engine is for the purpose of moving the valve -back and forth upon the valve seat and has a throw equal to the travel -of the valve. The throw of eccentric is caused by the wheel or plate -being bored to one side of its true center, and generally equals -one-half the travel of the valve. If more or less, the difference is -caused by the use of rocker arm or similar devices for increasing or -diminishing the throw of eccentric as the case may be. The eccentric is -accurately fitted and fastened to the main shaft of the engine with set -screws or key. - - -ECCENTRIC STRAP. - -=The Eccentric Strap= is that part of the engine in which the eccentric -revolves, and is attached to link by the eccentric rod. It should be -kept well oiled to secure a free and easy movement to the link. - -On reversing engines there are two eccentrics exactly alike, one -connecting with upper end of link, the other with lower end by the -eccentric straps and rods. In this case the eccentric rod that is -moving the valve is the one nearest to the link block. When the lever -is in the center notch the link is also in the center of its travel. -In this case, both of the eccentric rods move an equal distance and -the link vibrates back and forth, but as the block is in the center -it gives no motion to the valve, and as the valve, having sufficient -lap, covers both ports when the lever is in this position prevents the -ingress of steam to the cylinder, consequently no motion. - - -ECCENTRIC ROD. - -=The Eccentric Rod= connects the eccentric to the link, two being used -on a reversing engine. On a simple engine only one eccentric rod is -used and is connected to a rocker arm which is attached to the valve -rod. - - -WOOLF VALVE GEAR. - -=The Woolf Valve Gear= is used in connection with an engine to reverse -its motion. It is arranged with one eccentric attached to the crank -shaft the strap of which has a long arm cast on, to which the eccentric -rod that moves the valve is attached. This arm is also supplied with a -roller, which runs in a slot on a rocking head. This head is held in -position by a box and is connected to the reverse lever by a rod. By -throwing the reverse lever to either end of the quadrant, the position -of the rocking head is so placed that the roller in the slide operates -the eccentric strap, rod and valve, and the engine will run in the -direction desired. By throwing the reverse lever to the opposite end of -the quadrant, the position of the rocking head is so changed that it -will reverse the motion of the valve, and the engine will run in the -opposite direction. - -[Illustration: Woolf Valve Gear.] - -The Quadrant being notched, the point of cut-off can be regulated with -the reverse lever, according to the load; by placing it in the last -notch in quadrant when full power of engine is required, or notching it -up when doing light work, the same as with the link reverse gear. - - -GOVERNOR. - -=The Governor= contains a valve so constructed and connected with the -weighted balls that an increase of speed of the engine throws out the -balls, which raises the arms attached to valve rod, thereby closing the -valve and thus decreases the flow of steam through the governor valve -and reduces the speed of engine until the governor balls are again in -their true position. Now, when the speed decreases and the weighted -balls rise above their true position, the valve opens, allows more -steam to enter the cylinder and the speed of the engine increases until -the engine is again running at its proper speed. - -[Illustration: Gardner Governor.] - -Governors are used to regulate the quantity of steam required to run an -engine at a uniform speed under variation of load, and to run properly -they should be kept perfectly clean and free from the accumulation of -gummy substances caused by using inferior oil, which has a tendency to -interfere with the free and easy movement of the different parts. - -Q. If you desire to run your engine faster or slower with the throttle -valve wide open, how can it be done? - -A. Some makes of governors are provided with regulating screws at the -top; by turning the hand nut in one direction you lengthen the valve -stem and reduce the steam opening in the governor valve, which reduces -the speed. - -To increase the speed of the engine the handle nut is turned the -opposite direction, which shortens the stem and increases the opening -in governor valve, allowing more steam to enter the cylinder and the -speed is proportionately increased. - -The Gardner Governors are provided with a hand screw at the side for -regulating the speed, as will be seen by examining the accompanying -cut. It also has a Sawyer’s Lever for opening the valve to its full -extent, and a belt tightener. - -Q. Will the handle nut stay in position after once being set to a -certain speed? - -A. Not unless the check nut directly over the handle nut is screwed -down tight to prevent the stem from changing its position. - -Q. Is a governor liable to cause trouble and fail to govern the engine -properly? - -A. All governors are more or less delicate in construction and must be -kept clean and well oiled, the belt must not be allowed to slip, nor -must it be so tight as to cause the governor to work hard. The small -stuffing box that packs the valve stem should never be screwed down -steam tight, as it causes too much friction on the stem and prevents -the balls from operating it, and the engine will run unsteadily and -spasmodically. Always allow the stuffing box to leak a little, then you -know it is not too tight. - -First class governors may sometimes be condemned for not regulating -the engine to a uniform speed, when a good cleaning, oiling or -loosening of the valve stem stuffing box nut would allow them to work -perfectly. - - -AUTOMATIC OILER. - -=An Automatic Oiler= is used on an engine to keep the cylinder, piston -and valve lubricated, and is most essential for the safety and easy -operation of these parts. It works automatically and is supplied with a -glass tube through which the oil can be seen passing into the cylinder. -The feed can be regulated to allow just the required amount of oil to -pass into the cylinder. - -Where a sight-feed automatic oiler is used on an engine there can be no -excuse whatever for the engineer to allow the cylinder to run dry and -cut, as he at all times can see whether oil is passing into it or not. - -Q. How do you fill an automatic oiler? - -A. Close valves D and E, open valve G to draw off the water. Close -valve G and take out filling plug C, fill A with oil and replace plug -C, then open valve D, and the flow of oil to the cylinder can be -regulated with valve E. - -Q. Will the oil feed as soon as the oiler is filled? - -A. No; time must be given for sight-feed glass and condensing chamber -to fill with water of condensation. - -[Illustration: DESCRIPTION. - - =A.= Oil Reservoir. - =C.= Filler Plug. - =D.= Water Feed Valve. - =E.= Regulating Valve. - =F.= Condensing Chamber. - =G.= Drain Valve. - =H.= Sight-Feed Glass. - =L.= Plug to Insert Glass. - =K.= Connection to Steam Pipe or Steam Chest. - =Q.= Drain Valve for Sight-Feed Glass. - -Single Connection Detroit Oiler.] - -Q. How is a double connection automatic oiler attached? - -A. First, the steam pipe must be drilled and tapped above the throttle -with ½ or ¾ inch gas tap, as may be necessary to receive the oil -discharge pipe of oiler and put oiler in place. Then tap the steam pipe -about 18 inches if possible above the top of the condensing chamber and -fit in a ¼ inch gas pipe for steam connecting tube, which attaches to -the top of condensing chamber. (See illustration.) - -[Illustration: Double Connection Detroit Oiler.] - -Where the steam pipe cannot be tapped 18 inches above the condensing -chamber, it may be tapped lower down and the steam connecting tube -of required length be bent in a horizontal coil. With the single -connection oiler it is only necessary to drill and tap one hole in the -steam pipe. - -[Illustration: Double Connection Detroit Oiler.] - -Q. Should oiler become clogged, how can it be cleaned? - -A. Open the valves, by which steam can be forced through it, and all -the passages will be cleaned. This can be done without stopping the -engine. - -Q. If oiler is not in use and in danger of freezing, what should be -done? - -A. Leave valves D, G and E open, and all water will be drained off. - -Q. If the glass tube in oiler should get broken, what should be done? - -A. Shut valves D and E, remove broken glass and replace with new. - -Q. How can oil be prevented from sticking to lubricator glasses? - -A. A very simple remedy is to fill the glass with glycerine and let the -oil feed through it. - - -INJECTOR. - -=An Injector= is an automatic machine attached to a boiler, for -injecting or forcing water into it and at the same time heating the -water to a very high temperature, which saves fuel and prevents the -danger of sudden contraction of the plates and flues. It can be used -independently and is indispensable on a farm engine. - -In piping an injector to boiler, use as short and as straight pipes as -possible and especially avoid short turns. Take steam directly from -boiler, and have a globe valve in steam pipe close to injector; have -the water suction or supply pipe independent of any other connection, -and it must be supplied with a globe valve close to injector. This -pipe and connections must be absolutely air tight; the slightest leak -will cause trouble. The discharge pipe to boiler must be supplied with -a tight and reliable check valve. If valve leaks, the injector will -become hot and cause no end of annoyance. It is a good plan to put a -stop valve between check and boiler in discharge pipe, so that check -valve maybe taken off and repaired, or a new one put on without loss -of time. A foot of straight pipe screwed into the overflow assists in -starting an injector, especially at low pressure. - -[Illustration: American U. S. Injector.] - -Q. How do you start an injector to work? - -A. To start an injector, open the suction valve wide, then open steam -valve. If water appears at the overflow, close and open quickly the -suction valve, opening only about ¼ of a turn if at low steam pressure, -and one turn or more if at high steam pressure, regulating the water -supply according to steam pressure. The injector is controlled entirely -by the valve in suction pipe, or by the suction lever after the steam -is turned on. - -Q. Will an injector work with hot supply water? - -A. An injector will not work if the water that is delivered from the -tank is too hot to condense the steam. - -Q. What are the principal causes of an injector not working accurately? - -A. Leak in suction pipe, supply cut off by strainer being clogged, -loose lining inside the hose, leak in the stem of valve, too little -steam pressure to lift, dirt in the tubes, red lead blown or drawn -in through steam or supply pipe, bad check valve, not lift enough or -none at all, new boiler full of grease, wet steam, obstruction in the -connection to the boiler. - -If injector fails, examine at all of these points before condemning. -The most common trouble is a leaky suction. - -In describing the method of connection and operating an injector the -foregoing may have to be modified in some instances, as there are a -great many different kinds and styles of injectors which operate and -connect differently, but the above if followed carefully and with a -little discretion will be found useful. - -Bear in mind, however, that the injector does not start to work to -boiler as soon as it gets the water. At first the water will run out -of the overflow. At this point you start the injector working to the -boiler by closing and opening the water valve as quickly as possible -_with a jerk, or as nearly with one motion as you can_. - -Q. How do you find the maximum and minimum capacity of injectors? - -A. Injectors are controlled entirely by the suction valve after steam -is turned on. To find the maximum capacity of an injector after -starting, gradually open the suction valve in supply pipe until steam -“breaks” and water comes out of the overflow, then start the injector -again and you will know about how far the suction valve can be opened -without causing the “break.” - -To find the minimum capacity of the injector, manipulate the suction -valve in the same manner in exactly the opposite direction. - - -DIRECTIONS FOR OPERATING WORLD INJECTOR. - -See that the injector is shut off when put on, by turning the handle -as far to the right as it will go. To start, turn handle to the left -one-quarter turn; when the water appears at the overflow, turn the -handle slowly to the left as far as it will go, and the injector will -be working to the boiler. - -[Illustration: American World Injector.] - -If steam is high and lift long, the injector will lift the water -better if the handle is turned a little less than a quarter of a turn, -until the water appears at overflow—then start to boiler as before. - -If you have valves in steam and suction pipes, be sure and open them -before starting. - -Q. How high will an injector draw its supply? - -A. About twenty feet is the limit. - -Q. How hot does an injector deliver water? - -A. From 150 degrees to 200 degrees, according to the steam pressure and -the proportions of its capacity at which injector is working. - -Q. How should the jets be cleaned when they become scaled? - -A. By soaking in diluted muriated acid, about one part acid to ten -parts water. - - -THROTTLE. - -=The Throttle= on an engine is the valve which allows the steam to -enter or be shut off from the cylinder and should always be left wide -open on a governor engine when running, as the governor regulates the -quantity of steam required to run it at its proper speed and is much -more economical. - -There are different styles of valves used for throttles, such as Globe -Valves, Butterfly Valves, Disc Valves, etc. - -[Illustration: Lunkenheimer Throttle Valve.] - -The Lunkenheimer is a double disc valve, and is operated by the handle -or rod attachment, and requires no lock or ratchet. - - -STEAM PUMP. - -=An Independent Steam Pump= is virtually an engine with two cylinders, -one for the steam piston, the other for the water piston or plunger, -and is used in connection with a steam boiler for supplying it with -water. The discharge pipe of a pump is generally connected with a feed -water heater of some sort, which heats the water to a high temperature -before entering the boiler, though there is a late pattern of steam -pump which delivers the feed water to the boiler at about the same -temperature as the injector. The cylinder of steam pump should always -be well oiled before starting in the morning and stopping at night. The -stuffing boxes on piston and valve rod should in all cases be kept well -filled with soft and moist packing. If the packing is allowed to become -dry and hard, it will cut the rod, inducing leakage and necessitating -repairs. When a steam pump is not in use in cold weather all the drain, -drip and pet cocks should be left open, to allow the water to run out. -While most farm engines are furnished with an independent steam pump, -some are equipped with what is called a cross-head pump. - -[Illustration: J. I. Case Steam Pump.] - -=A Cross-Head Pump= is operated by a plunger attached to the cross-head -of engine and has two valves, a supply and a discharge valve, also is -supplied with an air chamber. This style of pump is available only when -engine is running. Engines with a cross-head pump should always be -supplied with an injector to be used in case of failure of pump to work -and while engine is shut down. The cross-head pump is connected to the -heater in the same manner as an independent pump. - -Q. How high will the steam pump lift water? - -A. A steam pump will lift or draw water about 33 feet, as with one -inch area, 33 feet of water will weigh 14.7 lbs., but the pump must be -in very good order to lift 20 feet and all pipes must be absolutely -air tight. A pump will give better satisfaction lifting from 10 to 15 -feet. No pump however good will lift hot water, for the reason that as -soon as air is expelled from the barrel of the pump the vapor occupies -the space, thereby destroys the vacuum and interferes with the supply -of water. When necessary to pump hot water, place the pump below the -supply, so that the water will flow into the valve chamber. Always have -a strainer at lower end of suction or supply pipe. A pump should be set -up so that it is accessible for inspection, cleaning and repairs, and -so that the shortest and straightest suction and delivery pipes can be -used. - - -MARSH STEAM PUMP. - -=The Marsh Steam Pump= is so constructed that the exhaust steam may -be turned into the suction, thereby condensing its exhaust steam and -returning it with its heat to the boiler, thus heating the feed water -to a high degree. - -The pump is automatically regulated and can never run too fast to take -suction, or should the water supply give out when the throttle valve is -wide open no injury can occur to the moving parts. - -The steam valve, though nicely fitted, moves freely in the central bore -of the steam chest, and has no mechanical connection with other moving -parts of the pump, but is actuated to admit, cut off and release the -steam by live steam currents which alternate with the reciprocation of -the piston. - -Each end of the valve is made to fit the enlarged bore of the steam -chest, and it is due to these large valve heads, which present -differential areas to the action of steam and the perfect freedom of -the valve to move without hindrance from other mechanical arrangements -or parts, that the flow of steam into the pump is automatically -regulated. - -[Illustration: MARSH PUMP. - -Capacity 10 to 35 Horse-Power.] - -The steam valve does not require setting, as it has no dead center and -will always start when steam is admitted. - -The steam piston is double and each head is provided with a metal -packing ring. The piston rod is made of Tobin bronze, the stuffing -boxes and water piston are made of brass, and the water cylinder is -brass lined. The water valves may be removed for inspection by simply -taking off the air chamber. - -[Illustration: View of Marsh Steam Pump, Showing Water Valves, Steam -Valves, Suction Chamber and Piston.] - - -DIRECTIONS FOR SETTING UP AND RUNNING. - -Before connecting the steam pipes, blow out with steam pressure the -chips and dirt in the steam pipes. Always use the union furnished with -the pump. It has a gauze gasket in it to catch the dirt that may get -into the valve. Before starting pump, open air cock in delivery pipe -and turn exhaust lever back, away from the air chamber. Then open -throttle valve wide and allow pump to exhaust into the air until it -takes suction, when deflecting lever may be thrown forward toward air -chamber and cold water in the pump will condense the exhaust and return -it to the boiler. - -If pump refuses to work, the difficulty is to be looked for in the -valve chest. Do not take off the chest. The valve may be taken out and -cleaned but _never_ filed. _The valve must be returned through same end -as taken from._ Before closing, be sure that the head is screwed tight -on the valve, using the socket wrench furnished. - -When the pump is stopped, pull the exhaust lever back, so the condensed -steam from leak of throttle valve will not go into the pump. It is -safer also in cold weather to take off head of water end. Slight but -constant lubrication adds much to the regular working of the pump. -Be sure there are no leaks in the suction pipe, and when water is -raised more than 10 feet, a foot valve should be put in. Compress the -packings on piston rod as little as possible and yet prevent the escape -of steam. Before leaving the pump in cold weather, break the suction -and allow it to run empty for a minute with all the cocks open, then -be sure the throttle valve is closed tight. When necessary, pack the -joints under the steam chest, side plate and air chamber with manilla -paper or thin rubber. - - -HEATER. - -=The Heater= is used on an engine in connection with a boiler for -heating the feed water before it enters the boiler under steam -pressure. It is usually constructed of a shell of cast or boiler iron -into which live or exhaust steam is admitted. This shell usually -contains a series of pipes or a coil of pipe, through which the feed -water is forced by the pump, the water thereby being heated to a high -temperature before entering the boiler. - - -EJECTOR. - -=An Ejector= is a machine for lifting water from various depths and -forcing it to various heights with steam pressure, as follows: - -With 20 pounds steam pressure an ejector will lift water to a level -from 16 or 17 feet below and force it to a height of 15 or 16 feet. - -[Illustration: American Ejector.] - -With 60 pounds steam pressure will lift 20 feet and force to a height -of 60 feet. - -With 100 pounds steam pressure will lift 23 feet and force to a height -of 107 feet. - -An ejector may be placed in any position to suit the convenience in -piping; they require but three connections, steam, suction and delivery. - - -JET PUMP. - -=A Jet Pump= is a machine used for drawing water and discharging it -above the surface level. It will draw water to a level from 10 or 15 -feet below and discharge it at a height of about one foot to every -pound steam pressure applied. - -A jet pump has three connections, steam, suction and delivery, and may -be placed in any position to suit convenience in piping. - -[Illustration: American Jet Pump.] - - -STEAM GAUGE. - -=A Steam Gauge= is an instrument used for indicating in pounds the -amount of steam pressure upon each square inch of surface of the -boiler. It is very delicately constructed, and should not be tampered -with after once being set to indicate correctly. If a steam gauge is -found not to indicate the exact pressure in the boiler it should be -sent to the factory for repairs. Never attempt to repair it unless all -the appliances for so doing are at hand. - -A steam gauge should always be placed on a boiler with a syphon, or by -tying a knot in the pipe between it and the boiler, so that the steam -may condense, thereby allowing the water to operate it. If steam is -allowed to enter, the heat would tend to expand the tube in the gauge -and it would indicate more than the real pressure. - -A steam gauge is usually constructed with a hollow, flat tube, called -the Bourdon spring. This tube is bent in a simple curve and fastened -at one end, the other end is free and by a simple clock work actuates -the pointer which indicates upon the dial the steam pressure per square -inch upon the boiler. - -[Illustration: Ashcroft Steam Gauge.] - -[Illustration: Interior Ashcroft Steam Gauge.] - -Q. What should be done in case the steam gauge becomes defective? - -A. When the steam gauge has become broken by freezing or otherwise, and -there is none on hand, the engineer may run by setting the safety valve -so that it will blow off within from ten to fifteen pounds less than it -is ordinarily set at, and then by careful firing, run until a new gauge -can be procured, which should be done without delay. - -Some engineers have been known to make a practice of running without a -steam gauge. - -Q. Would you recommend this method? - -A. No, it must be resorted to only in case of a sudden accident and -where shutting down would cause great loss. Every engineer should have -an extra steam gauge on hand, to be used in case of accident to the one -in use. - - -SAFETY VALVE. - -=Safety Valves=, or pop valves, as they are sometimes termed, are made -in many different kinds and styles, but the one most commonly used on -a farm engine is constructed with a coil spring, which is adjustable, -to allow the valve to pop off at a certain pressure. When the pressure -exceeds this amount, it raises the valve from its seat and allows the -surplus steam to escape. It should be set with the steam gauge, to -allow a little margin of steam pressure over that which is necessary to -drive the load, and should be compared with the steam gauge frequently -to see that it works accurately. It is furnished with a lever for -raising the valve, which should be raised occasionally to see that it -operates freely. - -[Illustration: Kunkle Safety Valve.] - -[Illustration: Kunkle Safety Valve, Sectional.] - -The safety valve being set with steam gauge, the gauge should be -watched when safety valve blows off. If it indicates more or less than -the gauge something is wrong, the valve marked incorrectly or the -steam gauge is out of order. In case the safety valve and steam gauge -do not register alike, the valve should be examined to see that the -valve is not stuck in its seat, and should be thoroughly cleaned of -all sediment; then put back in place again and compared with the steam -gauge as before. If they do not register alike, the gauge should be -examined. - -Q. Is not a safety valve attached to a boiler to prevent explosion and -loss of life? - -A. The Safety Valve is only intended to prevent an explosion from -excessive steam pressure, and should never be set to hold more than -the required pressure to give the rated power for which the engine is -designed. - - -GLASS WATER GAUGE. - -=A Glass Water Gauge= is a device attached to a boiler to show the -level of water in the boiler. It consists of a glass tube ten or -twelve inches long, with an angle valve attached at each end. The -lower valve enters the boiler below the water line, the top valve -enters the boiler above the water line in the steam space. The ends of -the glass are made steam and water tight by means of rubber gaskets and -stuffing boxes. As water will seek its own level, the height of water -in the boiler will show a corresponding height in the glass, and the -engineer at a glance knows just how high the water in the boiler is -above the flues and crown sheet. - -[Illustration: Lunkenheimer Water Gauge.] - - -BLOW OFF VALVE. - -=The Blow Off Valve= is an angle or globe valve attached to the -lower part of a boiler for the purpose of blowing off the sediment -accumulated by the use of impure water, and should be used more or less -frequently according to the condition of the water used, but never less -than once a week. There is also a surface blow off which is attached -to the boiler at about the safe water level for the purpose of blowing -off the scum which accumulates on top of the water. This scum should be -blown off once or twice a day. - - -GAUGE COCK. - -=A Gauge Cock= is a stop cock attached to a boiler to ascertain the -height of water in the boiler. There are generally two and sometimes -three gauge cocks attached to a boiler. The lower one enters the boiler -as low down as it is deemed safe to allow the water to get, while the -upper one enters the boiler sufficiently high to avoid getting too much -water. Where three gauges are used, the middle one enters the boiler at -about the proper water level. They should be opened frequently to keep -them free from corrosion, being sure to close them tightly to prevent -leaking. - -[Illustration: Lunkenheimer Gauge Cock.] - - -CYLINDER COCKS. - -=Cylinder Cocks= are used in connection with the cylinder to allow the -water accumulated by the condensing of steam in the cylinder to escape, -and should be opened every time the engine is started or stopped. -This should never be neglected, as great damage may be caused by the -breaking of the follower plate or cylinder head. They should also be -left open when engine is shut down, and at night in cold weather to -prevent freezing and the consequent damage. - -[Illustration: Lunkenheimer Cylinder Cock.] - - -CHECK VALVE. - -=A Check Valve= is the valve on the feed pipe between pump or injector -and the boiler. The check valve is so constructed that the pressure of -the feed water from the pump or injector lifts the valve from its seat -and the water passes into the boiler. Immediately after the pressure -from the pump or injector is released, the pressure from the boiler -closes this valve and prevents the water from being forced back into -the pump or injector. There are two check valves used in connection -with a pump, one on suction, the other on deliver pipe. - -Q. How can check valves that get stuck open be closed? - -A. By simply tapping them slightly with a light hammer. - -Q. Should this be practiced? - -A. No, when they stick at all they should be opened and thoroughly -cleaned as soon as pressure can be shut off. - - -COMPRESSION GREASE CUP. - -=Compression grease cups= are used extensively on engines for -lubricating the crank-pin and wrist-pin, also pillow block bearings -for crank shaft; in fact this method of lubrication for all kinds of -bearings and journals is becoming universally adopted. - -In construction the Besly Bonanza Cup is simple and durable. The outer -casing is threaded and fits tightly over the bottom part of cup. After -the cup has been put in place, remove the top part, fill it with Helmet -oil or grease and screw it on the lower part for two or three threads. -The cup is then in working order. - -[Illustration] - -To insure a plentiful supply of grease to the journal or bearing, all -that is necessary is to give the top part of cup an occasional turn. - -C. H. Besly & Co.’s Helmet Solid Oil is for use in compression cups, -and is a perfect lubricant, in fact it is said to be the best. - - -MINNEAPOLIS TRACTION ENGINE. - -The engine is supplied with a return flue, straw, wood and coal burning -boiler. The shell of the main flue is cylindrical in shape, but tapers -toward the front end. By this arrangement the return flues can be set -lower at the front end, which it is claimed has some advantage in -protecting front end of flues when ascending steep hills. - -The steam used is superheated by being conducted through a pipe which -extends from the top of the dome on the inside of boiler through the -front head and smoke stack to the steam chest. - -The engine is of the Side Crank, Side Gear style, the frame of which is -the girder pattern with bored guides, and has an overhanging cylinder -attached to one end, and contains the pillow block bearing at the other. - -It is fitted with the Woolf Valve Gear for reversing, Friction Clutch, -Cross-head Pump, Injector, Syphon for filling water tank on front end, -and a large Foot Board with Tool Boxes attached. The wheels are of -steel, and the traction or drive wheels are furnished with malleable -mud cleats extending diagonally across the entire width of tire. - -The boiler is safe with proper care, economical in fuel, and the -engine moves over the road rapidly. Although simple in its general -construction, it has all the appliances and fittings necessary on a -traction engine. - -[Illustration: Minneapolis Traction Engine.] - - -TRACTION ENGINES. - -=Traction Farm Engines= are becoming more generally used each year, and -to supply the increasing demand for traction engines, the manufacturers -have spared no expense or mechanical skill to place upon the market -the latest improvements in this line, and a great many kinds of this -class of engine now made in the United States are simply perfect. They -travel over the roughest roads, up and down steep hills with heavy -loads, and the engine is at all times entirely under the control of the -engineer. In fact, there is no class of engines that has had a more -marked advancement toward perfection in the past few years than the -farm traction engine. - -As this class of engines in the majority of cases goes into the hands -of men inexperienced in the handling of machinery, they are subjected -to the very hardest usage and neglect, which, of course, hastens their -destruction. Every purchaser of an engine should acquire sufficient -knowledge of the operating and handling of it so that he will know when -it is properly cared for. - -No engine has to run at more variable speeds than a traction engine. -It is very important for this reason that the steam ports should be of -sufficient area to admit of a very high piston speed, and allow the -steam to follow the piston at the necessary velocity. Small ports are -useless, as when the link is notched up, and the travel of the valve -thereby reduced, the openings are too cramped for the steam to pass -in and out of the cylinder comfortably. The result is, that the slide -valve is forced off its seat and the engine primes as soon as any great -speed is attained. It is easy to tell by the sound of the exhaust if -the ports are rightly proportioned, and whether running at high or low -speed, the engine should give a clear and distinct exhaust at every -stroke of the piston. - - -GEARING. - -The power of the traction engine is transmitted to the traction wheels -by a series of gearing, all of which should be made from accurately cut -patterns to insure the teeth meshing perfectly to prevent them from -cutting and grinding out, and of sufficient strength to withstand the -very rough usage to which they are subjected. The gearing of an engine -should never be run without first greasing them thoroughly with a good -quality of solid oil or axle grease, for if once you allow the teeth to -cut, it will be impossible to stop them from cutting, the result being -they will soon be ruined. The gearing on traction engines are placed -in many different positions for transmitting the power to the traction -wheels, as will be seen by examining the different illustrations given -in this book. - -On a side gear engine the power is transmitted from a small pinion -on the main shaft to an intermediate gear, from this gear to the -differential gear on cross shaft which is placed under the cylindrical -part of the boiler against the fire box. To this shaft are keyed two -small pinions at each end, which mesh in large spur gears fastened -securely to the traction wheels. - -On a rear gear engine the power is transmitted from the small pinion -on crank shaft to large spur gear attached to one end of cross shaft, -which crosses the boiler at the rear end. To the other end of this -shaft is attached a small pinion that meshes in the large differential -gear which is attached to traction wheel and main axle. - - -DIFFERENTIAL GEAR. - -The gearing on a traction engine must be so designed as to allow one -of the ground or traction wheels to run faster than the other, when -turning engine either to right or left on the road. To accomplish -this, the Differential Gear is made use of, and answers all purposes -admirably. - -The Differential Gear on many styles of engines is attached to the -cross shaft, while on others it is secured to the main axle, and, as -generally constructed, consists of one large spur gear, having three or -four bevel pinions placed in it at equal distances apart and from the -center of main gear. These pinions revolve loosely on pins secured to -the gear, and the spur gear runs loosely on the cross shaft or axle. -At each side of the spur gear are placed bevel gears, meshing into the -bevel pinions, one of which is keyed fast to the shaft or axle, while -the other is firmly bolted to small pinion that drives the traction -wheel, or to hub of the traction wheel, which also runs loosely on its -axle. - -This device allows one drive wheel to remain idle while the opposite -wheel may revolve as fast as is required to make the turn. - -Differential Gears should be kept well greased with solid oil or axle -grease to prevent the cogs from being cut and wearing away rapidly. - - -FRICTION CLUTCH. - -This attachment on a traction engine is almost indispensable as it -allows the engineer to give the whole power of the engine instantly to -the traction gear in getting the engine out of bad places, or to move -the engine backward or forward with so little apparent effort as to be -almost imperceptible, while the engine may be running at full speed; -also for tightening the main drive belt when attached to machinery -without stopping the engine. - -[Illustration: J. I. Case Friction Clutch.] - -The friction clutch shown in illustration is constructed as follows: -The friction pulley is constructed with a friction ring upon its arms, -the outer ring acting as a guard or protection, the friction ring being -turned accurately to receive the wooden shoes attached to the driving -arm; these wooden friction shoes are fitted to the outer surface of the -ring as well as the inner, all being connected to one set of levers; -so when force is applied to engage the friction to start the engine -there is no tendency or danger of bursting the rim, as the pressure -is equal on both sides of it. The pulley is keyed to the crank shaft, -while the driving arm, with driving pinion secured firmly to it, runs -loosely upon the shaft. Upon the hub of driving arm is placed a sliding -sleeve with lever attached, which connects with toggle levers beneath -the sliding pieces which contain the wooden friction shoes, the whole -being operated by the sliding strap from footboard of engine near by -the reverse lever. This makes a strong and convenient arrangement for -transmitting power. - -Many other styles of clutches are made by engine builders, adapted to -their particular style of engines, a common way being to have the shoes -tighten against the inner rim of the fly-wheel. This is not deemed as -good an arrangement, for the reason that the pressure or strain is all -outward against the rim, though their being used extensively indicates -good results. - -When operating a friction clutch, always draw or push the lever over -gradually. By doing this the engine will start slowly and easily, while -if the lever is jammed over suddenly, the engine will start with a -jerk, which is liable to damage the traction gear. The latter should -never be done unless absolutely necessary to get the engine out of bad -places on the road. - - -QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS, - -Concerning the Operation and Care of Steam Engines and Boilers. - -Q. What should be done first, after receiving a new engine, to prepare -it for running properly? - -A. If a traction or farm engine, remove the box containing the fittings -and tools, from the fire box, and see that the grates are in their -proper places. Also take out the tools which are packed in the smoke -box at front end of boiler. Then, with waste or rags well saturated -with kerosene, turpentine or benzine, wipe off all the grease that the -manufacturer has put on to protect the bright work from rusting. After -this has been thoroughly done, clean every oil hole and bearing found -upon the engine, of all dirt and cinders. Special attention should -be given to this, as if dirt and cinders are allowed to remain, the -bearings will cut and heat. - -Q. After this is done thoroughly, what next? - -A. Take all the fittings from the box and clean them carefully, fit -each oil cup to its proper place and screw them in tightly with a -wrench, to prevent them from working loose and falling off while engine -is running on the road. - -Fill all cups with good oil, lard oil for bearings, good cylinder oil -for the automatic oiler, which oils the cylinder and valve, and solid -oil for both grease cups at crank and cross-head. Then put the steam -gauge, the glass water gauge, gauge cocks, safety valve, whistle, -surface blow-off and blow-off valves, cylinder cocks, governor belt, -etc., in their proper places; all fittings should be screwed up tight -with a wrench. Examine the stuffing boxes and see that they are all -well packed and cleaned. - -Q. The fittings all being attached, what next? - -A. Proceed to fill the boiler with water by unscrewing the cap from -filling plug located on top of boiler near the steam dome, screw funnel -on plug, and fill boiler with as clean soft water as is obtainable. - -Q. How much water is required in the boiler before starting fire? - -A. Fill the boiler until the water shows about one and one-half inches -in the glass water gauge, or have a free flow of water from the lowest -gauge cock. - -Q. After the boiler is filled with water to the proper level, what -next? - -A. Start a moderate fire with dry wood in the furnace or fire box, and -open the draught damper wide. Add fuel slowly, and while steam is being -raised take your oil can and wrench and examine the engine thoroughly -at all its parts. See that every screw and bolt is tight and that none -of the oil holes have been overlooked. - -If a traction engine, examine all the gearing and see that all gears, -axles and bearings are thoroughly greased and oiled—grease for gears -and axles, oil for bearings. - -If firing with coal, keep the grates well covered with a thin layer. -Do not throw in large lumps or too much fresh coal at one time. A thin -fire lightly and frequently renewed, is the most economical. - -Q. Is the natural draught of the boiler enough to enable steam to be -raised quickly? - -A. No. The boiler and water being cold the fire will not burn briskly, -but as soon as steam pressure shows upon the steam gauge, turn on the -blower, which will force and increase the draught; then with good fuel, -any desired steam pressure can be raised quickly. - -Q. Must the blower be used when the engine is running to keep up -sufficient steam pressure? - -A. No. When the engine is started, the exhaust steam is discharged from -the cylinder first through the heater, then into smoke stack, producing -the same effect as the blower. - -Q. If the boiler steams too fast, what should be done? - -A. Simply close the damper. Do not open the fire door, as the fire door -should never be opened unless absolutely necessary, nor should it be -kept open longer than is needed, as the cold air admitted through it -injures the boiler and is wasteful of fuel. - -Q. After sufficient steam is raised, how do you proceed to start the -engine? - -A. Before turning steam on the engine, go to the fly-wheel and turn it -a few times to see that everything is all right and no obstacle in the -way to prevent the engine from running when steam is applied, being -sure to leave the crank-pin off the center to enable the steam to start -the engine when throttle valve is opened. Next, open both the cylinder -cocks, then the throttle valve just a trifle to allow a little steam -to enter the cylinder, to warm it and expel the water of condensation. -Then open the throttle gradually, and if everything is right, the -engine will move off faster and faster until the proper speed is -attained. After engine is thoroughly heated and is working dry steam, -close the cylinder cocks and set the automatic oiler to work. - -Q. How do you obtain the proper speed, and how is the engine made to -run steadily with the steam pressure so varied? - -A. The proper speed and steadiness in running is maintained by the use -of the governor, which receives its motion from the engine shaft by -means of a belt. - -Q. Are the bearings of a new engine liable to heat when first started -up? - -A. Not if proper attention is given to them. When starting a new engine -the first time, it should be stopped frequently and the moving parts -and bearings carefully examined. Feel of all the bearings, the link -block, the eccentrics, crank-pin, cross-head, etc., to ascertain if -they are heating. If they are, slacken up the boxes a little, but not -enough to make them knock or pound. Always be careful not to loosen or -tighten bearings or keys too much; just a trifle at a time, but do it -often, until the bearings and boxes run cool, but tight. If this is -done carefully, the engine will run smoothly and quietly. - -Q. After the engine is started, what should be done next? - -A. Fill the tank on the engine with water and start the injector to -work, so that the proper level of water may be kept in the boiler. The -independent pump, if used, should now be fitted, connected and tried, -to see if it is in proper shape to feed the boiler. If a cross-head -pump is used, it should be fitted and attached to water supply with the -suction hose. In this case when the engine is running, the pump can be -regulated to supply the required amount of feed water. - -Q. How is the boiler supplied with water while the engine is stopped? - -A. By the independent pump or injector. - -Q. Has the independent pump sufficient capacity to supply the boiler -with water under all conditions? - -A. Yes, always, when running at a reasonable speed. - -Q. Why should an injector be furnished if the pump will supply the -boiler? - -A. Many times through carelessness or otherwise the pump is prevented -from working by dirt, straw, chips and other obstructions which find -their way into the pump and hold the valves from their seats. In this -case it is necessary to take the pump apart and remove the obstructions -wherever found, which would necessitate stopping the engine and -allowing the steam to go down, involving a large loss of time. Whereas -if the engine is also supplied with an injector, should the pump fail, -the injector can immediately be started and the pump examined at -leisure without loss of time and avoiding all danger of explosion. - -Q. Should the supply of feed water be continuous while the engine is -running? - -A. Yes. Gauge the speed of the independent pump so that it will furnish -the required amount of water to the boiler. Regulate the feed of a -cross-head pump, by the suction valve. By so doing, the boiler steams -easier, the flues are not so liable to leak, and a uniform steam -pressure can be easily maintained more economically. - -Q. How is a boiler supplied when engine is in motion? - -A. By the independent or cross-head pump. - -Q. When should the injector be used in preference to the independent -pump? - -A. There being no exhaust steam when engine is not running, no benefit -is derived from the heater. Now, as cold water should never be forced -into a hot boiler the injector becomes of great value, as it heats the -feed water to a very high temperature before it enters the boiler. - -Q. Is there any independent steam pump made that heats the feed water -before it goes into the boiler? - -A. See Marsh Pump description. - -Q. When engine, pump, and injector are found to be working properly, -what next? - -A. If a traction engine, the engine should be reversed several times. -This can be done by throwing the reverse lever forward and backward, to -ascertain whether the valve is so set that engine will run equally well -both ways; then the traction gear may be tried. If engine is supplied -with a friction clutch, by simply pressing the clutch lever gradually -until the friction shoes take hold, the engine will start slowly upon -the road. This can be done while engine proper is running at full speed. - -The clutch lever should be held in one hand when first starting, so -that in case of anything being wrong with gearing, it can be stopped -immediately by quickly loosening the lever. With the other hand, -the steering wheel should be operated to guide the engine upon the -road. When all is found to be working properly, and you wish to run -the engine any distance, the clutch lever should be placed in notch -provided for it; this will hold the friction shoes securely to the -wheel, and the engine will move along the road at full speed. - -Q. If the engine has no friction clutch, how do you proceed to start -the gearing? - -A. Stop the engine and place the reversing lever in center notch, slide -the spur pinion on main shaft into gear and open the throttle valve -wide; then with the reverse lever in one hand (the steering wheel in -the other) you can start engine upon the road by throwing the lever -backward or forward, which should be done gradually at first, so that -engine will start slowly. If all is right, by throwing the reverse -lever in the last notch in quadrant, the engine will travel its full -speed upon the road. - -Q. How should a traction engine be first started upon the road, forward -or backward? - -A. Always forward, as you can see where you are going and can guide the -engine more easily. - - -ADVANCE TRACTION ENGINE. - -In illustration is given the engine side of the Advance Engine, which -is of the side crank, side gear type, with the engine placed at forward -end of boiler. - -The cylinder is overhanging, and is bolted to the cylindrical formed -engine frame which forms the front head. The frame is attached to the -boiler with two brackets, and it contains the bored cross-head guides -and pillow block bearing. - -The engine has the Marsh Reverse Gear, Marsh Pump, Friction Clutch -attached to band wheel, Injector, Governor and all necessary fittings. - -The boiler is the locomotive round bottom fire box style, with dome in -center. It is mounted upon the traction wheels with axle arms attached -to brackets bolted to the sides of fire box, in which are placed -springs. - -The spokes of the wheels are cast in both hub and rim, the latter -having mud cleats cast on. The platform has both Water Tank and Tool -Box attached, and the steering wheel and band wheel are on the same -side of the engine. - -The chains for the steering attachment are supplied with springs. - -[Illustration: Advance Traction Engine.] - -Q. How should you guide a traction engine? - -A. There is no fixed rule for guiding a traction engine upon the road. -It must be learned by experience. Good judgment is required to make -a success of it. One man should always handle both reverse lever and -steering wheel when guiding an engine. - -Q. How should the steering chains be put on a traction engine? - -A. The chains should be so put on, that when the steering wheel is -turned to the right, the engine turns to the right; when wheel is -turned to the left, the engine turns to the left. - - -REVERSING AN ENGINE. - -To reverse the motion of a plain Slide Valve engine, remove the cover -of steam chest and place the engine on the dead center. Observe the -amount of lead or opening that the valve has on the steam end, then -loosen the eccentric and turn it around on the shaft, in the direction -the engine is wanted to run, until the valve has exactly the same -amount of lead at the other end; then turn the engine to the opposite -center, to determine whether the lead at this end is the same as at -the other; then place the crank at half stroke top and bottom, and see -that the port openings are equal in both positions, and replace cover. - -Q. What is dead center? - -A. The dead center of an engine is the point where crank and piston rod -are in an exact line. - -Q. What is a half stroke? - -A. It is the point reached by the piston after traveling exactly -one-half its travel. - -Q. What is the meaning of “lost motion”? - -A. Lost motion is looseness of the connecting rod at crank or -wrist-pin, or looseness of the link or link block, cross-head and -guides, main crank shaft and pillow block, caused by friction and -wearing away of the metals and the neglect to take up the wear. - -The lost motion in all parts of an engine should be taken up -frequently, to keep it running smoothly, but care must be taken not to -tighten bearings or keys too tight. - -Q. What is lap and lead? - -A. Lap is the position of the valve which extends or laps over the edge -of the ports when the valve is in its central position. That on the -inside of the D is the inside or exhaust lap, while that at the ends of -the valve is the outside lap and affects the admission and cut-off. - -Lead is the amount of opening which is given to the port by the valve -when the engine is on the center. - -Lead on a valve is the admission of steam into the cylinder before the -piston completes its stroke. - -Q. How much “lead” should a valve have? - -A. There is no general rule for the amount of lead that would be best -suited for all makes of engines. It must be determined by the design or -construction, speed and work required, to produce the best results for -economy and quietness in running. - -Q. What is a throttle engine? - -A. A throttle engine is one in which the speed is controlled by -throttling the steam with a governor, as opposed to an automatic engine -in which the speed is regulated by varying the point of cut-off at the -valve. - -Q. What is the difference between a stroke and a revolution? - -A. A stroke is the movement of the piston, from one end to the other of -cylinder. A revolution takes two strokes of piston. - -Q. How are steam packing rings put on the piston head? - -A. Remove the back cylinder head and take the piston and rod out of -the cylinder, and stand it “head up.” Then place the inside of the -ring, opposite to the opening, against the side of the piston head next -to you; gradually press the ring open with your hands, and it can be -easily slipped over the head and put in place. - -Q. How is a piston put into cylinder? - -A. It is always entered from the back end in horizontal engines. The -rings (if steam packing) should be carefully placed in position and -compressed by the hand if piston is small, but if large, curved blocks -of wood or a band of sheet iron can be used to support them until they -enter cylinder. When the piston rod passes through the stuffing box, it -should be supported at outer end to prevent cutting. - - -WATERTOWN HIGH SPEED ENGINE. - -The frame of this engine is very heavy, with longitudinal and cross -ribs securely bracing it. It forms the lower guide for cross-head, and -contains the pillow block bearings at the front end. It also forms the -front cylinder head, to which the cylinder is bolted. The working parts -are placed as low in the frame as is possible, so that the strain is -brought in line with the line of greatest resistance. - -The double disc center crank shaft allows of two small heavy band -wheels, one of which has the shaft governor attached to the inside, -that operates the valve automatically to give the point of cut-off in -accordance with the variation of load. - -The valve is of a special design, and so constructed as to admit steam -to the cylinder port through four different openings. It also exhausts -steam through four different openings at once. - -The engine frame rests its whole length and is securely bolted to the -sub-base, which is bolted to the floor, and the smaller sizes need no -elaborate foundations. - -This style of engine ranges in size from 35 to 350 horse-power -approximately, the speed of the smaller ones ranging from 275 to 325 -revolutions, and of the larger from 160 to 185 revolutions, and are -used extensively where high speed is required, and where the load is of -an intermittent character. - -[Illustration: Watertown High Speed Engine.] - - -TESTING PISTON RINGS AND VALVES. - -To ascertain whether the piston rings and valves are leaking or not, -first place a block of wood about four inches long upon the guide for -cross-head and against the front cylinder head. Then turn the engine -“over” until the cross-head comes back tight against the block. This -will place the valve of a simple engine in such a position that steam -would be admitted to cylinder through front steam port. If a reversing -engine, throw the reverse lever in the last notch in end of quadrant -that would allow the engine to run “over”. Then take off the back -cylinder head, and open the throttle valve wide. If steam blows out -past the piston, it would indicate that the rings were not tight. In -case steam packing rings are used, they should be refitted or replaced -by new ones. If adjustable rings are used, they should be adjusted to -stop the leak, care being taken not to get them too tight. If the steam -blows out through the back port, the slide valve is not tight and it -will require refitting, as will also the valve seat. - -If a very small amount of steam blows through, new rings or adjustment -would not be necessary, as the waste of steam or back pressure -resulting from it would amount to very little. - -This test should be tried occasionally with a full head of steam on, -to assure of the piston rings and valve being tight, as leaky pistons -and valves are very wasteful of steam, sometimes causing priming, and -greatly diminishing the power of the engine. Never run your engine with -leaky piston or valve. Have them properly fitted at once. - -After making the test, and repairing if necessary, replace the cylinder -head, and be sure to remove the wood block from the guides. - - -KNOCKS OR POUNDS. - -The Knocks or Pounds of steam engines are frequently caused by -lost motion in the crank and wrist-pin boxes, valve rod and valve, -cross-head and link; looseness of the piston rod, pillow block or main -bearings, follower plate, or eccentrics; the slide valve having not -enough or too much lead, the exhaust being cut off too soon or too -late, shoulders being worn in each end of the cylinder by the packing -rings not traveling over the counter-bore at the end of each stroke; -or shoulders may be worn in the guides by the cross-head slides, or -they may not be adjusted properly to fit the guides; boiler may foam, -causing the water to be drawn over in cylinder; the piston rings may -leak, thus causing cushioning; and as the crank approaches the centers, -steam occupies the space between the cylinder head and piston, causing -a tremendous strain upon the engine; the piston rod being packed too -tight, the boxes and pins being worn flat or oval; the key in driving -pulley may be loose. - - -TO REMEDY KNOCKS OR POUNDS OF A STEAM ENGINE. - -While it is hardly possible to prescribe a remedy for all cases, if -the following practical methods are closely followed they will be -found to be very useful, although in many instances the remedy must be -determined by the circumstances of the individual case. - -The knock or pound of boxes in connecting rod at cross-head or crank -pin or the valve rod, may be remedied by taking out the boxes, and -filing off the top and bottom inside edges sufficiently to allow them -to just come together and not fit the pin too tightly. In replacing -them, be careful not to key them up too tight. - -Where there is not sufficient draught in the key or gib, place a liner -in front or behind the boxes. - -Knocks or pounds in the link may be remedied (if the link block has too -much play in the link) by reducing the liners in each end of the link -enough to fit the block properly. - -The knocks or pounds of piston are caused by the rod becoming loose -in the head; and if allowed to continue, will destroy the fit of -the rod in the hole. It may be remedied under such circumstances by -removing the rod, re-boring the hole and bushing it perfectly true, and -refitting the rod. - -Knocks or pounds of follower plate are generally caused by dirt -accumulating in the hole, which will not allow the bolts to enter far -enough to take up the lost motion of the plate, or the bolts may be too -long. To remedy this, remove the accumulation of dirt from the hole, or -shorten the bolts. - -The knocks or pounds in main crank shaft, if caused by the bearings -being worn oval or out of round, may be remedied by removing the shaft; -true it up in a lathe, and refit or re-babbitt the boxes. - -The knock or pound in eccentrics is generally caused by the eccentric -straps being too loose upon the eccentrics, which can be remedied by -reducing the liners in the straps to allow them to fit perfectly. - -The knock or pound in slide valve caused by being improperly set, may -be remedied by taking off the steam chest bonnet and re-adjusting the -valve so as to give the same amount of lead at each end of stroke. -This being done, and the valve well proportioned and the connections -properly fitted, there should be no knocks or pounds from this cause. - -The knock or pound in cylinder caused by shoulders being worn in it, -can be remedied by re-boring the cylinder, being sure to make the -counter bore of sufficient depth to allow the piston rings to overlap -them at the end of each stroke. - -The knock or pound on guides caused by shoulders being worn on them, is -remedied by planing the guides and making the shoe slides of sufficient -length to overlap the guides at either end when crank is on the center. - -The knock or pound caused by the cross-head slides not fitting the -guides properly, may be remedied by adjusting them both top and bottom -to fit the guides closely, being careful not to get them too tight, -which causes undue wear and strain upon the frame. - -The knock or pound caused by wrist-pin or crank-pin becoming worn flat -or oval, may be remedied by filing them perfectly round. - -The knock or pound caused by the piston leaking, which causes -cushioning, can be remedied only by having a tight piston. - -The knock or pound caused by the driving pulley key being loose, can be -remedied by driving the key in its seat; or if a defective key, replace -by a new one perfectly fitted. - -If the knocks or pounds are caused by lost motion in any of the -revolving, reciprocating or vibrating parts of an engine, they may be -detected and located by placing the finger upon the different parts -while the engine is running very slowly or worked back and forth by -hand. - - -HEATING OF JOURNALS. - -The heating of journals and reciprocating parts of an engine may be -attributed to the following causes: - -Improper proportions and fitting, unsuitable material, want of -homogeneity between the metals of which the journals and bearings are -composed, the revolving or reciprocating parts not being in line, -the boxes being keyed up too tight, sand or grit getting into the -journals, improper lubricating, etc. The last mentioned cause is very -complicated, as the conditions of weight of load, area of surface -subject to pressure, velocity of movement, etc., must be taken into -consideration. - -To remedy the heating of journals which is caused by the revolving or -reciprocating parts not being in line, the engine or shaft must be put -in line. - -When caused by the boxes or bearings being too tight, they must be -loosened a very little at a time until bearings run cool. Apply plenty -of good oil. - -Clean the boxes and journals thoroughly, and see that the oil holes are -not stopped up; also see that the oil-cups are clean, to assure of the -oil getting to the bearings freely. - -Oiling frequently, using a little oil at a time, gives the best results -and is the most economical. - - -PACKING PISTON AND VALVE RODS. - -When the piston or valve rod of an engine or pump needs re-packing, -take off the stuffing box gland, remove all the old packing carefully, -and replace with new. - -If a patent packing is used, it should be cut in suitable lengths -diagonally across the packing, making the angle of one end opposite -from that of the other, so that when ends are brought together they -will make a splice joint. The joint of each ring of this packing should -be placed at opposite sides of the rod, and the stuffing box filled, -the gland replaced and screwed up just tight enough to stop leakage. -If hemp packing is used, take about the amount required and pick it to -pieces, removing all sticks, lumps or hard substances. Then twist it -into three compact cords, saturate well with oil or tallow, and braid -the cords together tightly. Then wind this braid around the rod until -stuffing box is full, replace the stuffing box gland, and screw up as -before described. - -Care should be taken not to screw the packing in stuffing boxes too -tight, as it not only increases the friction on the rod and diminishes -the power of the engine, but will have a tendency to flute the rod. If -the rod is once fluted, it will be very difficult to stop leakage at -this joint. - -When stuffing box of water piston of pumps needs re-packing, the same -rule will apply, with the exception that little or no grease or tallow -should be used upon the packing. - -Always keep piston and valve rod packing in a clean place, as any dirt -or gritty substance that may become attached to it will have a tendency -to cut the rod. - - -SETTING A PLAIN SLIDE VALVE. - -First, take up all “lost motion” and place the engine on the center. -This is done by putting the wrist-pin, crank-pin and center of the -main shaft in line. To do this accurately, turn the engine until the -cross-head is about half an inch from the end of its stroke, and mark -the position of the cross-head on the guide. - -Place a marker against the edge of the fly-wheel, and make a mark on -the fly-wheel opposite the marker, then turn the engine until the -cross-head completes the stroke and comes back to the mark made on the -guide. - -The crank will now be as much below the center as it was above before. -In this position make another mark upon the fly-wheel opposite the -marker. - -Now, midway between the two marks on the fly-wheel, when turned -opposite the marker will put the engine on dead center. Next, remove -steam chest cover and place the eccentrics about one-quarter turn ahead -of the crank in the direction the engine is to run. If the engine is to -run “over”, place the throw of eccentric up. If it is to run “under”, -place throw of eccentric down. - -Then set eccentric carefully at such a point that the valve will have -just commenced to open say ¹/₃₂ of an inch on the end that should -be taking steam. If there is a rocker arm used which reverses the -direction of the motion, i. e., making the valve stem move in the -opposite direction from the eccentric rod, the eccentric must be set -behind the crank, when the engine is to run “over”, in order that the -port may open as the engine turns forward; but if a rocker arm is used -merely to multiply the motion without changing the direction, proceed -as though there was no rocker arm at all. Next, measure the “lead” -which you have given to the valve at end which you have set. This is -easily done by pushing a wedge-shaped stick or piece of soft wood -into the port opening. The edge of the valve and port will mark the -distance it goes in. Turn the engine upon the other center, which will -be found as before described, and see if the lead is the same at both -ends of the valve. If it is, the engine is properly set. If it is not, -move the valve on the stem towards the end having the greatest amount -of lead, a distance equal to one-half the difference in the leads. If -the equalized lead is more than is necessary, set the eccentric back a -little. - -There are numerous methods of attaching the stem to the valve. A common -way is with jam-nuts. With this arrangement it is only necessary to -turn back the nuts on end towards which the valve is to be moved, an -amount which will allow the given movement; then, turn the other nuts -until the valve is forced into place to travel equal distance both ways -from its center position. When the stem screws directly into the valve, -the connection to the rocker arm or guide must be taken apart, and the -stem screwed into or out of the valve enough to give it the required -position. After the valve is set, replace the steam chest cover, and -secure the eccentric perfectly tight with the set-screws, to prevent it -from slipping. - - -SETTING SLIDE VALVE OF REVERSING ENGINES. - -The Link Reverse Being Used. - -First, see that all the lost motion in the connecting rod, pillow -block bearings and cross-head is taken up; then throw the reverse -lever in last notch in quadrant, which would allow the engine to run -“over”; then, remove the steam chest cover. Next, loosen eccentric -(the eccentric rod of which is in direct line with the valve rod), -turn the eccentric completely around, and watch the valve to see -whether it laps the steam ports exactly the same amount at both ends, -or travels an equal distance from its central position both ways. If -it does, the valve is in proper position upon the rod. If it does not -travel equally, the valve must be made to do so by adjusting it upon -the valve rod, which is done by lengthening or shortening the rod, by -use of jam-nuts, with which the rod is usually furnished. After this -is done accurately, place the engine upon its forward center. This -is done by turning the engine forward until the cross-head is about ½ -inch from end of its stroke and mark the position of the cross-head -upon the guide; then, with the use of long tram or dividers, mark from -any convenient point on the frame to the band wheel or disc, and mark -both points with prick-punch. Again turn the engine forward until the -cross-head completes its stroke and comes back to the mark made on the -guide; then, with the same long tram or dividers, mark the band wheel -or disc as before from the prick mark already made on the frame. - -Midway between punch marks on band wheel or disc, which can be found -by use of dividers, will give the point which will place the engine -on the “center” by turning engine back far enough to allow the long -tram or divider to fit in punch mark on frame, and center punch mark -on band wheel or disc. Now turn the eccentric over in the direction in -which the engine is to run, until the valve gives the proper amount -of lead on the front of steam port, which is about ¹/₃₂ of an inch, -and fasten eccentric with set-screw. Then turn engine over the way it -is to run, and place it upon its back center. This is done exactly -as before described for forward center, and if the valve is properly -proportioned, it will give the required ¹/₃₂ of an inch lead on the -back steam port, and valve will be properly set for running in this -direction. - -Now throw the reverse lever in the last notch in opposite end of -quadrant, which would allow the engine to run “under”, then loosen the -other eccentric (the eccentric rod of which is in a direct line with -the valve rod), and proceed same as described when engine is running -“over”, to get valve to lap both steam ports equally. Then place engine -upon either center and move the eccentric in opposite direction from -the other eccentric until the valve gives the ¹/₃₂ of an inch lead to -steam port, fasten the eccentric and place the engine upon opposite -center, and the amount of lead should be the same on both steam ports, -and the valve properly set. - -The valve being set, replace the steam chest cover, and secure the -eccentrics perfectly tight by screwing the set-screws up hard to -prevent them from slipping. - -Always set the valve so as to run the engine backwards or “under” -first. - - -TO SET VALVES OF DUPLEX PUMP. - -Set the pistons at mid-stroke, and set the valves which are worked from -the opposite side at mid-stroke also, and it will be right at all other -points. The mid position of the valve can be obtained by moving it back -and forth the amount of its lost motion, and dividing it so that the -lead or opening on both sides will be the same. - - -ASCENDING HILLS. - -Q. How do you ascend a hill with a traction engine? - -A. When approaching a hill which you have to climb with a traction -engine, see that about two inches of water shows in the glass gauge -when engine is on a level. Open draft door wide, stir the fire and -get it to burn briskly, and get up a good head of steam. Put reverse -lever in last notch, then open throttle gradually, allowing just the -necessary amount of steam to pass into the cylinder to keep the engine -pulling steadily up the hill. Always start up the hill slowly; do not -attempt to go up a hill at full speed, but go slowly and steadily, -keeping the speed as uniform as possible by opening or closing the -throttle as the case may be. Never attempt to go up a hill on a -decreasing steam pressure, as there is a great liability to become -stalled, in which case great damage may be done to the front end of -flues. Always start on a rising steam pressure; then you know the -boiler is making steam, which assures a steady ascent, as at every -exhaust of the engine on an increasing or steady pressure the power -becomes stronger, while at every exhaust on a decreasing pressure the -power becomes weaker. Keep a uniform supply of water in the boiler at -all times by use of either the pump or injector. Always when going up -hill keep the draft door wide open until the steam gauge indicates that -the pressure has risen almost to the blow-off point, then close the -damper. Never allow steam to blow off when going up hill, as it will -cause the water to raise and be carried over into the cylinder, greatly -diminishing the power of the engine. Do not under any circumstances -allow your engine to be stopped when going either up or down hill, as -great damage may be done to the boiler. - - -FRICK TRACTION ENGINE. - -The illustration of the left side of the Frick Traction given on -opposite page represents it as being a Center Crank, Rear Geared -traction engine. - -This engine is constructed with an overhanging cylinder, bolted to the -cast iron engine frame, which contains the locomotive style guides and -both pillow block bearings for the crank shaft. It has a Cross-head -Pump connected with long heater, has a specially designed Reverse Gear, -also a Friction Clutch attached to the band wheel. - -The round bottom fire box boiler swings in a channel iron frame, which -reaches from front axle to the rear of the boiler, around the fire box, -to which it is attached, and has a spring in front end only. - -The wheels are made entirely of iron, with forged spokes and wrought -tire, with high mud grouters bolted on. - -On the channel iron frame in front of fire box is placed a heavy -plank, to which two large water tanks are attached on either side. The -steering wheel and band wheel are on opposite sides of engine and it -has all the necessary fittings, so that with proper handling it will -be found perfectly safe and reliable. The platform in rear is also -supported upon the channel iron frame. - -[Illustration: Frick Traction Engine.] - - -DESCENDING HILLS. - -Q. How do you descend a hill with a traction engine? - -A. When approaching a hill which you wish to descend with a traction -engine, see that the water in the boiler is at the regular height, -or two inches in glass gauge when engine is on the level. Close the -draught door to ash pan and open damper in smoke box when about to -descend. Close the throttle almost tight, allowing just a little steam -to enter cylinder, then take hold of the reversing lever, and the speed -of the engine can be governed so as to descend at any speed desired, -or be stopped, if absolutely necessary by throwing the lever into last -notch. - -Do not stop while going down hill unless absolutely necessary, as there -is great danger of melting out the fusible plug and damaging the crown -sheet, as the water is much lower over the crown sheet when going down -hill with the required amount of water in the boiler than at any other -time. - -When it is absolutely necessary to stop the engine for a short time -when descending a hill, do not turn on the pump or injector; but open -the fire door, allowing the cold air to pass over the fire, which will -protect the crown sheet. This should never be done, though, except in -extreme cases. - - -ENGINE STALLED. - -There is no standard rule by which a traction engine can be gotten -out of bad places upon the road, as one rule would not apply to all -situations, though a few suggestions on this subject may be beneficial. - -When the engine is in a bad mud hole, or on a very sandy road, and the -driving wheels will not take hold, but simply turn around, the best -way to get out of the fix is to hitch a good team of horses to it and -pull it out with what assistance the engine can give. Though in many -cases, if a quantity of straw, stones or brush, as may be most handy, -is placed under the driving wheels and the power applied, the wheels -may get a footing and the engine will come out all right. Old boards or -rails placed in the same manner will produce the same result. - -It should be understood, however, that if the driving wheels do not -take hold, but simply turn around in the sand or mud, the engine should -be stopped at once and some of the aforesaid remedies tried. If you -continue to work the engine under such circumstances, it will become -more difficult to get out of the mire, as the wheels sink deeper in at -every revolution. - - -CROSSING BRIDGES AND CULVERTS. - -Before crossing a bridge or culvert with a traction engine, examine the -stringers and floor carefully to ascertain whether it is in condition -to hold the engine or not. If it appears a little weak, by laying heavy -plank across for the traction wheels to run on, it may be crossed in -safety, though the crossing of small bridges and culverts must be done -with judgment, to prevent accident and delay. - - -FOAMING. - -Foaming is the violent agitation of the volume of water in the boiler; -it occurs only in dirty boilers and where dirty feed water is used, -which causes the water to become saturated with foreign matter, such as -lime, sediment, mud, oil or grease, etc. - -The steam trying to escape through the scum formed by these -impurities, raises the whole mass from the surface of the water in -large bubbles, and causes a general frothing or foaming condition of -the water level, which is indicated by the dirty appearance of the -gauge cocks and joints and the cutting of piston rod and cylinder by -the gritty matter carried over by the steam. Foaming does not result in -carrying over so much water, but a foamy boiler does not produce as dry -steam as one that is kept perfectly clean. - -Q. How do you prevent a boiler from foaming? - -A. To remedy foaming, or prevent it, requires frequent blowing off from -the surface of the water the scum which causes it, and the use of pure -feed water. It may be stopped for a while by closing the throttle valve -for an instant, to give the water and scum a chance to settle. - - -PRIMING. - -Priming in a steam boiler is the carrying over of large quantities of -water by the steam to the engine, and may occur in a perfectly clean -boiler. It is usually caused by too great a demand on the capacity of -the boiler, too sudden and fierce firing, or after steam pressure is -lowering, an increasing demand is made for it. It is usually a radical -defect in the construction or capacity of the boiler, and is most -frequently the result of insufficient steam space, small evaporating -capacity, and lack of good circulation. - -Priming is indicated by the water rising and lowering in the glass -gauge more or less violently, by the clicking sound in the steam -cylinder of engine as the piston forces the water from end to end, and -by the regular shower of water falling from the exhaust. - -Q. How do you remedy priming? - -A. There are several remedies for priming, none of which will apply -effectually in all cases. Where insufficient capacity is the cause, -the only remedy is a larger boiler. In others, it may be prevented -by carrying the water level lower, if same can be done with safety, -or taking steam from side of dome instead of top, or increasing the -size of steam pipe, or taking out the top row of flues, and in boilers -that have no steam dome, a long dry pipe with perforated top may be of -benefit. - -Q. What are other causes and remedies for priming? - -A. The piston rings may leak badly. If they do, they should be -replaced, or made to fit cylinder perfectly. The cylinder may be badly -cut by the rings. If it is, it should be re-bored and new piston rings -put in. - -The slide valve may be cut, and leak. In this case the valve will need -re-planing and scraping, also the valve seat. If the valve is not -properly set, it may also cause priming. The exhaust nozzle may be -clogged with burnt oil and sediment; if it is, clean it out thoroughly. - - -FIRING WITH WOOD. - -Always keep a level fire. Fill every open space as fast as the wood -burns out. Allow as little cold air to pass through the fire as -possible. _Never stir a wood fire._ Fire quickly, and keep the door -shut as much as possible. - - -FIRING WITH STRAW. - -To start the fire, push a small forkful of dry straw into funnel in -fire door, leaving the small end of funnel pressed full; then touch -the match to it. Begin at once to push in the straw regularly, a small -quantity at a time, being very careful not to clog the main flue, and -allowing ample time for straw to burn. - -The fire should be raked down frequently, as the burned straw leaves a -charred mass over the grates. This should be done when the funnel is -full of straw, thus allowing no cold air to pass through the funnel -into the main flue. Clean out the ash pan frequently, so that the -natural draught may not be checked. Do not open blower until gauge -shows ten or fifteen pounds steam pressure. - -After steam is raised to the necessary pressure, the feeding should be -regular, using small forkfuls of straw, keeping the funnel full all the -time, and raking down at short intervals. Use as dry straw as it is -possible to obtain. - -The above will apply to any style or make of straw-burning engines. - - -FIRING WITH COAL. - -After fire is well started with wood, throw coal into the center of -grate, and do not disturb it until it is well ignited and burning -briskly; then break the fire down and put in a shovel or two of coal, -and so continue keeping the grates covered with a thin layer. - -Always aim to put in fresh coal on a rising head of steam pressure. -Never pile coal against the flue sheet or keep the fire box too full. -Nothing is gained by the latter, but much is lost. - -Q. Which is the more economical to burn, wet or dry coal? - -A. Dry. If your coal is wet, you simply have to evaporate that much -more water, which goes out of the stack instead of to the engine. - -Q. How much water will one pound of coal evaporate? - -A. One pound of coal will, under very favorable circumstances, -evaporate twelve pounds of water, but the average evaporative power -of anthracite coal is 9½ pounds of water, and semi-bituminous coal is -9⁹/₁₀ pounds. - -Q. If cold air is allowed to strike the flue sheet and flues, what is -the result? - -A. It will eventually cause them to leak. - -Q. How should a fire be regulated in case of temporary stoppage by -accident or otherwise under full head of steam? - -A. Close the damper and keep the fire door closed; then open small door -in smoke box or the damper in chimney. - -Q. Why not leave the fire door open? - -A. Because it would allow the cold air to come in contact with flue -sheet and flues, and consequent damage to boiler. - - -BANKING FIRES. - -To bank a fire in a furnace, push the fire in a heap at the back of the -furnace against the flue sheet; leaving a large portion of the grate -open, to allow the air caused by the natural draught to pass up over -the fire to the flues; then cover it over with fine coal or a layer of -dry ashes, and see that the draught door is closed to prevent draught -as much as possible. - -This being done, the fire will last over night, and when ready to start -again in the morning, all that is necessary to do is to rake the fire -over the grates, open the damper and apply more fuel. - -Q. What benefit is derived from banking the fire? - -A. By banking the fire, the water in the boiler is kept warm over night -and steam is raised quickly in the morning, saving time and fuel. - -Q. When leaving a banked fire, is it practicable to shut the water out -of the glass or water column? - -A. Yes. In freezing weather, this may be done by closing the valve at -the top and bottom of the glass; and open pet cock beneath. Care should -be taken, however, to open them before the fire is started in the -morning. - - -LAYING UP A TRACTION ENGINE. - -Q. How should you prepare your engine and boiler for laying up through -the winter, to protect them from frost and injury? - -A. While steam is on, clean your boiler and engine thoroughly outside, -scrape off all oil, grease and scale; after which apply a good coat of -asphaltum paint to the boiler and smoke stack. If no paint can be had, -lamp black and linseed oil will answer. If this cannot be had, take -rags, saturate them with grease or oil, and go over them with that. - -Now open the blow-off valve, and blow the water off with a low pressure -of steam, after which take out all the hand-hole plates and wash the -boiler out thoroughly, removing all the mud and scale; then replace the -hand-hole plates, close the blow-off valve and fill the boiler nearly -full of water, after which pour in a gallon of black oil upon the water. - -After this is done, open the blow-off valve again and allow the water -to run out. The oil will follow the water down and cover the whole -inside of boiler with a coating of oil, making as good a protection -against rust as can be found. - -Next, remove all the brass fittings, such as lubricator, steam gauge, -safety valve, injector, check valves, pump valves, gauge cocks, water -gauge, etc., etc. - -Disconnect all pipes where water may lodge, in order to prevent -freezing. Every pipe and valve allowed to freeze will surely burst. -Unscrew all stuffing boxes and remove the packing; for unless this is -done, another season you will find parts badly rusted where the packing -was allowed to remain. - -Take off all cylinder cocks, pet cocks, etc., from the heater and pump. -All fittings should be carefully packed and laid away. Clean the flues -and fire box, also the ash pan, and do not neglect to paint the ash pan -both inside and outside. - -Remove the back cylinder head, roll the engine forward and smear the -inside of cylinder with tallow, or oil if no tallow can be had. Place -the head back again and smear all the bright work, such as piston rod, -connecting rod, etc., with grease. Do not forget to cover top of smoke -stack, to keep out water and snow. - -If the foregoing directions are followed carefully you will find -another season that your engine will be clean, free from rust and ready -to serve you faithfully without any trouble or delay in starting, -either in time or expense. - - -BELTING. - -Do not tax belts by overloading. Keep them free from accumulation of -dust, grease and all animal oils, as these are injurious to both rubber -and leather belts. - -Special care should be taken to protect the edges of rubber belts from -all animal oils, as they are liable to rot the belt. - -Always run the grain (or hair) side of leather belts on the pulley, as -it gives greater driving power, hugs the pulley closer, is less liable -to slip, and will drive 30 per cent. more than the flesh side. - -Rubber belts will be greatly improved and their life prolonged, by -putting on with a brush, and letting it dry, the following mixture: - -Equal parts of black lead and litharge mixed with boiled oil; add -enough Japan to dry it quickly. In case the rubber peels off, the same -mixture can be used. - -In comparison to leather belts, 4-ply rubber is equivalent to a single -leather belt and 6-ply rubber to double leather belt. - -=To find the length of a belt=, add the diameter of the two pulleys -together, divide the result by 2 and multiply the quotient by 3¹/₇; -then add to this product twice the distance between the centers of -shafts. - -=When piecing a belt when pulleys are changed=, multiply the difference -of the diameters of the pulleys by 1½, the product will be the length -of the piece required. - -The seam side of rubber belt should always be placed outside and not -next to pulley. In case the belt slips, coat the side next to pulley -with boiled linseed oil or soap. - -=In lacing a belt=, begin in the center and be careful to keep both -ends exactly in line. Lace both ends equally tight and do not cross -the lace on the pulley side of belt. Great care should be taken that -the ends butting together be cut perfectly square; if not, the belt -will stretch more on one side than the other, which greatly impairs its -worth. - -Q. What is the practical limit of belt speed? - -A. Belts should not be run much over 5000 feet per minute. - -Q. How then is the capacity of a belt affected by its speed? - -A. It varies directly as the speed. A given belt will transmit twice -the horse-power if its speed is doubled within limits. - -Q. Is the capacity of a belt affected by its width? - -A. Yes, the capacity varies directly as the width. If a two inch belt -will transmit one horse-power, two such belts will transmit two horse -power; and this is true whether they are run separately or joined into -a four inch belt. - -To preserve cotton or Gandy belting, apply with a brush a little common -paint to pulley side of belt while running, to be followed shortly -afterwards by a little soft oil or grease to preserve its flexibility. - -If the edges of the belt become frayed from the use of belt guides or -forks, the loose threads may be cut off without injury to the belt. - -If the belt slips at first, consequent to the surface being ruffled by -unrolling, apply a little grease, oil or soap to the pulley side to -make it grip. - -[Illustration: Armington & Sims High Speed Engine.] - - -ARMINGTON & SIMS HIGH SPEED ENGINE. - -The cylinder and steam chest of this engine are cast in one piece and -bolted securely to the engine frame, which forms the front cylinder -head. The cylinder is lagged with mineral wool and jacketed to prevent -radiation, and it is overhanging and self-lining. - -The valve is a hollow piston valve, the body of which is steel -tubing with cast iron ends. It receives its motion from the shaft -governor, attached to one of the band wheels, which regulates the -cut-off automatically according to the variation of load. The steam -is exhausted at each end of the valve by very direct passages which -quickly free the cylinder, preventing back pressure. - -The engine frame is cast heavy and rigid, and contains the locomotive -guides for cross-head and the pillow block bearings for the crank shaft. - -The double disc center crank shafts allow of two small heavy band -wheels being used. - -The base of this engine is cast in one piece, to which the engine frame -is securely bolted, and with this arrangement, the engine needs no -expensive foundation. - -The engine is simple and self-contained, ranging in sizes from 11 to -450 horse-power, and is intended to run at the very high speed of -from two hundred to three hundred and fifty revolutions per minute -according to size, and is used extensively in driving electric lighting -machinery, and where high speed and continuous work is desired. - - -GENERAL INFORMATION. - -_Never condemn an engine_ that is entirely new to you because it does -not start off at your first effort. Study all the directions furnished -by the maker. Perhaps you have overlooked some points that are of more -importance than you imagine. - -The above will apply to other machinery as well as engines. - -_When starting a new engine_ be sure that everything is in readiness. -Turn it over by hand to see that all the revolving and reciprocating -parts run freely. Start it very slowly under steam pressure and apply -plenty of good oil. After it has run a short time and everything is -working properly turn on more steam and continue to do so until the -engine is running at its rated speed. To start it at full speed under -steam pressure may result in great damage or totally destroy the engine. - -_An accurate machine_ which is thoroughly reliable is necessarily -costly, but is of more value than another which merely serves a purpose. - -_Engineers or firemen_ in charge of a steam boiler should blow out the -water gauge and gauge cocks every morning in order to remove the soft -mud which settles in them at night when the boiler is at rest. If this -is neglected, the soft mud may become baked in them which might lead to -disastrous results. - -_Every steam boiler_ for whatever purpose employed, should be opened, -cleaned, thoroughly examined and tested at least every six months, and -with muddy feed water once a week would not be too often. - -_By blowing out_ the gauge cocks regularly you not only ascertain the -height of the water in the boiler, but it prevents them from becoming -choked with sediment or mud. - -_Do not allow_ the gauge cocks, glass water gauge or steam gauge to -become filthy, as it shows lack of care, and furnishes evidence that -the engineer who is not particular in this part of his duty is not -reliable in others of equal or more importance. - -_Upon entering_ the boiler room in the morning an engineer or fireman -should always ascertain whether the valves or cocks which connect the -water gauge with the boiler are open or shut, otherwise he may be -deceived by the appearance of the water in the tube. This precaution -should never be neglected. - -_If an engineer or fireman discovers_ that there is too much water in -the boiler he should blow it down to the proper level, but in doing so -he must exercise judgment, vigilance and care, especially if there is a -fire in the furnace. - -_Never allow the gauge cocks_ to leak at all when it is practicable to -repair them, for the longer they leak the more difficult they are to -repair, as under the escape of water or steam the metal wastes rapidly. - -_An engineer or fireman_ should often remove the ashes from under the -boiler, or from ash pan; if allowed to accumulate, they retard the -draft and interfere with combustion, thereby causing waste of fuel and -interfere with the evaporating efficiency of the boiler. Also keep -grates clear of clinkers; for if allowed to accumulate, they produce -the same result. - -_Should it become necessary_ to blow down the water at intervals, the -engineer or fireman should stand by the blow-off cock and not allow his -attention to be diverted to anything else, as in a very short space of -time the water may become so low as to induce stoppage or endanger the -safety of the boiler. - -_Engineers should_ always be cautious when they stop or start an engine -with a heavy pressure of steam in the boiler, as the vent given to the -steam when starting, and the check it receives when stopping, may exert -such a pressure as to strain, crack, or rupture the boiler. - -_The drip cocks_ in the cylinder should be left open when the engine is -standing still, and they should not be closed until after the engine -has been started and made several strokes or revolutions. - -_Do not open the throttle valve_ to its full extent in starting after -the engine has been standing over night, as the quantity of steam -condensed by being brought in contact with the cold pipe (particularly -if it is a long one) may result in breaking the follower plate, -springing the piston rod, or knocking out the cylinder head. - -_After opening the gauge cocks_ to ascertain the height of water in the -boiler, they should be closed tightly to prevent leakage. - -_It may have been discovered_ that when gauge cocks are closed after -being blown out, they leak badly; this is often due to the fact that -mud or sand has become attached to the seat of the valve. The easiest -way to remedy this difficulty is to open the cocks and let them blow -out for some time, as the friction of the water in its escape will in -all probability remove the obstacle. - -_Glass water gauges_ may be cleansed by removing the glass; then tying -a piece of cotton waste or lamp wicking to a splint of wood, applying -soap or acetic acid, and passing it through the inside of the tube; -then replace the glass, and when steam is raised close the lower valve, -open the drip cock, and the steam blowing through will wash the glass -perfectly. - -_To cut a glass gauge tube._—If a glass gauge is too long, take a -three-cornered file and wet it, hold the tube in the left hand with -the thumb and fore-finger at the place where you wish to cut, saw it -quickly and lightly two or three times with the edge of the file, and -it will mark the glass. Now, take the tube in both hands, both thumbs -being on opposite sides of the mark and about an inch apart, then try -to bend the glass, using your thumbs as fulcrums and it will break at -the mark which has weakened the tube. - -_Never touch_ the inside of the water gauge glass with iron or wire, as -while the glass may be cut on the outside with a file, the slightest -touch of steel or iron on the inside will cause an abrasion, the result -of which is that the glass will crack and become useless. - -_Water gauge glasses_ frequently break because the steam and water -connections are not in line, because the stuffing boxes are screwed -down too tight, and sometimes in cold weather when struck by a cold -draught of air admitted through an open door or window. - -_An engineer or fireman should_ never fill a boiler with cold -water while the boiler is hot, as the injurious effect produced by -contraction is similar to that produced by blowing out at a high -pressure, and if persisted in will result in permanent injury to the -boiler. - -_Exhaust steam will heat_ water to 212° Fahr. under atmospheric -pressure. - -_Ten degrees extra heat_ in feed water means one per cent. saving in -fuel. - -_Before blowing out the boiler_ the engineer or fireman should remove -all the fire from the furnace, as a small quantity left in the corners, -or attached to the bridge wall, might spring a seam or cause a plate to -bulge. - -_Every engineer should know_ that unequal expansion and contraction -is one of the evils which limit the longevity and endanger the safety -of all classes of steam boilers; consequently the blowing out, the -refilling, the starting of fires and the regulation of the draught -should be done with judgment. - -_It is not necessary_ to fill a boiler with cold water above the second -gauge cock, as the water expands under the process of the formation of -steam and it will be found that there is a sufficiency of water in the -boiler when steam is raised. - -_Single riveted seams_ are equal to 56% of the original strength of the -sheet; double riveted seams are equal to 70%, and triple riveted seams -are equal to 85%. Triple riveted seams, however, are very seldom used -unless for some special purpose, as they are too heavy and thick, and -would burn out rapidly if exposed to fire. - -_In making calculations_ on the strength of boilers, the factor 56 -should be employed instead of 100, as 44% of the strength of the plate -is lost by punching the holes for the rivets. - -_It should be understood_ that machine riveted seams in steam boilers -are superior to hand made seams, as the machine thoroughly upsets the -rivet and brings the two sheets in such close contact as to produce -friction between the sheets at the lap, which of itself is an element -of strength. - -_Boilers do not improve_ by standing idle; they will rust very rapidly. - -_Never use sharp chisels_ to cut the scale from boiler plate, as the -cutting of the plate does more harm than good. Use only a light hammer. - -_In patching a boiler_ be careful not to make a pocket in which -sediment may collect to cause another injury to the sheet and never put -a steel patch upon an iron boiler as the two metals expanding unequally -will induce trouble. - -_Never forget_ to allow for expansion when running long lines of steam -pipe, whether for heating or power, as the neglect of this precaution -leads to the formation of immense crooks or bends in the line of pipe -wonderful to behold. There must be a slip joint somewhere in long lines -of steam piping, unless expansion is allowed for. - -_Valves stick_ on their seats because they are frequently shut when -cold, and when heated by the steam the valve stem becomes lengthened, -and presses the valve hard into the seat. - -[Illustration: Geiser Traction Engine—Right Side.] - - -GEISER TRACTION ENGINE. - -The cut opposite represents the right side of the Peerless, Side Crank, -Rear Gear Traction Engine. - -The main engine frame is of the girder pattern, and contains the guides -and pillow block bearing. It also forms the front cylinder head, -to which the cylinder is bolted. The cylinder is overhanging, and -connected to the long feed water heater by the exhaust pipe. - -The valve is of the piston type. The reverse gear is the Landis Patent -Reverse and Variable Cut-off. It has the Cross-head Pump connected with -a long Feed Water Heater, Governor, Injector, and the locomotive style -of boiler swings in an iron frame, to which it is attached, and rests -upon springs at both back and front ends. - -The smoke stack is water lined, and traction wheels have wrought iron -rims with high grouters and wood spokes. The platform has two steel -tanks for water and tools, and the steering wheel and band wheel are on -opposite sides of the engine. - -_Slide valves should be fitted_ to their seats by filing and scraping, -and never by the use of emery and oil. The piston rod and valve rod may -be packed with braids of hemp or cotton wicking, with rings cut from -patent packing of various kinds or metallic packing. - -_To clean brass articles_ with acid is a great mistake, as with such -treatment they very soon become dull. Sweet oil and putty powder -followed by soap and water, is one of the best mediums for brightening -brass and copper. - -_To frost brass work_ and give it an ornamental finish, boil the -article in caustic potash, rinse in clean water and dip in nitric acid -until all oxide is removed; then wash quickly, dry in box-wood sawdust, -and lacquer while warm. - -_The best material_ for grinding in valves and stop cocks is pulverized -glass. It is superior to emery for this purpose. Fine sand may be used. - -_To remedy a leaky_ angle, check or globe valve, it should be taken -apart, and the valves ground to fit their seats properly with either -fine sand, pulverized glass or emery. - -_A lever stuck_ between the spokes of the fly-wheel of an engine for -the purpose of starting it, is a very dangerous instrument, it is -liable to get caught and do a great amount of damage. If a lever is to -be used, be sure that the steam is first turned off. - -_A cubic inch of water_ evaporated under ordinary atmospheric pressure -is converted into one cubic foot of steam (approximately). - -_Steam at atmospheric pressure_ flows into a vacuum at the rate of -about 1550 feet per second, and into the atmosphere at the rate of 650 -feet per second. - -_Condensing engines require_ from 20 to 30 gallons of water -to condense the steam represented by every gallon of water -evaporated—approximately; for most engines we say from 1 to 1½ gallons -per minute per indicated horse-power. Jet condensers do not require -quite as much water for condensing as surface condensers. Surface -condensers require about 2 square feet of tube (cooling) surface per -horse-power of steam engine. - -_The best designed boilers_ well set, with good draught and skillful -firing, will evaporate from 7 to 10 lbs. of water per pound of -first-class coal. The average result is from 25 to 60 per cent. below -this. - -_When you have_ your boiler furnace to repair, and cannot get fire -clay, take common earth mixed with water, in which you have dissolved a -little salt; use same as fire clay, and your furnace will last fully as -long. - -_To make iron take bright polish_ like steel, pulverize and dissolve -the following articles in one quart of hot water: Blue vitriol 1 oz., -borax 1 oz., prussiate of potash 1 oz., charcoal 1 oz., salt 7½ pt.; -then add one gallon of linseed oil, mix well, bring your iron or steel -to the proper heat, and cool in the solution. - -_To write inscriptions on metal_, take 4 oz. of nitric acid and 1 oz. -of muriatic acid, mix and shake well together, then cover your metal -surface to be engraved, with bees-wax or soap, write your inscription -plainly in the wax clear to the metal, then apply the mixed acids, -carefully filling each letter. Let it remain from three to five minutes -according to appearance desired, then throw on water, which stops the -etching process, scrape off the bees-wax or soap, and the inscription -is complete. - -_To remove rust from steel._—Brush the rusted steel with a paste -composed of ½ oz. cyanide potassium, ½ oz. castile soap, 1 oz. -whiting, and enough water to make a paste; then wash the steel in a -solution of ½ oz. cyanide potassium and 2 oz. of water. - -_A solvent for rust._—It is often very difficult, and sometimes -impossible, to remove rust from articles made of iron. Those which are -most thickly coated are most easily cleaned by being immersed in, or -saturated with, a solution of chloride of tin. The length of time they -should remain in this bath is determined by the thickness of the rust, -generally twelve to twenty-four hours is long enough. The solution -ought not to contain a great excess of acid if the iron itself be -not attacked. On taking them from the bath, the articles are rinsed -first in water, then in ammonia, and quickly dried. The iron when thus -treated has the appearance of dull silver; a simple polishing gives it -its normal appearance. - -_One of the best varnishes_ for smoke stacks or steam pipes is good -asphaltum dissolved in oil of turpentine. - -_Iron or steel immersed_ warm in a solution of carbonate of soda -(washing soda) for a few minutes will not rust. - -_Cement to fasten iron to stone._—Take 10 parts of fine iron filings, -30 parts of plaster of Paris, and ½ part of sal ammoniac; mix with -weak vinegar to a fluid paste and apply at once. - -_Cement for joints._—Paris white, ground, 4 lbs.; litharge, ground, 10 -lbs.; yellow ochre, fine, ½ lb.; ½ oz. of hemp, cut short; mix well -together with linseed oil to a stiff putty. This cement is good for -joints on steam or water pipes; it will set under water. - -_The average consumption of coal_ for steam boilers is 12 pounds per -hour for each square foot of grate surface. - -_One ton of coal_ is equivalent to two cords of wood for steam purposes. - -_Doubling the diameter_ of a pipe increases its capacity four times. - -_A cubic foot_ of water contains 7½ gallons. - -_A gallon weighs_ 8⅓ pounds. - -_Water expands_ ¹/₉ of its bulk in freezing. - -_Ice weighs_ 56½ pounds per cubic foot. - -_Engineers can judge_ of the condition of their machinery by the tone -it gives out while running. Every make of engine has a peculiar tone -of its own. The engineer becomes accustomed to that, and any departure -from it at once excites a suspicion that all is not right. The engineer -may not know what is the matter, he may have no ear for music, but the -change in tone of his machine will be instantly perceptible and will -start him upon an immediate investigation. - -_An Indicator_ is an instrument used to determine the indicated -horse-power of an engine; it shows the action of the steam in the -cylinder and serves as a guide in setting valves to get the greatest -amount of energy from the steam used. - -_Atmospheric pressure_ is the weight of the air. - -_To take lime from injector tubes_, mix one part muriatic acid and ten -parts soft water. Immerse tube in this mixture over night. - -_Compound for Cooling Heavy Bearings._—For cooling heavy pillow block -bearings, or the steps of upright shafts, the following will be found -very valuable: Four pounds of tallow, one-half pound of sugar of lead, -three-fourths pound plumbago. When the tallow is melted (not boiling) -add sugar of lead and let it dissolve; then put in the plumbago, and -stir the whole mass until cold. - -_A mixture_ of soft soap and black lead makes an excellent lubricant -for gears, as it lessens the abrasion and noise and has the advantage -over tallow of not becoming hard. It is also easily removed should it -become necessary to clean the parts on which it has been used. - -_The axles and axle arms_ of a traction engine should be well greased -or oiled before moving, to prevent them from being cut and wearing both -hub and axle rapidly. - - -WORKSHOP RECIPES. - -LOAM.—Mixture of brick, clay and old foundry sand. - -PARTING SAND.—Burnt sand scraped from the surface of castings. - -BLACK WASH.—Charcoal, plumbago and size. - -BLACKENING FOR MOLDS.—Charcoal powder, or in some instances fine coal -dust. - -MIXTURE FOR WELDING STEEL.—One part sal ammoniac, ten parts borax, -pounded together and fused until clear. Then it is poured out and after -cooling, reduce to powder. - -RUST-JOINT CEMENT.—(Quickly setting.) One part sal ammoniac in powder -(by weight), two parts flour of sulphur, eighty parts iron borings, -made into a paste with water. - -RUST JOINT.—(Slowly setting.) Two parts sal ammoniac, one part flour of -sulphur, 200 parts iron borings. The latter cement is the best if the -joint is not required for immediate use. - -RED LEAD CEMENT FOR FACE JOINTS.—One part white lead, one part red -lead, mixed with linseed oil to the proper consistency. - -CASE HARDENING.—Place horn, hoof, bone dust, or shreds of leather, -together with the article to be case hardened, in an iron box; subject -to blood red heat, then immerse the article in cold water. - -CASE HARDENING WITH PRUSSIATE OF POTASH.—Heat the article, after -polishing, to a bright red; rub the surface over with prussiate of -potash; allow it to cool to dull red, and immerse it in water. - -CASE HARDENING MIXTURES.—Three parts of prussiate of potash, one part -sal ammoniac; or, one part of prussiate of potash, two parts sal -ammoniac and two parts bone dust. - -GLUE TO RESIST MOISTURE.—One pound of glue, melted in two quarts of -skim-milk. - -MARINE GLUE.—One part of India rubber, twelve parts mineral naphtha or -coal tar. Heat gently, mix, and add twenty parts of powdered shellac. -Pour out on a slab to cool. Heat to about 250 degrees and it is ready -for use. - -GLUE CEMENT TO RESIST MOISTURE.—One part glue, one part black rosin, -¼ part red ochre, mixed with the least possible quantity of water; or, -four parts of glue; or, one part oxide of iron, one part of boiled oil -(by weight). - - -BABBITTING BOXES. - -When the babbitt in a box is badly worn, and needs re-babbitting, -remove the cap, take out the shaft and chip all the old babbitt out of -both box and cap; then replace the shaft in the box, and line it up -perfectly level and square by putting liners in between the shaft and -the edges of the box; then put stiff putty around the shaft and against -the box at both ends, to prevent the babbitt from running out; then -heat the babbitt metal until it runs freely, and pour it into the box -until it is full; then put on the cap, and place about the same amount -of liners between its ends and the top of the shaft as was put under -the shaft, with long liners of sheet iron or tin extending from one end -to the other of the box, parallel with and on both sides of the shaft; -then put putty around the shaft and against the cap at both ends; heat -the metal again, and pour it in through the oil hole. After it is cool, -remove the cap and liners, drill out the oil hole and replace the cap, -being careful to put just enough liners under it so that the box will -be tight and still have the shaft run cool. - - -COMPOUND ENGINES. - -The Compound Engine dates from the year 1781, when Hornblower, a -contemporary of Watt, conceived the idea of utilizing the force in the -exhaust steam of the simple engine in a second cylinder. - -From his crude design, the constant progress of experiment has -developed the marvelous engines now used in ocean steamers, and in both -large and small power plants, also on locomotives. Some of the compound -engines built in the early part of the century show results, according -to the records, not far behind the best attainable in modern times. - -The era of the Compound locomotive engine began in Europe in 1876, but -in this country half a dozen years would almost cover its history. - -However, in this short time, its advantages in putting to profitable -use the entire force of the steam supplied, has been so clearly shown, -that it has evidently come to stay. Its availability as an efficient, -economical, powerful high speed locomotive, demonstrates the value of -the Compound as a farm traction engine, and makes it plain that it will -be extremely serviceable on this class of engines. - -The Compound Traction Engines belonging to the class known as the -“Woolf,” or continuous expansion type, are so constructed that the -steam passes directly from the high pressure to the low pressure -cylinder without the intervention of any receiving chamber or steam -chest. This arrangement is considered much better adapted to traction -engine work, and to produce superior results under the varying -conditions of this class of work than the “cross” compound, or what -is generally styled the “receiver” type of compound engines, in which -the high pressure cylinder exhausts into a receiver connected with the -steam chest of the low pressure cylinder. - -In the Woolf Compound as constructed, the cylinders are either cast -in one piece, end to end, or cast separately and bolted together in -substantially the same way, in order that perfect alignment can be -secured by boring both cylinders at the same operation. This makes it -not only easy to get them in line at the start, but it prevents any -possibility of their getting out of line, which is a very important -feature. - -The pistons of both cylinders are upon the one rod, thus requiring -only one cross-head, connecting rod and crank. There is but one steam -chest, in which a valve is placed, with such relation to the valve -seat which contain the ports leading to both cylinders, that it -performs the double function of first admitting the steam to the high -pressure cylinder, cutting off the admission at the proper time to -allow expansion to take place there, and after high pressure piston has -reached the end of its stroke, passing on the steam to the low pressure -cylinder, where it is further expanded and exhausted in the usual -manner after its work is done. - -The valve is specially designed with cavities so arranged as to -co-operate in increasing the area of opening to double the amount -obtainable with an ordinary valve having the same travel. - -Without some special provision, the full power of the compound engine -cannot be exerted in starting, as the steam operates primarily on the -high pressure piston only, which has led to the condemnation of the -compound as a traction engine. This objection has been thoroughly -overcome in the Woolf by means of a “converting valve,” rendering -it possible to admit steam directly to the large or low pressure -cylinder, thus largely increasing the power obtainable from the -engine, even when exerting its maximum power as a compound. This -arrangement can be used not only in starting, but also in cases of -emergency, such as climbing steep hills, getting out of bad places on -the road, or disposing of an especially tough cut in sawing, etc. - -Without increasing the boiler pressure beyond that ordinarily used, the -compound engine gets fully one-third more force out of the steam used -than is at present obtainable with the simple engine as commonly worked. - -In other words, the compound will show results compared favorably with -a good condensing simple stationary engine doing the same work. - -[Illustration: Ball Tandem Compound Engine.] - - -BALL TANDEM COMPOUND ENGINE. - -The heavy case iron base is cast in two sections, the rear part being -securely bolted to the front section. To the front section is also -bolted the main engine frame. This frame contains the bar guides for -the cross-head, and pillow block bearing for the double disc crank -shaft, and also forms the front head for the low pressure cylinder, -which is securely bolted to it. - -The high pressure cylinder is attached to the low pressure cylinder by -two brackets securely bolted, and is supported by a pedestal, bolted -to the rear part of base. By this arrangement, both the high and low -pressure pistons are upon the same piston rod, which necessitates of -but one cross-head, connecting rod and crank. - -The valve of the high pressure cylinder is operated and completely -under the control of the automatic shaft governor attached to one of -the band wheels, while the valve of the low pressure cylinder receives -its motion from a single eccentric on crank shaft at opposite side of -engine. - -When engine is running, the steam enters the high pressure cylinder -first, and after performing its work there, exhausts through the -receiver pipe into the low pressure cylinder, and there exerts its -minimum force by expansion, and passes out to the condenser, if used, -or exhausts into the open air. - - - - -EXAMINATION OF ENGINEERS APPLYING FOR A LICENSE. - - -QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS. - -Q. How long have you run an engine? - -Q. Have you done your own firing? - -Q. What kinds of engines have you run? - -Q. What would be your first duty if called upon to take charge of an -engine? - -A. To ascertain the exact condition of the boiler and all its -attachments, such as safety valve, steam gauge, water gauge and cocks, -pump, injector, blow-off valve, etc.; also the engine. - -Q. How often would you blow off your boiler? - -A. Once a week or month, according to the condition of feed water used. - -Q. How many feet of heating surface is allowed per horse-power by -builders of boilers? - -A. From 12 to 15 square feet for flue and tubular boilers. - -Q. How much steam pressure will be allowed on a boiler 40 inch -diameter, ⅜ thick, 60,000 pounds T. S., ⅛ T. S. factor of safety? - -A. One-sixth of tensile strength of plate multiplied by thickness of -plate, divided by one-half of the diameter of boiler gives safe working -pressure. - -Q. How do you estimate the strength of a boiler? - -A. By its diameter and thickness of material, single or double riveted. - -Q. Which is the stronger, single or double riveted? - -A. Double riveted is from 14 to 18 per cent. stronger than single. - -Q. What is the use of a mud drum on a boiler? - -A. To collect all the sediment from the water used in the boiler. - -Q. What causes sediment to accumulate in boilers? - -A. The use of impure or muddy water. - -Q. How often should it be blown out? - -A. Three or four times a day. - -A. How much grate surface do boiler makers allow per horse-power? - -A. About two-thirds of a square foot. - -Q. What is the steam dome of a boiler used for? - -A. For dry steam to collect in. - -Q. Of what use is a safety valve on a boiler? - -A. To prevent overpressure. - -Q. What is your duty with reference to it? - -A. Open it once or twice a day to see that it is in good order. - -Q. Of what use is a check valve? - -A. To prevent the water in boiler from returning into the pump or -injector. - -Q. What effect has cold water on hot boiler plates? - -A. It will fracture them. - -Q. How should the gauge cocks be located on a boiler? - -A. So that the lowest gauge cock is about 1½ inches above the top row -of flues. - -Q. Where should the blow-off valve be located? - -A. At the bottom of the fire box in locomotive style of boiler, or in -the mud drum when used. - -Q. How would you have check valve arranged? - -A. With a stop cock between the boiler and check valve. - -Q. Does a man-hole in the top shell of boiler weaken it? - -A. Yes, to a certain extent. - -Q. How many valves in a common plunger pump? - -A. Two, a receiving and a discharge valve. - -Q. How are they situated? - -A. One at suction, the other at discharge end. - -Q. How do you find the proper size of safety valve for boiler? - -A. Two square feet of grate surface is allowed for one inch area of -common lever valve, or three square feet of surface to one inch area of -spring valve. - -Q. Why do pumps fail to work at times? - -A. Leak in the suction, leak around the plunger, leaky check valve, or -valve out of order. - -Q. Why do injectors fail to work at times? - -A. Leak in suction, grit or dirt under seat of valve, or valve not -seated properly. - -Q. How often should a boiler be examined and tested? - -A. Twice a year at least. - -Q. How would you test a boiler? - -A. By tapping it with a light hammer, and hydrostatic test, using warm -water. - -Q. Where does the feed water enter the boiler? - -A. Below the water level, where the feed water will not strike the -heated plates. - -Q. What causes priming of boilers? - -A. Too high water, not steam space enough, dirty feed water, -misconstruction of boiler, or engine being too large for its capacity. - -Q. How can you keep boilers clean or remove scale from them? - -A. By regularly cleaning them thoroughly, and by the use of compounds. - -Q. If you found a thin plate in your boiler what would you do? - -A. Patch it on the inside, first cutting out the damaged part. - -Q. Why cut out the damaged part of sheet, when putting on a patch? - -A. To allow the water to rest against the patch to protect it from the -intense heat. - -Q. What would be the result if the damaged part of sheet was not cut -out? - -A. The water not coming in contact with the patch, it would soon bulge -from the heat and crack. - -Q. Why patch it on the inside? - -A. Because the action that has weakened the plate before will act upon -the patch, when this is worn it can be replaced. - -Q. If you found you had to put on several patches what would you do? - -A. Reduce the steam pressure. - -Q. If you found a blister what would you do? - -A. Cut it out and put a patch on the fire side. - -Q. If you found a plate buckled or sagged what would you do? - -A. Put a stay bolt through the center of the sag. - -Q. What would you do with a cracked plate? - -A. Cut out the damaged part and put a patch over it. - -Q. How would you change the water in a boiler when steam is up? - -A. By supplying more feed water and opening the surface blow-off at -short intervals. - -Q. When blowing off a boiler, would you leave the blow-off cock to -attend to other work? - -A. Never. - -Q. What would you do to relieve the pressure on the boiler if the -safety valve was stuck and steam constantly rising? - -A. Cover the fire with coal or ashes, close draught door and open -damper in smoke box; work off the steam with the engine and when boiler -has cooled down put the safety valve in working order. - -Q. What may be the result if you allow the water in the boiler to get -low? - -A. Burning of the crown sheet and flues and perhaps cause an explosion. - -Q. Would you turn feed water into a boiler in which the water was very -low? - -A. Never, without first pulling the fire or covering it with dry ashes -and allowing the steam to go down. - -Q. If you allow water in the boiler to get too high what would be the -result? - -A. It would cause priming or foaming. - -Q. Is priming or foaming dangerous to an engine? - -A. Yes. It may cause breaking of cylinder head and wrecking of the -engine. - -Q. What are other causes for foaming or priming of a boiler? - -A. Dirty and impure water. - -A. W. STEVENS TRACTION ENGINE. - -The position of the side crank engine upon the boiler allows of having -the Rear Gear traction attachment. - -The Engine frame, guides for cross-head, cylinder, steam chest, -saddles, brackets and both pillow block bearings for crank shaft are -cast in one piece and bolted to the boiler. - -The frame is cast oval, and cross-head guides are of the locomotive -style. - -The Engine is furnished with a Friction Clutch, a specially designed -Reversing Gear, Governor, Marsh steam pump, Injector; and is mounted -upon an open bottom fire box locomotive boiler, with ash pan under fire -box and dome at rear end. - -The boiler is mounted upon the traction wheels by brackets bolted to -the rear end, which contain the boxes for the main axle and cross shaft. - -The traction wheels are of the cast iron rim type, with spokes cast in -both rim and hub. - -The steering wheel and band wheel are on opposite sides of boiler, and -both engine and boiler are supplied with all necessary fittings. - -[Illustration: A. W. Stevens Traction Engine.] - -Q. How would you stop foaming? - -A. Close the throttle long enough to show the true level of water. If -the level of the water is sufficiently high, feeding and blowing off -will usually correct the difficulty. - -Q. What would you do if you discovered the water gone from sight in the -water glass? - -A. Pull the fire or cover it over with dry ashes, and allow the boiler -to cool off as quickly as possible; and would not open or close any of -the steam outlets. - -Q, What is a traction engine? - -A. A traction engine is an engine the power of which is transmitted to -the driving or ground wheels by a combination of gearing. - -Q. What is an exhaust pipe? - -A. The pipe through which the exhaust steam escapes from cylinder to -smoke stack. - -Q. What is the feed pipe? - -A. The pipe through which the feed water passes from pump or injector -to the boiler. - -Q. What is the steam pipe? - -A. The pipe through which steam is taken from the dome to the steam -chest. - -Q. What is a pet cock? - -A. A small cock used in check valves, pipes and places where draining -off water is necessary to prevent freezing. - -Q. What is clearance in a steam cylinder? - -A. It is the space between the cylinder head and piston head when the -latter is at end of the stroke. - -Q. What is “cushion” in a steam cylinder? - -A. Cushion is the compression of steam let in through the lead of the -valve in the clearance of the cylinder, and is for the purpose of -catching the weight of the piston and rod, cross-head and connecting -rod when the engine reaches the end of each stroke. It also keeps the -engine from pounding. - -Q. How much water would you blow off at any one time while running? - -A. Never blow off more than one gauge. - -Q. What are your general views regarding boiler explosions? - -A. The greatest causes are from ignorance, carelessness and neglect. - -Q. What precaution should you take if necessary to stop with a heavy -fire in the furnace? - -A. Close the draught door, and put the injector or pump at work. - -Q. What is the proper height to carry water in the boiler? - -A. About 2½ inches above top row of flues. - -Q. At what pressure should you blow off a boiler? - -A. At a pressure not to exceed ten pounds. - -Q. If you wished to increase the power of an engine what would you do? - -A. Increase its speed or get higher steam pressure. - -Q. How do you find the horse-power of an engine? - -A. Multiply the speed of piston travel in feet per minute by the total -effective pressure upon the piston in pounds, and divide the product by -33,000. - -Q. What is meant by “brass bound”? - -A. Brass bound means that the half brasses touch each other and cannot -be driven up any closer by the key. - -Q. How would you remedy a brass bound box on crank-pin or wrist-pin? - -A. Take off the boxes and file off the top and bottom edges, being -careful not to take off too much. - -Q. Does a perfect fitting or an imperfect fitting valve have the most -friction? - -A. An imperfect fitting one. - -Q. How would you refit an imperfect fitting or leaky valve? - -A. It should be re-faced on a planer or filed and scraped until it fits -seat perfectly tight. - -Q. How is a steam engine rated? - -A. By amount of horse-power developed. - -Q. What is a foot-pound? - -A. One pound of force exerted through one foot of space. - -Q. How many foot-pounds are required to lift 100 pounds one foot? - -A. One hundred. - -Q. How many foot-pounds required to lift one pound 100 feet? - -A. One hundred. - -Q. To lift 110 pounds through 300 feet how many foot-pounds required? - -A. 300 × 110 = 33,000 foot-pounds. - -Q. Would that equal one horse-power? - -A. Yes, if done in one minute. - -Q. Suppose it took two minutes? - -A. Then there would be only half a horse-power, or 33,000 ÷ 2 = 16,500 -foot-pounds per minute. - -Q. Is it correct to say “horse-power per minute” or “horse-power per -hour”? - -A. No. When an engine is working at the rate of 10 horse-power, it is -doing 10 horse-power all the time. It is an error to assume that such -an engine is doing 10 horse-power per minute, and 10 × 60 equals 600 -horse-power per hour. When it is said that an engine uses 20 pounds of -steam per horse-power per hour, it is meant that this amount of steam -is used per hour for each horse-power developed. - -Q. How is the foot-pounds of work done by a steam engine, found? - -A. Multiply the average pressure per square inch during the stroke by -the number of square inches in the piston, and by the number of feet -through which the piston has moved. - -Q. What do you understand by the “mean effective pressure”? - -A. The mean pressure is the average pressure pushing the piston through -the stroke, which is about one-third the pressure in the boiler. There -is generally some back pressure working against it, therefore the -“effective” pressure is only the difference between the two. It can -only be determined accurately by measurements from an indicator diagram. - -Q. What is a single acting engine? - -A. An engine in which the steam acts on one side of the piston only. - -Q. How do you find the “piston’s speed”? - -A. On double acting engines, multiply the stroke in inches by two and -by the number of revolutions per minute and divide by 12. - -Q. Why multiply the stroke in inches by 2? - -A. Because in double acting engines there are two working strokes to -each revolution. - -Q. Why do you divide by 12? - -A. To reduce the inches to feet. - -Q. How is the “piston’s speed” of a single acting engine found? - -A. Multiply the stroke in inches by the revolutions per minute and -divide by 12. - -Q. What is the horse-power developed by an engine, say 12 × 24 inch, -running 125 revolutions per minute, with 40 pounds mean effective -pressure? - - A. Area = 12 × 12 × .7854 = 113.0976 sq. ins. - - Piston speed = 24 × 2 × 125 ÷ 12 = 500 feet per minute. - - M. E. P. = 40 lbs. - - Then (113.0976 × 500 × 40) - ————————————————————— = 68.544 H. P. - 33000 - -Q. What is a single valve engine? - -A. It is an engine in which a single valve controls the admission and -distribution of steam to both ends of the cylinder, or a common slide -valve engine. - -Q. What is a four valve engine? - -A. An engine which has separate steam and exhaust valves for each end -both top and bottom of cylinder, such as a Corliss engine. - -Q. Into what three classes are engines divided with reference to the -manner in which they are governed? - -A. Throttling engines, Automatic cut-off and Governor engines. - -Q. What is an Automatic cut-off engine? - -A. An engine in which the amount of steam supplied is automatically cut -off at various points in the stroke, in accordance with the load and -pressure. In Throttling engines the volume admitted is constant and the -pressure varied. In Automatic cut-off engines, steam is admitted at -the highest available pressure, and the volume is varied to meet the -requirements of the load. In Governor engines, the steam is admitted -and cut off by the governor. - -Q. What is a throttle governed engine? - -A. An engine in which the amount of steam supplied is regulated by -changing the pressure at which it enters the cylinder in accordance -with the variation of the load. - -Q. What is a Governor engine? - -A. An engine in which the supply of steam is regulated by the governor. - -Q. Into what classes may the Automatic cut-off engine be divided? - -A. Into two classes: The four valve engine, in which the cut-off is -usually effected by a detaching mechanism or trip under the control of -the governor; the single valve engine, in which the point of cut-off is -varied by changing the amount of travel of the valve. - -Q. Give examples of the single valve type. - -A. High speed, self-contained engines which have shaft governors. - -Q. What are their advantages? - -A. High rotative speed, compactness, portability, light weight and -simplicity. - -Q. Are they more economical than the four valve engine? - -A. No; the four valve engines are the more economical. - -Q. Give a prominent example of the four valve engine. - -A. The Reynold’s Corliss. - -Q. What is meant by an engine running “over”? - -A. The top of the drive wheel running away from the cylinder. - -Q. What is meant by an engine running “under”? - -A. The top of the drive wheel running towards the cylinder. - -Q. Which way are engines generally run? - -A. “Over.” - -Q. What advantages do engines have in running “over”? - -A. The pressure of the cross-head on engines running over, is always -downward upon the guides; for when the pressure is on the head end -of the piston, the pressure against the connecting rod which is -pointing upward, reacts by pressing the cross-head down upon the lower -guide, and when the pressure is on the crank end of the cylinder, the -cross-head will be dragging the crank, and as the crank is below the -center line, it will pull the cross-head down upon the lower guide, -while if the engine is running under, the pressure of the cross-head -will be upon the top guide, both on the outward and inward strokes, and -unless the cross-head is nicely adjusted to its guides and the guides -are perfectly parallel, the cross-head will be lifted when subjected -to thrust, and will fall on the center by its own weight, causing the -engine to pound. - -Q. At what point in the stroke is the pressure on the cross-head -greatest with a uniform pressure in the cylinder? - -A. When the crank is at right angles to the guide. - -Q. How does the relative length of the connecting rod affect this -pressure? - -A. The longer the connecting rod as compared with the crank, the less -will be the pressure on the guides. - -Q. What is the usual ratio of connecting rod to crank? - -A. The connecting rod is from four to six times the length of the crank. - -Q. Are there any objections to a long connecting rod? - -A. A long connecting rod makes a long engine, and makes extra cost in -the bed or frame and the room occupied. The longer rod is heavier, and -brings extra weight upon the cross-head, guides and crank-pin. The long -rod also lacks stiffness unless excessively heavy. - -Q. What determines the length of the crank? - -A. The stroke. - -Q. What limits the stroke? - -A. The piston’s speed limits the length of stroke allowable with a -given rotative speed, or the number of revolutions per minute with a -given stroke. - -Q. What is the practical limit of piston’s speed? - -A. Engines of from four to six foot stroke can run at from seven to -eight hundred feet piston’s speed per minute. Those of shorter stroke -should not run over six hundred feet. - -Q. Why do high speed engines have a short stroke in comparison with the -diameter of their cylinders? - -A. So that they can run at a high rate of speed without exceeding the -limit of piston’s travel. - -Q. What is the office of the fly-wheel? - -A. It maintains a uniformity of motion of the crank, notwithstanding -the unequal moving force upon the crank-pin. - -Q. Is the force upon the crank-pin unequal, even when the pressure from -the cylinder is uniform throughout the stroke? - -A. Yes. No matter what the pressure on the piston is, it has no effect -in turning the engine when the crank is in line with the guides, which -is termed “on the center.” As the crank gets away from the centers, the -effect of a given pressure becomes greater, and reaches its maximum -when the crank is nearly at right angles with the guides. - -Q. How does the fly-wheel counteract the jerky motion of the crank -which would result from this? - -A. By its tendency to resist an excessive moving force, and by its -momentum keeps the engine in motion when the moving force is deficient. - -Q. What would you do if the cylinder gets worn or cut from too tight -rings or lack of oil? - -A. Rebore the cylinder. - -Q. What would you do if the crank-pin heats, gets worn or cut? - -A. If bent it should be turned true again; if not bent it can be filed -and polished perfectly true by hand. - -Q. What would you do if the main bearings heat? - -A. Loosen the caps and apply plenty of good oil. If this does not stop -it take off the caps, examine the oil holes to ascertain why the oil -does not reach the bearing. If the bearings have become rough and cut, -the shaft will have to be smoothed again. - -Q. Would any harm result from starting an engine with the drip cocks -closed? - -A. Yes, the condensed steam filling the space would smash the cylinder -or piston head. - -Q. What do you mean by atmospheric pressure? - -A. The weight of the atmosphere, which is 14.7 lbs. per square inch at -sea level. - -Q. How hot can you get water with exhaust steam under atmospheric -pressure? - -A. 212° Fahr. - -Q. Does atmospheric pressure have any influence on the boiling point? - -A. It does. - -Q. Would you run an engine with throttle wide open, or partly open? - -A. Wide open on governor engines, as it is more economical. - -Q. How many pounds of water required per horse-power for the best -engines? - -A. From 25 to 30 pounds. - -Q. At what temperature has iron the greatest tensile strength? - -A. About 600 degrees. - -Q. How much water is consumed (in pounds) per hour per indicated horse -power? - -A. From 25 to 60 pounds. - -Q. How much steam will be evaporated from one cubic inch of water under -atmospheric pressure? - -A. About one cubic foot, approximately. - -Q. How much coal is consumed per hour per indicated horse-power? - -A. From two to seven pounds. - -Q. How much does one cubic foot of fresh water weigh? - -A. 62½ pounds. - -Q. How much does one cubic foot of iron weigh? - -A. 486⁶/₁₀ pounds. - -Q. What does one square foot of half inch boiler iron weigh? - -A. Twenty pounds. - -Q. For steam purposes, how much wood is required to equal one ton of -coal? - -A. About 4000 pounds of wood. - -Q. Of what does coal consist? - -A. Carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, hydrogen, oxygen and ash. - -Q. What are their relative proportions? - -A. There are different proportions in different specimens of coal. The -average per cent is carbon eighty, nitrogen one, sulphur two, hydrogen -five, oxygen seven, ash five. - -Q. Of what is air composed? - -A. It is composed of nitrogen and oxygen in the proportion of -seventy-seven of nitrogen and 23 of oxygen. - -Q. Of what does water consist? - -A. Hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of one of hydrogen to eight of -oxygen by weight. - -Q. What are the different kinds of heat? - -A. Latent heat, sensible heat, and sometimes total heat. - -Q. What is meant by latent heat? - -A. Heat that does not affect the thermometer and which expends itself -in changing the nature of a body, such as turning ice into water or -water into steam. - -Q. Under what circumstances do bodies get latent heat? - -A. When they are passing from a solid to a liquid state, or from a -liquid to a gaseous state. - -Q. How can latent heat be recovered? - -A. By bringing the body back from a state of gas to a liquid, or from a -liquid to a solid. - -Q. If the power is in coal, why should we use steam? - -A. Because steam has some properties which make it an invaluable agent -for applying the energy of the heat to the engine. - -Q. What is steam? - -A. It is an invisible elastic fluid generated from water by the -application of heat. - -Q. What are its properties which make it so valuable to us? - -A. First. The ease with which we can condense it. - -Second. The small space which it occupies when condensed. - -Third. Its great expansive power. - -Q. What do you understand by the term “horse-power”? - -A. A horse-power is equivalent to raising 33,000 pounds one foot per -minute. - -Q. What do you understand by “lead” on an engine valve? - -A. Lead on a valve is the admission of steam into the cylinder before -the piston completes its stroke. - -Q. What are considered the greatest improvements on the stationary -engine in the past forty years? - -A. The Corliss valve gear, the governor, the compound and triple -expansion. - -Q. What is meant by triple expansion engine? - -A. A triple expansion engine has three cylinders using the same steam -expansively in each one. - -Q. What is the clearance of an engine as the term is applied at the -present time? - -A. Clearance is the space between the cylinder head and the piston head -with the ports included. - -Q. What is the principal which distinguishes a non-condensing from a -condensing engine? - -A. Where no condenser is used, and the exhaust steam is open to the -atmosphere, it is a non-condensing engine. - -Q. Why do you condense steam? - -A. To form a vacuum and thus remove the atmospheric and back pressure -that would otherwise be on the piston, thereby getting more useful work -out of the steam. - -Q. What is meant by vacuum? - -A. A space void of all pressure. - -Q. How can you maintain a vacuum? - -A. By the steam used being constantly condensed by the cold water or -cold tubes, and the air pump constantly clearing the condenser. - -Q. Why does condensing the used steam form a vacuum? - -A. Because a cubic foot of steam at atmospheric pressure shrinks into -about one cubic inch of water. - -Q. What is a condenser as applied to an engine? - -A. The condenser is that part of an engine into which the exhaust steam -enters and is condensed. - -Q. About how much gain is there by using the condenser? - -A. Seventeen to twenty-five per cent. where cost of water is not -figured. - -Q. What do you understand by the use of steam expansively? - -A. Where steam admitted at a certain pressure is cut off and allowed to -expand to a lower pressure. - -Q. How many inches of vacuum gives the best result in a condensing -engine? - -A. About 25 inches. - -Q. What is meant by a horizontal compound tandem engine? - -A. One cylinder being back of the other with two pistons on the same -rod. - -Q. What do you understand by lap? - -A. Outside lap is that portion of the valve which extends beyond the -ports when valve is placed on the center of its travel; inside lap is -that portion of valve which projects over the ports on inside or toward -the middle of the valve. - -Q. Of what use is lap? - -A. It gives expansion to the steam in the cylinder. - -Q. What is the dead center of an engine? - -A. The point where the center of shaft, center of wrist-pin and center -of piston rod are in the same straight line. - -Q. From what cause do belts have power to drive shafting? - -A. By friction and cohesion. - -Q. When would you oil an engine? - -A. Before starting it and as often while running as is necessary. - -Q. What is the tensile strength of American boiler iron? - -A. 40,000 to 60,000 pounds per square inch. - -Q. What are the principal defects found in boiler iron? - -A. Imperfect welding, brittleness, low ductility. - -Q. What is the advantage of steel as a material for boiler plate? - -A. Tensile strength, ductility, homogeneity, malleability and freedom -from laminations and blisters. - -Q. What are the disadvantages of steel as a material for boiler plate? - -A. It requires greater care in working than iron and is subject to -flaws induced by the pressure of gas bubbles in the ingots from which -the plates are made. - -Q. How far apart should stay bolts be put in a boiler? - -A. They vary from 4 to 6 inches apart, depending on thickness of -plates, size of stay bolts and amount of steam pressure to be carried. - -[Illustration: J. I. Case Portable Skid Engine.] - - - - -J. I. CASE PORTABLE SKID ENGINE. - - -The engine frame is of the girder pattern, cast in one piece, and -contains the guides for cross-head and pillow block bearing. It also -forms front head of cylinder to which it is firmly bolted. The cylinder -is supported and firmly attached to the large feed water heater, and -both cylinder and frame are entirely disconnected from the boiler. The -heater forms a support for front end of boiler. The engine is placed -diagonally with the boiler, allowing the crank shaft to pass over the -fire box end. This permits the use of a very large band wheel. The -outer end of shaft is supported by a pillow block attached to a large -bracket bolted to the boiler. - -The locomotive style of boiler has a large steam dome in center and an -ash pan under fire box. It is supported upon the long wooden skids by -brackets bolted to the sides of boiler, the heater being also bolted to -the skids. - -The independent pump is connected to the heater, and bolted to skid. - -The engine has a Plain Slide Valve, which receives its motion from the -rocker arm, operated by the eccentric and rod. It has Governor, Steam -Gauge, Pop Valve and all necessary fittings. These engines range in -size from 20 to 30 horse-power, and are extensively used for driving -portable saw mills. - - - - -RULES AND TABLES. - - -_To find the steam pressure_ on slide valve, multiply the unbalanced -area of valve in inches by pounds pressure of steam per square inch, -add weight of valve in pounds, and multiply the sum by 0.15. - -_Safety boiler pressure_ according to the United States Government -rule is as follows: Multiply ⅛ of the lowest tensile strength found -on any plate in the cylindrical shell by the thickness expressed in -inches or part of an inch of the thinnest plate in the same cylindrical -shell, and divide by the radius or half the diameter, also expressed -in inches, and the sum will be the pressure allowable per square inch -of surface for single riveting, to which add 20 per centum for double -riveting. - -_To find the water pressure_ on steam pipes leading from boiler to -steam gauge, divide the difference in height between the highest point -of pipe and the center of steam gauge by 2³/₁₀; the result will be the -pressure exerted by the water in the pipe in pounds upon the gauge. - -_Area of a Circle._—To find the area of a circle when the diameter is -given, multiply the diameter by itself, or in other words square the -diameter and multiply the result by .7854. - -Ex. Diameter 5 inches, 5 × 5 = 25 × .7854 = 29.635 area. - -_Circumference of a Circle._—To find the circumference of a circle when -the diameter is given, multiply the diameter by 3.1416. - -Ex. Diameter is 5 inches. 