diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/66082-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/66082-0.txt | 1645 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 1645 deletions
diff --git a/old/66082-0.txt b/old/66082-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 744e94b..0000000 --- a/old/66082-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1645 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Mysterious Box, by Bernard Keisch - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Mysterious Box - Nuclear Science and Art - -Author: Bernard Keisch - -Release Date: August 18, 2021 [eBook #66082] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MYSTERIOUS BOX *** - - - - - THE MYSTERIOUS BOX: - Nuclear Science and Art - - - by - Bernard Keisch - - - - - Contents - - - The Mysterious Box 2 - How Old Is a Painting? 11 - Who Was the Artist? 24 - Other New Tools for Art Authentication 36 - One Mystery Solved 42 - Reading List 44 - - United States Atomic Energy Commission - Office of Information Services - Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 70-606040 - 1970; 1974 (rev.) - - -The Author - - [Illustration: Bernard Keisch] - -Dr. Bernard Keisch received his B.S. degree from Rensselaer Polytechnic -Institute and his Ph.D. from Washington University. He is a Senior -Fellow with the Division of Sponsored Research of Carnegie-Mellon -University in Pittsburgh. He is presently engaged in a project that -deals with the applications of nuclear technology to art identification. -This is jointly sponsored by the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission and the -National Gallery of Art. Previously he was a nuclear research chemist -with the Phillips Petroleum Company and senior scientist at the Nuclear -Science and Engineering Corporation. He has contributed articles on art -authentication to a number of journals. For the AEC, in addition to this -booklet, he has written _The Atomic Fingerprint: Neutron Activation -Analysis_, _Secrets of the Past: Nuclear Energy Applications in Art and -Archaeology_, and _Lost Worlds: Nuclear Science and Archaeology_. - - - - -Nuclear energy is playing a vital role in the life of every man, woman, -and child in the United States today. In the years ahead it will affect -increasingly all the peoples of the earth. It is essential that all -Americans gain an understanding of this vital force if they are to -discharge thoughtfully their responsibilities as citizens and if they -are to realize fully the myriad benefits that nuclear energy offers -them. - -The United States Atomic Energy Commission provides this booklet to help -you achieve such understanding. - - - - -The Cover - -This painting, originally believed to be the work of the Dutch artist -Frans Hals (1580-1666), is a fake. Measurements of the naturally -radioactive isotopes, polonium-210 and radium-226, in lead white from -the paint proved that it was no more than 50 years old. - - [Illustration: _A Van Meegeren forgery of a Vermeer._] - - - - - The Mysterious Box - - -The New Jersey sun was high overhead and the day was hot. The three boys -walking along a deserted stretch of beach didn’t mind because they were -barefoot and in their swimsuits. Occasionally they would dash in and out -of the surf to cool off. - -Suddenly Martin let out a yell as his toe hit something hard hidden in -the sand at the water’s edge. A moment later Bill and Harley were -helping Martin dig out a large wooden case. It was heavy, well built, -tightly sealed, and had foreign words written on it. - -“Maybe it’s a pirate treasure chest,” said Martin, who was almost eight -and had just read _Treasure Island_ for the first time the week before. - -“You’re crazy,” said Harley, who, nearly ten, was much older and wiser. - -Bill, going on twelve, thought aloud, “It must be something worthwhile; -maybe we can sell it and buy those model rockets we wanted.” - -The three boys soon found that they couldn’t open the box and that it -was too heavy to drag along the sand easily. - -“Martin,” said Bill, “get Dad while Harley and I stand guard.” - -Two hours later the box was at their house and everyone in the family -was trying to read what was written on it. About all that was readable -was a large “U” followed by what appeared to be two numbers. Some of the -other marks looked like old German script and there was a date, 1945. - -“You know,” said Bill, “I bet that came from a World War II German -submarine that our Coast Guard or Navy sank.” - -“Let’s open it up!” said Harley as Martin ran to get the screwdrivers. - -Inside they found a thoroughly waxed carton that they had to cut open. -Everyone held their breath as their father lifted the top. - -“Nothing but a bunch of pictures,” said Martin who was still hoping for -pirate treasure. - -“Paintings can be worth a lot of money,” said Dad, “thousands or even -millions of dollars.” - -“Well then we’re rich!” yelled Harley and Bill together. - -“Not so fast,” said Dad. “First of all, we don’t know if the paintings -are really valuable. Also, it looks like these might be part of the art -treasures that the Nazis stole from the countries they conquered in -World War II. Maybe someone was trying to get them by submarine to a -neutral country, like Argentina, just before the end of the war, and the -sub was sunk. If they are real and stolen, they’ll have to go back to -their rightful owners. But cheer up, maybe there’s a reward.” - -“How do we collect it?” asked Bill. “If the Nazis grabbed them, aren’t -they real for sure?” - -“Not necessarily,” Dad continued. “The Nazis were fooled sometimes by -people who sold them fakes. There was one painting that Hitler’s -sidekick, Göring, bought that was supposed to be a 17th century painting -by Vermeer, a Dutch painter. Because Vermeer’s work is so valuable, it’s -usually impossible to buy one for any amount of money. - -“Vermeer is regarded as a national hero by the Dutch. The matter was -investigated and the painting traced to Han Van Meegeren, a modern Dutch -painter who had only a fair talent. When Van Meegeren realized he might -be charged with treason by the Dutch for selling a Vermeer to the Nazis, -he confessed that he had painted it himself. He also confessed that he -had painted other forgeries that fooled some of the experts and were -sold for a lot of money. - -“Many people, however, thought Van Meegeren was only lying to save -himself from the charge of treason, and the whole thing had to be -decided by a committee of scientific art experts appointed by a court of -law. Using the methods that were then available, the experts showed that -Van Meegeren had done a remarkable job of forgery and they were -convinced that he had been