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diff --git a/old/66061-0.txt b/old/66061-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b2b36bd..0000000 --- a/old/66061-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6666 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Story of Milk, by Johan D. Frederiksen - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Story of Milk - -Author: Johan D. Frederiksen - -Release Date: August 14, 2021 [eBook #66061] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Barry Abrahamsen, and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The Internet - Archive/American Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF MILK *** - - - - - THE STORY OF MILK - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -[Illustration: - - Well kept creamery with attractive surroundings -] - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - THE STORY OF MILK - -[Illustration] - - BY - - JOHAN D. FREDERIKSEN - - GRADUATE OF THE ROYAL DANISH AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, AUTHOR - OF “CHEESE MAKING IN AMERICA” (IN DANISH), “CREAMING - MILK BY CENTRIFUGAL FORCE,” ETC., GENERAL MANAGER - OF CHR. HANSEN’S LABORATORY, MANUFACTURERS - OF DAIRY AND MILK-FOOD PREPARATIONS, - LITTLE FALLS, N.Y. - - - - New York - THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - 1919 - - - All rights reserved - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1919 - - BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - - Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1919 - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - HISTORICAL - - CHAPTER I - - PAGE - - PRODUCTION, COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF 1 - MILK - - Milk Ferments 1 - - —Pasteurization 1 - - Dairy Cattle 1 - - —Milk-Breeds 1 - - —Beef-Cattle 4 - - —Food and Water 5 - - —The Barn 9 - - —Milking 10 - - —Test the Cows 11 - - —Healthy Cows 12 - - Composition of Milk 13 - - —Butter-fat 13 - - —Casein and Albumen 14 - - —Milk-Sugar 14 - - —Mineral Matters 15 - - How to Test Milk 15 - - —The Babcock Test 16 - - —Sampling 17 - - —The Lactometer 18 - - —Acidity Test 19 - - Ferments 20 - - Enzymes 21 - - —Rennet 20 - - —Pepsin 21 - - Bacteria 21 - - —Lactic Acid Bacilli 21 - - The Control of Bacteria 22 - - —Cleanliness 22 - - —Heat 22 - - —Cooling 22 - - —Disinfectants 25 - - Pasteurization 25 - - Pure Cultures 30 - - —Starters 32 - - - CHAPTER II - - MILK SUPPLY AND CREAMERY PRODUCTS 35 - Milk Supply 35 - —Bovine Tuberculosis 35 - —Milk as a Disease Carrier 36 - —Bacteria Count 36 - —Certified Milk 36 - —The Sanitary Code 38 - —New York State Milk Grading 38 - —City Delivery 39 - —Milk Stations 41 - —Skim Milk 44 - Cream 44 - —The Separator 46 - —Percentage of Butter-fat 48 - —Standardizing Cream 48 - —Pasteurized Cream 49 - —Whipped Cream 49 - —Emulsified Cream 50 - Ice Cream 52 - —Freezers 52 - —Classification of Ice Cream 56 - —Ice Cream Recipes 56 - Butter 69 - —Dairy Butter 70 - —Centrifugal Creaming 70 - —Co-operative Creameries 70 - —Ripening the Cream 71 - —Coloring 74 - —Churning 75 - —Working 78 - —Salting 79 - —Composition 79 - —Overrun 79 - —Packing 79 - —Sweet Butter 79 - —Renovated Butter 80 - —Oleomargarine 80 - —Coco-Butter 80 - Buttermilk 80 - —Cooling Essential 81 - —Commercial Buttermilk 81 - —Ripening 82 - —Breaking up the Curd 82 - —Thick Milk 82 - —Yoghourt 83 - Fermented Milk 83 - —Koumis 83 - —Kefir 85 - - - CHAPTER III - - CHEESE 86 - Cheddar Cheese 89 - The Factory System 99 - —Ripening the Milk 90 - —Coloring and Setting with Rennet 92 - —Cutting the Curd 94 - —“Cooking” 94 - —Matting 95 - —Salting 97 - —Pressing 97 - —Curing 97 - —Form, size and packing 98 - —Cleaning the vats 101 - —Yield 102 - —Composition 102 - —Qualities 103 - Cheese Made from Pasteurized Milk 103 - Making Cheddar Cheese on the Farm 104 - Other Types of Hard Cheese 111 - —Gouda 112 - —Edam 112 - —Swiss 115 - —Roquefort 120 - —Parmesan 123 - —Caccio Cavallo 124 - —Limburger 125 - —Brick 125 - —Munster 126 - Soft Rennet Cheese 126 - —Neufchatel 126 - —Cream Cheese 127 - —Cured Soft Cheese 128 - —French Soft Cheese 128 - Cottage Cheese 129 - —Making Cottage Cheese with Rennet 132 - Snappy Cheese 134 - Club Cheese 134 - Whey Cheese 134 - Milk-Sugar 135 - Casein 135 - Milk Powder 136 - —Just-Hatmaker Process 136 - —Eckenberg Process 136 - —Merrell-Soule Process 136 - —Economic Process 136 - —Skim-Milk Powder 136 - —Whole-Milk Powder 136 - Condensed and Evaporated Milk 137 - Whey 138 - - - CHAPTER IV - - MILK AS A FOOD 139 - Nutrients 139 - —Protein 139 - —Fats and Carbohydrates 139 - —Mineral Matters 140 - —Relation 140 - —Nutritive Ratio 140 - —Calories 141 - —Fallacy of Theoretical Valuation 143 - —“Something Unknown” 143 - Care of Milk in the House 145 - —Keep the Milk Cool 145 - —Top-Milk 146 - Milk for Infants 148 - —Modifying Milk 148 - —Recipes for Infant Food 149 - Milk for Growing Children 152 - - - CHAPTER V - - MILK COOKERY 154 - Soups 155 - —Cream Soups 155 - —Cereal Cream Soups 157 - —Milk Chowders 158 - —Milk Stews 158 - Milk Cereals 159 - Luncheon and Supper Dishes 159 - —Creamed Dishes 160 - —Souffles 161 - —Cheese Fondu 161 - —Milk Toast 162 - Cheese Dishes as Meat Substitutes 162 - Cheese Salads 166 - Cottage Cheese 167 - Milk Breads and Biscuits 170 - Desserts 172 - Junkets 179 - Milk Beverages 181 - Miscellaneous Suggestions 184 - The Thermometer 184 - Weights and Measures 185 - - End Notes 187 - - Bibliography 188 - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - -The conception of this “Story of Milk” dates many years back. In his -life-long study of problems connected with dairy farming and milk -industries in two of the world’s greatest dairy countries, Denmark and -the United States, the author has felt the need of a concise handbook -covering this interesting subject. In his forty years of work in the -manufacture and distribution of dairy and milk-food preparations he has -been brought constantly into contact with men and women interested in -the production of milk and has found a persistent demand for a book that -might be consulted by anybody in regard to questions related to these -greatest of all foods, which are, or ought to be, a most important part -of the daily diet of children and adults alike, at all times, -everywhere. - -There was a time during the war when, frightened by the soaring of the -price which had remained remarkably low for many years, much too low in -fact compared with the cost of other food, people began to cut down the -consumption of milk to an alarming extent. Even the National Food -Administration for a short time recommended saving in the wrong place, -forgetting that, at the highest figures reached during the temporary -shortage, milk was still one of the cheapest of foods and that it was -absolutely indispensable for growing children and exceedingly beneficial -for men and women who were called upon to exercise their physical and -mental powers as never before. But with men like Dean Russell of the -Wisconsin Agricultural College in the Department and Dr. Graham Lusk of -Cornell University representing the United States on the Inter-Allied -Council of Alimentation, the Food Administration could not long maintain -this mistaken attitude but quickly joined the College authorities and -the representatives of the dairy industry in advocating a liberal use of -milk. And the Department of Agriculture sent out over the country a -large force of demonstrators to show the people how to use milk in -making cottage cheese and many other ways, and Agricultural Colleges, -Farm Bureaus and Home Economics Agents worked hand in hand with -Washington in disseminating the knowledge of handling and utilizing -milk. - -A genuine interest has been aroused in our country in the economy and -conservation of food, and in “The Story of Milk” the author hopes to -place at the disposal of the student of Domestic Science a comprehensive -book of reference which may open the eyes of many to the fact that there -is no more interesting subject than “Milk” in connection with the study -of the welfare and physical improvement of humanity, and that milk and -its products should be used to a much greater extent than heretofore. - -It would make a long list of references if the author should mention the -sources on which he has drawn for information beyond his own life-long -experience in the dairy and related industries. He desires to express -his sincere appreciation of the kindness and ready response of -institutions and friends to whom he has appealed for photographs and -cuts which have enabled him to illustrate the text so liberally. In the -back of the book will be found a brief bibliography of standard dairy -literature in which students may find material for further information. - -Many interesting data and several excellent illustrations have been -obtained from the bulletins and collections of the Department of -Agriculture in Washington and the Dairy Schools at Ithaca, N.Y., -Madison, Wis., and Ames, Ia. - -The Chapter on Milk Cookery was written and classified by the author’s -wife, whose practical experience will make it useful alike to -housekeepers and students of Domestic Science. - - J. D. FREDERIKSEN. - -Little Falls, N.Y., - -April, 1919. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - HISTORICAL - - -Milk and its products have been known and used from time immemorial. In -the Bible milk and milk foods are mentioned in some thirty places. In -Gen. 18:8 we read: “... and he (Abraham’s servant) took butter and milk -and set it before them ...”; 1 Sam. 17:28: “And Jesse said unto David, -his son: ... bring these ten cheeses unto the captain of their thousand -and look how thy brethren fare....”; Prov. 30:33: “For the churning of -milk bringeth forth butter,” etc. - -Though in some of these passages butter is mentioned it is hardly -probably that this product was really made or used at the time under the -climatic conditions in Palestine. More likely it was various kinds of -curd and cheese which the translator called butter. At any rate, the -Hebrews of that far-off day coveted milk and its products among their -most valued foods. From Egyptian, Greek and Roman history it appears -that knowledge of cheese goes back to the most ancient times and that it -was made from the milk of sheep, goats, cows, asses, mares, in fact from -all domestic animals; in the far North, Lapps and Eskimos still make it -from the milk of the reindeer, the Arabs use camel’s milk, Llama cheese -is famous in the Cordilleras and Zebu cheese in Ceylon and India. - -Even in ancient times the great food value of dairy products was -recognized. Plinius tells of Zoroaster that for twenty years he lived -exclusively on cheese, and Plutarch calls cheese one of the most -nourishing of foods. - -As time went by, the cow excelled all other domestic animals in capacity -for the production of milk and by constant use through centuries for the -one special purpose,—by care in feeding, breeding and selection,—special -breeds of cattle were developed which gave milk in extraordinarily large -quantities. - -[Illustration: - - From Maelkeritidende, Copenhagen -] - -[Illustration: - - Thomas R. Segelcke, father of scientific dairying in Denmark -] - -[Illustration: - - L. B. Arnold, noted dairy expert and writer, of Herkimer County, N.Y. -] - -In the cold climate of the northern countries where butter will keep for -a long time it has been made for centuries. The illustration above is -from a mural painting in an old church in Finland. Evidently at the time -when that was built the devil already played havoc with the churn and -even up to the days of our grand-fathers his Satanic Majesty was often -accused of preventing the butter from “coming.” - -Not until the middle of the nineteenth century did dairying take its -place among the important industries of the world and science begin to -be applied in its development. Between 1860 and 1870 Thomas R. Segelcke, -the “Father of Scientific Dairying” in Denmark, introduced the -thermometer in churning instead of the rule of thumb and started the -keeping of records in the manufacture of butter. N. J. Fjord started a -series of experiments in the creameries, continued through the next -decades, and which became models for similar work throughout the world, -covering pasteurization, ice houses and cold storage, comparison between -various systems for raising the cream, separators, feeding rations, -etc., and Denmark developed its agriculture and dairy industry to an -enviable position. About the same time Dr. Schatzman applied scientific -methods in cheese making in Switzerland and Jesse Williams started the -first American cheese factory near Rome, N.Y., while L. B. Arnold, X. A. -Willard, Harris Lewis, Harry Burrell and many other progressive dairymen -made Herkimer County cheese famous. - -From New York, dairy farming spread rapidly westward through Ohio to -Michigan and Northern Illinois, where butter making was developed around -Elgin, and to Wisconsin, where Governor Hoard preached the gospel of -progress, Babcock invented and gave to the world the famous test that -bears his name and Russell made a specialty of dairy bacteriology. - -[Illustration: - - J. H. Monrad, the “Pen and Ink” buttermaker of New York Produce Review -] - -[Illustration: - - Governor W. D. Hoard, of Wisconsin, promotor of progressive methods of - dairying -] - -[Illustration: - - J. A. Ruddick, Dairy Commissioner of Canada -] - -J. H. Monrad, Assistant Dairy Commissioner of Illinois, student, writer -and lecturer on dairy subjects, collected and indexed one of the most -complete and valuable libraries of dairy literature found anywhere, -which after his death in 1915 was taken over and installed in special -rooms by Chr. Hansen’s Laboratorium in Copenhagen, where a librarian is -keeping it up to date and it is open to the public. - -In Canada, Dairy Commissioners Jas. W. Robertson and J. A. Ruddick, D. -M. McPherson, the “Cheese King,” and others contributed to an enormous -development of the manufacture of high-class cheese, and in New Zealand -and Australia similar progress was made. - -Business and science have vied with each other in increasing the output -of dairy products and improving their quality. In the table below, -showing estimates for 1917, some interesting figures are given of the -amount of milk produced in the United States and the uses to which it is -applied.[1] - - - _Uses to which milk is put (calculations based on estimates)_ - - ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────── - Item Lbs. of Milk Per Cent - ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────── - Product of 22,768,000 cows at 84,611,350,000 ── - 3,716 lbs. per an. - Disposition of milk product: ───── - 1,650,000,000 lbs. of butter 34,663,850,000 41.0 - (at 21 lbs. milk) - 420,000,000 lbs. of cheese (at 4,200,000,000 5.0 - 10 lbs. milk) - 975,000,000 lbs. of condensed 2,437,500,000 2.9 - milk (at 2½ lbs. milk) - 210,000,000 gals. of ice cream 3,150,000,000 3.7 - (weighing 6 lbs. to the - gallon, 10% fat) - 100,000,000 persons; 45% at 36,500,000,000 43.1 - 0.7 lb. a day (cities) farms - with dairy cows, 30%, 1.5 - lbs. per day; other farms - and small towns, 25%, 1 lb. - a day, approximately - 17,500,000 calves, whole milk 3,660,000,000 4.3 - (estimated) requirement - ───── - Total 84,611,350,000 100.0 - - -Although the table accounts for all the milk produced, it does not tell -the whole story, since the preparation of a number of products results -in the formation of vast quantities of by-products that are not used to -the fullest advantage for human food. - -New York City alone consumes 1,600,000 quarts of milk a day, but even -this enormous quantity means only 0.6 pint per capita. The consuming -public has been slow to realize the value of milk and its products, and -too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the fact that even at the largely -increased cost of all dairy products they are still some of the cheapest -and the most healthful of foods, especially for growing children, and -should be used in much larger quantities. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - THE STORY OF MILK - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - THE STORY OF MILK - - - - - CHAPTER I - - PRODUCTION, COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MILK, MILK FERMENTS, - PASTEURIZATION - - - DAIRY CATTLE - -[Illustration: - - Holstein -] - -A number of typical but widely different breeds of dairy cows have been -developed in various dairy countries, each owing to the soil and the -climatic conditions of its home, as well as to the skill and fancy of -the breeders, its characteristic features, form, color, etc. - -[Illustration: - - Herd of pure-bred Holstein cows on a farm in central New York -] - -=Milk-Breeds.=—The black and white _Holstein-Friesians_ (which, by the -way, had their home in Holland and not in Holstein) are known for their -large production of not very rich milk, while the _Guernseys_ and -_Jerseys_ give milk exceedingly rich in butter-fat. A good Holstein cow -will give from 7,000 to 10,000 lbs. of milk in a year, containing from -3¼% to 4% butter-fat. Some of them produce as much as 20,000 to 30,000 -lbs. in a year—nearly 4,000 gallons—just think of it! Jersey cows will -usually not produce as much in quantity as the Holsteins but Jersey milk -often contains 5% or 6% or more butter-fat, and a few of the best have -been known to produce 800 to 900 lbs. of butter in one year, an amount -equal to the cow’s own weight. The red _Danish_ cow is an exceedingly -good and highly bred milk producer which, however, has not been -introduced in the United States, but the Scotch _Ayrshires_ and the -_Brown Swiss_ are other well-known dairy breeds which are in favor with -many American farmers. - -[Illustration: - - Guernsey -] - -But, alas! too many herds of dairy cattle average less than 5,000 lbs. -of milk per cow per year and do not pay for their feed. - -[Illustration: - - Jersey cows -] - -[Illustration: - - Red Danish -] - -[Illustration: - - Ayrshire -] - -[Illustration: - - Shorthorn, beef-strain -] - -Many native cows respond, however, to good care and feed and with a -thoroughbred bull a satisfactory herd can readily be built up from -carefully selected native stock. Such continued cross-breeding is more -apt to succeed than attempts to cross two thoroughbred breeds because -the characteristic features in full-blooded animals are so strong as to -invariably predominate in the progeny over the less pronounced forms and -tendencies inherent in native cows. But where two full-blooded animals -are mated and the strong characteristics in each are fighting for -predominance the result is apt to be a poor, ill-proportioned offspring -as the result of atavism. - -[Illustration: - - Shorthorn, milk-strain -] - -=Beef-Cattle.=—Cattle bred and developed for the purpose of producing -beef rather than milk are called by contrast beef-cattle. As examples of -beef-cows look at the _Shorthorns_ or the _Herefords_ or the _Polled -Angus_ at the next State Fair you visit and notice the square, deep, -smooth body with muscles and fat strongly developed in contrast to the -loosely built, bony milk-cow with its tendency to turn all its food into -milk at the expense of the body. There are, however, also among the -Shorthorns, strains of good milkers, but as a rule these beef-breeds are -not selected for the dairy farm, and “dual purpose” cows are not usually -profitable. - -=Food and Water.=—The natural food for the dairy cow in summer is grass, -and where rich, succulent grass and clover grow in abundance, as on the -fertile meadows of Holland and the Channel Islands, or the Swiss Alps, -the highly cultivated Danish farms, the eastern and middle-western -states of America, etc., dairying early reached its highest development. -As the value of milk and its products for human food became more -generally recognized and all-the-year-round production was forced, it -was found necessary to feed the cows heavily in winter too, not only -hay, but also grain and succulent food such as beets and corn-ensilage -(green corn cut, stalks, cobs and all, and packed in a silo), and -science was taken into play to formulate _Balanced Rations_ containing -the proper amounts and proportions of the various nutrients—Protein, Fat -and Carbohydrates. It is not the place here to go deeper into this -problem which has long been a subject for thorough research and -experiments. In fact, more attention has been paid to the feeding of -cattle than to the proper nourishment of human beings, and much of what -we know about the latter has been deducted from experience and study on -the dairy farm, and from laboratory work along that line. In the chapter -on “Milk as a Food” we are taking up food values, etc., in relation to -the feeding of children and men. Suffice it here to say that the same -fundamental principles apply to the feeding of calves and cattle for the -production of milk and beef. And we wish to emphasize the fact that, -with due consideration to the proper proportion between the various -groups of nutrients, it is much more important that the food is -succulent, appetizing and easily digestible than that the ration shall -be accurately balanced. - -[Illustration: - - Cutting ensilage and filling the silo -] - -This fact, long well known to practical breeders and dairymen, has -recently been confirmed by Dr. E. V. McCullom to whose experiments -further reference is made in the chapter on milk as a food for children. -He shows that there is a very great difference in the quality of Protein -and Fat from various sources and that there is “Something Unknown” in -butter-fat, for instance, which is absent in most other fats and which -is vital for the growth of the child as well as for the proper -nourishment of man. This unknown but essential substance is also found, -in small quantities, in the leaves of certain plants, as in alfalfa, -while it is absent in the grain of the cereals. - -[Illustration: - - An abundant crop of alfalfa hay; cut three times during the summer. - Supplies protein in the ration -] - -In modern dairy farming _alfalfa_ is considered an indispensable source -for protein, and corn-ensilage or beets for carbohydrates, while bran, -cottonseed meal or oil cake, malt-sprouts, gluten, distillers’ grain, -etc., may be used to advantage in various combinations. - -[Illustration: - - Cows milked with machine -] - -Contrary to a general impression one cannot feed fat into the milk. A -large amount of oil cake or other food rich in fat in the daily ration -does not increase the percentage of butter-fat in the milk. Rather, it -depends largely upon the breed and to some extent upon the period of -lactation. Provided the food agrees with her digestion and keeps the cow -in a good, healthy condition, the composition of the milk is not changed -to any appreciable extent by a change in make-up of the food. - -It goes without saying that to produce from 20 to 50 lbs. of milk a day -the cow must have an abundance of _fresh, pure water_ to drink and she -should not have access to stagnant water. - -=The Barn= must be clean, light and well ventilated and the cows should -be milked with clean hands into a clean pail which is covered as far as -possible so as to prevent dust from falling into the milk, or with one -of the excellent milking machines which are now frequently used in large -dairies. The milk is strained and cooled immediately after milking. - -[Illustration: - - Milking machine -] - -[Illustration: - - In the partly covered milk-pail dust does not fall as readily as in - the one entirely open -] - -=Milking.=—The cows are usually milked twice a day; occasionally, when -the highest possible yield is desired, as in important tests, three or -four times. The first five days after the birth of the calf the -milk,—the Colostrum so called,—is not normal and should not be used for -human consumption. It may be fed to the calf. The first three to four -months the yield of milk generally is higher than later, when it -gradually drops until after about ten months it stops altogether and the -cow goes “dry” at least for some six weeks before dropping the next -calf. The highest annual yield may be obtained by having the cows “come -in” in the Fall or early Winter and feeding them well all Winter to keep -up an abundant flow of milk. Then, when they come out on pasture in the -Spring,—in the latitude of the Great Lakes about May 15th,—the fresh, -rich feed will stimulate production and give it a fresh start so that -the milk-pail may continue to be filled during the next few months and -the shrinkage of the yield will not occur until the time when the -pastures dry up. The cow will then go dry in the early Fall, when feed -is scarce. Usually, however, the cows are allowed to “come in” in the -Spring and the yield of milk begins to shrink in the late Summer with -little or nothing in the Winter. - -[Illustration: - - Milking on a Danish farm -] - -=Test the Cows.=—To ascertain if a cow pays for her feed the amount and -the quality of the milk should be tested and computed for the year. If -the milk from each cow cannot be weighed every day it may be done -regularly once a month or preferably oftener. If it is weighed morning -and evening once every ten days it is easy to keep the account by -multiplying the number of pounds by ten and adding the totals for the -year. Occasionally the milk may be subjected to the Babcock Test to -ascertain its richness; three or four times during the period of -lactation is sufficient. - -Where farmers do not have time to do the testing themselves they often -combine and hire a young man or woman, trained in an agricultural -college, to go around from farm to farm and do the work. These experts -not only test the yield and the percentage of fat but also weigh and -compute the feed so as to help the farmer make up his rations and -calculate whether each cow pays for her feed or not. The members of -these associations meet and compare notes and a friendly rivalry is -stimulated which may do much toward increasing production. As a matter -of fact, where Cow Test Associations have been introduced, both yield -and quality of the milk have been largely increased. - -[Illustration: - - Dr. Bernhard Bang of Copenhagen, Denmark -] - -=Healthy Cows= alone can be depended upon to produce sanitary milk. In -many herds of milk-cows tuberculosis is prevalent, and constant -vigilance is necessary to prevent its spread. The _Tuberculin Test_ -discovered by Koch is invaluable for the purpose of ascertaining the -presence of tuberculosis. It is not necessary, however, to kill every -infected animal. Only where the lungs or the udder is affected and a -physical examination shows an advanced stage of the disease such radical -means are advisable. When the tuberculin test was first introduced many -valuable herds were wantonly and foolishly killed off because some of -the highly developed dairy cows showed reaction to the test while -worthless scrubs were allowed to live and spread the disease. For only -the intelligent and public-spirited owners of fine herds submitted their -cows to the test, a reaction to which, under ill-advised regulations, -permitted state officials to condemn the infected herds. In Denmark Dr. -Bernhard Bang introduced a system of isolation of the infected animals -which together with _Compulsory Pasteurization_ of the milk from such -cows has proved efficient for the eradication of tuberculosis, and the -_Bang Method_ is now generally recognized as the proper way of handling -the matter. - - - COMPOSITION OF COW’S MILK - - Cow’s milk contains on an average in 100 lbs.: - - 87 lbs. of water - 4 lbs. of butter-fat - 3¼ lbs. of casein and albumin (protein) - 5 lbs. of milk sugar - ¾ lbs. of ash (mineral matter) - 100 lbs. total. - -It consists therefore of 87% water and 13% “solids,” 4 of which are fat -and 9, “solids—not fat.” =Butter-Fat= is found in milk in the form of -minute globules suspended in the liquid. As fat or oil is lighter than -water (has less specific gravity) it naturally floats and the fat -globules therefore soon rise to the top when milk stands at rest, -forming a layer of _cream_ which may be skimmed off from the _milk_. In -chemical composition butter-fat is very nearly the same as other animal -and vegetable fats, but the slight variation may make a lot of -difference in digestibility and palatability as well as in nutritive -value, and it is a mistake to consider Oleomargarine, Butterine, -Nut-Butter and other substitutes for butter “just as good” because a -chemical analysis shows them to contain “almost” the same elements or -compounds. These products may be good and legitimate if sold for what -they are, but should never be allowed to be sold or served for what they -are not, genuine butter. - -[Illustration: - - Composition of cow’s milk -] - -=Casein and Albumin= are the proteids or nitrogenous matters of the -milk, in chemical composition and in food value much the same as the -protein in beans and peas or in meat, or the white of eggs. Casein is -present in much larger quantity than albumin and is distinguished from -the latter by being precipitated by rennet, which has no effect on -albumin. Casein may also be precipitated by acids, while it required -boiling as well as acidity to throw the albumin out of solution. - -=Milk-Sugar= is related to the vegetable sugars, glucose, cane sugar, -etc., and remains in solution in the whey which separates out from the -cheese-curd when milk is curdled with rennet or acids. The whey also -contains the mineral matters or _ash_, which consists largely of -phosphate of lime, of use to the young in building up bones. When whey -is boiled down to a thick syrup and left to stand, the sugar will -crystallize out and may be separated from the liquid, still holding in -solution the mineral matters. - -[Illustration: - - Fat globules as they appear under the microscope -] - -=Mineral Matters.=—These may be gathered as _ash_ by boiling off the -water from this liquid or from the whole milk and burning the rest, as -all the constituents except the ash belong to what in chemistry is -called organic matter, which disappears in the air by burning. - - -[Illustration: - - Dr. S. M. Babcock of Madison, Wis. -] - - HOW TO TEST MILK - -Milk may be adulterated or decreased in value either by skimming or by -watering. In either case the percentage of the most valuable -constituent, the butter-fat, is diminished. It is upon this fact that -the most practical test, the Babcock, is based. - -[Illustration: - - Babcock test outfit -] - -=The Babcock Test.=[2]—By treating a sample of milk with strong -sulphuric acid the butter-fat is liberated as an oil. By subjecting the -mixture to centrifugal force the light butter oil is separated from the -rest of the milk and the percentage can be easily determined. -Centrifugal force had already been used in the Fjord Cream Test, but it -remained for Dr. Babcock to work out the splendid practical and reliable -test which bears his name and in which he has given to the world an -invention of incalculable value. - -[Illustration: - - A two-bottle machine -] - -=Sampling.