5 × 3.1416 = 15.708 inches circumference. - -_Diameter of a Circle._—To find the diameter of a circle when the -circumference is given, multiply the circumference by .31831. - -Ex. Circumference 20 inches. 20 × .31831 = 6.362 diameter. - -_To find the pressure_ of pounds per square inch of a column of water, -multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. Approximately, we -generally call every foot elevation equal to one-half pound pressure -per inch, this allows for ordinary friction. - -_To find the diameter_ of a pump cylinder to move a given quantity of -water per minute (100 feet of piston being the standard of speed), -divide the number of gallons by 4, then extract the square root and the -product will be the diameter in inches. - -_To find the horse-power_ necessary to elevate water to a given height, -multiply the total weight of water in pounds by the height in feet and -divide the product by 33000 (an allowance of 25% should be added for -friction, etc.). - -_The area of the steam piston_ multiplied by the steam pressure, gives -the total amount of pressure that can be exerted. The area of the water -piston multiplied by the pressure of water per square inch gives the -resistance. A margin must be made between the power and the resistance -to move the piston at the required speed—say 50%. - -_To find the capacity_ of a cylinder in gallons, multiply the area in -inches by the height of stroke in inches, which gives the total number -of cubic inches; divide this amount by 231 (which is the cubic contents -of a gallon in inches), the product is the capacity in gallons. - - -RULES FOR CALCULATING THE SPEED OF GEARS AND PULLEYS. - -In calculating for pulleys, multiply or divide by their diameter in -inches. - -In calculating for gears, multiply or divide by the number of teeth -required. - -The driving wheel is called the “driver,” and the driven wheel the -“driven.” - -PROBLEM 1.—To find the diameter of the driver when the revolutions of -the driver and driven and the diameter of the driven are given. - -RULE.—Multiply the diameter of driven by its number of revolutions, and -divide by the number of revolutions of the driver. - -PROBLEM 2.—To find the diameter of the driven to make the same number -of revolutions in the same time as the driver, when the diameter and -revolutions of driver are given. - -RULE.—Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions, -and divide the product by the required number of revolutions. - -PROBLEM 3.—To find the number of revolutions of the driven when the -diameter or number of teeth and number of revolutions of the driver and -the diameter or number of teeth of the driven are given. - -RULE.—Multiply the diameter or number of teeth of the driver by its -number of revolutions, and divide by the diameter or number of teeth of -the driven. - -PROBLEM 4.—To find the number of revolutions of the driver when the -diameter of the driven and the number or revolutions of driven are -given. - -RULE.—Multiply the diameter of driven by its number of revolutions, and -divide by the diameter of the driver. - - -SHAFTS AND PULLEYS. - -To find the size of pulley needed to give the main shaft a certain -number of revolutions, multiply the diameter of fly-wheel in inches by -the number of revolutions of the engine, and divide by revolutions of -main shaft. - -To find the revolutions of main shaft when diameter of its pulley is -given, multiply the diameter of fly-wheel in inches by its number of -revolutions, and divide by the diameter of pulley in inches. - -To find diameter of fly-wheel needed to drive a pulley at a given -number of revolutions, multiply the diameter of pulley in inches by -its number of revolutions, and divide by number of revolutions of the -engine. - -To find revolutions of an engine with a given fly-wheel to drive a -pulley at a given number of revolutions, multiply the diameter of -pulley in inches by its number of revolutions, and divide by the -diameter of fly-wheel in inches. - -Rule for finding the amount of heating surface in a locomotive boiler: - -Find surface of flues by multiplying the diameter by 3.14 to get -circumference, and multiply this product by the length of the flue, -then multiply this result by the number of flues in the boiler, and -divide by 144 to get number of square feet of surface in the flues. - -Multiply length and width of fire box for number of square inches in -crown sheet, then multiply the length and height of the fire box and -the result by two, which gives the number of square inches in the -sides; then multiply the width and height and multiply the result by -two, which gives the number of square inches in the ends, from which -subtract number of square inches in space left for door and flues—then -add all these results together and divide by 144 to get the number -of square feet in the fire box. Add same to number of square feet of -flues, and the total will be the number of square feet in the boiler. - -By dividing number of square feet by rated horse-power of boiler will -give number of square feet of heating surface to each horse-power. - - - - -_=TABLES.=_ - - -=ALLOYS.= - - ============================+====+=======+=====+=====+=====+===== - ALLOYS. |Tin.|Copper.|Zinc.|Anti-|Lead.|Bis- - | | | |mony.| |muth. - ----------------------------+----+-------+-----+-----+-----+----- - Brass, engine bearings | 13 | 112 | ¼ | | | - Tough Brass, engine work | 15 | 100 |15 | | | - Tough, for heavy bearings | 25 | 160 | 5 | | | - Yellow Brass, for turning | | 2 | 1 | | | - Flanges to stand brazing | | 32 | 1 | | 1 | - Bell Metal | 5 | 16 | | | | - Babbitt’s Metal | 10 | 1 | | 1 | | - Brass Locomotive Bearings | 7 | 64 | 1 | | | - Brass, for straps and glands| 16 | 130 | 1 | | | - Muntz’s Sheathing | | 6 | 4 | | | - Metal, to expand in cooling | | | | 2 | 9 | 1 - Pewter |100 | | | 17 | | - Spelter | | 1 | 1 | | | - Statuary Bronze | 2 | 90 | 5 | | 2 | - Type Metal, from | | | | 1 | 3 | - Type Metal, to | | | | 1 | 7 | - | | | | | | - SOLDERS. | | | | | | - For Lead | 1 | | | | 1½ | - For Tin | 1 | | | | 2 | - For Pewter | 2 | | | | 1 | - For Brazing (hardest) | | 3 | 1 | | | - For Brazing (hard) | | 1 | 1 | | | - For Brazing (soft) | 1 | 4 | 3 | | | - For Brazing (soft) or| 2 | | | 1 | | - ----------------------------+----+-------+-----+-----+-----+----- - - -CIRCUMFERENCE AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. - - ======+==========+=========== - Diam-| Circum- | Area. - eter.| ference. | - ------+----------+----------- - ¹/₃₂ | .0981 | .00076 - ¹/₁₆ | .1963 | .00306 - ⅛ | .3926 | .01227 - ³/₁₆ | .5890 | .02761 - ¼ | .7854 | .04908 - ⁵/₁₆ | .9817 | .07669 - ⅜ | 1.178 | .1104 - ⁷/₁₆ | 1.374 | .1503 - ½ | 1.570 | .1963 - ⁹/₁₆ | 1.767 | .2485 - ⅝ | 1.963 | .3067 - ¹¹/₁₆ | 2.159 | .3712 - ¾ | 2.356 | .4417 - ¹³/₁₆ | 2.552 | .5184 - ⅞ | 2.748 | .6013 - ¹⁵/₁₆ | 2.945 | .6902 - 1 | 3.141 | .7854 - | 3.534 | .9940 - ¼ | 3.927 | 1.227 - | 4.319 | 1.484 - ½ | 4.712 | 1.767 - | 5.105 | 2.073 - ¾ | 5.497 | 2.405 - | 5.890 | 2.761 - 2 | 6.283 | 3.141 - | 6.675 | 3.546 - ¼ | 7.068 | 3.976 - | 7.461 | 4.430 - ½ | 7.854 | 4.908 - | 8.246 | 5.411 - ¾ | 8.639 | 5.939 - | 9.032 | 7.491 - 3 | 9.424 | 7.068 - ¼ | 10.21 | 8.295 - ½ | 10.99 | 9.621 - ¾ | 11.78 | 11.044 - 4 | 12.56 | 12.566 - ¼ | 13.35 | 14.186 - ½ | 14.13 | 14.904 - ¾ | 14.92 | 17.720 - 5 | 15.90 | 19.635 - ¼ | 17.49 | 21.647 - ½ | 17.27 | 23.758 - ¾ | 18.06 | 25.967 - 6 | 18.84 | 28.274 - ¼ | 19.63 | 30.679 - ½ | 20.42 | 33.183 - ¾ | 21.20 | 35.784 - 7 | 21.99 | 38.484 - ¼ | 22.77 | 41.282 - ½ | 23.56 | 44.178 - ¾ | 24.34 | 47.173 - 8 | 25.13 | 50.265 - ¼ | 25.91 | 53.456 - ½ | 26.70 | 56.745 - ¾ | 27.48 | 60.132 - 9 | 28.27 | 63.617 - ¼ | 29.05 | 67.200 - ½ | 29.84 | 70.882 - ¾ | 30.63 | 74.662 - 10 | 31.41 | 78.539 - ¼ | 32.20 | 82.516 - ½ | 32.98 | 86.590 - ¾ | 33.77 | 90.762 - 11 | 34.55 | 95.033 - ¼ | 35.34 | 99.402 - ½ | 36.12 | 103.86 - ¾ | 36.91 | 108.43 - 12 | 37.69 | 113.09 - ¼ | 38.48 | 117.85 - ½ | 39.27 | 122.71 - ¾ | 40.05 | 127.67 - 13 | 40.84 | 132.73 - ¼ | 41.62 | 137.88 - ½ | 42.41 | 143.13 - ¾ | 43.19 | 148.48 - 14 | 43.98 | 153.93 - ¼ | 44.76 | 159.48 - ½ | 45.55 | 165.13 - ¾ | 46.33 | 170.87 - 15 | 47.12 | 176.78 - ¼ | 47.90 | 182.65 - ½ | 48.69 | 188.69 - ¾ | 49.48 | 194.82 - 16 | 50.26 | 201.06 - ¼ | 51.05 | 207.39 - ½ | 51.83 | 213.82 - ¾ | 52.62 | 220.35 - 17 | 53.40 | 226.98 - ¼ | 54.19 | 233.70 - ½ | 54.97 | 240.52 - ¾ | 55.76 | 247.45 - 18 | 56.54 | 254.46 - ¼ | 57.33 | 261.58 - ½ | 58.11 | 268.80 - ¾ | 58.90 | 276.11 - 19 | 59.69 | 283.52 - ¼ | 60.47 | 291.03 - ½ | 61.26 | 298.64 - ¾ | 62.04 | 306.35 - 20 | 62.83 | 314.16 - ½ | 64.40 | 330.06 - 21 | 65.97 | 346.36 - ½ | 67.54 | 363.05 - 22 | 69.11 | 380.13 - ½ | 70.68 | 397.60 - 23 | 72.25 | 415.47 - ½ | 73.82 | 433.73 - 24 | 75.39 | 452.39 - ½ | 76.96 | 471.43 - 25 | 78.54 | 490.87 - ½ | 80.10 | 510.70 - 26 | 81.68 | 530.93 - ½ | 83.25 | 551.54 - 27 | 84.82 | 572.55 - ½ | 86.39 | 593.95 - 28 | 87.96 | 615.75 - ½ | 89.53 | 637.94 - 29 | 91.10 | 660.52 - ½ | 92.67 | 683.49 - 30 | 94.24 | 706.86 - ½ | 95.81 | 730.61 - 31 | 97.38 | 754.76 - ½ | 98.96 | 779.31 - 32 | 100.5 | 804.24 - ½ | 102.1 | 829.57 - 33 | 103.6 | 855.30 - ½ | 105.2 | 881.41 - 34 | 106.8 | 907.92 - ½ | 108.3 | 934.82 - 35 | 109.9 | 962.11 - ½ | 111.5 | 989.80 - 36 | 113.0 | 1017.8 - ½ | 114.6 | 1046.3 - 37 | 116.2 | 1075.2 - ½ | 117.8 | 1104.4 - 38 | 119.3 | 1134.1 - ½ | 120.9 | 1164.1 - 39 | 122.5 | 1194.5 - ½ | 124.0 | 1225.4 - 40 | 125.6 | 1256.6 - ½ | 127.2 | 1288.2 - 41 | 128.8 | 1320.2 - ½ | 130.3 | 1352.5 - 42 | 131.9 | 1385.4 - ½ | 133.5 | 1418.6 - 43 | 135.0 | 1452.2 - ½ | 136.7 | 1486.1 - 44 | 138.2 | 1520.5 - ½ | 139.8 | 1555.2 - 45 | 141.3 | 1590.4 - ½ | 142.9 | 1625.9 - 46 | 144.5 | 1661.9 - ½ | 146.0 | 1698.2 - 47 | 147.6 | 1734.9 - ½ | 149.2 | 1772.0 - 48 | 150.7 | 1809.5 - ½ | 152.3 | 1847.4 - 49 | 153.9 | 1885.7 - ½ | 155.5 | 1924.4 - 50 | 157.0 | 1963.5 - ½ | 158.6 | 2002.9 - 51 | 160.2 | 2042.8 - ½ | 161.7 | 2083.0 - 52 | 163.3 | 2123.7 - ½ | 164.9 | 2164.7 - 53 | 166.5 | 2206.1 - ½ | 168.0 | 2248.0 - 54 | 169.6 | 2290.2 - ½ | 171.2 | 2332.8 - 55 | 172.7 | 2375.8 - ½ | 174.3 | 2419.2 - 56 | 175.9 | 2463.0 - ½ | 177.5 | 2507.1 - 57 | 179.0 | 2551.7 - ½ | 180.6 | 2566.7 - 58 | 182.2 | 2642.0 - ½ | 183.7 | 2687.8 - 59 | 185.3 | 2733.9 - ½ | 186.9 | 2780.5 - 60 | 188.4 | 2827.4 - ½ | 190.0 | 2874.7 - --------+----------+----------- - - -EFFECTIVE PRESSURE OF STEAM ON PISTON. - - With different rates of expansion, boiler pressure - being assumed as 100 lbs. per square inch. - - Steam cut off at ¾ of stroke = 90 lbs. effective pressure. - “ “ “ ⅔ “ “ = 80 “ “ “ - “ “ “ ½ “ “ = 69 “ “ “ - “ “ “ ⅓ “ “ = 50 “ “ “ - “ “ “ ¼ “ “ = 40 “ “ “ - - -MEASURE OF LENGTH. - - 12 inches 1 foot. - 3 feet 1 yard. - 2 yards 1 fathom. - 16½ feet 1 rod. - 4 rods 1 chain. - 10 chains 1 furlong. - 8 furlongs 1 mile. - 3 miles 1 league. - - -MEASURE OF VOLUME. - - A cubic foot has 1728 cubic inches. - An ale gallon has 282 “ “ - A standard or wine gallon has 231 “ “ - A dry gallon has 268.8 “ “ - A bushel has 2150.4 “ “ - A cord of wood has 128 “ feet. - A perch of stone has 24.75 “ “ - A ton of round timber has 40 “ “ - A ton of hewn timber has 50 “ “ - A box 19⅜ × 19⅜ ins., 19⅜ ins. deep, contains 1 barrel. - A “ 12¹⁵/₁₆ × 12¹⁵/₁₆ “ 12¹⁵/₁₆ ins. deep, “ 1 bushel. - A “ 8⅛ × 8⅛ “ 8⅛ ins. deep, “ 1 peck. - A “ 6⁷/₁₆ × 6⁷/₁₆ “ 6⁷/₁₆ ins. deep, “ ½ “ - A “ 4¹/₁₆ × 4¹/₁₆ “ 4¹/₁₆ ins. deep, “ 1 quart. - An acre contains 4840 sq. yds. - 209 feet long by 209 feet broad is 1 acre. - - -LIQUID MEASURE. - - A barrel holds 31½ gallons. - A hogshead holds 63 “ - A tierce “ 42 “ - A puncheon “ 84 “ - A tun “ 252 “ - - -BARREL MEASURE IN WEIGHT. - - A barrel of flour is 196 pounds. - A barrel of pork is 200 “ - A barrel of rice is 600 “ - A firkin of butter is 56 “ - A tub of butter is 84 “ - - -WEIGHT OF CAST IRON BALLS. - - Lbs. - 2 inch diameter 1.09 - 2½ “ “ 2.13 - 3 “ “ 3.68 - 3½ “ “ 5.84 - 4 “ “ 8.73 - 4½ “ “ 12.42 - 5 “ “ 17.04 - 5½ “ “ 22.68 - 6 “ “ 29.48 - 6½ “ “ 37.44 - 7 “ “ 46.76 - 7½ “ “ 57.52 - 8 “ “ 69.81 - - - - -WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. - - -AVOIRDUPOIS OR COMMERCIAL WEIGHT. - - 16 drachms 1 ounce. - 16 ounces 1 pound. - 14 pounds 1 stone. - 28 pounds 1 quarter. - 4 quarters 1 cwt. - 2240 pounds 1 long ton. - 2000 pounds 1 ton. - - -SQUARE MEASURE. - - 144 square inches 1 square foot. - 9 “ feet 1 “ yard. - 30¼ “ yards 1 “ rod. - 40 “ rods 1 “ rood. - 4 “ roods 1 “ acre. - 640 “ acres 1 “ mile. - - -TABLE OF DISTANCE. - - A mile is 5280 feet or 1760 yards. - A knot is 6086 feet. - A league is 3 miles. - A fathom is 6 feet. - A metre is 3 feet 3⅜ inches. - A hand is 4 inches. - A palm is 3 “ - A span 9 “ - A hair is equal to ¹/₄₈ of an inch. - A line is equal to ¹/₁₂ of an inch. - - -SHRINKAGE OF CASTINGS. - - Cast Iron, ⅛ inch per lineal foot. - Brass, ³/₁₆ inch per lineal foot. - Lead, ⅛ inch per lineal foot. - Tin, ¹/₁₂ inch per lineal foot. - Zinc, ⁵/₁₆ inch per lineal foot. - - -WEIGHT OF ROUND AND SQUARE ROLLED IRON PER LINEAL FOOT. - - =======+==========+========= - Inch. | Round. | Square. - -------+----------+--------- - ¼ | .165 | .211 - ⅜ | .373 | .475 - ½ | .663 | .845 - ⅝ | 1.043 | 1.320 - ¾ | 1.493 | 1.901 - ⅞ | 2.032 | 2.588 - 1 | 2.654 | 3.380 - 1⅛ | 3.359 | 4.278 - 1¼ | 4.147 | 5.280 - 1⅜ | 5.019 | 6.390 - 1½ | 5.972 | 7.604 - 1⅝ | 7.010 | 8.926 - 1¾ | 8.128 | 10.352 - 1⅞ | 9.333 | 11.883 - 2 | 10.616 | 13.520 - 2⅛ | 11.988 | 15.263 - 2¼ | 13.440 | 17.112 - 2⅜ | 14.975 | 19.066 - 2½ | 16.588 | 21.120 - 2⅝ | 18.293 | 23.292 - 2¾ | 20.076 | 25.560 - 2⅞ | 21.944 | 27.939 - 3 | 23.888 | 30.416 - 3¼ | 28.040 | 35.704 - 3½ | 32.512 | 41.408 - 3¾ | 37.332 | 47.534 - 4 | 42.464 | 54.084 - 4¼ | 47.952 | 61.055 - 4½ | 53.760 | 68.448 - 4¾ | 59.900 | 76.264 - 5 | 66.350 | 84.480 - 5¼ | 73.172 | 93.168 - 5½ | 80.304 | 102.24 - 5¾ | 87.776 | 111.75 - 6 | 95.552 | 121.66 - 6¼ | 103.70 | 132.04 - 6½ | 112.16 | 142.81 - 6¾ | 120.96 | 154.01 - 7 | 130.04 | 165.63 - 7¼ | 139.54 | 177.67 - 7½ | 149.32 | 190.13 - 7¾ | 159.45 | 203.02 - 8 | 169.85 | 216.33 - 8¼ | 180.69 | 230.06 - 8½ | 191.80 | 244.22 - 8¾ | 203.26 | 258.80 - 9 | 215.04 | 273.79 - 9¼ | 227.15 | 289.22 - 9½ | 239.60 | 305.056 - 9¾ | 252.37 | 321.33 - 10 | 265.40 | 337.92 - 10¼ | 278.92 | 355.30 - 10½ | 292.68 | 372.70 - 10¾ | 306.80 | 390.80 - 11 | 321.21 | 409.00 - 12 | 382.20 | 486.70 - -------+----------+--------- - - -TABLE OF THE CAPACITY OF CISTERNS IN GALLONS - -For Each 10 Inches of Depth. - - =========+========= - Diam. | - in Feet.| Gallons. - ---------+--------- - 2 | 19.5 - 2½ | 30.6 - 3 | 44.06 - 3½ | 59.97 - 4 | 78.33 - 4½ | 99.14 - 5 | 122.40 - 5½ | 148.10 - 6 | 176.25 - 6½ | 206.85 - 7 | 239.88 - 7½ | 275.40 - 8 | 313.33 - 8½ | 353.72 - 9 | 396.56 - 9½ | 461.4 - 10 | 489.2 - 11 | 592.4 - 12 | 705.0 - 13 | 827.4 - 14 | 959.6 - 15 | 1101.6 - 20 | 1958.4 - 25 | 3059.9 - ---------+-------- - - The American Standard gallon contains 231 cubic - inches, or 8⅓ pounds of pure water. A cubic foot - contains 62.3 pounds of water, or 7.48 gallons. - Pressure per square inch is equal to the depth or - head in feet multiplied by .433. Each 27.72 inches - of depth gives a pressure of one pound to the square - inch. - -MELTING POINT OF METALS, ETC. - - Names. °Fahr. - - Platina 4590 - Antimony 842 - Bismuth 487 - Tin 475 - Lead 620 - Zinc 700 - Cast Iron 2100 - Gold 2192 - Wrought Iron 2900 - Steel 2500 - Copper 2000 - Glass 2377 - Beeswax 151 - Sulphur 239 - Tallow 92 - Silver 1832 - - -WEIGHT OF METALS PER CUBIC FOOT. - - Lbs. - Brass 525 - Copper 550 - Gold 1210 - Iron, Cast 450 - Iron, Wrought 485 - Lead, cast 710 - Silver 655 - Steel 490 - Tin, cast 456 - Zinc 450 - - -HORSE-POWER LINE SHAFTING. - -Will transmit with Safety, Bearings say 8 to 10 ft. centres. - - ----------+--------- - Diam. of | Horse - Shaft in | Power in - Inches. | one Rev. - ----------+--------- - ¹⁵/₁₆ | .008 - 1³/₁₆ | .0156 - 1⁷/₁₆ | .027 - 1¹¹/₁₆ | .043 - 1¹⁵/₁₆ | .064 - 2³/₁₆ | .091 - 2⁷/₁₆ | .125 - 2¹¹/₁₆ | .166 - 2¹⁵/₁₆ | .216 - 3³/₁₆ | .272 - 3⁷/₁₆ | .343 - 3¹¹/₁₆ | .424 - 3¹⁵/₁₆ | .512 - 4⁷/₁₆ | .728 - 4¹⁵/₁₆ | 1.00 - 5⁷/₁₆ | 1.328 - 5¹⁵/₁₆ | 1.728 - 6⁷/₁₆ | 2.195 - 6¹⁵/₁₆ | 2.744 - 7⁷/₁₆ | 3.368 - 7¹⁵/₁₆ | 4.096 - 8⁷/₁₆ | 4.912 - 8¹⁵/₁₆ | 5.824 - 9⁷/₁₆ | 6.848 - ----------+--------- - - For Jack Shafts, or main section of Line Shafts, - allow only three-fourths of the horse-power given - above, and also provide extra bearings wherever - heavy strains occur, as in main belts or gears. - -HALF-ROUND, OVAL AND HALF-OVAL IRON. - -Weight per Lineal Foot. - - ===========+============+===========+============+========== - Size | Size | Weight | Size | Weight - Half Round.| Oval. | per foot. | Half Oval. | per foot. - -----------+------------+-----------+------------+---------- - ⅜ | ⅜ × ³/₁₆ | .186 | ⅜ × ³/₃₂ | .093 - ⁷/₁₆ | ⁷/₁₆ × ⁷/₃₂ | .253 | ⁷/₁₆ × ⁷/₆₄ | .127 - ½ | ½ × ¼ | .331 | ½ × ⅛ | .166 - ⅝ | ⅝ × ⁵/₁₆ | .517 | ⅝ × ⁵/₃₂ | .259 - ¾ | ¾ × ⅜ | .744 | ¾ × ³/₁₆ | .372 - ⅞ | ⅞ × ⁷/₁₆ | 1.013 | ⅞ × ⁷/₃₂ | .507 - 1 | 1 × ½ | 1.323 | 1 × ¼ | .662 - 1⅛ | 1⅛ × ⁹/₁₆ | 1.624 | 1⅛ × ⁹/₃₂ | .812 - 1¼ | 1¼ × ⅝ | 2.067 | 1¼ × ⁵/₁₆ | 1.034 - 1½ | 1½ × ¾ | 2.976 | 1½ × ⅜ | 1.488 - 1¾ | 1¾ × ⅞ | 4.050 | 1¾ × ⁷/₁₆ | 2.026 - 2 | 2 × 1 | 5.290 | 2 × ½ | 2.645 - -----------+------------+-----------+-------------+--------- - - -WEIGHT OF FLAT ROLLED IRON, PER FOOT. - - =========+============+========== - Breadth. | Thickness. | Weight. - ---------+------------+---------- - 1 in. | ⅛ | .422 - | ¼ | .845 - | ⅜ | 1.267 - | ½ | 1.690 - | ⅝ | 2.112 - | ¾ | 2.534 - | ⅞ | 2.956 - 1¼ in. | ⅛ | .528 - | ¼ | 1.056 - | ⅜ | 1.584 - | ½ | 2.112 - | ⅝ | 2.640 - | ¾ | 3.168 - | ⅞ | 3.696 - | 1 | 4.224 - | 1⅛ | 4.752 - 1½ in. | ⅛ | .633 - | ¼ | 1.266 - | ⅜ | 1.900 - | ½ | 2.535 - | ⅝ | 3.168 - | ¾ | 3.802 - | ⅞ | 4.435 - | 1 | 5.069 - | 1⅛ | 5.703 - | 1¼ | 6.337 - | 1⅜ | 6.970 - 1¾ in. | ⅛ | .739 - | ¼ | 1.479 - | ⅜ | 2.218 - | ½ | 2.957 - | ⅝ | 3.696 - | ¾ | 4.435 - | ⅞ | 5.178 - | 1 | 5.914 - | 1⅛ | 6.653 - | 1¼ | 7.393 - | 1⅜ | 8.132 - | 1½ | 8.871 - | 1⅝ | 9.610 - 2 in. | ⅛ | .845 - | ¼ | 1.689 - | ⅜ | 2.534 - | ½ | 3.379 - | ⅝ | 4.224 - | ¾ | 5.069 - | ⅞ | 5.914 - | 1 | 6.758 - | 1⅛ | 7.604 - | 1¼ | 8.448 - | 1⅜ | 9.294 - | 1½ | 10.138 - | 1⅝ | 10.983 - | 1¾ | 11.828 - | 1⅞ | 12.673 - 2¼ in. | ⅛ | .950 - | ¼ | 1.900 - | ⅜ | 2.851 - | ½ | 3.802 - | ⅝ | 4.752 - | ¾ | 5.703 - | ⅞ | 6.653 - | 1 | 7.604 - | 1⅛ | 8.554 - | 1¼ | 9.505 - | 1⅜ | 10.455 - | 1½ | 11.406 - | 1⅝ | 12.356 - | 1¾ | 13.307 - | 1⅞ | 14.257 - | 2 | 15.208 - | 2⅛ | 16.158 - 2½ in. | ⅛ | 1.056 - | ¼ | 2.112 - | ⅜ | 3.168 - | ½ | 4.224 - | ⅝ | 5.280 - | ¾ | 6.336 - | ⅞ | 7.392 - | 1 | 8.448 - | 1⅛ | 9.504 - | 1¼ | 10.560 - | 1⅜ | 11.616 - | 1½ | 12.672 - | 1⅝ | 13.728 - | 1¾ | 14.784 - | 1⅞ | 15.840 - | 2 | 16.896 - | 2⅛ | 17.952 - | 2¼ | 19.008 - | 2⅜ | 20.064 - 2¾ in. | ¼ | 2.323 - | ½ | 4.647 - | ¾ | 6.970 - | 1 | 9.294 - | 1¼ | 11.617 - | 1½ | 13.940 - | 1¾ | 16.264 - | 2 | 18.587 - | 2¼ | 20.910 - | 2½ | 23.234 - 3 in. | ¼ | 2.535 - | ½ | 5.069 - | ¾ | 7.604 - | 1 | 10.138 - ---------+------------+---------- - - -HORSE-POWER BELTING. - -Will transmit with Safety. - - =========+======================== - Width of | Horse-Power per 100 - Belt in | feet Velocity of Belt. - Inches. +---------+------------- - | Single | Double - | Belt. | Belt. - ---------+---------+------------- - 1 | .09 | .18 - 2 | .18 | .36 - 3 | .27 | .55 - 4 | .36 | .73 - 5 | .45 | .91 - 6 | .55 | 1.09 - 7 | .64 | 1.27 - 8 | .73 | 1.46 - 9 | .82 | 1.64 - 10 | .91 | 1.82 - 11 | 1.00 | 2.00 - 12 | 1.09 | 2.18 - 14 | 1.27 | 2.55 - 16 | 1.45 | 2.91 - 18 | 1.64 | 3.27 - 20 | 1.82 | 3.64 - 22 | 2.00 | 4.00 - 24 | 2.18 | 4.36 - 28 | 2.55 | 5.09 - 32 | 2.91 | 5.82 - 36 | 3.27 | 6.55 - 40 | 3.64 | 7.27 - ---------+---------+------------- - - In the calculations for horse-power in the above - table, the belt is assumed to run about horizontally, - the semi-circumference of smaller pulley has been - considered as the ordinary arc contact of belt. Any - reduction of this contact will make approximate - proportional reduction of horse-power. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK YOUNG ENGINEER'S GUIDE *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. 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V. Rohan</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Young Engineer's Guide</p> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: J. V. Rohan</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: August 22, 2021 [eBook #66109]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: deaurider and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK YOUNG ENGINEER'S GUIDE ***</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<h1>YOUNG ENGINEER’S GUIDE.</h1> - -<p class="f120"><small>BY</small><br /><big>J. V. ROHAN,</big></p> - -<p class="center space-above2">RACINE,<span class="ws3">WISCONSIN.</span></p> - -<p class="f120 space-above2"><b>PRICE:</b></p> -<p class="center">Cloth Bound,<span class="ws4">$1.00.</span><br /> -Leather Bound,<span class="ws4"> 1.25.</span></p> - -<p class="center space-above2"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1894.</span></p> -<p class="center">BY<br />J. V. ROHAN.</p> - -<p class="f120 space-above2">All rights reserved.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak">INDEX.</h2> -</div> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Index" cellpadding="2" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdr"><small>PAGE</small>.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Ascending Hills,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ASC_HILL">150</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Automatic Oiler,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#AUTO_OIL">79</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_space-above1">Banking Fires,</td> - <td class="tdr_space-above1"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Babbitting Boxes,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#BABBITT">188</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Belting,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Blower,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Blow-off Valve,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#BLOW_OFF">105</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_space-above1">Calking Flues,</td> - <td class="tdr_space-above1"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Check Valve,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHECK_VALVE">107</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Cleaning Flues,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CLEAN_FLUE">53</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Compression Grease Cup,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#GREASE_CUP">108</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Compound Engines,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Connecting Rod,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CONN_ROD">67</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Crank,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CRANK">68</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Crank-Pin,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CRANK_PIN">69</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Cross-head,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CROSS_HEAD">66</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Cross-head Pump,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CROSS-HEAD_PUMP">91</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Crossing Bridges and Culverts,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CROSS_BRIDGE">156</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Cylinder Cocks,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_space-above1">Descending Hills,</td> - <td class="tdr_space-above1"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Differential Gear,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Duties of Engineers,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#DUTIES">13</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_space-above1">Eccentrics,</td> - <td class="tdr_space-above1"><a href="#ECCENTRICS">73</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Eccentric Strap,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ECC_STRAP">73</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Eccentric Rod,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ECC_ROD">74</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Ejector,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Engine Frame,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ENG_FRAME">67</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Engine Stalled,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Exhaust Nozzle,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#EX_NOZZ">55</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_space-above1">Firing With Coal,</td> - <td class="tdr_space-above1"><a href="#COAL">160</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Firing with Wood,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#WOOD">159</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Firing with Straw,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#STRAW">159</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Foaming,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FOAMING">156</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Friction Clutch,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FRICTION_CLUTCH">116</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Fusible Plug,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#FUS_PLUG">56</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_space-above1">Gauge Cocks,</td> - <td class="tdr_space-above1"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Gearing,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#GEARING">113</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">General Information,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Governor,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#GOVERNOR">76</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_space-above1">Heater,</td> - <td class="tdr_space-above1"><a href="#HEATER">96</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Heating of Journals,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#HEATING">141</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Hints to Purchasers,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_9"> 9</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Horizontal Tubular Boiler,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_space-above1">Injector,</td> - <td class="tdr_space-above1"><a href="#INJECTOR">83</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_space-above1">Jet Pump,</td> - <td class="tdr_space-above1"><a href="#JET_PUMP">97</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_space-above1">Knocks or Pounds,</td> - <td class="tdr_space-above1"><a href="#KNOCKS">137</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_space-above1">Laying Up a Traction Engine,</td> - <td class="tdr_space-above1"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Link Reverse,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#LINK_REV">69</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Link,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Locomotive Boiler,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#LOCO_B">16</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Low Water Alarm,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#LOW_WATER">57</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_space-above1">Packing Piston and Valve Rods,</td> - <td class="tdr_space-above1"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Piston and Rod,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PISTON">62</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Priming,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PRIMING">157</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_space-above1">Questions with Answers concerning Boilers,</td> - <td class="tdr_space-above1"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Questions with Answers concerning</td> - <td class="tdr"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">Engines and Boilers,</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Questions with Answers for Engineers</td> - <td class="tdr"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">applying for License,</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_space-above1">Return Flue Boiler,</td> - <td class="tdr_space-above1"><a href="#RET_FLUE">18</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Reversing an Engine,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#REVERSING">130</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Reverse Lever,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#REV_LEV">72</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Rules and Tables,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_space-above1">Safety Valve,</td> - <td class="tdr_space-above1"><a href="#SAFETY_VALVE">101</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Setting Plain Slide Valve,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLAIN_SLIDE">144</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Setting Slide Valve of Reversing Engine,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#REV_SLIDE">147</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Setting Valve Duplex Pump,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Steam Cylinder,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#STEAM_CYL">61</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Steam Chest,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#STEAM_CHEST">63</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Steam Engine,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Steam Gauge,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#STEAM_GAUGE">98</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Steam Pump,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#STEAM_PUMP">89</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_space-above1">Testing Piston Rings and Valves,</td> - <td class="tdr_space-above1"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Throttle,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#THROTTLE">88</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Traction Engines,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_space-above1">Valve,</td> - <td class="tdr_space-above1"><a href="#VALVE">64</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Vertical Boiler,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_space-above1">Water Tube Boiler,</td> - <td class="tdr_space-above1"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Water Gauge,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Work-shop Recipes,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Woolf Valve Gear,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#WOOLF">74</a></td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak"><i>INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</i></h2> -</div> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Index of Illustrations" cellpadding="2" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc fontsize_120" colspan="2"><b>ENGINES.</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">E. P. Allis & Co., Milwaukee, Wis.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_021">21</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co., Racine, Wis.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_026">26</a>, <a href="#I_029">29</a>, - <a href="#I_224">224</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Gaar, Scott & Co., Richmond, Ind.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_036">36</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Nichols & Shepard, Battle Creek, Mich.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_049">49</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">J. I. Case Engine Co., New Britain, Conn.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_058">58</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">M. Rumely Co., LaPorte, Ind.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_071">71</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Minneapolis Thresh. Machine Co., Minneapolis, Minn.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_111">111</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Advance Thresher Co., Battle Creek, Mich.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_129">129</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Watertown Engine Co., Watertown, N. Y.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_135">135</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Frick Co., Waynesboro, Pa.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_153">153</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Armington & Sims Engine Co., Providence, R. I.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_168">168</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">The Geiser Manufacturing Co., Waynesboro, Pa.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_178">178</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">The Ball Engine Co., Erie, Pa.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_193">193</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A. W. Stevens & Son, Auburn, N. Y.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_203">203</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc_space-above1 fontsize_120" colspan="2"><b>BOILERS.</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">S. Freeman & Sons Manuf’g Co., Racine, Wis.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_015">15</a>, <a href="#I_016">16</a>, - <a href="#I_017">17</a>, <a href="#I_022">22</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co., Racine, Wis.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_019">19</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">The Stirling Co., Chicago, Ill.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_024">25</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc_space-above1 fontsize_120" colspan="2"><b>FITTINGS.</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Thomas Prosser & Son, P. O. Box 2873, New York City,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_052">52</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Frontier Manufacturing Co., Buffalo, N. Y.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_054">54</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">The Lunkenheimer Co., Cincinnati, O.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_056">56</a>, <a href="#I_089">89</a>, - <a href="#I_104">104</a>, <a href="#I_106">106</a>, - <a href="#I_107">107</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co., Racine, Wis.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_075">75</a>, <a href="#I_090">90</a>, - <a href="#I_116">116</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">The Gardner Governor Co., Quincy, Ill.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_076">76</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">The Detroit Lubricator Co., Detroit, Mich.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_080">81</a>, <a href="#I_081">82</a>, - <a href="#I_082">83</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">American Injector Co., Detroit, Mich.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_084">84</a>, <a href="#I_087">87</a>, - <a href="#I_097">97</a>, <a href="#I_098">98</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Battle Creek Steam Pump Co., Battle Creek, Mich.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_093">93</a>, <a href="#I_094">94</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">The Ashcroft Manuf’ct’g Co., P O Box 2803, N. Y. City,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_099">99</a>, <a href="#I_100">100</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">E. B. Kunkle & Co., Fort Wayne, Ind.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_101">101</a>, <a href="#I_102">102</a></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Chas H. Besly & Co., Chicago, Ill.,</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#I_109">109</a></td> - </tr> -</tbody> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak">PREFACE.</h2> -</div> - -<p>Some two years ago the author commenced collecting memoranda of -mechanical and practical information pertaining to the care and -operation of steam engines and boilers, with a view of forming a -systematic digest.</p> - -<p>Being an employee of the J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co. for a number -of years my attention was called to the constant inquiry for a book of -this description from young men mechanically inclined and those running -farm engines and small steam plants.</p> - -<p>By repeated assurance that there was great need for such a work, and -by ready and valuable assistance from personal friends and experts in -mechanical engineering, I have considered it advisable to publish a -practical guide for young engineers.</p> - -<p>The aim has been to place the information contained in the book in the -most simple and compact form, and while it is not intended for the -education of the more advanced engineers, the instructions given will -be found practical in the operation of steam plants of any size. It is -more especially intended for the instruction and guidance of young men -learning to run engines, and those operating farm engines and small -plants, whose experience has been limited.</p> - -<p>After carefully considering the mode of presentation, it was thought -best to adopt the form of a catechism, with the questions and -answers so set forth as to resemble an ordinary conversation; also -to illustrate and give a minute description of the construction and -function of the different parts used in the building of engines and -boilers.</p> - -<p>While the greater part of the information is new, parts have been -compiled from Power, Roper and other mechanical papers and books, -simplified to meet the required aim, for which due acknowledgement is -here given.</p> - -<p class="author"><span class="smcap">J. V. Rohan.</span></p> -<p>Racine, Wis., 1895.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="f200 space-below2"><b>Young Engineer’s Guide.</b></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[Pg 9]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak">HINTS TO PURCHASERS.</h2> -</div> - -<p>In selecting an engine of whatever style, or for whatever purpose it -is very important to get not only a good one, but one that is of the -proper size. Do not entertain the mistaken idea that it is best to have -a larger engine than is required (so that it will do its work easily), -as an engine which is too large for the work required is very wasteful -both of fuel and water. An engine always gives the best results when it -has a fair load.</p> - -<p>In the selection of a farm or traction engine you should look carefully -to the arrangement of the driving gear, the manner in which the engine -and the traction wheels are attached to the boiler, the convenient -arrangement of the throttle lever, reverse lever, steering wheel, -friction clutch lever, independent pump (if used) and injector for easy -operation from the footboard, as the easy control of all these parts by -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[Pg 10]</span> -the engineer saves much time and annoyance and in many instances may -prevent accident which might prove disastrous to both life and property.</p> - -<p>Always purchase a boiler with sufficient capacity to allow a small -margin beyond its ordinary requirements. Be sure and have the boiler or -boilers properly set so that the best results may be derived from the -fuel burned. Many good boilers are condemned because they do not steam -well on account of bad setting.</p> - -<p>If a locomotive style of boiler, see that it has a large fire box (well -stayed) and a sufficient number of flues to allow of easy firing and -good combustion of the fuel without being obliged to use a forced draft.</p> - -<p>If a return flue boiler see that the main flue is of sufficient size -and of the required ⁵/₁₆ inch thickness of material; also that it has a -mud drum and from four to six hand-holes (the more the better) both top -and bottom for the purpose of keeping the boiler free from scale and -becoming mud burnt and unsafe.</p> - -<p>Remember there is no advantage in carrying low steam pressure in -boilers as it is more economical to carry high pressure rather than low. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[Pg 11]</span> -The average boiler pressure should be about 80 lbs. per square inch, -which is not too high for safety, nor too low for economy of fuel.</p> - -<p>The purchaser must use his own discretion as to the style of engine -he prefers, a horizontal or vertical, side or center crank, as all -styles are extensively used with equally good results. It is purely a -matter of preference depending, of course, largely upon space or room -available for stationary engine.</p> - -<p>Do not make the mistake of deeming that any kind of a foundation will -answer for a stationary engine. It should be built by a skillful -mason in every case and hard brick or stone and cement used in its -construction. The best is always the cheapest in the end.</p> - -<p>An engine or boiler should never be put in a dark corner or damp -cellar, rather place them when possible in dry well lighted rooms and -so arranged that every part can be reached when necessary without -trouble or delay. Walls and floors should be kept clean and a good -supply of oil cans, wrenches, waste and whatever tools are needed -should be kept in their proper places.</p> - -<p>The purchaser of a traction engine should see that it has a Friction -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[Pg 12]</span> -Clutch as an engine with a clutch is much more practical, convenient -and safe to handle upon the road than one without a clutch. The matter -of brackets, braces, gearing, traction wheels, axle, the manner in -which the engine is mounted upon the boiler should be well considered -as there are many kinds and styles, all of which have their merit “more -or less.” Your own judgment should be used as to the style wanted after -thoroughly studying the various kinds.</p> - -<p>Do not make the too common mistake of thinking a cheap engineer is -the man you want. The engine and boiler are important factors in the -success of your business and no matter how simple and strong they -may be it will pay you to put them in charge of a competent engineer -who is capable of taking the proper care of them. For a small plant, -or traction engine, it is not necessary to have the highest grade of -ability, as there are several grades among engineers; but it is better -to pay a suitable man for competent and faithful work than to pay for -what may happen through the neglect or incompetency of one whose only -recommendation is that he is <i>cheap</i>.</p> - -<p>Do not be deceived by imposters claiming to be first-class engineers, -who, the first thing they do, to substantiate their claims, alter the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[Pg 13]</span> -engine in some way that only deranges it. Be watchful of this and see -that such men do not tamper with the valves and adjustments of the -engine, which are always set properly before it leaves the factory.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="DUTIES" class="nobreak">DUTIES OF ENGINEERS.</h2> -</div> - -<p>The duties of an engineer are of much more importance and require -a better knowledge of the operating of machinery than is generally -understood. The responsibilities that rest upon him are very great; -this applies to all engineers, but more especially to inexperienced men -who take charge of small plants or farm engines, whose knowledge of -machinery and the dangers connected with the improper handling of it, -is limited. The proper management of boilers and engines is of as vital -importance to prevent accident as their proper construction; as they -are liable to get out of order and become unsafe unless the engineer is -sufficiently informed to know what precautions should be taken under -any and all circumstances that might prove disastrous.</p> - -<p>Not only should an engineer be ever on the alert to guard against -accident, but he should also be capable of keeping the engine, boiler -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[Pg 14]</span> -and appliances in good condition, as the life of the machinery depends -largely upon his competency and the faithful performance of his duties.</p> - -<p>An <span class="smcap">Engineer</span>:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="neg-indent">Should be sober.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Should be industrious.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Should be careful.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Should be faithful to his charge.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Should keep his engine and its surroundings neat -and clean.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Should keep his engine running smoothly without -knocks or pounds.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Should learn to let “well enough” alone.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Should never attempt experiments unless he knows -what he is about.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Should have a place for everything and keep -everything in its place.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Should show by the quietness in running and -appearance of the engine in his charge that it is properly cared -for.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Should constantly endeavor to expand his mind as -to the management, construction and care of boilers, engines and their -appliances.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Should carry this book in his pocket for -reference as it contains much valuable information and in a time of -need may save much time and expense, or even prevent a catastrophe.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="full x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[Pg 15]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak">Boilers.</h2> -</div> - -<h3>HORIZONTAL TUBULAR BOILER.</h3> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How is a horizontal tubular boiler constructed?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It has a cylindrical shell, with heads riveted -at each end, in which are placed a large number of tubes, 4 inches or -less in diameter. It is set in brick work, with the furnace at one end, -beneath the shell. The products of combustion pass under the boiler -its full length and return through the tubes or flues to an up-take at -the front end. It is furnished with a man-hole beneath the flues, and -hand-holes for cleaning, and generally has a steam dome.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_015" src="images/i_015.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="306" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Freeman’s Horizontal Tubular Boiler.</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[Pg 16]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What are the advantages of a horizontal -boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It is simple in form, easy to construct, -requires bracing only on the flat heads, which are sustained their -greater part by the tubes, generates a large amount of steam for the -space occupied, and is not difficult to keep clean with fairly pure -feed water.</p> - -<h3 id="LOCO_B" class="space-above1">LOCOMOTIVE BOILER.</h3> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How is a locomotive or fire box boiler constructed?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The ends of a cylindrical shell are continued -straight down upon the sides, and enclosed to form a rectangular -structure in its lower <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[Pg -17]</span> portion and conformed to the curvature of the cylindrical -shell at the top. In the rectangular portion is secured a fire box, -separated from the sides and ends by water spaces called “water legs,” -and having its top which is called the “crown sheet” about the center -of the cylindrical shell. An opening is formed in both sheets in rear -end of the fire box door frame. The cylindrical shell has heads riveted -at both ends. These heads have numerous flues open at both ends put in. -All the flat surfaces are stayed to each other at suitable intervals, -and the crown sheet is stayed from the shell. The fuel is thrown in -through the door at the rear, and the products of combustion are -conveyed to further extremity through the tubes or flues. It is -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[Pg 18]</span> -furnished with hand-holes for cleaning and a steam dome. There are two -different styles of fire boxes on Locomotive Boilers, the round bottom -fire box in which the water circulates under the grates, and the square -open bottom fire box. Both kinds are used extensively.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_016" src="images/i_016.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="323" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Freeman Locomotive Boiler.</p> - - <img id="I_017" src="images/i_017.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="311" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Sectional View Freeman Locomotive Boiler.</p> -</div> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What advantages have the locomotive or fire box boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It is entirely self-contained, generates steam very rapidly, -is economical in space, and needs no elaborate foundation.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What disadvantages has the locomotive or fire box boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Expensive first cost, and difficulty in cleaning, -especially where impure feed water is used.</p> - -<h3 id="RET_FLUE" class="space-above1">RETURN FLUE BOILER.</h3> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Describe the construction of a Return Flue Boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It has a cylindrical shell, with heads riveted at each end, -in which are placed a large main flue, and a number of small flues or tubes, -open at both ends. The top row of flues is placed below the water line. -One end of the main flue is used for the fire box, into which the fuel -is thrown through door at back end and the products of combustion pass -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[Pg 19]</span> -forward through this main flue to an ample smoke box in front end, and -return through the smaller flues or tubes to smoke box at rear end, -which is connected to the smoke stack. They are generally supplied with -steam dome and mud drum, and are used extensively in the construction -of traction engines where straw is used for fuel. They are also -furnished with several hand-holes placed in proper places for cleaning -the boiler.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_019" src="images/i_019.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="312" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Sectional View J. I. Case Return Flue Boiler.</p> -</div> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What are the advantages of this style of boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Large heating surface, easily repaired and cleaned, -simplicity of construction and compactness. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[Pg 20]</span></p> - -<p class="f120 space-above2"><b>REYNOLDS CORLISS CONDENSING<br /> -AND NON-CONDENSING ENGINE.</b></p> - -<p>This engine has a massive, peculiarly constructed frame, being cast in -two parts. The forward part contains the main pillow block bearing, and -the part in which the cross-head runs is cylindrical in shape, and has -bored Guides, and large lateral openings.</p> - -<p>The crank is a large disc plate, and the large heavy fly-wheel serves -the double purpose of a drive pulley and balance wheel.</p> - -<p>The cylinder is supplied with four valves, two at the top and two at -the bottom, and directly upon the bore of the cylinder. The two at the -top are the steam valves, the two at the bottom are exhaust valves, and -receive their motion from a single eccentric acting through the medium -of a wrist plate or vibrating disc, from which the valve connections -radiate. The valve being independently adjusted, the commencement, -extent and rapidity of the movement of each can be most accurately -arranged. The steam valves are controlled by the Governor, which, being -very sensitive to the variation of load, allows just the required -amount of steam to enter the cylinder to keep up the uniform speed. -The exhaust valves being at the lower ends of the cylinder, at the -clearance space, the water of condensation is allowed to escape in -the most thorough manner, without the use of cylinder cocks or other -devices.</p> - -<p>This style of engine is intended for all purposes, but is especially -adapted to heavy and continuous work and where the conditions call for -an engine capable of working under a high steam pressure, also when the -work is of an intermittent character. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[Pg 21]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_021" src="images/i_021.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="320" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Reynolds Corliss “1890” Engine—Front View.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[Pg 22]</span></p> -<h3 class="space-above1">VERTICAL BOILER.</h3> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_022" src="images/i_022.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="453" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Sectional View<br /> Freeman Vertical Boiler.</p> -</div> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How is a Vertical Tubular Boiler generally constructed?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. A cylindrical fire box set into the lower part -of a vertical cylindrical shell, the space between forming an annular -“water leg.” An opening is formed in both sheets for the fire door. The -top of the fire box serves as a flue sheet for numerous tubes or flues -which extend <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[Pg 23]</span> -through the closed top of the outside shell, and through which the -products of combustion pass to the smoke stack. The upper portions of -the tubes are surrounded by steam.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent"> Where this style of boiler is made for marine -purposes, the upper part of the tubes is submerged, and is called a -submerged-flue boiler.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What advantages has the vertical type of -boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Minimum floor space, portability, low cost of -setting, and a wide allowable variation in the water level.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What disadvantages has this type?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Liability to leakage in the exposed upper ends -of flues where they are not submerged, deposits from impure water in -the “water leg,” in small sizes insufficient heating surface, though -the latter fault can be corrected by making the boiler very tall. Some -of the very large vertical boilers are remarkably efficient. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[Pg 24]</span></p> - -<h3 class="space-above1">WATER TUBE BOILER.</h3> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_024" src="images/i_024.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="406" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Stirling Water Tube Boiler.</p> -</div> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How is a water tube boiler constructed?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The Stirling Water Tube Boiler as illustrated, -has three upper or steam domes, the steam space of all of which is -connected, while the water space of the two front domes is connected. -All of these three domes are connected with a lower or mud drum, which -is not bricked in, but is left free to expand and contract.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent"> The three upper domes are supported on wrought -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[Pg 25]</span> -iron beams, which are entirely free and independent from the brick work. The -feed water enters the rear upper dome, and descends gradually to the lower -or mud drum, being heated in its descent by the escaping gases to a -sufficiently high degree to cause precipitation in the mud drum of all -of the solid or scale bearing matter that the feed water contains. -The water then in the front bank of tubes is chemically pure, and all -danger of scale reduced to a minimum.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What advantages have the water tube boilers?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. One of the great advantages of this style of -boilers is its distinct circulation, being up the front bank of tubes -across from the front upper dome to the middle dome, down the middle -bank of tubes to the lower or mud drum, and up again the front bank of -tubes, and so on in circuit. It also has great steaming capacity, and -is economical in fuel. Steam is taken from the middle dome.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent"> This marked circulation is a desideratum in -boiler practice, and the Stirling may be said to be the first that has -accomplished it to so great a degree.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What disadvantages have the water tube boilers?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Expensive first cost of setting them up in brick work. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[Pg 26]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_026" src="images/i_026.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="365" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">J. I. Case Traction Engine.