telling the truth about painting those -pictures. - -“At the time, the important ways the experts used to examine a painting -included studying the work with X rays, which could show another -painting underneath, analyzing the pigments (or coloring materials) used -in the paint, and examining the painting for certain signs of old age. - - [Illustration: _Han Van Meegeren listens to the evidence at his - trial in Amsterdam. In the background is “The Blessing of Jacob”, - which was sold in 1942 as the work of Vermeer._] - - [Illustration: _An authentic Pieter de Hooch work, “The Card - Players”, painted in the 17th century._] - - [Illustration: _A forgery of a Pieter de Hooch picture painted in - the 20th century by Han Van Meegeren._] - - [Illustration: _“Head of Christ” by Van Meegeren._] - -“Van Meegeren was well acquainted with these methods. He scraped the -paint from old paintings that weren’t worth much just to get the canvas -and tried to use pigments that Vermeer would have used. He knew that old -paint was very, very hard and impossible to dissolve; so he cleverly -mixed a chemical (phenolformaldehyde) into his paint, and this hardened -into Bakelite when he heated the finished painting in an oven. - -“For some of the paintings, Van Meegeren became careless and the experts -did find traces of a modern pigment (cobalt blue) in the paint. They -also found the Bakelite. For one or more paintings, Van Meegeren did so -well that, in spite of all this evidence, a few people still weren’t -convinced that these paintings were painted by Van Meegeren and not by -Vermeer.” - -Bill, who by this time was bursting with questions, interrupted, “You -mean they still aren’t sure about some of those paintings after 25 -years? Aren’t there better ways of telling whether a painting is genuine -or not? You’re a scientist. Can’t scientists like you do something about -it now?” - -“Yes, recently a method was developed to settle just such a question. -It’s based on measurements of natural radioactivity in one pigment that -all artists used hundreds of years ago. And the method was applied to -some of the Van Meegeren paintings including the best one of them all.” - -“How did it come out?” asked Martin. - - [Illustration: _An X ray of part of the Van Meegeren forgery, - “Christ and His Disciples at Emmaus”. In the white circle are traces - of paint from the original painting that Van Meegeren scraped off to - obtain the old canvas. When the painting was believed to be a - genuine Vermeer, it was sold for about $300,000._] - - [Illustration: The complete painting.] - - [Illustration: _A Van Meegeren forgery of a Vermeer._] - -“How does it work?” asked Harley. - -“You mean paintings are radioactive?” exclaimed Bill. - -“Can we do it to the paintings we found?” asked all three together. - - - - - How Old Is a Painting? - - -“One question at a time. I’ll tell you how the method works and what it -does if you’re really interested.” - -“We’re interested! We’re interested!” chorused the boys. - -“In the first place, this method works only in certain cases of -suspected forgery. Over the last 50 or 100 years, a number of paintings -have turned up that seemed, even to the best art experts, to be several -hundred years old. Some of these were genuine, and some were painted by -forgers who could not resist the high prices paid for works of art. The -National Gallery of Art, in Washington, D. C., thinking that there might -be a way of detecting these forgeries, gave its support to a group of -scientists who developed a method for this purpose. - -“To understand how the method works, you need to know a little about how -radioactive atoms disintegrate to form atoms of other elements. In this -case we are interested in the natural radioactivity that occurs in -certain rocks. As a matter of fact, in almost all rocks in the earth’s -crust there is a certain small quantity of uranium.” - -“I thought uranium was rare,” interrupted Bill. - -“It is, but we’re talking about such small quantities that its difficult -for scientists using the most sensitive equipment to detect it. The -uranium in the rock decays to another radioactive element and that one -decays to another, and another, and another, and so forth, in a series -of elements that results in lead, which is not radioactive. In this -series are two radioactive elements, radium and a radioactive isotope of -lead, that help us to date paintings. To understand this, we must first -understand how radioactive elements decay. - -“All radioactive elements have what is known as a ‘half-life’; that is, -in a certain period of time, half of the element disintegrates to -another form. In another equal period of time, half of what is left -disintegrates, and then half again, and so on. In the case of the -uranium, which starts the series I am describing, the half-life is over -4,000,000,000 years. Because of its long half-life there is plenty of -uranium around and will be for a long, long time. On the other hand, -radium, which I mentioned a moment ago, has a half-life of only 1600 -years. In 1600 years, half of it would be gone, and in another 1600 -years half of that would be gone, and so on. - -“The radioactive lead that we’re interested in has a half-life of only -22 years. This means that if you start with a small quantity of this -radioactive isotope of lead, which is called lead-210,[1] then in only a -few hundred years it would have disappeared. However, in rock, where -there is uranium, the uranium keeps feeding the elements following it in -the series, so that as fast as they decay they are reproduced by the -element before them.” - - [Illustration: _The Uranium Series. In this simplified diagram, the - double vertical arrows represent alpha radioactivity and the single - slanted arrows represent beta radioactivity. The times shown on the - arrows are the half-lives for each step._] - - Uranium-238 - ⇓^α 4½ billion years - Thorium-234 - ↓^β 24 days - Protoactimum-234 - ↓^β 1⅕ minutes - Uranium-234 - ⇓^α ¼ million years - Thorium-230 - ⇓^α 80 thousand years - Radium-226 - ⇓^α 1600 years - Radon-222 - ⇓^α 3⅘ days - Polonium-218 - ⇓^α 3 minutes - Lead-214 - ↓^β 27 minutes - Bismuth-214 - ↓^β 20 minutes - Polonium-214 - ⇓^α less than one second - Lead-210 - ↓^β 22 years - Bismuth-210 - ↓^β 5 days - Polonium-210 - ⇓^α 138 days - Lead-206 - (Not Radioactive) - -“I don’t quite understand how that works,” said Harley. “What do you -mean ‘it keeps feeding it’?” - -“Well, think of a series of lakes connected by waterfalls. At the top, -the highest lake has an enormous supply of water. Following the -waterfall coming out of the lake you find a smaller lake and then maybe -a medium-sized lake, and after another waterfall, a smaller