=—Whether it is new milk or skim milk or buttermilk or cream -that is to be tested the first thing to observe is to take a _truly -representative sample_. The liquid must be thoroughly mixed by pouring -it several times from one vessel to another, or stirring vigorously. - -It may not always be convenient to make a test immediately when the -sample is taken. In the creamery where the milk is paid for according to -its fat contents, samples are taken every day from every patron’s milk -and it would take too much time for the butter maker to test all of -these samples before they would spoil. A preservative, corrosive -sublimate,—poisonous but all right for the purpose,—is therefore added -and all the samples of one farmer’s milk for several days or a whole -week are put together in one glass to be kept and tested at one time. -This is called a composite test and has proven entirely satisfactory. - -=The Lactometer= has been used to discover adulterations, depending upon -the difference in specific gravity of the various constituents. The -specific gravity of whole milk is about 1.032 which means that, if a -certain volume of water weighs 1.000 weight units, the same volume of -whole milk weighs 1.032, the same volume of butter-fat weighs, say, -.900, or of cream about 1.000, and of skim milk 1.036 units. If the -Lactometer shows a sample of milk to have a higher specific gravity than -1.032 it may therefore be suspected of having been skimmed. But it will -readily be seen that by removing from whole milk some of the cream and -adding water, the specific gravity can easily be brought back to normal -for whole milk. This test is therefore unreliable and has been discarded -with the advent of the Babcock. - -[Illustration: - - The acidemeter -] - -=Acidity Test.=[3]—The acidity, or sourness, of milk or cream, which -depends upon the amount of lactic acid developed in it, may be tested by -a liquid normal alkali or by the Farrington Alkaline Tablets, a solution -of which added to sour milk neutralizes the acid. A few drops of an -indicator, Phenolpthalein, added to the milk, turns it pink when all the -acid has been neutralized, and the amount of alkali solution used shows -the percentage of acid in the milk. This is quite important in preparing -“starters” for ripening the cream in butter making or milk in cheese -making, and in the manufacture of “Commercial Buttermilk,” etc. - -There are other tests used in scientific dairying as the _Fermentation -Test_ to ascertain the relative purity of milk, the _Casein Test_, etc., -but the above are those mostly used besides the _Bacterial Count_ which -is mentioned under the chapter on “Milk Supply,” and the _Rennet Test_ -described under “Cheese Making.” - - - FERMENTS - -Two classes of ferments are of importance in connection with milk: (1) -“unorganized” or chemical ferments, the “enzymes,” and (2) “organized” -ferments such as bacteria and yeast. - - _Enzymes_ - -=Rennet.=—Among the unorganized ferments, _Rennet_ or _Rennin_ is highly -important on account of its power of coagulating or curdling milk by -precipitation of the casein. Rennet is extracted from the stomach of the -suckling or milk-fed calf, where it serves in digesting the calf’s food. -It is in the market in the form of a liquid extract as well as a dry -powder compressed into tablets (Rennet Tablets and Junket Tablets). The -characteristics and use of rennet are described under “Cheese Making” in -Chapter III. - -=Pepsin= is another enzyme the office of which in the process of -digestion is to dissolve albuminoids. It is not considered identical -with rennet though in an acid solution it will curdle milk. It occurs in -the stomachs of grown animals fed on solid food and is usually produced -from hogs’ stomachs. - - - Bacteria - -Everywhere, in the air, in water, in the soil, and clinging to every -object in the world, are minute organisms known under the common names -of _bacteria_ or _microbes_. In contrast to rennet and the other -“unorganized” ferments, bacteria belong to the “organized” class. Some -are harmful, producing putrefaction, dissolution, poisons or disease; -others are beneficial, leading to desirable fermentations and changes; -others again are indifferent, neither good nor bad, but harmless. - -As the milk comes from the cow it is almost free from bacteria, but milk -makes an excellent soil for many of these organisms to grow in, and they -soon get in, to multiply with enormous rapidity at any temperature from -60° to 100° F. - -=Lactic Acid Bacilli= are bacteria of special importance to the -dairyman, for they convert sugar of milk into lactic acid and produce -various more or less agreeable flavors. They are also powerful -germicides and scavengers, destroying or neutralizing the products of -other bacteria which in the absence of these bacteria and the lactic -acid produced by them would play havoc with the food and produce -putrefaction or disease. Everybody who handles milk knows that pure sour -milk or buttermilk in which lactic acid bacteria abound keeps well for a -long time, free from other fermentations which have no chance to develop -in their presence. It is due to this purifying property that Metchnikoff -recommended Bulgarian sour milk as a health food, asserting that it -prevents harmful fermentations in the digestive channel. - - - The Control of Bacteria - -The principal means at our disposal to prevent or control and regulate -bacterial growth are: - -_Cleanliness_, _Heat_, _Cold_ and _Disinfectants_. - -=Cleanliness.=—Only the most scrupulous cleanliness will prevent -contamination. Hence the necessity of thorough scouring and sterilizing -of all utensils, and the need for fresh air and pure water. - -=Heat.=—The prevention of fermentation in milk by heating is called -“sterilization” or “pasteurization” according to the intensity of the -heat and the length of time the milk is subjected to it. Boiling -destroys almost all bacterial life. Some germs require, however, -exposure to a much higher temperature, up to 250° F. (boiling under -pressure), to be entirely eradicated, but for all practical purposes a -thorough boiling is considered sufficient to eliminate all danger of -contamination. Such boiling is usually termed _Sterilization_. - -[Illustration: - - Effect of heating milk to various temperatures. - Published by the Toronto Board of Health -] - -=Cooling= checks bacterial growth and but few germs thrive at a -temperature below 50° F. The following table and diagram[4] show how -quickly bacteria multiply in milk at ordinary room temperature, 68° to -70°, which emphasizes the importance of keeping milk cool. - - - _Relative growth of bacteria when held at different temperatures_ - - ──────────┬──────────┬──────────┬──────────┬──────────┬────────── - │ No. of │ │ │ │ - Tem. of │ bacteria │ At end │At end of │At end of │At end of - Milk │ per c.c. │of 6 hrs. │ 12 hrs. │ 24 hrs. │ 40 hrs. - │ at │ │ │ │ - │beginning │ │ │ │ - ──────────┼──────────┼──────────┼──────────┼──────────┼────────── - °F. │ │ │ │ │ - 50 │ 10 │ 12 │ 15 │ 41 │ 62 - 68 │ 10 │ 17 │ 242 │ 61,280 │3,574,990 - ──────────┴──────────┴──────────┴──────────┴──────────┴────────── - - - - -[Illustration: - - Milk cooler -] - -If the milk had contained 1,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter at the -beginning, the part held at 50° F. would have contained 4,100 bacteria -at the end of 24 hours, while that held at 68° F. would have contained -6,128,000. The effect of temperature upon the growth of bacteria is -shown graphically in the cut. - -But even _frost does not kill_ the bacteria. If milk which has been kept -sweet or at the desired degree of sourness by cooling is allowed to get -warm again, the bacteria which have been kept dormant will get a fresh -start. For this reason milk and cream for city supply should not only be -cooled strongly, but must be kept thoroughly chilled up to the time they -are used, which means that they should be delivered cool to the -consumer, and kept on ice in the house, never being allowed to warm up -until used. - -[Illustration: - - The diagram (after Conn) shows the rapidity with which bacteria - multiply in milk not properly cooled. A single bacterium (a) in 24 - hours multiplied to 5 (b) in milk kept at 50° F.; (c) represents the - number that develop from a single bacterium in milk kept 24 hours at - 70° F. -] - -=Disinfectants.=—Antiseptics, such as benzoate of soda, formalin, -boracic acid, etc., are not permissible _in_ milk, but _disinfectants_ -such as soda, lime, washing powders, etc., should be freely used in -cleaning utensils, bottles, floors and walls where milk is handled, so -as to prevent as far as possible any infection. - - - PASTEURIZATION - -[Illustration: - - Louis Pasteur, French scientist and originator of the process of - pasteurization. -] - -Pasteurization depends upon the fact that almost all bacteria, and -especially the disease-producing species, are checked in their growth -and made harmless, if not totally destroyed, by instantaneous exposure -to a temperature of 175° F., or a more or less prolonged exposure to -lower temperature, for instance for 20 minutes to 157° or 30 minutes to -145°. These lower temperatures are recommended in the case of new milk -to be consumed as such, in order not to change its digestibility. -Pasteurizers with “holding devices” are therefore largely taking the -place of the “continuous” sterilizing machines, which allow only -momentary exposure to the highest temperature. - -Whatever method is used it is essential that after the heating is -finished the milk should be cooled as quickly as possible to a -temperature sufficiently low to prevent development of the germs that -have not been entirely destroyed by the heat and which, if the milk is -left for any length of time at a temperature favorable for bacterial -life—anywhere between 65° and 110°,—will begin to grow again. Cool the -milk to below 60° and if possible to 50° or 40°. - -Sometimes a second pasteurization is practiced, the milk being purposely -allowed to stand at 70° to 80° for 12 to 24 hours after the first -pasteurization for the germs which escaped destruction to develop into -full-grown bacteria. They are then killed by the second heating before -the milk is finally chilled to stop any further growth. - -Pasteurization can be done by placing the milk in any tin or enamelled -or glass vessel, set in another vessel containing water (a double -boiler). Heat until the milk has reached the desired temperature, hold -it at that temperature the necessary time, and then place the vessel in -cold running water or in ice water until the milk is thoroughly chilled. -It is not advisable to place the hot milk in the ice box as cooling in -air is too slow. Not until it is thoroughly cooled in water is it safe -to put it in the ice box to _keep_ it cool. - -[Illustration: - - N. J. Fjord, Danish investigator -] - -In the seventies Prof. N. J. Fjord, in Denmark, applied to milk the -process which had been developed by Louis Pasteur in France to give -keeping quality to wine and beer. A Danish dairy expert, J. Moldenhauer, -now connected with the New York State Department of Agriculture, first -brought the process to this country and used pasteurization in a city -creamery in Kentucky. American experiment stations established the -temperatures and the time of exposure necessary for best results, and no -one has done more for the introduction of pasteurization than the New -York philanthropist, Nathan Straus, who has established pasteurizing -plants and milk distributing stations in many localities, thereby -contributing so largely to the lowering of the death rate among the -children of the poor. - -[Illustration: - - The Straus Pasteurizer -] - -[Illustration: - - A continuous pasteurizer -] - -The following directions are given by the Straus Pasteurized Milk -Laboratories of New York for the pasteurization of milk for babies: - -1. Only use fresh, filtered milk, which has been kept cold, and proceed -as follows: - -2. Set the bottles, after they have been thoroughly cleaned, into the -tray (a), fill them to the neck, and put on the corks or patent -stoppers. - -3. The pot (b) is then placed on a wooden surface (table or floor) and -filled to the three supports (in the pot) with boiling water. - -4. Place tray (a), with the filled bottles, into the pot (b), so that -the bottom of the tray rests on the three supports, and put cover (c) on -quickly. - -[Illustration: - - Milk cooler -] - -5. After the bottles have been warmed up by the steam for five minutes, -remove the cover quickly, turn the tray so that it drops into the water. -The cover is to be put on again immediately. This manipulation is to be -made very quickly, so that as little steam as possible can escape. Thus -it remains for twenty-five minutes. - -6. Now take the tray out of the water and cool the bottles with cold -water and ice as quickly as possible, and keep them at this low -temperature till used. - -7. Before use, warm the milk—in the bottles—to blood heat. Never pour it -into another vessel. - -8. The milk must not be used for children later than twenty-four hours -after pasteurization. Never use remnants. - -In a _Continuous Pasteurizer_ a constant stream of milk is fed into the -machine, heated by flowing over a metal surface with steam or hot water -on the opposite side, and cooled by running over a cooler furnished with -a stream of cold water or ice water. - - - PURE CULTURES - -[Illustration: - - Professor V. Storch, originator of pure cultures for ripening cream - and milk -] - -Before 1890 it was supposed that the flavor of fine butter depended upon -certain volatile oils and acids peculiar to butter-fat. In the early -nineties Professor V. Storch of the Danish Experiment Station showed, -however, that it was due rather to the products of bacteria and he -isolated the lactic acid bacilli which would produce such exquisite -flavor even when perfectly neutral and tasteless butter-fat was churned -with milk acidified or ripened with a pure culture of these bacilli. In -this country Dr. H. W. Conn of Wesleyan University, Storrs, Conn., did -much to advance the theory and practice of ripening cream with a pure -culture starter. - -“Pure cultures” are produced in the bacteriological laboratory by -picking out under the microscope colonies of the desired species of -bacteria, planting them in a sterilized medium and allowing them to grow -under the most favorable conditions and with the exclusion of all other -germs. - -[Illustration: - - Streptococcus lacticus (Storch, No. 18) -] - -[Illustration: - - Bacterium lactis acidi (from Storch) -] - -When such a culture has reached its maximum growth it is transplanted -into a larger quantity of a sterilized medium containing proper -nourishment for the particular organism. In the bacteriological -laboratory, where alone absolute sterility of utensils and medium, and -entire exclusion of foreign infection are possible, the culture may -remain pure while this inoculation and propagation are repeated over and -over again. But when the propagation is carried on in the house or the -dairy, for instance in preparing starters or buttermilk, such absolute -cleanliness is impossible and in the long run infections will creep in -from the air or from the utensils and after a while it becomes necessary -to start with a new “pure culture.” How often such renewal must be -resorted to depends largely upon the surroundings and the care of the -operator. Usually it must be done after a week’s time, although it is -surprising to find milk preparations made by the simplest processes -equal in purity to those prepared with the assistance of bacteriological -science and technique. This is, for instance, the case in Bulgaria, -where the famous Yoghourt sour milk is prepared pure without special -care and in Denmark where the country is fairly permeated with the -lactic acid bacilli used in ripening the cream for the celebrated Danish -butter and where careful buttermakers often maintain their starters for -months or even for years without “renewal.” - -[Illustration: - - Typical lactic acid bacteria - (L. A. Rogers) -] - -There are many different varieties of bacteria which convert sugar of -milk into lactic acid, at the same time developing flavors more or less -agreeable and characteristic for the various products. In the -bacteriological laboratory certain species are selected which will -produce the results desired for the particular purpose in view. - -=Starters.=—Beginning with a commercial dry culture in the form of a -powder as generally used in the creamery or the cheese factory as well -as for the preparation of commercial buttermilk, or with buttermilk -tablets as used in the ordinary household or the hospital, such culture -is added to a small quantity of thoroughly pasteurized milk. If fresh, -sweet skim milk is available it is preferable to whole milk as the -butter-fat in the latter only interferes with the process; but either -can be used. - -Milk for starters should be strongly pasteurized by being kept at a -temperature near the boiling point—at least 180°—for 40 to 60 minutes, -then cooled to the degree at which it is to be set, usually between 65° -and 75°, somewhat higher for the first propagation with the pure culture -than for the subsequent transplantings when the bacteria, more or less -dormant in the dry powder or tablets, have attained full vitality. Some -species of bacteria, as the Bacillus Bulgaricus, require higher -temperatures—90° to 100° or even 110°—than others. The culture having -been thoroughly incorporated in the milk by vigorous and repeated -stirring or shaking, the milk is left at rest in an incubator or a -waterbath or wrapped in paper or cloth in a warm room where an even -temperature can be maintained, until it is curdled, which may take 18 to -24 hours or even longer for the first propagation. - -One part of this curdled milk is now added to 5 or 10 parts of fresh -pasteurized milk and set to ripen in the same way as described above, -possibly at a little lower temperature, and this is repeated every day, -thus maintaining the “Mother Starter.” After the second or third -propagation the bulk of each batch is used as a starter in the larger -lot of material to be ripened, be it cream for butter or milk for cheese -or for commercial buttermilk, while a little is taken for maintenance of -the mother starter as described above. - -The _amount of starter_ to prepare every day depends upon the amount of -milk or cream to be ripened and the per cent of starter used in same. -For instance, if you have ten gallons of cream to ripen every day in -which you wish to use about 10% or 12% starter, or one gallon, take a -little less than one pint of the first or second propagation for one -gallon of milk; the next day use one pint of this to add to a gallon of -fresh starter milk, and the remaining gallon to add to the ten gallons -of cream, and so on every day. - -If you have 4,000 lbs. of milk in the cheese vat to ripen with 2% or 80 -lbs. starter, prepare 88 lbs. of mother starter. If, on the other hand, -you wish to make only a quart of buttermilk every day, take, say, two -buttermilk tablets, crush them thoroughly in a spoonful of pasteurized -milk and stir this into a tumblerful of the same milk; let stand till it -is thickened the next day and use a tablespoonful of this thickened milk -in a quart of fresh pasteurized milk which when ripened is your -buttermilk, from which you take out a tablespoonful for starter in the -next batch, and so on. In this case there is no “mother starter” except -that perhaps the first tumblerful prepared with the tablets may be -called so, but afterwards the starter is taken right out of the finished -product every day. - -The process may be modified to suit special purposes and local -conditions, but the following precautions should be strictly observed: -(1) to interrupt the ripening immediately by quick and intense cooling -as soon as it has reached the proper point in case the ripened product -is not used at once, and (2) to _keep_ it ice-cold until it is used. If -this is done, it may be kept for two or three days without deterioration -if it is not convenient to make it fresh every day which, however, -should be the rule. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CHAPTER II - - MILK SUPPLY AND CREAMERY PRODUCTS - - -In the first chapter the composition of cow’s milk and the nature of its -constituents have been considered, the most important tests for its -richness and purity have been described, and the ferments have been -mentioned which instigate changes for good or for bad, together with the -means at disposal for regulating their activity. To use these means -intelligently in handling milk and its products is the key to the -dairyman’s success. - -We shall now briefly consider the various steps that are of importance -in modern dairy industry. - - - MILK SUPPLY - -In the first place, the farmer must furnish pure, clean, unadulterated -milk, fresh from the cow and cooled immediately after milking. His cows -must be healthy. - -=Bovine Tuberculosis.=—Many milk-cows, for the very reason that they -have been bred with the one purpose in view of turning all their food -into milk and wasting as little as possible in building up the body, are -more or less weak-chested and apt to suffer from tuberculosis. Unless -this disease is so far advanced as to affect the general health of the -cow, or it has spread to the milk organs, the udder and the teats, it is -not so dangerous as has heretofore been supposed. It is now held by the -great majority of physicians that bovine tuberculosis is hardly ever -transmitted to grown persons and seldom to children. Neither is it -hereditary. Nevertheless, wherever it is possible to have the herd -tested with tuberculin, segregating, if not killing, the animals which -show by reaction that they are somewhat tuberculous, it should be done. -Milk from such cows should always be pasteurized. - -=Milk as a Disease Carrier.=—A greater danger lies in the fact that, -warm as it comes from the cow, milk is an ideal medium for human disease -germs to grow in, and may thus become a great conveyor of such germs. -For this reason it is of the greatest importance that the milkers are -healthy and clean, that the udders and teats be free from dirt, and the -milk pail covered as far as possible; the barn must be clean, and every -source of infection excluded. This fact also points to the advisability -of pasteurization. On page 23 a chart is shown, published by the Toronto -Board of Health and indicating the temperatures at which various germs -of disease are made harmless. - -=Bacterial Count.=—The test for clean milk now mostly used is the -“Bacterial Count,” the number of bacteria—or rather colonies of -bacteria—found in a cubic centimeter of the milk. It would be better if -the nature or quality of the bacteria could be taken into consideration -as well as the quantity, but that being as yet impracticable, the next -best thing is to depend upon the number. Ordinary good milk often -contains hundreds of thousands of bacteria in a cubic centimeter, but -where the greatest cleanliness is observed the number may be less than -1,000. - -=Certified Milk= is now sold in many cities which, according to varying -city ordinances, is guaranteed to have less than 10,000 or 20,000 or -30,000 bacteria, as the case may be. - -[Illustration: - - Counting the bacteria in a cubic centimeter of milk -] - -The cost of producing certified milk places it beyond the reach of the -great majority of consumers. But such care and cleanliness as can be -observed by the farmer and the milkman without extra expense should be -insisted upon, and milk which nevertheless contains a large number of -bacteria can be made safe by pasteurization. - -=The Sanitary Code.=—The regulation of the production and delivery of -milk in cities and towns as well as at creameries and cheese factories, -the “Sanitary Code” established by state and municipal health -authorities, has been very effective in improving the quality of the -supply. So enormous have been the improvements in caring for and -handling the products by the large establishments engaged in the -delivery of milk as to make the increase in cost seem trifling compared -with the great benefit to the public health secured by these agencies. - -=New York State Milk Grading.=—The New York State Board of Health -prescribes a grading for milk offered for sale, the most important -features of which are as follows: - -_Certified._—Must be produced under specially sanitary conditions -approved by a county medical commission. - -_Grade A Raw._—Cows must be tuberculin tested and milk must not contain -over 60,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. - -_Grade A Pasteurized._—Cows must be subjected to physical examination -and milk must not contain more than 200,000 bacteria before, nor more -than 30,000 after pasteurization. - -Other grades permitted under the rules, all subject to inspection and -approval of the authorities, are: - - _Grade B Raw._ - _Grade B Pasteurized._ - _Grade C Raw._ - _Grade C Pasteurized._ - -Deliveries must be made within a certain time after production or -pasteurization, barns and milk stations are inspected, and altogether -such safeguards are employed as to make the supply exceedingly safe and -reliable. - -=City Delivery.=—In villages and small cities the milk supply is still -to a large extent in the hands of farmers who come to town early in the -morning peddling their milk, often at considerable waste of time for -horse and man. Or a number of peddlers go over the same route so that it -takes a dozen wagons to cover a town where three or four could do it. - -As long as there was no efficient regulation as to price and quality -such waste was perhaps unavoidable, as competition on the part of the -producers and distributors was the only means of protection for the -consumers. But lately state and municipal control is being exercised to -such an extent as to largely eliminate the danger of poor milk and -exorbitant prices. Further development of organized delivery systems so -much to be desired for sanitary as well as for economical reasons, may -be looked for as soon as normal conditions return after the close of the -war. The delivery of milk is one of the things that in the interest of -public health must be under the strictest official control, and -_co-operation_ between farmers and consumers is the logical system for -elimination of unnecessary expenses of distribution and for prompt and -satisfactory service. Their interests are or should be identical and -both classes are hurt by inefficient and wasteful delivery. - -In the large cities there has grown up an industry which largely -monopolizes the milk supply and which until lately was powerful enough -to dictate prices and conditions both for producers and consumers. -Several attempts have been made from time to time by farmers to combine -to regulate prices and dictate the terms to the middlemen. Such attempts -have, however, invariably failed as long as they were built on false -economic principles and prompted by selfish interests only. No farmers’ -association can be strong enough to ignore the law of supply and demand, -and it is only quite recently that the _Dairymen’s League_ has succeeded -in influencing the market by taking into consideration the actual cost -of production of milk as worked out by the agricultural colleges, and -fixing the price on a scientific basis. There is one other element -entering into the causes on which the price to the consumers depends, -namely, _Transportation_, and while municipal boards of health are -looking after the sanitary conditions and prevention of adulteration, -State and Federal authorities are stepping in as moderators or -arbitrators to reconcile the interests of the _Producers_, the _Railroad -Companies_, the _Distributors_ and the _Consumers_. The next step in the -development will no doubt be towards full co-operation between producers -and consumers and, to a large extent, elimination of the “middlemen.” - -It should not be forgotten, however, that while the much abused -middlemen in time past have been able to dictate terms and prices and -have often abused the privilege; they have at the same time used their -influence and power to improve the milk supply. As the supply of oil and -gasoline has been perfected and cheapened by the all-powerful Standard -Oil Co. as a monopoly crushing all competition, so the “Milk Trust” has -improved the distribution of milk and has built up the magnificent -sanitary plants in which milk is handled, pasteurized, bottled and -distributed in a way that might not have been possible without the -monopoly. It has served a good purpose, but has at the same time -acquired such power that official control has become necessary for the -protection of producers and consumers alike, and the time may be near -when these two classes will combine and take the matter into their own -hands so that the distribution may be done at actual cost. - -[Illustration: - - Milk station in the country where milk is received from the farmers to - be shipped to the city -] - -=Milk Stations= are plants erected in dairy sections in the country -either by the city milk supply houses or by co-operating farmers, where -the milk is delivered and handled so as to make it ready for shipment to -the city. As in the creamery and the cheese factory, the milk is -carefully examined and, if it is not sweet and pure, it is rejected and -sent back to the farm. Any impure flavor remains in the cover for some -time and is easily detected by smelling of the cover as soon as it is -removed from the can. - -A sample is taken and put aside for the Babcock test and perhaps another -for the Fermentation test. Each farmer’s milk is weighed in the _Weigh -Can_ and run through a cheese-cloth strainer. The further treatment -varies in different plants. The milk may simply be cooled by running it -over a cold water or brine cooler and placing it in shipping cans in the -refrigerator or in ice water until the milk-train comes along to pick up -the cans. Or it may be clarified by running it through a centrifugal -machine, the same as a separator, in which, however, cream and milk are -not separated, but impurities are thrown out by the centrifugal force -and deposited on the wall of the bowl, and the purified milk may then be -pasteurized and bottled before being shipped to the city. - -[Illustration: - - Receiving milk at the milk station -] - -Arriving in the city in iced cars the milk is taken to one of the -elaborate plants in which it is pasteurized and bottled, if that has not -been done at the country station. The machinery used in these plants is -getting more and more perfect and expensive and leaves little to be -desired as to sanitary requirements and economy in handling. -Pasteurizers, bottling machines, bottle-washing machines, conveyors, -etc., are wonders of ingenuity, and one needs only to see one of these -modern plants to understand that in a large city milk can only be -handled to advantage in expensive establishments. - -=Skim Milk= is one of the cheapest of foods and under proper regulations -its sale should not be prohibited. The reason why in times past skim -milk has been discredited and excluded from sale was that, as produced -by the old methods of raising the cream, before the advent of the -separator, it was always more or less old and sour before it was -available and certainly before it could be distributed to consumers. -Under such conditions it was hardly ever fit for human food. But when -produced by the separator and pasteurized and cooled immediately -after—within a few hours after milking, which is entirely feasible—it is -an excellent and nutritious food for adults and even for children over -two years of age. Ripened with a pure culture of lactic acid bacteria, -it makes a healthful, refreshing drink, like buttermilk. Only when it is -allowed to sour without proper care or control does skim milk, as whole -milk does, become unfit for food or drink. On a cold winter morning when -men are going to work (or perhaps are looking for work which they cannot -find), and children are on their way to school, often underfed, a -street-corner wagon or stand where boiling hot, fresh, sweet skim milk -might be distributed at a cent or two a glass would be a blessing in any -city. - -[Illustration: - - Pasteurizing and bottling milk in a Borden plant -] - - - CREAM - -When new milk is left at rest the cream will rise to the top and after -12 to 24 hours a cream-line can be seen in the bottle. This cream-line -is sharper and more easily seen in raw milk than in pasteurized milk and -its absence is not always a sure sign of lack of richness or purity of -the milk. By cooling the milk thoroughly so that it will keep, almost -all the cream will be at the top in forty-eight hours and can be skimmed -off. The cream can be used for coffee or on cereals or fruits or -puddings; the skim milk left will still hold ½% or more of butter-fat -and can be used to drink or for cooking. - -=The Separator.