</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[Pg 27]</span></p> - -<p class="f120"><b>J. I. CASE TRACTION ENGINE.</b></p> - -<p>This engine is known as the Center Crank, Rear Gear traction. The -engine is mounted on the center of boiler at the rear end, and rests -upon and is securely bolted to two saddles. The rear saddle also -supports the two outer bearings for the crank shaft.</p> - -<p>The engine frame is cast in one piece, cylindrical in shape, with -bored guides for cross-head, and has large lateral openings. It forms -the front cylinder head at one end, and contains the two pillow block -bearings at the other.</p> - -<p>The cylinder is overhanging and self-lining.</p> - -<p>It has the locomotive type boiler, with open bottom fire box, covered -with an ash pan, and has a steam dome at front end. The outer shell -of this boiler over fire box extends beyond the back head. To this -extension is bolted the two brackets containing the bearings for the -main axle and cross shaft.</p> - -<p>The traction wheels are of the wrought rim steel spoke type, with high -mud cleats bolted diagonally across the entire width of tire.</p> - -<p>The front axle is supplied with a ball-bearing bolster, which supports -the front end of boiler. The engine has the <a href="#I_116">Friction Clutch</a>, Link -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[Pg 28]</span> -Reverse Gear, Long Heater, Independent Pump, <a href="#I_084">Injector</a>, Water Tank -on side, Foot Board with Tool Boxes attached, and all necessary -attachments and fittings to make a complete traction engine, and one -that will be perfectly safe with proper handling.</p> - -<p>The steering wheel and band wheel are on the same side of engine, and -the straight stack and extension front has a spark arrester on the -inside.</p> - -<p>This engine is constructed to burn either coal or wood and with special -arrangement can be made to burn straw.</p> - -<p class="f120"><b>J. I. CASE RETURN FLUE TRACTION ENGINE.</b></p> - -<p>The foregoing description of the J. I. Case Traction Engine will apply -to this engine in every particular with the exception of the boiler, -the construction of engine, the traction gear and fittings being -exactly the same.</p> - -<p>The boiler however is of the return flue, straw-burner type It is -supplied with a large steam dome on front end and also a mud drum -on under side. The fire box is at the rear end of main flue, and is -covered by an ash pan. The boiler is lagged and jacketed, and the stack -has a screen spark arrester at the top. This engine is intended to burn -straw, but it will burn either wood or coal equally well, and is said -to be very economical in fuel. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[Pg 29]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_029" src="images/i_029.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="409" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">J. I. Case Return Flue Traction Engine.</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[Pg 30]</span></p> - -<h3 class="space-above1">QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS,</h3> - -<p class="f150 space-below2">concerning the operation -and care of steam boilers.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How is steam taken from the boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By suitable piping leading from a steam dome on top of boiler.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is a steam dome and how is it made?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. A steam dome is cylindrical in shape, is made usually of boiler -plate flanged and riveted over a hole on top of boiler.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Of what use is a steam dome?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Its use is to afford space for dry steam to collect.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is a mud drum, and of what use is it?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The mud drum is cylindrical in shape, made of boiler iron flanged -and riveted over a hole on under side of boiler, in which mud and -sediment may collect, and is of great value on a return flue boiler.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What are boilers furnished with so that they may be easily cleaned?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Man-holes and hand-holes.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What are man-holes and hand-holes?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[Pg 31]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The man-hole is a hole cut in boiler large -enough to admit a man and is covered by a portable plate which can be -fastened absolutely tight. Hand-holes are small holes cut in boiler in -convenient places into which a hose can be placed and the boiler washed -out and the mud and scale removed. Hand-holes are covered with portable -plates which can be fastened absolutely tight.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How can a boiler be protected from the cold?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By a non-conducting jacket which keeps off the cold, retains the -high temperature of the boiler and prevents the radiation of heat.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What materials are used for jacketing a boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Plaster, wood, hair, rags, felt, paper and asbestos.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How are they applied?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Wood is put on in long strips close together -like barrel staves, fastened with hoops and usually covered with sheet -iron. The other materials are put close to the boiler and held in place -by sheet iron or canvas. They are sometimes put on with an intervening -air space between them and the boiler.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is the use of air space?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[Pg 32]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It protects the material from being burned -or otherwise injured by the heat.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Is there no radiation through these coverings?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Yes, but the loss is very slight, as the temperature -of covering should never rise above what just seems warm to the hand.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How should you feed water to a boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Continuously during the whole time that steam is being used.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Will a steam pump feed continuously?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Yes, by running the pump faster or slower according -to the amount of water required.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Why is a continuous feed preferable?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Because it maintains the water in the boiler -at a uniform level and gives the most perfect action.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Should precaution be taken in choice of -water used in the boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Yes. Always use water that is as clear and free -from foreign matter as can be procured, rain water preferred.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is the result of using impure water?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It will form a scale upon the flues and plates -on the inside of boiler.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[Pg 33]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What harm does scale do?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. In the first place scale is a non-conductor -and prevents the heat of furnace from producing its best effects upon -the water and in the second place it allows the plates and flues to -become over heated and burn.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How can you prevent the formation of scale?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. There are numerous compounds upon the market -some of which are known to be very reliable, but for ordinary purposes -sal soda dissolved in the feed water answers very well.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What precaution should be taken in the use of -sal soda?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Great care should be taken that too much is -not used at a time. If too much is used a great deal of trouble will be -caused by the water in the boiler foaming.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How often should a boiler be cleaned?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It depends entirely upon the condition of -the feed water used and the amount of service exerted from it. It may -vary from once or twice a week to once in two or three months, or even -longer.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Does a boiler only require the regular cleaning?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[Pg 34]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. No, it should be blown off three or four times -a day by the surface blow-off.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Should the surface blow-off be left open any -length of time?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. No, only a few seconds at a time, say from -fifteen seconds to a minute, even longer on larger boilers, but the -engineer must use his own judgement in this matter.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What does the surface blow-off do?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It blows out all the impurities that arise in -the form of scum on the surface of the water, thus lessening the amount -of scale formation.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How should a boiler be cleaned?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By blowing the water out at a low pressure of -steam and after cooling off wash out and scrape the inside, removing -all scale and sediment.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How do you blow off your boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By means of a blow-off valve situated at the -bottom part of the boiler.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. When should a boiler be blown off?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. When the steam pressure entirely disappears -and the water is at boiling point, if boiler is set in brick work.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Why not blow off under a full head of -steam?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[Pg 35]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Because when blown off under pressure there is -heat enough remaining in the shell and flues to bake the scale upon the -interior, thus rendering it exceedingly difficult to remove.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. In what condition is the scale after blowing -off at low pressure.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Some may be baked hard and attached to the -flues and shell, but the greater part will be soft and slushy so that -it can be easily removed.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How is this slush removed from the boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. If a fire box or return flue boiler, all the -hand-hole plates should be removed and as much of the slush as possible -raked out; then a hose is inserted and a stream of water forced in -which will carry the remainder out. The hose should be placed in the -top holes first.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Is it a good idea after blowing off a boiler -to fill it with water again without delay?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. No. Because the boiler is hot, and if cold -water is put in before it is thoroughly cooled off the boiler will be -subjected to severe strains caused by the sudden contraction of the -metal that is expanded by the heat, which will injure it to a greater -or less degree.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[Pg 36]</span></p> -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_036" src="images/i_036.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="383" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Garr-Scott Traction Engine.</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[Pg 37]</span></p> - -<p class="f120"><b>GARR-SCOTT TRACTION ENGINE.</b></p> - -<p>This engine, as will be seen by examining the cut, is of the Side -Crank, Side Gear style, the engine of which is mounted upon a long -heater, to which the cylinder and the main pillow block bearing are -attached, and is supplied with the bar or locomotive guides for -cross-head.</p> - -<p>It is fitted with the Link Reverse peculiar to their own style of -manufacture, also <a href="#I_084">Injector</a>, <a href="#I_116">Friction Clutch</a>, -<a href="#I_090">Cross-head Pump</a>, <a href="#I_076">Governor</a>, Syphon for filling Tank on front end, -Automatic Sight-Feed <a href="#I_080">Lubricator</a>, and large Foot Board with Tool Boxes attached.</p> - -<p>The boiler is of the locomotive or round bottom fire box type, with -dome on front end, and is mounted upon the traction wheels with axle -arms attached to the sides of boiler, which are supplied with springs. -The front axle is attached to the boiler with a bolster arrangement, -which is also supplied with a spring.</p> - -<p>The traction wheels are made practically in one piece, having the -spokes cast in both hub and rim, the cast iron rim being chilled faced, -with the mud cleats cast on.</p> - -<p>The smoke stack is supplied with a screen suitable for burning either -wood or coal. It has a patent steering attachment, the hand wheel of -which is on the same side of engine as the band wheel.</p> - -<p class="space-below3">The engine and boiler are supplied with all -the necessary fittings to make them convenient and safe with proper -handling. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[Pg 38]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. When should a boiler be filled after being -blown off and cleaned?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. A boiler should not be filled under any -circumstances until it is about the same temperature as the water used -to fill it.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How are the hand-hole plates put back in -position?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The plate that covers the hole is put on the -inside of the boiler and held in position against the plate by a bolt -attached to it and passing out through a yoke which straddles the hole -upon the outside and serves as a brace against which the bolt acts.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How is a leak prevented?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By placing packing between the hand-hole plate -and the boiler plate.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is the best kind of packing to use for -this purpose?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Two or three ply sheet rubber is the best, cut -in the form of a ring to fit the bearing surface of the plate.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Can any other material be used?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Yes, hemp or cotton packing. When this is used -it should be pulled out in fine shreds and thoroughly oiled before -putting in position. Use as little as possible.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[Pg 39]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Do the metals need any preparation?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Yes, all the old packing that may have burned -on the metal should be thoroughly scraped off, also the scale should be -removed from the vicinity so that the packing will have a smooth and -even surface to bear against.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How are man-hole plates put in position?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. In the same manner as the hand-hole plates.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is required of an engineer or fireman in -the care of a boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. He should watch carefully all the parts -that are exposed to any steam and see that they do not become unduly -weakened by corrosion or accident. All the working parts and fittings -should be examined daily and be repaired or replaced as soon as they -show signs of wear or weakness. The <a href="#I_099">steam gauge</a> and <a href="#I_101">safety valve</a> should -receive constant care and both should be tested frequently, the one -by the other, and the steam gauge by a standard in order that it may -be known to be in perfect order. When scale forming water is used the -feed pipe should be frequently uncoupled and examined and all sediment -removed. The check valve should be examined frequently to see that it -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[Pg 40]</span> -seats properly so that water cannot leak from boiler in this way -and the utmost care should be taken in regard to the consumption of -fuel.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. In case of accident how should an engineer -conduct himself?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. With the utmost coolness.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. If the water gauge glass breaks, what should -be done?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The upper and lower gauge valves should be -closed immediately.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Can a new glass be put in at once?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. No, because a new glass is cold, and if put in -position and steam turned on, the sudden heat and expansion would be -apt to crack it.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. When can a new glass be put in?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. After the boiler has been cooled off.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is to be done in the meantime?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The boiler must be run by the use of the gauge -cocks alone.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is to be done if the gauge cocks leak?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. If the leak is in the seat, that part should -be taken out and re-ground and refitted. This should be done at -once.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What harm is done by a leaky gauge cock?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[Pg 41]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It allows the water to run down over the face -of the boiler, which tends to corrode it.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. When the leak is where the gauge cock is -screwed into the boiler, what is to be done?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. As soon as the boiler is cooled down examine -and see if the gauge cock can be screwed up another turn. If so try -that, then if the leak is not stopped the gauge cock must be taken -out and a new one put in its place, or the thread of the old one so -repaired that there will be no leak.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Why not screw up the leaky gauge cock when the -boiler is under pressure?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Because there is great danger of breaking the -cock, thereby placing the engineer or fireman in great peril.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What should be done in case a gauge cock is -accidentally broken off?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Open the furnace door and if possible -partially bank the fire, close the damper and allow the water to blow -out at the hole until steam alone comes out. In the meantime get a -piece of soft pine six or seven feet long and whittle down one end -until it will about fit and jam it into the hole. Work it around -until the jet of steam is stopped. Fasten <span class="pagenum"><a -id="Page_42"></a>[Pg 42]</span> the stick in temporarily and stop the -engine if not already done. It will now depend on the condition of the -break and the position of the surrounding parts as to the means to be -employed. The stick should be cut off short and firmly driven into the -hole and braced or tied securely. The engineer or fireman must use his -own ingenuity for this work.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Can a boiler be worked in this condition?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Yes, by the use of the gauge glass to -determine the level of water.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Should a boiler be run in this condition -continually?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. No. A new gauge cock should be supplied as -soon as possible.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. When a gauge cock becomes stopped up what -should be done?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. After steam is down, the front or outer part -may be taken off and a stiff wire run into it to open the clogged -tube.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Is it simply necessary to get the wire -through?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. No, the wire should be worked back and forth -until all the deposit or scale is thoroughly cleaned out.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[Pg 43]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. In case the steam gauge gets out of order what -should be done?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. There should always be an extra gauge on hand -that may be put to use. If there is no extra steam gauge, the engine -should be shut down until the gauge can be repaired.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Why not continue running by using the safety -valve?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Because it is very dangerous and should never -be attempted.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How much variation from the actual pressure -can be allowed on steam gauge before it is repaired?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. None. As soon as suspected of being even -slightly out of order it should be repaired.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. In case the pump does not work what should be -done?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Supply the boiler by the injector.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is to be done where there is no -injector?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. First, care should be taken that the water in -the boiler does not fall below the second gauge cock or out of sight in -the gauge glass, then stop the engine and bank the fire. When this is -done, examine the packing around the plunger to see that it does not -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[Pg 44]</span> -leak air, then examine the valves of the pump to ascertain whether they -are worn and leak. If this be the case they must be reseated at once. -If the valves are all right, work the pump and open the side valve in -the delivery pipe to see if the pump draws water. If no water appears, -the trouble is probably in the suction pipe.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How can this be remedied?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. First examine the strainer at end of suction -pipe or hose to see if it is stopped up; if it is, clean it out and -try the pump. If it works, the difficulty is remedied. If the strainer -is clean, examine the pipe or hose from end to end to see that it is -perfectly air tight; if not, it should be made so.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. If the delivery pipe is choked, how can it be -cleaned?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Close the globe valve next to boiler, and then -examine the check valve to see if it is all right. If it is choked or -filled with sediment, take out the valve, clean the shell and re-seat -the valve; if the check is all right, disconnect the pipe and clean out -if necessary.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What if this pipe and check valve are all -right?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[Pg 45]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Let the boiler cool off, then blow off -the water, disconnect the pipe between check and boiler, where the -difficulty will probably be found, and clean thoroughly.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How can check valve and delivery pipe be -choked with water that has already passed through the injector or -valves of the pump?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The water may contain quantities of lime which -are deposited from the heated water upon the interior of the pipe, -which will thus be gradually decreased in size until the hole is too -small to answer the purpose.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. When the communication between the water gauge -and boiler is interrupted, what should be done?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The glass should be blown out frequently -by opening the drip cock at the bottom, then shut the upper valve, -allowing the water to blow through the lower valve until the water runs -free and clear. Then shut the lower valve and open the upper one and -blow through in like manner.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. In case of low water what should be done?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Cover the fire quickly with fresh coal or damp -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[Pg 46]</span> -ashes, close the lower draft door, and allow the furnace to cool. Never -dash water into the furnace to check the fire, it is dangerous.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Why not draw or dump the fire?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Because it would result momentarily in -stirring up an intense heat, cooling can be effected more rapidly by -covering the fire and checking the draft.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Should the pop or safety valve be opened?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. No. Never let more steam out of the boiler in -this condition than can be avoided.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Should the engine be stopped or the throttle -valve be closed?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. No. A sudden stoppage of the outflow of steam -will cause the water level to fall. The first thing to be looked after -is to subdue the heat which is the source from which trouble may -arise.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Should the feed water supply be turned on?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. No. <i>Leave it alone.</i> Should the pump or -injector be running, the water level will be recovered gradually as -the boiler cools down. If the feed is not on, the sudden admittance of -water on the overheated surfaces will cause a disaster. The feed should -not be turned on until sufficient time has been allowed to avert such -danger.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[Pg 47]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Are there any appliances by which to guard -against accident from low water?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Yes. Alarms to call attention by blowing a -whistle or ringing a bell when the water is below a certain level. Also -fusible or safety plug placed in the heating surface of boiler most -liable to be overheated from lack of water.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Of what use is the safety valve?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. To prevent the accumulation of pressure above -a given point.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Should water be left in the boiler when not in -use?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. No. It is better to draw out all the water and -properly clean the boiler before leaving.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What should be done in case a grate bar breaks -and drops out of place?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. If no other bar is at hand, it might be -repaired with a heavy stick of wood.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How can this be done?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By cutting the stick in such a shape as to fit -the space made by the broken bar, then cover with ashes before the fire -spreads over it.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Will the stick burn out?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Yes, but it will last for several hours.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[Pg 48]</span></p> - -<p class="f120 space-above1"><b>NICHOLS & SHEPARD TRACTION ENGINE.</b></p> - -<p>This engine is also of the Side Crank, Side Gear pattern, the engine -is mounted upon the side of the boiler, upon a long heater, which -is securely bolted to the boiler by three brackets. It is of the -Locomotive Guide pattern, and has a <a href="#I_090">cross-head pump</a>. The cylinder rests -its full length upon the heater and is lagged. It has the link reverse -gear and plain slide valve, <a href="#I_116">Friction Clutch</a>, -<a href="#I_084">Injector</a>, Automatic Sight Feed <a href="#I_080">Lubricator</a>, -<a href="#I_076">Governor</a>, Extension Front and Straight Stack. The hand steering wheel -is on the opposite side from the band wheel.</p> - -<p>The boiler is of the round bottom fire box style with double riveted -seams, and has a dome in the center, and is mounted upon the wheels in -the rear with a wrought iron axle which passes around underneath the -boiler and is held in place by brackets attached to the side of the -boiler.</p> - -<p>These brackets contain springs.</p> - -<p>The traction wheels are of the cast iron rim style, with wrought -iron spokes cast in both rim and hub and mud cleats are cast on rim. -The foot board is furnished with a water tank and tool box and all -necessary fittings and attachments are supplied to make a complete -traction engine. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[Pg 49]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_049" src="images/i_049.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="379" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Nichols & Shepard Traction Engine.</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[Pg 50]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What harm would result from firing for a short -time without the bar?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. None to speak of to furnace or grate bars, but -the quantity of air admitted to the fire box would make it exceedingly -hard to keep up steam and the hole thus made would cause a great loss -of fuel.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What should be done if a bar in a rocker grate -should fall out?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Take a piece of flat wrought iron and cut it -to fit the bearings, this will do for some time and will not interfere -with the rocking of the bars. Or, take a heavy piece of plank, covering -the opening completely, and cover the plank carefully with ashes, -surrounding it on all sides to protect it as much as possible from the -fire.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Will not this latter prevent the rocking of -the grate?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Yes, and it can only be cleaned by raking out -from underneath.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How should such difficulties be avoided?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. A good engineer will always have on hand at -least two or three extra grate bars.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Should a boiler be forced beyond its normal -capacity?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[Pg 51]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Never force a boiler beyond its normal -capacity, as such excessive firing distorts the fire sheets and results -in leaks and fractures.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Should intense fires be started in or under -boilers?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Never build an intense fire in or under a -boiler until the shell is well heated. Hot fires in or under cold -boilers hurry their destruction.</p> - -<p class="f120 space-above2"><b>CAUTION.</b></p> - -<p>Never blow out the boiler under high steam pressure or fill it again -with cold water when the boiler is hot, as either one of these is -likely to fracture the transverse riveting and is dangerous.</p> - -<p>Do not feed the water to the boiler irregularly. The slower the -water goes through the heater the more heat it takes up. To fill the -boiler to three gauges and then shut off the feed until the water -level is again down, the exhaust steam, after it has heated the water -standing in heater, passes off without leaving any of its heat, and -then turning on the feed water again much faster than needed, the -water has not time to take up so much heat as if the feed were slow -and regular. Much bad effect on the boiler is due to the difference in -temperature at the time when the feed is off and on.</p> - -<p><i>Never calk a boiler under steam pressure unless you are tired of life.</i> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[Pg 52]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">CALKING FLUES.</h3> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. In case the boiler flues become leaky, can they be tightened?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-below2">A. Yes, by the use of a tool -called an “expander,” which is generally kept in stock by the boiler -manufacturer.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_052" src="images/i_052.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="171" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Prosser’s Spring Expander.</p> -</div> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Can an unskilled person expand and tighten the -flues of his boiler without the aid of an expert or boiler maker?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Yes, if he is careful and follows -these instructions, viz:</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  First clean the ends of the flues and flue -sheet of all dirt, soot and cinders, and place the expander within the -leaky flue, being careful to have the shoulder of the tool well against -the head and end of flue. Now, with a light hammer drive in the taper -expanding pin and after two or three blows of the hammer, jar the pin -out, turn the expander a little and drive in pin as before, removing -the pin and turning expander again until a full turn has been made.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[Pg 53]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  Great care must be taken in expanding flues -not to expand them so hard as to stretch or enlarge the hole containing -flue in the flue sheet, thereby loosening the adjoining flue. After all -the loose flues have been carefully expanded, take the beading tool -and place the long or guide end within the flue, then with the aid of -a light hammer the ends of flues can be gradually beaded or calked -against the flue sheet, rendering them perfectly tight. With a little -practice, a careful man can do a neat job of calking, thereby avoiding -loss of time and expense in being obliged to call a boiler maker. An -expander and calking tools should be among the tools of every engineer, -as many little leaks that may occur in a steam boiler, although they -may not be dangerous, give it a bad appearance and should be calked and -stopped by the engineer.</p> - -<h3 id="CLEAN_FLUE" class="nobreak">CLEANING FLUES.</h3> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How are boiler flues cleaned?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. There are two ways of cleaning flues, viz: -with a steam blower and a scraper. The latter is more commonly used and -when properly applied does its work most efficiently.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[Pg 54]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  The scraper is screwed on the end -of a rod of sufficient length to allow it to pass through the flue, -and when cleaning, the scraper should be passed forward and backward -through the flue or least two or three times, to insure all the soot -and ashes being removed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_054" src="images/i_054.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="177" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Wilson Pat. Flue Scraper.</p> -</div> - -<p class="neg-indent">  The cleaning of flues should be done -systematically, as often as required to keep them clean, as clean flues -not only add greatly to the steaming capacity of the boiler, but make a -great difference in the amount of fuel used.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  If the flues are allowed to become -covered inside with soot and ashes, the formation of which becomes a -non-conductor for heat, the product of combustion passes through the -flues without leaving more than one-half as much heat as it would -otherwise leave if the flues were clean.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[Pg 55]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">BLOWER.</h3> - -<p><b>The Blower</b> consists of a small pipe attached to the steam dome -or top of the boiler with a globe or angle valve, and is situated -near the stack. This pipe enters the stack just above the boiler, the -end being bent up toward the top of stack and reduced to a very small -opening. When steam is turned on through this pipe, it displaces the -air in the stack, causes a partial vacuum in the smoke box, and the -air rushes through the grates, fuel and flues to replace that which is -blown out by the blower, and the draught can be increased as much as -desired.</p> - -<h3 id="EX_NOZZ" class="nobreak">EXHAUST NOZZLE.</h3> - -<p><b>The Exhaust Nozzle</b>, as generally constructed, is an elbow -attached to the end of the exhaust pipe in the smoke box or smoke stack -of the boiler, the end of which points upward, with the opening reduced -so that the exhaust steam will be forced up the stack, and thereby -produce the same effect as a blower.</p> - -<p>The opening in the exhaust nozzle should never be made so small as to -check the exhaust steam to any great degree, and cause back pressure in -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[Pg 56]</span> -the cylinder, as the power of the engine would be diminished. The -opening should be as large as possible, and still produce sufficient -draught to keep the required steam pressure.</p> - -<h3 id="FUS_PLUG" class="nobreak">FUSIBLE PLUG.</h3> - -<div class="figleft"> - <img id="I_056" src="images/i_056.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="204" /> - <p class="f120">Lunkenheimer<br /> Fusible Plug.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>A Fusible Plug</b> is a short brass bolt which has a hole -running through its center, filled with a metal that melts at a low -temperature. This plug is screwed into the crown sheet directly over -the fire, and as long as it is covered with water the metal will not -melt and run out; but should the water become low, exposing the crown -sheet to the intense heat of the fire, the metal will run out, and the -steam rushing through the hole puts out the fire and many times saves -the crown sheet from injury.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. In what condition would the plug become useless and of no value?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By allowing it to become covered on the inner end with -scale and sediment. It should be unscrewed and occasionally examined, at least -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[Pg 57]</span> -two or three times during the season, and all scale and dirt removed -from the end of the plug before replacing. Examine the crown sheet to -see that no scale has formed over the hole to prevent the water from -reaching the plug.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How can a plug that has melted out be refilled?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Unscrew the plug from crown sheet and cap one end with -clay, then melt the lead or babbitt metal in a shovel, spoon, or even a piece of -bent sheet iron, and refill the plug. Now, with a light hammer, close -the ends tight, and screw the plug into the crown sheet.</p> - -<h3 id="LOW_WATER" class="nobreak">LOW WATER ALARM.</h3> - -<p>A low water alarm is an instrument attached to a boiler, and so -arranged and constructed that when the water in the boiler gets to a -certain level, whereby it is becoming dangerously low, the alarm is -given by the blowing of a whistle or ringing of a bell. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[Pg 58]</span></p> - -<p class="f120 space-above2"><b>J. I. CASE AUTOMATIC HIGH SPEED ENGINE.</b></p> - -<p>This style of Automatic Engines combines simplicity, compactness, -direct action, lightness of moving parts, automatic lubrication, and -perfect regulation.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_058" src="images/i_058.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="410" /> - <p class="f120">J. I. Case Automatic Pedestal Engine.</p> -</div> - -<p>It is made in three main varieties: The Pedestal Engine, the Bracket -Engine, and the Hanger Engine. The illustration represents the <a href="#I_058">Pedestal type</a>, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[Pg 59]</span> -the upright frame of which is cast in one piece, and encloses and -protects the principal moving parts, its lower part being a reservoir -for oil, into which the crank-pin dips at every revolution, affording a -simple and efficient means of lubrication.</p> - -<p>The piston is connected directly with the crank shaft, thus doing -away with the cross-head, wrist-pin and guides. The piston being thus -connected at one end to the crank-pin, it travels back and forth at its -other extremity through the bore of the cylinder. The latter by reason -of its shape is free to turn in its casing, and is therefore rocked by -the vibrating piston rod through an arc sufficient to open and close -the steam and exhaust ports on its face.</p> - -<p>The cut-off valve is of the plug type, and receives its motion from -the shaft cut-off governor, attached to the balance wheel.</p> - -<p>The center crank shaft runs in two large bearings which are bolted -securely to the side of the frame. Access to the inside of the frame -can be had by taking off the plates from either side.</p> - -<p>The J. I. Case High Speed Engines range in size from 2½ to 25 horse -power, the speed of which ranges from 900 down to 550 revolutions per -minute, and can be used in any capacity. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[Pg 60]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak">STEAM ENGINES.</h2> -</div> - -<p>All styles of engines both large and small should receive proper -attention. All the vibrating and moving parts should be kept well -oiled and free from grit and dirt. If this is neglected, the friction -of the moving parts will soon wear away the metal and induce pounding -and cause what is called “lost motion,” which detracts greatly from -the power of the engine, and if allowed to run in this condition will -soon necessitate large expense for repairs and shorten the life of the -engine.</p> - -<p>Tighten all the boxes as they wear, being careful not to get them -too tight. Keep the piston rod and valve rod well packed with a good -quality of soft packing. Keep the valve or valves set properly to give -the required amount of lap and lead and an equal cut-off at the end of -each stroke whether working in full gear or notched up.</p> - -<p>Keep the cross-head shoes fitted properly in the guides, being careful -to keep the piston rod in line. If the above instructions are followed, -your engine will run smoothly and do good service. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[Pg 61]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_061" src="images/i_061.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="243" /> - <p class="f120">Sectional View of Simple Engine,</p> - <p class="center">Showing Cylinder, Steam Chest, Plain Slide Valve, - Steam and Exhaust Ports, Piston and Rod, Engine Frame, - Cross-head, Connecting Rod, Crank Disc, and Rocker Arm - and Rod for Operating Valve.</p> -</div> - -<h3 id="STEAM_CYL" class="nobreak">STEAM CYLINDER.</h3> - -<p><b>The Steam Cylinder</b> is that part of an engine in which the piston -travels; it also contains the steam and exhaust ports and is one of the -most expensive, as well as essential, parts of an engine. The cylinder -should be made of the best quality of cast iron, and the greatest care -taken in boring it perfectly true and round. It should be counter-bored -at each end to allow the piston in its travel to overlap at the end of -each stroke. Without the counter-bore, a shoulder would be formed at -both ends of the cylinder as it became worn by the piston rings, which -in time would cause a knock or pound at the end of every stroke; the -only remedy being to have the cylinder re-bored. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[Pg 62]</span></p> - -<p>Special attention should be paid to keeping the cylinder well oiled -with the best quality of cylinder oil to prevent it from being cut by -the piston rings. If allowed to run dry and cut, it will cause no end -of trouble.</p> - -<p>The size of cylinder is not always the measure of the power of the -engine. The power depends upon the heating surface of the boiler and -steam pressure; as the piston speed can always be increased, by running -the engine faster, until the maximum evaporating capacity of the boiler -is reached.</p> - -<h3 id="PISTON" class="nobreak">PISTON AND ROD.</h3> - -<p><b>The Piston</b> is another very important part in the construction of -an engine, and it conveys the power of the steam to the crank. It is -composed of a piston head, on which are placed the piston rings held in -position by the follower plate, and is securely attached to the piston -rod. Great care should be taken in the construction of the piston rings -to have them fit the cylinder perfectly tight, at the same time to have -the least possible friction. Piston rings should always be made of a -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[Pg 63]</span> -softer metal than the cylinder so that the greater part of the wear -will be upon the rings instead of the cylinder, as the rings can easily -be replaced.</p> - -<p>There are a great many kinds of packing for piston rings, but the most -commonly used at the present time are the steam packing rings. The -character, accuracy in construction and condition of the piston make -a great difference in the quantity of fuel consumed and the amount of -power developed by the engine.</p> - -<p><b>The Piston Rod</b> connects the piston to the cross-head and is -generally made of steel. Where the piston rod enters the cylinder, a -steam tight joint is obtained by the use of a soft, pliable packing -placed in the stuffing box, and held in position by the stuffing box -gland.</p> - -<p>This box is kept packed just tight enough to prevent leaking, by -drawing up the stuffing box gland when required. This can be repeated -until the packing is all used up, when box must be repacked.</p> - -<h3 id="STEAM_CHEST" class="nobreak">STEAM CHEST.</h3> - -<p><b>The Steam Chest</b> contains the valve, and can be on either side -of cylinder as may best suit the style of engine. Steam is admitted into -the steam chest, and passes into the cylinder by the action of the valve. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[Pg 64]</span></p> - -<p>Many engine builders cast cylinder and steam chest in one piece, while -others cast them separately and bolt them together. The only advantage of -the former over the latter is the absence of one less joint to keep packed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_064" src="images/i_064.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="220" /> - <p class="f120">Steam Chest and Plain Slide Valve.</p> -</div> - -<p class="space-above2">The steam ports are the two openings through -which the steam is admitted to the cylinder.</p> - -<p>The exhaust port is the opening through which the exhaust or waste -steam passes out of the cylinder.</p> - -<h3 id="VALVE" class="nobreak">VALVE.</h3> - -<p>There are a great many kinds of valves used on steam engines, namely, -the Corliss, Slide, Rocker, Balance, Rotary, etc., but the one most -commonly used on farm engines is the plain slide valve, which has been -generally adopted by all the larger engine builders in this country. It -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>[Pg 65]</span> -is simple in design, and when properly set does its work very -efficiently. They are less complicated than others and are easily set; -they are made in many different designs, but the principle of each is -the same.</p> - -<p>The slide valve is constructed to slide upon the smooth surface of -the valve seat, in which are contained the two steam ports for the -admission of steam to each end of the cylinder, and also the exhaust -port through which the exhaust or waste steam passes out of the -cylinder.</p> - -<p>The slide valve is operated by the eccentrics, which are attached to -the main crank shaft of the engine and revolve with it, the object of -the eccentrics being to move the slide valve back and forth upon its -seat to admit the steam alternately through the steam ports to the -cylinder.</p> - -<p>The valve gear is a most important detail and one upon which the -economy of fuel in a great measure depends, and any derangement in this -part of an engine causes an immediate increase in the fuel consumed and -decrease in the power of the engine.</p> - -<p>In a properly constructed valve the slide upon the seat should be -reduced to the smallest possible amount, and should be so designed as -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[Pg 66]</span> -to give an equal cut-off and release at both ends of the cylinder, -whether working full gear or notched up.</p> - -<p>The engine should also have the same power -whether working forward or backward, and the -cut-off should be as sharp as possible.</p> - -<p>The more perfect the valve gear the more the -engine can be notched up, and thus allow the -steam to expand in the cylinder to its utmost. -The engine which can be notched up the most is -the most economical in fuel and water.</p> - -<h3 id="CROSS_HEAD" class="nobreak">CROSS-HEAD.</h3> - -<div class="figleft"> - <img id="I_066" src="images/i_066.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="179" /> - <p class="f120">Cross-head.</p> -</div> - -<p class="space-above2"><b>The Cross-head</b> is of cast iron and -connects the piston rod to the connecting rod, and is that part of an -engine where the motion is changed from vibrating to rotary. The piston -rod is fastened securely to it, while the connecting rod is attached by -wrist-pin. On a V guide or bored guide engine frame the cross-head is -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>[Pg 67]</span> -supplied with adjustable shoe slides that can be adjusted to take up -their wear and fit the guides properly, also to keep the piston rod in -line. On a bar or locomotive guide engine the cross-head is adjusted by -removing the liners from between the bars.</p> - -<h3 id="ENG_FRAME" class="nobreak">ENGINE FRAME.</h3> - -<p><b>The Engine Frame</b> is the large casting which contains the bored, -V shaped or locomotive guides for cross-head shoes. It also contains -the pillow block for crank shaft at one end and the cylinder is bolted -to the other. They are made in many different styles and shapes, but -all answer the same purpose.</p> - -<h3 id="CONN_ROD" class="nobreak">CONNECTING ROD.</h3> - -<p><b>The Connecting Rod</b> on an engine is the connection between -the cross-head and crank-pin; it is generally made of wrought iron -or steel, with brass boxes at each end held in position by wrought -straps. These straps are attached to the connecting rod by gibs and -keys. Connecting rods are sometimes made with mortised ends to receive -the brass boxes, which are held in place by wedge block and adjusting -screw. The latter style is used principally on the larger makes of -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[Pg 68]</span> -engines. While the connecting rod with mortised ends are considered a -little the safest, the straps on the ends of rods are most commonly -used. The brass boxes at ends of connecting rod are adjustable to take -up the wear by use of the gibs and keys, and they should be adjusted as -frequently as there is any lost motion discovered at the crank-pin or -cross-head, which will be indicated by a knocking or pounding as the -crank passes over the centers.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_068" src="images/i_068.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="135" /> - <p class="f120">Connecting Rod.</p> -</div> - -<h3 id="CRANK" class="nobreak space-above2">CRANK.</h3> - -<p><b>The Crank</b> is that part of an engine by which the effect of the -steam acting against the piston is converted into work. There are two -kinds, Side and Center crank. The term Side crank refers to a disc -plate or a crank attached to one end of a shaft and in which is placed -the crank-pin. When the shaft extends to the right the engine is called -a right hand engine, and when it extends to the left it is called a -left hand engine.</p> - -<p>The term Center crank refers to a shaft with the crank in the center, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[Pg 69]</span> -the shaft extending equally both ways and so constructed as to be very -well balanced. It is optional as to which gives the best results as -both kinds are used upon all sizes of engines.</p> - -<h3 id="CRANK_PIN" class="nobreak">CRANK-PIN.</h3> - -<p><b>The Crank-Pin</b> connects the connecting rod and crank. It is made -of steel, and special care should be taken to keep the crank-pin well -oiled. If allowed to run dry and cut, it will soon heat and ruin both -pin and boxes. If once allowed to become cut, it will be impossible to -prevent it from heating.</p> - -<h3 id="LINK_REV" class="nobreak">LINK REVERSE.</h3> - -<p><b>The Link Reverse</b> is composed of two eccentrics and rods, link, -block and slide, also lever and quadrant for holding link in any -position. The duty of the link is to reverse the engine by simply -throwing the reverse lever backward and forward. The speed of the -engine can also be reduced and increased by the same operation.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_069" src="images/i_069.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="192" /> - <p class="f120">Link Reverse.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[Pg 70]</span></p> -<p class="f120 space-above2"><b>RUMELY TRACTION ENGINE.</b></p> - -<p>In the construction of this engine, which is of the side crank, rear -gear style, it will be seen that the engine is in a different position -upon the boiler from the ordinary side crank, having the cylinder -forward, and the crank shaft at the rear end. The frame is of the -girder pattern, with overhanging cylinder attached to one end, the -pillow block bearing at the other, and is secured to the boiler by -two brackets.</p> - -<p>The engine is supplied with a <a href="#I_090">Cross-head Pump</a>, Link Reverse Gear, -<a href="#I_116">Friction Clutch</a>, Automatic Oiler, <a href="#I_076">Governor</a>, -Large Cylindrical Water Tank on the side, and Tool Boxes upon the Platform.</p> - -<p>The boiler is of the round bottom fire box or locomotive style, has the -dome in front, and the ash pan is in the lower part of the fire box.</p> - -<p>It is mounted upon the traction wheels by brackets attached to the rear -end of the boiler, which contain the main axle. The front end rests -upon a trussed axle.</p> - -<p>The traction wheels are high, and are of the wrought iron rim direct -spoke type. The loose traction wheel is furnished with a locking device -for securing it to the axle.</p> - -<p>In the arrangement of the engine and the high traction wheels, the -driving or band wheel is placed between one of the traction wheels -and the boiler. The necessary fittings are furnished with both boiler -and engine to keep them in good running order and perfectly safe if -properly handled. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[Pg 71]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_071" src="images/i_071.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="431" /> - <p class="f120">Rumely Traction Engine.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[Pg 72]</span></p> -<h3 class="nobreak">LINK.</h3> - -<p><b>The Link</b> is that part which holds the link block and is -connected at each end to the eccentric rods; it is used only on -reversing engines. The link is made on a curve, so that when the link -block is at either extreme end the valve is operated to its full -movement. When the block is in the center of link, the valve covers -both ports and prevents the ingress of steam to the cylinder.</p> - -<p><b>The Link Block</b> is attached to the slide which connects it to the -valve rod. The valve rod connects the slide and valve, and where it -enters the steam chest is packed in like manner to the piston rod.</p> - -<h3 id="REV_LEV" class="nobreak">REVERSE LEVER.</h3> - -<p><b>The Reverse Lever</b> is that part of the valve gear connected with -the link for raising and lowering it, thereby changing the travel of -the valve and reversing the motion of the engine. When the reverse -lever is placed in the center notch of quadrant, the lap of slide valve -should cover both steam ports, preventing any steam from entering the -cylinder, thus stopping the engine. In moving this lever from the center -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[Pg 73]</span> -notch, it either drops or raises the link as the case may be, -increasing the travel of the valve and allowing steam to enter the -cylinder. When the reverse lever is thrown into the outside notch of -quadrant at either end you get full travel of the valve which gives -full power of engine, providing you have sufficient steam pressure.</p> - -<h3 id="ECCENTRICS" class="nobreak">ECCENTRICS.</h3> - -<p><b>The Eccentric</b> on an engine is for the purpose of moving the -valve back and forth upon the valve seat and has a throw equal to the -travel of the valve. The throw of eccentric is caused by the wheel or -plate being bored to one side of its true center, and generally equals -one-half the travel of the valve. If more or less, the difference is -caused by the use of rocker arm or similar devices for increasing or -diminishing the throw of eccentric as the case may be. The eccentric is -accurately fitted and fastened to the main shaft of the engine with set -screws or key.</p> - -<h3 id="ECC_STRAP" class="nobreak">ECCENTRIC STRAP.</h3> - -<p><b>The Eccentric Strap</b> is that part of the engine in which the -eccentric revolves, and is attached to link by the eccentric rod. It -should be kept well oiled to secure a free and easy movement to the link. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[Pg 74]</span></p> - -<p>On reversing engines there are two eccentrics exactly alike, one -connecting with upper end of link, the other with lower end by the -eccentric straps and rods. In this case the eccentric rod that is -moving the valve is the one nearest to the link block. When the lever -is in the center notch the link is also in the center of its travel. -In this case, both of the eccentric rods move an equal distance and -the link vibrates back and forth, but as the block is in the center -it gives no motion to the valve, and as the valve, having sufficient -lap, covers both ports when the lever is in this position prevents the -ingress of steam to the cylinder, consequently no motion.</p> - -<h3 id="ECC_ROD" class="nobreak">ECCENTRIC ROD.</h3> - -<p><b>The Eccentric Rod</b> connects the eccentric to the link, two being -used on a reversing engine. On a simple engine only one eccentric rod -is used and is connected to a rocker arm which is attached to the valve rod.</p> - -<h3 id="WOOLF" class="nobreak">WOOLF VALVE GEAR.</h3> - -<p><b>The Woolf Valve Gear</b> is used in connection with an engine to -reverse its motion. It is arranged with one eccentric attached to the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[Pg 75]</span> -crank shaft the strap of which has a long arm cast on, to which the -eccentric rod that moves the valve is attached. This arm is also -supplied with a roller, which runs in a slot on a rocking head. This -head is held in position by a box and is connected to the reverse lever -by a rod. By throwing the reverse lever to either end of the quadrant, -the position of the rocking head is so placed that the roller in the -slide operates the eccentric strap, rod and valve, and the engine will -run in the direction desired. By throwing the reverse lever to the -opposite end of the quadrant, the position of the rocking head is so -changed that it will reverse the motion of the valve, and the engine -will run in the opposite direction.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_075" src="images/i_075.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="319" /> - <p class="f120">Woolf Valve Gear.</p> -</div> - -<p>The Quadrant being notched, the point of cut-off can be regulated with -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[Pg 76]</span> -the reverse lever, according to the load; by placing it in the last -notch in quadrant when full power of engine is required, or notching it -up when doing light work, the same as with the link reverse gear.</p> - -<h3 id="GOVERNOR" class="nobreak">GOVERNOR.</h3> - -<p><b>The Governor</b> contains a valve so constructed and connected with -the weighted balls that an increase of speed of the engine throws out -the balls, which raises the arms attached to valve rod, thereby closing -the valve and thus decreases the flow of steam through the governor -valve and reduces the speed of engine until the governor balls are -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[Pg 77]</span> -again in their true position. Now, when the speed decreases and the -weighted balls rise above their true position, the valve opens, allows -more steam to enter the cylinder and the speed of the engine increases -until the engine is again running at its proper speed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_076" src="images/i_076.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="472" /> - <p class="f120">Gardner Governor.</p> -</div> - -<p>Governors are used to regulate the quantity of steam required to run an -engine at a uniform speed under variation of load, and to run properly -they should be kept perfectly clean and free from the accumulation of -gummy substances caused by using inferior oil, which has a tendency to -interfere with the free and easy movement of the different parts.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. If you desire to run your engine faster or -slower with the throttle valve wide open, how can it be done?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Some makes of governors are provided with -regulating screws at the top; by turning the hand nut in one direction -you lengthen the valve stem and reduce the steam opening in the -governor valve, which reduces the speed.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  To increase the speed of the engine -the handle nut is turned the opposite direction, which shortens the -stem and increases the opening in governor valve, allowing more steam -to enter the cylinder and the speed is proportionately increased.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[Pg 78]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  The <a href="#I_076">Gardner Governors</a> are provided -with a hand screw at the side for regulating the speed, as will be seen -by examining the accompanying cut. It also has a Sawyer’s Lever for -opening the valve to its full extent, and a belt tightener.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Will the handle nut stay in position after -once being set to a certain speed?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Not unless the check nut directly over the -handle nut is screwed down tight to prevent the stem from changing its -position.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Is a governor liable to cause trouble and fail -to govern the engine properly?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. All governors are more or less delicate in -construction and must be kept clean and well oiled, the belt must not -be allowed to slip, nor must it be so tight as to cause the governor -to work hard. The small stuffing box that packs the valve stem should -never be screwed down steam tight, as it causes too much friction on -the stem and prevents the balls from operating it, and the engine will -run unsteadily and spasmodically. Always allow the stuffing box to leak -a little, then you know it is not too tight.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  First class governors may sometimes be condemned -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[Pg 79]</span> -for not regulating the engine to a uniform speed, when a good cleaning, -oiling or loosening of the valve stem stuffing box nut would allow them -to work perfectly.</p> - -<h3 id="AUTO_OIL" class="nobreak">AUTOMATIC OILER.</h3> - -<p><b>An Automatic Oiler</b> is used on an engine to keep the cylinder, -piston and valve lubricated, and is most essential for the safety and -easy operation of these parts. It works automatically and is supplied -with a glass tube through which the oil can be seen passing into the -cylinder. The feed can be regulated to allow just the required amount -of oil to pass into the cylinder.</p> - -<p>Where a sight-feed automatic oiler is used on an engine there can be no -excuse whatever for the engineer to allow the cylinder to run dry and -cut, as he at all times can see whether oil is passing into it or not.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How do you fill an automatic oiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Close valves D and E, open valve G to draw -off the water. Close valve G and take out filling plug C, fill A with -oil and replace plug C, then open valve D, and the flow of oil to the -cylinder can be regulated with valve E.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Will the oil feed as soon as the oiler is -filled?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>[Pg 80]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. No; time must be given for sight-feed glass -and condensing chamber to fill with water of condensation.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_080" src="images/i_080.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="613" /> -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Index" cellpadding="2" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><big><b>DESCRIPTION.</b></big></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><b>A.</b></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Oil Reservoir.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><b>C.