lake, then a -tiny lake, and so on. - -“As long as that big lake on top is full or nearly full, all the other -lakes, whether they are small or medium-sized, will still be getting -water as fast as it pours out. But if you cut off the supply of water -from the upper lake to the next lake, then the smaller lakes will in -time run dry. The same thing works with the radioactivity. In this -series headed by uranium, as long as uranium is present all the other -elements below it are kept supplied so that they don’t run out.” - -“I understand that,” said Bill, “but how do we use that to date a -painting?” - -“One of the pigments used by artists for over 2000 years is known as -lead white and it is made from lead metal. The lead metal in turn is -extracted from a rock called lead ore, in a process called smelting. The -radioactive lead, this lead-210 that I mentioned, behaves like ordinary -lead metal and goes along with it. - -“The radium, which has a fairly long half-life, doesn’t follow the lead -metal, but is removed with other waste products in a material called -slag. Since the longer-lived ancestor of the lead-210 is removed, the -supply of lead-210 is cut off. (Or we can say that one of the waterfalls -is shut off.) The lead-210 will then decay with its 22-year half-life.” - - [Illustration: _The radioactive series that starts with uranium is - like a series of lakes connected by waterfalls. As long as uranium, - the big one on top, has water in it, the others will be full and the - falls will keep flowing. But when the first waterfall is shut off, - the small lakes below it will run dry._] - -“I get it,” said Bill. “That means that when you take a sample of old -lead white paint, there shouldn’t be any radioactive lead-210 left.” - -“That’s right. But that would only be true if you removed all the -radium. Actually, in the smelting process it’s more usual to remove only -90 or 95% of the radium. In that case, the lead-210 would decay only -until the amount left would be equal to the small amount of radium that -wasn’t removed. In effect, this would be like shutting off only part of -the waterfall.” - -“So what do you find,” asked Harley, “if you measure the radioactivity -in a sample of lead white paint?” - -“We find that if the paint is old, compared to the 22-year half-life of -the lead, let’s say 100 years old or more, then the amount of -radioactivity from the lead-210 in the sample of paint will be equal to -the amount of radioactivity from the radium in the sample. But if the -paint is modern, let’s say only 20 years old or so, then the amount of -radioactivity from the lead-210 will be greater than the amount of -radioactivity from the radium.” - -Martin, who had been quiet through all this explanation, finally spoke -up. “Well, was it finally tried out? How did it work?” - -“Hundreds of samples were analyzed. These samples were taken from -paintings of all ages, from some over 300 years old right up to others -only a couple of years old. The old samples always showed equal amounts -of radioactivity from lead-210 and radium while the modern ones always -showed larger amounts of radioactivity from lead-210 than from radium. -That meant that scientists had a way of definitely telling if a lead -white paint was modern or not. - -“Eventually, the method was tried on a number of paintings believed to -be by Van Meegeren. Sure enough, every one of them showed that the paint -couldn’t possibly have been more than 30 or 40 years old and that Van -Meegeren probably was telling the truth when he said that he had painted -them. The paintings certainly were not genuine Vermeers from the 17th -century.” - -“Okay, Dad,” said Martin, “can we use the method on any of the paintings -we found? Are any of these paintings supposed to be old enough so that -we can use this test?” - -“Not so fast. To find that out we have to do a lot of checking first.” - -“How do we go about it?” asked Bill. - -“Let’s see now. There are nine paintings in the box you found. The first -thing we should do is take them down to a museum or gallery and let the -art experts look at them. Since we have a few weeks of vacation time -left, what do you say we take a trip down to Washington, D. C., and show -them to some experts at the National Gallery of Art?” - -Over the next few weeks quite a few things happened to the boys and -their paintings. Three of them were discarded right away because they -were immediately recognized as being copies of no value. Two were -relatively modern paintings with the signature Alfred Sisley; if -genuine, they were less than 100 years old. The remaining four appeared -to be very old paintings. Two of them seemed to correspond to paintings -that disappeared during the Second World War. Photographs and X rays -were taken and sent to the museum in Holland, which had owned the -missing pictures, so that they could make a preliminary examination. - - [Illustration: uncaptioned] - - Radioactivity of Lead-210 - - Lead-210 decaying with a half-life of 22 years. When no radium is - present there is almost none left after 6 half-lives or 132 years. - - Radioactivity of Radium-226 - - Over the same period of time, a small amount of radium decays very - little because its half-life is about 1600 years. - - Radioactivity of Radium 226 - Radioactivity of Lead-210 - - But when lead-210 decays in the presence of radium-226, the - radioactivity of the lead-210 only decreases until it is equal to - the radioactivity of the radium. - -That left two that could have been old but whose origins were unknown. A -series of simple chemical tests were begun on these and the boys watched -experts take very small samples of paint for examination under the -microscope. After several months a list of the pigments present in the -paintings was prepared. All the pigments found were typical of old -paintings and the ordinary examinations and tests couldn’t prove whether -the works were old or not. Finally, it was decided that the only way to -tell if these paintings were truly old was to apply the test that Dad -had described to the boys. - -The boys watched a painting restorer remove samples of nearly white -paint right at the edge of the paintings. He worked carefully, using a -very sharp scalpel and a stereo-binocular microscope, through which -objects appeared to be sixty times larger than they really were. The -sample of paint weighed approximately twenty-thousandths of a gram. The -boys and their father took the samples to a radiochemical laboratory -where they watched a radiochemist do the required analysis for lead-210 -and radium in the samples. - -First the chemist dissolved the paint in acetic acid. This removed the -lead white from the oil and from the small amounts of