=—On the farm or in the creamery the cream is no longer -raised by gravity, that is, by letting the milk “set” either in shallow -pans on the kitchen shelf or in deep cans in ice water, but the fresh, -warm milk is run through the separator in a continuous stream. - -[Illustration: - - Early conception of the separator -] - -It was noticed that the rising of the cream due to the difference in -specific gravity between the butter-fat and the milk-“serum” (the watery -solution of the other constituents) might be greatly hastened by -subjecting the milk to centrifugal force. This physical phenomenon was -taken advantage of in the first conception of the separator where it was -shown that if a pail of milk was whirled around like a stone in a sling -the heavier milk-serum would be thrown towards the bottom of the -separator pail with so much greater force than the lighter cream -(butter-fat mixed with a small part of the serum) that the separation -which would take 48 hours in the milk at rest, could be accomplished in -a few minutes when exposed to centrifugal force. From this early crude -attempt the continuous _bowl-separator_ was developed and still later a -number of divisions in the bowl were designed which increased the -capacity and efficiency of the machine wonderfully. The most successful -separator was designed by Dr. Gustaf De Laval of Sweden and the machines -bearing his name are used all over the world where butter is made. But -there are many other excellent separators on the market. - -[Illustration: - - Dr. Gustaf De Laval of Sweden, inventor of the separator bearing his - name -] - -In the machine the milk is separated instantaneously by centrifugal -force and runs out through two tubes, one for cream and the other for -skim milk. A small modern hand machine will take care of from 200 to -1,000 lbs. of milk an hour, and power machines are built to separate -6,000 lbs. or more. By regulating the cream-outlet a heavier or lighter -cream can be produced. - -[Illustration: - - Hand separator -] - -Suppose we are separating some milk containing 4% butter-fat. If ⅛ of -this milk is separated out as cream and contains all the butter-fat, the -cream will be eight times as rich in butter-fat as the original milk; -32% of the cream will be butter-fat. Such cream is called “32% cream.” -If we take ¼ as cream, we get a cream four times as rich as the milk, a -“16% cream.” So out of 100 lbs. of milk we can take 12½ lbs. (⅛) of 32% -cream, 25 lbs. (¼) of 16% cream, etc. - -Although the skim milk is really valuable as a food, it is worth but -little commercially; the cream containing the butter-fat is the -expensive part of the milk, and we must be prepared to pay for the cream -all that the milk would have cost. - -=Percentage of Butter-Fat.=—The “richness” of cream or milk and their -value depend upon the amount of butter-fat in them. So cream or milk is -often called “30% cream” or “20% cream” or “4% milk” according as 30% or -20% or 4% of the fluid is butter-fat; 30% cream is quite rich; ordinary -market cream varies between 18% and 40%, though it may fall below 18%, -or it may be sold as a very expensive article as high as 60%. Rich milk -may contain more than 6% of butter-fat and skim milk less than 0.1 of -one per cent. The average for good whole milk is between 3% and 4½%. - -For a long time scientists and scientific dairymen were the only ones to -speak of milk and cream in terms of percentage of butter-fat. Now, -however, people are beginning to realize how valuable a part of the milk -the butter-fat is and are paying more attention to the actual percentage -of butter-fat in the cream or milk they use. So it is no longer unusual -to see a dairyman advertise cream of a certain percentage or to hear a -housewife ask for it specifically. - -=Standardizing Cream.=—For ice cream or for preparing modified milk for -babies, it is often desirable to dilute rich cream to a certain lower -standard. The following simple steps can be taken to find out how much -milk to add for diluting: - -1. From the test—fat-percentage—of the rich cream subtract the test -desired. - -2. From the test desired subtract the test of the milk used for -diluting. - -3. Divide the first difference by the second, and the result will be the -number of pints (or pounds) of milk to be added for each pint (or pound) -of the rich cream. - -For instance, you may want to thin some 30% cream to 10% for making ice -cream. The milk to be added is skim milk. Then: - -1. 30 - 10 = 20. - -2. 10 - 0 = 10. - -3. 20 divided by 10 = 2. So for each pint of rich cream you may add 2 -pints of skim milk. - -Or you may wish to thin the 30% cream with whole milk, which has 4% -butter-fat. Again: - -1. 30 - 10 = 20. - -2. 10 - 4 = 6. - -3. 20 divided by 6 = 3⅓. So you may add 3⅓ pints of the whole milk to -each pint of the 30% cream and still have a 10% cream. - -=Pasteurized Cream= does not look as rich as raw cream, and fresh, sweet -cream appears to be thinner than when it is 24 hours old and slightly -ripened. So it is well, when buying cream, not to judge by appearances. -Demand of the milkman that he furnish you cream of a certain percentage -of butter-fat and see to it that you get what you pay for. If you have -no Babcock tester the milk inspector will test the cream for you. - -=Whipped Cream.=—For whipping, cream must be fairly rich, from 24% to -32%, and it must be cold. Fresh, sweet cream does not whip as readily as -that which has been kept for 12 or 24 hours in ice water. There is no -other secret connected with the process. Use a rich cream, suitably -cooled and aged, and with a good beater there can be no trouble in -getting a fine, stiff whipped cream. If the cream is too thin or too -warm it may not become stiff. Sometimes, when it is beaten too long, it -turns into butter and buttermilk. - -[Illustration: - - Installation in a Danish creamery. - From the separator at the right the cream runs through the continuous - pasteurizer which forces it up over the cooler whence it runs into - the cream-vat at the left. - (From Boggild—Maelkeribruget i Danmark) -] - -=Emulsified Cream.=—One of the recent additions to the already elaborate -machinery used in the creamery, the milk supply or the ice cream -business, is the _Emulsifier._ To be sure, emulsifiers were used thirty -to forty years ago to mix animal and vegetable fats—oleomargarine oil, -lard and cottonseed oil—into skim milk for “Filled Cheese” or for -Butterine, but lately they are serving new purposes in the milk -industry. By forcing melted butter-fat or oil mixed with water or skim -milk through exceedingly small apertures under high pressure, or -otherwise breaking up the mixture, an emulsion can be formed in which -the fat globules are much finer even than those in natural milk or -cream, and separation can be prevented. The force used in these -emulsifiers may be produced by powerful pumps, or a steam jet, or -centrifugal force under high speed; whichever system is used the -machines answer the same purpose, to produce a permanent emulsion in -which the oil or fat will stay in suspension even after cooling. In some -milk supply plants and ice cream factories all the cream is emulsified -and the system has especially been applied since the advent of the milk -powder. It is now a not infrequent practice to run the new milk through -the separator, make sweet, unsalted butter from the cream, and milk -powder from the skim milk, and to ship or store these products -separately where or until cream is wanted and then bring them together -again by running them through the emulsifier with a suitable amount of -water. At first thought this process would seem impractical and -uneconomical. But it has proven good business because in many cases and -places skim milk powder and butter keep better separately or can be -shipped at long distance to better advantage than new milk or cream or -condensed milk. In ice cream factories business may be dull in cold -weather and cream is perhaps not provided and not available, when -suddenly a hot spell brings orders for large quantities. With a stock of -skim milk powder and butter on hand in the refrigerator, and an -emulsifier to mix these products, cream can be produced on short notice -and there will be no danger of shortage. - - - ICE CREAM - -Ice cream has fast become the national dessert served on all festive -occasions, winter and summer. Originally it meant a frozen mixture of -sweetened and flavored milk and cream, but the name has long been -applied to all kinds of frozen delicacies in which cream enters as a -constituent. Not even there has the line been drawn, but gums, gelatine, -cornstarch, eggs and other “fillers” have been substituted or added to -thicken the mixtures and give “body” to “creams,” which have but little -relation to the genuine emulsion of butter-fat from cow’s milk. -Standardization has been attempted by National and State food -authorities with varying success of enforcement. While the application -of the name to a great variety of frozen desserts has no doubt become -legitimate by long usage it may properly be demanded that as an article -of merchandise “ice cream” shall contain at least 8% to 12% butter-fat -and that no ingredients dangerous to health enter into its manufacture. - -[Illustration: - - Hand freezer -] - -=Freezers.=—The freezing is usually done by contact of the material with -metal cooled on the other side by a “freezing mixture” of salt and ice -which produces temperatures far below the freezing point of water while -air is whipped into the cream by the rapid motion of the beater. A great -variety of excellent freezers of this kind for hand or for power are on -the market which answer the purpose for making ice cream at home or at -the ice cream parlor. - -Coarse-grained salt and crushed ice, mixed in the proportion of 1 part -salt to 4 parts of ice, are constantly filled into the space surrounding -the ice cream can, and the brine produced by the melting of the mixture -is gradually drawn off from the tub. In a good freezer the operation -should not take over fifteen minutes. When the cream is frozen to a soft -mush, stop the beater and scrape down the hard particles which may have -accumulated on the sides of the can, add any ingredients which may be -better incorporated at this stage than mixed into the original material, -such as crushed fruit or preserves, and finish the freezing without -carrying it too far. - -Remove the beater, stir the cream which should still be soft enough to -handle, and pack in ice with only a little salt. Or the cream may be -transferred from the freezer can to the shipping can and packed in it. -If bricks are wanted the soft cream is packed in molds of the desired -shape and size and buried in the freezing mixture to harden. - -In modern ice cream factories _Brine Freezers_ are generally used. In a -_Refrigerator Plant_ intensely low temperatures are produced by the -vaporizing of compressed ammonia or carbonic acid in an ice machine, and -brine circulating in iron pipes is cooled by such medium and may, in -turn, cool the air in the _Cold Storage_ room, or the cream in the -freezer, or pure water in metal boxes for the manufacture of _Artificial -Ice._ It has been attempted to make the brine freezers _continuous_, the -cream mixture being fed into the machine at one end and discharged -frozen at the other. But this system has not so far been successful, and -intermittent or batch freezers are most practical yet both for hand and -for power. - -[Illustration: - - Power brine freezer -] - -Rich material, frozen in a good machine, whether intermittent or -continuous, will expand from 50% to 100%, and the original material -should not fill the freezer can more than half full. - -The manufacture of ice cream has been the subject of study and -experiments for years in the Dairy Department of the Agricultural -College at Ames, Iowa, where Professor M. Mortensen has worked out a -comprehensive classification from which any manufacturer may readily -choose his formulas, modifying them to suit his local conditions and -special problems. The outline kindly furnished the author by Professor -Mortensen is so interesting and instructive as to be well worth copying -substantially in full, leaving out the “Ices” in which no milk or cream -is used and which are therefore not of special interest in connection -with the purpose of this book—the use of more and better milk. - -[Illustration: - - Ice cream factory -] - - - CLASSIFICATION ADOPTED AT IOWA EXPERIMENT STATION - -Considering the work of former writers as well as names used by business -men, the following classification was worked out by the station: - - - I. Plain Ice Creams. - II. Nut Ice Creams. - III. Fruit Ice Creams. - IV. Bisque Ice Creams. - V. Parfaits. - VI. Mousses. - VII. Puddings. - VIII. Aufaits. - IX. Lactos. - - - Explanation and Formulas - -I. _Plain Ice Cream_ is a frozen product made from cream and sugar with -or without a natural flavoring. - -Formulas are given for making ten gallons of finished ice cream. - - -_Vanilla Ice Cream_: - - 5 gallons 25% cream - 8 lbs. sugar - 4 oz. vanilla extract - -_Chocolate Ice Cream_: - - 5 gallons cream - 10 lbs. sugar - 1½ lbs. bitter chocolate - 4 oz. vanilla extract - -_Maple Ice Cream_: - - 5 gallons 25% cream - 6 lbs. cane sugar - 2 lbs. maple sugar - 2 oz. caramel - 4 oz. vanilla extract - -_Caramel Ice Cream_: - - 5 gallons 25% cream - 8 lbs. sugar - 12 oz. caramel - 4 oz. vanilla extract - -_Coffee Ice Cream_: - - 5 gallons 25% cream - 8 lbs. cane sugar - Extract from 1 lb. coffee - -_Mint Ice Cream_: - - 5 gallons 25% cream - 8 lbs. cane sugar - 1 pt. concentrated Creme de Menthe syrup - Few drops green coloring. - -II. _Nut Ice Cream_ is a frozen product made from cream and sugar and -sound non-rancid nuts. - -_Walnut Ice Cream_: - - 5 gallons 25% cream - 8 lbs. cane sugar - 4 oz. vanilla extract - 4 lbs. of walnut meats. - -According to this general formula the following nut ice creams may be -prepared by substituting different kinds of nut meats: - - _Chestnut Ice Cream_ - _Filbert Ice Cream_ - _Hazelnut Ice Cream_ - _Pecan Ice Cream_ - _Peanut Ice Cream_ - _Almond Ice Cream_ - _Pistachio Ice Cream_. - -At times pistachio ice cream is made from oil of pistachio instead of -from the nuts. If thus prepared, it will come under the head of plain -ice cream. - -III. _Fruit Ice Cream_ is a frozen product made from cream, sugar and -sound, clean, mature fruits. - -_Strawberry Ice Cream_: - - 5 gallons 25% cream - 8 lbs. sugar - ½ gallon crushed strawberries. - -Employing the same formula the following creams may be made by merely -substituting other fruits and berries for the strawberries. The amount -of sugar may be varied according to the acidity of the fruit. - - _Pineapple Ice Cream_ - _Raspberry Ice Cream_ - _Cherry Ice Cream_ - _Peach Ice Cream_ - _Apricot Ice Cream_ - _Currant Ice Cream_ - _Grape Ice Cream_ - _Cranberry Ice Cream_. - -Preparation of _lemon_ and _orange_ ice creams cannot be included under -this general rule. These creams may be prepared as follows: - -_Lemon Ice Cream_: - - 5 gallons 25% cream - 10 lbs. sugar - 2 pts. lemon juice - 1 pt. orange juice - -_Orange Ice Cream_: - - 5 gallons 25% cream - 10 lbs. sugar - 2 qts. orange juice - ½ pt. lemon juice. - -IV. _Bisque Ice Cream_ is a frozen product made from cream, sugar and -bread products, marshmallows or other confections, with or without other -natural flavoring. - -_Macaroon Ice Cream_: - - 5 gallons 25% cream - 8 lbs. sugar - 4 oz. vanilla extract - 5 lbs. ground macaroons. - -From this formula we can make: - - Grape Nut Ice Cream - Nabisco Ice Cream - Sponge Cake Ice Cream - Marshmallow Ice Cream. - -V. _Parfait_ is a frozen product made from cream, sugar and egg yolks -with or without nuts or fruits and other natural flavoring. - -_Walnut Parfait_: - - 4 gallons 30% cream - Yolks of 10 dozen eggs - 14 lbs. sugar - 4 oz. vanilla extract - 4 lbs. walnut meats. - -From this formula by substituting the nut meats we can make: - - _Filbert Parfait_ - _Almond Parfait_ - _Peanut Parfait_ - _Hazelnut Parfait_, etc. - -By substituting the same proportion of fruits as are used for fruit ice -cream, for the vanilla extract and nut meats, fruit parfaits such as -strawberry, raspberry and cherry parfaits and others may be prepared. - -_Coffee Parfait_: - - 4 gallons 30% cream - Yolks of 10 dozen eggs - 14 lbs. sugar - Extract from 1 lb. coffee - -_Maple Parfait_: - - 4 gallons 30% cream - Yolks of 10 dozen eggs - 4 lbs. maple sugar - 10 lbs. cane sugar - 2 oz. caramel paste - -_Tutti-Frutti_: - - 4 gallons 30% cream - Yolks of 10 dozen eggs - 14 lbs. cane sugar - 4 oz. vanilla extract - 3 lbs. candied cherries - 3 lbs. candied assorted fruit - 3 lbs. pineapple. - -VI. _Mousse_ is a frozen whipped cream to which sugar and natural -flavoring have been added. - -_Cranberry Mousse_: - - 2 gallons 30% cream - 4 lbs. cane sugar - 1 qt. cranberry juice - ¼ pt. lemon juice. - -From the same formula combinations may be made with various other fruit -juices and natural flavors, such as coffee, vanilla, maple, caramel, -pistachio, etc. - -_Sultana roll_, as indicated by the name, is made in a round mold. The -center of the mold is filled with tutti-frutti, and the outside with -pistachio mousse. - -VII. _Pudding_ is a product made from cream or milk, with sugar, eggs, -nuts and fruits, highly flavored. - -_Nesselrode Pudding_: - - 3 gallons 30% cream - 10 dozen eggs - 10 lbs. cane sugar - 4 oz. vanilla extract - 6 lbs. candied cherries and assorted fruits - 4 lbs. raisins - 4 lbs. macaroons - -_Manhattan Pudding_: - - 3 gallons 30% cream - 10 dozen eggs - 12 lbs. sugar - 2 qts. orange juice - 1 pt. lemon juice - 4 lbs. walnut meats - 4 lbs. pecan meats - 4 lbs. cherries and assorted fruits - -_Plum Pudding_: - - 3 gallons 30% cream - 10 dozen eggs - 10 lbs. sugar - 2½ lbs. chocolate - 4 lbs. cherries and assorted fruits - 2 lbs. raisins - 2 lbs. figs - 1 lb. walnut meats - 3 teaspoonfuls ground cinnamon - ½ teaspoonful ground cloves. - -VIII. _Aufait_ is a brick cream consisting of layers of one or more -kinds of cream with solid layers of frozen fruits. - -Fig aufait may be made from three layers of cream of various flavors -with two layers of whole or sliced figs. It is most satisfactory to -slice the figs lengthwise in halves. - -Other aufaits may be made from a variety of preserved fruits and berries -and combined with different creams. - -IX. _Lacto_ is a product manufactured from skimmed or whole sour milk, -eggs and sugar, with or without natural flavoring. - -Formulas for lactos may be found in Bulletin No. 140 published by the -Ames Station. - -As an example, the following mixture will make 5 gallons of - -_Cherry Lacto_: - - 3 gallons lacto milk - 9 pounds sugar - 12 eggs - 1 quart of cherry juice or concentrated cherry syrup - 1½ pints lemon juice - -“Lacto Milk” is the same as described under “Commercial Buttermilk” and -“Thick Milk,” pages 81 and 82. - - The sugar is first dissolved in the lacto milk. The eggs are - then prepared. The whites and yolks are kept in separate - containers and each lot is beaten with an egg beater. Both the - yolks and whites are then added to the milk. The mixture is - thoroughly stirred and strained through a fine wire gauze. The - fruit juices are added last. The freezer is now run until it - turns with difficulty when the paddle is removed. The brine is - removed and the freezer repacked with ice and salt and left for - an hour before the contents are served. - - Orange, Mint, Pineapple, Maraschino, Raspberry or Grape Lacto - may be prepared by substituting any of these flavors for the - Cherry. - -X. _Ices_ are frozen products made from water or sweet skimmed or whole -milk, and sugar, with or without eggs, fruit juices or other natural -flavoring. - -Ices may be for convenience divided into _sherbets_, _milk sherbets_, -_frappes_, _punches_ and _souffles_. - -_Milk Sherbet_ is an ice made from sweet skimmed or whole milk with egg -albumen, sugar and natural flavoring, frozen to the consistency of ice -cream. - -_Pineapple Milk Sherbet_: - - 6 gallons milk - 20 lbs. sugar - Whites of 2 dozen eggs - 1 gallon pineapple pulp - 1 qt. lemon juice. - -Milk sherbets of various flavors may be prepared according to above -formula by substituting other flavorings. - -The formulas presented above have been given mainly for the purpose of -making clear the difference between the various groups. Numerous other -formulas may be prepared on the same general outline. - - * * * * * - -Prof. Mortensen’s formulas are mostly made out for ten gallons of ice -cream. It is hardly necessary to call attention to the fact that they -can easily be adapted to any smaller quantities by reducing each of the -ingredients alike. For instance, to make: - -_1 gallon of Plain Vanilla Ice Cream_, divide the figures given above by -10 and use: - - 2 quarts 25% cream - ¾ lbs. sugar - ½ oz. vanilla extract. - -To make: - -_1 quart of Strawberry Ice Cream_, divide by 40 and use: - - 1 pint 25% cream - 3 oz. sugar - Crushed strawberries to taste. - -[Illustration: - - Professor Mortensen, behind the vat at the left, giving a lesson in - the making of ice cream at Ames -] - -It will be noticed that in the formulas worked out at Ames as above, -very rich cream is used,—with a fat contents of 25% or 30%,—which makes -exceedingly rich ice creams and great expansion in freezing. The -ordinary ice cream maker will usually employ cheaper material, mixing -some milk in the cream and standardizing the material to suit his local -trade. Also most housekeepers making ice cream at home will find it -convenient and economical to use a mixture of milk and cream and in -doing so one must not expect so much expansion. - -In many places outside of dairy sections cream is scarce and _condensed -milk_ is substituted to a large extent. Lately milk powder has come into -use and _Emulsified Cream_ has become popular. Skim-milk powder and -unsalted butter may be kept in stock and be available at any time, and -by means of an _Emulsifier_ they are united again into a product -identical with the milk or cream from which they were originally -separated. - -=Junket Ice Cream.=—By setting a mixture of milk and cream with a -solution of Junket Tablets and allowing it to jelly before freezing, the -body of the cream may be improved so that a material of comparatively -low fat-percentage will make a very good ice cream, rich enough for most -people and especially well suited for invalids and children. Ice-cold -milk or cream is rather hard to digest for a weak or delicate stomach -because the action of the rennet in the digestive juice is imperfect and -slow except at blood-temperature. In Junket Ice Cream, however, such -action takes place before it is eaten and the digestive ferment of the -stomach is relieved of that function. For that reason Junket Ice Cream -is considered healthier than the ordinary frozen products and may be -indulged in freely by children and invalids. - -The following are examples of tested Junket Ice Creams: - - Vanilla Ice Cream - - Dissolve two Junket Tablets in a tablespoonful of cold water, - heat two quarts of milk and one pint of cream lukewarm in which - has been dissolved one cup of sugar and two teaspoonfuls of - vanilla flavor, then add the dissolved Junket Tablet, stir - quickly for one-half minute and pour into ice cream can, let - stand undisturbed ten or fifteen minutes or until set. Pack with - ice and salt and freeze. - - Pistachio Ice Cream - -Excerpt from an article by Alice Bradley in “Woman’s Home Companion” - - This is the best ice cream for the money that we know. It may be - made ready for the freezer early in the morning, and kept in the - ice box until it is convenient to freeze it. It is quite - possible to utilize cream that is not perfectly fresh. - - Put in the can of the freezer one pint of milk, one-half cup of - heavy cream, one-third cup sugar, one teaspoonful vanilla, - one-half teaspoon of almond extract, a few grains of salt, and - vegetable color paste to make a delicate green color. Set the - freezer in a pan of hot water. As soon as the mixture is - lukewarm, add one Junket Tablet dissolved in one tablespoon cold - water. Mix thoroughly and let stand until firm. Put in the ice - box until ready to freeze, then put can in the freezer tub, - adjust the crank, put in three small measures of ice that has - been crushed in a heavy bag or shaved fine with an ice shaver, - cover this evenly with one measure of rock salt, add three - measures more of ice and one of salt, let stand five minutes and - then turn the crank of the freezer for about ten minutes, when - it may be turned a little more rapidly. Continue the turning - until the mixture is firm. - - Remove the dasher, pack ice cream solidly into the can, surround - with four measures of ice to one of salt, cover with heavy - burlap bag or newspaper and keep in a cold place until needed. - Be sure the opening in the side of the freezer tub is not - plugged up, so that any surplus of salt water will drain off - instead of getting into the freezer. It may be necessary to - repack the freezer if the cream is frozen very long in advance - of the meal. The cream may be put into a mold, set in the - fireless cooker kettle, surrounded with ice and salt and left in - the fireless cooker all day. Peel peaches, cut in thin slices, - sprinkle with sugar and set in the ice box to chill. To serve, - place peaches in chilled dessert glasses, cover with ice cream - and garnish each with a candied cherry. - -In the following recipes the cream is added after the junket prepared -from mixtures of milk, sugar and flavors has been partly frozen, a -method which is preferred by many. - - Coffee Ice Cream - - Make a cup of very strong coffee, add it to two quarts of warm - milk in which one cup of sugar has been dissolved, taste in - order to see if the flavor is strong enough, add three dissolved - Junket Tablets, stir quickly for one-half minute, pour into ice - cream can and let stand undisturbed ten or fifteen minutes or - until set. Pack with ice and salt; freeze to a thick mush before - adding one pint of cream, then continue freezing. - - _Simmons College Peach Ice Cream_ - - Heat two quarts of milk lukewarm in which has been dissolved one - cup of sugar and two teaspoonfuls of vanilla flavor, add two - dissolved Junket Tablets, stir quickly for one-half minute and - pour into ice cream can, let stand undisturbed ten or fifteen - minutes or until set. Pack with ice and salt; freeze to a thick - mush before adding one pint of cream and crushed and sweetened - peaches, then continue freezing. Save the needed amount of - peaches to serve on top of ice cream. - -Frozen pudding, strawberries, bananas, or pineapple, may be added in -this way when making any Junket Ice Cream. - - _Orange Sherbet_ - - Heat two quarts of milk lukewarm in which has been dissolved two - cups of sugar, then add two dissolved Junket Tablets, stir - quickly for a minute and pour into freezer can, let it stand ten - or fifteen minutes before packing with ice and salt; freeze to a - thick mush, then add juice and grated rind of six oranges and - continue to freeze. - -=Raspberry Sherbet= may be made in the same way by substituting for the -juice and rind of oranges one quart of crushed and sweetened -raspberries, and - -=Pineapple Sherbet= by substituting two cups of grated and sweetened -pineapple. - - _Custard Ice Cream_ - -When cream is scarce many housekeepers substitute a mixture of eggs and -milk. The following is a good standard recipe which can be varied by -using different fruits and flavors the same as in any of the above -combinations. - - 1 quart milk - 4 eggs - 2 teaspoons vanilla (more if desired) - 2½ cups sugar - 1 quart cream (or rich milk) - -Scald milk, add sugar, then add the well-beaten eggs. Cook until thick, -remove from fire and cool. Be careful not to cook too long or it will -curdle. Then add the cream and vanilla and freeze. - - - BUTTER - -As everybody knows, butter is one of the oldest and most important -products of the dairy industry and since the middle of the nineteenth -century, when science was first applied to it, the art of buttermaking -has gradually been developed to a high degree of perfection, while the -taste for fine butter has grown apace with its manufacture. - -Between 1840 and 1850 the large estates in Holstein, then connected with -Denmark, were known for their fine dairies and excellent butter, made in -a practical way without much attention to the reason for the rules that -were gradually worked out. - -A class of superior dairymaids was educated on these large farms, many -of whom were hired by progressive farmers on the Danish islands where an -effort was made at that time to introduce better methods of dairying. - -The practical handicraft of these imported expert dairymaids was -supplemented and regulated by the scientific work of Professor Segelcke -and his pupils and from the Sixties buttermaking became an art in -Denmark which was subjected to the most searching study and -improvements. Danish butter soon captured the English market where -previously Isigny (from Northern France) and Dutch butter had commanded -the highest prices, and Danish sweet butter put up in sealed tin cans -also became known all over the world as the only butter that would stand -export to the Tropics. - -In this country Orange County, N.Y., first produced a high-class article -and, later, Elgin, Ill., became the center that stood for the top of -perfection. Thence the industry soon spread over the middle western -states, largely populated by Scandinavian immigrants many of whom were -skilled buttermakers, educated in the old countries. Even up to this day -it is noticeable that the list of prize winning buttermakers at the -National Dairy Shows and other exhibitions is largely made up of -Scandinavian names. In Minnesota, for instance, as fine butter is now -made as anywhere in the world. - -_Dairy Butter._—In the early days of the industry butter was made at -home on the farm. The milk was set in shallow vessels,—in