</b></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Filler Plug.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><b>D.</b></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Water Feed Valve.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><b>E.</b></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Regulating Valve.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><b>F.</b></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Condensing Chamber.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><b>G.</b></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Drain Valve.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><b>H.</b></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Sight-Feed Glass.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><b>L.</b></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Plug to Insert Glass.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><b>K.</b></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Connection to Steam Pipe or Steam Chest.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"><b>Q.</b></td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">Drain Valve for Sight-Feed Glass.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Single Connection Detroit Oiler.</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>[Pg 81]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How is a double connection automatic oiler attached?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. First, the steam pipe must be drilled and -tapped above the throttle with ½ or ¾ inch gas tap, as may be necessary -to receive the oil discharge pipe of oiler and put oiler in place. -Then tap the steam pipe about 18 inches if possible above the top -of the condensing chamber and fit in a ¼ inch gas pipe for steam -connecting tube, which attaches to the top of condensing chamber. -(<a href="#I_081">See illustration.</a>)</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_081" src="images/i_081.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="408" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Double Connection Detroit Oiler.</p> -</div> - -<p class="neg-indent">  Where the steam pipe cannot be tapped -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>[Pg 82]</span> -18 inches above the condensing chamber, it may be tapped lower down and -the steam connecting tube of required length be bent in a horizontal -coil. With the single connection oiler it is only necessary to drill -and tap one hole in the steam pipe.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_082" src="images/i_082.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="316" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Double Connection Detroit Oiler.</p> -</div> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Should oiler become clogged, how can it be -cleaned?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Open the valves, by which steam can be forced -through it, and all the passages will be cleaned. This can be done -without stopping the engine.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. If oiler is not in use and in danger of -freezing, what should be done?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Leave valves D, G and E open, and all water -will be drained off.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. If the glass tube in oiler should get broken, -what should be done?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>[Pg 83]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Shut valves D and E, remove broken glass and -replace with new.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How can oil be prevented from sticking to -lubricator glasses?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. A very simple remedy is to fill the glass with -glycerine and let the oil feed through it.</p> - -<h3 id="INJECTOR" class="nobreak">INJECTOR.</h3> - -<p><b>An Injector</b> is an automatic machine attached to a boiler, for -injecting or forcing water into it and at the same time heating the -water to a very high temperature, which saves fuel and prevents the -danger of sudden contraction of the plates and flues. It can be used -independently and is indispensable on a farm engine.</p> - -<p>In piping an injector to boiler, use as short and as straight pipes -as possible and especially avoid short turns. Take steam directly from -boiler, and have a globe valve in steam pipe close to injector; have -the water suction or supply pipe independent of any other connection, -and it must be supplied with a globe valve close to injector. This pipe -and connections must be absolutely air tight; the slightest leak will -cause trouble. The discharge pipe to boiler must be supplied with a -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84"></a>[Pg 84]</span> -tight and reliable check valve. If valve leaks, the injector will -become hot and cause no end of annoyance. It is a good plan to put a -stop valve between check and boiler in discharge pipe, so that check -valve maybe taken off and repaired, or a new one put on without loss -of time. A foot of straight pipe screwed into the overflow assists in -starting an injector, especially at low pressure.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_084" src="images/i_084.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="443" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">American U. S. Injector.</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85"></a>[Pg 85]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How do you start an injector to work?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. To start an injector, open the suction valve wide, then -open steam valve. If water appears at the overflow, close and open quickly the -suction valve, opening only about ¼ of a turn if at low steam pressure, -and one turn or more if at high steam pressure, regulating the water -supply according to steam pressure. The injector is controlled entirely -by the valve in suction pipe, or by the suction lever after the steam -is turned on.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Will an injector work with hot supply -water?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. An injector will not work if the water that is -delivered from the tank is too hot to condense the steam.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What are the principal causes of an injector -not working accurately?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86"></a>[Pg 86]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Leak in suction pipe, supply cut off by -strainer being clogged, loose lining inside the hose, leak in the stem -of valve, too little steam pressure to lift, dirt in the tubes, red -lead blown or drawn in through steam or supply pipe, bad check valve, -not lift enough or none at all, new boiler full of grease, wet steam, -obstruction in the connection to the boiler.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  If injector fails, examine at all -of these points before condemning. The most common trouble is a leaky -suction.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  In describing the method of -connection and operating an injector the foregoing may have to be -modified in some instances, as there are a great many different kinds -and styles of injectors which operate and connect differently, but the -above if followed carefully and with a little discretion will be found -useful.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  Bear in mind, however, that the -injector does not start to work to boiler as soon as it gets the water. -At first the water will run out of the overflow. At this point you -start the injector working to the boiler by closing and opening the -water valve as quickly as possible <i>with a jerk, or as nearly with -one motion as you can</i>.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How do you find the maximum and minimum -capacity of injectors?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Injectors are controlled entirely by the -suction valve after steam is turned on. To find the maximum capacity of -an injector after starting, gradually open the suction valve in supply -pipe until steam “breaks” and water comes out of the overflow, then -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87"></a>[Pg 87]</span> -start the injector again and you will know about how far the suction -valve can be opened without causing the “break.”</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  To find the minimum capacity of the -injector, manipulate the suction valve in the same manner in exactly -the opposite direction.</p> - -<p class="f120"><b>DIRECTIONS FOR OPERATING<br /> WORLD INJECTOR.</b></p> - -<p>See that the injector is shut off when put on, by turning the handle -as far to the right as it will go. To start, turn handle to the left -one-quarter turn; when the water appears at the overflow, turn the -handle slowly to the left as far as it will go, and the injector will -be working to the boiler.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_087" src="images/i_087.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="406" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">American World Injector.</p> -</div> - -<p>If steam is high and lift long, the injector will lift the water better -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88"></a>[Pg 88]</span> -if the handle is turned a little less than a quarter of a turn, until -the water appears at overflow—then start to boiler as before.</p> - -<p>If you have valves in steam and suction pipes, be sure and open them -before starting.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How high will an injector draw its supply?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. About twenty feet is the limit.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How hot does an injector deliver water?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. From 150 degrees to 200 degrees, according -to the steam pressure and the proportions of its capacity at which -injector is working.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How should the jets be cleaned when they -become scaled?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By soaking in diluted muriated acid, about one -part acid to ten parts water.</p> - -<h3 id="THROTTLE" class="nobreak">THROTTLE.</h3> - -<p><b>The Throttle</b> on an engine is the valve which allows the steam to -enter or be shut off from the cylinder and should always be left wide -open on a governor engine when running, as the governor regulates the -quantity of steam required to run it at its proper speed and is much -more economical. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89"></a>[Pg 89]</span></p> - -<p>There are different styles of valves used for throttles, such as Globe -Valves, Butterfly Valves, Disc Valves, etc.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_089" src="images/i_089.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="506" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Lunkenheimer Throttle Valve.</p> -</div> - -<p>The Lunkenheimer is a double disc valve, and is operated by the -handle or rod attachment, and requires no lock or ratchet.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="STEAM_PUMP" class="nobreak">STEAM PUMP.</h2> -</div> - -<p><b>An Independent Steam Pump</b> is virtually an engine with two -cylinders, one for the steam piston, the other for the water piston or -plunger, and is used in connection with a steam boiler for supplying it -with water. The discharge pipe of a pump is generally connected with a -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90"></a>[Pg 90]</span> -feed water heater of some sort, which heats the water to a high -temperature before entering the boiler, though there is a late pattern -of steam pump which delivers the feed water to the boiler at about the -same temperature as the injector. The cylinder of steam pump should -always be well oiled before starting in the morning and stopping at -night. The stuffing boxes on piston and valve rod should in all cases -be kept well filled with soft and moist packing. If the packing is -allowed to become dry and hard, it will cut the rod, inducing leakage -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91"></a>[Pg 91]</span> -and necessitating repairs. When a steam pump is not in use in cold -weather all the drain, drip and pet cocks should be left open, to -allow the water to run out. While most farm engines are furnished with -an independent steam pump, some are equipped with what is called a -cross-head pump.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_090" src="images/i_090.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="553" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">J. I. Case Steam Pump.</p> -</div> - -<p id="CROSS-HEAD_PUMP"><b>A Cross-Head Pump</b> is operated by a plunger -attached to the cross-head of engine and has two valves, a supply and a -discharge valve, also is supplied with an air chamber. This style of pump -is available only when engine is running. Engines with a cross-head pump -should always be supplied with an injector to be used in case of -failure of pump to work and while engine is shut down. The cross-head -pump is connected to the heater in the same manner as an independent pump.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How high will the steam pump lift water?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. A steam pump will lift or draw water about 33 -feet, as with one inch area, 33 feet of water will weigh 14.7 lbs., but -the pump must be in very good order to lift 20 feet and all pipes must -be absolutely air tight. A pump will give better satisfaction lifting -from 10 to 15 feet. No pump however good will lift hot water, for the -reason that as soon <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92"></a>[Pg -92]</span> as air is expelled from the barrel of the pump the vapor -occupies the space, thereby destroys the vacuum and interferes with -the supply of water. When necessary to pump hot water, place the pump -below the supply, so that the water will flow into the valve chamber. -Always have a strainer at lower end of suction or supply pipe. A pump -should be set up so that it is accessible for inspection, cleaning and -repairs, and so that the shortest and straightest suction and delivery -pipes can be used.</p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">MARSH STEAM PUMP.</h3> - -<p><b>The Marsh Steam Pump</b> is so constructed that the exhaust steam -may be turned into the suction, thereby condensing its exhaust steam -and returning it with its heat to the boiler, thus heating the feed -water to a high degree.</p> - -<p>The pump is automatically regulated and can never run too fast to take -suction, or should the water supply give out when the throttle valve is -wide open no injury can occur to the moving parts.</p> - -<p>The steam valve, though nicely fitted, moves freely in the central bore -of the steam chest, and has no mechanical connection with other moving -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93"></a>[Pg 93]</span> -parts of the pump, but is actuated to admit, cut off and release the -steam by live steam currents which alternate with the reciprocation of -the piston.</p> - -<p>Each end of the valve is made to fit the enlarged bore of the steam -chest, and it is due to these large valve heads, which present -differential areas to the action of steam and the perfect freedom of -the valve to move without hindrance from other mechanical arrangements -or parts, that the flow of steam into the pump is automatically -regulated.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_093" src="images/i_093.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="422" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">MARSH PUMP.<br />Capacity 10 to 35 Horse-Power.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94"></a>[Pg 94]</span> -The steam valve does not require setting, as it has no dead center and -will always start when steam is admitted.</p> - -<p>The steam piston is double and each head is provided with a metal -packing ring. The piston rod is made of Tobin bronze, the stuffing -boxes and water piston are made of brass, and the water cylinder is -brass lined. The water valves may be removed for inspection by simply -taking off the air chamber.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_094" src="images/i_094.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="423" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">View of Marsh Steam Pump, Showing Water Valves,<br /> - Steam Valves, Suction Chamber and Piston.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95"></a>[Pg 95]</span></p> -<p class="f120"><b>DIRECTIONS FOR SETTING UP<br /> AND RUNNING.</b></p> - -<p>Before connecting the steam pipes, blow out with steam pressure the -chips and dirt in the steam pipes. Always use the union furnished with -the pump. It has a gauze gasket in it to catch the dirt that may get -into the valve. Before starting pump, open air cock in delivery pipe -and turn exhaust lever back, away from the air chamber. Then open -throttle valve wide and allow pump to exhaust into the air until it -takes suction, when deflecting lever may be thrown forward toward air -chamber and cold water in the pump will condense the exhaust and return -it to the boiler.</p> - -<p>If pump refuses to work, the difficulty is to be looked for in the -valve chest. Do not take off the chest. The valve may be taken out and -cleaned but <i>never</i> filed. <i>The valve must be returned through -same end as taken from.</i> Before closing, be sure that the head is -screwed tight on the valve, using the socket wrench furnished.</p> - -<p>When the pump is stopped, pull the exhaust lever back, so the condensed -steam from leak of throttle valve will not go into the pump. It is safer -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96"></a>[Pg 96]</span> -also in cold weather to take off head of water end. Slight but constant -lubrication adds much to the regular working of the pump. Be sure there -are no leaks in the suction pipe, and when water is raised more than 10 -feet, a foot valve should be put in. Compress the packings on piston -rod as little as possible and yet prevent the escape of steam. Before -leaving the pump in cold weather, break the suction and allow it to run -empty for a minute with all the cocks open, then be sure the throttle -valve is closed tight. When necessary, pack the joints under the steam -chest, side plate and air chamber with manilla paper or thin rubber.</p> - -<h3 id="HEATER" class="nobreak">HEATER.</h3> - -<p><b>The Heater</b> is used on an engine in connection with a boiler -for heating the feed water before it enters the boiler under steam -pressure. It is usually constructed of a shell of cast or boiler iron -into which live or exhaust steam is admitted. This shell usually -contains a series of pipes or a coil of pipe, through which the feed -water is forced by the pump, the water thereby being heated to a high -temperature before entering the boiler.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97"></a>[Pg 97]</span></p> -<h3 class="nobreak">EJECTOR.</h3> - -<p><b>An Ejector</b> is a machine for lifting water from various depths -and forcing it to various heights with steam pressure, as follows:</p> - -<p>With 20 pounds steam pressure an ejector will lift water to a level -from 16 or 17 feet below and force it to a height of 15 or 16 feet.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_097" src="images/i_097.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="174" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">American Ejector.</p> -</div> - -<p>With 60 pounds steam pressure will lift 20 feet and force to a height -of 60 feet.</p> - -<p>With 100 pounds steam pressure will lift 23 feet and force to a height -of 107 feet.</p> - -<p>An ejector may be placed in any position to suit the convenience in -piping; they require but three connections, steam, suction and delivery.</p> - -<h3 id="JET_PUMP" class="nobreak">JET PUMP.</h3> - -<p><b>A Jet Pump</b> is a machine used for drawing water and discharging -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98"></a>[Pg 98]</span> -it above the surface level. It will draw water to a level from 10 or -15 feet below and discharge it at a height of about one foot to every -pound steam pressure applied.</p> - -<p>A jet pump has three connections, steam, suction and delivery, and may -be placed in any position to suit convenience in piping.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_098" src="images/i_098.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="336" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">American Jet Pump.</p> -</div> - -<h3 id="STEAM_GAUGE" class="nobreak">STEAM GAUGE.</h3> - -<p><b>A Steam Gauge</b> is an instrument used for indicating in pounds -the amount of steam pressure upon each square inch of surface of the -boiler. It is very delicately constructed, and should not be tampered -with after once being set to indicate correctly. If a steam gauge is -found not to indicate the exact pressure in the boiler it should be -sent to the factory for repairs. Never attempt to repair it unless all -the appliances for so doing are at hand. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99"></a>[Pg 99]</span></p> - -<p>A steam gauge should always be placed on a boiler with a syphon, or by -tying a knot in the pipe between it and the boiler, so that the steam -may condense, thereby allowing the water to operate it. If steam is -allowed to enter, the heat would tend to expand the tube in the gauge -and it would indicate more than the real pressure.</p> - -<p>A steam gauge is usually constructed with a hollow, flat tube, called -the Bourdon spring. This tube is bent in a simple curve and fastened -at one end, the other end is free and by a simple clock work actuates -the pointer which indicates upon the dial the steam pressure per square -inch upon the boiler. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100"></a>[Pg 100]</span></p> - -<div class="figcontainer"> - <div class="figsub"> - <img id="I_099" src="images/i_099.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="218" /> - <p class="center space-above2">Ashcroft Steam Gauge.</p> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <img id="I_100" src="images/i_100.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="224" /> - <p class="center">Interior<br /> Ashcroft Steam Gauge.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What should be done in case the steam gauge -becomes defective?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. When the steam gauge has become broken by -freezing or otherwise, and there is none on hand, the engineer may run -by setting the safety valve so that it will blow off within from ten to -fifteen pounds less than it is ordinarily set at, and then by careful -firing, run until a new gauge can be procured, which should be done -without delay.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  Some engineers have been known to -make a practice of running without a steam gauge.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Would you recommend this method?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101"></a>[Pg 101]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. No, it must be resorted to only in case of a -sudden accident and where shutting down would cause great loss. Every -engineer should have an extra steam gauge on hand, to be used in case -of accident to the one in use.</p> - -<h3 id="SAFETY_VALVE" class="nobreak">SAFETY VALVE.</h3> - -<p><b>Safety Valves</b>, or pop valves, as they are sometimes termed, are -made in many different kinds and styles, but the one most commonly used -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102"></a>[Pg 102]</span> -on a farm engine is constructed with a coil spring, which is -adjustable, to allow the valve to pop off at a certain pressure. When -the pressure exceeds this amount, it raises the valve from its seat and -allows the surplus steam to escape. It should be set with the steam -gauge, to allow a little margin of steam pressure over that which is -necessary to drive the load, and should be compared with the steam -gauge frequently to see that it works accurately. It is furnished with -a lever for raising the valve, which should be raised occasionally to -see that it operates freely.</p> - -<div class="figcontainer"> - <div class="figsub"> - <img id="I_101" src="images/i_101.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="434" /> - <p class="center space-above2">Kunkle Safety Valve.</p> - </div> - <div class="figsub"> - <img id="I_102" src="images/i_102.jpg" alt="" width="275" height="438" /> - <p class="center">Kunkle Safety Valve,<br /> Sectional.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103"></a>[Pg 103]</span> -The safety valve being set with steam gauge, the gauge should be -watched when safety valve blows off. If it indicates more or less than -the gauge something is wrong, the valve marked incorrectly or the -steam gauge is out of order. In case the safety valve and steam gauge -do not register alike, the valve should be examined to see that the -valve is not stuck in its seat, and should be thoroughly cleaned of -all sediment; then put back in place again and compared with the steam -gauge as before. If they do not register alike, the gauge should be -examined.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Is not a safety valve attached to a boiler to prevent -explosion and loss of life?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The Safety Valve is only intended to prevent an explosion -from excessive steam pressure, and should never be set to hold more than -the required pressure to give the rated power for which the engine is -designed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104"></a>[Pg 104]</span></p> -<h3 class="nobreak">GLASS WATER GAUGE.</h3> - -<p><b>A Glass Water Gauge</b> is a device attached to a boiler to show the -level of water in the boiler. It consists of a glass tube ten or twelve -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105"></a>[Pg 105]</span> -inches long, with an angle valve attached at each end. The lower valve -enters the boiler below the water line, the top valve enters the boiler -above the water line in the steam space. The ends of the glass are made -steam and water tight by means of rubber gaskets and stuffing boxes. As -water will seek its own level, the height of water in the boiler will -show a corresponding height in the glass, and the engineer at a glance -knows just how high the water in the boiler is above the flues and -crown sheet.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_104" src="images/i_104.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="578" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Lunkenheimer Water Gauge.</p> -</div> - -<h3 id="BLOW_OFF" class="nobreak">BLOW OFF VALVE.</h3> - -<p><b>The Blow Off Valve</b> is an angle or globe valve attached to the -lower part of a boiler for the purpose of blowing off the sediment -accumulated by the use of impure water, and should be used more or less -frequently according to the condition of the water used, but never less -than once a week. There is also a surface blow off which is attached -to the boiler at about the safe water level for the purpose of blowing -off the scum which accumulates on top of the water. This scum should be -blown off once or twice a day.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106"></a>[Pg 106]</span></p> -<h3 class="nobreak">GAUGE COCK.</h3> - -<p><b>A Gauge Cock</b> is a stop cock attached to a boiler to ascertain -the height of water in the boiler. There are generally two and -sometimes three gauge cocks attached to a boiler. The lower one enters -the boiler as low down as it is deemed safe to allow the water to -get, while the upper one enters the boiler sufficiently high to avoid -getting too much water. Where three gauges are used, the middle one -enters the boiler at about the proper water level. They should be -opened frequently to keep them free from corrosion, being sure to close -them tightly to prevent leaking.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_106" src="images/i_106.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="256" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Lunkenheimer Gauge Cock.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107"></a>[Pg 107]</span></p> -<h3 class="nobreak">CYLINDER COCKS.</h3> - -<p><b>Cylinder Cocks</b> are used in connection with the cylinder to allow -the water accumulated by the condensing of steam in the cylinder to -escape, and should be opened every time the engine is started or -stopped. This should never be neglected, as great damage may be caused -by the breaking of the follower plate or cylinder head. They should -also be left open when engine is shut down, and at night in cold -weather to prevent freezing and the consequent damage.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_107" src="images/i_107.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="182" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Lunkenheimer Cylinder Cock.</p> -</div> - -<h3 id="CHECK_VALVE" class="nobreak">CHECK VALVE.</h3> - -<p><b>A Check Valve</b> is the valve on the feed pipe between pump or -injector and the boiler. The check valve is so constructed that the -pressure of the feed water from the pump or injector lifts the valve -from its seat and the water passes into the boiler. Immediately after -the pressure from the pump or injector is released, the pressure from -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108"></a>[Pg 108]</span> -the boiler closes this valve and prevents the water from being forced -back into the pump or injector. There are two check valves used in -connection with a pump, one on suction, the other on deliver pipe.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How can check valves that get stuck open be closed?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By simply tapping them slightly with a light hammer.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Should this be practiced?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. No, when they stick at all they should be opened and thoroughly -cleaned as soon as pressure can be shut off.</p> - -<h3 id="GREASE_CUP" class="nobreak">COMPRESSION GREASE CUP.</h3> - -<p><b>Compression grease cups</b> are used extensively on engines for -lubricating the crank-pin and wrist-pin, also pillow block bearings -for crank shaft; in fact this method of lubrication for all kinds of -bearings and journals is becoming universally adopted.</p> - -<p>In construction the Besly Bonanza Cup is simple and durable. The outer -casing is threaded and fits tightly over the bottom part of cup. After -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109"></a>[Pg 109]</span> -the cup has been put in place, remove the top part, fill it with Helmet -oil or grease and screw it on the lower part for two or three threads. -The cup is then in working order.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_109" src="images/i_109.jpg" alt="" width="350" height="337" /> -</div> - -<p>To insure a plentiful supply of grease to the journal or bearing, all -that is necessary is to give the top part of cup an occasional turn.</p> - -<p>C. H. Besly & Co.’s Helmet Solid Oil is for use in compression cups, -and is a perfect lubricant, in fact it is said to be the best. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110"></a>[Pg 110]</span></p> - -<p class="f120"><b>MINNEAPOLIS TRACTION ENGINE.</b></p> - -<p>The engine is supplied with a return flue, straw, wood and coal burning -boiler. The shell of the main flue is cylindrical in shape, but tapers -toward the front end. By this arrangement the return flues can be set -lower at the front end, which it is claimed has some advantage in -protecting front end of flues when ascending steep hills.</p> - -<p>The steam used is superheated by being conducted through a pipe which -extends from the top of the dome on the inside of boiler through the -front head and smoke stack to the steam chest.</p> - -<p>The engine is of the Side Crank, Side Gear style, the frame of which is -the girder pattern with bored guides, and has an overhanging cylinder -attached to one end, and contains the pillow block bearing at the other.</p> - -<p>It is fitted with the Woolf Valve Gear for reversing, <a href="#I_116">Friction Clutch</a>, -<a href="#I_093">Cross-head Pump</a>, <a href="#I_087">Injector</a>, Syphon for filling water tank on front end, -and a large Foot Board with Tool Boxes attached. The wheels are of -steel, and the traction or drive wheels are furnished with malleable -mud cleats extending diagonally across the entire width of tire.</p> - -<p>The boiler is safe with proper care, economical in fuel, and the -engine moves over the road rapidly. Although simple in its general -construction, it has all the appliances and fittings necessary on a -traction engine. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111"></a>[Pg 111]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_111" src="images/i_111.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="434" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Minneapolis Traction Engine.</p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112"></a>[Pg 112]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak">TRACTION ENGINES.</h2> -</div> - -<p><b>Traction Farm Engines</b> are becoming more generally used each -year, and to supply the increasing demand for traction engines, the -manufacturers have spared no expense or mechanical skill to place upon -the market the latest improvements in this line, and a great many -kinds of this class of engine now made in the United States are simply -perfect. They travel over the roughest roads, up and down steep hills -with heavy loads, and the engine is at all times entirely under the -control of the engineer. In fact, there is no class of engines that has -had a more marked advancement toward perfection in the past few years -than the farm traction engine.</p> - -<p>As this class of engines in the majority of cases goes into the hands -of men inexperienced in the handling of machinery, they are subjected -to the very hardest usage and neglect, which, of course, hastens their -destruction. Every purchaser of an engine should acquire sufficient -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113"></a>[Pg 113]</span> -knowledge of the operating and handling of it so that he will know when -it is properly cared for.</p> - -<p>No engine has to run at more variable speeds than a traction engine. -It is very important for this reason that the steam ports should be of -sufficient area to admit of a very high piston speed, and allow the -steam to follow the piston at the necessary velocity. Small ports are -useless, as when the link is notched up, and the travel of the valve -thereby reduced, the openings are too cramped for the steam to pass -in and out of the cylinder comfortably. The result is, that the slide -valve is forced off its seat and the engine primes as soon as any great -speed is attained. It is easy to tell by the sound of the exhaust if -the ports are rightly proportioned, and whether running at high or low -speed, the engine should give a clear and distinct exhaust at every -stroke of the piston.</p> - -<h3 id="GEARING" class="nobreak">GEARING.</h3> - -<p>The power of the traction engine is transmitted to the traction wheels -by a series of gearing, all of which should be made from accurately cut -patterns to insure the teeth meshing perfectly to prevent them from -cutting and grinding out, and of sufficient strength to withstand the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114"></a>[Pg 114]</span> -very rough usage to which they are subjected. The gearing of an engine -should never be run without first greasing them thoroughly with a good -quality of solid oil or axle grease, for if once you allow the teeth to -cut, it will be impossible to stop them from cutting, the result being -they will soon be ruined. The gearing on traction engines are placed -in many different positions for transmitting the power to the traction -wheels, as will be seen by examining the different illustrations given -in this book.</p> - -<p>On a side gear engine the power is transmitted from a small pinion -on the main shaft to an intermediate gear, from this gear to the -differential gear on cross shaft which is placed under the cylindrical -part of the boiler against the fire box. To this shaft are keyed two -small pinions at each end, which mesh in large spur gears fastened -securely to the traction wheels.</p> - -<p>On a rear gear engine the power is transmitted from the small pinion -on crank shaft to large spur gear attached to one end of cross shaft, -which crosses the boiler at the rear end. To the other end of this -shaft is attached a small pinion that meshes in the large differential -gear which is attached to traction wheel and main axle.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115"></a>[Pg 115]</span></p> -<h3 class="nobreak">DIFFERENTIAL GEAR.</h3> - -<p>The gearing on a traction engine must be so designed as to allow one -of the ground or traction wheels to run faster than the other, when -turning engine either to right or left on the road. To accomplish -this, the Differential Gear is made use of, and answers all purposes -admirably.</p> - -<p>The Differential Gear on many styles of engines is attached to the -cross shaft, while on others it is secured to the main axle, and, as -generally constructed, consists of one large spur gear, having three or -four bevel pinions placed in it at equal distances apart and from the -center of main gear. These pinions revolve loosely on pins secured to -the gear, and the spur gear runs loosely on the cross shaft or axle. -At each side of the spur gear are placed bevel gears, meshing into the -bevel pinions, one of which is keyed fast to the shaft or axle, while -the other is firmly bolted to small pinion that drives the traction wheel, -or to hub of the traction wheel, which also runs loosely on its axle.</p> - -<p>This device allows one drive wheel to remain idle while the opposite -wheel may revolve as fast as is required to make the turn. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116"></a>[Pg 116]</span></p> - -<p>Differential Gears should be kept well greased with solid oil or axle -grease to prevent the cogs from being cut and wearing away rapidly.</p> - -<h3 id="FRICTION_CLUTCH" class="nobreak">FRICTION CLUTCH.</h3> - -<p>This attachment on a traction engine is almost indispensable as it -allows the engineer to give the whole power of the engine instantly to -the traction gear in getting the engine out of bad places, or to move -the engine backward or forward with so little apparent effort as to be -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117"></a>[Pg 117]</span> -almost imperceptible, while the engine may be running at full speed; -also for tightening the main drive belt when attached to machinery -without stopping the engine.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_116" src="images/i_116.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="442" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">J. I. Case Friction Clutch.</p> -</div> - -<p>The friction clutch <a href="#I_116">shown in illustration</a> is constructed -as follows: The friction pulley is constructed with a friction ring upon its arms, -the outer ring acting as a guard or protection, the friction ring being -turned accurately to receive the wooden shoes attached to the driving -arm; these wooden friction shoes are fitted to the outer surface of the -ring as well as the inner, all being connected to one set of levers; -so when force is applied to engage the friction to start the engine -there is no tendency or danger of bursting the rim, as the pressure -is equal on both sides of it. The pulley is keyed to the crank shaft, -while the driving arm, with driving pinion secured firmly to it, runs -loosely upon the shaft. Upon the hub of driving arm is placed a sliding -sleeve with lever attached, which connects with toggle levers beneath -the sliding pieces which contain the wooden friction shoes, the whole -being operated by the sliding strap from footboard of engine near by the -reverse lever. This makes a strong and convenient arrangement for -transmitting power. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118"></a>[Pg 118]</span></p> - -<p>Many other styles of clutches are made by engine builders, adapted to -their particular style of engines, a common way being to have the shoes -tighten against the inner rim of the fly-wheel. This is not deemed as -good an arrangement, for the reason that the pressure or strain is all -outward against the rim, though their being used extensively indicates -good results.</p> - -<p>When operating a friction clutch, always draw or push the lever over -gradually. By doing this the engine will start slowly and easily, while -if the lever is jammed over suddenly, the engine will start with a -jerk, which is liable to damage the traction gear. The latter should -never be done unless absolutely necessary to get the engine out of bad -places on the road.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119"></a>[Pg 119]</span></p> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak">QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS,</h2> - -<p class="f150">Concerning the Operation and Care<br /> -of Steam Engines and Boilers.</p> -</div> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What should be done first, after receiving a -new engine, to prepare it for running properly?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. If a traction or farm engine, remove the box -containing the fittings and tools, from the fire box, and see that the -grates are in their proper places. Also take out the tools which are -packed in the smoke box at front end of boiler. Then, with waste or -rags well saturated with kerosene, turpentine or benzine, wipe off all -the grease that the manufacturer has put on to protect the bright work -from rusting. After this has been thoroughly done, clean every oil hole -and bearing found upon the engine, of all dirt and cinders. Special -attention should be given to this, as if dirt and cinders are allowed -to remain, the bearings will cut and heat.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. After this is done thoroughly, what next?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Take all the fittings from the box and clean -them carefully, fit each oil cup to its proper place and screw them in -tightly with a wrench, to prevent them from working loose and falling -off while engine is running on the road.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120"></a>[Pg 120]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  Fill all cups with good oil, lard oil -for bearings, good cylinder oil for the automatic oiler, which oils -the cylinder and valve, and solid oil for both grease cups at crank -and cross-head. Then put the steam gauge, the glass water gauge, gauge -cocks, safety valve, whistle, surface blow-off and blow-off valves, -cylinder cocks, governor belt, etc., in their proper places; all -fittings should be screwed up tight with a wrench. Examine the stuffing -boxes and see that they are all well packed and cleaned.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. The fittings all being attached, what next?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Proceed to fill the boiler with water by -unscrewing the cap from filling plug located on top of boiler near the -steam dome, screw funnel on plug, and fill boiler with as clean soft -water as is obtainable.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How much water is required in the boiler -before starting fire?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Fill the boiler until the water shows about -one and one-half inches in the glass water gauge, or have a free flow -of water from the lowest gauge cock.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. After the boiler is filled with water to the -proper level, what next?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121"></a>[Pg 121]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Start a moderate fire with dry wood in the -furnace or fire box, and open the draught damper wide. Add fuel -slowly, and while steam is being raised take your oil can and wrench -and examine the engine thoroughly at all its parts. See that every -screw and bolt is tight and that none of the oil holes have been -overlooked.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  If a traction engine, examine all -the gearing and see that all gears, axles and bearings are thoroughly -greased and oiled—grease for gears and axles, oil for bearings.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  If firing with coal, keep the grates -well covered with a thin layer. Do not throw in large lumps or too much -fresh coal at one time. A thin fire lightly and frequently renewed, is -the most economical.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Is the natural draught of the boiler enough to -enable steam to be raised quickly?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. No. The boiler and water being cold the fire -will not burn briskly, but as soon as steam pressure shows upon the -steam gauge, turn on the blower, which will force and increase the -draught; then with good fuel, any desired steam pressure can be raised -quickly.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122"></a>[Pg 122]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Must the blower be used when the engine is -running to keep up sufficient steam pressure?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. No. When the engine is started, the exhaust -steam is discharged from the cylinder first through the heater, then -into smoke stack, producing the same effect as the blower.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. If the boiler steams too fast, what should be -done?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Simply close the damper. Do not open the -fire door, as the fire door should never be opened unless absolutely -necessary, nor should it be kept open longer than is needed, as the -cold air admitted through it injures the boiler and is wasteful of -fuel.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. After sufficient steam is raised, how do you -proceed to start the engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Before turning steam on the engine, go to the -fly-wheel and turn it a few times to see that everything is all right -and no obstacle in the way to prevent the engine from running when -steam is applied, being sure to leave the crank-pin off the center to -enable the steam to start the engine when throttle valve is opened. -Next, open both the cylinder cocks, then the throttle valve just a -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123"></a>[Pg 123]</span> -trifle to allow a little steam to enter the cylinder, to warm it and -expel the water of condensation. Then open the throttle gradually, -and if everything is right, the engine will move off faster and -faster until the proper speed is attained. After engine is thoroughly -heated and is working dry steam, close the cylinder cocks and set the -automatic oiler to work.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How do you obtain the proper speed, and how is -the engine made to run steadily with the steam pressure so varied?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The proper speed and steadiness in running is -maintained by the use of the governor, which receives its motion from -the engine shaft by means of a belt.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Are the bearings of a new engine liable to -heat when first started up?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Not if proper attention is given to them. When -starting a new engine the first time, it should be stopped frequently -and the moving parts and bearings carefully examined. Feel of all the -bearings, the link block, the eccentrics, crank-pin, cross-head, etc., -to ascertain if they are heating. If they are, slacken up the boxes a -little, but not enough to make them knock or pound. Always be careful -not to loosen or tighten bearings or keys too much; just a trifle at a -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124"></a>[Pg 124]</span> -time, but do it often, until the bearings and boxes run cool, but -tight. If this is done carefully, the engine will run smoothly and -quietly.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. After the engine is started, what should be -done next?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Fill the tank on the engine with water and -start the injector to work, so that the proper level of water may -be kept in the boiler. The independent pump, if used, should now be -fitted, connected and tried, to see if it is in proper shape to feed -the boiler. If a cross-head pump is used, it should be fitted and -attached to water supply with the suction hose. In this case when the -engine is running, the pump can be regulated to supply the required -amount of feed water.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How is the boiler supplied with water while -the engine is stopped?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By the independent pump or injector.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Has the independent pump sufficient capacity -to supply the boiler with water under all conditions?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Yes, always, when running at a reasonable -speed.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Why should an injector be furnished if the -pump will supply the boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Many times through carelessness or otherwise -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125"></a>[Pg 125]</span> -the pump is prevented from working by dirt, straw, chips and other -obstructions which find their way into the pump and hold the valves -from their seats. In this case it is necessary to take the pump apart -and remove the obstructions wherever found, which would necessitate -stopping the engine and allowing the steam to go down, involving a -large loss of time. Whereas if the engine is also supplied with an -injector, should the pump fail, the injector can immediately be started -and the pump examined at leisure without loss of time and avoiding all -danger of explosion.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Should the supply of feed water be continuous -while the engine is running?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Yes. Gauge the speed of the independent pump -so that it will furnish the required amount of water to the boiler. -Regulate the feed of a cross-head pump, by the suction valve. By -so doing, the boiler steams easier, the flues are not so liable to -leak, and a uniform steam pressure can be easily maintained more -economically.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How is a boiler supplied when engine is in -motion?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By the independent or cross-head pump.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. When should the injector be used in preference -to the independent pump?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126"></a>[Pg 126]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. There being no exhaust steam when engine is not running, no benefit -is derived from the heater. Now, as cold water should never be forced -into a hot boiler the injector becomes of great value, as it heats the -feed water to a very high temperature before it enters the boiler.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Is there any independent steam pump made that -heats the feed water before it goes into the boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. <a href="#I_093">See Marsh Pump description</a>.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. When engine, pump, and injector are found to -be working properly, what next?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. If a traction engine, the engine should be -reversed several times. This can be done by throwing the reverse lever -forward and backward, to ascertain whether the valve is so set that -engine will run equally well both ways; then the traction gear may be -tried. If engine is supplied with a <a href="#I_116">friction clutch</a>, by simply pressing -the clutch lever gradually until the friction shoes take hold, the -engine will start slowly upon the road. This can be done while engine -proper is running at full speed.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  The clutch lever should be held in -one hand when first starting, so that in case of anything being wrong -with gearing, it can be stopped immediately by quickly loosening the -lever. With the other hand, the steering wheel should be operated -to guide the engine upon the road. When all is found to be working -properly, and you wish to run the engine any distance, the clutch lever -should be placed in notch provided for it; this will hold the friction -shoes securely to the wheel, and the engine will move along the road at -full speed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127"></a>[Pg 127]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. If the engine has no friction clutch, how do -you proceed to start the gearing?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Stop the engine and place the reversing -lever in center notch, slide the spur pinion on main shaft into gear -and open the throttle valve wide; then with the reverse lever in one -hand (the steering wheel in the other) you can start engine upon the -road by throwing the lever backward or forward, which should be done -gradually at first, so that engine will start slowly. If all is right, -by throwing the reverse lever in the last notch in quadrant, the engine -will travel its full speed upon the road.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How should a traction engine be first started -upon the road, forward or backward?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Always forward, as you can see where you are -going and can guide the engine more easily.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128"></a>[Pg 128]</span></p> - -<p class="f120 space-above2"><b>ADVANCE TRACTION ENGINE.</b></p> - -<p>In illustration is given the engine side of the <a href="#I_129">Advance Engine</a>, -which is of the side crank, side gear type, with the engine placed at forward -end of boiler.</p> - -<p>The cylinder is overhanging, and is bolted to the cylindrical formed -engine frame which forms the front head. The frame is attached to the -boiler with two brackets, and it contains the bored cross-head guides -and pillow block bearing.</p> - -<p>The engine has the Marsh Reverse Gear, <a href="#I_093">Marsh Pump</a>, -<a href="#I_116">Friction Clutch</a> attached to band wheel, <a href="#I_087">Injector</a>, -<a href="#I_076">Governor</a> and all necessary fittings.</p> - -<p>The boiler is the locomotive round bottom fire box style, with dome in -center. It is mounted upon the traction wheels with axle arms attached -to brackets bolted to the sides of fire box, in which are placed -springs.</p> - -<p>The spokes of the wheels are cast in both hub and rim, the latter -having mud cleats cast on. The platform has both Water Tank and Tool -Box attached, and the steering wheel and band wheel are on the same -side of the engine.</p> - -<p>The chains for the steering attachment are supplied with springs. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129"></a>[Pg 129]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_129" src="images/i_129.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="355" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Advance Traction Engine.</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130"></a>[Pg 130]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How should you guide a traction engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. There is no fixed rule for guiding a traction -engine upon the road. It must be learned by experience. Good judgment -is required to make a success of it. One man should always handle both -reverse lever and steering wheel when guiding an engine.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How should the steering chains be put on a -traction engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The chains should be so put on, that when the -steering wheel is turned to the right, the engine turns to the right; -when wheel is turned to the left, the engine turns to the left.</p> - -<h3 id="REVERSING" class="nobreak">REVERSING AN ENGINE.</h3> - -<p>To reverse the motion of a plain Slide Valve engine, remove the cover -of steam chest and place the engine on the dead center. Observe the -amount of lead or opening that the valve has on the steam end, then -loosen the eccentric and turn it around on the shaft, in the direction -the engine is wanted to run, until the valve has exactly the same -amount of lead at the other end; then turn the engine to the opposite -center, to determine whether the lead at this end is the same as at the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131"></a>[Pg 131]</span> -other; then place the crank at half stroke top and bottom, and see that -the port openings are equal in both positions, and replace cover.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is dead center?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The dead center of an engine is the point -where crank and piston rod are in an exact line.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is a half stroke?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It is the point reached by the piston after -traveling exactly one-half its travel.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is the meaning of “lost motion”?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Lost motion is looseness of the connecting -rod at crank or wrist-pin, or looseness of the link or link block, -cross-head and guides, main crank shaft and pillow block, caused by -friction and wearing away of the metals and the neglect to take up the -wear.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  The lost motion in all parts of an -engine should be taken up frequently, to keep it running smoothly, but -care must be taken not to tighten bearings or keys too tight.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is lap and lead?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Lap is the position of the valve which extends -or laps over the edge of the ports when the valve is in its central -position. That on the inside of the D is the inside or exhaust lap, -while that at the ends of the valve is the outside lap and affects the -admission and cut-off.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132"></a>[Pg 132]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  Lead is the amount of opening which is -given to the port by the valve when the engine is on the center.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  Lead on a valve is the admission of -steam into the cylinder before the piston completes its stroke.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How much “lead” should a valve have?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. There is no general rule for the amount of -lead that would be best suited for all makes of engines. It must be -determined by the design or construction, speed and work required, to -produce the best results for economy and quietness in running.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is a throttle engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. A throttle engine is one in which the speed is -controlled by throttling the steam with a governor, as opposed to an -automatic engine in which the speed is regulated by varying the point -of cut-off at the valve.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is the difference between a stroke and a -revolution?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. A stroke is the movement of the piston, from -one end to the other of cylinder. A revolution takes two strokes of -piston.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How are steam packing rings put on the piston -head?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133"></a>[Pg 133]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Remove the back cylinder head and take the -piston and rod out of the cylinder, and stand it “head up.” Then place -the inside of the ring, opposite to the opening, against the side of -the piston head next to you; gradually press the ring open with your -hands, and it can be easily slipped over the head and put in place.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How is a piston put into cylinder?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It is always entered from the back end in -horizontal engines. The rings (if steam packing) should be carefully -placed in position and compressed by the hand if piston is small, but -if large, curved blocks of wood or a band of sheet iron can be used -to support them until they enter cylinder. When the piston rod passes -through the stuffing box, it should be supported at outer end to -prevent cutting.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134"></a>[Pg 134]</span></p> - -<p class="f120"><b>WATERTOWN HIGH SPEED ENGINE.</b></p> - -<p>The frame of this engine is very heavy, with longitudinal and cross -ribs securely bracing it. It forms the lower guide for cross-head, and -contains the pillow block bearings at the front end. It also forms the -front cylinder head, to which the cylinder is bolted. The working parts -are placed as low in the frame as is possible, so that the strain is -brought in line with the line of greatest resistance.</p> - -<p>The double disc center crank shaft allows of two small heavy band -wheels, one of which has the shaft governor attached to the inside, -that operates the valve automatically to give the point of cut-off in -accordance with the variation of load.</p> - -<p>The valve is of a special design, and so constructed as to admit steam -to the cylinder port through four different openings. It also exhausts -steam through four different openings at once.</p> - -<p>The engine frame rests its whole length and is securely bolted to the -sub-base, which is bolted to the floor, and the smaller sizes need no -elaborate foundations.</p> - -<p>This style of engine ranges in size from 35 to 350 horse-power -approximately, the speed of the smaller ones ranging from 275 to 325 -revolutions, and of the larger from 160 to 185 revolutions, and are -used extensively where high speed is required, and where the load is of -an intermittent character. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135"></a>[Pg 135]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_135" src="images/i_135.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="404" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Watertown High Speed Engine.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136"></a>[Pg 136]</span></p> -<h3 class="nobreak">TESTING PISTON RINGS AND VALVES.</h3> - -<p>To ascertain whether the piston rings and valves are leaking or not, -first place a block of wood about four inches long upon the guide for -cross-head and against the front cylinder head. Then turn the engine -“over” until the cross-head comes back tight against the block. This -will place the valve of a simple engine in such a position that steam -would be admitted to cylinder through front steam port. If a reversing -engine, throw the reverse lever in the last notch in end of quadrant -that would allow the engine to run “over”. Then take off the back -cylinder head, and open the throttle valve wide. If steam blows out -past the piston, it would indicate that the rings were not tight. In -case steam packing rings are used, they should be refitted or replaced -by new ones. If adjustable rings are used, they should be adjusted to -stop the leak, care being taken not to get them too tight. If the steam -blows out through the back port, the slide valve is not tight and it -will require refitting, as will also the valve seat.</p> - -<p>If a very small amount of steam blows through, new rings or adjustment -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137"></a>[Pg 137]</span> -would not be necessary, as the waste of steam or back pressure -resulting from it would amount to very little.</p> - -<p>This test should be tried occasionally with a full head of steam on, -to assure of the piston rings and valve being tight, as leaky pistons -and valves are very wasteful of steam, sometimes causing priming, and -greatly diminishing the power of the engine. Never run your engine with -leaky piston or valve. Have them properly fitted at once.</p> - -<p>After making the test, and repairing if necessary, replace the cylinder -head, and be sure to remove the wood block from the guides.</p> - -<h3 id="KNOCKS" class="nobreak">KNOCKS OR POUNDS.</h3> - -<p>The Knocks or Pounds of steam engines are frequently caused by -lost motion in the crank and wrist-pin boxes, valve rod and valve, -cross-head and link; looseness of the piston rod, pillow block or main -bearings, follower plate, or eccentrics; the slide valve having not -enough or too much lead, the exhaust being cut off too soon or too -late, shoulders being worn in each end of the cylinder by the packing -rings not traveling over the counter-bore at the end of each stroke; or -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138"></a>[Pg 138]</span> -shoulders may be worn in the guides by the cross-head slides, or they -may not be adjusted properly to fit the guides; boiler may foam, -causing the water to be drawn over in cylinder; the piston rings may -leak, thus causing cushioning; and as the crank approaches the centers, -steam occupies the space between the cylinder head and piston, causing -a tremendous strain upon the engine; the piston rod being packed too -tight, the boxes and pins being worn flat or oval; the key in driving -pulley may be loose.</p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">TO REMEDY KNOCKS OR POUNDS<br /> OF A STEAM ENGINE.</h3> - -<p>While it is hardly possible to prescribe a remedy for all cases, if -the following practical methods are closely followed they will be -found to be very useful, although in many instances the remedy must be -determined by the circumstances of the individual case.</p> - -<p>The knock or pound of boxes in connecting rod at cross-head or crank -pin or the valve rod, may be remedied by taking out the boxes, and -filing off the top and bottom inside edges sufficiently to allow them -to just come together and not fit the pin too tightly. In replacing -them, be careful not to key them up too tight. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139"></a>[Pg 139]</span></p> - -<p>Where there is not sufficient draught in the key or gib, place a liner -in front or behind the boxes.</p> - -<p>Knocks or pounds in the link may be remedied (if the link block has too -much play in the link) by reducing the liners in each end of the link -enough to fit the block properly.</p> - -<p>The knocks or pounds of piston are caused by the rod becoming loose -in the head; and if allowed to continue, will destroy the fit of -the rod in the hole. It may be remedied under such circumstances by -removing the rod, re-boring the hole and bushing it perfectly true, and -refitting the rod.