other pigments in -the paint. The solutions were then heated and stirred with a silver disc -hanging in the liquid. After several hours the disc still looked clean, -but the chemist said that a radioactive element, polonium-210, was now -plated onto the silver. Polonium-210 is a member of the uranium series -following the lead-210, and a measurement of its radioactivity would be -an accurate measurement of the radioactivity of lead-210. - -The silver discs prepared from the two samples were each placed in an -instrument called an alpha-particle spectrometer. This instrument is -extremely sensitive and can measure the very small amounts of -polonium-210 prepared from the tiny sample of paint that they started -with. - -While the instruments were making the measurements, which took a couple -of days, the chemist turned to the remaining solutions and began the -analyses for radium. - - [Illustration: _A painting being sampled under a stereo-binocular - microscope._] - - [Illustration: _Lead white weighing twenty-thousandths of a gram (20 - milligrams). This is the amount needed to measure lead-210 and - radium-226 to determine if the lead white is old._] - -In a series of chemical steps, he purified the solutions, removing the -lead and other materials so that finally he had a small amount of -solution that contained little else but the original radium and a very -small amount of barium (an element that he deliberately added and one -which is very similar to radium in its chemical properties). By adding -dilute sulfuric acid, he prepared an insoluble material, barium sulfate, -which was barely visible suspended in the solution. - - [Illustration: _Polonium plating apparatus. A heated solution of - lead white in acetic acid is stirred with silver discs for 4 to 8 - hours._] - - [Illustration: _The disc above appears clean after removal, but on - its surface it retains a minute amount of polonium which can be - measured._] - -By forcing the solution through a special thin plastic filter having -tiny holes, the particles of barium sulfate together with the radium -that had been in the solution were caught on the surface of the filter. -This was mounted on a solid disc so that it too could be placed in the -alpha-particle spectrometer for the measurement of radioactivity from -the radium. - -Two weeks later the results were ready. Dad, the boys, and one of the -experts from the museum met with the chemist to discuss them. For one of -the two paintings, the polonium-210 radioactivity was about ten times -that of the radium activity. The boys were disappointed because this -meant that the painting could not have been 300 or 400 years old as it -first appeared to be. - - [Illustration: _An alpha-particle spectrometer is used to measure - the radioactivity of the radium and polonium prepared from the lead - white._] - - [Illustration: _A plastic disc on which is cemented a filter - containing a nearly invisible deposit of barium sulfate (BaSO₄) that - “carried” the radium._] - -But in the second painting the radioactivity from the polonium-210 and -from the radium-226 were just about equal. That meant that this painting -was at least 100 years old and, from its appearance, probably more. The -boys were excited. - -“We have a really valuable painting!” said Martin. - -“Not so fast, boys,” cautioned Dad. “We don’t know who painted it and we -don’t know exactly how old it is.” - -The Gallery’s expert was happy too. He believed that the second picture -was a genuine Dutch painting from the 17th century. It was a landscape -and the artist might have been Aelbert Cuyp. - - [Illustration: _“The Maas at Dordrecht”, a genuine painting by - Aelbert Cuyp._] - -“What do we do now?” asked Harley. “How can we prove that the painting -was painted in Holland in the 17th century by Cuyp?” - -“There is a method now being developed,” said Dad, “that could give us -that kind of information.” - -“How does it work?” Martin asked. - - - - - Who Was the Artist? - - -“Do you know how criminals are caught by using fingerprints?” asked Dad. - -“Sure we do,” said Martin. “Each person has a set of fingerprints that -is different from anyone else’s.” - -Harley spoke up. “Did the artist leave his fingerprints on the -paintings?” - -“Probably not,” said Dad. “Besides, they would have been wiped off long -ago. Also, who knows what each artist’s fingerprints were like?” - -“Then what do you mean?” asked Bill. - -“What I mean is, there is another kind of ‘fingerprint’ that scientists -are just now learning to use in all kinds of identification problems. -It’s not really a fingerprint, but it’s just as distinctive as a real -fingerprint. - -“You see, in every material, no matter how pure you try to make it, -there are always other substances contained in it in very, very small -quantities, which are there only by chance. Usually the person making or -using that material doesn’t even know they are there, and the quantities -are so small they don’t do any harm. During the last several years, -scientists have developed extremely sensitive methods of analysis, which -have been applied to all kinds of problems. - -“One such method is called neutron activation analysis. In this method -these small amounts of impurities can be detected in tiny samples of -material. This is quite important because only very small samples can be -taken from a precious painting without damaging it. Normally, a -scientist or an art restorer takes samples that are no bigger than the -head of a pin.” - -“How can you do anything with a sample that small?” asked Bill. - - [Illustration: uncaptioned] - -“With neutron activation analysis you can do a great deal. To give you -an example of how sensitive this method is, think of a bathtub -containing 500 quarts of milk. Add 1 drop of an acid containing a speck -of gold dissolved in it. After you mix the acid and milk thoroughly, you -won’t be able to tell by looking at it that anything was added. But if -you take a thimble full of liquid out of the bathtub, you can easily -tell with neutron activation analysis that gold was added to the milk. - -“Scientists call low concentrations of accidental impurities ‘trace -elements’, and the amounts that are present are measured in parts per -million rather than percent. One part per million is one ten-thousandth -of a percent.” - -Bill spoke up again. “So how does that make a fingerprint, Dad?” - -“It works this way. Suppose an artist used lead white in several -paintings. Now if the lead white were absolutely pure it would contain -only lead, carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. But the lead white the artist -used would also contain very small quantities of other elements, these -trace elements that I spoke