the Holstein -and Danish dairies in wooden tubs 24 inches in diameter placed on the -stone or concrete floor in the milk-vault, a cool cellar partly -underground,—or in tin pans on the pantry shelf. After 36 to 48 hours -the cream was skimmed off with a flat scoop, often both cream and skim -milk being sour. - -About 1860 the deep tin can was introduced, set in cold running water -or, where ice was available, in ice water. This was a great improvement -over the shallow setting system. It was now possible to raise most of -the cream in 24 hours leaving not to exceed ½% butter-fat in the skim -milk, and to have both cream and skim milk sweet. - -_Centrifugal Creaming._—But the climax of perfection was not reached -until the separator (see under Cream) was invented about 1879 and cream -was raised instantaneously. For a long time it was the object of the -manufacturers to produce _power separators_ of larger and larger -capacity, handling from 6,000 to 10,000 lbs. of milk an hour. - -=Co-operative Creameries= were established, taking in 20,000 lbs. of -milk and more a day. But in thinly settled sections where the roads were -poor it was expensive to haul the milk a long distance to the creamery -and _hand separators_ were introduced, each farmer skimming his own milk -fresh from the cows and delivering the cream, only, to the creamery. -This system has the advantage of leaving the skim milk on the farm in -the very best condition for the calves and hogs and of saving time and -expenses in transportation. It has the disadvantage that many farmers -can hardly be expected to handle all of these separators as skilfully -and cleanly as the creamery expert can run his one or few machines, and -consequently that the skimming is more or less imperfect—more butter-fat -being left in the skim milk and more impurities in the cream than in the -whole-milk creamery. But in practice the advantages of the hand -separator and cream-gathering system seem to be greater than the -disadvantages and it is rapidly taking the place of the whole-milk -creameries. - -_Ripening the Cream._—Butter may be made by churning whole milk, but -usually it is made from cream that has been “ripened” or soured by -standing for about 10 hours at a temperature of from 65° to 75° F. -Modern buttermakers often pasteurize the cream and then add a “starter” -to sour it. By preparing the starter with a pure culture of lactic acid -bacteria one can get the desired acidity and aroma, and exclude -undesirable flavors (as to Pure Cultures and Starters, see under -“Bacteria” and “Commercial Buttermilk”). - -[Illustration: - - Sanitary Cream Ripener showing coil swung up into cleaning position -] - -The process of ripening requires considerable skill and attention and is -one of the most delicate functions the buttermaker is called upon to -perform. In the first place the cream must be faultless, sweet and pure -before it is set to ripen, so the buttermaker will have full control of -the fermentation. For, if it is already turned or partly fermented, no -skill will avail to bring it back to perfection. But with a first class, -pure cream the operator has it in his power to turn out perfect butter. -In the big western creameries cream is often collected from farms at a -distance of a hundred miles or more and in warm weather such cream is -likely to arrive at the central plant in more or less advanced -condition. It is therefore difficult for the _centralizers_ to make -really first-class butter while the “whole-milk creamery” as well as the -farmer handling his own milk are in position to control the ripening -from the beginning,—starting with pure material and being able to -develop the desired flavor and acidity in the cream. - -After adding the starter to the cream it must be kept at a uniform -temperature of 65 to 75° during the ripening process and it must be -watched carefully and occasionally stirred gently until the consistency, -aroma and acidity are as desired. Then it should be cooled quickly to -stop further fermentation and if it is not to be churned at once it -should be kept cold until churning time. Usually it is safer to set the -cream in the morning and hasten the ripening so it will be completed in -the evening rather than to leave it overnight warm. For, if it is -finished in the evening, the cream may be cooled and placed in ice water -overnight and one is sure to have it in good condition for churning in -the morning. But it is quite feasible for the experienced operator to -regulate the process so the cream will not be fully ripened in the -morning until he is on hand to watch it and see that the process does -not go too far. Taste and smell will tell when it is just right, and the -_acid test_ may also be applied to determine when to stop the -fermentation. An acidity of .5% is usually desired. When the condition -is right, chill the cream, cooling it to below 50°—preferably down -towards 40°—and leave it in ice water or in the refrigerator until -churning time; then temper it to the proper temperature for churning. - -Even if it is to be churned soon after the ripening is completed it is -best to chill it and then raise the temperature to the point wanted for -churning. This gives a better “grain” and “body” to the butter than if -the ripened cream is just cooled to the churning temperature, and is -especially desirable when the cream has been pasteurized. - -[Illustration: - - Branch of the Annatto tree -] - -=Coloring.=—When the cream is ready it is poured into the churn and a -little butter color is added. Some people prefer butter very light or -even uncolored, but usually 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls of a standard butter -color[5] to 10 gallons of cream will be found right, varying according -to the season and the breed of cows furnishing the milk. The butter-fat -in Guernsey and Jersey milk is naturally highly colored, while that in -Holstein milk is comparatively white. When the cows are on fresh pasture -in the early summer the butter-fat is more highly colored than when they -are on dry food. The amount of coloring to be added to the cream is -regulated to overcome such variations and make the butter of uniform -color all the year round. - -[Illustration: - - Adding the butter color -] - -=Churning.=—Hundreds of varieties of churns have been constructed from -time to time; 2,000 years ago Pliny described the old dash churn much -the same as still occasionally used on the farm, and the principle -involved in the process has not been changed. The object is to make the -fat globules conglomerate into grains that can be collected and leave as -little butter-fat as possible in the buttermilk. - -[Illustration: - - Old Arabian churn made out of the skin of a goat -] - -[Illustration: - - Ancient churn -] - -[Illustration: - - Danish churn -] - -The best temperature for churning varies from 48° to 56° and must be -determined by local conditions and experience. To allow plenty of room -for the cream to shake about, the churn should not be much more than -half full. When the globules of fat suspended in the milk stick together -and form granules as large as good sized pin-heads it is time to stop -the churn and drain off the buttermilk. If the butter fails to “come” in -half an hour or forty minutes it may be because the cream in the churn -is too warm or too cold. A little cold or warm water, as the case may -be, can be added as a simple remedy. - -[Illustration: - - Churning room in a large modern creamery -] - -Toward the end of the process care must be taken that the churn is -stopped at the right moment, when the butter will separate clear from -the buttermilk. After the buttermilk is drawn off pure cold water is -poured into the churn and the butter granules are rinsed in it. This -water again is drawn off and fresh cold water put in. - -[Illustration: - - Butter worker -] - -=Working the Butter.=—The butter can now be taken out with a sieve and -worked on the butter-worker, or it may be worked in the churn. “Working” -the butter consists in squeezing out the buttermilk and kneading the -butter into a smooth but not “greasy” mass. If it is too warm and if it -is worked too much, with a sliding motion instead of just pressing, the -butter is apt to become greasy. If there seems to be any danger of -greasiness, it is better to stop and put the butter in a cool place for -a few hours to recover its elasticity. The working can then be finished -safely. - -=Salting.=—During this working process salt is added and thoroughly -distributed and worked in. About half an ounce of salt is used for a -pound of butter. - -=Composition of Butter.=—When finished, the butter ought not to contain -more than 12% to 15% of water, and there should be at least 80% of -butter-fat. If all the butter-fat originally in the milk could be taken -out in the butter, 100 lbs. of 4% milk should yield 4.88% (4.88 lbs.) of -butter with 82% butter-fat. But a little is lost in the skim milk and -more in the buttermilk, which usually contains ½% fat, so that about 4½ -lbs. is all the butter that can be expected from 100 lbs. of milk. - -=Overrun.=—Creamery men are much interested in the “Overrun” which means -the increase from the churn over the amount of fat in the milk. For -instance, if a quantity of milk containing 100 lbs. butter-fat as shown -by the Babcock Test produces 114 lbs. of finished butter, the overrun is -14%. The buttermaker who gets the largest overrun by reducing the loss -of butter-fat in the skim milk and the buttermilk to a minimum, keeping -the percentage of water in the butter just below 16%, and yet producing -high scoring butter, is considered most efficient. - -=Packing.=—For the market, butter is packed in tubs or stone jars. Or it -is molded in neat one-pound bricks and wrapped in parchment paper. - -=Sweet Butter.=—Real “sweet” butter is churned from fresh, sweet, -unsoured cream. But usually the name is given to the _unsalted_ and -_uncolored_ butter that many people relish. Without the salt it does not -keep as well as ordinary butter, and must be eaten quite fresh. -Well-made salted butter will keep for months with ordinary care, and in -cold storage it may be kept a year. But when it comes out of cold -storage it must be used within a few weeks, for butter, like other cold -storage foods, will soon spoil and become rancid when it is exposed to a -higher temperature for any length of time. - -=Renovated Butter.=—Butter that has become old and rancid can be -“renovated.” The butter is melted and the butter-oil washed,—aërated in -the renovating plants,—and then churned with fine-flavored sour skim -milk. From the sour skim milk it gets back its old butter flavor. The -granular physical consistency of fresh butter is gained by pouring the -emulsified mixture over cracked ice or into ice water. By the time the -excess of “buttermilk” has been removed by working, and salt has been -mixed in, the renovated butter may be almost as good as fresh creamery -butter. - -=Oleomargarine= or =Butterine= is made in much the same way. A mixture -of beef-fat (the soft part of beef-tallow) and lard and cottonseed oil -is churned with sour milk and worked and granulated like renovated -butter. For the better grades, some of the finest creamery butter is -mixed with it, so that the mixture can hardly be distinguished from real -butter. - -=Coco-butter=, =Nut-butter=, etc., in great variety, are now also on the -market as substitutes for butter, all prepared in a similar way, but -lacking the vital unknown element that makes genuine butter so superior -to substitutes. - - - BUTTERMILK - -If the cream has been carefully ripened, with or without a pure culture -starter, and it has shown the proper sourness when churned, the -buttermilk will be of a pleasing taste and flavor. Its thickness will of -course depend upon the amount of water, if any, added to the cream in -the churn during the buttermaking. If the buttermilk is to be used for -human food care must be taken not to dilute it too much. - -=Cooling Essential.=—If buttermilk is left to stand for hours in a warm -room, fermentation goes on and may soon spoil the buttermilk by making -it sloppy or bitter. It should therefore be cooled at once when drawn -from the churn; if kept in ice water it may remain in fine flavor for -several days. Well taken care of it is not only a pleasing and -refreshing drink but eminently healthful. In cooking, too, it can be -used to advantage. - -=Commercial Buttermilk= or =Cultured Milk= is simply carefully soured -milk. It can be made at home from fresh milk either whole or skimmed or -partly skimmed. Partially skimmed milk containing from 1% to 2% -butter-fat is plenty rich enough and even better for most purposes than -whole milk. The essential qualities of good buttermilk depend upon the -proper ripening of the cream or milk, the development of a pure “breed” -of healthful bacteria in a clean field free from weeds. Such a -plantation or “culture” may be grown in milk as well as in cream. Its -function is to turn the sugar of milk into lactic acid under the -development of pleasing flavors and whether the butter-fat is removed by -the separator or by churning makes little difference. In natural -buttermilk there is always a little butter-fat—at least ½%—left, mostly -in the form of fine granules, too small to be retained in the butter. If -the same amount of butter-fat is left in skim milk and that is ripened -and churned, the product will be identically the same as natural -buttermilk from ripened cream. - -=Ripening.=—For best result the milk should be pasteurized, not -necessarily as thoroughly as for starters, but sufficiently so as to -destroy all obnoxious bacteria and give those introduced through a pure -culture starter a chance to grow. Buttermilk may, however, also be made -from good, clean, unpasteurized milk of good flavor. Whether pasteurized -or not the milk is set to ripen with from 5 to 10% starter at a -temperature of from 65 to 75°. The preparation of starters is described -under “Bacteria” and the ripening of the milk for “buttermilk” is -essentially the same process (see also under _Ripening_ of cream for -butter). When ripened to the desired acidity,—say .5% to .6% by the acid -test,—stop further fermentation by thorough cooling. - -=Breaking up the Curd.=—After cooling, the ripened milk may be broken up -fine and if vigorously shaken or “churned” it will remain smooth and -creamy. Otherwise it may separate into curd and whey. If churned long -enough for the butter to form, it becomes absolutely identical with real -buttermilk. But, for all practical purposes, a vigorous shaking for a -few minutes is enough. - -=Thick Milk.=—“Thick Milk” as eaten in Scandinavia is made in the same -way as commercial buttermilk, except that the milk—rich whole milk—is -set to ripen in the bowl in which it is to be served. Instead of being -churned or stirred, it is left thick, to be served as a pudding, like -Junket made from sweet milk. The rich layer of cream that forms on top -is excellent. “Thick Milk” is eaten plain with the oatmeal for -breakfast, or as a dessert with grated stale bread and sugar spread over -it. - -The uses of buttermilk in making pancakes and for many other culinary -purposes are mentioned in the chapter on “Milk Cookery.” - -[Illustration: - - Dr. Elie Metchnikoff, author of “The Prolongation of Life” -] - -=Yoghourt= or =Bulgarian Sour Milk= is prepared with a culture of -bacteria originally found in Bulgaria where Metchnikoff, the late -director of the Pasteur Institute of Paris, found people living to -exceptional old age which he ascribed to the fact that their principal -diet is sour milk of very high acidity. - -The theory is that a luxurious growth of lactic acid bacilli, acting as -a germicide, destroys other fermentations in the lower intestines. The -bacilli active in Yoghourt require a somewhat higher temperature for -their best growth than the lactic acid bacilli predominant in sour cream -for the finest butter, a fact which must be taken into consideration in -preparing the various products. - - - FERMENTED MILK - -In the preparation of Koumis, Kefir and other fermented milks of the -same class, Yeast plays an important part, changing some of the -milk-sugar into the alcohol which is found in these preparations in -quantities up to 2%. - -[Illustration: - - Baba Vasilka, 126 years old and her son, Tudor, 101; - Bulgarian peasants whose principal food has been sour milk all their - lives -] - -=Koumis= was first made from mare’s milk by the Tartars, but is now -prepared in this country from cow’s milk by the addition of sugar and -yeast. As carbonic acid is developed in the process it is quite -effervescent and may be regarded both as a food and a stimulant. It is -sometimes prescribed by physicians in cases when the patient cannot -retain other food. - -=Kefir= is a similar preparation originally made in the Caucasus by a -fermentation started by Kefir grains which contain both yeast and -various bacteria. The dry Kefir grains are soaked, first in lukewarm -water, later in lukewarm milk, for several days, until they develop so -much gas as to float on the top. A couple of tablespoonfuls of the -grains are then added to a quart of milk which is left to ferment at 70° -F. under frequent stirring or shaking. When the fermentation is fully -developed the grains are strained off and the milk is bottled and kept -for 1 to 2 days at 60°. The grains may be used at once again in fresh -milk, and when the manufacture is finished they may be dried and kept, -to be used again another time. - -[Illustration: - - Kefir grains of natural size; a, b and c dried; d, e and f soaked - (Orla Jensen, Milk Bacteriology) -] - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CHAPTER III - - CHEESE - - -[Illustration: - - Students making cheese in the University cheese factory, Madison, Wis. -] - -Most of the following pages on _Cheese_ were published in 1918 as a -separate pamphlet to meet an urgent demand for brief directions along -this line during the Food Conservation campaign. The copy has, however, -been revised and new material has been added with the view of making -this chapter more useful to those who desire to study in detail the -manufacture of various fancy foreign types of cheese such as Edam, -Swiss, Brick, Roquefort, etc., which are now made in this country in -constantly increasing quantities. - -For more complete directions in cheese making students are referred to -“A B C in Cheese Making” by J. H. Monrad, and other technical works. - -Cheese of a thousand different kinds is made, varying in properties and -appearance from the solid, yet mellow and agreeable Cheddar cheese to -the semi-soft, malodorous Limburger, the delicious, soft Neufchatel and -Cream cheese, or the sweet Myseost of Norway. In India cheese was made -centuries ago; to-day it is produced the world over, in the caves of the -Swiss Alps and in the most modern and scientific American cheese -factories and laboratories. Of these myriad types we can here describe -only a few. - -Cheese may be classified into that made with rennet and that made -without. Of cheese made with rennet some is what is called hard, some -soft. - -The English and American _Cheddar_—the common _American cheese_—the -_Dutch Gouda_ and _Edam_, the Swiss _Gruyere_, and the Italian -_Parmesan_ are all hard cheese made with rennet. As examples of the soft -varieties may be mentioned the French _Camembert_ and _Brie_, _Cream_ -and _Neufchatel_ cheese. In a class by themselves are such cheeses as -the French _Roquefort_, the English _Stilton_, and the Italian -_Gorgonzola_, their peculiar flavors being derived from molds implanted -in the curd. - -[Illustration] - -When cheese is made without rennet, the milk is allowed to curdle by -natural acidity or it is in some other way made acid. Among the -varieties made by this method the common _Cottage_ cheese is the best -known. - -For many years imitations of foreign varieties such as Swiss and -Limburger have been made in Northern New York and Wisconsin. As a result -of the war and the cutting off of foreign cheese imports, the State of -Wisconsin has built up a large business in these fancy varieties. New -types have lately been added, as the _Romano_, _Riggiano_, and -_Myzethra_, which are of Italian and Greek origin. Some of these are -made of whole milk, some of partly-skimmed milk, and others of the -albumin of the whey. - -Let us briefly review the characteristic features in the making of the -older types. - - - CHEDDAR CHEESE - -For a hundred years or more this famous cheese has been made and -marketed at the village of Cheddar near Bristol, England. - -In the middle of the nineteenth century a farmer in that neighborhood, -Joseph Harding of Marksbury Vale, systematized the manufacture and it -was his method that became the model for cheesemaking in America. In -this country it was first made in Herkimer County, N.Y., where Harry -Burrell not only made cheese for the home market, but also exported to -England, and his son, David H. Burrell, at Little Falls later developed -the machinery which became the standard for the American and Canadian -cheese factories. - -The factory system by which cheese was made from milk brought together -from several farms, originated near Rome, N.Y., and soon cheesemaking -became an important industry throughout Central and Northern New York -whence it spread into Pennsylvania, Ohio and the West, as well as to -Canada. To-day Wisconsin makes more cheese than all the other states -together and Canada largely supplies England with Cheddar cheese of -excellent quality. - -[Illustration: - - Joseph Harding, who systematized the making of Cheddar cheese in - England -] - -[Illustration: - - David H. Burrell, - who introduced laborsaving machinery and supplies in the cheese - factories -] - -[Illustration: - - Jesse Williams, father of the American factory system -] - - _The Factory System_ - -The milk is delivered in the morning by the farmers at the factory and -is weighed and strained through cheese-cloth into the cheese vat. When -it is all in the vat it is warmed to a temperature of 86° F. by letting -steam into the water surrounding the bottom and sides of the jacketed -vat. - -[Illustration: - - A measuring glass and an accurate thermometer are indispensable -] - -[Illustration: - - The Marschall rennet test -] - -=Ripening.=—The milk should be slightly acid, not noticeably sour, yet -sufficiently ripened for the proper fermentation to take place in the -process that follows. The best cheesemakers regulate the ripening by -adding a starter to the sweet milk and allowing the lactic acid bacteria -to multiply in the milk until a _Rennet Test_[6] or _Acid Test_[7] shows -that the desired degree of acidity has been reached. The starter may be -sour whey or preferably prepared from sweet skim milk or whole milk with -a commercial lactic acid culture as described in Chapter I under -_Ferments_ and _Buttermilk_. From 1% to 2% starter is usually -sufficient. An acidity of .18% to .20% or 2½ degrees on the Rennet Test -is usually desired before the rennet is added. - -[Illustration: - - Christian D. A. Hansen, inventor of commercial rennet extract -] - -[Illustration: - - Blowing up the rennets to dry them -] - -=Adding Color and Rennet.=[8]—If the cheese is to be colored, from 1 to -2 ounces of liquid cheese color (Annatto dissolved in an alkali) per -1,000 lbs. of milk is now added and thoroughly mixed into the milk which -is then set with rennet. Three ounces of a standard rennet extract to -1,000 lbs. of milk is usually sufficient. Enough should be used so that -the milk will show beginning coagulation in 10 to 15 minutes and be -ready to cut in 30 to 40 minutes. - -The extract should be diluted with ten times as much water and is then -poured into the milk under vigorous stirring so as to be thoroughly -distributed and incorporated in the whole mass. - -Owing to the scarcity of the raw material for rennet extract during the -war, pepsin extracted from hogs’ stomachs has been substituted in many -factories and is used either in dry form or as a liquid extract instead -of rennet extract. - -With pepsin as the coagulant it is necessary to ripen the milk somewhat -further than if rennet is used, in fact to the danger-point where a -little more acidity is apt to do harm and produce a dry and crumbly -cheese and loss of butter-fat in the whey. Most cheesemakers therefore -prefer rennet when they can get it. - -The rennet having been added, the milk is left undisturbed until a firm -curd has been formed. When the curd breaks or splits sharply before the -finger pushed slowly through it, it is ready to be “cut.” - -[Illustration: - - Curd knives -] - -=Cutting.=—Two sets of curd knives are used, each consisting of a metal -frame in which tinned steel blades are hung, in one vertically and in -the other horizontally. The vertical knife is first carried slowly -through the curd lengthwise and crosswise; the horizontal set of blades -is then moved carefully through the length of the vat. When the cutting -is over, the entire mass should be in cubes about half an inch square. - -The whey that begins to separate out should be clear and yellow. Milky -whey is a sign that the butter-fat is escaping in it; the curd has been -broken up too violently. In curdling, the casein encases the butter-fat -and the object of the breaking up of the curd in the vat is to expel the -whey but retain the fat in the cheese. - -=“Cooking” the Curd.=—Gentle heat is now applied to raise the -temperature gradually to 98° or 100° in the course of about 30 minutes. -Meanwhile the small pieces of curd are kept floating in the whey by -gentle stirring with a rake and the hands, and are not allowed to pack -at the bottom of the vat. The heating is easily regulated by opening the -steam valve little by little. Through the “cooking” the pieces of curd -shrink to some extent and are hardened so that they will gradually stand -livelier stirring without losing butter-fat. After the cooking the curd -is left for an hour or so in the whey for a slight acidity to develop -and it is then shoved toward the sides of the vat and the whey is -drained off. Here again the “Acid Test” may assist in determining when -the whey should be drawn. - -[Illustration: - - Cutting the curd -] - -=Cheddaring or Matting.=—After thorough draining, the curd is packed -together in the bottom of the vat or on a “sink” provided with a false -bottom covered with cheese-cloth. After fermenting for 10 or 15 minutes -it is cut into large pieces which are again packed together for further -matting. The exact condition to be attained can be determined only by -experience. - -[Illustration: - - “Cheddaring” or “Matting” the curd -] - -A simple test, the “Hot Iron Test,” may, however, help the cheesemaker -to judge of this point. A handful of curd squeezed together and touched -to a hot steam pipe or an iron rod heated almost red-hot in the fire -under the boiler, and slowly withdrawn, will leave threads sticking to -the iron. Depending upon the maturity of the curd, the threads will -break at a length of from ½ to 2 inches. Usually fermentation is -considered sufficient when threads 1½ inches long are formed by this -test. - -[Illustration: - - Curd mill -] - -=Salting.=—The matting is then interrupted by breaking up and salting -the curd. This can be done by hand or by a curd-mill which cuts or -breaks up the curd and permits a thorough mixing in of the salt. Two or -three pounds of salt to one hundred pounds of curd, or the curd from -1,000 lbs. of milk, is the usual ratio. - -=Pressing.=—Stirring and cooling the salted curd to about 80° F. makes -it ready for packing into the hoops in which it is to be pressed. The -hoop is usually a cylinder of heavy tin with a “follower” of wood on -which the pressure is applied. Before the curd is put in, the hoop is -lined with cheese-cloth which remains on the cheese, when it is taken -out. The press mostly used in the factory is the continuous pressure -“gang-press” in which a number of cheeses can be pressed at the same -time. - -=Curing.=—After 18 hours’ pressure the cheese is taken out of the press -and out of the hoop, weighed and placed on a shelf or table in the -curing room. For the first week or ten days it is kept at a temperature -of about 70°, later the cheese is removed to a cooler room and possibly -placed in cold storage. Usually it is paraffined to prevent too much -drying and cracking of the rind. - -[Illustration: - - Filling the curd into the hoops -] - -To cure a first-class Cheddar cheese takes from three to six months, but -most of the American cheese is made to cure much more quickly and is -eaten two to four months old. Indeed, it is generally shipped from the -factory eight to ten days old and whatever further curing it gets is in -the warehouse of the commissionman or in the grocery store. - -[Illustration: - - The Gang press -] - -=Form, Size and Packing.=—The old style American cheese is cylindrical, -about 14 inches in diameter, and varying in depth to weigh between 60 -and 80 pounds. Various other forms are now often made, square and long -or in fancy shapes, such as a ball or a pineapple. Aside from such -freaks, which have never become very popular, other deviations from the -large, standard, American Cheddar, are also made to a considerable -extent. People who have visited the beautiful National Dairy Shows held -in turn in Chicago, Springfield, Mass., and Columbus, O., the National -Milk and Dairy Farm Expositions of New York City, the Ontario Provincial -Fair held each year at Toronto, or the annual State Fairs in New York, -Wisconsin, Michigan and other cheesemaking sections will have in mind -first the prominent exhibits of the regular Cheddar, showing a -uniformity in texture, form and taste that is really remarkable. But one -will also admire the variety of other forms. There are the _Flats_ or -_Twins_, packed two in a box and weighing together the same as one -_American_; the _Young Americas_ packed four in a box; the _Longhorns_ -of six to eight inches in diameter; others made like a loaf of bread and -creased so that a pound or two may be cut off fairly accurately, etc. - -[Illustration: - - Taking the cheese out of the press -] - -The _Giant Cheeses_, weighing five to six tons, occasionally exhibited -and cut up at World Fairs and on similar occasions are, like the -pineapple cheese, a curiosity rather than an industrial product. - -One of the best forms, in the writer’s opinion, is the small 5-lb. -cheese, proportioned exactly like the large American. This makes a -suitable size for an average family, the members of which have learned -to appreciate a good cheese. If it is made smaller, too much is lost in -the rind; if larger it gets too old before it can be consumed by one -family. - -[Illustration: - - Curing room -] - -The larger cheeses are usually packed in neat, snug-fitting elm-wood -boxes, with thin “Scale Boards” on the top and bottom of the cheese, the -smaller ones in paraffined pressed pulp or pasteboard boxes. - -=Cleaning the Vats and Utensils.=—Like every other place where milk and -its products are handled, the cheese factory must be kept scrupulously -clean. Vats and utensils should be rinsed first with cold or lukewarm -water or whey, then scrubbed with boiling hot water and if necessary -with soda, soap, or washing powder. The surroundings should be kept neat -and attractive, and the cheesemaker must see that the transportation -cans are kept clean by the farmers and the milk delivered in good -condition. - -[Illustration: - - Cheese box -] - -=Yield.