</p> - -<p>Knocks or pounds of follower plate are generally caused by dirt -accumulating in the hole, which will not allow the bolts to enter far -enough to take up the lost motion of the plate, or the bolts may be too -long. To remedy this, remove the accumulation of dirt from the hole, or -shorten the bolts.</p> - -<p>The knocks or pounds in main crank shaft, if caused by the bearings -being worn oval or out of round, may be remedied by removing the shaft; -true it up in a lathe, and refit or re-babbitt the boxes. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140"></a>[Pg 140]</span></p> - -<p>The knock or pound in eccentrics is generally caused by the eccentric -straps being too loose upon the eccentrics, which can be remedied by -reducing the liners in the straps to allow them to fit perfectly.</p> - -<p>The knock or pound in slide valve caused by being improperly set, may -be remedied by taking off the steam chest bonnet and re-adjusting the -valve so as to give the same amount of lead at each end of stroke. -This being done, and the valve well proportioned and the connections -properly fitted, there should be no knocks or pounds from this cause.</p> - -<p>The knock or pound in cylinder caused by shoulders being worn in it, -can be remedied by re-boring the cylinder, being sure to make the -counter bore of sufficient depth to allow the piston rings to overlap -them at the end of each stroke.</p> - -<p>The knock or pound on guides caused by shoulders being worn on them, is -remedied by planing the guides and making the shoe slides of sufficient -length to overlap the guides at either end when crank is on the center.</p> - -<p>The knock or pound caused by the cross-head slides not fitting the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141"></a>[Pg 141]</span> -guides properly, may be remedied by adjusting them both top and bottom -to fit the guides closely, being careful not to get them too tight, -which causes undue wear and strain upon the frame.</p> - -<p>The knock or pound caused by wrist-pin or crank-pin becoming worn flat -or oval, may be remedied by filing them perfectly round.</p> - -<p>The knock or pound caused by the piston leaking, which causes -cushioning, can be remedied only by having a tight piston.</p> - -<p>The knock or pound caused by the driving pulley key being loose, can be -remedied by driving the key in its seat; or if a defective key, replace -by a new one perfectly fitted.</p> - -<p>If the knocks or pounds are caused by lost motion in any of the -revolving, reciprocating or vibrating parts of an engine, they may be -detected and located by placing the finger upon the different parts -while the engine is running very slowly or worked back and forth by hand.</p> - -<h3 id="HEATING" class="nobreak">HEATING OF JOURNALS.</h3> - -<p>The heating of journals and reciprocating parts of an engine may be -attributed to the following causes: -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142"></a>[Pg 142]</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Improper proportions and fitting, unsuitable material, want of -homogeneity between the metals of which the journals and bearings are -composed, the revolving or reciprocating parts not being in line, -the boxes being keyed up too tight, sand or grit getting into the -journals, improper lubricating, etc. The last mentioned cause is very -complicated, as the conditions of weight of load, area of surface -subject to pressure, velocity of movement, etc., must be taken into -consideration.</p> - -<p>To remedy the heating of journals which is caused by the revolving or -reciprocating parts not being in line, the engine or shaft must be put -in line.</p> - -<p>When caused by the boxes or bearings being too tight, they must be -loosened a very little at a time until bearings run cool. Apply plenty -of good oil.</p> - -<p>Clean the boxes and journals thoroughly, and see that the oil holes are -not stopped up; also see that the oil-cups are clean, to assure of the -oil getting to the bearings freely.</p> - -<p>Oiling frequently, using a little oil at a time, gives the best results -and is the most economical.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143"></a>[Pg 143]</span></p> -<h3 class="nobreak">PACKING PISTON AND VALVE RODS.</h3> - -<p>When the piston or valve rod of an engine or pump needs re-packing, -take off the stuffing box gland, remove all the old packing carefully, -and replace with new.</p> - -<p>If a patent packing is used, it should be cut in suitable lengths -diagonally across the packing, making the angle of one end opposite -from that of the other, so that when ends are brought together they -will make a splice joint. The joint of each ring of this packing should -be placed at opposite sides of the rod, and the stuffing box filled, -the gland replaced and screwed up just tight enough to stop leakage. -If hemp packing is used, take about the amount required and pick it to -pieces, removing all sticks, lumps or hard substances. Then twist it -into three compact cords, saturate well with oil or tallow, and braid -the cords together tightly. Then wind this braid around the rod until -stuffing box is full, replace the stuffing box gland, and screw up as -before described.</p> - -<p>Care should be taken not to screw the packing in stuffing boxes too -tight, as it not only increases the friction on the rod and diminishes -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144"></a>[Pg 144]</span> -the power of the engine, but will have a tendency to flute the rod. If -the rod is once fluted, it will be very difficult to stop leakage at -this joint.</p> - -<p>When stuffing box of water piston of pumps needs re-packing, the same -rule will apply, with the exception that little or no grease or tallow -should be used upon the packing.</p> - -<p>Always keep piston and valve rod packing in a clean place, as any dirt -or gritty substance that may become attached to it will have a tendency -to cut the rod.</p> - -<h3 id="PLAIN_SLIDE" class="nobreak">SETTING A PLAIN SLIDE VALVE.</h3> - -<p>First, take up all “lost motion” and place the engine on the center. -This is done by putting the wrist-pin, crank-pin and center of the -main shaft in line. To do this accurately, turn the engine until the -cross-head is about half an inch from the end of its stroke, and mark -the position of the cross-head on the guide.</p> - -<p>Place a marker against the edge of the fly-wheel, and make a mark on -the fly-wheel opposite the marker, then turn the engine until the cross-head -completes the stroke and comes back to the mark made on the guide. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145"></a>[Pg 145]</span></p> - -<p>The crank will now be as much below the center as it was above before. -In this position make another mark upon the fly-wheel opposite the marker.</p> - -<p>Now, midway between the two marks on the fly-wheel, when turned -opposite the marker will put the engine on dead center. Next, remove -steam chest cover and place the eccentrics about one-quarter turn ahead -of the crank in the direction the engine is to run. If the engine is to -run “over”, place the throw of eccentric up. If it is to run “under”, -place throw of eccentric down.</p> - -<p>Then set eccentric carefully at such a point that the valve will have -just commenced to open say ¹/₃₂ of an inch on the end that should -be taking steam. If there is a rocker arm used which reverses the -direction of the motion, i. e., making the valve stem move in the -opposite direction from the eccentric rod, the eccentric must be set -behind the crank, when the engine is to run “over”, in order that the -port may open as the engine turns forward; but if a rocker arm is used -merely to multiply the motion without changing the direction, proceed -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146"></a>[Pg 146]</span> -as though there was no rocker arm at all. Next, measure the “lead” -which you have given to the valve at end which you have set. This is -easily done by pushing a wedge-shaped stick or piece of soft wood -into the port opening. The edge of the valve and port will mark the -distance it goes in. Turn the engine upon the other center, which will -be found as before described, and see if the lead is the same at both -ends of the valve. If it is, the engine is properly set. If it is not, -move the valve on the stem towards the end having the greatest amount -of lead, a distance equal to one-half the difference in the leads. If -the equalized lead is more than is necessary, set the eccentric back a -little.</p> - -<p>There are numerous methods of attaching the stem to the valve. A common -way is with jam-nuts. With this arrangement it is only necessary to -turn back the nuts on end towards which the valve is to be moved, an -amount which will allow the given movement; then, turn the other nuts -until the valve is forced into place to travel equal distance both ways -from its center position. When the stem screws directly into the valve, -the connection to the rocker arm or guide must be taken apart, and the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147"></a>[Pg 147]</span> -stem screwed into or out of the valve enough to give it the required -position. After the valve is set, replace the steam chest cover, and -secure the eccentric perfectly tight with the set-screws, to prevent it -from slipping.</p> - -<h3 id="REV_SLIDE" class="nobreak">SETTING SLIDE VALVE OF<br /> REVERSING ENGINES.</h3> - -<p class="center space-below1"><b>The Link Reverse Being Used.</b></p> - -<p>First, see that all the lost motion in the connecting rod, pillow -block bearings and cross-head is taken up; then throw the reverse -lever in last notch in quadrant, which would allow the engine to run -“over”; then, remove the steam chest cover. Next, loosen eccentric (the -eccentric rod of which is in direct line with the valve rod), turn the -eccentric completely around, and watch the valve to see whether it -laps the steam ports exactly the same amount at both ends, or travels -an equal distance from its central position both ways. If it does, -the valve is in proper position upon the rod. If it does not travel -equally, the valve must be made to do so by adjusting it upon the valve -rod, which is done by lengthening or shortening the rod, by use of -jam-nuts, with which the rod is usually furnished. After this is done -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148"></a>[Pg 148]</span> -accurately, place the engine upon its forward center. This is done -by turning the engine forward until the cross-head is about ½ inch -from end of its stroke and mark the position of the cross-head upon -the guide; then, with the use of long tram or dividers, mark from any -convenient point on the frame to the band wheel or disc, and mark -both points with prick-punch. Again turn the engine forward until the -cross-head completes its stroke and comes back to the mark made on the -guide; then, with the same long tram or dividers, mark the band wheel -or disc as before from the prick mark already made on the frame.</p> - -<p>Midway between punch marks on band wheel or disc, which can be found -by use of dividers, will give the point which will place the engine on -the “center” by turning engine back far enough to allow the long tram -or divider to fit in punch mark on frame, and center punch mark on band -wheel or disc. Now turn the eccentric over in the direction in which -the engine is to run, until the valve gives the proper amount of lead -on the front of steam port, which is about ¹/₃₂ of an inch, and fasten -eccentric with set-screw. Then turn engine over the way it is to run, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149"></a>[Pg 149]</span> -and place it upon its back center. This is done exactly as before -described for forward center, and if the valve is properly -proportioned, it will give the required ¹/₃₂ of an inch lead on the -back steam port, and valve will be properly set for running in this -direction.</p> - -<p>Now throw the reverse lever in the last notch in opposite end of -quadrant, which would allow the engine to run “under”, then loosen the -other eccentric (the eccentric rod of which is in a direct line with -the valve rod), and proceed same as described when engine is running -“over”, to get valve to lap both steam ports equally. Then place engine -upon either center and move the eccentric in opposite direction from -the other eccentric until the valve gives the ¹/₃₂ of an inch lead to -steam port, fasten the eccentric and place the engine upon opposite -center, and the amount of lead should be the same on both steam ports, -and the valve properly set.</p> - -<p>The valve being set, replace the steam chest cover, and secure the -eccentrics perfectly tight by screwing the set-screws up hard to -prevent them from slipping.</p> - -<p>Always set the valve so as to run the engine backwards or “under” first.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150"></a>[Pg 150]</span></p> -<h3 class="nobreak">TO SET VALVES OF DUPLEX PUMP.</h3> - -<p>Set the pistons at mid-stroke, and set the valves which are worked from -the opposite side at mid-stroke also, and it will be right at all other -points. The mid position of the valve can be obtained by moving it back -and forth the amount of its lost motion, and dividing it so that the -lead or opening on both sides will be the same.</p> - -<h3 id="ASC_HILL" class="nobreak">ASCENDING HILLS.</h3> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How do you ascend a hill with a traction engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. When approaching a hill which you have to climb with -a traction engine, see that about two inches of water shows in the glass gauge -when engine is on a level. Open draft door wide, stir the fire and -get it to burn briskly, and get up a good head of steam. Put reverse -lever in last notch, then open throttle gradually, allowing just the -necessary amount of steam to pass into the cylinder to keep the engine -pulling steadily up the hill. Always start up the hill slowly; do not -attempt to go up a hill at full speed, but go slowly and steadily, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151"></a>[Pg 151]</span> -keeping the speed as uniform as possible by opening or closing the -throttle as the case may be. Never attempt to go up a hill on a -decreasing steam pressure, as there is a great liability to become -stalled, in which case great damage may be done to the front end of -flues. Always start on a rising steam pressure; then you know the -boiler is making steam, which assures a steady ascent, as at every -exhaust of the engine on an increasing or steady pressure the power -becomes stronger, while at every exhaust on a decreasing pressure the -power becomes weaker. Keep a uniform supply of water in the boiler at -all times by use of either the pump or injector. Always when going up -hill keep the draft door wide open until the steam gauge indicates that -the pressure has risen almost to the blow-off point, then close the -damper. Never allow steam to blow off when going up hill, as it will -cause the water to raise and be carried over into the cylinder, greatly -diminishing the power of the engine. Do not under any circumstances -allow your engine to be stopped when going either up or down hill, as -great damage may be done to the boiler.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152"></a>[Pg 152]</span></p> -<p class="f120"><b>FRICK TRACTION ENGINE.</b></p> - -<p>The illustration of the left side of the <a href="#I_153">Frick Traction</a> -given on opposite page represents it as being a Center Crank, Rear Geared -traction engine.</p> - -<p>This engine is constructed with an overhanging cylinder, bolted to the -cast iron engine frame, which contains the locomotive style guides and -both pillow block bearings for the crank shaft. It has a Cross-head -Pump connected with long heater, has a specially designed Reverse Gear, -also a <a href="#I_116">Friction Clutch</a> attached to the band wheel.</p> - -<p>The round bottom fire box boiler swings in a channel iron frame, which -reaches from front axle to the rear of the boiler, around the fire box, -to which it is attached, and has a spring in front end only.</p> - -<p>The wheels are made entirely of iron, with forged spokes and wrought -tire, with high mud grouters bolted on.</p> - -<p>On the channel iron frame in front of fire box is placed a heavy -plank, to which two large water tanks are attached on either side. The -steering wheel and band wheel are on opposite sides of engine and it -has all the necessary fittings, so that with proper handling it will -be found perfectly safe and reliable. The platform in rear is also -supported upon the channel iron frame. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153"></a>[Pg 153]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_153" src="images/i_153.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="395" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Frick Traction Engine.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154"></a>[Pg 154]</span></p> -<h3 class="nobreak">DESCENDING HILLS.</h3> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How do you descend a hill with a traction engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. When approaching a hill which you wish to -descend with a traction engine, see that the water in the boiler is at -the regular height, or two inches in glass gauge when engine is on the -level. Close the draught door to ash pan and open damper in smoke box -when about to descend. Close the throttle almost tight, allowing just a -little steam to enter cylinder, then take hold of the reversing lever, -and the speed of the engine can be governed so as to descend at any -speed desired, or be stopped, if absolutely necessary by throwing the -lever into last notch.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  Do not stop while going down hill -unless absolutely necessary, as there is great danger of melting out -the fusible plug and damaging the crown sheet, as the water is much -lower over the crown sheet when going down hill with the required -amount of water in the boiler than at any other time.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  When it is absolutely necessary to -stop the engine for a short time when descending a hill, do not turn on -the pump or injector; but open the fire door, allowing the cold air -to pass over the fire, which will protect the crown sheet. This should -never be done, though, except in extreme cases.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155"></a>[Pg 155]</span></p> -<h3 class="nobreak">ENGINE STALLED.</h3> - -<p>There is no standard rule by which a traction engine can be gotten -out of bad places upon the road, as one rule would not apply to all -situations, though a few suggestions on this subject may be beneficial.</p> - -<p>When the engine is in a bad mud hole, or on a very sandy road, and the -driving wheels will not take hold, but simply turn around, the best -way to get out of the fix is to hitch a good team of horses to it and -pull it out with what assistance the engine can give. Though in many -cases, if a quantity of straw, stones or brush, as may be most handy, -is placed under the driving wheels and the power applied, the wheels -may get a footing and the engine will come out all right. Old boards or -rails placed in the same manner will produce the same result.</p> - -<p>It should be understood, however, that if the driving wheels do not -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156"></a>[Pg 156]</span> -take hold, but simply turn around in the sand or mud, the engine should -be stopped at once and some of the aforesaid remedies tried. If you -continue to work the engine under such circumstances, it will become -more difficult to get out of the mire, as the wheels sink deeper in at -every revolution.</p> - -<h3 id="CROSS_BRIDGE" class="nobreak">CROSSING BRIDGES AND CULVERTS.</h3> - -<p>Before crossing a bridge or culvert with a traction engine, examine the -stringers and floor carefully to ascertain whether it is in condition -to hold the engine or not. If it appears a little weak, by laying heavy -plank across for the traction wheels to run on, it may be crossed in -safety, though the crossing of small bridges and culverts must be done -with judgment, to prevent accident and delay.</p> - -<h3 id="FOAMING" class="nobreak">FOAMING.</h3> - -<p>Foaming is the violent agitation of the volume of water in the boiler; -it occurs only in dirty boilers and where dirty feed water is used, -which causes the water to become saturated with foreign matter, such as -lime, sediment, mud, oil or grease, etc.</p> - -<p>The steam trying to escape through the scum formed by these impurities, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157"></a>[Pg 157]</span> -raises the whole mass from the surface of the water in large bubbles, -and causes a general frothing or foaming condition of the water level, -which is indicated by the dirty appearance of the gauge cocks and -joints and the cutting of piston rod and cylinder by the gritty matter -carried over by the steam. Foaming does not result in carrying over so -much water, but a foamy boiler does not produce as dry steam as one -that is kept perfectly clean.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How do you prevent a boiler from foaming?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. To remedy foaming, or prevent it, requires -frequent blowing off from the surface of the water the scum which -causes it, and the use of pure feed water. It may be stopped for a -while by closing the throttle valve for an instant, to give the water -and scum a chance to settle.</p> - -<h3 id="PRIMING" class="nobreak">PRIMING.</h3> - -<p>Priming in a steam boiler is the carrying over of large quantities of -water by the steam to the engine, and may occur in a perfectly clean -boiler. It is usually caused by too great a demand on the capacity of -the boiler, too sudden and fierce firing, or after steam pressure is -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158"></a>[Pg 158]</span> -lowering, an increasing demand is made for it. It is usually a radical -defect in the construction or capacity of the boiler, and is most -frequently the result of insufficient steam space, small evaporating -capacity, and lack of good circulation.</p> - -<p>Priming is indicated by the water rising and lowering in the glass -gauge more or less violently, by the clicking sound in the steam -cylinder of engine as the piston forces the water from end to end, and -by the regular shower of water falling from the exhaust.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How do you remedy priming?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. There are several remedies for priming, none of which will apply -effectually in all cases. Where insufficient capacity is the cause, -the only remedy is a larger boiler. In others, it may be prevented -by carrying the water level lower, if same can be done with safety, -or taking steam from side of dome instead of top, or increasing the -size of steam pipe, or taking out the top row of flues, and in boilers -that have no steam dome, a long dry pipe with perforated top may be of -benefit.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What are other causes and remedies for priming?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159"></a>[Pg 159]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The piston rings may leak badly. If they do, they should be -replaced, or made to fit cylinder perfectly. The cylinder may be badly -cut by the rings. If it is, it should be re-bored and new piston rings -put in.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  The slide valve may be cut, and -leak. In this case the valve will need re-planing and scraping, also -the valve seat. If the valve is not properly set, it may also cause -priming. The exhaust nozzle may be clogged with burnt oil and sediment; -if it is, clean it out thoroughly.</p> - -<h3 id="WOOD" class="nobreak">FIRING WITH WOOD.</h3> - -<p>Always keep a level fire. Fill every open space as fast as the wood -burns out. Allow as little cold air to pass through the fire as -possible. <i>Never stir a wood fire.</i> Fire quickly, and keep the -door shut as much as possible.</p> - -<h3 id="STRAW" class="nobreak">FIRING WITH STRAW.</h3> - -<p>To start the fire, push a small forkful of dry straw into funnel in -fire door, leaving the small end of funnel pressed full; then touch -the match to it. Begin at once to push in the straw regularly, a small -quantity at a time, being very careful not to clog the main flue, and -allowing ample time for straw to burn. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160"></a>[Pg 160]</span></p> - -<p>The fire should be raked down frequently, as the burned straw leaves a -charred mass over the grates. This should be done when the funnel is -full of straw, thus allowing no cold air to pass through the funnel -into the main flue. Clean out the ash pan frequently, so that the -natural draught may not be checked. Do not open blower until gauge -shows ten or fifteen pounds steam pressure.</p> - -<p>After steam is raised to the necessary pressure, the feeding should be -regular, using small forkfuls of straw, keeping the funnel full all the -time, and raking down at short intervals. Use as dry straw as it is -possible to obtain.</p> - -<p>The above will apply to any style or make of straw-burning engines.</p> - -<h3 id="COAL" class="nobreak">FIRING WITH COAL.</h3> - -<p>After fire is well started with wood, throw coal into the center of -grate, and do not disturb it until it is well ignited and burning -briskly; then break the fire down and put in a shovel or two of coal, -and so continue keeping the grates covered with a thin layer.</p> - -<p>Always aim to put in fresh coal on a rising head of steam pressure. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161"></a>[Pg 161]</span> -Never pile coal against the flue sheet or keep the fire box too full. -Nothing is gained by the latter, but much is lost.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Which is the more economical to burn, wet or dry coal?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Dry. If your coal is wet, you simply have to evaporate that much -more water, which goes out of the stack instead of to the engine.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How much water will one pound of coal evaporate?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. One pound of coal will, under very favorable circumstances, -evaporate twelve pounds of water, but the average evaporative power -of anthracite coal is 9½ pounds of water, and semi-bituminous coal is -9⁹/₁₀ pounds.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. If cold air is allowed to strike the flue sheet and flues, what is -the result?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It will eventually cause them to leak.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How should a fire be regulated in case of temporary stoppage by -accident or otherwise under full head of steam?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Close the damper and keep the fire door closed; then open small door -in smoke box or the damper in chimney.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Why not leave the fire door open?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Because it would allow the cold air to come in contact with flue -sheet and flues, and consequent damage to boiler.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162"></a>[Pg 162]</span></p> -<h3 class="nobreak">BANKING FIRES.</h3> - -<p>To bank a fire in a furnace, push the fire in a heap at the back of the -furnace against the flue sheet; leaving a large portion of the grate -open, to allow the air caused by the natural draught to pass up over -the fire to the flues; then cover it over with fine coal or a layer of -dry ashes, and see that the draught door is closed to prevent draught -as much as possible.</p> - -<p>This being done, the fire will last over night, and when ready to start -again in the morning, all that is necessary to do is to rake the fire -over the grates, open the damper and apply more fuel.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What benefit is derived from banking the fire?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By banking the fire, the water in the boiler is kept warm over night -and steam is raised quickly in the morning, saving time and fuel.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. When leaving a banked fire, is it practicable to shut the water out -of the glass or water column?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Yes. In freezing weather, this may be done by closing the valve at -the top and bottom of the glass; and open pet cock beneath. Care should -be taken, however, to open them before the fire is started in the -morning.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163"></a>[Pg 163]</span></p> -<h3 class="nobreak">LAYING UP A TRACTION ENGINE.</h3> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How should you prepare your engine and boiler -for laying up through the winter, to protect them from frost and -injury?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. While steam is on, clean your boiler and -engine thoroughly outside, scrape off all oil, grease and scale; after -which apply a good coat of asphaltum paint to the boiler and smoke -stack. If no paint can be had, lamp black and linseed oil will answer. -If this cannot be had, take rags, saturate them with grease or oil, and -go over them with that.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  Now open the blow-off valve, and -blow the water off with a low pressure of steam, after which take out -all the hand-hole plates and wash the boiler out thoroughly, removing -all the mud and scale; then replace the hand-hole plates, close the -blow-off valve and fill the boiler nearly full of water, after which -pour in a gallon of black oil upon the water.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  After this is done, open the blow-off -valve again and allow the water to run out. The oil will follow the -water down and cover the whole inside of boiler with a coating of oil, -making as good a protection against rust as can be found.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164"></a>[Pg 164]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  Next, remove all the brass fittings, -such as lubricator, steam gauge, safety valve, injector, check valves, -pump valves, gauge cocks, water gauge, etc., etc.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  Disconnect all pipes where water may -lodge, in order to prevent freezing. Every pipe and valve allowed to -freeze will surely burst. Unscrew all stuffing boxes and remove the -packing; for unless this is done, another season you will find parts -badly rusted where the packing was allowed to remain.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  Take off all cylinder cocks, pet -cocks, etc., from the heater and pump. All fittings should be carefully -packed and laid away. Clean the flues and fire box, also the ash pan, -and do not neglect to paint the ash pan both inside and outside.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  Remove the back cylinder head, roll -the engine forward and smear the inside of cylinder with tallow, or oil -if no tallow can be had. Place the head back again and smear all the -bright work, such as piston rod, connecting rod, etc., with grease. Do -not forget to cover top of smoke stack, to keep out water and snow.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  If the foregoing directions are -followed carefully you will find another season that your engine will -be clean, free from rust and ready to serve you faithfully without any -trouble or delay in starting, either in time or expense.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165"></a>[Pg 165]</span></p> -<h3 class="nobreak">BELTING.</h3> - -<p>Do not tax belts by overloading. Keep them free from accumulation of -dust, grease and all animal oils, as these are injurious to both rubber -and leather belts.</p> - -<p>Special care should be taken to protect the edges of rubber belts from -all animal oils, as they are liable to rot the belt.</p> - -<p>Always run the grain (or hair) side of leather belts on the pulley, as -it gives greater driving power, hugs the pulley closer, is less liable -to slip, and will drive 30 per cent. more than the flesh side.</p> - -<p>Rubber belts will be greatly improved and their life prolonged, by -putting on with a brush, and letting it dry, the following mixture:</p> - -<p>Equal parts of black lead and litharge mixed with boiled oil; add -enough Japan to dry it quickly. In case the rubber peels off, the same -mixture can be used.</p> - -<p>In comparison to leather belts, 4-ply rubber is equivalent to a single -leather belt and 6-ply rubber to double leather belt.</p> - -<p><b>To find the length of a belt</b>, add the diameter of the two -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166"></a>[Pg 166]</span> -pulleys together, divide the result by 2 and multiply the quotient by -3¹/₇; then add to this product twice the distance between the centers -of shafts.</p> - -<p><b>When piecing a belt when pulleys are changed</b>, multiply the -difference of the diameters of the pulleys by 1½, the product will be -the length of the piece required.</p> - -<p>The seam side of rubber belt should always be placed outside and not -next to pulley. In case the belt slips, coat the side next to pulley -with boiled linseed oil or soap.</p> - -<p><b>In lacing a belt</b>, begin in the center and be careful to keep -both ends exactly in line. Lace both ends equally tight and do not -cross the lace on the pulley side of belt. Great care should be taken -that the ends butting together be cut perfectly square; if not, the -belt will stretch more on one side than the other, which greatly -impairs its worth.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is the practical limit of belt speed?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Belts should not be run much over 5000 feet per minute.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How then is the capacity of a belt affected by its speed?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It varies directly as the speed. A given belt will transmit twice -the horse-power if its speed is doubled within limits.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167"></a>[Pg 167]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Is the capacity of a belt affected by its -width?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Yes, the capacity varies directly as the -width. If a two inch belt will transmit one horse-power, two such belts -will transmit two horse power; and this is true whether they are run -separately or joined into a four inch belt.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  To preserve cotton or Gandy belting, -apply with a brush a little common paint to pulley side of belt while -running, to be followed shortly afterwards by a little soft oil or -grease to preserve its flexibility.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  If the edges of the belt become -frayed from the use of belt guides or forks, the loose threads may be -cut off without injury to the belt.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  If the belt slips at first, -consequent to the surface being ruffled by unrolling, apply a little -grease, oil or soap to the pulley side to make it grip.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168"></a>[Pg 168]</span></p> -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_168" src="images/i_168.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="413" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Armington & Sims High Speed Engine.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169"></a>[Pg 169]</span></p> -<p class="f120"><b>ARMINGTON & SIMS HIGH SPEED ENGINE.</b></p> - -<p>The cylinder and steam chest of this engine are cast in one piece and -bolted securely to the engine frame, which forms the front cylinder -head. The cylinder is lagged with mineral wool and jacketed to prevent -radiation, and it is overhanging and self-lining.</p> - -<p>The valve is a hollow piston valve, the body of which is steel -tubing with cast iron ends. It receives its motion from the shaft -governor, attached to one of the band wheels, which regulates the -cut-off automatically according to the variation of load. The steam -is exhausted at each end of the valve by very direct passages which -quickly free the cylinder, preventing back pressure.</p> - -<p>The engine frame is cast heavy and rigid, and contains the locomotive -guides for cross-head and the pillow block bearings for the crank shaft.</p> - -<p>The double disc center crank shafts allow of two small heavy band -wheels being used.</p> - -<p>The base of this engine is cast in one piece, to which the engine frame -is securely bolted, and with this arrangement, the engine needs no -expensive foundation.</p> - -<p>The engine is simple and self-contained, ranging in sizes from 11 to -450 horse-power, and is intended to run at the very high speed of -from two hundred to three hundred and fifty revolutions per minute -according to size, and is used extensively in driving electric lighting -machinery, and where high speed and continuous work is desired.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170"></a>[Pg 170]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak">GENERAL INFORMATION.</h2> -</div> - -<p><i>Never condemn an engine</i> that is entirely new to you because -it does not start off at your first effort. Study all the directions -furnished by the maker. Perhaps you have overlooked some points that -are of more importance than you imagine.</p> - -<p>The above will apply to other machinery as well as engines.</p> - -<p><i>When starting a new engine</i> be sure that everything is in -readiness. Turn it over by hand to see that all the revolving and -reciprocating parts run freely. Start it very slowly under steam -pressure and apply plenty of good oil. After it has run a short time -and everything is working properly turn on more steam and continue to -do so until the engine is running at its rated speed. To start it at -full speed under steam pressure may result in great damage or totally -destroy the engine.</p> - -<p><i>An accurate machine</i> which is thoroughly reliable is necessarily -costly, but is of more value than another which merely serves a purpose.</p> - -<p><i>Engineers or firemen</i> in charge of a steam boiler should blow out -the water gauge and gauge cocks every morning in order to remove the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171"></a>[Pg 171]</span> -soft mud which settles in them at night when the boiler is at rest. If -this is neglected, the soft mud may become baked in them which might -lead to disastrous results.</p> - -<p><i>Every steam boiler</i> for whatever purpose employed, should be -opened, cleaned, thoroughly examined and tested at least every six -months, and with muddy feed water once a week would not be too often.</p> - -<p><i>By blowing out</i> the gauge cocks regularly you not only ascertain -the height of the water in the boiler, but it prevents them from -becoming choked with sediment or mud.</p> - -<p><i>Do not allow</i> the gauge cocks, glass water gauge or steam gauge -to become filthy, as it shows lack of care, and furnishes evidence that -the engineer who is not particular in this part of his duty is not -reliable in others of equal or more importance.</p> - -<p><i>Upon entering</i> the boiler room in the morning an engineer or -fireman should always ascertain whether the valves or cocks which -connect the water gauge with the boiler are open or shut, otherwise -he may be deceived by the appearance of the water in the tube. This -precaution should never be neglected. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172"></a>[Pg 172]</span></p> - -<p><i>If an engineer or fireman discovers</i> that there is too much water -in the boiler he should blow it down to the proper level, but in doing -so he must exercise judgment, vigilance and care, especially if there -is a fire in the furnace.</p> - -<p><i>Never allow the gauge cocks</i> to leak at all when it is -practicable to repair them, for the longer they leak the more difficult -they are to repair, as under the escape of water or steam the metal -wastes rapidly.</p> - -<p><i>An engineer or fireman</i> should often remove the ashes from under -the boiler, or from ash pan; if allowed to accumulate, they retard the -draft and interfere with combustion, thereby causing waste of fuel and -interfere with the evaporating efficiency of the boiler. Also keep -grates clear of clinkers; for if allowed to accumulate, they produce -the same result.</p> - -<p><i>Should it become necessary</i> to blow down the water at intervals, -the engineer or fireman should stand by the blow-off cock and not allow -his attention to be diverted to anything else, as in a very short space -of time the water may become so low as to induce stoppage or endanger -the safety of the boiler. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173"></a>[Pg 173]</span></p> - -<p><i>Engineers should</i> always be cautious when they stop or start an -engine with a heavy pressure of steam in the boiler, as the vent given -to the steam when starting, and the check it receives when stopping, -may exert such a pressure as to strain, crack, or rupture the boiler.</p> - -<p><i>The drip cocks</i> in the cylinder should be left open when the -engine is standing still, and they should not be closed until after the -engine has been started and made several strokes or revolutions.</p> - -<p><i>Do not open the throttle valve</i> to its full extent in starting -after the engine has been standing over night, as the quantity of steam -condensed by being brought in contact with the cold pipe (particularly -if it is a long one) may result in breaking the follower plate, -springing the piston rod, or knocking out the cylinder head.</p> - -<p><i>After opening the gauge cocks</i> to ascertain the height of water -in the boiler, they should be closed tightly to prevent leakage.</p> - -<p><i>It may have been discovered</i> that when gauge cocks are closed -after being blown out, they leak badly; this is often due to the fact -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174"></a>[Pg 174]</span> -that mud or sand has become attached to the seat of the valve. The -easiest way to remedy this difficulty is to open the cocks and let them -blow out for some time, as the friction of the water in its escape will -in all probability remove the obstacle.</p> - -<p><i>Glass water gauges</i> may be cleansed by removing the glass; then -tying a piece of cotton waste or lamp wicking to a splint of wood, -applying soap or acetic acid, and passing it through the inside of the -tube; then replace the glass, and when steam is raised close the lower -valve, open the drip cock, and the steam blowing through will wash the -glass perfectly.</p> - -<p><i>To cut a glass gauge tube.</i>—If a glass gauge is too long, take -a three-cornered file and wet it, hold the tube in the left hand with -the thumb and fore-finger at the place where you wish to cut, saw it -quickly and lightly two or three times with the edge of the file, and -it will mark the glass. Now, take the tube in both hands, both thumbs -being on opposite sides of the mark and about an inch apart, then try -to bend the glass, using your thumbs as fulcrums and it will break at -the mark which has weakened the tube.</p> - -<p><i>Never touch</i> the inside of the water gauge glass with iron or -wire, as while the glass may be cut on the outside with a file, the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175"></a>[Pg 175]</span> -slightest touch of steel or iron on the inside will cause an abrasion, -the result of which is that the glass will crack and become useless.</p> - -<p><i>Water gauge glasses</i> frequently break because the steam and water -connections are not in line, because the stuffing boxes are screwed -down too tight, and sometimes in cold weather when struck by a cold -draught of air admitted through an open door or window.</p> - -<p><i>An engineer or fireman should</i> never fill a boiler with cold -water while the boiler is hot, as the injurious effect produced by -contraction is similar to that produced by blowing out at a high -pressure, and if persisted in will result in permanent injury to the -boiler.</p> - -<p><i>Exhaust steam will heat</i> water to 212° Fahr. under atmospheric -pressure.</p> - -<p><i>Ten degrees extra heat</i> in feed water means one per cent. saving -in fuel.</p> - -<p><i>Before blowing out the boiler</i> the engineer or fireman should -remove all the fire from the furnace, as a small quantity left in the -corners, or attached to the bridge wall, might spring a seam or cause a -plate to bulge.</p> - -<p><i>Every engineer should know</i> that unequal expansion and -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176"></a>[Pg 176]</span> -contraction is one of the evils which limit the longevity and endanger -the safety of all classes of steam boilers; consequently the blowing -out, the refilling, the starting of fires and the regulation of the -draught should be done with judgment.</p> - -<p><i>It is not necessary</i> to fill a boiler with cold water above -the second gauge cock, as the water expands under the process of the -formation of steam and it will be found that there is a sufficiency of -water in the boiler when steam is raised.</p> - -<p><i>Single riveted seams</i> are equal to 56% of the original strength -of the sheet; double riveted seams are equal to 70%, and triple riveted -seams are equal to 85%. Triple riveted seams, however, are very seldom -used unless for some special purpose, as they are too heavy and thick, -and would burn out rapidly if exposed to fire.</p> - -<p><i>In making calculations</i> on the strength of boilers, the factor 56 -should be employed instead of 100, as 44% of the strength of the plate -is lost by punching the holes for the rivets.</p> - -<p><i>It should be understood</i> that machine riveted seams in steam -boilers are superior to hand made seams, as the machine thoroughly -upsets the rivet and brings the two sheets in such close contact as to -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177"></a>[Pg 177]</span> -produce friction between the sheets at the lap, which of itself is an -element of strength.</p> - -<p><i>Boilers do not improve</i> by standing idle; they will rust very -rapidly.</p> - -<p><i>Never use sharp chisels</i> to cut the scale from boiler plate, as -the cutting of the plate does more harm than good. Use only a light -hammer.</p> - -<p><i>In patching a boiler</i> be careful not to make a pocket in which -sediment may collect to cause another injury to the sheet and never put -a steel patch upon an iron boiler as the two metals expanding unequally -will induce trouble.</p> - -<p><i>Never forget</i> to allow for expansion when running long lines -of steam pipe, whether for heating or power, as the neglect of this -precaution leads to the formation of immense crooks or bends in the -line of pipe wonderful to behold. There must be a slip joint somewhere -in long lines of steam piping, unless expansion is allowed for.</p> - -<p><i>Valves stick</i> on their seats because they are frequently shut -when cold, and when heated by the steam the valve stem becomes -lengthened, and presses the valve hard into the seat. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178"></a>[Pg 178]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_178" src="images/i_178.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="410" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Geiser Traction Engine—Right Side.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179"></a>[Pg 179]</span></p> -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="f120"><b>GEISER TRACTION ENGINE.</b></p> - -<p>The cut opposite represents the right side of the Peerless, Side Crank, -Rear Gear Traction Engine.</p> - -<p>The main engine frame is of the girder pattern, and contains the guides -and pillow block bearing. It also forms the front cylinder head, -to which the cylinder is bolted. The cylinder is overhanging, and -connected to the long feed water heater by the exhaust pipe.</p> - -<p>The valve is of the piston type. The reverse gear is the Landis Patent -Reverse and Variable Cut-off. It has the <a href="#I_093">Cross-head Pump</a> connected with -a long Feed Water Heater, <a href="#I_076">Governor</a>, <a href="#I_087">Injector</a>, and the locomotive style -of boiler swings in an iron frame, to which it is attached, and rests -upon springs at both back and front ends.</p> - -<p>The smoke stack is water lined, and traction wheels have wrought iron -rims with high grouters and wood spokes. The platform has two steel -tanks for water and tools, and the steering wheel and band wheel are on -opposite sides of the engine.</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180"></a>[Pg 180]</span></p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<p class="space-above2"><i>Slide valves should be fitted</i> to their -seats by filing and scraping, and never by the use of emery and oil. -The piston rod and valve rod may be packed with braids of hemp or -cotton wicking, with rings cut from patent packing of various kinds or -metallic packing.</p> - -<p><i>To clean brass articles</i> with acid is a great mistake, as with -such treatment they very soon become dull. Sweet oil and putty powder -followed by soap and water, is one of the best mediums for brightening -brass and copper.</p> - -<p><i>To frost brass work</i> and give it an ornamental finish, boil the -article in caustic potash, rinse in clean water and dip in nitric acid -until all oxide is removed; then wash quickly, dry in box-wood sawdust, -and lacquer while warm.</p> - -<p><i>The best material</i> for grinding in valves and stop cocks is -pulverized glass. It is superior to emery for this purpose. Fine sand -may be used.</p> - -<p><i>To remedy a leaky</i> angle, check or globe valve, it should be -taken apart, and the valves ground to fit their seats properly with -either fine sand, pulverized glass or emery.</p> - -<p><i>A lever stuck</i> between the spokes of the fly-wheel of an engine -for the purpose of starting it, is a very dangerous instrument, it is -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181"></a>[Pg 181]</span> -liable to get caught and do a great amount of damage. If a lever is to -be used, be sure that the steam is first turned off.</p> - -<p><i>A cubic inch of water</i> evaporated under ordinary atmospheric -pressure is converted into one cubic foot of steam (approximately).</p> - -<p><i>Steam at atmospheric pressure</i> flows into a vacuum at the rate of -about 1550 feet per second, and into the atmosphere at the rate of 650 -feet per second.</p> - -<p><i>Condensing engines require</i> from 20 to 30 gallons of water -to condense the steam represented by every gallon of water -evaporated—approximately; for most engines we say from 1 to 1½ gallons -per minute per indicated horse-power. Jet condensers do not require -quite as much water for condensing as surface condensers. Surface -condensers require about 2 square feet of tube (cooling) surface per -horse-power of steam engine.</p> - -<p><i>The best designed boilers</i> well set, with good draught and -skillful firing, will evaporate from 7 to 10 lbs. of water per pound of -first-class coal. The average result is from 25 to 60 per cent. below this. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182"></a>[Pg 182]</span></p> - -<p><i>When you have</i> your boiler furnace to repair, and cannot get fire -clay, take common earth mixed with water, in which you have dissolved a -little salt; use same as fire clay, and your furnace will last fully as long.</p> - -<p><i>To make iron take bright polish</i> like steel, pulverize and -dissolve the following articles in one quart of hot water: Blue vitriol -1 oz., borax 1 oz., prussiate of potash 1 oz., charcoal 1 oz., salt 7½ -pt.; then add one gallon of linseed oil, mix well, bring your iron or -steel to the proper heat, and cool in the solution.</p> - -<p><i>To write inscriptions on metal</i>, take 4 oz. of nitric acid -and 1 oz. of muriatic acid, mix and shake well together, then cover -your metal surface to be engraved, with bees-wax or soap, write your -inscription plainly in the wax clear to the metal, then apply the mixed -acids, carefully filling each letter. Let it remain from three to five -minutes according to appearance desired, then throw on water, which -stops the etching process, scrape off the bees-wax or soap, and the -inscription is complete.</p> - -<p><i>To remove rust from steel.</i>—Brush the rusted steel with a paste -composed of ½ oz. cyanide potassium, ½ oz. castile soap, 1 oz. whiting, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183"></a>[Pg 183]</span> -and enough water to make a paste; then wash the steel in a solution of -½ oz. cyanide potassium and 2 oz. of water.</p> - -<p><i>A solvent for rust.</i>—It is often very difficult, and sometimes -impossible, to remove rust from articles made of iron. Those which are -most thickly coated are most easily cleaned by being immersed in, or -saturated with, a solution of chloride of tin. The length of time they -should remain in this bath is determined by the thickness of the rust, -generally twelve to twenty-four hours is long enough. The solution -ought not to contain a great excess of acid if the iron itself be -not attacked. On taking them from the bath, the articles are rinsed -first in water, then in ammonia, and quickly dried. The iron when thus -treated has the appearance of dull silver; a simple polishing gives it -its normal appearance.</p> - -<p><i>One of the best varnishes</i> for smoke stacks or steam pipes is -good asphaltum dissolved in oil of turpentine.</p> - -<p><i>Iron or steel immersed</i> warm in a solution of carbonate of soda -(washing soda) for a few minutes will not rust.</p> - -<p><i>Cement to fasten iron to stone.</i>—Take 10 parts of fine iron -filings, 30 parts of plaster of Paris, and ½ part of sal ammoniac; mix -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184"></a>[Pg 184]</span> -with weak vinegar to a fluid paste and apply at once.</p> - -<p><i>Cement for joints.</i>—Paris white, ground, 4 lbs.; litharge, -ground, 10 lbs.; yellow ochre, fine, ½ lb.; ½ oz. of hemp, cut short; -mix well together with linseed oil to a stiff putty. This cement is -good for joints on steam or water pipes; it will set under water.</p> - -<p><i>The average consumption of coal</i> for steam boilers is 12 pounds -per hour for each square foot of grate surface.</p> - -<p><i>One ton of coal</i> is equivalent to two cords of wood for steam -purposes.</p> - -<p><i>Doubling the diameter</i> of a pipe increases its capacity four -times.</p> - -<p><i>A cubic foot</i> of water contains 7½ gallons.</p> - -<p><i>A gallon weighs</i> 8⅓ pounds.</p> - -<p><i>Water expands</i> ¹/₉ of its bulk in freezing.</p> - -<p><i>Ice weighs</i> 56½ pounds per cubic foot.</p> - -<p><i>Engineers can judge</i> of the condition of their machinery by the -tone it gives out while running. Every make of engine has a peculiar -tone of its own. The engineer becomes accustomed to that, and any -departure from it at once excites a suspicion that all is not right. -The engineer may not know what is the matter, he may have no ear for -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185"></a>[Pg 185]</span> -music, but the change in tone of his machine will be instantly -perceptible and will start him upon an immediate investigation.</p> - -<p><i>An Indicator</i> is an instrument used to determine the indicated -horse-power of an engine; it shows the action of the steam in the -cylinder and serves as a guide in setting valves to get the greatest -amount of energy from the steam used.</p> - -<p><i>Atmospheric pressure</i> is the weight of the air.</p> - -<p><i>To take lime from injector tubes</i>, mix one part muriatic acid and -ten parts soft water. Immerse tube in this mixture over night.</p> - -<p><i>Compound for Cooling Heavy Bearings.</i>—For cooling heavy pillow -block bearings, or the steps of upright shafts, the following will be -found very valuable: Four pounds of tallow, one-half pound of sugar -of lead, three-fourths pound plumbago. When the tallow is melted -(not boiling) add sugar of lead and let it dissolve; then put in the -plumbago, and stir the whole mass until cold.</p> - -<p><i>A mixture</i> of soft soap and black lead makes an excellent -lubricant for gears, as it lessens the abrasion and noise and has the -advantage over tallow of not becoming hard. It is also easily removed -should it become necessary to clean the parts on which it has been used.</p> - -<p><i>The axles and axle arms</i> of a traction engine should be well -greased or oiled before moving, to prevent them from being cut and -wearing both hub and axle rapidly.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186"></a>[Pg 186]</span></p> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak">WORKSHOP RECIPES.</h2> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Loam.</span>—Mixture of brick, clay and old foundry sand.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Parting Sand.</span>—Burnt sand scraped from the surface of castings.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Black Wash.</span>—Charcoal, plumbago and size.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Blackening for Molds.</span>—Charcoal powder, or in some instances -fine coal dust.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Mixture for Welding Steel.</span>—One part sal ammoniac, ten parts -borax, pounded together and fused until clear. Then it is poured out -and after cooling, reduce to powder.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rust-joint Cement.</span>—(Quickly setting.) One part sal ammoniac -in powder (by weight), two parts flour of sulphur, eighty parts iron -borings, made into a paste with water.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rust Joint.</span>—(Slowly setting.) Two parts sal ammoniac, one -part flour of sulphur, 200 parts iron borings. The latter cement is the -best if the joint is not required for immediate use. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187"></a>[Pg 187]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Red Lead Cement for Face Joints.</span>—One part white lead, one -part red lead, mixed with linseed oil to the proper consistency.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Case Hardening.</span>—Place horn, hoof, bone dust, or shreds of -leather, together with the article to be case hardened, in an iron box; -subject to blood red heat, then immerse the article in cold water.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Case Hardening with Prussiate of Potash.</span>—Heat the article, -after polishing, to a bright red; rub the surface over with prussiate -of potash; allow it to cool to dull red, and immerse it in water.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Case Hardening Mixtures.</span>—Three parts of prussiate of potash, -one part sal ammoniac; or, one part of prussiate of potash, two parts -sal ammoniac and two parts bone dust.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Glue to Resist Moisture.</span>—One pound of glue, melted in two -quarts of skim-milk.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Marine Glue.</span>—One part of India rubber, twelve parts mineral -naphtha or coal tar. Heat gently, mix, and add twenty parts of powdered -shellac. Pour out on a slab to cool. Heat to about 250 degrees and it -is ready for use.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Glue Cement to Resist Moisture.</span>—One part glue, one -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188"></a>[Pg 188]</span> -part black rosin, ¼ part red ochre, mixed with the least possible quantity of -water; or, four parts of glue; or, one part oxide of iron, one part of -boiled oil (by weight).</p> - -<h3 id="BABBITT" class="nobreak">BABBITTING BOXES.</h3> - -<p>When the babbitt in a box is badly worn, and needs re-babbitting, -remove the cap, take out the shaft and chip all the old babbitt out of -both box and cap; then replace the shaft in the box, and line it up -perfectly level and square by putting liners in between the shaft and -the edges of the box; then put stiff putty around the shaft and against -the box at both ends, to prevent the babbitt from running out; then -heat the babbitt metal until it runs freely, and pour it into the box -until it is full; then put on the cap, and place about the same amount -of liners between its ends and the top of the shaft as was put under -the shaft, with long liners of sheet iron or tin extending from one end -to the other of the box, parallel with and on both sides of the shaft; -then put putty around the shaft and against the cap at both ends; heat -the metal again, and pour it in through the oil hole. After it is cool, -remove the cap and liners, drill out the oil hole and replace the cap, -being careful to put just enough liners under it so that the box will -be tight and still have the shaft run cool.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189"></a>[Pg 189]</span></p> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak">COMPOUND ENGINES.</h2> -</div> - -<p>The Compound Engine dates from the year 1781, when Hornblower, a -contemporary of Watt, conceived the idea of utilizing the force in the -exhaust steam of the simple engine in a second cylinder.</p> - -<p>From his crude design, the constant progress of experiment has -developed the marvelous engines now used in ocean steamers, and in both -large and small power plants, also on locomotives. Some of the compound -engines built in the early part of the century show results, according -to the records, not far behind the best attainable in modern times.</p> - -<p>The era of the Compound locomotive engine began in Europe in 1876, but -in this country half a dozen years would almost cover its history.</p> - -<p>However, in this short time, its advantages in putting to profitable -use the entire force of the steam supplied, has been so clearly shown, -that it has evidently come to stay. Its availability as an efficient, -economical, powerful high speed locomotive, demonstrates the value of -the Compound as a farm traction engine, and makes it plain that it will -be extremely serviceable on this class of engines. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190"></a>[Pg 190]</span></p> - -<p>The Compound Traction Engines belonging to the class known as the -“Woolf,” or continuous expansion type, are so constructed that the -steam passes directly from the high pressure to the low pressure -cylinder without the intervention of any receiving chamber or steam -chest. This arrangement is considered much better adapted to traction -engine work, and to produce superior results under the varying -conditions of this class of work than the “cross” compound, or what -is generally styled the “receiver” type of compound engines, in which -the high pressure cylinder exhausts into a receiver connected with the -steam chest of the low pressure cylinder.</p> - -<p>In the Woolf Compound as constructed, the cylinders are either cast -in one piece, end to end, or cast separately and bolted together in -substantially the same way, in order that perfect alignment can be -secured by boring both cylinders at the same operation. This makes it -not only easy to get them in line at the start, but it prevents any -possibility of their getting out of line, which is a very important -feature.</p> - -<p>The pistons of both cylinders are upon the one rod, thus requiring only -one cross-head, connecting rod and crank. There is but one steam chest, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191"></a>[Pg 191]</span> -in which a valve is placed, with such relation to the valve seat -which contain the ports leading to both cylinders, that it performs -the double function of first admitting the steam to the high pressure -cylinder, cutting off the admission at the proper time to allow -expansion to take place there, and after high pressure piston has -reached the end of its stroke, passing on the steam to the low pressure -cylinder, where it is further expanded and exhausted in the usual -manner after its work is done.</p> - -<p>The valve is specially designed with cavities so arranged as to -co-operate in increasing the area of opening to double the amount -obtainable with an ordinary valve having the same travel.</p> - -<p>Without some special provision, the full power of the compound engine -cannot be exerted in starting, as the steam operates primarily on the -high pressure piston only, which has led to the condemnation of the -compound as a traction engine. This objection has been thoroughly -overcome in the Woolf by means of a “converting valve,” rendering it -possible to admit steam directly to the large or low pressure cylinder, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192"></a>[Pg 192]</span> -thus largely increasing the power obtainable from the engine, even when -exerting its maximum power as a compound. This arrangement can be used -not only in starting, but also in cases of emergency, such as climbing -steep hills, getting out of bad places on the road, or disposing of an -especially tough cut in sawing, etc.</p> - -<p>Without increasing the boiler pressure beyond that ordinarily used, the -compound engine gets fully one-third more force out of the steam used -than is at present obtainable with the simple engine as commonly worked.</p> - -<p>In other words, the compound will show results compared favorably with -a good condensing simple stationary engine doing the same work. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193"></a>[Pg 193]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_193" src="images/i_193.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="276" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">Ball Tandem Compound Engine.</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194"></a>[Pg 194]</span></p> - -<p class="f120"><b>BALL TANDEM COMPOUND ENGINE.</b></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>The heavy case iron base is cast in two sections, the rear part being -securely bolted to the front section. To the front section is also -bolted the main engine frame. This frame contains the bar guides for -the cross-head, and pillow block bearing for the double disc crank -shaft, and also forms the front head for the low pressure cylinder, -which is securely bolted to it.</p> - -<p>The high pressure cylinder is attached to the low pressure cylinder by -two brackets securely bolted, and is supported by a pedestal, bolted -to the rear part of base. By this arrangement, both the high and low -pressure pistons are upon the same piston rod, which necessitates of -but one cross-head, connecting rod and crank.</p> - -<p>The valve of the high pressure cylinder is operated and completely -under the control of the automatic shaft governor attached to one of -the band wheels, while the valve of the low pressure cylinder receives -its motion from a single eccentric on crank shaft at opposite side of -engine.</p> - -<p>When engine is running, the steam enters the high pressure cylinder -first, and after performing its work there, exhausts through the -receiver pipe into the low pressure cylinder, and there exerts its -minimum force by expansion, and passes out to the condenser, if used, -or exhausts into the open air.