of. In that particular batch of lead white, -certain trace elements will be present in a certain quantity. The kind -and amount of the trace elements will be present in that exact pattern -only in that batch of lead white. - -“Now suppose you analyze the lead white from several paintings that you -know were painted by that particular artist, and you find that there is -silver, mercury, antimony, tin, and barium in every one of the samples. -Also, each of these elements is always present in a certain -concentration. Suppose also, that you have a painting which looks like -it was painted by that particular artist but you’re not quite sure. - -“Well, if you take a sample of lead white from that unknown painting and -you find that the pattern of impurities is the same as in the paintings -you knew were genuine, then the ‘fingerprints’ match. The chances of -duplicating impurities of this kind by pure accident are extremely -small, just about as small as the chances of finding two people with the -same fingerprints. That’s why we call this a ‘fingerprint method’.” - -“That sounds like a good idea,” said Harley. “Who thought it up?” - - x = one part per million (ppm) - A known Rembrandt. - - x - x - x x x - x x x x - x x x x - x x x x x - x x x x x - x x x x x x - silver chromium zinc manganese iron cobalt - - Unknown painting A - - x - x - x x - x x - x x x - x x x x - x x x x - x x x x x - x x x x x x - silver chromium zinc manganese iron cobalt - - Unknown painting B - - x - x - x x x - x x x x - x x x x - x x x x x - x x x x x - x x x x x x - silver chromium zinc manganese iron cobalt - - Known forgery - - x - x - x x - x x - x x x - x x x x - x x x x - x x x x x - x x x x x x - silver chromium zinc manganese iron cobalt - - _Match the patterns of these lead white “fingerprints”. Unknown - painting A is_ not _a Rembrandt; it_ is _by the same forger who - painted the known forgery at the bottom. Unknown painting B is - either by Rembrandt, one of his fellow citizens, or one of his - students using the same paint._ - -“It was thought of many times by many people. But, it’s never been used -for identifying paintings. In 1964 in the Netherlands, two scientists, -named Houtman and Turkstra, analyzed about 40 different samples of lead -white, 20 of which came from Dutch and Flemish paintings. The rest were -samples of lead white not taken from paintings but obtained directly -from the manufacturers. They analyzed these samples for different -elements. These included silver, mercury, chromium, manganese, tin, -antimony, and a couple of others. - -“They found that the concentrations of these elements in the lead white -from all the old Dutch and Flemish paintings were very similar. And the -trace element concentrations were quite different in the modern lead -white samples analyzed in the same way. At the time, they presumed that -it was because the lead white in the paintings was manufactured so long -ago. They may have been right to a certain extent. - -“For example, they found that in all the old paintings there were from -10 to 30 parts per million of silver in the lead white, while in the -modern samples of this pigment there were generally less than 10 parts -per million of silver. All of them had been painted before the 19th -century, and all the samples of pure lead white were manufactured during -the latter part of the 19th century or during the 20th century. They -believed that the reason the silver concentration was lower in the more -modern material was because during the 19th century, lead refiners were -doing a better job of removing all the valuable silver from lead. - - [Illustration: _Silver concentrations in lead white. The - concentrations generally decreased after the middle 1800s. Notice - also how the concentrations were very similar for all the older - paintings (before 1700) which were Dutch or Flemish._] - -“However, in 1967 in Germany, two men, named Lux and Braunstein, -discovered that in some old paintings produced in Italy, lead white also -contained low quantities of silver just like modern material. They -believed that the higher concentrations of silver in lead white were -typical of Dutch and Flemish painters while the lower concentrations -were typical of Italian paintings of about the same age. - -“The whole case is still unsettled because not enough measurements have -been made to show how reliable this method can be. That is, no one knows -if samples of paint from several paintings by one artist would all have -the same pattern of impurities in the same pigment. It may be that of -the many pigments present in an artist’s paintings only a few will be -suitable for use in this ‘fingerprinting’ method.” - - [Illustration: _Quartz vials (right) containing samples are sealed - in the aluminum can on the left. They are then bombarded with - neutrons in a reactor like the one in the picture below._] - -“It sounds complicated,” said Bill. - -“It is, and it’s going to take years of work before the method is -proven, if it is at all. It may turn out that you can’t tell one artist -from another, but only groups of artists like 17th century Dutch -painters or 19th century English painters.” - -“Tell us something about neutron activation analysis,” said Martin. “How -do you measure such small amounts of impurities?” - -“The best way to tell you how this works is to show you. How would you -boys like to visit a laboratory where neutron activation analysis is -being done?” - -“Do you have to ask?” said Harley. “Of course we would!” - -A few weeks later it was all arranged. At a laboratory close by a -nuclear reactor, the boys watched a radiochemist place a few specks of -material inside small quartz tubes that were then sealed. The tubes were -put in an aluminum can and placed in the nuclear reactor. The can was -fastened on the end of a long pole that was then submerged in a deep -pool of water. At the bottom of the pool the boys could see a bright -blue glow. - - [Illustration: _This type of nuclear reactor is used for neutron - activation analysis._] - -“So that’s what a nuclear reactor looks like!” said Bill. - -“Yes,” said Dad. “Where you see the blue glow you can also see rows of -fuel elements. Each one contains slugs of uranium encased in aluminum. -This is one of a number of different types of reactors. But every -nuclear reactor is arranged so that the uranium atoms divide (or -fission) many, many times each second. - -“When this happens, heat is produced that is carried away by the water, -and also many, many free neutrons are produced. Those samples, placed -down next to the reactor in the bottom of the pool are being bombarded -by the neutrons, and some of the elements in the samples absorb the -neutrons and become