=—The yield is around 10% of the milk. To make a pound of fresh -cheese takes from nine to eleven pounds of milk. In curing, a part of -the weight is lost by evaporation, but this loss is reduced to a minimum -by paraffining. - -In some localities an increased yield is obtained by washing the curd -and making it absorb all the water it can hold. The process is not -commendable and while it may sell to some extent, in certain markets -where a soft, fresh cheese is liked, “washed” or “soaked” curd cheese -can never compare favorably in quality with a well-made, firm Cheddar -cheese that is mellowed down by long-time curing to a consistency so it -will fairly melt in your mouth. - -=Composition.=—The American cheese contains almost all the casein and -the butter-fat of the milk, besides such portions of the milk-albumin, -milk-sugar, and mineral matter as are held in the water or whey which is -retained in the cheese. In round figures average American cheese -contains equal parts of casein, butter-fat and water, 30 to 35% of each. -In order to protect the honest maker and the consumer and prevent -“soaking” of the curd to an extent that may be considered fraudulent, -the dairy laws of the State of New York limit the contents of water -permissible to 40% and 42% respectively for certain classes of cheese. - -=Qualities.=—A good Cheddar cheese should be mellow, yet solid, without -holes, and of an agreeable taste, neither sharp nor bitter. Cheese can -be made of skim milk, but it is hardly palatable. In the fall of the -year, when the average milk is rich in butter-fat, 1% or 2% butter-fat -may be taken from the milk and the resulting partly-skimmed milk will -still make a fairly good cheese, hardly distinguishable from full cream -cheese. Under the laws of the State of New York it must, however, be -marked “Skim Milk Cheese.” - - Cheese Made from Pasteurized Milk - -From time to time attempts have been made to make Cheddar cheese from -pasteurized milk. If the milk is heated to 145° only, and held for 30 -minutes at such temperature, its property to form a firm curd with -rennet is not destroyed and it will make a fine cheese, but if it is -pasteurized at a higher temperature it will not curdle firmly until it -is ripened or otherwise brought back to the condition required for -satisfactory action of the rennet ferment. Thorough ripening with a pure -culture starter will do it, or an addition of muriatic acid will -accomplish the same in a shorter time, but care must be taken not to use -too much, which would make the cheese dry and crumbly. Dr. J. L. Sammis -and A. T. Bruhn of the Wisconsin Dairy School worked out the problem and -systematized a process which is described in Bulletin 165 of the U. S. -Department of Agriculture and by which it is claimed a first-class -cheese can be made regularly from thoroughly pasteurized milk. - - Making Cheddar Cheese on the Farm - -[Illustration: - - American outfit for farm cheese making -] - -[Illustration: - - Plain wooden vat and curd mill -] - -It takes quite a little experience to make a good Cheddar cheese and, -unless one has the time and opportunity to study it and make it an -every-day practice, it is not as a rule advisable to attempt making -Cheddar cheese in the home from the milk of one or a few cows. - -The amateur will usually find it easier to make Neufchatel or Cream or -Cottage cheese for home use or for the home market. - -[Illustration: - - Danish kettle and cheese vat -] - -If Cheddar cheese is to be made regularly it is best to get an outfit -consisting of a small boiler and a jacketed vat, although cheese may be -made in a plain wooden tub or any other convenient vessel. The double -bottomed vat generally used in American as well as in Danish dairies -facilitates both the heating of the milk before setting and the -“cooking” of the curd in the whey after cutting. Either low pressure -steam, or—better—water heated by steam, is introduced in the space -between the outer, wooden bottom and the inner, tinned steel or copper -bottom. If it is cool the milk should be warmed to 86° F. In the summer -it may be warm enough as it comes in, fresh from the cow. If not, heat -it by steam or by setting it in a “shot-gun” can in another vessel of -hot water, stirring frequently, until the thermometer shows 86°. It may -be well to add a little buttermilk or sour whey from the preceding day, -or a pure culture starter made with Buttermilk Tablets, not to exceed 1% -or 2%. - -[Illustration: - - Cutting the curd -] - -If it is desired to make colored cheese add a teaspoonful of liquid -cheese color, or ½ cheese color tablet dissolved in warm water, to 100 -pounds of milk, more or less according to season and the shade of color -desired in the cheese. - -Next add the rennet. Where cheese is made from less than 500 lbs. of -milk Rennet Tablets are handy, one tablet to 80 or 100 lbs. For less -than 50 lbs. of milk, Junket Tablets may be used, one to a gallon. -Dissolve the tablet, or tablets, or fraction of a tablet, as the case -may be, in _cold_ water and stir the solution well into the milk, making -sure of thorough mixing. Let stand covered for half an hour until a firm -curd is formed. Cut or break the curd very carefully with a big knife or -spoon or home-made fork with wires across the prongs, imitating as far -as possible the operation with curd knives in the factory. - -[Illustration: - - Taking the temperature of the milk in a shot-gun can -] - -[Illustration: - - Curd fork -] - -[Illustration: - - Mold or “Hoop” -] - -“Cook” the curd as in factory cheesemaking. If steam is not available, -allow the curd to settle and dip off some of the whey which is then -heated and poured back on the curd so as to raise the temperature of the -whole mass about 2 degrees. Repeat this several times, gradually raising -the temperature to 100°, a few degrees at a time. - -Keep the curd gently stirred up and floating in the whey and do not -allow it to lie on the bottom of the vat long enough to pack firmly -together, stirring once in a while until by smell and taste (if not also -by acid or hot iron tests) it appears to be sufficiently fermented for -the whey to be drawn, a condition that can only be learned by -experience. This will be about two or three hours from the time the -rennet is added. - -[Illustration: - - Diagram of lever press -] - -[Illustration: - - Combined screw and lever press -] - -Draw the whey and press more out of the curd with the hands. Let the -curd mat and break it up alternately several times; finally crumble and -pulverize it and keep it stirred with the hands, adding salt at the rate -of three to four ounces to the curd from 100 lbs. of milk and continuing -the stirring until the curd is cooled down to below 80°, when it should -be packed into the hoop and put to press. This salting and cooling may -take another hour. The hoop may be made of wood or heavy tin of any size -desired, with a loose follower of wood. The sides and bottom should be -perforated to allow the whey to escape. Or it may be a cylinder without -top or bottom, placed on a corrugated piece of board. Line the hoop with -cheese-cloth before putting in the curd. - -[Illustration: - - Upright factory and dairy cheese press -] - -For pressing, a home-made lever-press, as outlined in the diagram, may -be made of a plank or bar, one end of which (_C_), is stuck under a -piece of a board nailed on the wall while at the other end a weight -(_K_) is applied which may be moved in and out to regulate the pressure. -The hoop is placed under the plank at the fulcrum (_K__{1}) near the -wall. If a compound lever-press or a screw-press is available it is -better. It is important that the pressure is applied straight so as to -make the cheese even and not one side lower than the other. Begin with -light pressure and increase it gradually every hour until at night the -full pressure is applied. After an hour take the cheese out and turn it -in the hoop, then return it to the press and at night apply full -pressure. The next morning take it out and weigh it and place it on the -shelf to cure in a room of moderate temperature, turning it every day. -After a couple of weeks it may be removed to a cool cellar and rubbed -with grease. In two to three months it should be sufficiently matured -for consumption. - - - OTHER TYPES OF HARD CHEESE MADE WITH RENNET - -[Illustration: - - A variety of domestic and foreign cheese made at the dairy school of - the University of Wisconsin -] - -In the manufacture of the Dutch Gouda, the Danish Export, and other -similar types, the “cooking” and matting of the curd, characteristic of -the English and American Cheddar, are more or less omitted. Otherwise -the process and the result are not greatly different. They are all -“hard” or solid cheese of the same class, though there are hundreds of -varieties in different localities, each with some peculiarity of its -own. - -[Illustration: - - Gouda cheese -] - -=Gouda Cheese.=—The _Gouda_, like the _Danish Export_ cheese, is made -from whole or partly-skimmed milk which is set with rennet at 90° F. and -is coagulated, ready for cutting, in fifteen to twenty minutes. The curd -is broken with the “lyre,” so called, a frame on which piano wires are -suspended. The curd is but slightly “cooked” and the whey is drawn while -still sweet. After being pressed with the hands in the vat to squeeze -out the whey the curd, still quite warm, is put into wooden molds and -worked and squeezed in them with the hands for half an hour to eliminate -more whey, when the mold is placed in a regular press for 12 to 18 -hours. To salt it the cheese is placed in a strong brine where it -remains for several days. It is then put on the shelf in the curing room -where it is turned and rubbed daily and in four to six weeks it is -marketed. The cheese is about 10 inches in diameter by 4 to 5 inches -high. - -[Illustration: - - The Lyre -] - -=Edam Cheese.=—The ball-shaped red _Edam_ is also made in Holland by a -similar method to that of the Gouda. - -Fresh milk is set at from 90° to 93° F. in summer and up to 97° in -winter,—colored to a rather high yellow with Annatto. Add sufficient -rennet to coagulate the milk in 8 to 15 minutes. Cut curd carefully with -the “lyre” and break with fork into very fine pieces, as small peas. -Leave to settle for 3 to 4 minutes, putting cover on the vat if the -temperature in the room is below 60°. When settled, the curd is gently -pushed into a heap which takes 5 to 6 minutes and the whey is removed -with a dipper. Weight is applied for 5 minutes and the tub or vat is -tipped so the whey will drain off while the curd is held back with the -dipper. This pressing is repeated twice more for 4 and 3 minutes -respectively. - -[Illustration: - - Curing room in a Gouda cheese factory -] - -The curd should now be elastic and firm and show a temperature, in -winter of at least 83°, in summer at most 90°. If necessary the -temperature is regulated by pouring hot whey (not exceeding 104°) or -cold water over the curd. - -The mold is then placed in the vat and two handfuls of curd put in which -is squeezed and worked thoroughly with the hands. More curd is added and -worked in the same way and this is repeated until the mold is full with -a large top on, which is pressed with the hands for 4 or 5 minutes, -turning the cheese 3 or 4 times and opening the drain holes if plugged -up. Some makers sprinkle a teaspoonful of fine salt in the bottom of the -mold, but in warm weather it is better to work in a quarter of an ounce -of salt. This work must be done quickly so the curd will not cool. - -[Illustration: - - Mold for Edam cheese -] - -When thus formed the cheese is dipped for 1 or 2 minutes in fresh whey -heated to 126° (in winter 131°) and pressed with the hands in the mold -for another 2 minutes when it is carefully wiped off by rolling on a -fine cloth to remove the last drop of whey. The cheese is then wrapped -in a fine cloth, placed in the mold and put to press, in the Spring for -5 to 7 hours, later in the year for 12 hours. The cloth is now removed -and the cheese is put in a larger mold which is placed in a water-tight -salting box provided with a cover and a drain-hole in one end. The first -day a pinch of salt is put on the top of the cheese and the next the -whole cheese is rolled in damp salt, turned and put back in the mold, a -liberal quantity of salt being placed on the top. This is repeated every -day until the cheese from being soft and elastic becomes hard which as a -rule takes 8 to 10 days for a 4 lb. and 12 days for a 10-12 lb. cheese. -Finally the cheese is left a few hours in the brine collected in the -box, washed, wiped and placed on the shelf in the curing room. - -The curing room should be light and well ventilated, never above 72° nor -below 45°. Windows must not be opened to admit dry wind or moist air. If -too dry the cheese will crack and if too moist it will be covered with -deleterious yellowish red fungi. The cheese is turned daily the first -month, later every other day or twice a week. When 24 to 30 days old the -cheese is soaked for one hour in water of 68 to 77°, washed with a -brush, dried for 20 to 40 minutes in the sun and returned to the shelf. -This is repeated two weeks later and then the cheese is painted with -linseed oil and left on the shelf until shortly before shipping when it -is scraped with a sharp knife and painted according to the demand of the -particular market for which it is prepared; yellowish with Annatto for -England and Spain, red with Turnsole for other countries. When dry it is -rubbed with a little butter and red color. - -=Swiss Cheese.=—The Swiss Gruyere or Emmenthal also belongs to this -class. It is characterized by its form and size, being large, round and -flat, weighing 100 to 140 lbs. or more, and by the large holes which are -wanted in Swiss, but not tolerated in American or Dutch cheese. It was -formerly supposed that first-class Swiss cheese could only be made in -the Alps, but very good imitations have long been made in Northern New -York and in Wisconsin. Besides in the usual large round form, the same -as the genuine imported Emmenthaler, American Swiss or “Switzer” is also -made in _blocks_, six inches square and twenty inches long, weighing 25 -to 30 lbs. - -Until lately Swiss cheese has been made in the old-fashioned way, the -factory and tools being of the simplest description. The milk was heated -in a copper cauldron hanging on a crane, enabling the cheesemaker to -swing it on or off the fireplace. Nowadays the kettle is usually -jacketed and heated with steam. The round form is still preferred to the -American cheese vat, however, as it adapts itself better to the peculiar -method of handling the curd. - -[Illustration: - - Swiss cheese -] - -The milk is set with rennet at a temperature of 90° F. in summer and 95° -in winter, sufficient rennet being used to make a firm curd in thirty to -forty minutes. But very little color is added. The curd is cut with a -long, sharp wooden knife, the “cheese sword,” first one way into sheets, -then, as soon as the cuts stand clear, beginning to expel the whey, -crossways, into vertical sticks, two inches square. - -[Illustration: - - Scoop -] - -[Illustration: - - Cheese sword -] - -[Illustration: - - Cutting the curd with the scoop -] - -[Illustration: - - Tools for stirring the curd -] - -No horizontal knife is used, but a few minutes after the last vertical -cutting the curd is further broken by the “scoop,” a wooden spoon or -ladle about eight inches long, thirteen inches wide, one and one-half -inches deep, and provided with a short handle. Standing at one side of -the kettle, the cheesemaker scoops off a layer from the top and, drawing -the scoop towards himself, drops the pieces of curd close to the side of -the kettle. This movement is repeated, at first slowly, then faster, and -soon the whole mass of curd is moving, the pieces cut off going down -along the side of the kettle and the rest of the sticks sliding upward -along the other side, to be attacked by the scoop as soon as they come -to the top. All the curd having been cut into square pieces, it is -further broken by the stirrer, a stick at the lower end of which a few -cross sticks or wings of brass wire are fixed, the whole mass being kept -in constant motion. - -=Cooking the Curd.=—After breaking up the curd to the size of peas or -beans, the stirring is discontinued for about ten minutes, when it is -begun again and the kettle is turned over the fire, or steam is applied, -to heat the curd to 140° under constant stirring which is continued for -45 to 60 minutes after this temperature has been reached. The condition -of the curd is judged by squeezing a handful and noticing its elasticity -and consistency. It is important to stop stirring at the right moment. -More whey is expelled in making Swiss cheese than for Cheddar cheese. - -The cooking and agitating having been finished, the mass, which now -consists of grains the size of wheat, is once more stirred up with such -force as to make it form a funnel at the center and it is then left at -rest for five to ten minutes. - -The curd, forming a rather solid cake at the bottom of the kettle, is -now lifted out without being broken. One end of a large piece of cloth -is folded around a flexible rod. Bending over the kettle the maker takes -hold of both ends of the rod and gathering the other end of the cloth -between his teeth, pushes the rod down along the farther side of the -kettle, letting it follow the bottom towards himself until the whole -mass of curd is gathered in the cloth, when it is lifted out of the -kettle and placed in the hoop on the press table. The hoop can be -enlarged or diminished to take care of a varying amount of curd which is -put into it in the same solid cake as formed in the kettle without being -broken. Pressure is applied, at first, gently, later heavier and after -half an hour the cheese is taken out, turned and provided with fresh -bandage, put back into press and left till the next day. - -[Illustration: - - In Swiss cheese making the curd is lifted out of the vat with a strong - cloth -] - -Curing and Salting.—The cheese is first placed in a curing room above -ground and heated in winter. After a few weeks it is removed to the -cellar. Sometimes three to five cheese are piled one on the top of the -other for a few days with a few handfuls of salt between them. The -salting proper is done by rubbing and brushing dry salt and the brine -formed from same into the cheese,—altogether 4 to 5 lbs. of salt to 100 -lbs. of cheese. Every day it is rubbed with a dry rag and the cheese is -turned and salted on the other side until the salt is thoroughly -incorporated. - -[Illustration: - - Swiss cheese press -] - -The cheese is cured for at least 100 days in the factory and is usually -stored for another three to six months by the dealer before it is ready -for the consumer. - -=Roquefort.=—The French _Roquefort_ is inoculated with a mold from stale -bread which spreads through the cheese and produces the peculiar flavor -of this type. It is made from sheep’s milk and was formerly cured in -cool subterranean caverns, but now in elaborate curing houses. In this -country imitation Roquefort is made of cow’s milk and cured in cold -storage. - -It should be remembered, however, that sheep’s milk is very rich in fat -and that a rich Roquefort that will compare favorably with the genuine -cannot be made from cow’s milk without an addition of cream if sheep’s -or goat’s milk is not available. In France a small addition of cow’s -milk to the sheep’s milk—not to exceed 10%—is often used. - -Around Roquefort a milk ewe produces on an average 135 lbs. of milk a -year, which makes up to 35 lbs. of cheese. - -[Illustration: - - Milking the ewes at Roquefort, France (G. Ellbrecht) -] - -The milk is set at about 80° with rennet sufficient to coagulate it in -1½ to 2 hours. To cut or break and stir the curd, tools similar to those -used in the manufacture of Dutch cheese are employed and stirring is -continued until the pieces of curd are about the size of peas when the -whey is dipped off and the curd is further broken with the hand and -placed on a cloth to drain. In fifteen minutes it is ready to be put -into the hoops which are either of glazed stoneware or perforated tin, 8 -inches in diameter by 4 in. high. - -Ground stale, moldy bread is sprinkled in the curd as it is put into the -hoop, at the rate of 1 part of bread to 10,000 parts of curd. This moldy -bread is prepared from 2 parts of wheat flour and 1 part of rye flour -leavened with sour yeast and vinegar and baked hard. The loaf is placed -in a dark, moist cellar to mold. In six weeks it is penetrated with mold -when it is dried at 86° and pulverized, forming the powder used for -inoculation into the cheese-curd. - -When the hoops are filled they are placed in large wooden boxes at a -temperature of 65° to 70° for the whey to drain off. The first few days -the cheese is turned three times a day, later once a day, and when five -days old it is brought into the curing room where it remains until it is -firm enough to be shipped to the large cold storage establishments, -where it is taken care of until ready for the general market. - -In the “caves” a high degree of moisture, a low temperature—40° to -50°—and pure air are essential conditions. - -The cheese is first _salted_ by being rubbed repeatedly with salt on all -sides. The slime forming on the surface is brushed or scraped off so as -not to prevent the admission of air, which is essential to the curing. -In order to further facilitate the penetration with air the cheese is -now _pricked_ with numerous needles by means of a machine and placed on -the shelf in the cave where the proper moisture and temperature are -maintained. - -Various fermentations are now developing, one after another, regulated -by scraping, ventilation, etc., until in six to twelve weeks the cheese -is ready for the market and is packed for shipment in paper or in -tinfoil and in wicker baskets or airtight boxes, according to -destination,—for home consumption or for export. - -[Illustration: - - Curing room in a Roquefort cheese factory (G. Ellbrecht) -] - -=Parmesan Cheese= is an Italian cheese made mostly in the Valley of the -River Po and named from the City of Parma. It is produced from -partly-skimmed milk and is allowed to become hard and dry, being used -grated with macaroni. - -The milk is set with rennet at a comparatively high temperature, about -95° F., and when it is firmly curdled it is broken up and stirred rather -vigorously, which makes the curd fine and dry. Color is now -added—powdered _Saffron_—at the rate of 0.5 gram to 100 kg. milk. The -curd is cooked slowly under constant stirring to a temperature up -towards 100° when the whey should be perceptibly acid. - -The curd is then allowed to settle in the round kettle and when fairly -firm it is lifted up in a cloth, the same as in Swiss cheesemaking. The -mold is also much the same as the Swiss and the curd is but slightly -pressed. In the course of the day the cheese is turned once or twice and -put into fresh cloth. The next day it is put into the curing room when -it is rubbed with salt. In a few months the cheese is cured and is then -scraped and polished with linseed oil. Sometimes it is kept in storage -two or three years in a dark room at a temperature of 63° F. The -composition averages: 32% water, 21% fat, 41% nitrogenous matters and 6% -ash. - -[Illustration: - - Caccio Cavallo -] - -=Caccio Cavallo= is made in Southern Italy of a form almost like a -beetroot. The milk is set with rennet at about 95° F. and after the curd -has been broken up the whey is dipped off and heated to boiling when it -is poured back on the curd. The mass is then allowed to ferment eight to -fourteen hours according to the temperature of the air. The quality of -the cheese depends largely on this fermentation. The fermented curd is -cut into pieces and submerged in boiling water and is then kneaded and -formed into the desired shape. - -After lying in cold water for two hours and in brine for thirty hours it -is dried and smoked until it attains a fine golden color. It is made in -various sizes, from 5 to 20 pounds, and the yield is said to vary from -10% to 16% of the milk. Caccio Cavallo is eaten on bread as well as with -macaroni and is much relished by the Italians. - -=Limburger=, =Brick=, =Munster= and other similar semi-soft cheese of -the proverbial strong flavor, originated in Belgium and Bavaria, but are -now largely made in Northern New York and Wisconsin as well. - -For Limburger the milk is not ripened as for Cheddar but is set with -rennet quite sweet at a temperature of about 90°; the curd is cut rather -soft, care being taken, however, not to lose butter-fat. The curd is but -slightly “cooked,” to a temperature not to exceed 96°, and is not salted -in the vat but is dipped out into perforated wooden boxes or molds about -5 inches square and left to drain without pressure. The cheese are -placed edgeways like bricks on shelves and are rubbed with salt and -turned every day until cured. During the curing process moisture exudes -and a fermentation takes place which develops the well-known “Limburger” -flavor. After eight or ten weeks the cheese is packed in paper and -tinfoil and is ready for the market. - -=Brick= cheese is something between a Cheddar and a Limburger, of a -milder flavor than either, not as hard as the former but firmer than the -latter. - -The milk is slightly ripened and is set with rennet at 86° so as to -coagulate in 20 minutes. The curd is “cooked” to 110° or more and is not -allowed to “mat” as for Cheddar cheese, but is dipped out of the vat -before much acidity has developed, into the molds, which are rectangular -boxes without top or bottom placed on a draining table where the whey -runs off. - -The mold is usually 5 inches wide, 8 inches deep and 10 inches long. -When it is filled with curd a follower is put on the top and a slight -weight, a couple of bricks, on the follower. The cheese is turned a few -times and the next day it is taken out of the mold and placed on the -salting table. The salting is done by rubbing the cheese on all sides -with salt which penetrates the curd and draws out moisture. This is -repeated for 3 days and the cheese is then left to cure, being washed -and wiped off every week to prevent molding. - -Brick cheese is shipped one or two months old. It is wrapped in paper -and packed twenty in a box. - -=Munster Cheese= is very much the same as Brick except for the form, it -being round, molded in a perforated tin hoop instead of the box used for -Limburger and Brick. - - - SOFT RENNET CHEESE - -The soft cheese made with rennet may be classified as _fresh_ and -_cured_. - -=Neufchatel.=—The fresh soft cheese of the _Neufchatel_ or _Cream -Cheese_ type is easily made and may be produced in any house from a -small quantity of milk. The milk is set at a comparatively low -temperature, usually 72° F., with very little rennet, just enough to -coagulate the milk in about eighteen hours. During that time a slight -acidity develops in the milk. When it is firmly curdled it is carefully -dipped on to cheese-cloth suspended on a frame, or into cotton bags -where it drains overnight. - -To make the cheese quickly a starter is sometimes used and more rennet -employed. The milk is heated to 80° F., 25% starter and 7½ c.c. of -rennet extract, or one rennet tablet per hundred pounds of milk, are -added and the milk curdles in about 30 minutes. - -After draining for a few hours the curd is gently pressed for a similar -time. When the whey is fairly well expelled, the curd is kneaded or run -through a meat cutter with a little salt, not more than 2½ oz. to 10 -lbs. of curd. The outfit and the manipulation is essentially the same as -described under Cottage cheese. - -A superior quality is obtained by pasteurizing the milk and if that is -done a pure culture starter should always be used. If the slow setting -method is used a very small amount of starter, say ½%, is sufficient, -but when the quick process is employed 10% to 25% may be added. - -[Illustration: - - Molding Neufchatel cheese -] - -To give it a good appearance for market, the cheese is molded in little -tin molds very much like a quarter-pound baking powder can with open -ends. The cylindrical roll of cheese is wrapped in parchment paper and -tinfoil and is immediately ready for consumption. In an ice box it will -keep for a week or so. Neufchatel cheese may be made from whole milk or -partly-skimmed milk. The yield is from 10 to 20 lbs. out of 100 lbs. of -milk. - -=Cream Cheese= is usually made in the same way. A mixture of cream and -milk containing about 10% butter-fat is used, though sometimes the cream -is not added until the time of salting. The mold is square, 2½” × 1½” × -2” deep. These soft kinds of cheese are often mixed with chopped -peppers, olives or nuts and make excellent sandwiches. - -=Cured Soft Cheese.=—For _Cream_ or _Neufchatel_ cheese, made for -curing, the curd is salted more than for fresh cheese, or the molded -cheese is rolled in salt. For a week or two it is placed in a curing -room on straw mats or the like where it ferments slightly before being -wrapped and packed for shipment. - -=French Soft Cheese.=—The many forms of French soft cheese as -represented by the _Brie_, the _Camembert_, etc., are subjected to -special fermentations which give to each its peculiar flavor. Attempts -have been made to use pure cultures of the bacteria active in such -fermentations and so reduce the art of cheesemaking to a more scientific -process. But it has been found that any desired kind of cheese cannot be -made simply by adding a culture of this or that bacterium to pasteurized -milk. Of vastly greater importance for the development of the proper -bacteria and flavor is the handling of the milk and the curd by the -experienced cheesemaker. Inoculation with a pure culture alone does not -make the special cheese wanted. - - - CHEESE MADE WITHOUT RENNET - -[Illustration: - - Mono-service jar -] - -=Cottage Cheese.