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195"></a>[Pg 195]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak">EXAMINATION OF ENGINEERS<br /> APPLYING FOR A LICENSE.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="f120 space-below2"><b>QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS.</b></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How long have you run an engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Have you done your own firing?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What kinds of engines have you run?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What would be your first duty if called upon -to take charge of an engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. To ascertain the exact condition of the boiler -and all its attachments, such as safety valve, steam gauge, water gauge -and cocks, pump, injector, blow-off valve, etc.; also the engine.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How often would you blow off your boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Once a week or month, according to the -condition of feed water used.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How many feet of heating surface is allowed -per horse-power by builders of boilers?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. From 12 to 15 square feet for flue and tubular -boilers.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How much steam pressure will be allowed on a -boiler 40 inch diameter, ⅜ thick, 60,000 pounds T. S., ⅛ T. S. factor -of safety?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196"></a>[Pg 196]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. One-sixth of tensile strength of plate -multiplied by thickness of plate, divided by one-half of the diameter -of boiler gives safe working pressure.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How do you estimate the strength of a -boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By its diameter and thickness of material, -single or double riveted.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Which is the stronger, single or double -riveted?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Double riveted is from 14 to 18 per cent. -stronger than single.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is the use of a mud drum on a boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. To collect all the sediment from the water -used in the boiler.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What causes sediment to accumulate in -boilers?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The use of impure or muddy water.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How often should it be blown out?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Three or four times a day.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. How much grate surface do boiler makers allow -per horse-power?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. About two-thirds of a square foot.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is the steam dome of a boiler used for?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197"></a>[Pg 197]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. For dry steam to collect in.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Of what use is a safety valve on a boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. To prevent overpressure.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is your duty with reference to it?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Open it once or twice a day to see that it is -in good order.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Of what use is a check valve?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. To prevent the water in boiler from returning -into the pump or injector.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What effect has cold water on hot boiler -plates?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It will fracture them.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How should the gauge cocks be located on a -boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. So that the lowest gauge cock is about 1½ -inches above the top row of flues.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Where should the blow-off valve be located?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. At the bottom of the fire box in locomotive -style of boiler, or in the mud drum when used.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How would you have check valve arranged?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. With a stop cock between the boiler and check -valve.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198"></a>[Pg 198]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Does a man-hole in the top shell of boiler -weaken it?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Yes, to a certain extent.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How many valves in a common plunger pump?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Two, a receiving and a discharge valve.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How are they situated?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. One at suction, the other at discharge end.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How do you find the proper size of safety -valve for boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Two square feet of grate surface is allowed -for one inch area of common lever valve, or three square feet of -surface to one inch area of spring valve.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Why do pumps fail to work at times?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Leak in the suction, leak around the plunger, -leaky check valve, or valve out of order.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Why do injectors fail to work at times?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Leak in suction, grit or dirt under seat of -valve, or valve not seated properly.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How often should a boiler be examined and -tested?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Twice a year at least.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How would you test a boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By tapping it with a light hammer, and -hydrostatic test, using warm water.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199"></a>[Pg 199]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Where does the feed water enter the boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Below the water level, where the feed water -will not strike the heated plates.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What causes priming of boilers?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Too high water, not steam space enough, dirty -feed water, misconstruction of boiler, or engine being too large for -its capacity.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How can you keep boilers clean or remove scale -from them?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By regularly cleaning them thoroughly, and by -the use of compounds.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. If you found a thin plate in your boiler what -would you do?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Patch it on the inside, first cutting out the -damaged part.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Why cut out the damaged part of sheet, when -putting on a patch?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. To allow the water to rest against the patch -to protect it from the intense heat.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What would be the result if the damaged part -of sheet was not cut out?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The water not coming in contact with the -patch, it would soon bulge from the heat and crack.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Why patch it on the inside?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200"></a>[Pg 200]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Because the action that has weakened the -plate before will act upon the patch, when this is worn it can be -replaced.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. If you found you had to put on several patches -what would you do?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Reduce the steam pressure.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. If you found a blister what would you do?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Cut it out and put a patch on the fire -side.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. If you found a plate buckled or sagged what -would you do?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Put a stay bolt through the center of the -sag.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What would you do with a cracked plate?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Cut out the damaged part and put a patch over -it.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How would you change the water in a boiler -when steam is up?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By supplying more feed water and opening the -surface blow-off at short intervals.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. When blowing off a boiler, would you leave the -blow-off cock to attend to other work?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Never.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201"></a>[Pg 201]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What would you do to relieve the pressure -on the boiler if the safety valve was stuck and steam constantly -rising?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Cover the fire with coal or ashes, close -draught door and open damper in smoke box; work off the steam with the -engine and when boiler has cooled down put the safety valve in working -order.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What may be the result if you allow the water -in the boiler to get low?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Burning of the crown sheet and flues and -perhaps cause an explosion.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Would you turn feed water into a boiler in -which the water was very low?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Never, without first pulling the fire or -covering it with dry ashes and allowing the steam to go down.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. If you allow water in the boiler to get too -high what would be the result?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It would cause priming or foaming.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Is priming or foaming dangerous to an -engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Yes. It may cause breaking of cylinder head -and wrecking of the engine.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What are other causes for foaming or priming -of a boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Dirty and impure water.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202"></a>[Pg 202]</span></p> - -<p class="f120 space-below1"><b>A. W. STEVENS TRACTION ENGINE.</b></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>The position of the side crank engine upon the boiler allows of having -the Rear Gear traction attachment.</p> - -<p>The Engine frame, guides for cross-head, cylinder, steam chest, -saddles, brackets and both pillow block bearings for crank shaft are -cast in one piece and bolted to the boiler.</p> - -<p>The frame is cast oval, and cross-head guides are of the locomotive -style.</p> - -<p>The Engine is furnished with a <a href="#I_116">Friction Clutch</a>, a specially designed -Reversing Gear, <a href="#I_076">Governor</a>, <a href="#I_093">Marsh steam pump</a>, -<a href="#I_087">Injector</a>; and is mounted -upon an open bottom fire box locomotive boiler, with ash pan under fire -box and dome at rear end.</p> - -<p>The boiler is mounted upon the traction wheels by brackets bolted to -the rear end, which contain the boxes for the main axle and cross shaft.</p> - -<p>The traction wheels are of the cast iron rim type, with spokes cast in -both rim and hub.</p> - -<p>The steering wheel and band wheel are on opposite sides of boiler, and -both engine and boiler are supplied with all necessary fittings.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203"></a>[Pg 203]</span></p> -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_203" src="images/i_203.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="422" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">A. W. Stevens Traction Engine.</p> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204"></a>[Pg 204]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How would you stop foaming?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Close the throttle long enough to show the -true level of water. If the level of the water is sufficiently high, -feeding and blowing off will usually correct the difficulty.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What would you do if you discovered the water -gone from sight in the water glass?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Pull the fire or cover it over with dry ashes, -and allow the boiler to cool off as quickly as possible; and would not -open or close any of the steam outlets.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q, What is a traction engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. A traction engine is an engine the power of -which is transmitted to the driving or ground wheels by a combination -of gearing.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is an exhaust pipe?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The pipe through which the exhaust steam -escapes from cylinder to smoke stack.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is the feed pipe?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The pipe through which the feed water passes -from pump or injector to the boiler.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is the steam pipe?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The pipe through which steam is taken from the -dome to the steam chest.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is a pet cock?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205"></a>[Pg 205]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. A small cock used in check valves, pipes and -places where draining off water is necessary to prevent freezing.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is clearance in a steam cylinder?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It is the space between the cylinder head and -piston head when the latter is at end of the stroke.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is “cushion” in a steam cylinder?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Cushion is the compression of steam let in -through the lead of the valve in the clearance of the cylinder, and -is for the purpose of catching the weight of the piston and rod, -cross-head and connecting rod when the engine reaches the end of each -stroke. It also keeps the engine from pounding.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How much water would you blow off at any one -time while running?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Never blow off more than one gauge.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What are your general views regarding boiler -explosions?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The greatest causes are from ignorance, -carelessness and neglect.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What precaution should you take if necessary -to stop with a heavy fire in the furnace?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Close the draught door, and put the injector -or pump at work.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is the proper height to carry water in -the boiler?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206"></a>[Pg 206]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. About 2½ inches above top row of flues.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. At what pressure should you blow off a -boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. At a pressure not to exceed ten pounds.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. If you wished to increase the power of an -engine what would you do?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Increase its speed or get higher steam -pressure.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How do you find the horse-power of an -engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Multiply the speed of piston travel in feet -per minute by the total effective pressure upon the piston in pounds, -and divide the product by 33,000.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is meant by “brass bound”?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Brass bound means that the half brasses touch -each other and cannot be driven up any closer by the key.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How would you remedy a brass bound box on -crank-pin or wrist-pin?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Take off the boxes and file off the top and -bottom edges, being careful not to take off too much.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Does a perfect fitting or an imperfect fitting -valve have the most friction?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. An imperfect fitting one.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207"></a>[Pg 207]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How would you refit an imperfect fitting or -leaky valve?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It should be re-faced on a planer or filed and -scraped until it fits seat perfectly tight.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How is a steam engine rated?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By amount of horse-power developed.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is a foot-pound?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. One pound of force exerted through one foot of -space.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How many foot-pounds are required to lift 100 -pounds one foot?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. One hundred.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How many foot-pounds required to lift one -pound 100 feet?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. One hundred.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. To lift 110 pounds through 300 feet how many -foot-pounds required?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. 300 × 110 = 33,000 foot-pounds.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Would that equal one horse-power?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Yes, if done in one minute.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Suppose it took two minutes?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Then there would be only half a horse-power, -or 33,000 ÷ 2 = 16,500 foot-pounds per minute.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Is it correct to say “horse-power per minute” -or “horse-power per hour”?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208"></a>[Pg 208]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. No. When an engine is working at the rate of -10 horse-power, it is doing 10 horse-power all the time. It is an error -to assume that such an engine is doing 10 horse-power per minute, and -10 × 60 equals 600 horse-power per hour. When it is said that an engine -uses 20 pounds of steam per horse-power per hour, it is meant that this -amount of steam is used per hour for each horse-power developed.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How is the foot-pounds of work done by a steam -engine, found?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Multiply the average pressure per square inch -during the stroke by the number of square inches in the piston, and by -the number of feet through which the piston has moved.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What do you understand by the “mean effective -pressure”?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The mean pressure is the average pressure -pushing the piston through the stroke, which is about one-third the -pressure in the boiler. There is generally some back pressure working -against it, therefore the “effective” pressure is only the difference -between the two. It can only be determined accurately by measurements -from an indicator diagram.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is a single acting engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. An engine in which the steam acts on one side -of the piston only.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209"></a>[Pg 209]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How do you find the “piston’s speed”?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. On double acting engines, multiply the stroke -in inches by two and by the number of revolutions per minute and divide -by 12.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Why multiply the stroke in inches by 2?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Because in double acting engines there are two -working strokes to each revolution.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Why do you divide by 12?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. To reduce the inches to feet.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How is the “piston’s speed” of a single acting -engine found?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Multiply the stroke in inches by the -revolutions per minute and divide by 12.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is the horse-power developed by an -engine, say 12 × 24 inch, running 125 revolutions per minute, -with 40 pounds mean effective pressure?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent space-above1">A. Area = 12 × 12 × .7854 = 113.0976 sq. ins.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="isub2">Piston speed = 24 × 2 × 125 ÷ 12 = 500 feet per minute.</li> -<li class="isub2">M. E. P. = 40 lbs.</li> -<li class="isub2">Then</li> -<li class="isub5">(113.0976 × 500 × 40)</li> -<li class="isub5">————————— = 68.544 H. P.</li> -<li class="isub9">33000</li> -</ul> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is a single valve engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It is an engine in which a single valve -controls the admission and distribution of steam to both ends of the -cylinder, or a common slide valve engine.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210"></a>[Pg 210]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is a four valve engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. An engine which has separate steam and exhaust -valves for each end both top and bottom of cylinder, such as a Corliss -engine.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Into what three classes are engines divided -with reference to the manner in which they are governed?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Throttling engines, Automatic cut-off and -Governor engines.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is an Automatic cut-off engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. An engine in which the amount of steam -supplied is automatically cut off at various points in the stroke, in -accordance with the load and pressure. In Throttling engines the volume -admitted is constant and the pressure varied. In Automatic cut-off -engines, steam is admitted at the highest available pressure, and the -volume is varied to meet the requirements of the load. In Governor -engines, the steam is admitted and cut off by the governor.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is a throttle governed engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. An engine in which the amount of steam -supplied is regulated by changing the pressure at which it enters the -cylinder in accordance with the variation of the load.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211"></a>[Pg 211]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is a Governor engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. An engine in which the supply of steam is -regulated by the governor.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Into what classes may the Automatic cut-off -engine be divided?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Into two classes: The four valve engine, in -which the cut-off is usually effected by a detaching mechanism or trip -under the control of the governor; the single valve engine, in which -the point of cut-off is varied by changing the amount of travel of the -valve.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Give examples of the single valve type.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. High speed, self-contained engines which have -shaft governors.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What are their advantages?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. High rotative speed, compactness, portability, -light weight and simplicity.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Are they more economical than the four valve -engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. No; the four valve engines are the more -economical.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Give a prominent example of the four valve -engine.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The Reynold’s Corliss.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is meant by an engine running “over”?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212"></a>[Pg 212]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The top of the drive wheel running away from -the cylinder.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is meant by an engine running “under”?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The top of the drive wheel running towards the -cylinder.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Which way are engines generally run?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. “Over.”</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What advantages do engines have in running -“over”?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The pressure of the cross-head on engines -running over, is always downward upon the guides; for when the pressure -is on the head end of the piston, the pressure against the connecting -rod which is pointing upward, reacts by pressing the cross-head down -upon the lower guide, and when the pressure is on the crank end of the -cylinder, the cross-head will be dragging the crank, and as the crank -is below the center line, it will pull the cross-head down upon the -lower guide, while if the engine is running under, the pressure of the -cross-head will be upon the top guide, both on the outward and inward -strokes, and unless the cross-head is nicely adjusted to its guides and -the guides are perfectly parallel, the cross-head will be lifted when -subjected to thrust, and will fall on the center by its own weight, -causing the engine to pound.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213"></a>[Pg 213]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. At what point in the stroke is the pressure on -the cross-head greatest with a uniform pressure in the cylinder?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. When the crank is at right angles to the -guide.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How does the relative length of the connecting -rod affect this pressure?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The longer the connecting rod as compared with -the crank, the less will be the pressure on the guides.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is the usual ratio of connecting rod to -crank?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The connecting rod is from four to six times -the length of the crank.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Are there any objections to a long connecting -rod?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. A long connecting rod makes a long engine, and -makes extra cost in the bed or frame and the room occupied. The longer -rod is heavier, and brings extra weight upon the cross-head, guides -and crank-pin. The long rod also lacks stiffness unless excessively -heavy.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What determines the length of the crank?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The stroke.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214"></a>[Pg 214]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What limits the stroke?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The piston’s speed limits the length of stroke -allowable with a given rotative speed, or the number of revolutions per -minute with a given stroke.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is the practical limit of piston’s -speed?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Engines of from four to six foot stroke can -run at from seven to eight hundred feet piston’s speed per minute. -Those of shorter stroke should not run over six hundred feet.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Why do high speed engines have a short stroke -in comparison with the diameter of their cylinders?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. So that they can run at a high rate of speed -without exceeding the limit of piston’s travel.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is the office of the fly-wheel?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It maintains a uniformity of motion of the -crank, notwithstanding the unequal moving force upon the crank-pin.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Is the force upon the crank-pin unequal, -even when the pressure from the cylinder is uniform throughout the -stroke?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215"></a>[Pg 215]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Yes. No matter what the pressure on the piston -is, it has no effect in turning the engine when the crank is in line -with the guides, which is termed “on the center.” As the crank gets -away from the centers, the effect of a given pressure becomes greater, -and reaches its maximum when the crank is nearly at right angles with -the guides.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How does the fly-wheel counteract the jerky -motion of the crank which would result from this?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By its tendency to resist an excessive moving -force, and by its momentum keeps the engine in motion when the moving -force is deficient.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What would you do if the cylinder gets worn or -cut from too tight rings or lack of oil?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Rebore the cylinder.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What would you do if the crank-pin heats, gets -worn or cut?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. If bent it should be turned true again; if not -bent it can be filed and polished perfectly true by hand.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What would you do if the main bearings -heat?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Loosen the caps and apply plenty of good oil. -If this does not stop it take off the caps, examine the oil holes to -ascertain why the oil does not reach the bearing. If the bearings have -become rough and cut, the shaft will have to be smoothed again.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216"></a>[Pg 216]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Would any harm result from starting an engine -with the drip cocks closed?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Yes, the condensed steam filling the space -would smash the cylinder or piston head.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What do you mean by atmospheric pressure?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The weight of the atmosphere, which is 14.7 -lbs. per square inch at sea level.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How hot can you get water with exhaust steam -under atmospheric pressure?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. 212° Fahr.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Does atmospheric pressure have any influence -on the boiling point?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It does.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Would you run an engine with throttle wide -open, or partly open?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Wide open on governor engines, as it is more -economical.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How many pounds of water required per -horse-power for the best engines?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. From 25 to 30 pounds.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. At what temperature has iron the greatest -tensile strength?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217"></a>[Pg 217]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. About 600 degrees.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How much water is consumed (in pounds) per -hour per indicated horse power?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. From 25 to 60 pounds.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How much steam will be evaporated from one -cubic inch of water under atmospheric pressure?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. About one cubic foot, approximately.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How much coal is consumed per hour per -indicated horse-power?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. From two to seven pounds.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How much does one cubic foot of fresh water -weigh?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. 62½ pounds.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How much does one cubic foot of iron weigh?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. 486⁶/₁₀ pounds.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What does one square foot of half inch boiler -iron weigh?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Twenty pounds.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. For steam purposes, how much wood is required -to equal one ton of coal?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. About 4000 pounds of wood.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Of what does coal consist?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, hydrogen, oxygen -and ash.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What are their relative proportions?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218"></a>[Pg 218]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. There are different proportions in different -specimens of coal. The average per cent is carbon eighty, nitrogen one, -sulphur two, hydrogen five, oxygen seven, ash five.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Of what is air composed?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It is composed of nitrogen and oxygen in the -proportion of seventy-seven of nitrogen and 23 of oxygen.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Of what does water consist?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of one -of hydrogen to eight of oxygen by weight.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What are the different kinds of heat?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Latent heat, sensible heat, and sometimes -total heat.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is meant by latent heat?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Heat that does not affect the thermometer and -which expends itself in changing the nature of a body, such as turning -ice into water or water into steam.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Under what circumstances do bodies get latent -heat?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. When they are passing from a solid to a liquid -state, or from a liquid to a gaseous state.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How can latent heat be recovered?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219"></a>[Pg 219]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By bringing the body back from a state of gas -to a liquid, or from a liquid to a solid.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. If the power is in coal, why should we use -steam?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Because steam has some properties which make -it an invaluable agent for applying the energy of the heat to the -engine.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is steam?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It is an invisible elastic fluid generated -from water by the application of heat.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What are its properties which make it so -valuable to us?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. First. The ease with which we can condense -it.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  Second. The small space which it -occupies when condensed.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">  Third. Its great expansive power.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What do you understand by the term -“horse-power”?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. A horse-power is equivalent to raising 33,000 -pounds one foot per minute.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What do you understand by “lead” on an engine -valve?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Lead on a valve is the admission of steam into -the cylinder before the piston completes its stroke.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220"></a>[Pg 220]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What are considered the greatest improvements -on the stationary engine in the past forty years?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The Corliss valve gear, the governor, the -compound and triple expansion.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is meant by triple expansion engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. A triple expansion engine has three cylinders -using the same steam expansively in each one.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is the clearance of an engine as the term -is applied at the present time?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Clearance is the space between the cylinder -head and the piston head with the ports included.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is the principal which distinguishes a -non-condensing from a condensing engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Where no condenser is used, and the exhaust -steam is open to the atmosphere, it is a non-condensing engine.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Why do you condense steam?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. To form a vacuum and thus remove the -atmospheric and back pressure that would otherwise be on the piston, -thereby getting more useful work out of the steam.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is meant by vacuum?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. A space void of all pressure.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221"></a>[Pg 221]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How can you maintain a vacuum?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By the steam used being constantly condensed -by the cold water or cold tubes, and the air pump constantly clearing -the condenser.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Why does condensing the used steam form a -vacuum?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Because a cubic foot of steam at atmospheric -pressure shrinks into about one cubic inch of water.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is a condenser as applied to an -engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The condenser is that part of an engine into -which the exhaust steam enters and is condensed.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. About how much gain is there by using the -condenser?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Seventeen to twenty-five per cent. where cost -of water is not figured.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What do you understand by the use of steam -expansively?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Where steam admitted at a certain pressure is -cut off and allowed to expand to a lower pressure.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How many inches of vacuum gives the best -result in a condensing engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. About 25 inches.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222"></a>[Pg 222]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is meant by a horizontal compound tandem -engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. One cylinder being back of the other with two -pistons on the same rod.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What do you understand by lap?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Outside lap is that portion of the valve which -extends beyond the ports when valve is placed on the center of its -travel; inside lap is that portion of valve which projects over the -ports on inside or toward the middle of the valve.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. Of what use is lap?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It gives expansion to the steam in the -cylinder.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is the dead center of an engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. The point where the center of shaft, center of -wrist-pin and center of piston rod are in the same straight line.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. From what cause do belts have power to drive -shafting?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. By friction and cohesion.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. When would you oil an engine?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Before starting it and as often while running -as is necessary.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is the tensile strength of American -boiler iron?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. 40,000 to 60,000 pounds per square inch.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223"></a>[Pg 223]</span></p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What are the principal defects found in boiler -iron?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Imperfect welding, brittleness, low -ductility.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What is the advantage of steel as a material -for boiler plate?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. Tensile strength, ductility, homogeneity, -malleability and freedom from laminations and blisters.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. What are the disadvantages of steel as a -material for boiler plate?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. It requires greater care in working than iron -and is subject to flaws induced by the pressure of gas bubbles in the -ingots from which the plates are made.</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">Q. How far apart should stay bolts be put in a -boiler?</p> - -<p class="neg-indent">A. They vary from 4 to 6 inches apart, depending -on thickness of plates, size of stay bolts and amount of steam pressure -to be carried.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224"></a>[Pg 224]</span></p> -<div class="figcenter"> - <img id="I_224" src="images/i_224.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="379" /> - <p class="f120 space-below2">J. I. Case Portable Skid Engine.</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225"></a>[Pg 225]</span></p> - -<p class="f120"><b>J. I. CASE PORTABLE SKID ENGINE.</b></p> -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>The engine frame is of the girder pattern, cast in one piece, and -contains the guides for cross-head and pillow block bearing. It also -forms front head of cylinder to which it is firmly bolted. The cylinder -is supported and firmly attached to the large feed water heater, and -both cylinder and frame are entirely disconnected from the boiler. The -heater forms a support for front end of boiler. The engine is placed -diagonally with the boiler, allowing the crank shaft to pass over the -fire box end. This permits the use of a very large band wheel. The -outer end of shaft is supported by a pillow block attached to a large -bracket bolted to the boiler.</p> - -<p>The locomotive style of boiler has a large steam dome in center and an -ash pan under fire box. It is supported upon the long wooden skids by -brackets bolted to the sides of boiler, the heater being also bolted to -the skids.</p> - -<p>The independent pump is connected to the heater, and bolted to skid.</p> - -<p>The engine has a Plain Slide Valve, which receives its motion -from the rocker arm, operated by the eccentric and rod. It has -<a href="#I_076">Governor</a>, <a href="#I_099">Steam Gauge</a>, -<a href="#I_101">Pop Valve</a> and all necessary fittings. These engines -range in size from 20 to 30 horse-power, and are extensively used for -driving portable saw mills.</p> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226"></a>[Pg 226]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak">RULES AND TABLES.</h2> -</div> - -<p><i>To find the steam pressure</i> on slide valve, multiply the -unbalanced area of valve in inches by pounds pressure of steam per -square inch, add weight of valve in pounds, and multiply the sum by -0.15.</p> - -<p><i>Safety boiler pressure</i> according to the United States Government -rule is as follows: Multiply ⅛ of the lowest tensile strength found -on any plate in the cylindrical shell by the thickness expressed in -inches or part of an inch of the thinnest plate in the same cylindrical -shell, and divide by the radius or half the diameter, also expressed -in inches, and the sum will be the pressure allowable per square inch -of surface for single riveting, to which add 20 per centum for double -riveting.</p> - -<p><i>To find the water pressure</i> on steam pipes leading from boiler to -steam gauge, divide the difference in height between the highest point -of pipe and the center of steam gauge by 2³/₁₀; the result will be the -pressure exerted by the water in the pipe in pounds upon the gauge.</p> - -<p><i>Area of a Circle.</i>—To find the area of a circle when the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227"></a>[Pg 227]</span> -diameter is given, multiply the diameter by itself, or in other words -square the diameter and multiply the result by .7854.</p> - -<p>Ex. Diameter 5 inches, 5 × 5 = 25 × .7854 = 29.635 area.</p> - -<p><i>Circumference of a Circle.</i>—To find the circumference of a -circle when the diameter is given, multiply the diameter by 3.1416.</p> - -<p>Ex. Diameter is 5 inches. 5 × 3.1416 = 15.708 inches circumference.</p> - -<p><i>Diameter of a Circle.</i>—To find the diameter of a circle when the -circumference is given, multiply the circumference by .31831.</p> - -<p>Ex. Circumference 20 inches. 20 × .31831 = 6.362 diameter.</p> - -<p><i>To find the pressure</i> of pounds per square inch of a column -of water, multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. -Approximately, we generally call every foot elevation equal to one-half -pound pressure per inch, this allows for ordinary friction.</p> - -<p><i>To find the diameter</i> of a pump cylinder to move a given quantity -of water per minute (100 feet of piston being the standard of speed), -divide the number of gallons by 4, then extract the square root and the -product will be the diameter in inches. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228"></a>[Pg 228]</span></p> - -<p><i>To find the horse-power</i> necessary to elevate water to a given -height, multiply the total weight of water in pounds by the height in -feet and divide the product by 33000 (an allowance of 25% should be -added for friction, etc.).</p> - -<p><i>The area of the steam piston</i> multiplied by the steam pressure, -gives the total amount of pressure that can be exerted. The area of -the water piston multiplied by the pressure of water per square inch -gives the resistance. A margin must be made between the power and the -resistance to move the piston at the required speed—say 50%.</p> - -<p><i>To find the capacity</i> of a cylinder in gallons, multiply the area -in inches by the height of stroke in inches, which gives the total -number of cubic inches; divide this amount by 231 (which is the cubic -contents of a gallon in inches), the product is the capacity in gallons.</p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">RULES FOR CALCULATING THE SPEED<br /> OF GEARS AND PULLEYS.</h3> - -<p>In calculating for pulleys, multiply or divide by their diameter in -inches.</p> - -<p>In calculating for gears, multiply or divide by the number of teeth -required. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229"></a>[Pg 229]</span></p> - -<p>The driving wheel is called the “driver,” and the driven wheel the -“driven.”</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Problem 1.</span>—To find the diameter of the driver when the -revolutions of the driver and driven and the diameter of the driven are -given.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rule.</span>—Multiply the diameter of driven by its number of -revolutions, and divide by the number of revolutions of the driver.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Problem 2.</span>—To find the diameter of the driven to make the -same number of revolutions in the same time as the driver, when the -diameter and revolutions of driver are given.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rule.</span>—Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number -of revolutions, and divide the product by the required number of -revolutions.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Problem 3.</span>—To find the number of revolutions of the driven -when the diameter or number of teeth and number of revolutions of the -driver and the diameter or number of teeth of the driven are given.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rule.</span>—Multiply the diameter or number of teeth of the driver -by its number of revolutions, and divide by the diameter or number of -teeth of the driven.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Problem 4.</span>—To find the number of revolutions of the driver -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230"></a>[Pg 230]</span> -when the diameter of the driven and the number or revolutions of driven -are given.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rule.</span>—Multiply the diameter of driven by its number of -revolutions, and divide by the diameter of the driver.</p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">SHAFTS AND PULLEYS.</h3> - -<p>To find the size of pulley needed to give the main shaft a certain -number of revolutions, multiply the diameter of fly-wheel in inches by -the number of revolutions of the engine, and divide by revolutions of -main shaft.</p> - -<p>To find the revolutions of main shaft when diameter of its pulley is -given, multiply the diameter of fly-wheel in inches by its number of -revolutions, and divide by the diameter of pulley in inches.</p> - -<p>To find diameter of fly-wheel needed to drive a pulley at a given -number of revolutions, multiply the diameter of pulley in inches by -its number of revolutions, and divide by number of revolutions of the -engine.</p> - -<p>To find revolutions of an engine with a given fly-wheel to drive a -pulley at a given number of revolutions, multiply the diameter of -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231"></a>[Pg 231]</span> -pulley in inches by its number of revolutions, and divide by the -diameter of fly-wheel in inches.</p> - -<p>Rule for finding the amount of heating surface in a locomotive boiler:</p> - -<p>Find surface of flues by multiplying the diameter by 3.14 to get -circumference, and multiply this product by the length of the flue, -then multiply this result by the number of flues in the boiler, and -divide by 144 to get number of square feet of surface in the flues.</p> - -<p>Multiply length and width of fire box for number of square inches in -crown sheet, then multiply the length and height of the fire box and -the result by two, which gives the number of square inches in the -sides; then multiply the width and height and multiply the result by -two, which gives the number of square inches in the ends, from which -subtract number of square inches in space left for door and flues—then -add all these results together and divide by 144 to get the number -of square feet in the fire box. Add same to number of square feet of -flues, and the total will be the number of square feet in the boiler.</p> - -<p>By dividing number of square feet by rated horse-power of boiler will -give number of square feet of heating surface to each horse-power.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232"></a>[Pg 232]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><big><i><b>TABLES.</b></i></big></h2> -</div> -<h3>ALLOYS.</h3> -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="ALLOYS" cellpadding="2" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="7"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb">ALLOYS.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Tin. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">Copper.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">Zinc.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">Antimony.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Lead. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">Bismuth.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Brass, engine bearings</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">13</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">112</td> - <td class="tdc">¼</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Tough Brass, engine work</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">15</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">100</td> - <td class="tdc">15 </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Tough, for heavy bearings</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">25</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">160</td> - <td class="tdc">5</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Yellow Brass, for turning</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">2</td> - <td class="tdc">1</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Flanges to stand brazing</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">32</td> - <td class="tdc">1</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">1</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Bell Metal</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">5</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">16</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Babbitt’s Metal</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">10</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">1</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Brass Locomotive Bearings </td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">7</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">64</td> - <td class="tdc">1</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Brass, for straps and glands</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">16</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">130</td> - <td class="tdc">1</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Muntz’s Sheathing</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">6</td> - <td class="tdc">4</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Metal, to expand in cooling</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdr_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">2</td> - <td class="tdc">9</td> - <td class="tdc">1</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Pewter</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">100</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">17 </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Spelter</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1</td> - <td class="tdc">1</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Statuary Bronze</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">2</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">90</td> - <td class="tdc">5</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">2</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Type Metal, from</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdr_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">1</td> - <td class="tdc">3</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Type Metal, to</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdr_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">1</td> - <td class="tdc">7</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bt">SOLDERS.</th> - <td class="tdc bt"> </td> - <td class="tdc bt"> </td> - <td class="tdc bt"> </td> - <td class="tdc bt"> </td> - <td class="tdc bt"> </td> - <td class="tdc bt"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">For Lead</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">1½ </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">For Tin</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">2</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">For Pewter</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">2</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">1</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">For Brazing (hardest)</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">3</td> - <td class="tdc">1</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">For Brazing (hard)</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1</td> - <td class="tdc">1</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">For Brazing (soft)</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">4</td> - <td class="tdc">3</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">For Brazing (soft)<span class="ws2">or</span></td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">2</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">1</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt" colspan="7"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233"></a>[Pg 233]</span></p> - -<h3>CIRCUMFERENCE AND AREAS<br /> OF CIRCLES.</h3> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="ALLOYS" cellpadding="2" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="3"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb">Diameter. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Circumfrence. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">  Area.