radioactive.” - -After a while the samples were removed and carried back to the -laboratory in a lead box. A short while later, the radiochemist opened -the aluminum can, broke open the quartz capsules, and removed the -samples for analysis. The boys watched the chemist mount each sample on -a card and take it to a room where there was equipment for measuring -radioactivity. - - [Illustration: _Gamma-ray spectrometer. The sample to be measured is - placed on a stand over a gamma-ray detector. The pulse-height - analyzer is a device that sorts electrical impulses from the - detector according to the energy of the gamma rays causing the - impulses. The screen displays the gamma-ray spectrum and the - electric typewriter automatically types out the data collected when - the measurement is complete._] - -One by one the samples were placed inside a shield consisting of a big -pile of lead bricks. When the heavy door was opened, the boys could see -a metal can inside the shield, which housed a detector (called a -lithium-drifted germanium detector) that measured the gamma rays emitted -by the sample. As each sample was placed near the detector the chemist -turned on a gamma-ray spectrometer to which the detector was connected. - - A tiny sample of lead white {sample} is sealed in a quartz vial - {vial} which is bombarded with neutrons in a reactor. - - [Illustration: uncaptioned] - - Many of the atoms become radioactive, emitting gamma rays. - - [Illustration: uncaptioned] - - The sample is placed in a gamma-ray spectrometer and the gamma rays - are separated according to their energy. - - [Illustration: uncaptioned] - - Gamma-ray spectrum - Copper - Zinc - Antimony - Lead - Silver - Height - Antimony - - The location (energy) of each peak indicates what is present and the - height indicates how much! - - [Illustration: _A gamma-ray spectrum as it appears on the screen of - a pulse-height analyzer. The gamma-ray peaks are marked with the - name of the element whose radioactive isotope emits the gamma ray; - two for cobalt and zinc and one for cesium._] - -There, on what looked like a small television screen, flashes of light -appeared that gradually formed a curve with many peaks and valleys. -After a few minutes the spectrometer was stopped and an electric -typewriter automatically typed out rows and columns of numbers. - -The chemist explained, “This curve, which you see on the screen, is a -gamma-ray spectrum and tells us what elements are in the sample. The -typed-out data give us an accurate measure of the shape of the curve on -the screen. By measuring the gamma-rays’ energies we know what elements -in the sample were made radioactive. The height of each gamma-ray peak -tells us how much of that element is present in the sample. - -“That gives us the information we need to calculate the concentrations -of the small quantities of materials in our samples. We can do this -because at the same time I irradiated a set of standards. Standards are -materials that are just like the samples except that they contain known -amounts of the impurities I am trying to measure.” - -As the boys were leaving the laboratory, the chemist apologized for not -having enough time to explain the activation analysis procedure more -thoroughly, but he did give the boys a list of books to read on the -subject of radioactivity and radioisotopes.[2] They thanked him for his -help. - -During the ride home, they discussed the paintings that were still -unproven. - -“It’s too bad that the method of activation analysis fingerprinting -hasn’t been fully developed yet,” said Dad. - -“Yes,” said Bill. “Then we could prove whether or not that last old -painting was really by Aelbert Cuyp as the expert from the gallery -believed. But what about those paintings that we found in the box that -were not so old?” - -“Well,” said Dad, “if the activation analysis method were workable, we -might be able to prove if they were painted by Alfred Sisley. Meanwhile, -until the method is really developed we don’t know if we can do it that -way or not.” - -“So what do we do now?” asked Martin. - -“We’ll have to wait until scientists can thoroughly investigate this -method and several others that they’re working on.” - -“Other methods!” exclaimed Bill. “What other methods?” - - [Illustration: _“The Banks of the Oise”, a genuine painting by - Alfred Sisley._] - - - - - Other New Tools for Art Authentication - - -“There are several new tools that scientists are working on now,” said -Dad. “These involve methods that have been developed by scientists for -other purposes, but are now being explored for use in authenticating -works of art. - -“For example, in Los Angeles, the county museum purchased an instrument -known as a Spark Source Mass Spectrometer. Like activation analysis, -this instrument will also measure small traces of impurities, but they -have just set that up and it will take them years to explore the use of -it for the type of problem we have been discussing. - -“X-ray diffraction is another method that has been around for quite -awhile but hasn’t been used much for art identification until recently. -With X-ray diffraction, samples of pigments can be identified by the -pattern formed when X rays are bent by passing through the sample of -pigment.” - -“How’s that?” asked Harley. - -“There are 3 or 4 different compounds with about the same chemical -composition as lead white. Chemically, they are almost impossible to -distinguish. But with X-ray diffraction, a chemist can easily tell them -apart. The hope is that the type of lead white will indicate how it was -manufactured. Until the middle of the 19th century, lead white was -produced mainly by packing strips of lead in clay pots with a little -vinegar in the bottom. The clay pots were stacked in a large building -with layers of decaying organic matter on the floor. The building was -sealed for several weeks during which time the lead corroded in the -fumes and became covered with a white substance. The white substance, -lead white, was scraped off, ground, and washed to make the pigment. - -“But, in the 19th century, when people began to learn more about -chemistry, they looked for faster ways of making lead white and some of -these methods produced a lead white of somewhat different composition. -By using X-ray diffraction, chemists now hope that they can tell how the -lead white was manufactured. This may provide another means of dating -the lead white in a painting.” - -“Are there any other methods?” asked Harley. - - [Illustration: _The stack process for making lead white. Rows of - clay pots containing lead and vinegar are packed to the ceiling of - the building, and fermenting tanbark on the floor produces carbon - dioxide and