=—Of the sour milk types the common _Cottage Cheese_ is -the best known. It is made from skim milk which in a warm room will -curdle when sour, whether rennet and a starter are used or not. The -thick sour milk is heated to anywhere between 100° and 120° and dipped -into bags of cheese-cloth hung up for draining. The next day light -pressure is applied for 12 to 24 hours, when the curd is kneaded, -slightly salted, formed into balls and wrapped in parchment paper or -packed into jars. For this purpose paraffined paper jars are very -practical. - -The more the curd is heated in the whey the drier will be the cheese. -Often it is improved by allowing the curd to become rather dry and then -working new milk or a little cream into it, according to the use to -which it is to be put—whether it is for bakers’ stock or for the table. - -Simple directions for making Cottage cheese are given in Farmers’ -Bulletin 850 and A. I. 17, issued by the United States Department of -Agriculture from which we reprint the following and copy the -accompanying illustrations: - -[Illustration: - - Pouring the curdled milk on cloth to drain -] - -“One gallon of skim milk will make about 1½ pounds of cheese. If the -milk is sweet it should be placed in a pan and allowed to remain in a -clean warm place at a temperature of about 75° F., until it clabbers. -The clabbered milk should have a clean, sour flavor. Ordinarily this -will take about 30 hours, but when it is desirable to hasten the process -a small quantity of clean-flavored sour milk may be mixed with the sweet -milk. - -“As soon as the milk has thickened or firmly clabbered it should be cut -into pieces 2 inches square, after which the curd should be stirred -thoroughly with a spoon. Place the pan of broken curd in a vessel of hot -water so as to raise the temperature to 100° F. Cook at that temperature -for about 30 minutes, during which time stir gently with a spoon for 1 -minute at 5-minute intervals. - -[Illustration: - - Lifting the cloth back and forth to facilitate draining -] - -“At the conclusion of the heating, pour the curd and whey into a small -cheese-cloth bag (a clean salt bag will do nicely) and hang the bag in a -fruit-strainer rack to drain, or the curd may be poured into a colander -or a strainer over which a piece of cheese-cloth has been laid. After 5 -or 10 minutes work the curd toward the center with a spoon. Raising and -lowering the ends of the cloth helps to make the whey drain faster. To -complete the draining tie the end of the bag together and hang it up. -Since there is some danger that the curd will become too dry, draining -should stop when the whey ceases to flow in a steady stream. - -[Illustration: - - Pressing the curd -] - -“The curd is then emptied from the bag and worked with a spoon or a -butter paddle until it becomes fine in grain, smooth, and of the -consistency of mashed potatoes. Sour or sweet cream may be added to -increase the smoothness and palatability and improve the flavor. Then -the cheese is salted according to taste, about one teaspoonful to a -pound of curd. - -“Because of the ease with which the cheese can be made it is desirable -to make it often so that it may be eaten fresh, although if it is kept -cold it will not spoil for several days. If the cheese is not to be -eaten promptly it should be stored in an earthenware or glass vessel -rather than in one of tin or wood, and kept in a cold place.” - -[Illustration: - - Apparatus needed in making cottage cheese -] - -=Making Cottage Cheese with Rennet.=—In the bulletin mentioned a method -is also given for making the cheese with rennet or pepsin. Junket -Tablets make a convenient form of rennet to be used for this purpose. - -The advantages claimed for this method are: - -1. A finer textured and more uniform cheese. - -2. The making requires less time and attention. - -3. Losses of fat in the whey are reduced. - -The process is the same as described above except that a solution of -_Junket Tablets_ is added to the milk at the rate of one tablet to 100 -lbs. of milk. For less milk use a fraction of a tablet, or dissolve one -tablet in ten tablespoonfuls of water and use one spoonful of the -solution for each 10 lbs. of milk. - -If a starter is used the rennet solution is added immediately after the -starter is put in; if no starter is used the milk is left for five or -six hours at 80° F. to ripen before adding the rennet. The milk will -curdle overnight. - -After draining for thirty minutes on cotton sheeting the ends of the -cloth are tied together and a weight is placed on top to press the curd -gently until the desired consistency is attained. - -Salt may be worked in at the rate of 2½ ounces to 10 lbs. of curd. If -desired, add sweet or sour cream at the rate of ½ pint to 10 lbs. of -curd or ¼ pint of cream to the product from 30 lbs. of milk. - -It will be seen that Cottage cheese made with rennet is really the same -as Neufchatel cheese, the only difference being in the form and packing -or wrapping of the finished cheese. - -=Snappy Cheese.=—By allowing the sour skim milk curd to ferment under -careful regulation, a variety of sharp, snappy, more or less hard cheese -can be made. Though there is no general demand for them, some kinds are -quite popular in their own restricted localities. The Danish _Appetite -cheese_ is only one of the many varieties which have as many names. - -=Club Cheese= and similar varieties are made by grinding up old dry -cheese with a little butter and packing the product in jars or other -attractive packages. American, Roquefort, or any other well-known type -may be used as the stock for these cheeses. Everywhere they are -favorites in dining cars and lunch rooms. - -[Illustration: - - Milking the goat in Norway -] - -=Whey Cheese.=—In Switzerland the so-called _Zieger cheese_ is made from -sour whey, the albumin being coagulated by heat and, with whatever -butter-fat there may be left in the whey, skimmed off the top. In Norway -_Myseost_ (“Ost” is Norwegian for cheese) is made by boiling down whey -almost to dryness. If goat milk is available to mix in, it improves the -cheese. The main substance is sugar of milk and the cheese has a sweet, -syrupy flavor. - - - MILK SUGAR - -The by-product, sugar of milk, is produced by acidifying the whey, -heating to boiling and neutralizing with lime until the albumin is -coagulated. It is then filtered out and the clarified liquid is -concentrated in vacuum. From the thick syrup the sugar is allowed to -crystallize out, leaving the salts or mineral matters (milk-ash) in the -remaining liquid. The use of milk-sugar is limited to medicinal purposes -and for modifying milk for infants. The production is therefore not very -extensive. - - - CASEIN - -In a number of creameries casein is produced from skim milk by -precipitating it with an acid and drying and pulverizing the -precipitate. Casein is widely used as a substitute for ivory, in -billiard balls, buttons, etc. It is also used as glue, and as a binder -in paints. - - - MILK POWDER - -The production and use of dry milk has increased enormously during the -last few years and the processes of manufacture have been improved -well-nigh to perfection. There are several methods practiced, the most -important being the following: - -The _Just-Hatmaker_, in which a large metal drum or cylinder revolves -slowly in a tank of milk. The drum is heated by steam inside and, as it -rolls out of the milk, the metal surface picks up a thin film of milk -which quickly dries and is removed by a scraper. - -The _Eckenberg_ process employs vacuum evaporating pans, like those used -for making condensed milk and maple syrup. - -The _Merrell-Soule_ Company’s method consists in driving a blast of hot -air into a fine spray of milk, which at once reduces the milk to a fine -powder. - -In the “_Economic_” process the milk is dried by hot air the same as in -the Merrell-Soule method, but in dropping through a tower from a height -of some 30 feet the milk meets several blasts of air of different -temperatures. It is claimed that in this way alone rich milk and cream -may be reduced to a powder without injury to, or change of, the original -fat globules. - -=Skim Milk Powder.=—Beautiful skim milk powders are now made which -dissolve perfectly in water. Containing, as they do, the extremely -nourishing constituents of the fatless milk in a most palatable form, -they can be used in baking and in many food products to great advantage. - -=Whole Milk Powder.=—Until recently dried whole milk was not produced of -good keeping quality as the butter-fat had a tendency to become rancid -before many months. But improvements are constantly being made and milk -powders of every degree of richness bid fair to take the place of fresh -milk on board ships and in other places where milk must be kept a long -time before being used. - -In many new food preparations of value, milk powder is filling a -long-felt want. Dissolved in 8 or 9 times as much water, milk powder -makes a liquid almost identical with pasteurized fresh milk. - -It has already been mentioned under the chapter on “Cream” and under -“Ice Cream” how skim milk powder and unsalted butter, _emulsified_ in a -suitable amount of water or milk, make an excellent material for ice -cream. - - - CONDENSED AND EVAPORATED MILK - -Milk cannot be boiled down in a common open kettle or steam boiler -without being scorched. Evaporating or condensing is therefore usually -done in a vacuum pan at a low temperature. Condensed to one-third of its -volume and excluded from the air by canning, milk will keep well for -months, and has many uses as a substitute for fresh milk. Often sugar is -added as a preservative, and where sugar would be added anyway, as in -coffee, ice cream, etc., this is unobjectionable. - -For purposes where sugar is not wanted, unsweetened condensed or -evaporated milk is on the market, so carefully made that the taste of -the original milk is hardly changed at all by the process. When water is -added in the proportion of two parts of water to one of the evaporated -milk, the fluid obtained excels even that from milk powder in its -resemblance to fresh milk. - - - WHEY - -Whey is a by-product in cheesemaking. Usually it is fed to hogs and -especially together with grain or bran it makes an excellent food for -them. But whey is also prepared for human food. In the hospital or in -the home it serves as a substitute for milk when a mild diet of easily -digested food is temporarily required for a weak stomach. For such -purposes it must not be allowed to become acid as in cheesemaking, but -should be prepared as the chief product from sweet new milk or freshly -separated skim milk. The sweet milk is set with rennet—one Junket -Tablet, dissolved in cold water, to a quart of milk—at a temperature of -90° to 100° F. As soon as a firm curd is formed it is carefully broken -up and transferred to a strainer of cheese-cloth. Unless it is to be -used at once, the whey strained off should be immediately cooled to 50° -or lower. If left at a higher temperature it will soon become sour. A -teaspoonful of limewater to a quart, or a pinch of soda, will help to -keep it sweet. Still, in any event, it should not be kept long, but -prepared fresh when required. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CHAPTER IV - - MILK AS A FOOD - - -Milk is first of all the food for the young,—until a certain age the -only food, and a perfect food. It contains but little refuse or waste -and is under favorable conditions almost wholly digestible. - - - NUTRIENTS - -All foods contain certain groups of nutrients which may be classified -according to various functions in nutrition and their chemical -composition. - -=Protein.=—The protein group of nutrients contains nitrogen and is -necessary for building up the tissues of the body, the muscles and the -tendons which also contain nitrogen. Only by this group can tissues -wasted by constant wear and tear be rebuilt. Proteins are the -flesh-forming group. To some degree the proteins or albuminoids are also -active in producing fat in the body, but the other groups of nutrients, -especially the fats, also contribute. - -=Fats and Carbohydrates.=—Another important function of food is to -produce and maintain the animal heat. The main sources of this necessity -are the fats and the carbohydrates, so called because they consist of -the element carbon combined with oxygen and hydrogen, the last two in -the exact proportion in which they are combined in water. All of these -three groups furnish the fuel, so to speak, for the body, but they are -not equal in this respect. Pound for pound, when burned in the body, the -fats yield 2¼ times as much heat as protein or the carbohydrates. - -=Mineral Matters.=—Finally there are in all foods the mineral matters, a -group containing a number of salts which are indispensable because they -are constituents of every part of the body. Phosphate of lime, for -instance, makes up one-half of the substance of the bones, and the -sulphates and chlorides of potash and soda, iron, etc., are everywhere -present in smaller quantities. No food in which any of them is lacking -is complete. - -=Relation.=—The value of a food depends largely upon the relation of one -group of nutrients to another. Proper nutrition can only be obtained -when a sufficient amount of flesh-forming as well as of heat-producing -nutrients are present, when the “nutritive ratio” is properly balanced -for the particular purpose in view, be it the growth of the child, the -maintenance of the body, the restoration of matter consumed by labor of -body or brain, or the supply of heat to make up for cold surroundings. - -=Milk contains all= of these groups of nutrients. The protein is -represented in milk by the casein and albumin, the fats by the -butter-fat, the carbohydrates by milk-sugar, and the mineral matters by -the milk-ash. Human milk contains them in a perfect proportion for -infants, and for all purposes of nutrition cow’s milk may be used to -make up a “balanced ration,” if not alone, then in connection with other -food. - -=Nutritive Ratio.=—As we said before, the “nutritive ratio” of a food -means the ratio of its flesh-forming constituents—proteins—to its -heat-producing nutrients—carbohydrates and fats. Cow’s milk, containing -3.25% protein, 4% fat and 5% milk-sugar, has a nutritive ratio of 1 : -4.3, i. e., 1 part of protein to 4.3 parts of heat-giving nutrients, -counting the fat equal to 2¼ of carbohydrates (multiplying the 4% fat by -2¼ makes 9, added to the 5% of sugar, makes 14; 3.25 to 14 equals 1 to -4.3). Skim milk, containing 3.4% protein, 0.2% fat, and 5.1% sugar, has -a ratio of 1 : 1.6 (3.4 : 5.45). Mother’s milk, containing 2% protein, -4% fat, and 6.5% carbohydrates, has a ratio of 1 : 7.75. To substitute -cow’s milk for mother’s, it must therefore be “modified.” - -=Calories.=—Another way of comparing various foods than by the nutritive -ratio is by measuring their “fuel value” or energy-producing capacity. -The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of -water 1° C., or one pound 4° F., is called a calorie. By extensive -feeding experiments the caloric value of the various nutrient groups has -been estimated as follows: - - Protein at 1820 calories per pound[9] - Fats at 4040 calories per pound - Carbohydrates at 1820 calories per pound - -Measured by this rule the fuel value of: - - - Whole milk is 310 calories per - pound - - Skim milk is 160 calories per - pound - - Full cream 1885 calories per - cheese is pound - - Butter is 3410 calories per - pound - - -Compared with other food, milk, although not suited to act as the sole -food of adults, is one of the best and cheapest articles of diet, and -should be much more extensively used. - -The following table, compiled by specialists of the U. S. Department of -Agriculture, shows the quantities of various foods needed to supply as -much protein or energy as 1 quart of milk: - - - ┌────────────────────────────┬────────────────────────────┐ - │ Protein │ Energy │ - ├────────────────────────────┼────────────────────────────┤ - │1 quart of milk is equal to—│1 quart of milk is equal to—│ - │ 7 ounces of sirloin steak │ 11.3 ounces of sirloin │ - │ 6 ounces of round steak │ steak │ - │ 4.3 eggs │ 14.9 ounces of round steak│ - │ 8.6 ounces of fowl │ 9 eggs │ - │ │ 14.5 ounces of fowl │ - └────────────────────────────┴────────────────────────────┘ - - -Another method of comparison is shown by the table below, in which the -relative value of certain foods as economical sources of protein is -given: - - ┌────────────────┬──────────────────┬──────────────────┐ - │ │ Is as cheap as │ │ - │ Milk at— │sirloin steak at— │ Or eggs at— │ - ├────────────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────────┤ - │7 cents a quart │16.3 cents a pound│17.6 cents a dozen│ - │8 cents a quart │18.6 cents a pound│20.1 cents a dozen│ - │9 cents a quart │21.0 cents a pound│22.6 cents a dozen│ - │10 cents a quart│23.3 cents a pound│25.1 cents a dozen│ - │12 cents a quart│27.9 cents a pound│30.2 cents a dozen│ - │15 cents a quart│34.9 cents a pound│37.7 cents a dozen│ - └────────────────┴──────────────────┴──────────────────┘ - - -According to this table, if milk is selling at 10 cents a quart, sirloin -steak must sell as low as 23.3 cents a pound, and eggs at 25.1 cents a -dozen to supply protein at equal cost. - - - _To Supply Energy at Equal Cost_ - - ┌────────────────┬──────────────────┬──────────────────┐ - │ │ Sirloin steak │ │ - │When milk is— │ must not │ And eggs not │ - │ │ be more than— │ more than— │ - ├────────────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────────┤ - │7 cents a quart │9.9 cents a pound │ 9.3 cents a dozen│ - │8 cents a quart │11.3 cents a pound│10.6 cents a dozen│ - │9 cents a quart │12.8 cents a pound│11.9 cents a dozen│ - │10 cents a quart│14.2 cents a pound│13.2 cents a dozen│ - │12 cents a quart│17.0 cents a pound│15.9 cents a dozen│ - │15 cents a quart│21.3 cents a pound│19.8 cents a dozen│ - └────────────────┴──────────────────┴──────────────────┘ - - -=Fallacy of Theoretical Valuation.=—While the contents of protein and -the ratio between digestible protein and fats and carbohydrates on one -hand, and the fuel or energy value on the other, have long been the only -recognized measures for food values, they are admittedly quite -inadequate and insufficient and although they are a great help when used -with discrimination in making up food rations, they are often abused by -persons who do not take their fallacies into consideration. - -[Illustration: - - Dr. E. V. McCollum -] - -“=Something Unknown.=”—Recent investigations by Dr. F. G. Hopkins, of -Cambridge, England, and Dr. E. V. McCollum, formerly of Wisconsin, now -of the Johns Hopkins University, have proven conclusively that one food -ingredient cannot always be substituted for another with impunity even -though the most searching chemical analysis shows them both alike in -contents and digestibility. There is “Something Unknown” in certain -foods—“Vitamines” some call it—essential especially in promoting the -growth of the young, which our present knowledge of chemistry cannot -explain. In Bulletin No. 17 of the Wisconsin Experiment Station -experiments with the feeding of rats are described which show how -butter-fat could not be replaced in the ration by vegetable fats of -apparently the same composition and digestibility without disastrous -results, and similar conditions have been found in regard to other -foodstuffs, proteins as well as fats. The yolk of eggs and butter-fat -contain this unknown something which is absolutely essential for the -growth of the child and which is missing in most substitutes, especially -in lard and vegetable fats. - -[Illustration: - - The rat on the left got five per cent of cottonseed oil and the one on - the right got instead one and a half per cent of butter-fat, - otherwise their rations were alike. These results are typical for - any ration made up of purified foodstuffs with butter-fat in them as - compared with any fat of plant origin. The plant fats lack an - unknown something without which growth cannot proceed. -] - -The above illustration is from the work of McCollum and Davis at the -Wisconsin Experiment Station. - -Realizing the fallacy of the old rules for making up rations for the -feeding of farm animals, Professor Evvard of Iowa is trying the -_reliability_ of the _instincts_ of animals as a guide to the proper -selection of the most favorable combinations and proportions of food -ingredients.[10] - -We mention these experiments as a warning against placing too great -reliance on the caloric theory or the relation of nutrients in making up -food rations. We have yet much to learn and the good housewife trying to -cook according to scientific rules will do well not to neglect the -palatability of the food, but to watch the “instinct” which causes the -child or the adult to reject or approve of, and enjoy, the food, which -in most cases is a better guide than calories or protein contents, or -the ration between the various groups of nutrients. - - - CARE OF MILK IN THE HOME - -If received fresh and warm from the cow, milk should at once be strained -through absorbent cotton or several thicknesses of cheese-cloth into -wide-mouthed bottles or glass jars and placed in running water or ice -water to cool as quickly as possible. If obtained from the milkman it -may be left in the bottle in which it is received. The practice of -delivering milk “loose,” dipping it from the wagon, should not be -permitted, and is fast being abolished. Public safety demands that it -should be bottled on the farm or in the creamery or milk station under -sanitary conditions. - -=Keep the Milk Cool.=—If the milk when delivered at the house is not -cold enough to keep sweet as long as desired, it should, we repeat, be -placed in ice water or cold running water until thoroughly cooled. Even -if the air is cold, in the ice box, for instance, the milk cannot be -cooled quickly enough without water. After it has been cooled in water -it may be put in the ice box. In most ice boxes the temperature is -allowed to rise higher than is generally supposed, and it is better to -keep the milk bottle next to the ice than in the food compartments. - -[Illustration: - - A clean ice box -] - -Milk and cream easily absorb flavors from the air and should not be kept -in open vessels next to other food. Any housekeeper knows how quickly -milk or cream will be tainted by standing in the same compartment with -onions or muskmelons; if the bottle is not covered, milk may also be -contaminated by other less noticeable but more harmful vapors from -nearby products. Let the milkman furnish you with some extra milk bottle -caps, or cover your milk bottle with an inverted tumbler. - -As has been shown in previous chapters, milk is a favorable soil for all -sorts of germs and bacteria to grow in. It must therefore be kept from -contamination with the utmost care, and everything that comes in contact -with it must be scrupulously clean. - -=Top-Milk.=—When the milk has been standing at rest three or four hours, -the top-milk will be considerably richer than the rest. If such rich -milk is wanted for any particular purpose it may be poured off, to be -eaten with cereals, berries, etc. In twelve hours most of the cream will -rise and may be skimmed off, although thirty-six or even forty-eight -hours may be required to get all that can be obtained by setting. The -half-skimmed milk left when the top-milk has been removed after 3 to 6 -hours’ setting will still contain 2% or more of butter-fat and is very -good for drinking; even the skim milk from which the cream has been -taken after 12 hours’ setting is still an excellent beverage, provided -it is sweet. Perfectly skimmed, almost entirely fatless, milk may be -used in various ways in cooking, to make up for lack of protein in many -other food products. But care must be taken that it is pure and sweet, -or rather, its condition, sweet or sour, must be under the perfect -control of the housekeeper. If a sample of milk will stand scalding or -even boiling without curdling, it is usually fresh and in good condition -for any use. On the other hand, if it curdles by scalding, it is beyond -control and it may or may not make good sour milk, depending on the -bacteria working in it. - - - MILK FOR INFANTS - -[Illustration] - -Comparing cow’s milk with mother’s milk, it will be seen that the latter -contains less protein, about the same percentage of fat and more -carbohydrates than the former. A comparison may be made from the -following table of average composition in round figures: - - - ──────────────┬───────┬───────┬───────┬───────┬───────┬───────┬─────── - │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Fuel - │ Water │ Total │Protein│ Fat │ Milk- │Mineral│ value - │ │solids │ │ │ sugar │matters│per lb. - ──────────────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼─────── - │ Per │ Per │ Per │ Per │ Per │ Per │Calories - │ cent │ cent │ cent │ cent │ cent │ cent │ - ──────────────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼─────── - Mother’s Milk │ 87 │ 13 │ 2 │ 4 │ 6.5 │ 0.5 │ 316 - ──────────────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼─────── - Cow’s Milk │ 87 │ 13 │ 3.25 │ 4 │ 5 │ 0.75 │ 312 - ──────────────┴───────┴───────┴───────┴───────┴───────┴───────┴─────── - - -=Modifying Milk.=—Undiluted cow’s milk is too rich in protein and in -salts for infants and, when fed without modification, must be diluted -with an equal amount of water during the first two or three months. Such -dilution, however, also reduces the percentage of fat, which should -remain the same, and of carbohydrates, which should be increased. In -order to modify or “humanize” cow’s milk so as to make its composition -nearly the same as that of mother’s milk, simple dilution with water is -therefore not sufficient. - -There are, however, various other methods which may be used to -advantage. For instance, top-milk from a bottle of fresh milk which has -stood 4 or 6 hours in ice water will contain 6 to 8% of fat. By diluting -this with an equal part of water, the percentage of protein, fat and -mineral matter will be about right, and sugar, either cane-sugar or -milk-sugar, may be added to supply the carbohydrates. Or carefully -prepared sweet whey containing milk-sugar, or barley water, may be added -to the thin cream in place of some of the pure water. - -The following recipes have been used with good results: - - - Mrs. Pospyhala’s Recipe - - =Infant Food.=—Warm 1½ quarts of milk to blood heat. Remove from - fire and add one Junket Tablet dissolved in a spoonful of cold - water. Let the milk set until it forms a solid mass, then stir - it up in order to break the curd. Place it back on the fire and - stir until quite smooth, not allowing it to get any warmer than - blood heat. It is then ready to strain through two thicknesses - of cheese-cloth and care must be taken to squeeze well so as to - obtain as much of the whey as possible, which is very important. - Add one tablespoonful of sugar to sweeten. Pour into nursing - bottles, the amount being according to the age of the baby. A - sufficient number of bottles are prepared for 24 hours’ feeding. - Care should be taken to keep the milk in a cool place as it will - sour the same as fresh milk. Every time the baby is fed the milk - must be warmed by placing the bottle in a pan of water and - heating to the right temperature. - - - _Mrs. Rorer’s Recipe_ - - Where cow’s milk, even when diluted, or partly modified as in - the home fashion, disagrees with the infant, this mixture may be - used with good results: heat two quarts of milk to 100° F. Add - two Junket Tablets dissolved in a tablespoonful of cold water. - When the milk is congealed and perfectly solid draw through it - backward and forward an ordinary four-tined silver fork; this - will separate the curd. Strain through two thicknesses of - cheese-cloth, saving the whey as this is the part you are to - use; add a pint of water, a half ounce of sugar of milk, three - ounces of cream and four ounces of the white of egg. The whites - may be dropped into a quart fruit jar, a pint of the whey added, - the top screwed on and the jar thoroughly shaken until the - whites are well mixed with the whey; then add them to the - remaining quantity and stand at once in a very cold place. This - will be given in quantities from two to three ounces in an - ordinary nursing bottle. - - - _RECIPES_ - _of the Nathan Straus Laboratories_ - -Formula by Dr. A. R. Green for 1st to 4th week:— - - ¾ ounces of 16% Cream - 3 ounces of Full Milk - 19 ounces of Water - 1½ ounces Milk Sugar - -This mixture fills 8 bottles—each to contain 3 ounces. Feed 2½ hours -apart. - - -Formula by Prof. A. Jacobi for 3d to 7th month:— - - 18 ounces of Full Milk - 18 ounces of Barley Water - 1 ounces of Cane Sugar - 20 grains of Table Salt (less than ¼ teaspoonful) - -This mixture fills 6 bottles—each to contain 6 ounces. Feed 3 hours -apart. - - -Formula by Prof. R. G. Freeman for 1st to 3d month:— - - 1½ ounces of 16% Cream - 3 ounces of Full Milk - 13 ounces of Water - ½ ounce Lime Water - 1 ounce Milk-Sugar - -This mixture fills 6 bottles—each to contain 3 ounces. Feed 3 hours -apart. - - -Formula by Dr. A. F. Hess for 7th to 9th month:— - - 22½ ounces of Full Milk - 7½ ounces of Oat or Barley Water - 1½ ounces of Cane Sugar - 30 grains of Table Salt (about ¼ teaspoonful) - -This mixture fills 5 bottles—each to contain 6 ounces. Feed 3½ hours -apart. - - -Formula by Prof. R. G. Freeman for 2d to 6th month:— - - 18 ounces of Full Milk - 16½ ounces of Water - 1½ ounces of Limewater - 1½ ounces of Milk Sugar - -This mixture fills 6 bottles—each to contain 6 ounces. Feed 3 hours -apart. - - -After 9th month:— - -Full pasteurized milk, 8 ounces every 4 hours. - - -When the modified milk can be obtained from a dairy laboratory where it -is prepared with scientific care and accuracy, it is better to use it -than to depend on home-made preparations, and in many cases a doctor’s -prescription may be necessary. Even if the modified cow’s milk is -prepared so as to contain apparently the same proportion of the various -groups of nutrients as mother’s milk, there may still be some essential -difference. For instance, the protein in human milk consists mainly of -albumin, while that of cow’s milk is mostly casein. It is often a -question whether the individual baby can digest the casein without -trouble. A trifle of rennet ferment,—a fraction of a Junket -Tablet,—added to the modified cow’s milk just before feeding may be -beneficial to overcome that defect. A little limewater also is healthful -as it neutralizes any acid that may develop in the mixture. For the -particular needs of the individual baby, a competent doctor should be -asked to prescribe. - - - MILK FOR GROWING CHILDREN - -[Illustration] - -When the child is big enough to thrive on undiluted, unmodified cow’s -milk, it should not only be allowed, but urged, to continue on a diet in -which this, the best of all foods, is the most essential part. An -excellent form in which to feed milk to the growing child is junket. -Eaten slowly with a spoon as a pudding, it is exposed to the action of -digestion much better than milk swallowed by the glassful in a hurry and -even if it is cold there is no danger of defective rennet action in the -stomach because such action has already taken place. - -Doctors still disagree as to the desirability of pasteurizing milk for -young children (see “Pasteurization,” Chapter I), some holding that the -digestibility is affected by the process. The truth is probably that -strong pasteurization at a temperature above 157° and holding the heated -milk unnecessarily long at such high temperature do change the -properties of the milk so as to make it harder to digest, but that the -main difficulty is in the change of diet from raw to pasteurized milk or -vice versa. Let the child get used to the change by making it gradual, -diminishing the amount of one and increasing the amount of the other -from day to day in a week, until the change is completed, and there will -usually be little if any trouble. The secretions of digestive ferments -in the stomach soon adapt themselves to the change in the food. The same -holds good in case of other changes, as, for instance, from whole milk -to more or less fatless milk, with additions of cereals or other partial -substitutes;—it is always advisable to make any change in the child’s -diet gradual. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CHAPTER V - - MILK COOKERY - - -Milk should also be used a great deal more than it is by grown persons, -not only as a drink but in the daily cookery. In some homes milk in some -form is a part of every menu and the meals are more delicious, -attractive and nourishing than the ordinary milkless diet, and are also -less expensive, as the milk takes the place of part of the meat. Dr. -Graham Tusk of Cornell University, who represented the United States on -the Interallied Council of Alimentation, says: - - “No family of five should spend any money for meat until three - quarts of milk have been purchased, and this should be done even - though the price of milk should go to twenty cents a quart. - Absolutely nothing in the food line will keep children so - healthy as their daily supply of milk.” - -In cooking with milk it is well to remember: - -1. That, although milk is a liquid, it contains a large amount of solid -food and of exceedingly nourishing, palatable and easily digestible -food, much more than many vegetables or fruits. While milk has 13% of -solid matter, water-melon has only 2%, turnips 4%, beets 12%, etc. When -substituting milk for water, you add _nourishment_ to the food and it is -well to keep in mind the ingredients,—the amount of protein, fat, etc., -added in the form of milk, which may take the place of other similar -ingredients in the combination. - -2. That if milk is even but slightly sour, or if some other acid is -added to it,—in the form of fruit, for instance,—it is apt to curdle by -scalding or boiling. - -The limits of a single chapter do not allow many recipes to be given, -but a few are furnished under each of the several kinds of milk dishes, -and a clever domestic science pupil or the ordinary good housekeeper and -cook can easily add to these recipes indefinitely, by following out the -simple suggestions offered. - -All measurements are level. - - - SOUPS - -=Cream Soups.=—So-called cream soups may be made with or without the -addition of meat stock. For example: - - =Asparagus Soup= - - 3 cups veal or chicken broth - 1 can asparagus - ¼ cup butter - ¼ cup flour - 1 qt. scalded milk - Salt and pepper - -Reserve tips of asparagus. Add stalks to cold stock, boil fifteen -minutes, rub through sieve, thicken with butter and flour cooked -together, add milk, tips, salt and pepper. If fresh asparagus is used, -cut one bunch in small pieces, boil in as little water as will cover, -remove tough bits of stalk, add two cups stock and proceed as above. - - - =Cream of Celery Soup= - - 3 cups veal or chicken broth - 3 cups celery cut in inch pieces - 4 cups milk - Yolks 2 eggs - ½ cup cream - Salt and pepper - -Boil celery in broth till tender. Rub through sieve, add milk, bring to -the boiling point and add egg yolks beaten and diluted with cream. - - - =Spinach Soup= - - 4 cups broth - 2 qts. spinach - 3 cups boiling water - 2 cups milk - ¼ cup butter - ½ cup flour - Salt and pepper - -Wash the spinach and cook thirty minutes in boiling water to which ⅛ -teaspoon soda has been added. Drain and chop fine. Add stock and butter -and flour cooked together, milk and seasoning. - -Cauliflower, mushrooms, lettuce, string beans, onions and other -vegetables may be used for soups in the same way. _In all of these -recipes milk may be substituted for the stock._ The soups will be more -nourishing, many like them better, and they are more easily prepared. - -If canned vegetables are used they may be added to the thickened milk, -which should be made in the proportions of one quart of milk to two -tablespoons butter or substitute and two tablespoons flour. One can of -beans, peas, asparagus, or corn, may be added to three pints of -thickened milk. - -If fresh vegetables are used, they should be boiled in as little water -as possible and this water added with the vegetables to the hot, -thickened milk. The addition of one-half to one cup of cream to these -soups improves their taste but is not necessary. If the cream is whipped -and added just before serving, the appearance is also much improved. The -vegetables may be pressed through a sieve or not, as preferred. If the -soup is to be served in cups it is better to do this or chop the -vegetables very fine, but if the soup is to be served in soup plates it -looks attractive and is more substantial if the vegetables are cut in -inch pieces and left in the soup. - -All cooks are familiar with _cornlet soup_, _tomato_ _bisque_, and -_oyster_ and _clam stews_, the foundation of which is also milk. Plenty -of good recipes for them can be found in any standard cook book. - -=Cereal Cream Soups.=—There is another class of soups used much in -Europe but, unfortunately, little known here. They are very nourishing, -easy of preparation, and delicious. - -A few recipes will suffice to introduce the housewife to this class of -soups and she can then easily add to the varieties herself. Her family -will enjoy the new dishes for their good taste and their novelty. -Croutons, crackers, zwieback, or toast may be served with any of them. -They should always be prepared in a double boiler. - - - =Rice Soup= - - 1 qt. milk - ⅓ cup rice - 1 tablespoon butter - 1 tablespoon sugar - -Heat the milk in a double boiler, add the rice and cook two hours. Add -sugar and butter. Sprinkle cinnamon on each plate of soup when serving. - - - =Sago Soup= - - 1 qt. milk - 4 tablespoons sago - 1 tablespoon butter - 1 egg yolk - 2 tablespoons sugar - -Heat the milk in a double boiler, add sago and cook one-half hour. Care -must be taken to stir the mixture often when the sago is first added or -it will lump. Add butter and egg yolk beaten with sugar. - - - =Oatmeal Soup= - - 1 cup oat flakes - 1 pint boiling water - 2 tablespoons sugar - 1 pint milk - 1 tablespoon butter - -Add oat flakes to water and boil one-half hour. Add milk and boil -one-half hour, add sugar and butter. - - - =Farina or Cream of Wheat Soup= - - 3 pints milk - ½ cup farina or cream of wheat - 1 tablespoon butter - 1 tablespoon sugar - -Scald milk and add cereal slowly. Cook one hour and add butter and sugar -and a sprinkling of nutmeg. - - - =Milk Chowders= - -Chowders are also a very acceptable way of serving milk. For rich -chowders the proportions used are: Two cups of milk or of milk and -water, 1 cup of potatoes cut into small pieces and 1 pound of fish. For -flavoring add an onion fried in two tablespoons of fat tried out from -salt pork. While these proportions make a rich dish, it is possible to -reduce the amount of fish greatly, to leave it out entirely, to use -small portions of left-over fish or some salt codfish which has been -freshened, or to substitute corn for it. Such dishes are palatable and -of reasonably high nutritive value, providing the greater part of the -liquid used is milk. - -Similar, but less rich and thick, is: - - - =Milk Stew= - - 1 qt. of milk - 1 cupful raw potatoes cut into small pieces - 2 tablespoonfuls of butter or bacon fat - 1 cupful of codfish cut into small pieces or just enough to flavor the - stew - -Soak the fish in lukewarm water until it is soft and the salt removed. -Cook the potatoes in water until tender, drain them, add the milk and -codfish, and bring to the boiling point; add the butter and salt to -taste. - -In place of the codfish, fresh fish, clams, oysters, or a little chipped -beef may be used. Or the fish may be omitted and the soup made savory -and palatable by adding a few drops of onion juice, or cheese or a -vegetable cut into small pieces and cooked thoroughly. - - - MILK CEREALS - -Most cereals are better cooked in milk than in water and those not -familiar with this method have no idea of the many good dishes which -they can thus easily provide for their families. Cereals so prepared -make an especially good wholesome breakfast or supper for school -children and the writer has never seen an adult, who, on a cold night, -did not enjoy a dish of rice, or corn meal, boiled in milk and served -with cream and sugar for supper. Milk cereals must always be cooked in a -double boiler and the milk must be hot when the cereal is added. - - Rice 1 cup to 3 cups milk, boil 2 hours - Cornmeal 1 cup to 4 cups milk, boil 1 to 2 hours - Fine Hominy 1 cup to 4 cups milk, boil 1 hour - Cream of Wheat 1 cup to 4 cups milk, boil 1 hour - Farina 1 cup to 4 cups milk, boil 1 hour - - -=Cream of Wheat or Farina Pudding= is also delicious. It is prepared in -the same way, but ¾ cup of cereal only is added to 1 quart hot milk. -Just before serving, a teaspoonful of vanilla is added, and two beaten -eggs are folded in. It is eaten with cream, or milk, and sugar, or with -maple syrup. - - - LUNCHEON AND SUPPER DISHES - -Dishes prepared principally of milk, with the addition of either eggs, -cheese, meat, or vegetables are particularly adapted for luncheon or -supper use. Here again a few standard recipes are given which can be -varied to make any desired number of good, wholesome and delicious -dishes. - -=Creamed Dishes.=—The same sauce may be used to cream _cold chicken_, -_lamb_, _veal_, _chipped beef_, and cold boiled or baked _fish_, canned -_salmon_, _lobster_ or _shrimps_, according to the following recipe: - - - =Creamed Chicken= - - 2 cups cold cooked chicken cut into dice - 3 tablespoons butter - 3 tablespoons flour - 1½ cups milk - Salt and pepper - -Melt butter and add the flour and milk. Bring to the boiling point and -add diced chicken. Season with salt and pepper. - -Many grate a small onion into the sauce before adding the chicken. The -writer does not favor indiscriminate use of onion as it tends to make -all dishes taste alike. It seems better to use sometimes a little celery -or celery salt, sometimes an onion, and again frequently no flavor but -the chicken or meat or fish. One’s cooking is thus more distinctive and -varied. - -If the creamed mixture is turned into a baking dish, covered with -buttered bread or cracker crumbs and browned in the oven, the result is -even more pleasing. - -Such a sauce flavored with cheese makes a good and very nutritious gravy -to pour over cauliflower and cabbage or to serve with boiled rice or -hominy or poured over toast. - - - CREAMED VEGETABLES - -In creaming vegetables the proportion is usually 1 cup of sauce to 2 -cups of vegetables. _Potatoes_, _asparagus_, _cauliflower_, _boiled -onions_, _beans_, and _carrots_, _beets_ or _peas_ are all delicious -served in this way. - - - =Eggs and Asparagus= - -Cream asparagus. Arrange in a baking dish, alternate layers of the -asparagus and slices of hard boiled eggs. Cover with buttered crumbs and -bake till crumbs are a delicate brown. - -=Souffles.=—Souffles are always delightful, and while many consider them -difficult to make they are really very simple and if made correctly are -always to be depended upon. They should, however, be eaten at once when -baked. - -_Salmon_, _chicken_, _lamb_, _veal_, _ham_ and _cheese_, and also many -vegetables such as _asparagus_, _cauliflower_ and _peas_ may be prepared -in this way. Elaborate recipes are often given, but the following is -entirely sufficient and always satisfactory: - - 2 cups chopped meat or vegetables cut fine - 2 cups thick white sauce - Yolks of 2 eggs - Whites of 2 eggs - -To the meat or vegetables add white sauce (2 tablespoons butter and 3 -tablespoons flour to 1 cup milk) and beaten yolks. Cool and add whites -beaten stiff. Bake 30 minutes in moderate oven. This makes a dish large -enough to serve four or five persons. - -A similar dish, Cheese Fondu, is also good, and can stand longer than a -souffle before serving. - - - =Cheese Fondu= - - 2 cups milk - 2 cups minced cheese - 1 cup bread crumbs - 2 eggs beaten - -Bake in a hot oven for twenty minutes. - -Variations of this dish are made by substituting one cup minced ham for -one cup of the cheese, or by using two cups of ham and omitting the -cheese altogether. - - - MILK TOAST - -A very good way to serve milk toast is to toast bread thoroughly and to -pour hot milk over it at the time of serving. In serving milk toast in -this way all the dishes should be kept very hot. A heavy earthenware -pitcher may be used for serving the hot milk, as it retains heat for a -long time. - - - EGGS POACHED IN MILK - -Eggs are much better poached in milk than in water. If served on toast -the hot milk may be poured on the egg if a soft toast is desired. If -not, dip the eggs out of the milk with a perforated spoon and lay on the -toast in the usual way, adding salt and butter. - - - CHEESE DISHES AS MEAT SUBSTITUTES - -Meat is wholesome and relished by most persons, yet it is not essential -to a well-balanced meal, and there are many housekeepers who, for one -reason or another, are interested in lessening the amount of meat which -they provide or to substitute some other foods for it. - -Cheese naturally suggests itself as a substitute for meat, since it is -rich in the same kinds of nutrients which meat supplies, is a staple -food with which everyone is familiar, and is one which can be used in a -great variety of ways. In substituting cheese for meat, pains should be -taken to serve dishes which are relished by members of the family. A -number of recipes for dishes which are made with cheese follow: - - - =Cheese Soup= - - 1 qt. milk - 1 onion grated - 1 blade mace - 2 tablespoons butter - 2 tablespoons flour - ½ c. grated cheese - 2 egg yolks - 1 teaspoon salt - ¼ teaspoon white pepper - -Scald milk, onion, mace and pepper pod. Melt butter in saucepan, blend -flour with melted butter. Strain milk and seasonings and add gradually -to flour mixture, stirring all the time. Return to double boiler to -cook. When creamy, add the cheese, salt and pepper, stirring until -cheese is melted. Then pour over well-beaten egg yolks, stirring all the -time. Whip until frothing and serve. - - - =Delmonico Potatoes= - -Arrange creamed potatoes and grated cheese in alternate layers. Cover -with buttered crumbs and bake till crumbs are brown. - - - =Stuffed Potatoes with Cheese= - -Split hot baked potatoes lengthwise and remove contents without injuring -skin of potato. Put potato through ricer or mash, add salt and pepper to -taste and enough hot milk to make of proper consistency. Beat until -light, refill the skin, piling up lightly. Sprinkle thickly with grated -cheese and reheat in oven until cheese is melted and a delicate brown. - - - =Macaroni with Cheese= - - 1 cup macaroni - 2 qts. boiling salted water - 2 cups white sauce - 1 cup grated cheese - 1 cup buttered bread or cracker crumbs - -Break macaroni into one-inch pieces. Cook in boiling water until tender. -(If macaroni is put in a wire basket in kettle, it will not stick to the -kettle.) Drain and run cold water through it. - -Make sauce: - - 2 tablespoons butter - 2 tablespoons flour - 1 teaspoon salt - 2 cups milk - -Add cheese and macaroni. Cover with crumbs and bake until crumbs are -brown. - - - =Rice Baked with Cheese= - - 1 cup rice - 2 qts. boiling salted water - ½ lb. grated cheese - Milk - Buttered crumbs (bread or cracker) - -Add rice to boiling water. When tender drain, cover bottom of buttered -baking dish, sprinkle with grated cheese and a little paprika. Add -alternate layers of rice and cheese until dish is full. Add milk nearly -to fill dish. Cover with crumbs and bake until milk is absorbed and -crumbs are brown. - - - =Cheese Souffle with Bread Crumbs= - - 1 cup scalded milk - 1 cup soft, stale bread crumbs - ¼ lb. mild cheese, cut in small pieces - 1 tablespoon butter - ¼ teaspoon salt - 2 egg yolks - 2 egg whites - -Mix milk, bread crumbs, cheese, melted butter and salt. Add yolks of -eggs beaten until lemon colored. Cut and fold in whites of eggs beaten -until stiff. Pour into a buttered baking dish and bake twenty minutes in -a moderate oven. - - - =Cheese Souffle= - - 2 tablespoons butter - 3 tablespoons flour - ½ cup scalded milk - ½ teaspoon salt - Few grains cayenne - ¼ cup grated cheese - Yolks of 3 eggs - Whites of 3 eggs - -Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour and mix well; add scalded -milk gradually and seasonings; cook two minutes. Remove pan to back of -stove and add cheese and well-beaten yolks of eggs. Set pan where -mixture will cool. When cold, add the whites of eggs beaten until stiff -and dry. Turn into a buttered baking dish and bake twenty minutes in a -slow oven. Serve the moment it comes from the oven. - - - =English Monkey= - - 1 cup bread crumbs - 2 cups milk - 1 cup grated cheese - ½ teaspoon salt - ¼ teaspoon white pepper or paprika - 1 egg - 1 tablespoon melted butter - -Scald milk in double boiler and add bread crumbs to it. Then add grated -cheese, melted butter and seasonings. Cook in double boiler until cheese -is melted; add the slightly-beaten egg gradually. Cook five minutes and -serve on dry toast. - - - =Cheese Omelette No. 1= - - 4 eggs - ½ teaspoon salt - Few grains pepper - 4 tablespoons hot water - 1 tablespoons butter - 1 cup grated cheese - -Beat yolks of eggs thoroughly; add salt, pepper and hot water. Beat -whites till stiff and dry; add cheese and fold into first mixture. Melt -butter in pan, turn in mixture and cook slowly. When well raised and a -delicate brown underneath, place pan in hot oven to cook top. Fold and -turn on hot platter. - - - =Cheese Omelette No. 2= - -Make as above, omitting cheese. Make two cups of hot, white sauce; add 1 -cup grated cheese, melt and pour around the omelette. - - - =Baked Eggs with Cheese= - - 4 eggs - 1 cup grated cheese - 1 cup soft bread crumbs - ¼ teaspoon salt - Few grains cayenne - 2 cups white sauce - -Break the eggs into a buttered baking dish and cook in hot oven until -they begin to turn white around the edges. Then cover eggs with the -white sauce and over this put the mixture of crumbs, cheese and -seasonings. Brown in very hot oven, so eggs will not be overcooked by -time cheese is brown. If preferred, or for variety, the cheese may be -added to the white sauce and only the seasoned crumbs put on the top. - - - =Boston Roast= - - 1 can kidney beans or same amount of cooked beans - Salt - ½ lb. grated cheese - Bread crumbs - -Mash beans or put them through a meat grinder. Add the cheese and -sufficient bread crumbs to make the mixture stiff enough to be formed -into a roll. Place in buttered baking pan and bake in moderate oven. -Baste frequently with one-half cup hot water, in which one tablespoon -butter is melted. Serve the roast with tomato sauce. If desired, a few -drops of onion juice or a little finely chopped onion may be added to -flavor this dish. - - - =Camouflaged Cabbage= - -Remove the heart from a small cabbage, cut or chop the remainder into -half inch pieces, boil in salted water exactly twenty minutes and drain. -For one pint of this cooked cabbage make a sauce of: - - 2 tablespoons butter - 2 tablespoons flour - ½ cup milk - ½ cup cheese - -When thoroughly blended add the cabbage; cover with buttered crumbs and -bake twenty minutes. The result is a good dish for supper or luncheon -and it is well named. - - - CHEESE SALADS - - - =Cheese and Pimento Salad= - -Stuff canned pimentos with cream cheese, cut into slices, place on -lettuce leaves and serve with mayonnaise dressing. - - - =Cheese and Celery Salad= - -Select celery stalks with deep grooves in them; wash and dry on clean -towel. Mix a small cream cheese with a bit of salt, and ¼ cup finely -chopped nuts (pecans are best). Fill grooves in celery stalk with the -cheese mixture and chill. When ready to serve cut stalks into small -pieces with sharp knife. Serve on lettuce leaves with French dressing. - -For a pleasant addition to fruit salad, fill tender celery stalks with -roquefort cheese, and lay one or two on each plate of salad. - - - =Pepper and Cheese Salad= - -Remove top and seeds from a sweet green pepper. Scald it with boiling -water, letting it stand in water about ten minutes. Mix soft cream -cheese with chopped nuts, or with tiny cubes of cooked beets and fill -pepper with this mixture; chill well, cut in thin slices with sharp -knife and serve on bed of head lettuce with French dressing. - -Apples can also be used (with cheese and nuts) by removing core without -breaking the apple. - - - COTTAGE CHEESE - (See also under the chapter on Cheese) - -All that has been said of cheese as a valuable food and as a substitute -for meat, applies equally to cottage cheese and it is so easily -prepared, inexpensive and generally relished that it should be used much -more freely than it is. - -The following recipes are only a few of the many that might be given, -but the careful cook should evolve other combinations equally -attractive. - - - =Cottage Cheese by Government Method= - - (From Food Administration Bulletin) - -Unit, 1 gallon. For lesser amounts, measurements to be divided -accordingly. - -Take 1 gallon of sweet skim milk; add ¾ cup of clean, sour milk and stir -as it is put in. Raise the temperature in hot water to 75 degrees -Fahrenheit, using a dairy thermometer. Remove from heat and place where -it is to remain until set. Add ⅛ of a junket tablet thoroughly dissolved -in a tablespoon of cold water; stir while adding. Cover with cloth and -leave for 12 to 16 hours in even temperature, about 75 degrees -Fahrenheit. At end of this period there should be a slight whey on the -top and when poured out the curd should cleave sharply. Drain through -cotton cloth, not cheese-cloth. When whey has been drained out, work in -1 or 2 teaspoons of salt to the cheese, according to taste; 1½ to 2 -pounds of cheese should be obtained from a gallon of milk. - -For table use it is advisable to work in 1 or 2 tablespoons of cream to -the pound. For use in cooking, this is not necessary. - -One may also make cottage cheese of freshly soured milk by simply -heating it in a double boiler till whey forms, letting it stand an hour -and then turning it into a cheese-cloth bag to drain. To the dry curd -formed add sweet or sour cream and salt to taste. When made in this way -care must be taken that the milk is freshly soured—if it is old it will -have a bitter taste and the cheese will not be good. - - - =Cottage Cheese Sandwiches= - -Thin slices of rye, brown or white bread, buttered, with fillings of -cottage cheese in combination with jelly, marmalade, pimentoes, lettuce -or mayonnaise are all good. - - - =Cottage Cheese Club Sandwiches= - -Toast slices of bread, cut diamond shape and spread with butter and -cottage cheese or cottage cheese alone and put together with any one of -the following combinations: - -Tomato, lettuce and mayonnaise dressing. - -Thin slices of ham spread with mustard and lettuce. - -Sliced, tart apple, chopped nuts and drops of French dressing. - -Sliced orange and mayonnaise. - -Sliced Spanish onion, a hot fried egg sprinkled with Worcestershire -sauce. - -Thin slices of tomato, bacon, chicken, lettuce and mayonnaise dressing. - - - =Cottage Cheese Salad Dressing= - - ½ cup cottage cheese - 1 tablespoon vinegar - ½ teaspoon sugar - ¼ teaspoon salt - 1 cup heavy cream (either sweet or sour) whipped stiff. - -Mix in order given. A chopped hard boiled egg improves it. - -A similar salad dressing, although containing no cottage cheese, may be -given here also. - - - =Sour Cream Salad Dressing= - - 1 cup sour cream—whipped - 1 tablespoon vinegar - 1 tablespoon olive oil - ¼ teaspoon salt - (1 teaspoon sugar, if desired) - 2 hard boiled egg yolks finely chopped - -Mix in order given. - -Either of these is particularly good with green vegetables. - -For a fruit salad the eggs should be omitted and double the amount of -sugar used. - - - =Cottage Cheese Salad= - -Lettuce, sliced cucumber or green, sweet peppers, cottage cheese formed -in small balls or slices, mayonnaise or French dressing. - - - =Cottage Cheese Pie= - - 1 cup cottage cheese - ⅔ cup sugar - ⅔ cup milk - 2 egg yolks, beaten - 1 tablespoon melted butter - Salt - ¼ teaspoon vanilla - -Mix the ingredients in the order given. Bake the pie in one crust. Cool -it slightly and cover it with meringue made by adding 2 tablespoons of -sugar and ½ teaspoon of vanilla to the beaten white of 2 eggs and brown -it in a slow oven. - - - =Devonshire Dainty= - -Serve on individual plates ½ cup cottage cheese to which has been added -2 tablespoonfuls whipped cream (sweet or sour). Over this pour ½ cup -currant jam. - -Pass saltines or other dry, unsweetened crackers. - - - MILK BREADS AND BISCUITS - - - =Parker House Rolls= - - 2 cups scalded milk (skim) - 3 tablespoons butter - 1 teaspoon salt - 1 yeast cake dissolved in ¼ cup lukewarm water - -Dissolve yeast in water, melt butter, combine all ingredients except -flour. Add 3 cups flour gradually, beating vigorously. Let rise till -light; cut down and knead in 2½ cups flour. Cover and allow to rise -until three times original bulk. Roll ½ inch thick. Cut, spread half -with butter and fold over. Put in buttered tins to rise, placing 1 inch -apart. Bake when light in a hot oven 15 to 20 minutes. - - - =Popovers= - - 1 cup flour - ¼ teaspoon salt - 2 eggs - ½ teaspoon melted butter - 1 cup milk - -Beat eggs thoroughly. Add gradually, while beating, the milk and flour, -to which salt has been added. Add butter and beat two minutes with Dover -egg beater. Put a half teaspoon of butter in hissing hot iron gem pans. -Fill half with batter and bake thirty minutes in a hot oven. Serve -immediately. - - - =Boston Nut Bread= - - ½ cup molasses - 1 teaspoon soda - 2 cups sour milk - 2 cups graham flour - 1 teaspoon salt - ½ cup sugar - 1 cup chopped nuts - 1½ cups white flour - -Mix and sift all the dry ingredients. Add molasses to the milk and -combine this gradually with the dry materials. Add the nuts. Half fill -baking powder cans, with oiled cover, and let stand one-half hour. Bake -three-quarters of an hour in moderate oven. - - - =Sour Milk Biscuit= - - 1 qt. flour - 1 teaspoon soda - 1 teaspoon salt - 1 teaspoon sugar - 2 tablespoons butter - Sour milk to moisten (about 1½ cups) - -Sift dry ingredients together, cut in butter with knife, add milk to -make a stiff dough. Roll out thin and bake in hot oven. Serve with honey -or maple syrup. - - - =Gingerbread= - - 4 tablespoons butter - ½ cup sugar - 1 egg - ½ cup molasses - 2 teaspoons cocoa - ½ cup sour milk - 1¾ cups flour - ¾ teaspoon soda - 1 teaspoon ginger - 1 teaspoon cinnamon - ¼ teaspoon salt - 1 teaspoon allspice - -Sift flour and spices, salt and soda together. Mix other ingredients in -the order given and combine mixtures. Bake in moderate oven 30 minutes. - - - =Sour Milk Waffles= - - 1 egg - 1 cup sour milk - 1 cup flour - 1 tablespoon butter - 1 teaspoon soda - ½ teaspoon salt - -Beat egg thoroughly, add sour milk, flour and salt. Dissolve soda in ½ -tablespoon cold water. Add to mixture. Beat thoroughly. Cook on oiled, -hot waffle iron and serve hot with maple syrup. - - - =Sweet Milk Waffles= - - 2 cups flour - 3 teaspoons baking powder - ½ teaspoon salt - 1¼ cups milk - Yolks 2 eggs - Whites 2 eggs - 2 tablespoons butter - -Mix and sift dry ingredients, add milk, beaten yolks, butter and egg -whites beaten stiff. - - - =Buttermilk Griddle Cakes= - - 2 cups buttermilk - 2 cups flour - 1 teaspoon soda - 1 egg beaten - -Mix in order given. - - - =Sweet Milk Griddle Cakes= - - 1 egg beaten - 2 cups milk - 3 cups flour sifted with - 3 teaspoons baking powder and - ½ teaspoon salt - 2 tablespoons melted butter - -Mix in order given. - - - =Boston Brown Bread= - - 1 cup whole wheat flour - 2 cups graham flour - 1 teaspoon soda - 1 teaspoon salt - 2 cups sour milk - ½ cup molasses - -Mix dry ingredients thoroughly. Mix the sour milk and molasses. Stir in -dry ingredients, beating thoroughly. Turn into well buttered pound -baking powder cans. Cover tightly and steam three hours. Take from can -and slice, ½ cup raisins or nuts can be added to the dough mixture, if -desired. - - - DESSERTS - -For desserts the number of custards, creams and puddings made with milk -is legion, and they are so well known and can be so easily varied that -only a few stock recipes need be given. - - - =Boiled Custard= - - 2 cups scalded milk - Yolks 2 eggs - ¼ cup sugar - ⅛ teaspoon salt - ½ teaspoon vanilla - -Beat eggs slightly, add sugar and salt; stir constantly while adding -gradually hot milk. Cook in double boiler, continue stirring until -mixture thickens and a coating is formed on the spoon; strain -immediately, chill and flavor. If cooked too long the custard will -curdle. Should this happen, by using a Dover egg beater it may be -restored to a smooth consistency, but custard will not be as thick. Eggs -should be beaten slightly for custard that it may be of smooth, thick -consistency. To prevent scum from forming, cover with a perforated tin -or sprinkle with granulated sugar when cooling. - - - =Blanc Mange or Cornstarch Pudding= - - 1 qt. milk - ½ cup cornstarch - Pinch of salt - 3 eggs - ½ cup sugar - -Heat milk to boiling, add cornstarch dissolved in a little cold milk and -a pinch of salt. Boil five minutes, add yolks of eggs beaten with sugar. -Boil 2 minutes longer, remove from fire and beat in the whipped whites -of eggs. Flavor with vanilla or lemon. Serve cold with cream and sugar -or canned peaches or pears. - -This is used also as a filling for cream pie, using the beaten whites of -eggs, sweetened for a meringue and browning slightly in oven. Bake the -crust before filling with the cream. - - - =Baked Custard= - - 4 cups scalded milk - 4 eggs - ½ cup sugar - ¼ teaspoon salt - Few gratings nutmeg - -Beat eggs slightly, add sugar and salt, pour on slowly scalded milk, -strain in buttered mold, set in pan of hot water. Sprinkle with nutmeg -and bake in slow oven until firm, which may be readily determined by -running a silver knife through custard. If knife comes out clean, -custard is done. During baking care must be taken that water surrounding -mold does not reach boiling point or custard will whey. Always bear in -mind that eggs and milk combination must be cooked at a low temperature. -For cup custards allow three eggs to four cups milk; for large molded -custard four or five eggs; if fewer eggs are used, custard is liable to -crack when turned on a serving dish. - - - =Baked Apple, Southern Style= - -[Illustration] - - 6 choice apples - ½ cup sugar - 1 qt. milk - Salt - 4 eggs - ⅔ cup sugar - 1 teaspoon vanilla - -Pare and core apples that are not too sour to hold their shape when -baked. Put in a pudding dish, sprinkle the half cupful of sugar over and -around them, also filling place where the core was taken out. Put in -oven and bake. Remove from oven and pour around them the milk mixture -made thus: Beat the eggs well, add sugar and beat again, add milk, salt -and vanilla. Bake slowly until a knife-blade will come out clean after -insertion in the custard. Serve hot or cold, with or without whipped -cream. This is an especially good dessert for children. - - - =Coffee Custard= - - 2 cups milk - 1 cup strong coffee - 3 eggs - ¼ cup sugar - ⅛ teaspoon salt - ¼ teaspoon vanilla - -Beat eggs slightly; add sugar, salt, vanilla, milk and coffee. Strain -into buttered individual molds, set in pan of hot water and bake until -firm. - - - =Caramel Custard= - - 4 cups scalded milk - 5 eggs - ½ teaspoon salt - 1 teaspoon vanilla - ½ cup sugar - -Put sugar in omelette pan, stirring constantly over hot part of range -until melted to a syrup of light brown color. Add gradually to milk, -being careful that milk does not bubble up and go over, as is liable on -account of high temperature of sugar. As soon as sugar is melted in -milk, add mixture gradually to eggs slightly beaten, add salt and -flavoring, then strain in buttered mold. Bake as custard. Chill and -serve with caramel sauce. - - - =Rice Pudding= - - 1 qt. milk - ⅓ cup rice - ½ teaspoon salt - ⅛ teaspoon ground nutmeg, or cinnamon, or grated rind of ¼ of a lemon - -Wash the rice thoroughly, mix the ingredients and bake three hours or -more in a very slow oven, stirring occasionally at first. - - - =Tapioca Custard= - -Add to the list of ingredients for boiled custard ¼ cup of pearl -tapioca. Soak the tapioca in water for an hour or two, drain it, and -cook in the milk until it is transparent. Proceed as for boiled custard. - - - GENERAL RECIPE FOR CEREAL-MILK PUDDINGS - -Bread and rice puddings, made with milk and eggs, are familiar to all -cooks. Made without eggs, the following will be found suggestive: - -For a quart of milk allow ⅓ of a cup of any coarse cereal (rice, -cornmeal, cracked wheat, oatmeal or barley); add ⅓ of a cup of brown, -white or maple sugar, syrup, honey or molasses; ½ teaspoon salt; ⅛ -teaspoon spice. The flavoring may be omitted when honey or molasses is -used. - -The above recipe makes quite a large pudding. It is often convenient to -make a smaller one, and enough for a child’s dinner can be made in the -double boiler, allowing two level or one rounding tablespoon of cereal -to a cup of salted and flavored milk. Cook an hour and sweeten slightly. - -These puddings, if made thin, may be poured over stewed prunes or other -cooked fruits, and are a good and economical substitute for the cream or -soft custard usually used for that purpose. - -A very old recipe for a baked corn pudding has recently been given to -the author. - - - =Indian Meal Custard= - - 1 pt. sweet milk, when hot add slowly - ½ cup cornmeal - Pinch salt - ½ teaspoon each cinnamon and ginger - Sugar to taste - 1 tablespoon molasses - Boil 5 minutes, and add - 2 beaten eggs - 1 pt. milk - Bake about one-half hour or till set. - - - =Milk and Fruit Mold[11]= - -[Illustration: - - Milk and fruit mold -] - - 3½ cups hot milk, - ½ cup cold milk, - 5 tablespoons granulated sugar - 10 tablespoons cornstarch - 2 beaten egg whites - 1 teaspoon almond extract, - ½ teaspoon salt - Candied cherries, cut into small pieces - -Heat milk in double boiler. Mix cornstarch with cold milk, stir it into -the hot milk, add salt and sugar and cook, stirring occasionally, for 10 -minutes. Remove from fire, fold in the beaten whites and add the -flavoring. Rinse mold in cold water, drain, pour in part of the cooked -mixture, add a layer of cherries and continue until mold is filled. Set -on ice to chill. May be served in tall glasses, as illustrated, or -unmolded on a flat serving platter. - - - =Caramel Rice[11]= - - 6 cups milk - 1 cup rice - 1¼ cups granulated sugar - 1 teaspoon salt - 2 slightly beaten eggs - Grated rind of half an orange - -Cook rice, salt, the quarter cup of sugar and milk together in a double -boiler until rice is tender. Remove from fire, add grated rind and -beaten eggs and mix well. - -Put the cup of sugar in a small saucepan over the fire and stir -constantly until it is a golden brown liquid. Have a mold heating, and -when very hot pour the liquid in it, turning the mold so that all parts -are coated. Turn the rice into the mold and set it in a pan of water in -a hot oven for 20 minutes, having the mold covered the entire time. - -Remove from oven, let stand until cold, unmold and serve with the -caramel sauce that is in the mold. - - - =Milk Cream=[11] - - 1½ cups hot milk - ½ cup cold milk - ⅜ cup granulated sugar - 3 eggs - ½ ounce granulated gelatine - 1 teaspoon vanilla - Pinch of salt - -Soak gelatine in the cold milk for 10 minutes. Heat balance of milk in a -double boiler, add salt, sugar and beaten yolks, stirring constantly. -Cook until mixture coats the spoon, remove from fire, add soaked -gelatine and stir until dissolved. Then set aside to cool and when -beginning to thicken add flavoring and mix in lightly the stiffly beaten -whites. - -Rinse a mold in cold water, drain, pour in mixture and set in a cold -place until firm. Unmold and serve plain or with thin cream. - -[Illustration: - - Milk cream -] - - - =Plain Junket= - -Heat a quart of milk until lukewarm, not to exceed 100° F. Remove from -fire; sweeten and flavor to taste, using vanilla or any other desired -flavor. Dissolve one Junket Tablet in cold water and stir the solution -quickly into the lukewarm milk. Pour immediately into individual serving -dishes, sherbet glasses, bowls or the like, and let stand warm until -thickened. When “set” remove to ice box or other cool place without -stirring and let stand until serving time. Serve with or without whipped -cream, a sprinkle of nutmeg, or a few strawberries on the top, etc. - -[Illustration: - - Plain junket -] - - - =Chocolate Junket= - -Sweeten a quart of milk with half a cup of sugar. Melt one square of -chocolate or two tablespoonfuls of cocoa, add half a cup of the milk and -boil one minute. Remove from fire and add the remainder of the milk, -which must not be boiled, and a teaspoonful of vanilla. Probably the -mixture will be lukewarm, if not, warm until it is. Stir in dissolved -Junket Tablet, pour at once into serving dishes and leave undisturbed -until set. Chill and serve. If whipped cream sweetened and flavored with -vanilla is heaped upon the Chocolate Junket when serving, a most -attractive dessert is obtained, and Chocolate Junket frozen makes a -delicious ice cream. - - - =Coffee Junket= - -One-half cup very strong coffee, ½ cup sugar, added to 1¾ pints of -heated milk. Dissolve. Add your Junket Tablet and finish as ordinary -Junket. Serve with cream. - -An endless variety of Junkets can be made by varying flavor and color, -by adding fruit or preserves, etc., and in the sick room various -medicines or stimulants, peptone, wine, etc., may conveniently be -administered as an ingredient in the pudding. - - - =“Prepared Junket”= - -_Prepared Junket_ in which all the ingredients are found except the milk -is on the market in the form of a powder called “Nesnah.” It is put up -in various flavors and is easily and quickly made when milk is at -disposal. - -Heat 1 qt. milk lukewarm, remove from fire, add one package of the -prepared Junket and dissolve quickly and thoroughly by vigorous stirring -for ½ minute only. Pour immediately into individual serving dishes and -let stand in warm room until thoroughly set. Place in ice box until -serving time. Serve with or without plain or whipped cream. - - - MILK BEVERAGES - - - =Whey= - - 1 qt. fresh milk - 1 Junket Tablet - 1 tablespoon cold water - -Heat the milk until lukewarm and add the tablet dissolved in the cold -water. Allow it to set in a warm room. Then break up the curd gently and -strain it through two thicknesses of cheese-cloth, being careful to -remove all the casein. Cool at once and serve cold, without or with -sweetening, and flavor as desired. - - - =Lemon Whey= - - 1 qt. hot milk - 3 tablespoons sugar - ½ cup lemon juice - -Heat the milk in a double boiler and add the lemon juice. Cook without -stirring until the whey separates. Strain through cheese-cloth and add -the sugar. Serve hot or cold, garnished with small slices of lemon. - - - =Cinnamon and Milk= - - 1 qt. new milk - Stick cinnamon - Sugar - -Boil milk with sufficient cinnamon to flavor as desired. Sweeten and -serve warm or cold. - - - =Rice Milk= - - 1 ounce rice - 1 pint milk - 1 saltspoon salt - 1 teaspoon sugar - -Soak the rice twelve hours. Add the scalded milk, salt and sugar. Stir -well and cook one hour; then rub through a fine sieve. Thin with more -hot milk and serve. - - - =Kumyss= (see also Chapter II) - - ⅙ cake Fleischmann’s yeast - 1¼ tablespoons sugar - 1 tablespoon water - 1 quart milk - -Make a thin syrup of the sugar and water and cook one minute. Soften the -yeast in two tablespoons of lukewarm milk. Heat the milk until lukewarm, -add other ingredients and shake. Put in stone, sterile bottles, place in -an upright position for twelve hours, at 70° (kitchen heat); then turn -on side and leave at a temperature of 50° (lower part of ice box). Ready -for use after the first twenty-four hours; often kept several days, but -the longer it is kept the less palatable it is. It should look like -thick, foamy cream. - - - =Egg Milk Shake= - - 1 egg - 1 cup milk - Sugar - Vanilla - -Break the egg into a large glass and beat well. Add sugar and a couple -of drops of vanilla or a dust of nutmeg and beat again. Fill up glass -with rich milk. This makes a very nourishing drink. - - - =Buttermilk Shake= - - 1 cup buttermilk - 1 egg - Sugar - Few drops lemon extract - Salt - -Break egg into bowl, beat thoroughly with egg beater, add sugar, -flavoring, a tiny pinch of salt and buttermilk. Beat again till light -and foamy. Turn into glass. - - - =Buttermilk Lemonade= - -A variation may be made from ordinary buttermilk by the addition of -lemon juice and sugar. “Buttermilk lemonade” usually requires the juice -of three lemons to one quart of buttermilk. The quantity of lemon and -sugar, however, should be varied to suit the taste of the individual. -The beverage is delightful and is especially refreshing on a hot summer -day. - -One may also use the juice of two oranges and one lemon to one quart of -buttermilk, instead of the lemons alone. - -Many people like the clear buttermilk slightly sweetened with a few -grains of salt added. - - - =Chocolate= - - 1½ squares chocolate - 4 tablespoons sugar - Few grains salt - 1 cup boiling water - 3 cups milk - ½ teaspoon vanilla - -Scald milk. Melt chocolate in small saucepan and gradually add boiling -water. When smooth add to scalded milk, sweeten and add salt and -vanilla. Mill with Dover egg beater, and serve, putting a large teaspoon -of whipped cream on each cup. - - - =Cocoa= - - ¼ cup cocoa - ¼ cup sugar - Few grains salt - 1 cup water - 3 cups milk - ½ teaspoon vanilla - -Mix cocoa and sugar, add water and stir into milk already heated in -double boiler. Cook 15 minutes, add vanilla and salt. Serve with whipped -cream. A famous cook known to the writer adds 1 teaspoon cornstarch -dissolved in 1 tablespoon cold water to the cocoa when nearly ready for -the table. It adds to the apparent richness of the beverage. - - - MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS - -1. A tablespoonful of milk put in the pan before frying eggs will keep -them tender. - -2. Covering cold chicken or other meat with buttermilk will keep it for -twenty-four hours or more, without affecting the meat except to make it -more tender. - -3. Custards and ice cream kept too long in warm weather may cause -ptomaine poisoning. - -4. Keep milk covered to shut out flavors from other food. - -5. Milk warm from the cow should not be kept in a closed receptacle. - -6. Danish cooks soak a piece of veal in skim milk overnight before -roasting it, to improve the flavor. - -7. Sliced ham covered with milk and baked in a moderate oven for an hour -has delicate flavor and is always tender. - - - THE THERMOMETER - -[Illustration: - - Dairy and household thermometers -] - -In the United States and Canada as well as in England _Fahrenheit’s_ -thermometer is generally used according to which water freezes at 32° -and boils at 212° at ordinary air pressure, leaving 180 degrees between -the freezing and the boiling point. In some countries in Europe -Réaumur’s thermometer is used with 0° for the freezing point and 80° for -boiling. In France and for scientific work in all countries, however, -the Celsius or Centigrade system is employed for measuring heat and -cold, having 0° for freezing and 100° for boiling. As there are 180° -Fahrenheit, 80° Réaumur and 100° Centigrade between freezing and -boiling, the divisions are therefore as 9° F. to 4° R. and 5° C. - -To change from degrees of F. above the freezing point to the other -systems deduct 32, divide the remainder by 9 and multiply by 4 or by 5 -respectively. To change from C. to F. divide by 5, multiply by 9 and add -32, etc. As the metric system is gradually being introduced everywhere -instead of the old systems for weights and measures, so also is the -Centigrade thermometer being substituted for the others and in cookery -it may soon be used exclusively. - - - WEIGHTS AND MEASURES - - 1 pound = 16 ounces = 453.6 grams - 1 ounce = 16 drams = 28.35 grams - 1 kilogram = 1000 grams = 2.2 pounds - 1 gram = 15.43 grains = .035 ounces - - 1 gallon = 4 quarts = 3.785 liters - 1 quart = 2 pints =.9464 liters - 1 pint = 16 fluid ounces = .4731 liters - 1 fluid ounce = 8 drams = 29.57 c.c. - 1 liter = 1000 cubic centimeters = 1.0567 quarts - - 1 mile = 5280 feet = 1.6 kilometer - 1 foot = 12 inches = .3048 meter - 1 kilometer = 1000 meters = .6214 mile - 1 meter = 100 centimeters = 39.37 inches - - 1 acre = 43,560 sq. ft. = .4047 hectare - 1 sq. ft. = 144 sq. inches = 9.29 sq. decimeters - 1 hectare = 10,000 sq. meters = 2.471 acres - 1 square meter = 100 sq. decimeters = 10.764 sq. ft. - 1 bushel = 4 pecks = .3552 hectoliter - 1 hectoliter = 2.8377 bushels - - 1 U. S. gallon = 128 ounces = 231 cb. inches - 1 Imperial gallon (English and Canadian) = 160 ounces = 277 cb. in. - 6 U. S. gallons = 5 Imperial gallons - - 1 gallon of water weighs 8.34 pounds - 1 gallon of milk weighs 8.6 pounds - A 40 quart can of milk = 86 pounds - - - _Approximate Household Weights and Measures_ - - 4 saltspoonfuls = 1 teaspoonful - 3 flat teaspoonfuls = 1 heaping teaspoonful - 1 heaping tablespoonful of granulated sugar = nearly 1 ounce - 1 rounded tablespoonful of butter = 1 ounce - 2 ordinary cups of granulated sugar = 1 pound - 3 ordinary cups of wheat flour = 1 pound - 1 pound of granulated sugar = 1 pint - - 4 flat teaspoonfuls of liquid = 1 flat tablespoonful = ½ fluid ounce - 4 large tablespoonfuls = 1 ordinary wine glass = 2 fluid ounces - 1 pint = 2 cups or glasses - 1 cup or glass = 8 fluid ounces. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - END NOTES - - ------ - -Footnote 1: - - From circular No. 85 of a series of statements prepared under the - direction of the Secretary of Agriculture, covering the agricultural - situation for 1918. - -Footnote 2: - - _The Babcock Test_ is operated as follows: When the milk has been - thoroughly mixed and a true sample has been taken the _pipette_ is - filled to the mark by sucking the milk into it until it stands a - little above the mark on the stem, then quickly placing a dry finger - over the end of the pipette and allowing the milk to escape until it - just reaches the mark. The quantity thus measured off is 17.6 c.c. The - pipette is then emptied into the _test bottle_ by placing the point in - the neck and allowing the milk to flow slowly down the inside of the - neck, taking care not to lose any of the milk. Blow the last drops out - of the pipette into the bottle. - - The _measuring glass_, holding 17.5 c.c., is filled to the mark with - _sulphuric acid_ of a specific gravity of 1.82 to 1.83 and this is - poured into the milk in the test bottle. The acid is a strong poison - and must be handled with care. Pour it slowly down along the wall of - the bottle which is held at an angle and turned slowly during the - operation. - - Now give the bottle a rotary motion to thoroughly mix the milk and the - acid, shaking vigorously towards the end of the operation so as to be - sure not to leave any of the acid which is heavier than the milk at - the bottom of the bottle. - - _Whirling._—The bottles are then placed in the centrifugal machine and - whirled for five minutes at the proper speed—from 600 to 1200 - revolutions per minute—according to the diameter of the machine and as - stated in the directions which come with the tester. The mixture of - milk and acid is hot enough if the whirling is done at once, but if it - is allowed to cool the bottles should be placed in hot water of 150 to - 170° for about 15 minutes; whirling at full speed for 4 minutes brings - all the fat to the top. - - Hot water is now added until the bottle is filled almost to the scale - on the neck and the bottles are again placed in the machine and - whirled at full speed for one minute. Hot water is then again added - until the lower end of the fat column is within the scale, preferably - at the 1% or 2% mark on the neck of the bottle. Whirl once more for - one or two minutes and then read off the percentage of fat on the - scale. Each division represents 0.2% fat. The fat column is measured - from the lower line between the fat and the water to the point where - the top of the fat column touches the wall of the neck. A pair of - dividers are handy for measuring the fat column and reading off the - percentage of fat in the milk. The bottle with contents should be - warm—about 140°—when the measure is taken. - - For testing skim milk and cream special forms of test bottles are - used—which are described in the circulars coming with the testers and - students who desire fuller information are referred to Farrington and - Woll’s “Testing Milk and its Products,” published by the Mendota Book - Co., Madison, Wis. - -Footnote 3: - - The _Acid Test_ depends upon what in the laboratory is called - “titration” and makes use of a “burette,” a long, graduated measuring - tube provided with a pinch-cock. This burette is filled with an alkali - solution of known strength, usually a “tenth normal” solution of - caustic soda. A certain amount of the milk to be tested is measured - off into a glass or a white porcelain cup. As a 17.6 c.c. pipette - belonging to the Babcock test usually is at hand, that may be used for - this purpose. A few drops of an _Indicator_ is added to the milk and - under constant stirring the soda solution is allowed to drip into it - until suddenly it turns pink. The color will quickly disappear, - however, and a few more drops of the alkali are added and stirred in - several times until a faint but distinct pink color remains for some - time. That indicates that the acid in the milk has been neutralized - and the amount of the soda solution consumed is then read off on the - scale on the burette. By dividing the number of c.c. of the soda - solution used by two, the tenths per cent of lactic acid in the milk - is found. For example, if it takes 4 c.c. of the soda solution to - neutralize 17.6 c.c. milk, the acidity is .2%. This depends upon the - fact that 1 c.c. of a tenth normal soda neutralizes .009 gram of - lactic acid and that therefore the per cent of acid in the milk is - equal to .009 multiplied by the number of c.c. of soda solution used, - divided by the number of c.c. of milk and multiplied by 100. - - If 50 c.c. of milk is taken instead of 17.6 the calculation is changed - accordingly. - -Footnote 4: - - Farmers’ Bulletin No. 602, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. - -Footnote 5: - - _Butter Color_ is made of the coloring matter of “Annatto” dissolved - in a refined vegetable (salad) oil. The Annatto tree (Bixa Orelana) - grows in the tropics and the seed which has a thin coating of this - beautiful coloring matter comes mostly from the West Indian Islands, - Jamaica, Porto Rico and Guadeloupe. It is perfectly harmless and is - used by the natives to flavor and color soup and other foods much as - we use tomatoes. - -Footnote 6: - - The Marschall Rennet Test consists of a graduated cup (a) with a fine - hole for an outlet in the bottom. One cubic centimeter of a standard - rennet extract is diluted with water in the glass bottle (c). The cup - is filled with milk and placed on the corner of the cheese vat, the - milk being allowed to run through the fine hole in the bottom of the - cup. The moment the surface of the milk reaches the upper mark of the - graduation in the cup the diluted rennet extract is added and quickly - stirred into the milk with the spattle (d). - - When the milk begins to curdle it stops running out. The sweeter the - milk is the more will run out before coagulation stops it and the mark - on the scale at which it stops indicates the degree of acidity or - ripening. The point is to have the milk alike every day and if, for - instance, the cheesemaker has found that his cheese is best if he adds - the rennet to the milk in the vat when the test shows 2½, he wants to - ripen the milk to that degree every day. So, if the test shows 3 or 4, - it indicates that the milk is not sufficiently ripened and it should - be allowed to stand warm for a longer time before it is set with - rennet. - -Footnote 7: - - The Acidemeter for making an Acid Test is described in Chapter I. - -Footnote 8: - - Rennet (see under “Ferments” in Chapter I) is prepared from the third - division of the stomach of the suckling or milk-fed calf. Fifty years - ago cheesemakers used to make their own rennet by soaking salted - calves’ stomachs in sour whey, and our grandmothers used a piece of a - dry, salted stomach to make Junket or “Curds and Whey.” About 1868, - Christian Hansen, of Copenhagen, Denmark, began the preparation of - Commercial Rennet Extract which soon supplanted the home-made rennet - in all countries wherever cheese was made. Nowadays rennet in liquid - or powder or tablet form for cheesemaking, and Junket Tablets for milk - puddings, are prepared pure and of known strength in laboratories and - handled by druggists and dealers in dairy supplies. - - The fresh stomachs are saved by the farmers or butchers and are either - blown up and dried in the air protected from sunlight and rain, or - split lengthwise and spread out flat and salted on both sides. - - In the laboratory the ferment is extracted by chemicals and a pure, - clear liquid extract is prepared, of uniform strength and good keeping - quality. Or the extract is condensed into a powder which again is - compressed into tablets of great strength. - - The ferment acts best when the milk is lukewarm, but it will do the - work at temperatures ranging from 50°, or even lower, to 120° F. - Strongly pasteurized or sterilized milk will not curdle with rennet, - but milk pasteurized at a low temperature is not changed enough to - prevent it from making a firm curd. More rennet does not make a firmer - curd but causes the milk to curdle quicker; less rennet makes the - process slower. Diluted milk will not curdle firmly, and the failure - of milk to make a smooth coagulum of the usual consistency and in the - usual time, the temperature being right and the regular amount of a - standard rennet being used, is a never-failing proof that something is - the matter with the milk. It has been changed from its natural - condition by over-heating in pasteurization or by watering or - doctoring, or it has not been properly ripened. - -Footnote 9: - - W. O. Atwater, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 142. - -Footnote 10: - - Dr. E. V. McCollum in “Hoard’s Dairyman.” - -Footnote 11: - - Prepared for “The Story of Milk” by A. Louise Andrea. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - BIBLIOGRAPHY - - -Cheese Making; John W. Decker, Columbus, O. - -The Milk Question; M. J. Rosenau, Houghton-Mifflin Co., Boston. - -The Manufacture of Cheese of the Cheddar Type from Pasteurized Milk; J. - L. Sammis and A. T. Bruhn, Bulletin 165, Bureau of Animal Industry, - Washington, D. C. - -Dairy Laboratory Guide; Charles W. Melick, D. Van Nostrand Company, New - York City. - -Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen; F. W. Woll, John Wiley & Sons, New - York City. - -Testing Milk and Its Products; E. H. Farrington and F. W. Woll, Mendota - Book Company, Madison, Wis. - -Farmers’ Clean Milk Book; Dr. Charles E. North, John Wiley & Sons, New - York. - -Ost og Osteproduktion; G. Ellbrecht, Nordisk Forlag, Copenhagen, - Denmark. - -Outlines of Dairy Bacteriology; N. L. Russell, Madison, Wis. - -A B C in Butter Making; J. H. Monrad, Urner-Barry Co., New York. - -A B C in Cheese Making; J. H. Monrad, Urner-Barry Co., New York. - -Dairy Chemistry; Henry Droop Richmond, Charles Griffin and Company, - Ltd., London. - -Milk, its Nature and Composition; C. M. Aikman, Adams and Charles Black, - London. - -Milk and Its Products; H. H. Wing, The Macmillan Co., New York. - -Principles and Practice of Buttermaking; G. L. McKay and C. Larsen, John - Wiley & Sons, New York. - -Science and Practice of Cheese Making; L. L. Van Slyke and Chas. A. - Publow, Orange Judd Company, New York. - -Agricultural Bacteriology; H. W. Conn, P. Blakiston’s Son & Co., - Philadelphia. - -Creaming Milk by Centrifugal Force; J. D. Frederiksen, Little Falls, - N.Y. - -The Common Sense of the Milk Question; John Spargo, The Macmillan - Company, New York. - -Practical Dairy Husbandry; X. A. Willard, Excelsior Publishing House, - New York. - -Maelkeri Bakteriologi; Orla Jensen, Copenhagen. - -Maelkeribruget i Danmark, Bernhard Boggild, Copenhagen. - -Mejerivaesenet i Nord-Amerika; J. D. Frederiksen, Copenhagen. - -Modern Dairy Guide; Martin H. Meyer, Madison, Wis. - -La Laiterie; A. F. Pouriau, Librairie Audot, Lebroc & Cie, Paris. - -The Dairying Industry in Canada; J. A. Ruddick, Dept. of Agriculture, - Ottawa, Canada. - -Canadian Dairying; Henry H. Dean, William Briggs, Toronto. - -The Business of Dairying; Clarence B. Lane, Orange Judd Co., New York. - -Questions and Answers on Buttermaking; Chas. A. Publow, Orange Judd - Company, New York. - -The Prolongation of Life; Elie Metchnikoff, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New - York. - -The Bacillus of Long Life; Loudon M. Douglas, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New - York. - -The Book of Butter; Edward Sewall Guthrie, The Macmillan Co., New York. - -The Care and Feeding of Children; L. Emmett Holt, M. D., D. Appleton & - Co. - - - Printed in the United States of America - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - -The following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan -books on kindred subjects. - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -The Book of Ice Cream - - BY WALTER N. FISK - - _Cloth, 12 mo_ - -This book is intended to aid the student and the commercial manufacturer -in better understanding the principles of making and handling ice cream. -It is not primarily intended as a recipe-book, although many recipes are -included in the text. - -The first five chapters consist in a general discussion of the materials -used in the manufacture of ice cream as well as the stabilizers and -fillers and flavoring materials. The next chapter deals with the -classification of ice creams, and here the recipes are given. The -equipment and refrigeration are then explained in a separate chapter, -followed by three chapters devoted to the actual making of ice cream. - -The concluding pages are taken up with an analysis of the qualities of -ice cream and of the bacteriology of its manufacture. Such a discussion -should be useful both to the student in the class-room and the -progressive manufacturer. - - * * * * * - - THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - THE RURAL TEXT-BOOK SERIES - - EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY - -Butter - - BY E. S. GUTHRIE - - Professor in the Dairy Department, New York State College of - Agriculture, Cornell University - - * * * * * - - _Cloth, 12mo, $1.75._ - -A practical discussion of the general characteristics of butter, and of -all of the problems connected with its manufacture and marketing, -together with a brief history of the product. Among the topics -considered are the history of butter; composition and food value of -butter; cleansing and care of dairy utensils; care of milk and cream; -cream separation; grading milk and cream and neutralizing acidity; -pasteurization; cream ripening; churning, washing, salting and packing -butter; flavors of butter; storage of butter; marketing; whey butter, -renovated and ladled butter; margarine, and testing. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - -The Book of Cheese - - BY CHARLES THOM - - Mycologist in charge of Microbiological Laboratory, Bureau of - Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture; formerly - Investigator in Cheese at Connecticut Agricultural College - - AND - - WALTER W. FISK - - Assistant Professor of Dairy Industry, New York State - College of Agriculture at Cornell University - - _Cloth, 12mo, $1.90._ - -An exposition of the processes of making and handling a series of -important varieties of cheese. The kinds considered are those made -commercially in America or widely met in the trade here. The relation of -cheese to milk and to its production and composition has been presented -in so far as required for this purpose. - -After a general statement on cheese, the authors consider the following -subjects: The milk in its relation to cheese; Coagulating materials; -Lactic starters; Curd making; Classification of cheese; Cheese with sour -milk flavor; Soft cheeses ripened by mold; Soft cheeses ripened by -bacteria; Semi-hard cheeses; The hard cheeses; Cheddar cheese making; -Composition and yield of cheddar cheese; Cheddar cheese ripening; The -Swiss and Italian groups; Miscellaneous varieties and by-products; -Cheese factory construction, equipment, organization; History and -development of the cheese industry in America; Testing; Marketing; -Cheese in the household. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - -A Manual of Milk Products - - BY W. A. STOCKING, JR. - - Professor of Dairy Bacteriology in the New York State College of - Agriculture at Cornell University - - _Cloth, 12mo, $2.50_ - -This is a very recent addition to the Rural Manual Series under the -editorship of L. H. Bailey. The work is intended to serve as a reference -book covering the entire subject of milk and its products. There are -chapters on The Chemical Composition of Milk, The Factors Which -Influence Its Composition, Physical Properties, The Various Tests Used -in the Study of Milk, The Production and Handling of Milk, Butter -Making, The Cream Supply, Butter Making on the Farm, Cheese Making, and -the Bacteriology of Dairy Products. - - -Milk and Its Products - - BY HENRY H. WING - Professor of Dairy Husbandry in Cornell University - - _New Revised Edition, with new illustrations, cloth, 12mo, $1.60_ - -The revolution in dairy practice, brought about by the introduction of -the centrifugal cream separator and the Babcock test for fat, by a more -definite knowledge regarding the various fermentations that so greatly -influence milk, and the manufacture of its products, have demanded the -publication of a book that shall give to the dairyman, and particularly -to the dairy student, in simple, concise form, the principles underlying -modern dairy practice. Such has been Professor Wing’s purpose in this -work. This is not a new edition of the author’s very successful volume -published under the same title many years ago; it is, in reality, an -entirely new book, having been wholly reset and enlarged by the addition -of new matter, both text and illustrations. The author’s aim has been at -all times to give the present state of knowledge as supported by the -weight of evidence and the opinions of those whose authority is highest. - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - ● Transcriber’s Notes: - ○ Footnotes have been gathered and moved to their own section. - ○ Missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected. - ○ Typographical errors were silently corrected. - ○ Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only - when a predominant form was found in this book. - ○ Text that was in: - italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_); - bold by is enclosed by “equal” signs (=bold=). - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF MILK *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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