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¹/₃₂</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.0981</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">  .00076</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¹/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.1963</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">  .00306</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">⅛</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.3926</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">  .01227</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">³/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.5890</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">  .02761</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.7854</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">  .04908</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">⁵/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.9817</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">  .07669</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">⅜</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1.178 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">  .1104</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">⁷/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1.374 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">  .1503</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1.570 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">  .1963</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">⁹/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1.767 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">  .2485</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">⅝</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1.963 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">  .3067</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¹¹/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">2.159 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">  .3712</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">2.356 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">  .4417</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¹³/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">2.552 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">  .5184</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">⅞</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">2.748 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">  .6013</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb">¹⁵/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">2.945 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb">  .6902</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">1</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">3.141 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">  .7854</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">3.534 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">  .9940</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">3.927 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1.227</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">4.319 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1.484</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">4.712 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1.767</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">5.105 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 2.073</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">5.497 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 2.405</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">5.890 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 2.761</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">2</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">6.283 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 3.141</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">6.675 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 3.546</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">7.068 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 3.976</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">7.461 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 4.430</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">7.854 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 4.908</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">8.246 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 5.411</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">8.639 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 5.939</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bb"> </td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">9.032 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb"> 7.491</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">3</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">9.424 </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 7.068</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">10.21  </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 8.295</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">10.99  </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 9.621</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">11.78  </td> - <td class="tdl">  11.044</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">4</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">12.56  </td> - <td class="tdl">  12.566</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">13.35  </td> - <td class="tdl">  14.186</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">14.13  </td> - <td class="tdl">  14.904</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">14.92  </td> - <td class="tdl">  17.720</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">5</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">15.90  </td> - <td class="tdl">  19.635</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">17.49  </td> - <td class="tdl">  21.647</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">17.27  </td> - <td class="tdl">  23.758</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">18.06  </td> - <td class="tdl">  25.967</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">6</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">18.84  </td> - <td class="tdl">  28.274</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">19.63  </td> - <td class="tdl">  30.679</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">20.42  </td> - <td class="tdl">  33.183</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">21.20  </td> - <td class="tdl">  35.784</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">7</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">21.99  </td> - <td class="tdl">  38.484</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">22.77  </td> - <td class="tdl">  41.282</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">23.56  </td> - <td class="tdl">  44.178</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">24.34  </td> - <td class="tdl">  47.173</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">8</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">25.13  </td> - <td class="tdl">  50.265</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">25.91  </td> - <td class="tdl">  53.456</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">26.70  </td> - <td class="tdl">  56.745</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">27.48  </td> - <td class="tdl">  60.132</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">9</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">28.27  </td> - <td class="tdl">  63.617</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">29.05  </td> - <td class="tdl">  67.200</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">29.84  </td> - <td class="tdl">  70.882</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb">¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">30.63  </td> - <td class="tdl bb">  74.662</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">10</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">31.41  </td> - <td class="tdl">  78.539</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">32.20  </td> - <td class="tdl">  82.516</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">32.98  </td> - <td class="tdl">  86.590</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">33.77  </td> - <td class="tdl">  90.762</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">11</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">34.55  </td> - <td class="tdl">  95.033</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">35.34  </td> - <td class="tdl">  99.402 - <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234"></a>[Pg 234]</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">36.12  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 103.86</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">36.91  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 108.43</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">12</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">37.69  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 113.09</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">38.48  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 117.85</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">39.27  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 122.71</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">40.05  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 127.67</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">13</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">40.84  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 132.73</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">41.62  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 137.88</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">42.41  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 143.13</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">43.19  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 148.48</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">14</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">43.98  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 153.93</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">44.76  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 159.48</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">45.55  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 165.13</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">46.33  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 170.87</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">15</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">47.12  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 176.78</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">47.90  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 182.65</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">48.69  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 188.69</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">49.48  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 194.82</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">16</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">50.26  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 201.06</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">51.05  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 207.39</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">51.83  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 213.82</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">52.62  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 220.35</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">17</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">53.40  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 226.98</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">54.19  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 233.70</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">54.97  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 240.52</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">55.76  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 247.45</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">18</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">56.54  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 254.46</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">57.33  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 261.58</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">58.11  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 268.80</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">58.90  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 276.11</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">19</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">59.69  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 283.52</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">60.47  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 291.03</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">61.26  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 298.64</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb">¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">62.04  </td> - <td class="tdl bb"> 306.35</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">20</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">62.83  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 314.16</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">64.40  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 330.06</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">21</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">65.97  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 346.36</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">67.54  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 363.05</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">22</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">69.11  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 380.13</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">70.68  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 397.60</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">23</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">72.25  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 415.47</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">73.82  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 433.73</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">24</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">75.39  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 452.39</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">76.96  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 471.43</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">25</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">78.54  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 490.87</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">80.10  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 510.70</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">26</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">81.68  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 530.93</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">83.25  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 551.54</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">27</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">84.82  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 572.55</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">86.39  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 593.95</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">28</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">87.96  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 615.75</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">89.53  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 637.94</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">29</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">91.10  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 660.52</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">92.67  </td> - <td class="tdl bb"> 683.49</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">30</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">94.24  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 706.86</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">95.81  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 730.61</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">31</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">97.38  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 754.76</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">98.96  </td> - <td class="tdl"> 779.31</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">32</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">100.5   </td> - <td class="tdl"> 804.24</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">102.1   </td> - <td class="tdl"> 829.57</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">33</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">103.6   </td> - <td class="tdl"> 855.30</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">105.2   </td> - <td class="tdl"> 881.41</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">34</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">106.8   </td> - <td class="tdl"> 907.92</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">108.3   </td> - <td class="tdl"> 934.82</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">35</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">109.9   </td> - <td class="tdl"> 962.11</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">111.5   </td> - <td class="tdl"> 989.80</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">36</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">113.0   </td> - <td class="tdl">1017.8</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">114.6   </td> - <td class="tdl">1046.3</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">37</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">116.2   </td> - <td class="tdl">1075.2 - <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235"></a>[Pg 235]</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">117.8   </td> - <td class="tdl">1104.4</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">38</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">119.3   </td> - <td class="tdl">1134.1</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">120.9   </td> - <td class="tdl">1164.1</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">39</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">122.5   </td> - <td class="tdl">1194.5</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">124.0   </td> - <td class="tdl bb">1225.4</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">40</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">125.6   </td> - <td class="tdl">1256.6</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">127.2   </td> - <td class="tdl">1288.2</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">41</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">128.8   </td> - <td class="tdl">1320.2</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">130.3   </td> - <td class="tdl">1352.5</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">42</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">131.9   </td> - <td class="tdl">1385.4</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">133.5   </td> - <td class="tdl">1418.6</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">43</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">135.0   </td> - <td class="tdl">1452.2</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">136.7   </td> - <td class="tdl">1486.1</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">44</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">138.2   </td> - <td class="tdl">1520.5</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">139.8   </td> - <td class="tdl">1555.2</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">45</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">141.3   </td> - <td class="tdl">1590.4</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">142.9   </td> - <td class="tdl">1625.9</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">46</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">144.5   </td> - <td class="tdl">1661.9</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">146.0   </td> - <td class="tdl">1698.2</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">47</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">147.6   </td> - <td class="tdl">1734.9</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">149.2   </td> - <td class="tdl">1772.0</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">48</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">150.7   </td> - <td class="tdl">1809.5</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">152.3   </td> - <td class="tdl">1847.4</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">49</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">153.9   </td> - <td class="tdl">1885.7</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">155.5   </td> - <td class="tdl bb">1924.4</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">50</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">157.0   </td> - <td class="tdl">1963.5</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">158.6   </td> - <td class="tdl">2002.9</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">51</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">160.2   </td> - <td class="tdl">2042.8</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">161.7   </td> - <td class="tdl">2083.0</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">52</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">163.3   </td> - <td class="tdl">2123.7</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">164.9   </td> - <td class="tdl">2164.7</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">53</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">166.5   </td> - <td class="tdl">2206.1</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">168.0   </td> - <td class="tdl">2248.0</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">54</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">169.6   </td> - <td class="tdl">2290.2</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">171.2   </td> - <td class="tdl">2332.8</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">55</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">172.7   </td> - <td class="tdl">2375.8</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">174.3   </td> - <td class="tdl">2419.2</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">56</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">175.9   </td> - <td class="tdl">2463.0</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">177.5   </td> - <td class="tdl">2507.1</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">57</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">179.0   </td> - <td class="tdl">2551.7</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">180.6   </td> - <td class="tdl">2566.7</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">58</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">182.2   </td> - <td class="tdl">2642.0</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">183.7   </td> - <td class="tdl">2687.8</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">59</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">185.3   </td> - <td class="tdl">2733.9</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">186.9   </td> - <td class="tdl">2780.5</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">60</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">188.4   </td> - <td class="tdl">2827.4</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">190.0   </td> - <td class="tdl">2874.7</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt2" colspan="3"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<h3>EFFECTIVE PRESSURE OF STEAM ON PISTON.</h3> - -<p class="center blockquot"> -With different rates of expansion,<br /> boiler pressure -being assumed as 100 lbs. per square inch.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="EFFECTIVE PRESSURE" cellpadding="2" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc">Steam cut off at</td> - <td class="tdc">¾</td> - <td class="tdc">of stroke</td> - <td class="tdc">= 90</td> - <td class="tdc">lbs.</td> - <td class="tdc">effective pressure.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">⅔</td> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">= 80</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws4">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">½</td> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">= 69</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws4">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">⅓</td> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">= 50</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws4">“</span></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws2">“</span><span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">¼</td> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws2">“</span></td> - <td class="tdc">= 40</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“<span class="ws4">“</span></td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-below2"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236"></a>[Pg 236]</span></p> - -<h3>MEASURE OF LENGTH.</h3> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="LENGTH" cellpadding="2" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">12</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">inches</td> - <td class="tdl">1 foot.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 3</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">feet</td> - <td class="tdl">1 yard.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 2</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">yards</td> - <td class="tdl">1 fathom.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">16½</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">feet</td> - <td class="tdl">1 rod.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 4</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">rods</td> - <td class="tdl">1 chain.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">10</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">chains</td> - <td class="tdl">1 furlong.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 8</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">furlongs<span class="ws2"> </span></td> - <td class="tdl">1 mile.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 3</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">miles</td> - <td class="tdl">1 league.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<h3 class="space-above2">MEASURE OF VOLUME.</h3> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="VOLUME" cellpadding="2" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">A cubic foot has</td> - <td class="tdr">1728  </td> - <td class="tdc">cubic</td> - <td class="tdl">inches.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">An ale gallon has</td> - <td class="tdr">282  </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A standard or wine gallon has</td> - <td class="tdr">231  </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A dry gallon has</td> - <td class="tdr">268.8 </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A bushel has</td> - <td class="tdr">2150.4 </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A cord of wood has</td> - <td class="tdr">128   </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">feet.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A perch of stone has</td> - <td class="tdr">24.75</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A ton of round timber has</td> - <td class="tdr">40  </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A ton of hewn timber has</td> - <td class="tdr">50  </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">A box 19⅜ × 19⅜ ins., 19⅜ ins. deep,</td> - <td class="tdc">contains</td> - <td class="tdl">1 barrel.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">A “ 12¹⁵/₁₆ × 12¹⁵/₁₆ ins., 12¹⁵/₁₆ ins. deep,</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">1 bushel.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">A “ 8⅛ × 8⅛ ins., 8⅛ ins. deep,</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">1 peck.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">A “ 6⁷/₁₆ × 6⁷/₁₆ ins., 6⁷/₁₆ ins. deep,</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">½ “</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">A “ 4¹/₁₆ × 4¹/₁₆ ins., 4¹/₁₆ ins. deep,</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">1 quart.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">An acre contains</td> - <td class="tdc">4840</td> - <td class="tdl">sq. yds.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">209 feet long by 209 feet broad is</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1</td> - <td class="tdl">acre.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<h3 class="space-above2">LIQUID MEASURE.</h3> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="LIQUID MEASURE" cellpadding="2" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">A barrel holds</td> - <td class="tdr"><span class="ws2"> </span>31½</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">gallons.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">A hogshead holds</td> - <td class="tdr">63 </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A tierce“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">42 </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A puncheon</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">84 </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A tun</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">252 </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<h3 class="space-above2">BARREL MEASURE IN WEIGHT.</h3> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="BARREL MEASURE" cellpadding="2" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">A barrel of flour is</td> - <td class="tdr">196</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">pounds.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A barrel of pork is</td> - <td class="tdr">200</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A barrel of rice is</td> - <td class="tdr">600</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A firkin of butter is  </td> - <td class="tdr">56</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A tub of butter is</td> - <td class="tdr">84</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> -<p class="space-above2"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237"></a>[Pg 237]</span></p> - -<h3>WEIGHT OF CAST IRON BALLS.</h3> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="WEIGHT OF CAST IRON BALLS" cellpadding="2" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> - <td class="tdc"><b>Lbs.</b></td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdc"> inch </td> - <td class="tdc">diameter</td> - <td class="tdr">1.09</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">2½</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">2.13</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">3.68</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">3½</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">5.84</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">8.73</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">4½</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">12.42</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">17.04</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">5½</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">22.68</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">29.48</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">6½</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">37.44</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">46.76</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">7½</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">57.52</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdr">69.81</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak">WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.</h2> -</div> - -<h3>AVOIRDUPOIS OR COMMERCIAL WEIGHT.</h3> -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="AVOIRDUPOIS" cellpadding="2" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdr">16</td> - <td class="tdl">drachms</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1 ounce.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">16</td> - <td class="tdl">ounces</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1 pound.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - <td class="tdl">pounds</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1 stone.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">28</td> - <td class="tdl">pounds</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1 quarter.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdl">quarters</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1 cwt.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">2240</td> - <td class="tdl">pounds</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1 long ton.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">2000</td> - <td class="tdl">pounds</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1 ton.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<h3 class="space-above2">SQUARE MEASURE.</h3> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="SQUARE MEASURE" cellpadding="2" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdr">144 </td> - <td class="tdc">square</td> - <td class="tdl">inches  </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1</td> - <td class="tdc">square</td> - <td class="tdl">foot.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">9 </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">feet</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">yard.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">30¼</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">yards</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">rod.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">40 </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">rods</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">rood.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">4 </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">roods</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">acre.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr">640 </td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">acres</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1</td> - <td class="tdc">“</td> - <td class="tdl">mile.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<h3 class="space-above2">TABLE OF DISTANCE.</h3> -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="DISTANCE" cellpadding="2" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">A mile is</td> - <td class="tdr">5280</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">feet or 1760 yards.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A knot is</td> - <td class="tdr">6086</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">feet.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A league is</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">miles.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A fathom is</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">feet.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A metre is</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">feet 3⅜ inches.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A hand is</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">inches.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A palm is</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">  “</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A span</td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">  “</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A hair is equal to  </td> - <td class="tdr">¹/₄₈</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">of an inch.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">A line is equal to</td> - <td class="tdr">¹/₁₂</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">of an inch.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> -<p class="space-above2"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238"></a>[Pg 238]</span></p> - -<h3>SHRINKAGE OF CASTINGS.</h3> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="SHRINKAGE" cellpadding="2" > - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Cast Iron,  </td> - <td class="tdr">⅛ inch</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">per lineal foot.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Brass,</td> - <td class="tdr">³/₁₆ inch</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">per lineal foot.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Lead,</td> - <td class="tdr">⅛ inch</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">per lineal foot.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Tin,</td> - <td class="tdr">¹/₁₂ inch</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">per lineal foot.</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Zinc,</td> - <td class="tdr">⁵/₁₆ inch</td> - <td class="tdl_ws1">per lineal foot.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<h3 class="space-above2">WEIGHT OF ROUND AND SQUARE<br /> ROLLED IRON PER LINEAL FOOT.</h3> -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="WEIGHT OF ROLLED IRON" cellpadding="2" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="3"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb"> Inch. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Round. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Square.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> ¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.165</td> - <td class="tdr">.211</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> ⅜</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.373</td> - <td class="tdr">.475</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> ½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.663</td> - <td class="tdr">.845</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> ⅝</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1.043</td> - <td class="tdr">1.320</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> ¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1.493</td> - <td class="tdr">1.901</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb"> ⅞</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">2.032</td> - <td class="tdr bb">2.588</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 1</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">2.654</td> - <td class="tdr">3.380</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 1⅛</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">3.359</td> - <td class="tdr">4.278</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 1¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">4.147</td> - <td class="tdr">5.280</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 1⅜</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">5.019</td> - <td class="tdr">6.390</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 1½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">5.972</td> - <td class="tdr">7.604</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 1⅝</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">7.010</td> - <td class="tdr">8.926</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 1¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">8.128</td> - <td class="tdr">10.352</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bb"> 1⅞</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">9.333</td> - <td class="tdr bb">11.883</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 2</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">10.616</td> - <td class="tdr">13.520</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 2⅛</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">11.988</td> - <td class="tdr">15.263</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 2¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">13.440</td> - <td class="tdr">17.112</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 2⅜</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">14.975</td> - <td class="tdr">19.066</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 2½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">16.588</td> - <td class="tdr">21.120</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 2⅝</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">18.293</td> - <td class="tdr">23.292</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 2¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">20.076</td> - <td class="tdr">25.560</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bb"> 2⅞</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">21.944</td> - <td class="tdr bb">27.939</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 3</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">23.888</td> - <td class="tdr">30.416</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 3¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">28.040</td> - <td class="tdr">35.704</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 3½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">32.512</td> - <td class="tdr">41.408</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bb"> 3¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">37.332</td> - <td class="tdr bb">47.534</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 4</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">42.464</td> - <td class="tdr">54.084</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 4¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">47.952</td> - <td class="tdr">61.055</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 4½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">53.760</td> - <td class="tdr">68.448</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bb"> 4¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">59.900</td> - <td class="tdr bb">76.264</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 5</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">66.350</td> - <td class="tdr">84.480</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 5¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">73.172</td> - <td class="tdr">93.168</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 5½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">80.304</td> - <td class="tdr">102.24 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bb"> 5¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">87.776</td> - <td class="tdr bb">111.75 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 6</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">95.552</td> - <td class="tdr">121.66 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 6¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">103.70 </td> - <td class="tdr">132.04 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 6½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">112.16 </td> - <td class="tdr">142.81 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bb"> 6¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">120.96 </td> - <td class="tdr bb">154.01 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 7</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">130.04 </td> - <td class="tdr">165.63 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 7¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">139.54 </td> - <td class="tdr">177.67 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 7½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">149.32 </td> - <td class="tdr">190.13 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bb"> 7¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">159.45 </td> - <td class="tdr bb">203.02 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 8</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">169.85 </td> - <td class="tdr">216.33 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 8¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">180.69 </td> - <td class="tdr">230.06 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 8½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">191.80 </td> - <td class="tdr">244.22 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bb"> 8¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">203.26 </td> - <td class="tdr bb">258.80 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 9</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">215.04 </td> - <td class="tdr">273.79 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 9¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">227.15 </td> - <td class="tdr">289.22 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 9½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">239.60 </td> - <td class="tdr">305.056</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bb"> 9¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">252.37 </td> - <td class="tdr bb">321.33 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">10</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">265.40 </td> - <td class="tdr">337.92 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">10¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">278.92 </td> - <td class="tdr">355.30 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">10½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">292.68 </td> - <td class="tdr">372.70 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bb">10¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">306.80 </td> - <td class="tdr bb">390.80 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">11</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">321.21 </td> - <td class="tdr">409.00 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">12</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1"> 382.20 </td> - <td class="tdr">486.70 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt2" colspan="3"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> -<p class="space-above2"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239"></a>[Pg 239]</span></p> - -<h3>TABLE OF THE CAPACITY<br /> OF CISTERNS IN GALLONS</h3> - -<p class="f120"><b>For Each 10 Inches of Depth.</b></p> -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="CAPACITY OF CISTERNS" cellpadding="2" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="2"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb">Diam.<br />in Feet.</th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Gallons. </th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 2</td> - <td class="tdr">19.5 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 2½</td> - <td class="tdr">30.6 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 3</td> - <td class="tdr">44.06</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 3½</td> - <td class="tdr">59.97</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 4</td> - <td class="tdr">78.33</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 4½</td> - <td class="tdr">99.14</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 5</td> - <td class="tdr">122.40</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 5½</td> - <td class="tdr">148.10</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 6</td> - <td class="tdr">176.25</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 6½</td> - <td class="tdr">206.85</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 7</td> - <td class="tdr">239.88</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 7½</td> - <td class="tdr">275.40</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 8</td> - <td class="tdr">313.33</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 8½</td> - <td class="tdr">353.72</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 9</td> - <td class="tdr">396.56</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 9½</td> - <td class="tdr">461.4 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 10</td> - <td class="tdr">489.2 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 11</td> - <td class="tdr">592.4 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 12</td> - <td class="tdr">705.0 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 13</td> - <td class="tdr">827.4 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 14</td> - <td class="tdr">959.6 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 15</td> - <td class="tdr">1101.6 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 20</td> - <td class="tdr">1958.4 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> 25</td> - <td class="tdr">3059.9 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt2" colspan="2"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> -<p class="blockquot"> The American Standard gallon contains 231 cubic -inches, or 8⅓ pounds of pure water. A cubic foot contains 62.3 pounds -of water, or 7.48 gallons. Pressure per square inch is equal to the -depth or head in feet multiplied by .433. Each 27.72 inches of depth -gives a pressure of one pound to the square inch. </p> - -<h3 class="space-above2">MELTING POINT OF METALS, ETC.</h3> -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="MELTING POINTS" cellpadding="2" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="2"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdl_ws1 bb">Names.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">°Fahr.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Platina</td> - <td class="tdr">4590</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Antimony</td> - <td class="tdr">842</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Bismuth</td> - <td class="tdr">487</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Tin</td> - <td class="tdr">475</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Lead</td> - <td class="tdr">620</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Zinc</td> - <td class="tdr">700</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Cast Iron</td> - <td class="tdr">2100</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Gold</td> - <td class="tdr">2192</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Wrought Iron<span class="ws3"> </span></td> - <td class="tdr">2900</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Steel</td> - <td class="tdr">2500</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Copper</td> - <td class="tdr">2000</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Glass</td> - <td class="tdr">2377</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Beeswax</td> - <td class="tdr">151</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Sulphur</td> - <td class="tdr">239</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Tallow</td> - <td class="tdr">92</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Silver</td> - <td class="tdr">1832</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<h3 class="space-above2">WEIGHT OF METALS<br /> PER CUBIC FOOT.</h3> -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="WEIGHT OF METALS" cellpadding="2" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc">Lbs.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">Brass</td> - <td class="tdr">525</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Copper</td> - <td class="tdr">550</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Gold</td> - <td class="tdr">1210</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Iron, Cast</td> - <td class="tdr">450</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Iron, Wrought<span class="ws3"> </span></td> - <td class="tdr">485</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Lead, cast</td> - <td class="tdr">710</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Silver</td> - <td class="tdr">655</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Steel</td> - <td class="tdr">490</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Tin, cast</td> - <td class="tdr">456</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">Zinc</td> - <td class="tdr">450</td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240"></a>[Pg 240]</span></p> - -<h3>HORSE-POWER LINE SHAFTING.</h3> - -<p class="f120">Will transmit with Safety,<br /> Bearings say 8 to 10 ft. centres.</p> -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="LINE SHAFTING" cellpadding="2" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="2"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb">Diam.<br /> of Shaft <br /> in Inches. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Horse<br /> Power<br /> in one Rev.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> ¹⁵/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.008</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1³/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr">.0156 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1⁷/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.027</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1¹¹/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.043</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb">1¹⁵/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">.064</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">2³/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.091</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">2⁷/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.125</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">2¹¹/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.166</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb">2¹⁵/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">.216</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">3³/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.272</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">3⁷/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.343</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">3¹¹/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.424</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb">3¹⁵/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">.512</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">4⁷/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.728</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">4¹⁵/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1.00 </td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">5⁷/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1.328</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb">5¹⁵/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">1.728</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">6⁷/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">2.195</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">6¹⁵/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">2.744</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">7⁷/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">3.368</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb">7¹⁵/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1 bb">4.096</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">8⁷/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">4.912</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">8¹⁵/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">5.824</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">9⁷/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">6.848</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt2" colspan="2"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="blockquot space-below2">For Jack Shafts, or main section of -Line Shafts, allow only three-fourths of the horse-power given above, -and also provide extra bearings wherever heavy strains occur, as in -main belts or gears. </p> - -<h3>HALF-ROUND, OVAL AND<br /> HALF-OVAL IRON.</h3> - -<p class="f120">Weight per Lineal Foot.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="ROUND IRON WEIGHT" cellpadding="2" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="5"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb">Size<br />Half Round. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">Size<br />Oval.</th> - <th class="tdc bb">Weight<br /> per foot. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">Size<br /> Half Oval. </th> - <th class="tdc bb">Weight<br /> per foot.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> ⅜</td> - <td class="tdc">⅜ × ³/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.186</td> - <td class="tdc">⅜ × ³/₃₂</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.093</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> ⁷/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdc">⁷/₁₆ × ⁷/₃₂</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.253</td> - <td class="tdc">⁷/₁₆ × ⁷/₆₄</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.127</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> ½</td> - <td class="tdc">½ × ¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.331</td> - <td class="tdc">½ × ⅛</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.166</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> ⅝</td> - <td class="tdc">⅝ × ⁵/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.517</td> - <td class="tdc">⅝ × ⁵/₃₂</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.259</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> ¾</td> - <td class="tdc">¾ × ⅜</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.744</td> - <td class="tdc">¾ × ³/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.372</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> ⅞</td> - <td class="tdc">⅞ × ⁷/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1.013</td> - <td class="tdc">⅞ × ⁷/₃₂</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.507</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1</td> - <td class="tdc">1 × ½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1.323</td> - <td class="tdc">1 × ¼</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.662</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1⅛</td> - <td class="tdc">1⅛ × ⁹/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1.624</td> - <td class="tdc">1⅛ × ⁹/₃₂</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">.812</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1¼</td> - <td class="tdc">1¼ × ⅝</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">2.067</td> - <td class="tdc">1¼ × ⁵/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1.034</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1½</td> - <td class="tdc">1½ × ¾</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">2.976</td> - <td class="tdc">1½ × ⅜</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">1.488</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">1¾</td> - <td class="tdc">1¾ × ⅞</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">4.050</td> - <td class="tdc">1¾ × ⁷/₁₆</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">2.026</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl_ws1">2</td> - <td class="tdc">2 × 1</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">5.290</td> - <td class="tdc">2 × ½</td> - <td class="tdr_ws1">2.645</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt2" colspan="5"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="space-below2"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241"></a>[Pg 241]</span></p> - -<h3>WEIGHT OF FLAT ROLLED IRON,<br /> PER FOOT.</h3> -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="WEIGHT OF FLAT ROLLED IRON" cellpadding="2" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="3"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb"> Breadth. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Thickness. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Weight.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdl">1 in.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅛</td> - <td class="tdr">.422</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">¼</td> - <td class="tdr">.845</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅜</td> - <td class="tdr">1.267</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">½</td> - <td class="tdr">1.690</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅝</td> - <td class="tdr">2.112</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">¾</td> - <td class="tdr">2.534</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bb"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2 bb">⅞</td> - <td class="tdr bb">2.956</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">1¼ in.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅛</td> - <td class="tdr">.528</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">¼</td> - <td class="tdr">1.056</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅜</td> - <td class="tdr">1.584</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">½</td> - <td class="tdr">2.112</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅝</td> - <td class="tdr">2.640</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">¾</td> - <td class="tdr">3.168</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅞</td> - <td class="tdr">3.696</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1</td> - <td class="tdr">4.224</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bb"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb"> 1 ⅛</td> - <td class="tdr bb">4.752</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">1½ in.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅛</td> - <td class="tdr">.633</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">¼</td> - <td class="tdr">1.266</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅜</td> - <td class="tdr">1.900</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">½</td> - <td class="tdr">2.535</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅝</td> - <td class="tdr">3.168</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">¾</td> - <td class="tdr">3.802</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅞</td> - <td class="tdr">4.435</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1</td> - <td class="tdr">5.069</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ⅛</td> - <td class="tdr">5.703</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ¼</td> - <td class="tdr">6.337</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bb"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb"> 1 ⅜</td> - <td class="tdr bb">6.970</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">1¾ in.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅛</td> - <td class="tdr">.739</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">¼</td> - <td class="tdr">1.479</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅜</td> - <td class="tdr">2.218</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">½</td> - <td class="tdr">2.957</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅝</td> - <td class="tdr">3.696</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">¾</td> - <td class="tdr">4.435</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅞</td> - <td class="tdr">5.178</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1</td> - <td class="tdr">5.914</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ⅛</td> - <td class="tdr">6.653</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ¼</td> - <td class="tdr">7.393</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ⅜</td> - <td class="tdr">8.132</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ½</td> - <td class="tdr">8.871</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bb"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb"> 1 ⅝</td> - <td class="tdr bb">9.610</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">2 in.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅛</td> - <td class="tdr">.845</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">¼</td> - <td class="tdr">1.689</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅜</td> - <td class="tdr">2.534</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">½</td> - <td class="tdr">3.379</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅝</td> - <td class="tdr">4.224</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">¾</td> - <td class="tdr">5.069</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅞</td> - <td class="tdr">5.914</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1</td> - <td class="tdr">6.758</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ⅛</td> - <td class="tdr">7.604</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ¼</td> - <td class="tdr">8.448</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ⅜</td> - <td class="tdr">9.294</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ½</td> - <td class="tdr">10.138</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ⅝</td> - <td class="tdr">10.983</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ¾</td> - <td class="tdr">11.828</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bb"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb"> 1 ⅞</td> - <td class="tdr bb">12.673</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">2¼ in.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅛</td> - <td class="tdr">.950</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">¼</td> - <td class="tdr">1.900</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅜</td> - <td class="tdr">2.851</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">½</td> - <td class="tdr">3.802</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅝</td> - <td class="tdr">4.752</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">¾</td> - <td class="tdr">5.703</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅞</td> - <td class="tdr">6.653</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1</td> - <td class="tdr">7.604</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ⅛</td> - <td class="tdr">8.554</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ¼</td> - <td class="tdr">9.505</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ⅜</td> - <td class="tdr">10.455</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ½</td> - <td class="tdr">11.406</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ⅝</td> - <td class="tdr">12.356</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ¾</td> - <td class="tdr">13.307</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ⅞</td> - <td class="tdr">14.257</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 2</td> - <td class="tdr">15.208</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bb"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb"> 2 ⅛</td> - <td class="tdr bb">16.158</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">2½ in.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws2"> ⅛</td> - <td class="tdr">1.056</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">¼</td> - <td class="tdr">2.112</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅜</td> - <td class="tdr">3.168</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">½</td> - <td class="tdr">4.224</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅝</td> - <td class="tdr">5.280</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">¾</td> - <td class="tdr">6.336</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">⅞</td> - <td class="tdr">7.392</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1</td> - <td class="tdr">8.448</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ⅛</td> - <td class="tdr">9.504</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ¼</td> - <td class="tdr">10.560</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ⅜</td> - <td class="tdr">11.616</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ½</td> - <td class="tdr">12.672</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ⅝</td> - <td class="tdr">13.728</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ¾</td> - <td class="tdr">14.784</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ⅞</td> - <td class="tdr">15.840</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 2</td> - <td class="tdr">16.896</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 2 ⅛</td> - <td class="tdr">17.952</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 2 ¼</td> - <td class="tdr">19.008</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bb"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb"> 2 ⅜</td> - <td class="tdr bb">20.064</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">2¾ in.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws2"> ¼</td> - <td class="tdr">2.323</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">½</td> - <td class="tdr">4.647</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">¾</td> - <td class="tdr">6.970</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1</td> - <td class="tdr">9.294</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ¼</td> - <td class="tdr">11.617</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ½</td> - <td class="tdr">13.940</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1 ¾</td> - <td class="tdr">16.264</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 2</td> - <td class="tdr">18.587</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 2 ¼</td> - <td class="tdr">20.910</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl bb"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1 bb"> 2 ½</td> - <td class="tdr bb">23.234</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl">3 in.</td> - <td class="tdl_ws2"> ¼</td> - <td class="tdr">2.535</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">½</td> - <td class="tdr">5.069</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws2">¾</td> - <td class="tdr">7.604</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdl_ws1"> 1</td> - <td class="tdr">10.138</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt2" colspan="3"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> -<p class="space-below2"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242"></a>[Pg 242]</span></p> - -<h3>HORSE-POWER BELTING.</h3> -<p class="f120">Will transmit with Safety.</p> - -<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="HORSE-POWER BELTING" cellpadding="2" rules="cols" > - <thead><tr> - <th class="tdc bb2" colspan="3"> </th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb" rowspan="2">Width of Belt <br />in Inches.</th> - <th class="tdc bb" colspan="2">Horse-Power per 100<br />feet Velocity of Belt.</th> - </tr><tr> - <th class="tdc bb"> Single Belt. </th> - <th class="tdc bb"> Double Belt.</th> - </tr> - </thead> - <tbody><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">1</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">.09</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">.18</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">2</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">.18</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">.36</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">3</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">.27</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">.55</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">4</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">.36</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">.73</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">5</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">.45</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">.91</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">6</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">.55</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">1.09</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">7</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">.64</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">1.27</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">8</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">.73</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">1.46</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">9</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">.82</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">1.64</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">10</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">.91</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">1.82</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">11</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">1.00</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">2.00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">12</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">1.09</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">2.18</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">14</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">1.27</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">2.55</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">16</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">1.45</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">2.91</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">18</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">1.64</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">3.27</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">20</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">1.82</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">3.64</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">22</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">2.00</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">4.00</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">24</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">2.18</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">4.36</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">28</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">2.55</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">5.09</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">32</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">2.91</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">5.82</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">36</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">3.27</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">6.55</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdr_ws2">40</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">3.64</td> - <td class="tdr_ws2">7.27</td> - </tr><tr> - <td class="tdc bt2" colspan="3"> </td> - </tr> - </tbody> -</table> - -<p class="blockquot">In the calculations for horse-power in the -above table, the belt is assumed to run about horizontally, the -semi-circumference of smaller pulley has been considered as the -ordinary arc contact of belt. Any reduction of this contact will make -approximate proportional reduction of horse-power.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="transnote bbox space-above2"> -<p class="f120 space-above1">Transcriber’s Notes:</p> -<hr class="r5" /> -<p class="indent">The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up - paragraphs and so that they are next to the text they illustrate.</p> -<p class="indent">Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.</p> -</div> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK YOUNG ENGINEER'S GUIDE ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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