heat. The fumes of vinegar and the carbon dioxide - corrode the lead in 2 to 4 months, and the corrosion is lead - white._] - -“Yes, isotope mass spectrometry is one. All lead consists of 4 different -isotopes or atoms of different weights. Three of these 4 are the end -products of a radioactive decay chain. Depending upon the history of the -rock formation in which the lead ore occurred, the relative amounts of -the lead isotopes vary in a special way. In other words, if we know the -different amounts of lead isotopes in the world’s lead ore deposits, and -we have a sample of lead white from a painting, we can tell from which -deposit the lead, which formed the lead white, came. If, for example, we -find that the isotope pattern in a sample from a painting is the same as -in lead ore from Australia, then the painting can’t be very old because -lead white wasn’t produced from lead mined in Australia until about 100 -years ago.” - - [Illustration: _X-ray diffraction patterns from three different lead - compounds that might occur in lead white. The middle one is the - ideal lead white produced for over 2000 years. While some of the - bottom compound may be found mixed with it, the compound shown at - the top is only a 20th-century invention._] - - 4PbCO₃ · 2PB(OH)₂ · PbO - 2PbCO₃ · PB(OH)₂ - PbCO₃ - -“How do you measure lead isotopes?” asked Harley. - -“With an instrument called a mass spectrometer. This instrument is -capable of separating the lead isotopes. First, the atoms of lead in the -sample are electrically charged and ‘fired’ in a beam down the length of -a tube between the poles of a strong magnet. There, the charged atoms -(or ions) in the beam are deflected by different amounts according to -how heavy they are. Thus the different isotopes are separated. This -method is also still being studied and, although it shows great promise, -it will be some time before it can solve problems of art identification. -Also the study of the natural variation in isotopes of other elements, -such as sulfur, is useful for identification of other pigments as well. - - [Illustration: _Diagram of a simple mass spectrometer. The ionized - atoms of lead travel in a beam at the same speed. The heavier atoms - bend less than the lighter ones when the beam passes the magnet. - Thus two beams emerge instead of one. Actually there are four - isotopes of lead so there will be four beams._] - - [Illustration: _“Agostina”, a genuine painting by Jean Baptiste - Camille Corot._] - -“Another new method that shows great promise has been developed, but -this one is not applicable to the paintings that you boys found in the -box.” - -“Why not?” asked Bill. - -“Since the Second World War, the art forgery business has been growing -rapidly. For example, it has been said that of the 2000 pictures that -Corot, a 19th century Frenchman, is known to have painted, more than -5000 of them are in the United States. This may be only a humorous -exaggeration, but a large number of forgeries have been produced in the -last several years. These are usually supposed to be paintings that are -less than 100 years old. Present-day forgers like to forge paintings -that aren’t very old because it’s easier to get away with. Now this new -method, which will detect such recent forgeries, is based upon the -presence of carbon-14, a radioactive isotope of carbon, in our -atmosphere and in all things that grow on our planet. - -“Ordinarily, carbon-14 is produced only by cosmic rays, and its -concentrations in the atmosphere and in growing things would remain at a -constant level. But since the middle of the 1950s the testing of nuclear -weapons has increased the amount of radioactive carbon in our atmosphere -by quite a bit. Many artist’s materials, such as linseed oil, canvas, -paper, and so on, come from plants or animals, and so will contain the -same concentrations of carbon-14 as the atmosphere up to the time that -the plant or animal dies. - -“Therefore, linseed oil (from the flax plant), for example, produced -during the last few years will have a much greater concentration of -carbon-14 in it than linseed oil produced more than 20 years ago. -Scientists at Carnegie-Mellon University have shown that this method -will work. It is only a matter of making the measurements on the small -samples available from presumably valuable paintings.” - - [Illustration: _The changing concentrations of carbon-14 in our - atmosphere. High levels of carbon-14 in linseed oil and other - painting materials will indicate that a work of art is only a few - years old._] - - Carbon-14 radioactivity - Older materials contain less as the carbon-14 decays away. - In this period, decrease is due to the burning of large quantities - of coal and oil as industry grew. This diluted the newly - formed carbon-14. - Increases due to testing of atomic weapons in the atmosphere. - Carbon-14 produced by cosmic rays only - Neutron → Nitrogen → Carbon-14 + proton - Carried down by rain in carbon dioxide - -“There are also a number of other methods being studied including the -use of Messbauer Effect Spectroscopy to study pigments that contain -iron, thermoluminescent dating of pottery and terra-cotta statuary, -X-ray fluorescence analysis as a general tool, and neutron -autoradiography as a means of studying the technique of artists. You can -read all about them if you wish.”[3] - -“It sounds like forgers are going to have a tough time in the future,” -said Harley. - -“That’s right. It may even turn out that producing forgeries to pass all -these new tests will be so difficult and expensive that forgers will -stop trying.” - - - - - One Mystery Solved - - -A year later an important letter arrived at the boys’ house. Dad opened -it, read it quickly, and said, “Good news, boys! This letter is from the -Dutch government. Remember those two paintings that we thought might -have been stolen from a Dutch museum?” - -“Yes,” said Bill. - -“Well, it seems that after a year of studying them, the Dutch have -decided that they really are the paintings that were stolen.” - -“That is good news,” said Harley. “At least we know that two of the -paintings we found are genuine.” - -“What are they going to do with them?” asked Martin. - -“Of course, they have to go back to their original owners. But this -letter says that the Dutch government wants us to come to Holland as -their guests as a reward for finding those paintings.” - - [Illustration: _These two paintings “The Lacemaker” and “The Smiling - Girl” were thought to have been by Vermeer. A series of tests, - including some of those described in this booklet, showed that the - paintings are fairly old. However, some of the materials used are - not typical of Vermeer, and the pictures are now thought to have - been painted by a follower of the artist._] - -“That’s great!” said Bill. “Looks like we’re getting something out of -finding that box after all.” - -“Yes,” said Dad. “And don’t forget the other unidentified paintings may -also be genuine. We’ve proved that one is a fake, the experts believe -that three of the others are copies, and then there are the two that -might be Sisleys and are only waiting for a method to prove it. And we -have one more that science managed to prove was really old. I’m sure -that in a few years methods will be developed to tell us exactly who -painted it. - -“And now let’s make arrangements for our trip to Holland.” - - - - - Reading List - - -_About Atomic Power for People_, Edward and Ruth S. Radlauer, Childrens - Press, Chicago, Illinois 60607, 1960, 47 pp., $2.50. Grades 5-9. - -_All About the Atom_, Ira M. Freeman, Random House, Inc., New York - 10022, 1955, 146 pp., $2.50. Grades 4-6. - -_Atoms at Your Service_, Henry A. Dunlap and Hans N. Tuch, Harper and - Row, Publishers, New York 10016, 1957, 167 pp., $4.00. Grades 7-9. - -_Carbon-14 and Other Science Methods that Date the Past_, Lynn and Gray - Poole, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York 10036, 1961, 160 pp., - $3.95. Grades 9-12. - -_Experiments with Atomics_ (revised edition), Nelson F. Beeler and - Franklyn M. Branley, Crowell Collier and Macmillan, Inc., New York - 10022, 1965, 160 pp., $3.50. Grades 5-8. - -_The Fabulous Isotopes: What They Are and What They Do_, Robin McKown, - Holiday House, Inc., New York 10022, 1962, 189 pp., $4.50. Grades - 7-10. - -_Inside the Atom_ (revised edition), Isaac Asimov, Abelard-Schuman, - Ltd., New York 10019, 1966, 197 pp., $4.00. Grades 7-10. - -_Introducing the Atom_, Roslyn Leeds, Harper and Row, Publishers, New - York 10016, 1967, 224 pp., $3.95. Grades 7-9. - -_Our Friend the Atom_, Heinz Haber, Golden Press, Inc., New York 10022, - 1957, 165 pp., $4.95 (out of print but available through - libraries); $0.35 (paperback) from Dell Publishing Company, Inc., - New York 10017. Grades 7-9. - -_Radioisotopes_, John H. Woodburn, J. B. Lippincott Company, - Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19105, 1962, 128 pp., $3.50. Grades - 7-10. - -_The Story of Atomic Energy_, Laura Fermi, Random House, Inc., New York - 10022, 1961, 184 pp., $1.95. Grades 7-11. - -_The Useful Atom_, William R. Anderson and Vernon Pizer, The World - Publishing Company, New York 10022, 1966, 185 pp., $5.75. Grades - 7-12. - -_Working with Atoms_, Otto R. Frisch, Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, New - York 10016, 1965, 96 pp., $3.50. Grades 9-12. - - -Footnotes - - -[1]It is called this because 210 is the total number of protons and - neutrons in its nucleus. - -[2]See the reading list on page 44. - -[3]See _Secrets of the Past: Nuclear Science and Archaeology_, which is - listed on the inside back cover of this booklet. - - -PHOTO CREDITS - -Cover courtesy Groninger Museum voor stad en Lande - - Page - - 5 Yale Joel, _Life_ magazine, copyright © Time, Inc. - 6 Her Majesty the Queen, copyright © reserved - 7 & 8 Ullstein Bilderdienst - 10 Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam - 23 National Gallery of Art, Washington, D. C., Andrew Mellon - Collection - 35 & 40 National Gallery of Art, Washington, D. C., Chester Dale - Collection - 43 National Gallery of Art, Washington, D. C., Andrew Mellon - Collection - - ★ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1974—747-556/15 - - -The U. S. Atomic Energy Commission publishes this series of information -booklets for the general public. The booklets are listed below by -subject category. - -If you would like to have copies of these booklets, please write to the -following address for a booklet price list: - - USAEC—Technical Information Center - P. O. Box 62 - Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830 - -School and public libraries may obtain a complete set of the booklets -without charge. These requests must be made on school or library -stationery. - - Chemistry - - IB-303 The Atomic Fingerprint: Neutron Activation Analysis - IB-301 The Chemistry of the Noble Gases - IB-302 Cryogenics: The Uncommon Cold - IB-304 Nuclear Clocks - IB-306 Radioisotopes in Industry - IB-307 Rare Earths: The Fraternal Fifteen - IB-308 Synthetic Transuranium Elements - - Biology - - IB-101 Animals in Atomic Research - IB-102 Atoms in Agriculture - IB-105 The Genetic Effects of Radiation - IB-110 Preserving Food with Atomic Energy - IB-106 Radioisotopes and Life Processes - IB-107 Radioisotopes in Medicine - IB-109 Your Body and Radiation - - The Environment - - IB-201 The Atom and the Ocean - IB-202 Atoms, Nature, and Man - IB-414 Nature’s Invisible Rays - - General Interest - - IB-009 Atomic Energy and Your World - IB-010 Atomic Pioneers—Book 1: From Ancient Greece to the 19th - Century - IB-011 Atomic Pioneers—Book 2: From the Mid-19th to the Early - 20th Century - IB-012 Atomic Pioneers—Book 3: From the Late 19th to the Mid-20th - Century - IB-002 A Bibliography of Basic Books on Atomic Energy - IB-004 Computers - IB-008 Electricity and Man - IB-005 Index to AEC Information Booklets - IB-310 Lost Worlds: Nuclear Science and Archeology - IB-309 The Mysterious Box: Science and Art - IB-006 Nuclear Terms: A Glossary - IB-013 Secrets of the Past: Nuclear Energy Applications in Art - and Archaeology - IB-017 Teleoperators: Man’s Machine Partners - IB-014, Worlds Within Worlds: The Story of Nuclear Energy Volumes - 015, & 016 1, 2, and 3 - - Physics - - IB-401 Accelerators - IB-402 Atomic Particle Detection - IB-403 Controlled Nuclear Fusion - IB-404 Direct Conversion of Energy - IB-410 The Electron - IB-405 The Elusive Neutrino - IB-416 Inner Space: The Structure of the Atom - IB-406 Lasers - IB-407 Microstructure of Matter - IB-415 The Mystery of Matter - IB-411 Power from Radioisotopes - IB-413 Spectroscopy - IB-412 Space Radiation - - Nuclear Reactors - - IB-501 Atomic Fuel - IB-502 Atomic Power Safety - IB-513 Breeder Reactors - IB-503 The First Reactor - IB-505 Nuclear Power Plants - IB-507 Nuclear Reactors - IB-510 Nuclear Reactors for Space Power - IB-508 Radioactive Wastes - IB-511 Sources of Nuclear Fuel - IB-512 Thorium and the Third Fuel - - [Illustration: AEC logo] - - U. S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION - Office of Information Services - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MYSTERIOUS BOX *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where - you are located before using this eBook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that: - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without -widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |