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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #66061 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/66061)
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-The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Story of Milk, by Johan D. Frederiksen
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
-will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
-using this eBook.
-
-Title: The Story of Milk
-
-Author: Johan D. Frederiksen
-
-Release Date: August 14, 2021 [eBook #66061]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Barry Abrahamsen, and the Online Distributed
-             Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
-             produced from images generously made available by The Internet
-             Archive/American Libraries.)
-
-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF MILK ***
-
-
-
-
-                           THE STORY OF MILK
-
-
-
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Well kept creamery with attractive surroundings
-]
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-                           THE STORY OF MILK
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                                   BY
-
-                          JOHAN D. FREDERIKSEN
-
-       GRADUATE OF THE ROYAL DANISH AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, AUTHOR
-          OF “CHEESE MAKING IN AMERICA” (IN DANISH), “CREAMING
-           MILK BY CENTRIFUGAL FORCE,” ETC., GENERAL MANAGER
-               OF CHR. HANSEN’S LABORATORY, MANUFACTURERS
-                  OF DAIRY AND MILK-FOOD PREPARATIONS,
-                           LITTLE FALLS, N.Y.
-
-
-
-                                New York
-                         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
-                                  1919
-
-
-                          All rights reserved
-
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
-                            COPYRIGHT, 1919
-
-                        BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
-
-           Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1919
-
-
-
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
-                           TABLE OF CONTENTS
-
-
-                               HISTORICAL
-
-                               CHAPTER I
-
-                                                            PAGE
-
-        PRODUCTION, COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF         1
-        MILK
-
-        Milk Ferments                                          1
-
-        —Pasteurization                                        1
-
-        Dairy Cattle                                           1
-
-        —Milk-Breeds                                           1
-
-        —Beef-Cattle                                           4
-
-        —Food and Water                                        5
-
-        —The Barn                                              9
-
-        —Milking                                              10
-
-        —Test the Cows                                        11
-
-        —Healthy Cows                                         12
-
-        Composition of Milk                                   13
-
-        —Butter-fat                                           13
-
-        —Casein and Albumen                                   14
-
-        —Milk-Sugar                                           14
-
-        —Mineral Matters                                      15
-
-        How to Test Milk                                      15
-
-        —The Babcock Test                                     16
-
-        —Sampling                                             17
-
-        —The Lactometer                                       18
-
-        —Acidity Test                                         19
-
-        Ferments                                              20
-
-        Enzymes                                               21
-
-        —Rennet                                               20
-
-        —Pepsin                                               21
-
-        Bacteria                                              21
-
-        —Lactic Acid Bacilli                                  21
-
-        The Control of Bacteria                               22
-
-        —Cleanliness                                          22
-
-        —Heat                                                 22
-
-        —Cooling                                              22
-
-        —Disinfectants                                        25
-
-        Pasteurization                                        25
-
-        Pure Cultures                                         30
-
-        —Starters                                             32
-
-
-                               CHAPTER II
-
-        MILK SUPPLY AND CREAMERY PRODUCTS                     35
-        Milk Supply                                           35
-        —Bovine Tuberculosis                                  35
-        —Milk as a Disease Carrier                            36
-        —Bacteria Count                                       36
-        —Certified Milk                                       36
-        —The Sanitary Code                                    38
-        —New York State Milk Grading                          38
-        —City Delivery                                        39
-        —Milk Stations                                        41
-        —Skim Milk                                            44
-        Cream                                                 44
-        —The Separator                                        46
-        —Percentage of Butter-fat                             48
-        —Standardizing Cream                                  48
-        —Pasteurized Cream                                    49
-        —Whipped Cream                                        49
-        —Emulsified Cream                                     50
-        Ice Cream                                             52
-        —Freezers                                             52
-        —Classification of Ice Cream                          56
-        —Ice Cream Recipes                                    56
-        Butter                                                69
-        —Dairy Butter                                         70
-        —Centrifugal Creaming                                 70
-        —Co-operative Creameries                              70
-        —Ripening the Cream                                   71
-        —Coloring                                             74
-        —Churning                                             75
-        —Working                                              78
-        —Salting                                              79
-        —Composition                                          79
-        —Overrun                                              79
-        —Packing                                              79
-        —Sweet Butter                                         79
-        —Renovated Butter                                     80
-        —Oleomargarine                                        80
-        —Coco-Butter                                          80
-        Buttermilk                                            80
-        —Cooling Essential                                    81
-        —Commercial Buttermilk                                81
-        —Ripening                                             82
-        —Breaking up the Curd                                 82
-        —Thick Milk                                           82
-        —Yoghourt                                             83
-        Fermented Milk                                        83
-        —Koumis                                               83
-        —Kefir                                                85
-
-
-                              CHAPTER III
-
-        CHEESE                                                86
-        Cheddar Cheese                                        89
-        The Factory System                                    99
-        —Ripening the Milk                                    90
-        —Coloring and Setting with Rennet                     92
-        —Cutting the Curd                                     94
-        —“Cooking”                                            94
-        —Matting                                              95
-        —Salting                                              97
-        —Pressing                                             97
-        —Curing                                               97
-        —Form, size and packing                               98
-        —Cleaning the vats                                   101
-        —Yield                                               102
-        —Composition                                         102
-        —Qualities                                           103
-        Cheese Made from Pasteurized Milk                    103
-        Making Cheddar Cheese on the Farm                    104
-        Other Types of Hard Cheese                           111
-        —Gouda                                               112
-        —Edam                                                112
-        —Swiss                                               115
-        —Roquefort                                           120
-        —Parmesan                                            123
-        —Caccio Cavallo                                      124
-        —Limburger                                           125
-        —Brick                                               125
-        —Munster                                             126
-        Soft Rennet Cheese                                   126
-        —Neufchatel                                          126
-        —Cream Cheese                                        127
-        —Cured Soft Cheese                                   128
-        —French Soft Cheese                                  128
-        Cottage Cheese                                       129
-        —Making Cottage Cheese with Rennet                   132
-        Snappy Cheese                                        134
-        Club Cheese                                          134
-        Whey Cheese                                          134
-        Milk-Sugar                                           135
-        Casein                                               135
-        Milk Powder                                          136
-        —Just-Hatmaker Process                               136
-        —Eckenberg Process                                   136
-        —Merrell-Soule Process                               136
-        —Economic Process                                    136
-        —Skim-Milk Powder                                    136
-        —Whole-Milk Powder                                   136
-        Condensed and Evaporated Milk                        137
-        Whey                                                 138
-
-
-                               CHAPTER IV
-
-        MILK AS A FOOD                                       139
-        Nutrients                                            139
-        —Protein                                             139
-        —Fats and Carbohydrates                              139
-        —Mineral Matters                                     140
-        —Relation                                            140
-        —Nutritive Ratio                                     140
-        —Calories                                            141
-        —Fallacy of Theoretical Valuation                    143
-        —“Something Unknown”                                 143
-        Care of Milk in the House                            145
-        —Keep the Milk Cool                                  145
-        —Top-Milk                                            146
-        Milk for Infants                                     148
-        —Modifying Milk                                      148
-        —Recipes for Infant Food                             149
-        Milk for Growing Children                            152
-
-
-                               CHAPTER V
-
-        MILK COOKERY                                         154
-        Soups                                                155
-        —Cream Soups                                         155
-        —Cereal Cream Soups                                  157
-        —Milk Chowders                                       158
-        —Milk Stews                                          158
-        Milk Cereals                                         159
-        Luncheon and Supper Dishes                           159
-        —Creamed Dishes                                      160
-        —Souffles                                            161
-        —Cheese Fondu                                        161
-        —Milk Toast                                          162
-        Cheese Dishes as Meat Substitutes                    162
-        Cheese Salads                                        166
-        Cottage Cheese                                       167
-        Milk Breads and Biscuits                             170
-        Desserts                                             172
-        Junkets                                              179
-        Milk Beverages                                       181
-        Miscellaneous Suggestions                            184
-        The Thermometer                                      184
-        Weights and Measures                                 185
-
-        End Notes                                            187
-
-        Bibliography                                         188
-
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
-                              INTRODUCTION
-
-
-The conception of this “Story of Milk” dates many years back. In his
-life-long study of problems connected with dairy farming and milk
-industries in two of the world’s greatest dairy countries, Denmark and
-the United States, the author has felt the need of a concise handbook
-covering this interesting subject. In his forty years of work in the
-manufacture and distribution of dairy and milk-food preparations he has
-been brought constantly into contact with men and women interested in
-the production of milk and has found a persistent demand for a book that
-might be consulted by anybody in regard to questions related to these
-greatest of all foods, which are, or ought to be, a most important part
-of the daily diet of children and adults alike, at all times,
-everywhere.
-
-There was a time during the war when, frightened by the soaring of the
-price which had remained remarkably low for many years, much too low in
-fact compared with the cost of other food, people began to cut down the
-consumption of milk to an alarming extent. Even the National Food
-Administration for a short time recommended saving in the wrong place,
-forgetting that, at the highest figures reached during the temporary
-shortage, milk was still one of the cheapest of foods and that it was
-absolutely indispensable for growing children and exceedingly beneficial
-for men and women who were called upon to exercise their physical and
-mental powers as never before. But with men like Dean Russell of the
-Wisconsin Agricultural College in the Department and Dr. Graham Lusk of
-Cornell University representing the United States on the Inter-Allied
-Council of Alimentation, the Food Administration could not long maintain
-this mistaken attitude but quickly joined the College authorities and
-the representatives of the dairy industry in advocating a liberal use of
-milk. And the Department of Agriculture sent out over the country a
-large force of demonstrators to show the people how to use milk in
-making cottage cheese and many other ways, and Agricultural Colleges,
-Farm Bureaus and Home Economics Agents worked hand in hand with
-Washington in disseminating the knowledge of handling and utilizing
-milk.
-
-A genuine interest has been aroused in our country in the economy and
-conservation of food, and in “The Story of Milk” the author hopes to
-place at the disposal of the student of Domestic Science a comprehensive
-book of reference which may open the eyes of many to the fact that there
-is no more interesting subject than “Milk” in connection with the study
-of the welfare and physical improvement of humanity, and that milk and
-its products should be used to a much greater extent than heretofore.
-
-It would make a long list of references if the author should mention the
-sources on which he has drawn for information beyond his own life-long
-experience in the dairy and related industries. He desires to express
-his sincere appreciation of the kindness and ready response of
-institutions and friends to whom he has appealed for photographs and
-cuts which have enabled him to illustrate the text so liberally. In the
-back of the book will be found a brief bibliography of standard dairy
-literature in which students may find material for further information.
-
-Many interesting data and several excellent illustrations have been
-obtained from the bulletins and collections of the Department of
-Agriculture in Washington and the Dairy Schools at Ithaca, N.Y.,
-Madison, Wis., and Ames, Ia.
-
-The Chapter on Milk Cookery was written and classified by the author’s
-wife, whose practical experience will make it useful alike to
-housekeepers and students of Domestic Science.
-
-                                                      J. D. FREDERIKSEN.
-
-Little Falls, N.Y.,
-
-April, 1919.
-
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
-                               HISTORICAL
-
-
-Milk and its products have been known and used from time immemorial. In
-the Bible milk and milk foods are mentioned in some thirty places. In
-Gen. 18:8 we read: “... and he (Abraham’s servant) took butter and milk
-and set it before them ...”; 1 Sam. 17:28: “And Jesse said unto David,
-his son: ... bring these ten cheeses unto the captain of their thousand
-and look how thy brethren fare....”; Prov. 30:33: “For the churning of
-milk bringeth forth butter,” etc.
-
-Though in some of these passages butter is mentioned it is hardly
-probably that this product was really made or used at the time under the
-climatic conditions in Palestine. More likely it was various kinds of
-curd and cheese which the translator called butter. At any rate, the
-Hebrews of that far-off day coveted milk and its products among their
-most valued foods. From Egyptian, Greek and Roman history it appears
-that knowledge of cheese goes back to the most ancient times and that it
-was made from the milk of sheep, goats, cows, asses, mares, in fact from
-all domestic animals; in the far North, Lapps and Eskimos still make it
-from the milk of the reindeer, the Arabs use camel’s milk, Llama cheese
-is famous in the Cordilleras and Zebu cheese in Ceylon and India.
-
-Even in ancient times the great food value of dairy products was
-recognized. Plinius tells of Zoroaster that for twenty years he lived
-exclusively on cheese, and Plutarch calls cheese one of the most
-nourishing of foods.
-
-As time went by, the cow excelled all other domestic animals in capacity
-for the production of milk and by constant use through centuries for the
-one special purpose,—by care in feeding, breeding and selection,—special
-breeds of cattle were developed which gave milk in extraordinarily large
-quantities.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  From Maelkeritidende, Copenhagen
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Thomas R. Segelcke, father of scientific dairying in Denmark
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  L. B. Arnold, noted dairy expert and writer, of Herkimer County, N.Y.
-]
-
-In the cold climate of the northern countries where butter will keep for
-a long time it has been made for centuries. The illustration above is
-from a mural painting in an old church in Finland. Evidently at the time
-when that was built the devil already played havoc with the churn and
-even up to the days of our grand-fathers his Satanic Majesty was often
-accused of preventing the butter from “coming.”
-
-Not until the middle of the nineteenth century did dairying take its
-place among the important industries of the world and science begin to
-be applied in its development. Between 1860 and 1870 Thomas R. Segelcke,
-the “Father of Scientific Dairying” in Denmark, introduced the
-thermometer in churning instead of the rule of thumb and started the
-keeping of records in the manufacture of butter. N. J. Fjord started a
-series of experiments in the creameries, continued through the next
-decades, and which became models for similar work throughout the world,
-covering pasteurization, ice houses and cold storage, comparison between
-various systems for raising the cream, separators, feeding rations,
-etc., and Denmark developed its agriculture and dairy industry to an
-enviable position. About the same time Dr. Schatzman applied scientific
-methods in cheese making in Switzerland and Jesse Williams started the
-first American cheese factory near Rome, N.Y., while L. B. Arnold, X. A.
-Willard, Harris Lewis, Harry Burrell and many other progressive dairymen
-made Herkimer County cheese famous.
-
-From New York, dairy farming spread rapidly westward through Ohio to
-Michigan and Northern Illinois, where butter making was developed around
-Elgin, and to Wisconsin, where Governor Hoard preached the gospel of
-progress, Babcock invented and gave to the world the famous test that
-bears his name and Russell made a specialty of dairy bacteriology.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  J. H. Monrad, the “Pen and Ink” buttermaker of New York Produce Review
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Governor W. D. Hoard, of Wisconsin, promotor of progressive methods of
-    dairying
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  J. A. Ruddick, Dairy Commissioner of Canada
-]
-
-J. H. Monrad, Assistant Dairy Commissioner of Illinois, student, writer
-and lecturer on dairy subjects, collected and indexed one of the most
-complete and valuable libraries of dairy literature found anywhere,
-which after his death in 1915 was taken over and installed in special
-rooms by Chr. Hansen’s Laboratorium in Copenhagen, where a librarian is
-keeping it up to date and it is open to the public.
-
-In Canada, Dairy Commissioners Jas. W. Robertson and J. A. Ruddick, D.
-M. McPherson, the “Cheese King,” and others contributed to an enormous
-development of the manufacture of high-class cheese, and in New Zealand
-and Australia similar progress was made.
-
-Business and science have vied with each other in increasing the output
-of dairy products and improving their quality. In the table below,
-showing estimates for 1917, some interesting figures are given of the
-amount of milk produced in the United States and the uses to which it is
-applied.[1]
-
-
-     _Uses to which milk is put (calculations based on estimates)_
-
-        ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────
-                     Item                 Lbs. of Milk Per Cent
-        ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────
-        Product of 22,768,000 cows at   84,611,350,000       ──
-          3,716 lbs. per an.
-        Disposition of milk product:             ─────
-        1,650,000,000 lbs. of butter    34,663,850,000     41.0
-          (at 21 lbs. milk)
-        420,000,000 lbs. of cheese (at   4,200,000,000      5.0
-          10 lbs. milk)
-        975,000,000 lbs. of condensed    2,437,500,000      2.9
-          milk (at 2½ lbs. milk)
-        210,000,000 gals. of ice cream   3,150,000,000      3.7
-          (weighing 6 lbs. to the
-          gallon, 10% fat)
-        100,000,000 persons; 45% at     36,500,000,000     43.1
-          0.7 lb. a day (cities) farms
-          with dairy cows, 30%, 1.5
-          lbs. per day; other farms
-          and small towns, 25%, 1 lb.
-          a day, approximately
-        17,500,000 calves, whole milk    3,660,000,000      4.3
-          (estimated) requirement
-                                                 ─────
-        Total                           84,611,350,000    100.0
-
-
-Although the table accounts for all the milk produced, it does not tell
-the whole story, since the preparation of a number of products results
-in the formation of vast quantities of by-products that are not used to
-the fullest advantage for human food.
-
-New York City alone consumes 1,600,000 quarts of milk a day, but even
-this enormous quantity means only 0.6 pint per capita. The consuming
-public has been slow to realize the value of milk and its products, and
-too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the fact that even at the largely
-increased cost of all dairy products they are still some of the cheapest
-and the most healthful of foods, especially for growing children, and
-should be used in much larger quantities.
-
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
-                           THE STORY OF MILK
-
-
-
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-                           THE STORY OF MILK
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER I
-
-  PRODUCTION, COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MILK, MILK FERMENTS,
-                             PASTEURIZATION
-
-
-                              DAIRY CATTLE
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Holstein
-]
-
-A number of typical but widely different breeds of dairy cows have been
-developed in various dairy countries, each owing to the soil and the
-climatic conditions of its home, as well as to the skill and fancy of
-the breeders, its characteristic features, form, color, etc.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Herd of pure-bred Holstein cows on a farm in central New York
-]
-
-=Milk-Breeds.=—The black and white _Holstein-Friesians_ (which, by the
-way, had their home in Holland and not in Holstein) are known for their
-large production of not very rich milk, while the _Guernseys_ and
-_Jerseys_ give milk exceedingly rich in butter-fat. A good Holstein cow
-will give from 7,000 to 10,000 lbs. of milk in a year, containing from
-3¼% to 4% butter-fat. Some of them produce as much as 20,000 to 30,000
-lbs. in a year—nearly 4,000 gallons—just think of it! Jersey cows will
-usually not produce as much in quantity as the Holsteins but Jersey milk
-often contains 5% or 6% or more butter-fat, and a few of the best have
-been known to produce 800 to 900 lbs. of butter in one year, an amount
-equal to the cow’s own weight. The red _Danish_ cow is an exceedingly
-good and highly bred milk producer which, however, has not been
-introduced in the United States, but the Scotch _Ayrshires_ and the
-_Brown Swiss_ are other well-known dairy breeds which are in favor with
-many American farmers.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Guernsey
-]
-
-But, alas! too many herds of dairy cattle average less than 5,000 lbs.
-of milk per cow per year and do not pay for their feed.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Jersey cows
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Red Danish
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Ayrshire
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Shorthorn, beef-strain
-]
-
-Many native cows respond, however, to good care and feed and with a
-thoroughbred bull a satisfactory herd can readily be built up from
-carefully selected native stock. Such continued cross-breeding is more
-apt to succeed than attempts to cross two thoroughbred breeds because
-the characteristic features in full-blooded animals are so strong as to
-invariably predominate in the progeny over the less pronounced forms and
-tendencies inherent in native cows. But where two full-blooded animals
-are mated and the strong characteristics in each are fighting for
-predominance the result is apt to be a poor, ill-proportioned offspring
-as the result of atavism.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Shorthorn, milk-strain
-]
-
-=Beef-Cattle.=—Cattle bred and developed for the purpose of producing
-beef rather than milk are called by contrast beef-cattle. As examples of
-beef-cows look at the _Shorthorns_ or the _Herefords_ or the _Polled
-Angus_ at the next State Fair you visit and notice the square, deep,
-smooth body with muscles and fat strongly developed in contrast to the
-loosely built, bony milk-cow with its tendency to turn all its food into
-milk at the expense of the body. There are, however, also among the
-Shorthorns, strains of good milkers, but as a rule these beef-breeds are
-not selected for the dairy farm, and “dual purpose” cows are not usually
-profitable.
-
-=Food and Water.=—The natural food for the dairy cow in summer is grass,
-and where rich, succulent grass and clover grow in abundance, as on the
-fertile meadows of Holland and the Channel Islands, or the Swiss Alps,
-the highly cultivated Danish farms, the eastern and middle-western
-states of America, etc., dairying early reached its highest development.
-As the value of milk and its products for human food became more
-generally recognized and all-the-year-round production was forced, it
-was found necessary to feed the cows heavily in winter too, not only
-hay, but also grain and succulent food such as beets and corn-ensilage
-(green corn cut, stalks, cobs and all, and packed in a silo), and
-science was taken into play to formulate _Balanced Rations_ containing
-the proper amounts and proportions of the various nutrients—Protein, Fat
-and Carbohydrates. It is not the place here to go deeper into this
-problem which has long been a subject for thorough research and
-experiments. In fact, more attention has been paid to the feeding of
-cattle than to the proper nourishment of human beings, and much of what
-we know about the latter has been deducted from experience and study on
-the dairy farm, and from laboratory work along that line. In the chapter
-on “Milk as a Food” we are taking up food values, etc., in relation to
-the feeding of children and men. Suffice it here to say that the same
-fundamental principles apply to the feeding of calves and cattle for the
-production of milk and beef. And we wish to emphasize the fact that,
-with due consideration to the proper proportion between the various
-groups of nutrients, it is much more important that the food is
-succulent, appetizing and easily digestible than that the ration shall
-be accurately balanced.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Cutting ensilage and filling the silo
-]
-
-This fact, long well known to practical breeders and dairymen, has
-recently been confirmed by Dr. E. V. McCullom to whose experiments
-further reference is made in the chapter on milk as a food for children.
-He shows that there is a very great difference in the quality of Protein
-and Fat from various sources and that there is “Something Unknown” in
-butter-fat, for instance, which is absent in most other fats and which
-is vital for the growth of the child as well as for the proper
-nourishment of man. This unknown but essential substance is also found,
-in small quantities, in the leaves of certain plants, as in alfalfa,
-while it is absent in the grain of the cereals.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  An abundant crop of alfalfa hay; cut three times during the summer.
-    Supplies protein in the ration
-]
-
-In modern dairy farming _alfalfa_ is considered an indispensable source
-for protein, and corn-ensilage or beets for carbohydrates, while bran,
-cottonseed meal or oil cake, malt-sprouts, gluten, distillers’ grain,
-etc., may be used to advantage in various combinations.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Cows milked with machine
-]
-
-Contrary to a general impression one cannot feed fat into the milk. A
-large amount of oil cake or other food rich in fat in the daily ration
-does not increase the percentage of butter-fat in the milk. Rather, it
-depends largely upon the breed and to some extent upon the period of
-lactation. Provided the food agrees with her digestion and keeps the cow
-in a good, healthy condition, the composition of the milk is not changed
-to any appreciable extent by a change in make-up of the food.
-
-It goes without saying that to produce from 20 to 50 lbs. of milk a day
-the cow must have an abundance of _fresh, pure water_ to drink and she
-should not have access to stagnant water.
-
-=The Barn= must be clean, light and well ventilated and the cows should
-be milked with clean hands into a clean pail which is covered as far as
-possible so as to prevent dust from falling into the milk, or with one
-of the excellent milking machines which are now frequently used in large
-dairies. The milk is strained and cooled immediately after milking.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Milking machine
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  In the partly covered milk-pail dust does not fall as readily as in
-    the one entirely open
-]
-
-=Milking.=—The cows are usually milked twice a day; occasionally, when
-the highest possible yield is desired, as in important tests, three or
-four times. The first five days after the birth of the calf the
-milk,—the Colostrum so called,—is not normal and should not be used for
-human consumption. It may be fed to the calf. The first three to four
-months the yield of milk generally is higher than later, when it
-gradually drops until after about ten months it stops altogether and the
-cow goes “dry” at least for some six weeks before dropping the next
-calf. The highest annual yield may be obtained by having the cows “come
-in” in the Fall or early Winter and feeding them well all Winter to keep
-up an abundant flow of milk. Then, when they come out on pasture in the
-Spring,—in the latitude of the Great Lakes about May 15th,—the fresh,
-rich feed will stimulate production and give it a fresh start so that
-the milk-pail may continue to be filled during the next few months and
-the shrinkage of the yield will not occur until the time when the
-pastures dry up. The cow will then go dry in the early Fall, when feed
-is scarce. Usually, however, the cows are allowed to “come in” in the
-Spring and the yield of milk begins to shrink in the late Summer with
-little or nothing in the Winter.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Milking on a Danish farm
-]
-
-=Test the Cows.=—To ascertain if a cow pays for her feed the amount and
-the quality of the milk should be tested and computed for the year. If
-the milk from each cow cannot be weighed every day it may be done
-regularly once a month or preferably oftener. If it is weighed morning
-and evening once every ten days it is easy to keep the account by
-multiplying the number of pounds by ten and adding the totals for the
-year. Occasionally the milk may be subjected to the Babcock Test to
-ascertain its richness; three or four times during the period of
-lactation is sufficient.
-
-Where farmers do not have time to do the testing themselves they often
-combine and hire a young man or woman, trained in an agricultural
-college, to go around from farm to farm and do the work. These experts
-not only test the yield and the percentage of fat but also weigh and
-compute the feed so as to help the farmer make up his rations and
-calculate whether each cow pays for her feed or not. The members of
-these associations meet and compare notes and a friendly rivalry is
-stimulated which may do much toward increasing production. As a matter
-of fact, where Cow Test Associations have been introduced, both yield
-and quality of the milk have been largely increased.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Dr. Bernhard Bang of Copenhagen, Denmark
-]
-
-=Healthy Cows= alone can be depended upon to produce sanitary milk. In
-many herds of milk-cows tuberculosis is prevalent, and constant
-vigilance is necessary to prevent its spread. The _Tuberculin Test_
-discovered by Koch is invaluable for the purpose of ascertaining the
-presence of tuberculosis. It is not necessary, however, to kill every
-infected animal. Only where the lungs or the udder is affected and a
-physical examination shows an advanced stage of the disease such radical
-means are advisable. When the tuberculin test was first introduced many
-valuable herds were wantonly and foolishly killed off because some of
-the highly developed dairy cows showed reaction to the test while
-worthless scrubs were allowed to live and spread the disease. For only
-the intelligent and public-spirited owners of fine herds submitted their
-cows to the test, a reaction to which, under ill-advised regulations,
-permitted state officials to condemn the infected herds. In Denmark Dr.
-Bernhard Bang introduced a system of isolation of the infected animals
-which together with _Compulsory Pasteurization_ of the milk from such
-cows has proved efficient for the eradication of tuberculosis, and the
-_Bang Method_ is now generally recognized as the proper way of handling
-the matter.
-
-
-                       COMPOSITION OF COW’S MILK
-
-             Cow’s milk contains on an average in 100 lbs.:
-
-                87 lbs. of water
-                 4 lbs. of butter-fat
-                3¼ lbs. of casein and albumin (protein)
-                 5 lbs. of milk sugar
-                 ¾ lbs. of ash (mineral matter)
-                   100 lbs. total.
-
-It consists therefore of 87% water and 13% “solids,” 4 of which are fat
-and 9, “solids—not fat.” =Butter-Fat= is found in milk in the form of
-minute globules suspended in the liquid. As fat or oil is lighter than
-water (has less specific gravity) it naturally floats and the fat
-globules therefore soon rise to the top when milk stands at rest,
-forming a layer of _cream_ which may be skimmed off from the _milk_. In
-chemical composition butter-fat is very nearly the same as other animal
-and vegetable fats, but the slight variation may make a lot of
-difference in digestibility and palatability as well as in nutritive
-value, and it is a mistake to consider Oleomargarine, Butterine,
-Nut-Butter and other substitutes for butter “just as good” because a
-chemical analysis shows them to contain “almost” the same elements or
-compounds. These products may be good and legitimate if sold for what
-they are, but should never be allowed to be sold or served for what they
-are not, genuine butter.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Composition of cow’s milk
-]
-
-=Casein and Albumin= are the proteids or nitrogenous matters of the
-milk, in chemical composition and in food value much the same as the
-protein in beans and peas or in meat, or the white of eggs. Casein is
-present in much larger quantity than albumin and is distinguished from
-the latter by being precipitated by rennet, which has no effect on
-albumin. Casein may also be precipitated by acids, while it required
-boiling as well as acidity to throw the albumin out of solution.
-
-=Milk-Sugar= is related to the vegetable sugars, glucose, cane sugar,
-etc., and remains in solution in the whey which separates out from the
-cheese-curd when milk is curdled with rennet or acids. The whey also
-contains the mineral matters or _ash_, which consists largely of
-phosphate of lime, of use to the young in building up bones. When whey
-is boiled down to a thick syrup and left to stand, the sugar will
-crystallize out and may be separated from the liquid, still holding in
-solution the mineral matters.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Fat globules as they appear under the microscope
-]
-
-=Mineral Matters.=—These may be gathered as _ash_ by boiling off the
-water from this liquid or from the whole milk and burning the rest, as
-all the constituents except the ash belong to what in chemistry is
-called organic matter, which disappears in the air by burning.
-
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Dr. S. M. Babcock of Madison, Wis.
-]
-
-                            HOW TO TEST MILK
-
-Milk may be adulterated or decreased in value either by skimming or by
-watering. In either case the percentage of the most valuable
-constituent, the butter-fat, is diminished. It is upon this fact that
-the most practical test, the Babcock, is based.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Babcock test outfit
-]
-
-=The Babcock Test.=[2]—By treating a sample of milk with strong
-sulphuric acid the butter-fat is liberated as an oil. By subjecting the
-mixture to centrifugal force the light butter oil is separated from the
-rest of the milk and the percentage can be easily determined.
-Centrifugal force had already been used in the Fjord Cream Test, but it
-remained for Dr. Babcock to work out the splendid practical and reliable
-test which bears his name and in which he has given to the world an
-invention of incalculable value.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  A two-bottle machine
-]
-
-=Sampling.=—Whether it is new milk or skim milk or buttermilk or cream
-that is to be tested the first thing to observe is to take a _truly
-representative sample_. The liquid must be thoroughly mixed by pouring
-it several times from one vessel to another, or stirring vigorously.
-
-It may not always be convenient to make a test immediately when the
-sample is taken. In the creamery where the milk is paid for according to
-its fat contents, samples are taken every day from every patron’s milk
-and it would take too much time for the butter maker to test all of
-these samples before they would spoil. A preservative, corrosive
-sublimate,—poisonous but all right for the purpose,—is therefore added
-and all the samples of one farmer’s milk for several days or a whole
-week are put together in one glass to be kept and tested at one time.
-This is called a composite test and has proven entirely satisfactory.
-
-=The Lactometer= has been used to discover adulterations, depending upon
-the difference in specific gravity of the various constituents. The
-specific gravity of whole milk is about 1.032 which means that, if a
-certain volume of water weighs 1.000 weight units, the same volume of
-whole milk weighs 1.032, the same volume of butter-fat weighs, say,
-.900, or of cream about 1.000, and of skim milk 1.036 units. If the
-Lactometer shows a sample of milk to have a higher specific gravity than
-1.032 it may therefore be suspected of having been skimmed. But it will
-readily be seen that by removing from whole milk some of the cream and
-adding water, the specific gravity can easily be brought back to normal
-for whole milk. This test is therefore unreliable and has been discarded
-with the advent of the Babcock.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  The acidemeter
-]
-
-=Acidity Test.=[3]—The acidity, or sourness, of milk or cream, which
-depends upon the amount of lactic acid developed in it, may be tested by
-a liquid normal alkali or by the Farrington Alkaline Tablets, a solution
-of which added to sour milk neutralizes the acid. A few drops of an
-indicator, Phenolpthalein, added to the milk, turns it pink when all the
-acid has been neutralized, and the amount of alkali solution used shows
-the percentage of acid in the milk. This is quite important in preparing
-“starters” for ripening the cream in butter making or milk in cheese
-making, and in the manufacture of “Commercial Buttermilk,” etc.
-
-There are other tests used in scientific dairying as the _Fermentation
-Test_ to ascertain the relative purity of milk, the _Casein Test_, etc.,
-but the above are those mostly used besides the _Bacterial Count_ which
-is mentioned under the chapter on “Milk Supply,” and the _Rennet Test_
-described under “Cheese Making.”
-
-
-                                FERMENTS
-
-Two classes of ferments are of importance in connection with milk: (1)
-“unorganized” or chemical ferments, the “enzymes,” and (2) “organized”
-ferments such as bacteria and yeast.
-
-                               _Enzymes_
-
-=Rennet.=—Among the unorganized ferments, _Rennet_ or _Rennin_ is highly
-important on account of its power of coagulating or curdling milk by
-precipitation of the casein. Rennet is extracted from the stomach of the
-suckling or milk-fed calf, where it serves in digesting the calf’s food.
-It is in the market in the form of a liquid extract as well as a dry
-powder compressed into tablets (Rennet Tablets and Junket Tablets). The
-characteristics and use of rennet are described under “Cheese Making” in
-Chapter III.
-
-=Pepsin= is another enzyme the office of which in the process of
-digestion is to dissolve albuminoids. It is not considered identical
-with rennet though in an acid solution it will curdle milk. It occurs in
-the stomachs of grown animals fed on solid food and is usually produced
-from hogs’ stomachs.
-
-
-                                Bacteria
-
-Everywhere, in the air, in water, in the soil, and clinging to every
-object in the world, are minute organisms known under the common names
-of _bacteria_ or _microbes_. In contrast to rennet and the other
-“unorganized” ferments, bacteria belong to the “organized” class. Some
-are harmful, producing putrefaction, dissolution, poisons or disease;
-others are beneficial, leading to desirable fermentations and changes;
-others again are indifferent, neither good nor bad, but harmless.
-
-As the milk comes from the cow it is almost free from bacteria, but milk
-makes an excellent soil for many of these organisms to grow in, and they
-soon get in, to multiply with enormous rapidity at any temperature from
-60° to 100° F.
-
-=Lactic Acid Bacilli= are bacteria of special importance to the
-dairyman, for they convert sugar of milk into lactic acid and produce
-various more or less agreeable flavors. They are also powerful
-germicides and scavengers, destroying or neutralizing the products of
-other bacteria which in the absence of these bacteria and the lactic
-acid produced by them would play havoc with the food and produce
-putrefaction or disease. Everybody who handles milk knows that pure sour
-milk or buttermilk in which lactic acid bacteria abound keeps well for a
-long time, free from other fermentations which have no chance to develop
-in their presence. It is due to this purifying property that Metchnikoff
-recommended Bulgarian sour milk as a health food, asserting that it
-prevents harmful fermentations in the digestive channel.
-
-
-                        The Control of Bacteria
-
-The principal means at our disposal to prevent or control and regulate
-bacterial growth are:
-
-_Cleanliness_, _Heat_, _Cold_ and _Disinfectants_.
-
-=Cleanliness.=—Only the most scrupulous cleanliness will prevent
-contamination. Hence the necessity of thorough scouring and sterilizing
-of all utensils, and the need for fresh air and pure water.
-
-=Heat.=—The prevention of fermentation in milk by heating is called
-“sterilization” or “pasteurization” according to the intensity of the
-heat and the length of time the milk is subjected to it. Boiling
-destroys almost all bacterial life. Some germs require, however,
-exposure to a much higher temperature, up to 250° F. (boiling under
-pressure), to be entirely eradicated, but for all practical purposes a
-thorough boiling is considered sufficient to eliminate all danger of
-contamination. Such boiling is usually termed _Sterilization_.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Effect of heating milk to various temperatures.
-  Published by the Toronto Board of Health
-]
-
-=Cooling= checks bacterial growth and but few germs thrive at a
-temperature below 50° F. The following table and diagram[4] show how
-quickly bacteria multiply in milk at ordinary room temperature, 68° to
-70°, which emphasizes the importance of keeping milk cool.
-
-
-   _Relative growth of bacteria when held at different temperatures_
-
-   ──────────┬──────────┬──────────┬──────────┬──────────┬──────────
-             │  No. of  │          │          │          │
-    Tem. of  │ bacteria │  At end  │At end of │At end of │At end of
-      Milk   │ per c.c. │of 6 hrs. │ 12 hrs.  │ 24 hrs.  │ 40 hrs.
-             │    at    │          │          │          │
-             │beginning │          │          │          │
-   ──────────┼──────────┼──────────┼──────────┼──────────┼──────────
-      °F.    │          │          │          │          │
-       50    │    10    │    12    │    15    │    41    │    62
-       68    │    10    │    17    │   242    │  61,280  │3,574,990
-   ──────────┴──────────┴──────────┴──────────┴──────────┴──────────
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Milk cooler
-]
-
-If the milk had contained 1,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter at the
-beginning, the part held at 50° F. would have contained 4,100 bacteria
-at the end of 24 hours, while that held at 68° F. would have contained
-6,128,000. The effect of temperature upon the growth of bacteria is
-shown graphically in the cut.
-
-But even _frost does not kill_ the bacteria. If milk which has been kept
-sweet or at the desired degree of sourness by cooling is allowed to get
-warm again, the bacteria which have been kept dormant will get a fresh
-start. For this reason milk and cream for city supply should not only be
-cooled strongly, but must be kept thoroughly chilled up to the time they
-are used, which means that they should be delivered cool to the
-consumer, and kept on ice in the house, never being allowed to warm up
-until used.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  The diagram (after Conn) shows the rapidity with which bacteria
-    multiply in milk not properly cooled. A single bacterium (a) in 24
-    hours multiplied to 5 (b) in milk kept at 50° F.; (c) represents the
-    number that develop from a single bacterium in milk kept 24 hours at
-    70° F.
-]
-
-=Disinfectants.=—Antiseptics, such as benzoate of soda, formalin,
-boracic acid, etc., are not permissible _in_ milk, but _disinfectants_
-such as soda, lime, washing powders, etc., should be freely used in
-cleaning utensils, bottles, floors and walls where milk is handled, so
-as to prevent as far as possible any infection.
-
-
-                             PASTEURIZATION
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Louis Pasteur, French scientist and originator of the process of
-    pasteurization.
-]
-
-Pasteurization depends upon the fact that almost all bacteria, and
-especially the disease-producing species, are checked in their growth
-and made harmless, if not totally destroyed, by instantaneous exposure
-to a temperature of 175° F., or a more or less prolonged exposure to
-lower temperature, for instance for 20 minutes to 157° or 30 minutes to
-145°. These lower temperatures are recommended in the case of new milk
-to be consumed as such, in order not to change its digestibility.
-Pasteurizers with “holding devices” are therefore largely taking the
-place of the “continuous” sterilizing machines, which allow only
-momentary exposure to the highest temperature.
-
-Whatever method is used it is essential that after the heating is
-finished the milk should be cooled as quickly as possible to a
-temperature sufficiently low to prevent development of the germs that
-have not been entirely destroyed by the heat and which, if the milk is
-left for any length of time at a temperature favorable for bacterial
-life—anywhere between 65° and 110°,—will begin to grow again. Cool the
-milk to below 60° and if possible to 50° or 40°.
-
-Sometimes a second pasteurization is practiced, the milk being purposely
-allowed to stand at 70° to 80° for 12 to 24 hours after the first
-pasteurization for the germs which escaped destruction to develop into
-full-grown bacteria. They are then killed by the second heating before
-the milk is finally chilled to stop any further growth.
-
-Pasteurization can be done by placing the milk in any tin or enamelled
-or glass vessel, set in another vessel containing water (a double
-boiler). Heat until the milk has reached the desired temperature, hold
-it at that temperature the necessary time, and then place the vessel in
-cold running water or in ice water until the milk is thoroughly chilled.
-It is not advisable to place the hot milk in the ice box as cooling in
-air is too slow. Not until it is thoroughly cooled in water is it safe
-to put it in the ice box to _keep_ it cool.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  N. J. Fjord, Danish investigator
-]
-
-In the seventies Prof. N. J. Fjord, in Denmark, applied to milk the
-process which had been developed by Louis Pasteur in France to give
-keeping quality to wine and beer. A Danish dairy expert, J. Moldenhauer,
-now connected with the New York State Department of Agriculture, first
-brought the process to this country and used pasteurization in a city
-creamery in Kentucky. American experiment stations established the
-temperatures and the time of exposure necessary for best results, and no
-one has done more for the introduction of pasteurization than the New
-York philanthropist, Nathan Straus, who has established pasteurizing
-plants and milk distributing stations in many localities, thereby
-contributing so largely to the lowering of the death rate among the
-children of the poor.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  The Straus Pasteurizer
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  A continuous pasteurizer
-]
-
-The following directions are given by the Straus Pasteurized Milk
-Laboratories of New York for the pasteurization of milk for babies:
-
-1. Only use fresh, filtered milk, which has been kept cold, and proceed
-as follows:
-
-2. Set the bottles, after they have been thoroughly cleaned, into the
-tray (a), fill them to the neck, and put on the corks or patent
-stoppers.
-
-3. The pot (b) is then placed on a wooden surface (table or floor) and
-filled to the three supports (in the pot) with boiling water.
-
-4. Place tray (a), with the filled bottles, into the pot (b), so that
-the bottom of the tray rests on the three supports, and put cover (c) on
-quickly.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Milk cooler
-]
-
-5. After the bottles have been warmed up by the steam for five minutes,
-remove the cover quickly, turn the tray so that it drops into the water.
-The cover is to be put on again immediately. This manipulation is to be
-made very quickly, so that as little steam as possible can escape. Thus
-it remains for twenty-five minutes.
-
-6. Now take the tray out of the water and cool the bottles with cold
-water and ice as quickly as possible, and keep them at this low
-temperature till used.
-
-7. Before use, warm the milk—in the bottles—to blood heat. Never pour it
-into another vessel.
-
-8. The milk must not be used for children later than twenty-four hours
-after pasteurization. Never use remnants.
-
-In a _Continuous Pasteurizer_ a constant stream of milk is fed into the
-machine, heated by flowing over a metal surface with steam or hot water
-on the opposite side, and cooled by running over a cooler furnished with
-a stream of cold water or ice water.
-
-
-                             PURE CULTURES
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Professor V. Storch, originator of pure cultures for ripening cream
-    and milk
-]
-
-Before 1890 it was supposed that the flavor of fine butter depended upon
-certain volatile oils and acids peculiar to butter-fat. In the early
-nineties Professor V. Storch of the Danish Experiment Station showed,
-however, that it was due rather to the products of bacteria and he
-isolated the lactic acid bacilli which would produce such exquisite
-flavor even when perfectly neutral and tasteless butter-fat was churned
-with milk acidified or ripened with a pure culture of these bacilli. In
-this country Dr. H. W. Conn of Wesleyan University, Storrs, Conn., did
-much to advance the theory and practice of ripening cream with a pure
-culture starter.
-
-“Pure cultures” are produced in the bacteriological laboratory by
-picking out under the microscope colonies of the desired species of
-bacteria, planting them in a sterilized medium and allowing them to grow
-under the most favorable conditions and with the exclusion of all other
-germs.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Streptococcus lacticus (Storch, No. 18)
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Bacterium lactis acidi (from Storch)
-]
-
-When such a culture has reached its maximum growth it is transplanted
-into a larger quantity of a sterilized medium containing proper
-nourishment for the particular organism. In the bacteriological
-laboratory, where alone absolute sterility of utensils and medium, and
-entire exclusion of foreign infection are possible, the culture may
-remain pure while this inoculation and propagation are repeated over and
-over again. But when the propagation is carried on in the house or the
-dairy, for instance in preparing starters or buttermilk, such absolute
-cleanliness is impossible and in the long run infections will creep in
-from the air or from the utensils and after a while it becomes necessary
-to start with a new “pure culture.” How often such renewal must be
-resorted to depends largely upon the surroundings and the care of the
-operator. Usually it must be done after a week’s time, although it is
-surprising to find milk preparations made by the simplest processes
-equal in purity to those prepared with the assistance of bacteriological
-science and technique. This is, for instance, the case in Bulgaria,
-where the famous Yoghourt sour milk is prepared pure without special
-care and in Denmark where the country is fairly permeated with the
-lactic acid bacilli used in ripening the cream for the celebrated Danish
-butter and where careful buttermakers often maintain their starters for
-months or even for years without “renewal.”
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Typical lactic acid bacteria
-  (L. A. Rogers)
-]
-
-There are many different varieties of bacteria which convert sugar of
-milk into lactic acid, at the same time developing flavors more or less
-agreeable and characteristic for the various products. In the
-bacteriological laboratory certain species are selected which will
-produce the results desired for the particular purpose in view.
-
-=Starters.=—Beginning with a commercial dry culture in the form of a
-powder as generally used in the creamery or the cheese factory as well
-as for the preparation of commercial buttermilk, or with buttermilk
-tablets as used in the ordinary household or the hospital, such culture
-is added to a small quantity of thoroughly pasteurized milk. If fresh,
-sweet skim milk is available it is preferable to whole milk as the
-butter-fat in the latter only interferes with the process; but either
-can be used.
-
-Milk for starters should be strongly pasteurized by being kept at a
-temperature near the boiling point—at least 180°—for 40 to 60 minutes,
-then cooled to the degree at which it is to be set, usually between 65°
-and 75°, somewhat higher for the first propagation with the pure culture
-than for the subsequent transplantings when the bacteria, more or less
-dormant in the dry powder or tablets, have attained full vitality. Some
-species of bacteria, as the Bacillus Bulgaricus, require higher
-temperatures—90° to 100° or even 110°—than others. The culture having
-been thoroughly incorporated in the milk by vigorous and repeated
-stirring or shaking, the milk is left at rest in an incubator or a
-waterbath or wrapped in paper or cloth in a warm room where an even
-temperature can be maintained, until it is curdled, which may take 18 to
-24 hours or even longer for the first propagation.
-
-One part of this curdled milk is now added to 5 or 10 parts of fresh
-pasteurized milk and set to ripen in the same way as described above,
-possibly at a little lower temperature, and this is repeated every day,
-thus maintaining the “Mother Starter.” After the second or third
-propagation the bulk of each batch is used as a starter in the larger
-lot of material to be ripened, be it cream for butter or milk for cheese
-or for commercial buttermilk, while a little is taken for maintenance of
-the mother starter as described above.
-
-The _amount of starter_ to prepare every day depends upon the amount of
-milk or cream to be ripened and the per cent of starter used in same.
-For instance, if you have ten gallons of cream to ripen every day in
-which you wish to use about 10% or 12% starter, or one gallon, take a
-little less than one pint of the first or second propagation for one
-gallon of milk; the next day use one pint of this to add to a gallon of
-fresh starter milk, and the remaining gallon to add to the ten gallons
-of cream, and so on every day.
-
-If you have 4,000 lbs. of milk in the cheese vat to ripen with 2% or 80
-lbs. starter, prepare 88 lbs. of mother starter. If, on the other hand,
-you wish to make only a quart of buttermilk every day, take, say, two
-buttermilk tablets, crush them thoroughly in a spoonful of pasteurized
-milk and stir this into a tumblerful of the same milk; let stand till it
-is thickened the next day and use a tablespoonful of this thickened milk
-in a quart of fresh pasteurized milk which when ripened is your
-buttermilk, from which you take out a tablespoonful for starter in the
-next batch, and so on. In this case there is no “mother starter” except
-that perhaps the first tumblerful prepared with the tablets may be
-called so, but afterwards the starter is taken right out of the finished
-product every day.
-
-The process may be modified to suit special purposes and local
-conditions, but the following precautions should be strictly observed:
-(1) to interrupt the ripening immediately by quick and intense cooling
-as soon as it has reached the proper point in case the ripened product
-is not used at once, and (2) to _keep_ it ice-cold until it is used. If
-this is done, it may be kept for two or three days without deterioration
-if it is not convenient to make it fresh every day which, however,
-should be the rule.
-
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER II
-
-                   MILK SUPPLY AND CREAMERY PRODUCTS
-
-
-In the first chapter the composition of cow’s milk and the nature of its
-constituents have been considered, the most important tests for its
-richness and purity have been described, and the ferments have been
-mentioned which instigate changes for good or for bad, together with the
-means at disposal for regulating their activity. To use these means
-intelligently in handling milk and its products is the key to the
-dairyman’s success.
-
-We shall now briefly consider the various steps that are of importance
-in modern dairy industry.
-
-
-                              MILK SUPPLY
-
-In the first place, the farmer must furnish pure, clean, unadulterated
-milk, fresh from the cow and cooled immediately after milking. His cows
-must be healthy.
-
-=Bovine Tuberculosis.=—Many milk-cows, for the very reason that they
-have been bred with the one purpose in view of turning all their food
-into milk and wasting as little as possible in building up the body, are
-more or less weak-chested and apt to suffer from tuberculosis. Unless
-this disease is so far advanced as to affect the general health of the
-cow, or it has spread to the milk organs, the udder and the teats, it is
-not so dangerous as has heretofore been supposed. It is now held by the
-great majority of physicians that bovine tuberculosis is hardly ever
-transmitted to grown persons and seldom to children. Neither is it
-hereditary. Nevertheless, wherever it is possible to have the herd
-tested with tuberculin, segregating, if not killing, the animals which
-show by reaction that they are somewhat tuberculous, it should be done.
-Milk from such cows should always be pasteurized.
-
-=Milk as a Disease Carrier.=—A greater danger lies in the fact that,
-warm as it comes from the cow, milk is an ideal medium for human disease
-germs to grow in, and may thus become a great conveyor of such germs.
-For this reason it is of the greatest importance that the milkers are
-healthy and clean, that the udders and teats be free from dirt, and the
-milk pail covered as far as possible; the barn must be clean, and every
-source of infection excluded. This fact also points to the advisability
-of pasteurization. On page 23 a chart is shown, published by the Toronto
-Board of Health and indicating the temperatures at which various germs
-of disease are made harmless.
-
-=Bacterial Count.=—The test for clean milk now mostly used is the
-“Bacterial Count,” the number of bacteria—or rather colonies of
-bacteria—found in a cubic centimeter of the milk. It would be better if
-the nature or quality of the bacteria could be taken into consideration
-as well as the quantity, but that being as yet impracticable, the next
-best thing is to depend upon the number. Ordinary good milk often
-contains hundreds of thousands of bacteria in a cubic centimeter, but
-where the greatest cleanliness is observed the number may be less than
-1,000.
-
-=Certified Milk= is now sold in many cities which, according to varying
-city ordinances, is guaranteed to have less than 10,000 or 20,000 or
-30,000 bacteria, as the case may be.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Counting the bacteria in a cubic centimeter of milk
-]
-
-The cost of producing certified milk places it beyond the reach of the
-great majority of consumers. But such care and cleanliness as can be
-observed by the farmer and the milkman without extra expense should be
-insisted upon, and milk which nevertheless contains a large number of
-bacteria can be made safe by pasteurization.
-
-=The Sanitary Code.=—The regulation of the production and delivery of
-milk in cities and towns as well as at creameries and cheese factories,
-the “Sanitary Code” established by state and municipal health
-authorities, has been very effective in improving the quality of the
-supply. So enormous have been the improvements in caring for and
-handling the products by the large establishments engaged in the
-delivery of milk as to make the increase in cost seem trifling compared
-with the great benefit to the public health secured by these agencies.
-
-=New York State Milk Grading.=—The New York State Board of Health
-prescribes a grading for milk offered for sale, the most important
-features of which are as follows:
-
-_Certified._—Must be produced under specially sanitary conditions
-approved by a county medical commission.
-
-_Grade A Raw._—Cows must be tuberculin tested and milk must not contain
-over 60,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter.
-
-_Grade A Pasteurized._—Cows must be subjected to physical examination
-and milk must not contain more than 200,000 bacteria before, nor more
-than 30,000 after pasteurization.
-
-Other grades permitted under the rules, all subject to inspection and
-approval of the authorities, are:
-
-    _Grade B Raw._
-    _Grade B Pasteurized._
-    _Grade C Raw._
-    _Grade C Pasteurized._
-
-Deliveries must be made within a certain time after production or
-pasteurization, barns and milk stations are inspected, and altogether
-such safeguards are employed as to make the supply exceedingly safe and
-reliable.
-
-=City Delivery.=—In villages and small cities the milk supply is still
-to a large extent in the hands of farmers who come to town early in the
-morning peddling their milk, often at considerable waste of time for
-horse and man. Or a number of peddlers go over the same route so that it
-takes a dozen wagons to cover a town where three or four could do it.
-
-As long as there was no efficient regulation as to price and quality
-such waste was perhaps unavoidable, as competition on the part of the
-producers and distributors was the only means of protection for the
-consumers. But lately state and municipal control is being exercised to
-such an extent as to largely eliminate the danger of poor milk and
-exorbitant prices. Further development of organized delivery systems so
-much to be desired for sanitary as well as for economical reasons, may
-be looked for as soon as normal conditions return after the close of the
-war. The delivery of milk is one of the things that in the interest of
-public health must be under the strictest official control, and
-_co-operation_ between farmers and consumers is the logical system for
-elimination of unnecessary expenses of distribution and for prompt and
-satisfactory service. Their interests are or should be identical and
-both classes are hurt by inefficient and wasteful delivery.
-
-In the large cities there has grown up an industry which largely
-monopolizes the milk supply and which until lately was powerful enough
-to dictate prices and conditions both for producers and consumers.
-Several attempts have been made from time to time by farmers to combine
-to regulate prices and dictate the terms to the middlemen. Such attempts
-have, however, invariably failed as long as they were built on false
-economic principles and prompted by selfish interests only. No farmers’
-association can be strong enough to ignore the law of supply and demand,
-and it is only quite recently that the _Dairymen’s League_ has succeeded
-in influencing the market by taking into consideration the actual cost
-of production of milk as worked out by the agricultural colleges, and
-fixing the price on a scientific basis. There is one other element
-entering into the causes on which the price to the consumers depends,
-namely, _Transportation_, and while municipal boards of health are
-looking after the sanitary conditions and prevention of adulteration,
-State and Federal authorities are stepping in as moderators or
-arbitrators to reconcile the interests of the _Producers_, the _Railroad
-Companies_, the _Distributors_ and the _Consumers_. The next step in the
-development will no doubt be towards full co-operation between producers
-and consumers and, to a large extent, elimination of the “middlemen.”
-
-It should not be forgotten, however, that while the much abused
-middlemen in time past have been able to dictate terms and prices and
-have often abused the privilege; they have at the same time used their
-influence and power to improve the milk supply. As the supply of oil and
-gasoline has been perfected and cheapened by the all-powerful Standard
-Oil Co. as a monopoly crushing all competition, so the “Milk Trust” has
-improved the distribution of milk and has built up the magnificent
-sanitary plants in which milk is handled, pasteurized, bottled and
-distributed in a way that might not have been possible without the
-monopoly. It has served a good purpose, but has at the same time
-acquired such power that official control has become necessary for the
-protection of producers and consumers alike, and the time may be near
-when these two classes will combine and take the matter into their own
-hands so that the distribution may be done at actual cost.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Milk station in the country where milk is received from the farmers to
-    be shipped to the city
-]
-
-=Milk Stations= are plants erected in dairy sections in the country
-either by the city milk supply houses or by co-operating farmers, where
-the milk is delivered and handled so as to make it ready for shipment to
-the city. As in the creamery and the cheese factory, the milk is
-carefully examined and, if it is not sweet and pure, it is rejected and
-sent back to the farm. Any impure flavor remains in the cover for some
-time and is easily detected by smelling of the cover as soon as it is
-removed from the can.
-
-A sample is taken and put aside for the Babcock test and perhaps another
-for the Fermentation test. Each farmer’s milk is weighed in the _Weigh
-Can_ and run through a cheese-cloth strainer. The further treatment
-varies in different plants. The milk may simply be cooled by running it
-over a cold water or brine cooler and placing it in shipping cans in the
-refrigerator or in ice water until the milk-train comes along to pick up
-the cans. Or it may be clarified by running it through a centrifugal
-machine, the same as a separator, in which, however, cream and milk are
-not separated, but impurities are thrown out by the centrifugal force
-and deposited on the wall of the bowl, and the purified milk may then be
-pasteurized and bottled before being shipped to the city.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Receiving milk at the milk station
-]
-
-Arriving in the city in iced cars the milk is taken to one of the
-elaborate plants in which it is pasteurized and bottled, if that has not
-been done at the country station. The machinery used in these plants is
-getting more and more perfect and expensive and leaves little to be
-desired as to sanitary requirements and economy in handling.
-Pasteurizers, bottling machines, bottle-washing machines, conveyors,
-etc., are wonders of ingenuity, and one needs only to see one of these
-modern plants to understand that in a large city milk can only be
-handled to advantage in expensive establishments.
-
-=Skim Milk= is one of the cheapest of foods and under proper regulations
-its sale should not be prohibited. The reason why in times past skim
-milk has been discredited and excluded from sale was that, as produced
-by the old methods of raising the cream, before the advent of the
-separator, it was always more or less old and sour before it was
-available and certainly before it could be distributed to consumers.
-Under such conditions it was hardly ever fit for human food. But when
-produced by the separator and pasteurized and cooled immediately
-after—within a few hours after milking, which is entirely feasible—it is
-an excellent and nutritious food for adults and even for children over
-two years of age. Ripened with a pure culture of lactic acid bacteria,
-it makes a healthful, refreshing drink, like buttermilk. Only when it is
-allowed to sour without proper care or control does skim milk, as whole
-milk does, become unfit for food or drink. On a cold winter morning when
-men are going to work (or perhaps are looking for work which they cannot
-find), and children are on their way to school, often underfed, a
-street-corner wagon or stand where boiling hot, fresh, sweet skim milk
-might be distributed at a cent or two a glass would be a blessing in any
-city.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Pasteurizing and bottling milk in a Borden plant
-]
-
-
-                                 CREAM
-
-When new milk is left at rest the cream will rise to the top and after
-12 to 24 hours a cream-line can be seen in the bottle. This cream-line
-is sharper and more easily seen in raw milk than in pasteurized milk and
-its absence is not always a sure sign of lack of richness or purity of
-the milk. By cooling the milk thoroughly so that it will keep, almost
-all the cream will be at the top in forty-eight hours and can be skimmed
-off. The cream can be used for coffee or on cereals or fruits or
-puddings; the skim milk left will still hold ½% or more of butter-fat
-and can be used to drink or for cooking.
-
-=The Separator.=—On the farm or in the creamery the cream is no longer
-raised by gravity, that is, by letting the milk “set” either in shallow
-pans on the kitchen shelf or in deep cans in ice water, but the fresh,
-warm milk is run through the separator in a continuous stream.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Early conception of the separator
-]
-
-It was noticed that the rising of the cream due to the difference in
-specific gravity between the butter-fat and the milk-“serum” (the watery
-solution of the other constituents) might be greatly hastened by
-subjecting the milk to centrifugal force. This physical phenomenon was
-taken advantage of in the first conception of the separator where it was
-shown that if a pail of milk was whirled around like a stone in a sling
-the heavier milk-serum would be thrown towards the bottom of the
-separator pail with so much greater force than the lighter cream
-(butter-fat mixed with a small part of the serum) that the separation
-which would take 48 hours in the milk at rest, could be accomplished in
-a few minutes when exposed to centrifugal force. From this early crude
-attempt the continuous _bowl-separator_ was developed and still later a
-number of divisions in the bowl were designed which increased the
-capacity and efficiency of the machine wonderfully. The most successful
-separator was designed by Dr. Gustaf De Laval of Sweden and the machines
-bearing his name are used all over the world where butter is made. But
-there are many other excellent separators on the market.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Dr. Gustaf De Laval of Sweden, inventor of the separator bearing his
-    name
-]
-
-In the machine the milk is separated instantaneously by centrifugal
-force and runs out through two tubes, one for cream and the other for
-skim milk. A small modern hand machine will take care of from 200 to
-1,000 lbs. of milk an hour, and power machines are built to separate
-6,000 lbs. or more. By regulating the cream-outlet a heavier or lighter
-cream can be produced.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Hand separator
-]
-
-Suppose we are separating some milk containing 4% butter-fat. If ⅛ of
-this milk is separated out as cream and contains all the butter-fat, the
-cream will be eight times as rich in butter-fat as the original milk;
-32% of the cream will be butter-fat. Such cream is called “32% cream.”
-If we take ¼ as cream, we get a cream four times as rich as the milk, a
-“16% cream.” So out of 100 lbs. of milk we can take 12½ lbs. (⅛) of 32%
-cream, 25 lbs. (¼) of 16% cream, etc.
-
-Although the skim milk is really valuable as a food, it is worth but
-little commercially; the cream containing the butter-fat is the
-expensive part of the milk, and we must be prepared to pay for the cream
-all that the milk would have cost.
-
-=Percentage of Butter-Fat.=—The “richness” of cream or milk and their
-value depend upon the amount of butter-fat in them. So cream or milk is
-often called “30% cream” or “20% cream” or “4% milk” according as 30% or
-20% or 4% of the fluid is butter-fat; 30% cream is quite rich; ordinary
-market cream varies between 18% and 40%, though it may fall below 18%,
-or it may be sold as a very expensive article as high as 60%. Rich milk
-may contain more than 6% of butter-fat and skim milk less than 0.1 of
-one per cent. The average for good whole milk is between 3% and 4½%.
-
-For a long time scientists and scientific dairymen were the only ones to
-speak of milk and cream in terms of percentage of butter-fat. Now,
-however, people are beginning to realize how valuable a part of the milk
-the butter-fat is and are paying more attention to the actual percentage
-of butter-fat in the cream or milk they use. So it is no longer unusual
-to see a dairyman advertise cream of a certain percentage or to hear a
-housewife ask for it specifically.
-
-=Standardizing Cream.=—For ice cream or for preparing modified milk for
-babies, it is often desirable to dilute rich cream to a certain lower
-standard. The following simple steps can be taken to find out how much
-milk to add for diluting:
-
-1. From the test—fat-percentage—of the rich cream subtract the test
-desired.
-
-2. From the test desired subtract the test of the milk used for
-diluting.
-
-3. Divide the first difference by the second, and the result will be the
-number of pints (or pounds) of milk to be added for each pint (or pound)
-of the rich cream.
-
-For instance, you may want to thin some 30% cream to 10% for making ice
-cream. The milk to be added is skim milk. Then:
-
-1. 30 - 10 = 20.
-
-2. 10 - 0 = 10.
-
-3. 20 divided by 10 = 2. So for each pint of rich cream you may add 2
-pints of skim milk.
-
-Or you may wish to thin the 30% cream with whole milk, which has 4%
-butter-fat. Again:
-
-1. 30 - 10 = 20.
-
-2. 10 - 4 = 6.
-
-3. 20 divided by 6 = 3⅓. So you may add 3⅓ pints of the whole milk to
-each pint of the 30% cream and still have a 10% cream.
-
-=Pasteurized Cream= does not look as rich as raw cream, and fresh, sweet
-cream appears to be thinner than when it is 24 hours old and slightly
-ripened. So it is well, when buying cream, not to judge by appearances.
-Demand of the milkman that he furnish you cream of a certain percentage
-of butter-fat and see to it that you get what you pay for. If you have
-no Babcock tester the milk inspector will test the cream for you.
-
-=Whipped Cream.=—For whipping, cream must be fairly rich, from 24% to
-32%, and it must be cold. Fresh, sweet cream does not whip as readily as
-that which has been kept for 12 or 24 hours in ice water. There is no
-other secret connected with the process. Use a rich cream, suitably
-cooled and aged, and with a good beater there can be no trouble in
-getting a fine, stiff whipped cream. If the cream is too thin or too
-warm it may not become stiff. Sometimes, when it is beaten too long, it
-turns into butter and buttermilk.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Installation in a Danish creamery.
-  From the separator at the right the cream runs through the continuous
-    pasteurizer which forces it up over the cooler whence it runs into
-    the cream-vat at the left.
-  (From Boggild—Maelkeribruget i Danmark)
-]
-
-=Emulsified Cream.=—One of the recent additions to the already elaborate
-machinery used in the creamery, the milk supply or the ice cream
-business, is the _Emulsifier._ To be sure, emulsifiers were used thirty
-to forty years ago to mix animal and vegetable fats—oleomargarine oil,
-lard and cottonseed oil—into skim milk for “Filled Cheese” or for
-Butterine, but lately they are serving new purposes in the milk
-industry. By forcing melted butter-fat or oil mixed with water or skim
-milk through exceedingly small apertures under high pressure, or
-otherwise breaking up the mixture, an emulsion can be formed in which
-the fat globules are much finer even than those in natural milk or
-cream, and separation can be prevented. The force used in these
-emulsifiers may be produced by powerful pumps, or a steam jet, or
-centrifugal force under high speed; whichever system is used the
-machines answer the same purpose, to produce a permanent emulsion in
-which the oil or fat will stay in suspension even after cooling. In some
-milk supply plants and ice cream factories all the cream is emulsified
-and the system has especially been applied since the advent of the milk
-powder. It is now a not infrequent practice to run the new milk through
-the separator, make sweet, unsalted butter from the cream, and milk
-powder from the skim milk, and to ship or store these products
-separately where or until cream is wanted and then bring them together
-again by running them through the emulsifier with a suitable amount of
-water. At first thought this process would seem impractical and
-uneconomical. But it has proven good business because in many cases and
-places skim milk powder and butter keep better separately or can be
-shipped at long distance to better advantage than new milk or cream or
-condensed milk. In ice cream factories business may be dull in cold
-weather and cream is perhaps not provided and not available, when
-suddenly a hot spell brings orders for large quantities. With a stock of
-skim milk powder and butter on hand in the refrigerator, and an
-emulsifier to mix these products, cream can be produced on short notice
-and there will be no danger of shortage.
-
-
-                               ICE CREAM
-
-Ice cream has fast become the national dessert served on all festive
-occasions, winter and summer. Originally it meant a frozen mixture of
-sweetened and flavored milk and cream, but the name has long been
-applied to all kinds of frozen delicacies in which cream enters as a
-constituent. Not even there has the line been drawn, but gums, gelatine,
-cornstarch, eggs and other “fillers” have been substituted or added to
-thicken the mixtures and give “body” to “creams,” which have but little
-relation to the genuine emulsion of butter-fat from cow’s milk.
-Standardization has been attempted by National and State food
-authorities with varying success of enforcement. While the application
-of the name to a great variety of frozen desserts has no doubt become
-legitimate by long usage it may properly be demanded that as an article
-of merchandise “ice cream” shall contain at least 8% to 12% butter-fat
-and that no ingredients dangerous to health enter into its manufacture.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Hand freezer
-]
-
-=Freezers.=—The freezing is usually done by contact of the material with
-metal cooled on the other side by a “freezing mixture” of salt and ice
-which produces temperatures far below the freezing point of water while
-air is whipped into the cream by the rapid motion of the beater. A great
-variety of excellent freezers of this kind for hand or for power are on
-the market which answer the purpose for making ice cream at home or at
-the ice cream parlor.
-
-Coarse-grained salt and crushed ice, mixed in the proportion of 1 part
-salt to 4 parts of ice, are constantly filled into the space surrounding
-the ice cream can, and the brine produced by the melting of the mixture
-is gradually drawn off from the tub. In a good freezer the operation
-should not take over fifteen minutes. When the cream is frozen to a soft
-mush, stop the beater and scrape down the hard particles which may have
-accumulated on the sides of the can, add any ingredients which may be
-better incorporated at this stage than mixed into the original material,
-such as crushed fruit or preserves, and finish the freezing without
-carrying it too far.
-
-Remove the beater, stir the cream which should still be soft enough to
-handle, and pack in ice with only a little salt. Or the cream may be
-transferred from the freezer can to the shipping can and packed in it.
-If bricks are wanted the soft cream is packed in molds of the desired
-shape and size and buried in the freezing mixture to harden.
-
-In modern ice cream factories _Brine Freezers_ are generally used. In a
-_Refrigerator Plant_ intensely low temperatures are produced by the
-vaporizing of compressed ammonia or carbonic acid in an ice machine, and
-brine circulating in iron pipes is cooled by such medium and may, in
-turn, cool the air in the _Cold Storage_ room, or the cream in the
-freezer, or pure water in metal boxes for the manufacture of _Artificial
-Ice._ It has been attempted to make the brine freezers _continuous_, the
-cream mixture being fed into the machine at one end and discharged
-frozen at the other. But this system has not so far been successful, and
-intermittent or batch freezers are most practical yet both for hand and
-for power.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Power brine freezer
-]
-
-Rich material, frozen in a good machine, whether intermittent or
-continuous, will expand from 50% to 100%, and the original material
-should not fill the freezer can more than half full.
-
-The manufacture of ice cream has been the subject of study and
-experiments for years in the Dairy Department of the Agricultural
-College at Ames, Iowa, where Professor M. Mortensen has worked out a
-comprehensive classification from which any manufacturer may readily
-choose his formulas, modifying them to suit his local conditions and
-special problems. The outline kindly furnished the author by Professor
-Mortensen is so interesting and instructive as to be well worth copying
-substantially in full, leaving out the “Ices” in which no milk or cream
-is used and which are therefore not of special interest in connection
-with the purpose of this book—the use of more and better milk.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Ice cream factory
-]
-
-
-           CLASSIFICATION ADOPTED AT IOWA EXPERIMENT STATION
-
-Considering the work of former writers as well as names used by business
-men, the following classification was worked out by the station:
-
-
-                           I. Plain Ice Creams.
-                          II. Nut Ice Creams.
-                         III. Fruit Ice Creams.
-                          IV. Bisque Ice Creams.
-                           V. Parfaits.
-                          VI. Mousses.
-                         VII. Puddings.
-                        VIII. Aufaits.
-                          IX. Lactos.
-
-
-                        Explanation and Formulas
-
-I. _Plain Ice Cream_ is a frozen product made from cream and sugar with
-or without a natural flavoring.
-
-Formulas are given for making ten gallons of finished ice cream.
-
-
-_Vanilla Ice Cream_:
-
-    5 gallons 25% cream
-    8 lbs. sugar
-    4 oz. vanilla extract
-
-_Chocolate Ice Cream_:
-
-    5 gallons cream
-    10 lbs. sugar
-    1½ lbs. bitter chocolate
-    4 oz. vanilla extract
-
-_Maple Ice Cream_:
-
-    5 gallons 25% cream
-    6 lbs. cane sugar
-    2 lbs. maple sugar
-    2 oz. caramel
-    4 oz. vanilla extract
-
-_Caramel Ice Cream_:
-
-    5 gallons 25% cream
-    8 lbs. sugar
-    12 oz. caramel
-    4 oz. vanilla extract
-
-_Coffee Ice Cream_:
-
-    5 gallons 25% cream
-    8 lbs. cane sugar
-    Extract from 1 lb. coffee
-
-_Mint Ice Cream_:
-
-    5 gallons 25% cream
-    8 lbs. cane sugar
-    1 pt. concentrated Creme de Menthe syrup
-    Few drops green coloring.
-
-II. _Nut Ice Cream_ is a frozen product made from cream and sugar and
-sound non-rancid nuts.
-
-_Walnut Ice Cream_:
-
-    5 gallons 25% cream
-    8 lbs. cane sugar
-    4 oz. vanilla extract
-    4 lbs. of walnut meats.
-
-According to this general formula the following nut ice creams may be
-prepared by substituting different kinds of nut meats:
-
-  _Chestnut Ice Cream_
-  _Filbert Ice Cream_
-  _Hazelnut Ice Cream_
-  _Pecan Ice Cream_
-  _Peanut Ice Cream_
-  _Almond Ice Cream_
-  _Pistachio Ice Cream_.
-
-At times pistachio ice cream is made from oil of pistachio instead of
-from the nuts. If thus prepared, it will come under the head of plain
-ice cream.
-
-III. _Fruit Ice Cream_ is a frozen product made from cream, sugar and
-sound, clean, mature fruits.
-
-_Strawberry Ice Cream_:
-
-    5 gallons 25% cream
-    8 lbs. sugar
-    ½ gallon crushed strawberries.
-
-Employing the same formula the following creams may be made by merely
-substituting other fruits and berries for the strawberries. The amount
-of sugar may be varied according to the acidity of the fruit.
-
-  _Pineapple Ice Cream_
-  _Raspberry Ice Cream_
-  _Cherry Ice Cream_
-  _Peach Ice Cream_
-  _Apricot Ice Cream_
-  _Currant Ice Cream_
-  _Grape Ice Cream_
-  _Cranberry Ice Cream_.
-
-Preparation of _lemon_ and _orange_ ice creams cannot be included under
-this general rule. These creams may be prepared as follows:
-
-_Lemon Ice Cream_:
-
-    5 gallons 25% cream
-    10 lbs. sugar
-    2 pts. lemon juice
-    1 pt. orange juice
-
-_Orange Ice Cream_:
-
-    5 gallons 25% cream
-    10 lbs. sugar
-    2 qts. orange juice
-    ½ pt. lemon juice.
-
-IV. _Bisque Ice Cream_ is a frozen product made from cream, sugar and
-bread products, marshmallows or other confections, with or without other
-natural flavoring.
-
-_Macaroon Ice Cream_:
-
-    5 gallons 25% cream
-    8 lbs. sugar
-    4 oz. vanilla extract
-    5 lbs. ground macaroons.
-
-From this formula we can make:
-
-    Grape Nut Ice Cream
-    Nabisco Ice Cream
-    Sponge Cake Ice Cream
-    Marshmallow Ice Cream.
-
-V. _Parfait_ is a frozen product made from cream, sugar and egg yolks
-with or without nuts or fruits and other natural flavoring.
-
-_Walnut Parfait_:
-
-    4 gallons 30% cream
-    Yolks of 10 dozen eggs
-    14 lbs. sugar
-    4 oz. vanilla extract
-    4 lbs. walnut meats.
-
-From this formula by substituting the nut meats we can make:
-
-    _Filbert Parfait_
-    _Almond Parfait_
-    _Peanut Parfait_
-    _Hazelnut Parfait_, etc.
-
-By substituting the same proportion of fruits as are used for fruit ice
-cream, for the vanilla extract and nut meats, fruit parfaits such as
-strawberry, raspberry and cherry parfaits and others may be prepared.
-
-_Coffee Parfait_:
-
-    4 gallons 30% cream
-    Yolks of 10 dozen eggs
-    14 lbs. sugar
-    Extract from 1 lb. coffee
-
-_Maple Parfait_:
-
-    4 gallons 30% cream
-    Yolks of 10 dozen eggs
-    4 lbs. maple sugar
-    10 lbs. cane sugar
-    2 oz. caramel paste
-
-_Tutti-Frutti_:
-
-    4 gallons 30% cream
-    Yolks of 10 dozen eggs
-    14 lbs. cane sugar
-    4 oz. vanilla extract
-    3 lbs. candied cherries
-    3 lbs. candied assorted fruit
-    3 lbs. pineapple.
-
-VI. _Mousse_ is a frozen whipped cream to which sugar and natural
-flavoring have been added.
-
-_Cranberry Mousse_:
-
-    2 gallons 30% cream
-    4 lbs. cane sugar
-    1 qt. cranberry juice
-    ¼ pt. lemon juice.
-
-From the same formula combinations may be made with various other fruit
-juices and natural flavors, such as coffee, vanilla, maple, caramel,
-pistachio, etc.
-
-_Sultana roll_, as indicated by the name, is made in a round mold. The
-center of the mold is filled with tutti-frutti, and the outside with
-pistachio mousse.
-
-VII. _Pudding_ is a product made from cream or milk, with sugar, eggs,
-nuts and fruits, highly flavored.
-
-_Nesselrode Pudding_:
-
-    3 gallons 30% cream
-    10 dozen eggs
-    10 lbs. cane sugar
-    4 oz. vanilla extract
-    6 lbs. candied cherries and assorted fruits
-    4 lbs. raisins
-    4 lbs. macaroons
-
-_Manhattan Pudding_:
-
-    3 gallons 30% cream
-    10 dozen eggs
-    12 lbs. sugar
-    2 qts. orange juice
-    1 pt. lemon juice
-    4 lbs. walnut meats
-    4 lbs. pecan meats
-    4 lbs. cherries and assorted fruits
-
-_Plum Pudding_:
-
-    3 gallons 30% cream
-    10 dozen eggs
-    10 lbs. sugar
-    2½ lbs. chocolate
-    4 lbs. cherries and assorted fruits
-    2 lbs. raisins
-    2 lbs. figs
-    1 lb. walnut meats
-    3 teaspoonfuls ground cinnamon
-    ½ teaspoonful ground cloves.
-
-VIII. _Aufait_ is a brick cream consisting of layers of one or more
-kinds of cream with solid layers of frozen fruits.
-
-Fig aufait may be made from three layers of cream of various flavors
-with two layers of whole or sliced figs. It is most satisfactory to
-slice the figs lengthwise in halves.
-
-Other aufaits may be made from a variety of preserved fruits and berries
-and combined with different creams.
-
-IX. _Lacto_ is a product manufactured from skimmed or whole sour milk,
-eggs and sugar, with or without natural flavoring.
-
-Formulas for lactos may be found in Bulletin No. 140 published by the
-Ames Station.
-
-As an example, the following mixture will make 5 gallons of
-
-_Cherry Lacto_:
-
-    3 gallons lacto milk
-    9 pounds sugar
-    12 eggs
-    1 quart of cherry juice or concentrated cherry syrup
-    1½ pints lemon juice
-
-“Lacto Milk” is the same as described under “Commercial Buttermilk” and
-“Thick Milk,” pages 81 and 82.
-
-    The sugar is first dissolved in the lacto milk. The eggs are
-    then prepared. The whites and yolks are kept in separate
-    containers and each lot is beaten with an egg beater. Both the
-    yolks and whites are then added to the milk. The mixture is
-    thoroughly stirred and strained through a fine wire gauze. The
-    fruit juices are added last. The freezer is now run until it
-    turns with difficulty when the paddle is removed. The brine is
-    removed and the freezer repacked with ice and salt and left for
-    an hour before the contents are served.
-
-    Orange, Mint, Pineapple, Maraschino, Raspberry or Grape Lacto
-    may be prepared by substituting any of these flavors for the
-    Cherry.
-
-X. _Ices_ are frozen products made from water or sweet skimmed or whole
-milk, and sugar, with or without eggs, fruit juices or other natural
-flavoring.
-
-Ices may be for convenience divided into _sherbets_, _milk sherbets_,
-_frappes_, _punches_ and _souffles_.
-
-_Milk Sherbet_ is an ice made from sweet skimmed or whole milk with egg
-albumen, sugar and natural flavoring, frozen to the consistency of ice
-cream.
-
-_Pineapple Milk Sherbet_:
-
-    6 gallons milk
-    20 lbs. sugar
-    Whites of 2 dozen eggs
-    1 gallon pineapple pulp
-    1 qt. lemon juice.
-
-Milk sherbets of various flavors may be prepared according to above
-formula by substituting other flavorings.
-
-The formulas presented above have been given mainly for the purpose of
-making clear the difference between the various groups. Numerous other
-formulas may be prepared on the same general outline.
-
-                  *       *       *       *       *
-
-Prof. Mortensen’s formulas are mostly made out for ten gallons of ice
-cream. It is hardly necessary to call attention to the fact that they
-can easily be adapted to any smaller quantities by reducing each of the
-ingredients alike. For instance, to make:
-
-_1 gallon of Plain Vanilla Ice Cream_, divide the figures given above by
-10 and use:
-
-    2 quarts 25% cream
-    ¾ lbs. sugar
-    ½ oz. vanilla extract.
-
-To make:
-
-_1 quart of Strawberry Ice Cream_, divide by 40 and use:
-
-    1 pint 25% cream
-    3 oz. sugar
-    Crushed strawberries to taste.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Professor Mortensen, behind the vat at the left, giving a lesson in
-    the making of ice cream at Ames
-]
-
-It will be noticed that in the formulas worked out at Ames as above,
-very rich cream is used,—with a fat contents of 25% or 30%,—which makes
-exceedingly rich ice creams and great expansion in freezing. The
-ordinary ice cream maker will usually employ cheaper material, mixing
-some milk in the cream and standardizing the material to suit his local
-trade. Also most housekeepers making ice cream at home will find it
-convenient and economical to use a mixture of milk and cream and in
-doing so one must not expect so much expansion.
-
-In many places outside of dairy sections cream is scarce and _condensed
-milk_ is substituted to a large extent. Lately milk powder has come into
-use and _Emulsified Cream_ has become popular. Skim-milk powder and
-unsalted butter may be kept in stock and be available at any time, and
-by means of an _Emulsifier_ they are united again into a product
-identical with the milk or cream from which they were originally
-separated.
-
-=Junket Ice Cream.=—By setting a mixture of milk and cream with a
-solution of Junket Tablets and allowing it to jelly before freezing, the
-body of the cream may be improved so that a material of comparatively
-low fat-percentage will make a very good ice cream, rich enough for most
-people and especially well suited for invalids and children. Ice-cold
-milk or cream is rather hard to digest for a weak or delicate stomach
-because the action of the rennet in the digestive juice is imperfect and
-slow except at blood-temperature. In Junket Ice Cream, however, such
-action takes place before it is eaten and the digestive ferment of the
-stomach is relieved of that function. For that reason Junket Ice Cream
-is considered healthier than the ordinary frozen products and may be
-indulged in freely by children and invalids.
-
-The following are examples of tested Junket Ice Creams:
-
-                           Vanilla Ice Cream
-
-    Dissolve two Junket Tablets in a tablespoonful of cold water,
-    heat two quarts of milk and one pint of cream lukewarm in which
-    has been dissolved one cup of sugar and two teaspoonfuls of
-    vanilla flavor, then add the dissolved Junket Tablet, stir
-    quickly for one-half minute and pour into ice cream can, let
-    stand undisturbed ten or fifteen minutes or until set. Pack with
-    ice and salt and freeze.
-
-                          Pistachio Ice Cream
-
-Excerpt from an article by Alice Bradley in “Woman’s Home Companion”
-
-    This is the best ice cream for the money that we know. It may be
-    made ready for the freezer early in the morning, and kept in the
-    ice box until it is convenient to freeze it. It is quite
-    possible to utilize cream that is not perfectly fresh.
-
-    Put in the can of the freezer one pint of milk, one-half cup of
-    heavy cream, one-third cup sugar, one teaspoonful vanilla,
-    one-half teaspoon of almond extract, a few grains of salt, and
-    vegetable color paste to make a delicate green color. Set the
-    freezer in a pan of hot water. As soon as the mixture is
-    lukewarm, add one Junket Tablet dissolved in one tablespoon cold
-    water. Mix thoroughly and let stand until firm. Put in the ice
-    box until ready to freeze, then put can in the freezer tub,
-    adjust the crank, put in three small measures of ice that has
-    been crushed in a heavy bag or shaved fine with an ice shaver,
-    cover this evenly with one measure of rock salt, add three
-    measures more of ice and one of salt, let stand five minutes and
-    then turn the crank of the freezer for about ten minutes, when
-    it may be turned a little more rapidly. Continue the turning
-    until the mixture is firm.
-
-    Remove the dasher, pack ice cream solidly into the can, surround
-    with four measures of ice to one of salt, cover with heavy
-    burlap bag or newspaper and keep in a cold place until needed.
-    Be sure the opening in the side of the freezer tub is not
-    plugged up, so that any surplus of salt water will drain off
-    instead of getting into the freezer. It may be necessary to
-    repack the freezer if the cream is frozen very long in advance
-    of the meal. The cream may be put into a mold, set in the
-    fireless cooker kettle, surrounded with ice and salt and left in
-    the fireless cooker all day. Peel peaches, cut in thin slices,
-    sprinkle with sugar and set in the ice box to chill. To serve,
-    place peaches in chilled dessert glasses, cover with ice cream
-    and garnish each with a candied cherry.
-
-In the following recipes the cream is added after the junket prepared
-from mixtures of milk, sugar and flavors has been partly frozen, a
-method which is preferred by many.
-
-                            Coffee Ice Cream
-
-    Make a cup of very strong coffee, add it to two quarts of warm
-    milk in which one cup of sugar has been dissolved, taste in
-    order to see if the flavor is strong enough, add three dissolved
-    Junket Tablets, stir quickly for one-half minute, pour into ice
-    cream can and let stand undisturbed ten or fifteen minutes or
-    until set. Pack with ice and salt; freeze to a thick mush before
-    adding one pint of cream, then continue freezing.
-
-                   _Simmons College Peach Ice Cream_
-
-    Heat two quarts of milk lukewarm in which has been dissolved one
-    cup of sugar and two teaspoonfuls of vanilla flavor, add two
-    dissolved Junket Tablets, stir quickly for one-half minute and
-    pour into ice cream can, let stand undisturbed ten or fifteen
-    minutes or until set. Pack with ice and salt; freeze to a thick
-    mush before adding one pint of cream and crushed and sweetened
-    peaches, then continue freezing. Save the needed amount of
-    peaches to serve on top of ice cream.
-
-Frozen pudding, strawberries, bananas, or pineapple, may be added in
-this way when making any Junket Ice Cream.
-
-                            _Orange Sherbet_
-
-    Heat two quarts of milk lukewarm in which has been dissolved two
-    cups of sugar, then add two dissolved Junket Tablets, stir
-    quickly for a minute and pour into freezer can, let it stand ten
-    or fifteen minutes before packing with ice and salt; freeze to a
-    thick mush, then add juice and grated rind of six oranges and
-    continue to freeze.
-
-=Raspberry Sherbet= may be made in the same way by substituting for the
-juice and rind of oranges one quart of crushed and sweetened
-raspberries, and
-
-=Pineapple Sherbet= by substituting two cups of grated and sweetened
-pineapple.
-
-                          _Custard Ice Cream_
-
-When cream is scarce many housekeepers substitute a mixture of eggs and
-milk. The following is a good standard recipe which can be varied by
-using different fruits and flavors the same as in any of the above
-combinations.
-
-    1 quart milk
-    4 eggs
-    2 teaspoons vanilla (more if desired)
-    2½ cups sugar
-    1 quart cream (or rich milk)
-
-Scald milk, add sugar, then add the well-beaten eggs. Cook until thick,
-remove from fire and cool. Be careful not to cook too long or it will
-curdle. Then add the cream and vanilla and freeze.
-
-
-                                 BUTTER
-
-As everybody knows, butter is one of the oldest and most important
-products of the dairy industry and since the middle of the nineteenth
-century, when science was first applied to it, the art of buttermaking
-has gradually been developed to a high degree of perfection, while the
-taste for fine butter has grown apace with its manufacture.
-
-Between 1840 and 1850 the large estates in Holstein, then connected with
-Denmark, were known for their fine dairies and excellent butter, made in
-a practical way without much attention to the reason for the rules that
-were gradually worked out.
-
-A class of superior dairymaids was educated on these large farms, many
-of whom were hired by progressive farmers on the Danish islands where an
-effort was made at that time to introduce better methods of dairying.
-
-The practical handicraft of these imported expert dairymaids was
-supplemented and regulated by the scientific work of Professor Segelcke
-and his pupils and from the Sixties buttermaking became an art in
-Denmark which was subjected to the most searching study and
-improvements. Danish butter soon captured the English market where
-previously Isigny (from Northern France) and Dutch butter had commanded
-the highest prices, and Danish sweet butter put up in sealed tin cans
-also became known all over the world as the only butter that would stand
-export to the Tropics.
-
-In this country Orange County, N.Y., first produced a high-class article
-and, later, Elgin, Ill., became the center that stood for the top of
-perfection. Thence the industry soon spread over the middle western
-states, largely populated by Scandinavian immigrants many of whom were
-skilled buttermakers, educated in the old countries. Even up to this day
-it is noticeable that the list of prize winning buttermakers at the
-National Dairy Shows and other exhibitions is largely made up of
-Scandinavian names. In Minnesota, for instance, as fine butter is now
-made as anywhere in the world.
-
-_Dairy Butter._—In the early days of the industry butter was made at
-home on the farm. The milk was set in shallow vessels,—in the Holstein
-and Danish dairies in wooden tubs 24 inches in diameter placed on the
-stone or concrete floor in the milk-vault, a cool cellar partly
-underground,—or in tin pans on the pantry shelf. After 36 to 48 hours
-the cream was skimmed off with a flat scoop, often both cream and skim
-milk being sour.
-
-About 1860 the deep tin can was introduced, set in cold running water
-or, where ice was available, in ice water. This was a great improvement
-over the shallow setting system. It was now possible to raise most of
-the cream in 24 hours leaving not to exceed ½% butter-fat in the skim
-milk, and to have both cream and skim milk sweet.
-
-_Centrifugal Creaming._—But the climax of perfection was not reached
-until the separator (see under Cream) was invented about 1879 and cream
-was raised instantaneously. For a long time it was the object of the
-manufacturers to produce _power separators_ of larger and larger
-capacity, handling from 6,000 to 10,000 lbs. of milk an hour.
-
-=Co-operative Creameries= were established, taking in 20,000 lbs. of
-milk and more a day. But in thinly settled sections where the roads were
-poor it was expensive to haul the milk a long distance to the creamery
-and _hand separators_ were introduced, each farmer skimming his own milk
-fresh from the cows and delivering the cream, only, to the creamery.
-This system has the advantage of leaving the skim milk on the farm in
-the very best condition for the calves and hogs and of saving time and
-expenses in transportation. It has the disadvantage that many farmers
-can hardly be expected to handle all of these separators as skilfully
-and cleanly as the creamery expert can run his one or few machines, and
-consequently that the skimming is more or less imperfect—more butter-fat
-being left in the skim milk and more impurities in the cream than in the
-whole-milk creamery. But in practice the advantages of the hand
-separator and cream-gathering system seem to be greater than the
-disadvantages and it is rapidly taking the place of the whole-milk
-creameries.
-
-_Ripening the Cream._—Butter may be made by churning whole milk, but
-usually it is made from cream that has been “ripened” or soured by
-standing for about 10 hours at a temperature of from 65° to 75° F.
-Modern buttermakers often pasteurize the cream and then add a “starter”
-to sour it. By preparing the starter with a pure culture of lactic acid
-bacteria one can get the desired acidity and aroma, and exclude
-undesirable flavors (as to Pure Cultures and Starters, see under
-“Bacteria” and “Commercial Buttermilk”).
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Sanitary Cream Ripener showing coil swung up into cleaning position
-]
-
-The process of ripening requires considerable skill and attention and is
-one of the most delicate functions the buttermaker is called upon to
-perform. In the first place the cream must be faultless, sweet and pure
-before it is set to ripen, so the buttermaker will have full control of
-the fermentation. For, if it is already turned or partly fermented, no
-skill will avail to bring it back to perfection. But with a first class,
-pure cream the operator has it in his power to turn out perfect butter.
-In the big western creameries cream is often collected from farms at a
-distance of a hundred miles or more and in warm weather such cream is
-likely to arrive at the central plant in more or less advanced
-condition. It is therefore difficult for the _centralizers_ to make
-really first-class butter while the “whole-milk creamery” as well as the
-farmer handling his own milk are in position to control the ripening
-from the beginning,—starting with pure material and being able to
-develop the desired flavor and acidity in the cream.
-
-After adding the starter to the cream it must be kept at a uniform
-temperature of 65 to 75° during the ripening process and it must be
-watched carefully and occasionally stirred gently until the consistency,
-aroma and acidity are as desired. Then it should be cooled quickly to
-stop further fermentation and if it is not to be churned at once it
-should be kept cold until churning time. Usually it is safer to set the
-cream in the morning and hasten the ripening so it will be completed in
-the evening rather than to leave it overnight warm. For, if it is
-finished in the evening, the cream may be cooled and placed in ice water
-overnight and one is sure to have it in good condition for churning in
-the morning. But it is quite feasible for the experienced operator to
-regulate the process so the cream will not be fully ripened in the
-morning until he is on hand to watch it and see that the process does
-not go too far. Taste and smell will tell when it is just right, and the
-_acid test_ may also be applied to determine when to stop the
-fermentation. An acidity of .5% is usually desired. When the condition
-is right, chill the cream, cooling it to below 50°—preferably down
-towards 40°—and leave it in ice water or in the refrigerator until
-churning time; then temper it to the proper temperature for churning.
-
-Even if it is to be churned soon after the ripening is completed it is
-best to chill it and then raise the temperature to the point wanted for
-churning. This gives a better “grain” and “body” to the butter than if
-the ripened cream is just cooled to the churning temperature, and is
-especially desirable when the cream has been pasteurized.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Branch of the Annatto tree
-]
-
-=Coloring.=—When the cream is ready it is poured into the churn and a
-little butter color is added. Some people prefer butter very light or
-even uncolored, but usually 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls of a standard butter
-color[5] to 10 gallons of cream will be found right, varying according
-to the season and the breed of cows furnishing the milk. The butter-fat
-in Guernsey and Jersey milk is naturally highly colored, while that in
-Holstein milk is comparatively white. When the cows are on fresh pasture
-in the early summer the butter-fat is more highly colored than when they
-are on dry food. The amount of coloring to be added to the cream is
-regulated to overcome such variations and make the butter of uniform
-color all the year round.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Adding the butter color
-]
-
-=Churning.=—Hundreds of varieties of churns have been constructed from
-time to time; 2,000 years ago Pliny described the old dash churn much
-the same as still occasionally used on the farm, and the principle
-involved in the process has not been changed. The object is to make the
-fat globules conglomerate into grains that can be collected and leave as
-little butter-fat as possible in the buttermilk.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Old Arabian churn made out of the skin of a goat
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Ancient churn
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Danish churn
-]
-
-The best temperature for churning varies from 48° to 56° and must be
-determined by local conditions and experience. To allow plenty of room
-for the cream to shake about, the churn should not be much more than
-half full. When the globules of fat suspended in the milk stick together
-and form granules as large as good sized pin-heads it is time to stop
-the churn and drain off the buttermilk. If the butter fails to “come” in
-half an hour or forty minutes it may be because the cream in the churn
-is too warm or too cold. A little cold or warm water, as the case may
-be, can be added as a simple remedy.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Churning room in a large modern creamery
-]
-
-Toward the end of the process care must be taken that the churn is
-stopped at the right moment, when the butter will separate clear from
-the buttermilk. After the buttermilk is drawn off pure cold water is
-poured into the churn and the butter granules are rinsed in it. This
-water again is drawn off and fresh cold water put in.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Butter worker
-]
-
-=Working the Butter.=—The butter can now be taken out with a sieve and
-worked on the butter-worker, or it may be worked in the churn. “Working”
-the butter consists in squeezing out the buttermilk and kneading the
-butter into a smooth but not “greasy” mass. If it is too warm and if it
-is worked too much, with a sliding motion instead of just pressing, the
-butter is apt to become greasy. If there seems to be any danger of
-greasiness, it is better to stop and put the butter in a cool place for
-a few hours to recover its elasticity. The working can then be finished
-safely.
-
-=Salting.=—During this working process salt is added and thoroughly
-distributed and worked in. About half an ounce of salt is used for a
-pound of butter.
-
-=Composition of Butter.=—When finished, the butter ought not to contain
-more than 12% to 15% of water, and there should be at least 80% of
-butter-fat. If all the butter-fat originally in the milk could be taken
-out in the butter, 100 lbs. of 4% milk should yield 4.88% (4.88 lbs.) of
-butter with 82% butter-fat. But a little is lost in the skim milk and
-more in the buttermilk, which usually contains ½% fat, so that about 4½
-lbs. is all the butter that can be expected from 100 lbs. of milk.
-
-=Overrun.=—Creamery men are much interested in the “Overrun” which means
-the increase from the churn over the amount of fat in the milk. For
-instance, if a quantity of milk containing 100 lbs. butter-fat as shown
-by the Babcock Test produces 114 lbs. of finished butter, the overrun is
-14%. The buttermaker who gets the largest overrun by reducing the loss
-of butter-fat in the skim milk and the buttermilk to a minimum, keeping
-the percentage of water in the butter just below 16%, and yet producing
-high scoring butter, is considered most efficient.
-
-=Packing.=—For the market, butter is packed in tubs or stone jars. Or it
-is molded in neat one-pound bricks and wrapped in parchment paper.
-
-=Sweet Butter.=—Real “sweet” butter is churned from fresh, sweet,
-unsoured cream. But usually the name is given to the _unsalted_ and
-_uncolored_ butter that many people relish. Without the salt it does not
-keep as well as ordinary butter, and must be eaten quite fresh.
-Well-made salted butter will keep for months with ordinary care, and in
-cold storage it may be kept a year. But when it comes out of cold
-storage it must be used within a few weeks, for butter, like other cold
-storage foods, will soon spoil and become rancid when it is exposed to a
-higher temperature for any length of time.
-
-=Renovated Butter.=—Butter that has become old and rancid can be
-“renovated.” The butter is melted and the butter-oil washed,—aërated in
-the renovating plants,—and then churned with fine-flavored sour skim
-milk. From the sour skim milk it gets back its old butter flavor. The
-granular physical consistency of fresh butter is gained by pouring the
-emulsified mixture over cracked ice or into ice water. By the time the
-excess of “buttermilk” has been removed by working, and salt has been
-mixed in, the renovated butter may be almost as good as fresh creamery
-butter.
-
-=Oleomargarine= or =Butterine= is made in much the same way. A mixture
-of beef-fat (the soft part of beef-tallow) and lard and cottonseed oil
-is churned with sour milk and worked and granulated like renovated
-butter. For the better grades, some of the finest creamery butter is
-mixed with it, so that the mixture can hardly be distinguished from real
-butter.
-
-=Coco-butter=, =Nut-butter=, etc., in great variety, are now also on the
-market as substitutes for butter, all prepared in a similar way, but
-lacking the vital unknown element that makes genuine butter so superior
-to substitutes.
-
-
-                               BUTTERMILK
-
-If the cream has been carefully ripened, with or without a pure culture
-starter, and it has shown the proper sourness when churned, the
-buttermilk will be of a pleasing taste and flavor. Its thickness will of
-course depend upon the amount of water, if any, added to the cream in
-the churn during the buttermaking. If the buttermilk is to be used for
-human food care must be taken not to dilute it too much.
-
-=Cooling Essential.=—If buttermilk is left to stand for hours in a warm
-room, fermentation goes on and may soon spoil the buttermilk by making
-it sloppy or bitter. It should therefore be cooled at once when drawn
-from the churn; if kept in ice water it may remain in fine flavor for
-several days. Well taken care of it is not only a pleasing and
-refreshing drink but eminently healthful. In cooking, too, it can be
-used to advantage.
-
-=Commercial Buttermilk= or =Cultured Milk= is simply carefully soured
-milk. It can be made at home from fresh milk either whole or skimmed or
-partly skimmed. Partially skimmed milk containing from 1% to 2%
-butter-fat is plenty rich enough and even better for most purposes than
-whole milk. The essential qualities of good buttermilk depend upon the
-proper ripening of the cream or milk, the development of a pure “breed”
-of healthful bacteria in a clean field free from weeds. Such a
-plantation or “culture” may be grown in milk as well as in cream. Its
-function is to turn the sugar of milk into lactic acid under the
-development of pleasing flavors and whether the butter-fat is removed by
-the separator or by churning makes little difference. In natural
-buttermilk there is always a little butter-fat—at least ½%—left, mostly
-in the form of fine granules, too small to be retained in the butter. If
-the same amount of butter-fat is left in skim milk and that is ripened
-and churned, the product will be identically the same as natural
-buttermilk from ripened cream.
-
-=Ripening.=—For best result the milk should be pasteurized, not
-necessarily as thoroughly as for starters, but sufficiently so as to
-destroy all obnoxious bacteria and give those introduced through a pure
-culture starter a chance to grow. Buttermilk may, however, also be made
-from good, clean, unpasteurized milk of good flavor. Whether pasteurized
-or not the milk is set to ripen with from 5 to 10% starter at a
-temperature of from 65 to 75°. The preparation of starters is described
-under “Bacteria” and the ripening of the milk for “buttermilk” is
-essentially the same process (see also under _Ripening_ of cream for
-butter). When ripened to the desired acidity,—say .5% to .6% by the acid
-test,—stop further fermentation by thorough cooling.
-
-=Breaking up the Curd.=—After cooling, the ripened milk may be broken up
-fine and if vigorously shaken or “churned” it will remain smooth and
-creamy. Otherwise it may separate into curd and whey. If churned long
-enough for the butter to form, it becomes absolutely identical with real
-buttermilk. But, for all practical purposes, a vigorous shaking for a
-few minutes is enough.
-
-=Thick Milk.=—“Thick Milk” as eaten in Scandinavia is made in the same
-way as commercial buttermilk, except that the milk—rich whole milk—is
-set to ripen in the bowl in which it is to be served. Instead of being
-churned or stirred, it is left thick, to be served as a pudding, like
-Junket made from sweet milk. The rich layer of cream that forms on top
-is excellent. “Thick Milk” is eaten plain with the oatmeal for
-breakfast, or as a dessert with grated stale bread and sugar spread over
-it.
-
-The uses of buttermilk in making pancakes and for many other culinary
-purposes are mentioned in the chapter on “Milk Cookery.”
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Dr. Elie Metchnikoff, author of “The Prolongation of Life”
-]
-
-=Yoghourt= or =Bulgarian Sour Milk= is prepared with a culture of
-bacteria originally found in Bulgaria where Metchnikoff, the late
-director of the Pasteur Institute of Paris, found people living to
-exceptional old age which he ascribed to the fact that their principal
-diet is sour milk of very high acidity.
-
-The theory is that a luxurious growth of lactic acid bacilli, acting as
-a germicide, destroys other fermentations in the lower intestines. The
-bacilli active in Yoghourt require a somewhat higher temperature for
-their best growth than the lactic acid bacilli predominant in sour cream
-for the finest butter, a fact which must be taken into consideration in
-preparing the various products.
-
-
-                             FERMENTED MILK
-
-In the preparation of Koumis, Kefir and other fermented milks of the
-same class, Yeast plays an important part, changing some of the
-milk-sugar into the alcohol which is found in these preparations in
-quantities up to 2%.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Baba Vasilka, 126 years old and her son, Tudor, 101;
-  Bulgarian peasants whose principal food has been sour milk all their
-    lives
-]
-
-=Koumis= was first made from mare’s milk by the Tartars, but is now
-prepared in this country from cow’s milk by the addition of sugar and
-yeast. As carbonic acid is developed in the process it is quite
-effervescent and may be regarded both as a food and a stimulant. It is
-sometimes prescribed by physicians in cases when the patient cannot
-retain other food.
-
-=Kefir= is a similar preparation originally made in the Caucasus by a
-fermentation started by Kefir grains which contain both yeast and
-various bacteria. The dry Kefir grains are soaked, first in lukewarm
-water, later in lukewarm milk, for several days, until they develop so
-much gas as to float on the top. A couple of tablespoonfuls of the
-grains are then added to a quart of milk which is left to ferment at 70°
-F. under frequent stirring or shaking. When the fermentation is fully
-developed the grains are strained off and the milk is bottled and kept
-for 1 to 2 days at 60°. The grains may be used at once again in fresh
-milk, and when the manufacture is finished they may be dried and kept,
-to be used again another time.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Kefir grains of natural size; a, b and c dried; d, e and f soaked
-    (Orla Jensen, Milk Bacteriology)
-]
-
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER III
-
-                                 CHEESE
-
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Students making cheese in the University cheese factory, Madison, Wis.
-]
-
-Most of the following pages on _Cheese_ were published in 1918 as a
-separate pamphlet to meet an urgent demand for brief directions along
-this line during the Food Conservation campaign. The copy has, however,
-been revised and new material has been added with the view of making
-this chapter more useful to those who desire to study in detail the
-manufacture of various fancy foreign types of cheese such as Edam,
-Swiss, Brick, Roquefort, etc., which are now made in this country in
-constantly increasing quantities.
-
-For more complete directions in cheese making students are referred to
-“A B C in Cheese Making” by J. H. Monrad, and other technical works.
-
-Cheese of a thousand different kinds is made, varying in properties and
-appearance from the solid, yet mellow and agreeable Cheddar cheese to
-the semi-soft, malodorous Limburger, the delicious, soft Neufchatel and
-Cream cheese, or the sweet Myseost of Norway. In India cheese was made
-centuries ago; to-day it is produced the world over, in the caves of the
-Swiss Alps and in the most modern and scientific American cheese
-factories and laboratories. Of these myriad types we can here describe
-only a few.
-
-Cheese may be classified into that made with rennet and that made
-without. Of cheese made with rennet some is what is called hard, some
-soft.
-
-The English and American _Cheddar_—the common _American cheese_—the
-_Dutch Gouda_ and _Edam_, the Swiss _Gruyere_, and the Italian
-_Parmesan_ are all hard cheese made with rennet. As examples of the soft
-varieties may be mentioned the French _Camembert_ and _Brie_, _Cream_
-and _Neufchatel_ cheese. In a class by themselves are such cheeses as
-the French _Roquefort_, the English _Stilton_, and the Italian
-_Gorgonzola_, their peculiar flavors being derived from molds implanted
-in the curd.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-When cheese is made without rennet, the milk is allowed to curdle by
-natural acidity or it is in some other way made acid. Among the
-varieties made by this method the common _Cottage_ cheese is the best
-known.
-
-For many years imitations of foreign varieties such as Swiss and
-Limburger have been made in Northern New York and Wisconsin. As a result
-of the war and the cutting off of foreign cheese imports, the State of
-Wisconsin has built up a large business in these fancy varieties. New
-types have lately been added, as the _Romano_, _Riggiano_, and
-_Myzethra_, which are of Italian and Greek origin. Some of these are
-made of whole milk, some of partly-skimmed milk, and others of the
-albumin of the whey.
-
-Let us briefly review the characteristic features in the making of the
-older types.
-
-
-                             CHEDDAR CHEESE
-
-For a hundred years or more this famous cheese has been made and
-marketed at the village of Cheddar near Bristol, England.
-
-In the middle of the nineteenth century a farmer in that neighborhood,
-Joseph Harding of Marksbury Vale, systematized the manufacture and it
-was his method that became the model for cheesemaking in America. In
-this country it was first made in Herkimer County, N.Y., where Harry
-Burrell not only made cheese for the home market, but also exported to
-England, and his son, David H. Burrell, at Little Falls later developed
-the machinery which became the standard for the American and Canadian
-cheese factories.
-
-The factory system by which cheese was made from milk brought together
-from several farms, originated near Rome, N.Y., and soon cheesemaking
-became an important industry throughout Central and Northern New York
-whence it spread into Pennsylvania, Ohio and the West, as well as to
-Canada. To-day Wisconsin makes more cheese than all the other states
-together and Canada largely supplies England with Cheddar cheese of
-excellent quality.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Joseph Harding, who systematized the making of Cheddar cheese in
-    England
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  David H. Burrell,
-  who introduced laborsaving machinery and supplies in the cheese
-    factories
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Jesse Williams, father of the American factory system
-]
-
-                          _The Factory System_
-
-The milk is delivered in the morning by the farmers at the factory and
-is weighed and strained through cheese-cloth into the cheese vat. When
-it is all in the vat it is warmed to a temperature of 86° F. by letting
-steam into the water surrounding the bottom and sides of the jacketed
-vat.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  A measuring glass and an accurate thermometer are indispensable
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  The Marschall rennet test
-]
-
-=Ripening.=—The milk should be slightly acid, not noticeably sour, yet
-sufficiently ripened for the proper fermentation to take place in the
-process that follows. The best cheesemakers regulate the ripening by
-adding a starter to the sweet milk and allowing the lactic acid bacteria
-to multiply in the milk until a _Rennet Test_[6] or _Acid Test_[7] shows
-that the desired degree of acidity has been reached. The starter may be
-sour whey or preferably prepared from sweet skim milk or whole milk with
-a commercial lactic acid culture as described in Chapter I under
-_Ferments_ and _Buttermilk_. From 1% to 2% starter is usually
-sufficient. An acidity of .18% to .20% or 2½ degrees on the Rennet Test
-is usually desired before the rennet is added.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Christian D. A. Hansen, inventor of commercial rennet extract
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Blowing up the rennets to dry them
-]
-
-=Adding Color and Rennet.=[8]—If the cheese is to be colored, from 1 to
-2 ounces of liquid cheese color (Annatto dissolved in an alkali) per
-1,000 lbs. of milk is now added and thoroughly mixed into the milk which
-is then set with rennet. Three ounces of a standard rennet extract to
-1,000 lbs. of milk is usually sufficient. Enough should be used so that
-the milk will show beginning coagulation in 10 to 15 minutes and be
-ready to cut in 30 to 40 minutes.
-
-The extract should be diluted with ten times as much water and is then
-poured into the milk under vigorous stirring so as to be thoroughly
-distributed and incorporated in the whole mass.
-
-Owing to the scarcity of the raw material for rennet extract during the
-war, pepsin extracted from hogs’ stomachs has been substituted in many
-factories and is used either in dry form or as a liquid extract instead
-of rennet extract.
-
-With pepsin as the coagulant it is necessary to ripen the milk somewhat
-further than if rennet is used, in fact to the danger-point where a
-little more acidity is apt to do harm and produce a dry and crumbly
-cheese and loss of butter-fat in the whey. Most cheesemakers therefore
-prefer rennet when they can get it.
-
-The rennet having been added, the milk is left undisturbed until a firm
-curd has been formed. When the curd breaks or splits sharply before the
-finger pushed slowly through it, it is ready to be “cut.”
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Curd knives
-]
-
-=Cutting.=—Two sets of curd knives are used, each consisting of a metal
-frame in which tinned steel blades are hung, in one vertically and in
-the other horizontally. The vertical knife is first carried slowly
-through the curd lengthwise and crosswise; the horizontal set of blades
-is then moved carefully through the length of the vat. When the cutting
-is over, the entire mass should be in cubes about half an inch square.
-
-The whey that begins to separate out should be clear and yellow. Milky
-whey is a sign that the butter-fat is escaping in it; the curd has been
-broken up too violently. In curdling, the casein encases the butter-fat
-and the object of the breaking up of the curd in the vat is to expel the
-whey but retain the fat in the cheese.
-
-=“Cooking” the Curd.=—Gentle heat is now applied to raise the
-temperature gradually to 98° or 100° in the course of about 30 minutes.
-Meanwhile the small pieces of curd are kept floating in the whey by
-gentle stirring with a rake and the hands, and are not allowed to pack
-at the bottom of the vat. The heating is easily regulated by opening the
-steam valve little by little. Through the “cooking” the pieces of curd
-shrink to some extent and are hardened so that they will gradually stand
-livelier stirring without losing butter-fat. After the cooking the curd
-is left for an hour or so in the whey for a slight acidity to develop
-and it is then shoved toward the sides of the vat and the whey is
-drained off. Here again the “Acid Test” may assist in determining when
-the whey should be drawn.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Cutting the curd
-]
-
-=Cheddaring or Matting.=—After thorough draining, the curd is packed
-together in the bottom of the vat or on a “sink” provided with a false
-bottom covered with cheese-cloth. After fermenting for 10 or 15 minutes
-it is cut into large pieces which are again packed together for further
-matting. The exact condition to be attained can be determined only by
-experience.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  “Cheddaring” or “Matting” the curd
-]
-
-A simple test, the “Hot Iron Test,” may, however, help the cheesemaker
-to judge of this point. A handful of curd squeezed together and touched
-to a hot steam pipe or an iron rod heated almost red-hot in the fire
-under the boiler, and slowly withdrawn, will leave threads sticking to
-the iron. Depending upon the maturity of the curd, the threads will
-break at a length of from ½ to 2 inches. Usually fermentation is
-considered sufficient when threads 1½ inches long are formed by this
-test.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Curd mill
-]
-
-=Salting.=—The matting is then interrupted by breaking up and salting
-the curd. This can be done by hand or by a curd-mill which cuts or
-breaks up the curd and permits a thorough mixing in of the salt. Two or
-three pounds of salt to one hundred pounds of curd, or the curd from
-1,000 lbs. of milk, is the usual ratio.
-
-=Pressing.=—Stirring and cooling the salted curd to about 80° F. makes
-it ready for packing into the hoops in which it is to be pressed. The
-hoop is usually a cylinder of heavy tin with a “follower” of wood on
-which the pressure is applied. Before the curd is put in, the hoop is
-lined with cheese-cloth which remains on the cheese, when it is taken
-out. The press mostly used in the factory is the continuous pressure
-“gang-press” in which a number of cheeses can be pressed at the same
-time.
-
-=Curing.=—After 18 hours’ pressure the cheese is taken out of the press
-and out of the hoop, weighed and placed on a shelf or table in the
-curing room. For the first week or ten days it is kept at a temperature
-of about 70°, later the cheese is removed to a cooler room and possibly
-placed in cold storage. Usually it is paraffined to prevent too much
-drying and cracking of the rind.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Filling the curd into the hoops
-]
-
-To cure a first-class Cheddar cheese takes from three to six months, but
-most of the American cheese is made to cure much more quickly and is
-eaten two to four months old. Indeed, it is generally shipped from the
-factory eight to ten days old and whatever further curing it gets is in
-the warehouse of the commissionman or in the grocery store.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  The Gang press
-]
-
-=Form, Size and Packing.=—The old style American cheese is cylindrical,
-about 14 inches in diameter, and varying in depth to weigh between 60
-and 80 pounds. Various other forms are now often made, square and long
-or in fancy shapes, such as a ball or a pineapple. Aside from such
-freaks, which have never become very popular, other deviations from the
-large, standard, American Cheddar, are also made to a considerable
-extent. People who have visited the beautiful National Dairy Shows held
-in turn in Chicago, Springfield, Mass., and Columbus, O., the National
-Milk and Dairy Farm Expositions of New York City, the Ontario Provincial
-Fair held each year at Toronto, or the annual State Fairs in New York,
-Wisconsin, Michigan and other cheesemaking sections will have in mind
-first the prominent exhibits of the regular Cheddar, showing a
-uniformity in texture, form and taste that is really remarkable. But one
-will also admire the variety of other forms. There are the _Flats_ or
-_Twins_, packed two in a box and weighing together the same as one
-_American_; the _Young Americas_ packed four in a box; the _Longhorns_
-of six to eight inches in diameter; others made like a loaf of bread and
-creased so that a pound or two may be cut off fairly accurately, etc.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Taking the cheese out of the press
-]
-
-The _Giant Cheeses_, weighing five to six tons, occasionally exhibited
-and cut up at World Fairs and on similar occasions are, like the
-pineapple cheese, a curiosity rather than an industrial product.
-
-One of the best forms, in the writer’s opinion, is the small 5-lb.
-cheese, proportioned exactly like the large American. This makes a
-suitable size for an average family, the members of which have learned
-to appreciate a good cheese. If it is made smaller, too much is lost in
-the rind; if larger it gets too old before it can be consumed by one
-family.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Curing room
-]
-
-The larger cheeses are usually packed in neat, snug-fitting elm-wood
-boxes, with thin “Scale Boards” on the top and bottom of the cheese, the
-smaller ones in paraffined pressed pulp or pasteboard boxes.
-
-=Cleaning the Vats and Utensils.=—Like every other place where milk and
-its products are handled, the cheese factory must be kept scrupulously
-clean. Vats and utensils should be rinsed first with cold or lukewarm
-water or whey, then scrubbed with boiling hot water and if necessary
-with soda, soap, or washing powder. The surroundings should be kept neat
-and attractive, and the cheesemaker must see that the transportation
-cans are kept clean by the farmers and the milk delivered in good
-condition.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Cheese box
-]
-
-=Yield.=—The yield is around 10% of the milk. To make a pound of fresh
-cheese takes from nine to eleven pounds of milk. In curing, a part of
-the weight is lost by evaporation, but this loss is reduced to a minimum
-by paraffining.
-
-In some localities an increased yield is obtained by washing the curd
-and making it absorb all the water it can hold. The process is not
-commendable and while it may sell to some extent, in certain markets
-where a soft, fresh cheese is liked, “washed” or “soaked” curd cheese
-can never compare favorably in quality with a well-made, firm Cheddar
-cheese that is mellowed down by long-time curing to a consistency so it
-will fairly melt in your mouth.
-
-=Composition.=—The American cheese contains almost all the casein and
-the butter-fat of the milk, besides such portions of the milk-albumin,
-milk-sugar, and mineral matter as are held in the water or whey which is
-retained in the cheese. In round figures average American cheese
-contains equal parts of casein, butter-fat and water, 30 to 35% of each.
-In order to protect the honest maker and the consumer and prevent
-“soaking” of the curd to an extent that may be considered fraudulent,
-the dairy laws of the State of New York limit the contents of water
-permissible to 40% and 42% respectively for certain classes of cheese.
-
-=Qualities.=—A good Cheddar cheese should be mellow, yet solid, without
-holes, and of an agreeable taste, neither sharp nor bitter. Cheese can
-be made of skim milk, but it is hardly palatable. In the fall of the
-year, when the average milk is rich in butter-fat, 1% or 2% butter-fat
-may be taken from the milk and the resulting partly-skimmed milk will
-still make a fairly good cheese, hardly distinguishable from full cream
-cheese. Under the laws of the State of New York it must, however, be
-marked “Skim Milk Cheese.”
-
-                   Cheese Made from Pasteurized Milk
-
-From time to time attempts have been made to make Cheddar cheese from
-pasteurized milk. If the milk is heated to 145° only, and held for 30
-minutes at such temperature, its property to form a firm curd with
-rennet is not destroyed and it will make a fine cheese, but if it is
-pasteurized at a higher temperature it will not curdle firmly until it
-is ripened or otherwise brought back to the condition required for
-satisfactory action of the rennet ferment. Thorough ripening with a pure
-culture starter will do it, or an addition of muriatic acid will
-accomplish the same in a shorter time, but care must be taken not to use
-too much, which would make the cheese dry and crumbly. Dr. J. L. Sammis
-and A. T. Bruhn of the Wisconsin Dairy School worked out the problem and
-systematized a process which is described in Bulletin 165 of the U. S.
-Department of Agriculture and by which it is claimed a first-class
-cheese can be made regularly from thoroughly pasteurized milk.
-
-                   Making Cheddar Cheese on the Farm
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  American outfit for farm cheese making
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Plain wooden vat and curd mill
-]
-
-It takes quite a little experience to make a good Cheddar cheese and,
-unless one has the time and opportunity to study it and make it an
-every-day practice, it is not as a rule advisable to attempt making
-Cheddar cheese in the home from the milk of one or a few cows.
-
-The amateur will usually find it easier to make Neufchatel or Cream or
-Cottage cheese for home use or for the home market.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Danish kettle and cheese vat
-]
-
-If Cheddar cheese is to be made regularly it is best to get an outfit
-consisting of a small boiler and a jacketed vat, although cheese may be
-made in a plain wooden tub or any other convenient vessel. The double
-bottomed vat generally used in American as well as in Danish dairies
-facilitates both the heating of the milk before setting and the
-“cooking” of the curd in the whey after cutting. Either low pressure
-steam, or—better—water heated by steam, is introduced in the space
-between the outer, wooden bottom and the inner, tinned steel or copper
-bottom. If it is cool the milk should be warmed to 86° F. In the summer
-it may be warm enough as it comes in, fresh from the cow. If not, heat
-it by steam or by setting it in a “shot-gun” can in another vessel of
-hot water, stirring frequently, until the thermometer shows 86°. It may
-be well to add a little buttermilk or sour whey from the preceding day,
-or a pure culture starter made with Buttermilk Tablets, not to exceed 1%
-or 2%.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Cutting the curd
-]
-
-If it is desired to make colored cheese add a teaspoonful of liquid
-cheese color, or ½ cheese color tablet dissolved in warm water, to 100
-pounds of milk, more or less according to season and the shade of color
-desired in the cheese.
-
-Next add the rennet. Where cheese is made from less than 500 lbs. of
-milk Rennet Tablets are handy, one tablet to 80 or 100 lbs. For less
-than 50 lbs. of milk, Junket Tablets may be used, one to a gallon.
-Dissolve the tablet, or tablets, or fraction of a tablet, as the case
-may be, in _cold_ water and stir the solution well into the milk, making
-sure of thorough mixing. Let stand covered for half an hour until a firm
-curd is formed. Cut or break the curd very carefully with a big knife or
-spoon or home-made fork with wires across the prongs, imitating as far
-as possible the operation with curd knives in the factory.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Taking the temperature of the milk in a shot-gun can
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Curd fork
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Mold or “Hoop”
-]
-
-“Cook” the curd as in factory cheesemaking. If steam is not available,
-allow the curd to settle and dip off some of the whey which is then
-heated and poured back on the curd so as to raise the temperature of the
-whole mass about 2 degrees. Repeat this several times, gradually raising
-the temperature to 100°, a few degrees at a time.
-
-Keep the curd gently stirred up and floating in the whey and do not
-allow it to lie on the bottom of the vat long enough to pack firmly
-together, stirring once in a while until by smell and taste (if not also
-by acid or hot iron tests) it appears to be sufficiently fermented for
-the whey to be drawn, a condition that can only be learned by
-experience. This will be about two or three hours from the time the
-rennet is added.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Diagram of lever press
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Combined screw and lever press
-]
-
-Draw the whey and press more out of the curd with the hands. Let the
-curd mat and break it up alternately several times; finally crumble and
-pulverize it and keep it stirred with the hands, adding salt at the rate
-of three to four ounces to the curd from 100 lbs. of milk and continuing
-the stirring until the curd is cooled down to below 80°, when it should
-be packed into the hoop and put to press. This salting and cooling may
-take another hour. The hoop may be made of wood or heavy tin of any size
-desired, with a loose follower of wood. The sides and bottom should be
-perforated to allow the whey to escape. Or it may be a cylinder without
-top or bottom, placed on a corrugated piece of board. Line the hoop with
-cheese-cloth before putting in the curd.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Upright factory and dairy cheese press
-]
-
-For pressing, a home-made lever-press, as outlined in the diagram, may
-be made of a plank or bar, one end of which (_C_), is stuck under a
-piece of a board nailed on the wall while at the other end a weight
-(_K_) is applied which may be moved in and out to regulate the pressure.
-The hoop is placed under the plank at the fulcrum (_K__{1}) near the
-wall. If a compound lever-press or a screw-press is available it is
-better. It is important that the pressure is applied straight so as to
-make the cheese even and not one side lower than the other. Begin with
-light pressure and increase it gradually every hour until at night the
-full pressure is applied. After an hour take the cheese out and turn it
-in the hoop, then return it to the press and at night apply full
-pressure. The next morning take it out and weigh it and place it on the
-shelf to cure in a room of moderate temperature, turning it every day.
-After a couple of weeks it may be removed to a cool cellar and rubbed
-with grease. In two to three months it should be sufficiently matured
-for consumption.
-
-
-              OTHER TYPES OF HARD CHEESE MADE WITH RENNET
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  A variety of domestic and foreign cheese made at the dairy school of
-    the University of Wisconsin
-]
-
-In the manufacture of the Dutch Gouda, the Danish Export, and other
-similar types, the “cooking” and matting of the curd, characteristic of
-the English and American Cheddar, are more or less omitted. Otherwise
-the process and the result are not greatly different. They are all
-“hard” or solid cheese of the same class, though there are hundreds of
-varieties in different localities, each with some peculiarity of its
-own.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Gouda cheese
-]
-
-=Gouda Cheese.=—The _Gouda_, like the _Danish Export_ cheese, is made
-from whole or partly-skimmed milk which is set with rennet at 90° F. and
-is coagulated, ready for cutting, in fifteen to twenty minutes. The curd
-is broken with the “lyre,” so called, a frame on which piano wires are
-suspended. The curd is but slightly “cooked” and the whey is drawn while
-still sweet. After being pressed with the hands in the vat to squeeze
-out the whey the curd, still quite warm, is put into wooden molds and
-worked and squeezed in them with the hands for half an hour to eliminate
-more whey, when the mold is placed in a regular press for 12 to 18
-hours. To salt it the cheese is placed in a strong brine where it
-remains for several days. It is then put on the shelf in the curing room
-where it is turned and rubbed daily and in four to six weeks it is
-marketed. The cheese is about 10 inches in diameter by 4 to 5 inches
-high.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  The Lyre
-]
-
-=Edam Cheese.=—The ball-shaped red _Edam_ is also made in Holland by a
-similar method to that of the Gouda.
-
-Fresh milk is set at from 90° to 93° F. in summer and up to 97° in
-winter,—colored to a rather high yellow with Annatto. Add sufficient
-rennet to coagulate the milk in 8 to 15 minutes. Cut curd carefully with
-the “lyre” and break with fork into very fine pieces, as small peas.
-Leave to settle for 3 to 4 minutes, putting cover on the vat if the
-temperature in the room is below 60°. When settled, the curd is gently
-pushed into a heap which takes 5 to 6 minutes and the whey is removed
-with a dipper. Weight is applied for 5 minutes and the tub or vat is
-tipped so the whey will drain off while the curd is held back with the
-dipper. This pressing is repeated twice more for 4 and 3 minutes
-respectively.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Curing room in a Gouda cheese factory
-]
-
-The curd should now be elastic and firm and show a temperature, in
-winter of at least 83°, in summer at most 90°. If necessary the
-temperature is regulated by pouring hot whey (not exceeding 104°) or
-cold water over the curd.
-
-The mold is then placed in the vat and two handfuls of curd put in which
-is squeezed and worked thoroughly with the hands. More curd is added and
-worked in the same way and this is repeated until the mold is full with
-a large top on, which is pressed with the hands for 4 or 5 minutes,
-turning the cheese 3 or 4 times and opening the drain holes if plugged
-up. Some makers sprinkle a teaspoonful of fine salt in the bottom of the
-mold, but in warm weather it is better to work in a quarter of an ounce
-of salt. This work must be done quickly so the curd will not cool.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Mold for Edam cheese
-]
-
-When thus formed the cheese is dipped for 1 or 2 minutes in fresh whey
-heated to 126° (in winter 131°) and pressed with the hands in the mold
-for another 2 minutes when it is carefully wiped off by rolling on a
-fine cloth to remove the last drop of whey. The cheese is then wrapped
-in a fine cloth, placed in the mold and put to press, in the Spring for
-5 to 7 hours, later in the year for 12 hours. The cloth is now removed
-and the cheese is put in a larger mold which is placed in a water-tight
-salting box provided with a cover and a drain-hole in one end. The first
-day a pinch of salt is put on the top of the cheese and the next the
-whole cheese is rolled in damp salt, turned and put back in the mold, a
-liberal quantity of salt being placed on the top. This is repeated every
-day until the cheese from being soft and elastic becomes hard which as a
-rule takes 8 to 10 days for a 4 lb. and 12 days for a 10-12 lb. cheese.
-Finally the cheese is left a few hours in the brine collected in the
-box, washed, wiped and placed on the shelf in the curing room.
-
-The curing room should be light and well ventilated, never above 72° nor
-below 45°. Windows must not be opened to admit dry wind or moist air. If
-too dry the cheese will crack and if too moist it will be covered with
-deleterious yellowish red fungi. The cheese is turned daily the first
-month, later every other day or twice a week. When 24 to 30 days old the
-cheese is soaked for one hour in water of 68 to 77°, washed with a
-brush, dried for 20 to 40 minutes in the sun and returned to the shelf.
-This is repeated two weeks later and then the cheese is painted with
-linseed oil and left on the shelf until shortly before shipping when it
-is scraped with a sharp knife and painted according to the demand of the
-particular market for which it is prepared; yellowish with Annatto for
-England and Spain, red with Turnsole for other countries. When dry it is
-rubbed with a little butter and red color.
-
-=Swiss Cheese.=—The Swiss Gruyere or Emmenthal also belongs to this
-class. It is characterized by its form and size, being large, round and
-flat, weighing 100 to 140 lbs. or more, and by the large holes which are
-wanted in Swiss, but not tolerated in American or Dutch cheese. It was
-formerly supposed that first-class Swiss cheese could only be made in
-the Alps, but very good imitations have long been made in Northern New
-York and in Wisconsin. Besides in the usual large round form, the same
-as the genuine imported Emmenthaler, American Swiss or “Switzer” is also
-made in _blocks_, six inches square and twenty inches long, weighing 25
-to 30 lbs.
-
-Until lately Swiss cheese has been made in the old-fashioned way, the
-factory and tools being of the simplest description. The milk was heated
-in a copper cauldron hanging on a crane, enabling the cheesemaker to
-swing it on or off the fireplace. Nowadays the kettle is usually
-jacketed and heated with steam. The round form is still preferred to the
-American cheese vat, however, as it adapts itself better to the peculiar
-method of handling the curd.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Swiss cheese
-]
-
-The milk is set with rennet at a temperature of 90° F. in summer and 95°
-in winter, sufficient rennet being used to make a firm curd in thirty to
-forty minutes. But very little color is added. The curd is cut with a
-long, sharp wooden knife, the “cheese sword,” first one way into sheets,
-then, as soon as the cuts stand clear, beginning to expel the whey,
-crossways, into vertical sticks, two inches square.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Scoop
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Cheese sword
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Cutting the curd with the scoop
-]
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Tools for stirring the curd
-]
-
-No horizontal knife is used, but a few minutes after the last vertical
-cutting the curd is further broken by the “scoop,” a wooden spoon or
-ladle about eight inches long, thirteen inches wide, one and one-half
-inches deep, and provided with a short handle. Standing at one side of
-the kettle, the cheesemaker scoops off a layer from the top and, drawing
-the scoop towards himself, drops the pieces of curd close to the side of
-the kettle. This movement is repeated, at first slowly, then faster, and
-soon the whole mass of curd is moving, the pieces cut off going down
-along the side of the kettle and the rest of the sticks sliding upward
-along the other side, to be attacked by the scoop as soon as they come
-to the top. All the curd having been cut into square pieces, it is
-further broken by the stirrer, a stick at the lower end of which a few
-cross sticks or wings of brass wire are fixed, the whole mass being kept
-in constant motion.
-
-=Cooking the Curd.=—After breaking up the curd to the size of peas or
-beans, the stirring is discontinued for about ten minutes, when it is
-begun again and the kettle is turned over the fire, or steam is applied,
-to heat the curd to 140° under constant stirring which is continued for
-45 to 60 minutes after this temperature has been reached. The condition
-of the curd is judged by squeezing a handful and noticing its elasticity
-and consistency. It is important to stop stirring at the right moment.
-More whey is expelled in making Swiss cheese than for Cheddar cheese.
-
-The cooking and agitating having been finished, the mass, which now
-consists of grains the size of wheat, is once more stirred up with such
-force as to make it form a funnel at the center and it is then left at
-rest for five to ten minutes.
-
-The curd, forming a rather solid cake at the bottom of the kettle, is
-now lifted out without being broken. One end of a large piece of cloth
-is folded around a flexible rod. Bending over the kettle the maker takes
-hold of both ends of the rod and gathering the other end of the cloth
-between his teeth, pushes the rod down along the farther side of the
-kettle, letting it follow the bottom towards himself until the whole
-mass of curd is gathered in the cloth, when it is lifted out of the
-kettle and placed in the hoop on the press table. The hoop can be
-enlarged or diminished to take care of a varying amount of curd which is
-put into it in the same solid cake as formed in the kettle without being
-broken. Pressure is applied, at first, gently, later heavier and after
-half an hour the cheese is taken out, turned and provided with fresh
-bandage, put back into press and left till the next day.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  In Swiss cheese making the curd is lifted out of the vat with a strong
-    cloth
-]
-
-Curing and Salting.—The cheese is first placed in a curing room above
-ground and heated in winter. After a few weeks it is removed to the
-cellar. Sometimes three to five cheese are piled one on the top of the
-other for a few days with a few handfuls of salt between them. The
-salting proper is done by rubbing and brushing dry salt and the brine
-formed from same into the cheese,—altogether 4 to 5 lbs. of salt to 100
-lbs. of cheese. Every day it is rubbed with a dry rag and the cheese is
-turned and salted on the other side until the salt is thoroughly
-incorporated.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Swiss cheese press
-]
-
-The cheese is cured for at least 100 days in the factory and is usually
-stored for another three to six months by the dealer before it is ready
-for the consumer.
-
-=Roquefort.=—The French _Roquefort_ is inoculated with a mold from stale
-bread which spreads through the cheese and produces the peculiar flavor
-of this type. It is made from sheep’s milk and was formerly cured in
-cool subterranean caverns, but now in elaborate curing houses. In this
-country imitation Roquefort is made of cow’s milk and cured in cold
-storage.
-
-It should be remembered, however, that sheep’s milk is very rich in fat
-and that a rich Roquefort that will compare favorably with the genuine
-cannot be made from cow’s milk without an addition of cream if sheep’s
-or goat’s milk is not available. In France a small addition of cow’s
-milk to the sheep’s milk—not to exceed 10%—is often used.
-
-Around Roquefort a milk ewe produces on an average 135 lbs. of milk a
-year, which makes up to 35 lbs. of cheese.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Milking the ewes at Roquefort, France (G. Ellbrecht)
-]
-
-The milk is set at about 80° with rennet sufficient to coagulate it in
-1½ to 2 hours. To cut or break and stir the curd, tools similar to those
-used in the manufacture of Dutch cheese are employed and stirring is
-continued until the pieces of curd are about the size of peas when the
-whey is dipped off and the curd is further broken with the hand and
-placed on a cloth to drain. In fifteen minutes it is ready to be put
-into the hoops which are either of glazed stoneware or perforated tin, 8
-inches in diameter by 4 in. high.
-
-Ground stale, moldy bread is sprinkled in the curd as it is put into the
-hoop, at the rate of 1 part of bread to 10,000 parts of curd. This moldy
-bread is prepared from 2 parts of wheat flour and 1 part of rye flour
-leavened with sour yeast and vinegar and baked hard. The loaf is placed
-in a dark, moist cellar to mold. In six weeks it is penetrated with mold
-when it is dried at 86° and pulverized, forming the powder used for
-inoculation into the cheese-curd.
-
-When the hoops are filled they are placed in large wooden boxes at a
-temperature of 65° to 70° for the whey to drain off. The first few days
-the cheese is turned three times a day, later once a day, and when five
-days old it is brought into the curing room where it remains until it is
-firm enough to be shipped to the large cold storage establishments,
-where it is taken care of until ready for the general market.
-
-In the “caves” a high degree of moisture, a low temperature—40° to
-50°—and pure air are essential conditions.
-
-The cheese is first _salted_ by being rubbed repeatedly with salt on all
-sides. The slime forming on the surface is brushed or scraped off so as
-not to prevent the admission of air, which is essential to the curing.
-In order to further facilitate the penetration with air the cheese is
-now _pricked_ with numerous needles by means of a machine and placed on
-the shelf in the cave where the proper moisture and temperature are
-maintained.
-
-Various fermentations are now developing, one after another, regulated
-by scraping, ventilation, etc., until in six to twelve weeks the cheese
-is ready for the market and is packed for shipment in paper or in
-tinfoil and in wicker baskets or airtight boxes, according to
-destination,—for home consumption or for export.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Curing room in a Roquefort cheese factory (G. Ellbrecht)
-]
-
-=Parmesan Cheese= is an Italian cheese made mostly in the Valley of the
-River Po and named from the City of Parma. It is produced from
-partly-skimmed milk and is allowed to become hard and dry, being used
-grated with macaroni.
-
-The milk is set with rennet at a comparatively high temperature, about
-95° F., and when it is firmly curdled it is broken up and stirred rather
-vigorously, which makes the curd fine and dry. Color is now
-added—powdered _Saffron_—at the rate of 0.5 gram to 100 kg. milk. The
-curd is cooked slowly under constant stirring to a temperature up
-towards 100° when the whey should be perceptibly acid.
-
-The curd is then allowed to settle in the round kettle and when fairly
-firm it is lifted up in a cloth, the same as in Swiss cheesemaking. The
-mold is also much the same as the Swiss and the curd is but slightly
-pressed. In the course of the day the cheese is turned once or twice and
-put into fresh cloth. The next day it is put into the curing room when
-it is rubbed with salt. In a few months the cheese is cured and is then
-scraped and polished with linseed oil. Sometimes it is kept in storage
-two or three years in a dark room at a temperature of 63° F. The
-composition averages: 32% water, 21% fat, 41% nitrogenous matters and 6%
-ash.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Caccio Cavallo
-]
-
-=Caccio Cavallo= is made in Southern Italy of a form almost like a
-beetroot. The milk is set with rennet at about 95° F. and after the curd
-has been broken up the whey is dipped off and heated to boiling when it
-is poured back on the curd. The mass is then allowed to ferment eight to
-fourteen hours according to the temperature of the air. The quality of
-the cheese depends largely on this fermentation. The fermented curd is
-cut into pieces and submerged in boiling water and is then kneaded and
-formed into the desired shape.
-
-After lying in cold water for two hours and in brine for thirty hours it
-is dried and smoked until it attains a fine golden color. It is made in
-various sizes, from 5 to 20 pounds, and the yield is said to vary from
-10% to 16% of the milk. Caccio Cavallo is eaten on bread as well as with
-macaroni and is much relished by the Italians.
-
-=Limburger=, =Brick=, =Munster= and other similar semi-soft cheese of
-the proverbial strong flavor, originated in Belgium and Bavaria, but are
-now largely made in Northern New York and Wisconsin as well.
-
-For Limburger the milk is not ripened as for Cheddar but is set with
-rennet quite sweet at a temperature of about 90°; the curd is cut rather
-soft, care being taken, however, not to lose butter-fat. The curd is but
-slightly “cooked,” to a temperature not to exceed 96°, and is not salted
-in the vat but is dipped out into perforated wooden boxes or molds about
-5 inches square and left to drain without pressure. The cheese are
-placed edgeways like bricks on shelves and are rubbed with salt and
-turned every day until cured. During the curing process moisture exudes
-and a fermentation takes place which develops the well-known “Limburger”
-flavor. After eight or ten weeks the cheese is packed in paper and
-tinfoil and is ready for the market.
-
-=Brick= cheese is something between a Cheddar and a Limburger, of a
-milder flavor than either, not as hard as the former but firmer than the
-latter.
-
-The milk is slightly ripened and is set with rennet at 86° so as to
-coagulate in 20 minutes. The curd is “cooked” to 110° or more and is not
-allowed to “mat” as for Cheddar cheese, but is dipped out of the vat
-before much acidity has developed, into the molds, which are rectangular
-boxes without top or bottom placed on a draining table where the whey
-runs off.
-
-The mold is usually 5 inches wide, 8 inches deep and 10 inches long.
-When it is filled with curd a follower is put on the top and a slight
-weight, a couple of bricks, on the follower. The cheese is turned a few
-times and the next day it is taken out of the mold and placed on the
-salting table. The salting is done by rubbing the cheese on all sides
-with salt which penetrates the curd and draws out moisture. This is
-repeated for 3 days and the cheese is then left to cure, being washed
-and wiped off every week to prevent molding.
-
-Brick cheese is shipped one or two months old. It is wrapped in paper
-and packed twenty in a box.
-
-=Munster Cheese= is very much the same as Brick except for the form, it
-being round, molded in a perforated tin hoop instead of the box used for
-Limburger and Brick.
-
-
-                           SOFT RENNET CHEESE
-
-The soft cheese made with rennet may be classified as _fresh_ and
-_cured_.
-
-=Neufchatel.=—The fresh soft cheese of the _Neufchatel_ or _Cream
-Cheese_ type is easily made and may be produced in any house from a
-small quantity of milk. The milk is set at a comparatively low
-temperature, usually 72° F., with very little rennet, just enough to
-coagulate the milk in about eighteen hours. During that time a slight
-acidity develops in the milk. When it is firmly curdled it is carefully
-dipped on to cheese-cloth suspended on a frame, or into cotton bags
-where it drains overnight.
-
-To make the cheese quickly a starter is sometimes used and more rennet
-employed. The milk is heated to 80° F., 25% starter and 7½ c.c. of
-rennet extract, or one rennet tablet per hundred pounds of milk, are
-added and the milk curdles in about 30 minutes.
-
-After draining for a few hours the curd is gently pressed for a similar
-time. When the whey is fairly well expelled, the curd is kneaded or run
-through a meat cutter with a little salt, not more than 2½ oz. to 10
-lbs. of curd. The outfit and the manipulation is essentially the same as
-described under Cottage cheese.
-
-A superior quality is obtained by pasteurizing the milk and if that is
-done a pure culture starter should always be used. If the slow setting
-method is used a very small amount of starter, say ½%, is sufficient,
-but when the quick process is employed 10% to 25% may be added.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Molding Neufchatel cheese
-]
-
-To give it a good appearance for market, the cheese is molded in little
-tin molds very much like a quarter-pound baking powder can with open
-ends. The cylindrical roll of cheese is wrapped in parchment paper and
-tinfoil and is immediately ready for consumption. In an ice box it will
-keep for a week or so. Neufchatel cheese may be made from whole milk or
-partly-skimmed milk. The yield is from 10 to 20 lbs. out of 100 lbs. of
-milk.
-
-=Cream Cheese= is usually made in the same way. A mixture of cream and
-milk containing about 10% butter-fat is used, though sometimes the cream
-is not added until the time of salting. The mold is square, 2½” × 1½” ×
-2” deep. These soft kinds of cheese are often mixed with chopped
-peppers, olives or nuts and make excellent sandwiches.
-
-=Cured Soft Cheese.=—For _Cream_ or _Neufchatel_ cheese, made for
-curing, the curd is salted more than for fresh cheese, or the molded
-cheese is rolled in salt. For a week or two it is placed in a curing
-room on straw mats or the like where it ferments slightly before being
-wrapped and packed for shipment.
-
-=French Soft Cheese.=—The many forms of French soft cheese as
-represented by the _Brie_, the _Camembert_, etc., are subjected to
-special fermentations which give to each its peculiar flavor. Attempts
-have been made to use pure cultures of the bacteria active in such
-fermentations and so reduce the art of cheesemaking to a more scientific
-process. But it has been found that any desired kind of cheese cannot be
-made simply by adding a culture of this or that bacterium to pasteurized
-milk. Of vastly greater importance for the development of the proper
-bacteria and flavor is the handling of the milk and the curd by the
-experienced cheesemaker. Inoculation with a pure culture alone does not
-make the special cheese wanted.
-
-
-                       CHEESE MADE WITHOUT RENNET
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Mono-service jar
-]
-
-=Cottage Cheese.=—Of the sour milk types the common _Cottage Cheese_ is
-the best known. It is made from skim milk which in a warm room will
-curdle when sour, whether rennet and a starter are used or not. The
-thick sour milk is heated to anywhere between 100° and 120° and dipped
-into bags of cheese-cloth hung up for draining. The next day light
-pressure is applied for 12 to 24 hours, when the curd is kneaded,
-slightly salted, formed into balls and wrapped in parchment paper or
-packed into jars. For this purpose paraffined paper jars are very
-practical.
-
-The more the curd is heated in the whey the drier will be the cheese.
-Often it is improved by allowing the curd to become rather dry and then
-working new milk or a little cream into it, according to the use to
-which it is to be put—whether it is for bakers’ stock or for the table.
-
-Simple directions for making Cottage cheese are given in Farmers’
-Bulletin 850 and A. I. 17, issued by the United States Department of
-Agriculture from which we reprint the following and copy the
-accompanying illustrations:
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Pouring the curdled milk on cloth to drain
-]
-
-“One gallon of skim milk will make about 1½ pounds of cheese. If the
-milk is sweet it should be placed in a pan and allowed to remain in a
-clean warm place at a temperature of about 75° F., until it clabbers.
-The clabbered milk should have a clean, sour flavor. Ordinarily this
-will take about 30 hours, but when it is desirable to hasten the process
-a small quantity of clean-flavored sour milk may be mixed with the sweet
-milk.
-
-“As soon as the milk has thickened or firmly clabbered it should be cut
-into pieces 2 inches square, after which the curd should be stirred
-thoroughly with a spoon. Place the pan of broken curd in a vessel of hot
-water so as to raise the temperature to 100° F. Cook at that temperature
-for about 30 minutes, during which time stir gently with a spoon for 1
-minute at 5-minute intervals.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Lifting the cloth back and forth to facilitate draining
-]
-
-“At the conclusion of the heating, pour the curd and whey into a small
-cheese-cloth bag (a clean salt bag will do nicely) and hang the bag in a
-fruit-strainer rack to drain, or the curd may be poured into a colander
-or a strainer over which a piece of cheese-cloth has been laid. After 5
-or 10 minutes work the curd toward the center with a spoon. Raising and
-lowering the ends of the cloth helps to make the whey drain faster. To
-complete the draining tie the end of the bag together and hang it up.
-Since there is some danger that the curd will become too dry, draining
-should stop when the whey ceases to flow in a steady stream.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Pressing the curd
-]
-
-“The curd is then emptied from the bag and worked with a spoon or a
-butter paddle until it becomes fine in grain, smooth, and of the
-consistency of mashed potatoes. Sour or sweet cream may be added to
-increase the smoothness and palatability and improve the flavor. Then
-the cheese is salted according to taste, about one teaspoonful to a
-pound of curd.
-
-“Because of the ease with which the cheese can be made it is desirable
-to make it often so that it may be eaten fresh, although if it is kept
-cold it will not spoil for several days. If the cheese is not to be
-eaten promptly it should be stored in an earthenware or glass vessel
-rather than in one of tin or wood, and kept in a cold place.”
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Apparatus needed in making cottage cheese
-]
-
-=Making Cottage Cheese with Rennet.=—In the bulletin mentioned a method
-is also given for making the cheese with rennet or pepsin. Junket
-Tablets make a convenient form of rennet to be used for this purpose.
-
-The advantages claimed for this method are:
-
-1. A finer textured and more uniform cheese.
-
-2. The making requires less time and attention.
-
-3. Losses of fat in the whey are reduced.
-
-The process is the same as described above except that a solution of
-_Junket Tablets_ is added to the milk at the rate of one tablet to 100
-lbs. of milk. For less milk use a fraction of a tablet, or dissolve one
-tablet in ten tablespoonfuls of water and use one spoonful of the
-solution for each 10 lbs. of milk.
-
-If a starter is used the rennet solution is added immediately after the
-starter is put in; if no starter is used the milk is left for five or
-six hours at 80° F. to ripen before adding the rennet. The milk will
-curdle overnight.
-
-After draining for thirty minutes on cotton sheeting the ends of the
-cloth are tied together and a weight is placed on top to press the curd
-gently until the desired consistency is attained.
-
-Salt may be worked in at the rate of 2½ ounces to 10 lbs. of curd. If
-desired, add sweet or sour cream at the rate of ½ pint to 10 lbs. of
-curd or ¼ pint of cream to the product from 30 lbs. of milk.
-
-It will be seen that Cottage cheese made with rennet is really the same
-as Neufchatel cheese, the only difference being in the form and packing
-or wrapping of the finished cheese.
-
-=Snappy Cheese.=—By allowing the sour skim milk curd to ferment under
-careful regulation, a variety of sharp, snappy, more or less hard cheese
-can be made. Though there is no general demand for them, some kinds are
-quite popular in their own restricted localities. The Danish _Appetite
-cheese_ is only one of the many varieties which have as many names.
-
-=Club Cheese= and similar varieties are made by grinding up old dry
-cheese with a little butter and packing the product in jars or other
-attractive packages. American, Roquefort, or any other well-known type
-may be used as the stock for these cheeses. Everywhere they are
-favorites in dining cars and lunch rooms.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Milking the goat in Norway
-]
-
-=Whey Cheese.=—In Switzerland the so-called _Zieger cheese_ is made from
-sour whey, the albumin being coagulated by heat and, with whatever
-butter-fat there may be left in the whey, skimmed off the top. In Norway
-_Myseost_ (“Ost” is Norwegian for cheese) is made by boiling down whey
-almost to dryness. If goat milk is available to mix in, it improves the
-cheese. The main substance is sugar of milk and the cheese has a sweet,
-syrupy flavor.
-
-
-                               MILK SUGAR
-
-The by-product, sugar of milk, is produced by acidifying the whey,
-heating to boiling and neutralizing with lime until the albumin is
-coagulated. It is then filtered out and the clarified liquid is
-concentrated in vacuum. From the thick syrup the sugar is allowed to
-crystallize out, leaving the salts or mineral matters (milk-ash) in the
-remaining liquid. The use of milk-sugar is limited to medicinal purposes
-and for modifying milk for infants. The production is therefore not very
-extensive.
-
-
-                                 CASEIN
-
-In a number of creameries casein is produced from skim milk by
-precipitating it with an acid and drying and pulverizing the
-precipitate. Casein is widely used as a substitute for ivory, in
-billiard balls, buttons, etc. It is also used as glue, and as a binder
-in paints.
-
-
-                              MILK POWDER
-
-The production and use of dry milk has increased enormously during the
-last few years and the processes of manufacture have been improved
-well-nigh to perfection. There are several methods practiced, the most
-important being the following:
-
-The _Just-Hatmaker_, in which a large metal drum or cylinder revolves
-slowly in a tank of milk. The drum is heated by steam inside and, as it
-rolls out of the milk, the metal surface picks up a thin film of milk
-which quickly dries and is removed by a scraper.
-
-The _Eckenberg_ process employs vacuum evaporating pans, like those used
-for making condensed milk and maple syrup.
-
-The _Merrell-Soule_ Company’s method consists in driving a blast of hot
-air into a fine spray of milk, which at once reduces the milk to a fine
-powder.
-
-In the “_Economic_” process the milk is dried by hot air the same as in
-the Merrell-Soule method, but in dropping through a tower from a height
-of some 30 feet the milk meets several blasts of air of different
-temperatures. It is claimed that in this way alone rich milk and cream
-may be reduced to a powder without injury to, or change of, the original
-fat globules.
-
-=Skim Milk Powder.=—Beautiful skim milk powders are now made which
-dissolve perfectly in water. Containing, as they do, the extremely
-nourishing constituents of the fatless milk in a most palatable form,
-they can be used in baking and in many food products to great advantage.
-
-=Whole Milk Powder.=—Until recently dried whole milk was not produced of
-good keeping quality as the butter-fat had a tendency to become rancid
-before many months. But improvements are constantly being made and milk
-powders of every degree of richness bid fair to take the place of fresh
-milk on board ships and in other places where milk must be kept a long
-time before being used.
-
-In many new food preparations of value, milk powder is filling a
-long-felt want. Dissolved in 8 or 9 times as much water, milk powder
-makes a liquid almost identical with pasteurized fresh milk.
-
-It has already been mentioned under the chapter on “Cream” and under
-“Ice Cream” how skim milk powder and unsalted butter, _emulsified_ in a
-suitable amount of water or milk, make an excellent material for ice
-cream.
-
-
-                     CONDENSED AND EVAPORATED MILK
-
-Milk cannot be boiled down in a common open kettle or steam boiler
-without being scorched. Evaporating or condensing is therefore usually
-done in a vacuum pan at a low temperature. Condensed to one-third of its
-volume and excluded from the air by canning, milk will keep well for
-months, and has many uses as a substitute for fresh milk. Often sugar is
-added as a preservative, and where sugar would be added anyway, as in
-coffee, ice cream, etc., this is unobjectionable.
-
-For purposes where sugar is not wanted, unsweetened condensed or
-evaporated milk is on the market, so carefully made that the taste of
-the original milk is hardly changed at all by the process. When water is
-added in the proportion of two parts of water to one of the evaporated
-milk, the fluid obtained excels even that from milk powder in its
-resemblance to fresh milk.
-
-
-                                  WHEY
-
-Whey is a by-product in cheesemaking. Usually it is fed to hogs and
-especially together with grain or bran it makes an excellent food for
-them. But whey is also prepared for human food. In the hospital or in
-the home it serves as a substitute for milk when a mild diet of easily
-digested food is temporarily required for a weak stomach. For such
-purposes it must not be allowed to become acid as in cheesemaking, but
-should be prepared as the chief product from sweet new milk or freshly
-separated skim milk. The sweet milk is set with rennet—one Junket
-Tablet, dissolved in cold water, to a quart of milk—at a temperature of
-90° to 100° F. As soon as a firm curd is formed it is carefully broken
-up and transferred to a strainer of cheese-cloth. Unless it is to be
-used at once, the whey strained off should be immediately cooled to 50°
-or lower. If left at a higher temperature it will soon become sour. A
-teaspoonful of limewater to a quart, or a pinch of soda, will help to
-keep it sweet. Still, in any event, it should not be kept long, but
-prepared fresh when required.
-
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER IV
-
-                             MILK AS A FOOD
-
-
-Milk is first of all the food for the young,—until a certain age the
-only food, and a perfect food. It contains but little refuse or waste
-and is under favorable conditions almost wholly digestible.
-
-
-                               NUTRIENTS
-
-All foods contain certain groups of nutrients which may be classified
-according to various functions in nutrition and their chemical
-composition.
-
-=Protein.=—The protein group of nutrients contains nitrogen and is
-necessary for building up the tissues of the body, the muscles and the
-tendons which also contain nitrogen. Only by this group can tissues
-wasted by constant wear and tear be rebuilt. Proteins are the
-flesh-forming group. To some degree the proteins or albuminoids are also
-active in producing fat in the body, but the other groups of nutrients,
-especially the fats, also contribute.
-
-=Fats and Carbohydrates.=—Another important function of food is to
-produce and maintain the animal heat. The main sources of this necessity
-are the fats and the carbohydrates, so called because they consist of
-the element carbon combined with oxygen and hydrogen, the last two in
-the exact proportion in which they are combined in water. All of these
-three groups furnish the fuel, so to speak, for the body, but they are
-not equal in this respect. Pound for pound, when burned in the body, the
-fats yield 2¼ times as much heat as protein or the carbohydrates.
-
-=Mineral Matters.=—Finally there are in all foods the mineral matters, a
-group containing a number of salts which are indispensable because they
-are constituents of every part of the body. Phosphate of lime, for
-instance, makes up one-half of the substance of the bones, and the
-sulphates and chlorides of potash and soda, iron, etc., are everywhere
-present in smaller quantities. No food in which any of them is lacking
-is complete.
-
-=Relation.=—The value of a food depends largely upon the relation of one
-group of nutrients to another. Proper nutrition can only be obtained
-when a sufficient amount of flesh-forming as well as of heat-producing
-nutrients are present, when the “nutritive ratio” is properly balanced
-for the particular purpose in view, be it the growth of the child, the
-maintenance of the body, the restoration of matter consumed by labor of
-body or brain, or the supply of heat to make up for cold surroundings.
-
-=Milk contains all= of these groups of nutrients. The protein is
-represented in milk by the casein and albumin, the fats by the
-butter-fat, the carbohydrates by milk-sugar, and the mineral matters by
-the milk-ash. Human milk contains them in a perfect proportion for
-infants, and for all purposes of nutrition cow’s milk may be used to
-make up a “balanced ration,” if not alone, then in connection with other
-food.
-
-=Nutritive Ratio.=—As we said before, the “nutritive ratio” of a food
-means the ratio of its flesh-forming constituents—proteins—to its
-heat-producing nutrients—carbohydrates and fats. Cow’s milk, containing
-3.25% protein, 4% fat and 5% milk-sugar, has a nutritive ratio of 1 :
-4.3, i. e., 1 part of protein to 4.3 parts of heat-giving nutrients,
-counting the fat equal to 2¼ of carbohydrates (multiplying the 4% fat by
-2¼ makes 9, added to the 5% of sugar, makes 14; 3.25 to 14 equals 1 to
-4.3). Skim milk, containing 3.4% protein, 0.2% fat, and 5.1% sugar, has
-a ratio of 1 : 1.6 (3.4 : 5.45). Mother’s milk, containing 2% protein,
-4% fat, and 6.5% carbohydrates, has a ratio of 1 : 7.75. To substitute
-cow’s milk for mother’s, it must therefore be “modified.”
-
-=Calories.=—Another way of comparing various foods than by the nutritive
-ratio is by measuring their “fuel value” or energy-producing capacity.
-The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of
-water 1° C., or one pound 4° F., is called a calorie. By extensive
-feeding experiments the caloric value of the various nutrient groups has
-been estimated as follows:
-
-                Protein at 1820 calories per pound[9]
-                Fats    at 4040 calories per pound
-                Carbohydrates at 1820 calories per pound
-
-Measured by this rule the fuel value of:
-
-
-                  Whole milk is    310 calories per
-                                   pound
-
-                  Skim milk is     160 calories per
-                                   pound
-
-                  Full cream       1885 calories per
-                  cheese is        pound
-
-                  Butter is        3410 calories per
-                                   pound
-
-
-Compared with other food, milk, although not suited to act as the sole
-food of adults, is one of the best and cheapest articles of diet, and
-should be much more extensively used.
-
-The following table, compiled by specialists of the U. S. Department of
-Agriculture, shows the quantities of various foods needed to supply as
-much protein or energy as 1 quart of milk:
-
-
-      ┌────────────────────────────┬────────────────────────────┐
-      │          Protein           │           Energy           │
-      ├────────────────────────────┼────────────────────────────┤
-      │1 quart of milk is equal to—│1 quart of milk is equal to—│
-      │  7 ounces of sirloin steak │  11.3 ounces of sirloin    │
-      │  6 ounces of round steak   │  steak                     │
-      │  4.3 eggs                  │  14.9 ounces of round steak│
-      │  8.6 ounces of fowl        │  9 eggs                    │
-      │                            │  14.5 ounces of fowl       │
-      └────────────────────────────┴────────────────────────────┘
-
-
-Another method of comparison is shown by the table below, in which the
-relative value of certain foods as economical sources of protein is
-given:
-
-        ┌────────────────┬──────────────────┬──────────────────┐
-        │                │  Is as cheap as  │                  │
-        │    Milk at—    │sirloin steak at— │   Or eggs at—    │
-        ├────────────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────────┤
-        │7 cents a quart │16.3 cents a pound│17.6 cents a dozen│
-        │8 cents a quart │18.6 cents a pound│20.1 cents a dozen│
-        │9 cents a quart │21.0 cents a pound│22.6 cents a dozen│
-        │10 cents a quart│23.3 cents a pound│25.1 cents a dozen│
-        │12 cents a quart│27.9 cents a pound│30.2 cents a dozen│
-        │15 cents a quart│34.9 cents a pound│37.7 cents a dozen│
-        └────────────────┴──────────────────┴──────────────────┘
-
-
-According to this table, if milk is selling at 10 cents a quart, sirloin
-steak must sell as low as 23.3 cents a pound, and eggs at 25.1 cents a
-dozen to supply protein at equal cost.
-
-
-                    _To Supply Energy at Equal Cost_
-
-        ┌────────────────┬──────────────────┬──────────────────┐
-        │                │  Sirloin steak   │                  │
-        │When milk is—   │     must not     │   And eggs not   │
-        │                │  be more than—   │    more than—    │
-        ├────────────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────────┤
-        │7 cents a quart │9.9 cents a pound │ 9.3 cents a dozen│
-        │8 cents a quart │11.3 cents a pound│10.6 cents a dozen│
-        │9 cents a quart │12.8 cents a pound│11.9 cents a dozen│
-        │10 cents a quart│14.2 cents a pound│13.2 cents a dozen│
-        │12 cents a quart│17.0 cents a pound│15.9 cents a dozen│
-        │15 cents a quart│21.3 cents a pound│19.8 cents a dozen│
-        └────────────────┴──────────────────┴──────────────────┘
-
-
-=Fallacy of Theoretical Valuation.=—While the contents of protein and
-the ratio between digestible protein and fats and carbohydrates on one
-hand, and the fuel or energy value on the other, have long been the only
-recognized measures for food values, they are admittedly quite
-inadequate and insufficient and although they are a great help when used
-with discrimination in making up food rations, they are often abused by
-persons who do not take their fallacies into consideration.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Dr. E. V. McCollum
-]
-
-“=Something Unknown.=”—Recent investigations by Dr. F. G. Hopkins, of
-Cambridge, England, and Dr. E. V. McCollum, formerly of Wisconsin, now
-of the Johns Hopkins University, have proven conclusively that one food
-ingredient cannot always be substituted for another with impunity even
-though the most searching chemical analysis shows them both alike in
-contents and digestibility. There is “Something Unknown” in certain
-foods—“Vitamines” some call it—essential especially in promoting the
-growth of the young, which our present knowledge of chemistry cannot
-explain. In Bulletin No. 17 of the Wisconsin Experiment Station
-experiments with the feeding of rats are described which show how
-butter-fat could not be replaced in the ration by vegetable fats of
-apparently the same composition and digestibility without disastrous
-results, and similar conditions have been found in regard to other
-foodstuffs, proteins as well as fats. The yolk of eggs and butter-fat
-contain this unknown something which is absolutely essential for the
-growth of the child and which is missing in most substitutes, especially
-in lard and vegetable fats.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  The rat on the left got five per cent of cottonseed oil and the one on
-    the right got instead one and a half per cent of butter-fat,
-    otherwise their rations were alike. These results are typical for
-    any ration made up of purified foodstuffs with butter-fat in them as
-    compared with any fat of plant origin. The plant fats lack an
-    unknown something without which growth cannot proceed.
-]
-
-The above illustration is from the work of McCollum and Davis at the
-Wisconsin Experiment Station.
-
-Realizing the fallacy of the old rules for making up rations for the
-feeding of farm animals, Professor Evvard of Iowa is trying the
-_reliability_ of the _instincts_ of animals as a guide to the proper
-selection of the most favorable combinations and proportions of food
-ingredients.[10]
-
-We mention these experiments as a warning against placing too great
-reliance on the caloric theory or the relation of nutrients in making up
-food rations. We have yet much to learn and the good housewife trying to
-cook according to scientific rules will do well not to neglect the
-palatability of the food, but to watch the “instinct” which causes the
-child or the adult to reject or approve of, and enjoy, the food, which
-in most cases is a better guide than calories or protein contents, or
-the ration between the various groups of nutrients.
-
-
-                        CARE OF MILK IN THE HOME
-
-If received fresh and warm from the cow, milk should at once be strained
-through absorbent cotton or several thicknesses of cheese-cloth into
-wide-mouthed bottles or glass jars and placed in running water or ice
-water to cool as quickly as possible. If obtained from the milkman it
-may be left in the bottle in which it is received. The practice of
-delivering milk “loose,” dipping it from the wagon, should not be
-permitted, and is fast being abolished. Public safety demands that it
-should be bottled on the farm or in the creamery or milk station under
-sanitary conditions.
-
-=Keep the Milk Cool.=—If the milk when delivered at the house is not
-cold enough to keep sweet as long as desired, it should, we repeat, be
-placed in ice water or cold running water until thoroughly cooled. Even
-if the air is cold, in the ice box, for instance, the milk cannot be
-cooled quickly enough without water. After it has been cooled in water
-it may be put in the ice box. In most ice boxes the temperature is
-allowed to rise higher than is generally supposed, and it is better to
-keep the milk bottle next to the ice than in the food compartments.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  A clean ice box
-]
-
-Milk and cream easily absorb flavors from the air and should not be kept
-in open vessels next to other food. Any housekeeper knows how quickly
-milk or cream will be tainted by standing in the same compartment with
-onions or muskmelons; if the bottle is not covered, milk may also be
-contaminated by other less noticeable but more harmful vapors from
-nearby products. Let the milkman furnish you with some extra milk bottle
-caps, or cover your milk bottle with an inverted tumbler.
-
-As has been shown in previous chapters, milk is a favorable soil for all
-sorts of germs and bacteria to grow in. It must therefore be kept from
-contamination with the utmost care, and everything that comes in contact
-with it must be scrupulously clean.
-
-=Top-Milk.=—When the milk has been standing at rest three or four hours,
-the top-milk will be considerably richer than the rest. If such rich
-milk is wanted for any particular purpose it may be poured off, to be
-eaten with cereals, berries, etc. In twelve hours most of the cream will
-rise and may be skimmed off, although thirty-six or even forty-eight
-hours may be required to get all that can be obtained by setting. The
-half-skimmed milk left when the top-milk has been removed after 3 to 6
-hours’ setting will still contain 2% or more of butter-fat and is very
-good for drinking; even the skim milk from which the cream has been
-taken after 12 hours’ setting is still an excellent beverage, provided
-it is sweet. Perfectly skimmed, almost entirely fatless, milk may be
-used in various ways in cooking, to make up for lack of protein in many
-other food products. But care must be taken that it is pure and sweet,
-or rather, its condition, sweet or sour, must be under the perfect
-control of the housekeeper. If a sample of milk will stand scalding or
-even boiling without curdling, it is usually fresh and in good condition
-for any use. On the other hand, if it curdles by scalding, it is beyond
-control and it may or may not make good sour milk, depending on the
-bacteria working in it.
-
-
-                            MILK FOR INFANTS
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Comparing cow’s milk with mother’s milk, it will be seen that the latter
-contains less protein, about the same percentage of fat and more
-carbohydrates than the former. A comparison may be made from the
-following table of average composition in round figures:
-
-
- ──────────────┬───────┬───────┬───────┬───────┬───────┬───────┬───────
-               │       │       │       │       │       │       │ Fuel
-               │ Water │ Total │Protein│  Fat  │ Milk- │Mineral│ value
-               │       │solids │       │       │ sugar │matters│per lb.
- ──────────────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────
-               │  Per  │  Per  │  Per  │  Per  │  Per  │  Per  │Calories
-               │ cent  │ cent  │ cent  │ cent  │ cent  │ cent  │
- ──────────────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────
- Mother’s Milk │  87   │  13   │   2   │   4   │  6.5  │  0.5  │  316
- ──────────────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────
- Cow’s Milk    │  87   │  13   │ 3.25  │   4   │   5   │ 0.75  │  312
- ──────────────┴───────┴───────┴───────┴───────┴───────┴───────┴───────
-
-
-=Modifying Milk.=—Undiluted cow’s milk is too rich in protein and in
-salts for infants and, when fed without modification, must be diluted
-with an equal amount of water during the first two or three months. Such
-dilution, however, also reduces the percentage of fat, which should
-remain the same, and of carbohydrates, which should be increased. In
-order to modify or “humanize” cow’s milk so as to make its composition
-nearly the same as that of mother’s milk, simple dilution with water is
-therefore not sufficient.
-
-There are, however, various other methods which may be used to
-advantage. For instance, top-milk from a bottle of fresh milk which has
-stood 4 or 6 hours in ice water will contain 6 to 8% of fat. By diluting
-this with an equal part of water, the percentage of protein, fat and
-mineral matter will be about right, and sugar, either cane-sugar or
-milk-sugar, may be added to supply the carbohydrates. Or carefully
-prepared sweet whey containing milk-sugar, or barley water, may be added
-to the thin cream in place of some of the pure water.
-
-The following recipes have been used with good results:
-
-
-                        Mrs. Pospyhala’s Recipe
-
-    =Infant Food.=—Warm 1½ quarts of milk to blood heat. Remove from
-    fire and add one Junket Tablet dissolved in a spoonful of cold
-    water. Let the milk set until it forms a solid mass, then stir
-    it up in order to break the curd. Place it back on the fire and
-    stir until quite smooth, not allowing it to get any warmer than
-    blood heat. It is then ready to strain through two thicknesses
-    of cheese-cloth and care must be taken to squeeze well so as to
-    obtain as much of the whey as possible, which is very important.
-    Add one tablespoonful of sugar to sweeten. Pour into nursing
-    bottles, the amount being according to the age of the baby. A
-    sufficient number of bottles are prepared for 24 hours’ feeding.
-    Care should be taken to keep the milk in a cool place as it will
-    sour the same as fresh milk. Every time the baby is fed the milk
-    must be warmed by placing the bottle in a pan of water and
-    heating to the right temperature.
-
-
-                         _Mrs. Rorer’s Recipe_
-
-    Where cow’s milk, even when diluted, or partly modified as in
-    the home fashion, disagrees with the infant, this mixture may be
-    used with good results: heat two quarts of milk to 100° F. Add
-    two Junket Tablets dissolved in a tablespoonful of cold water.
-    When the milk is congealed and perfectly solid draw through it
-    backward and forward an ordinary four-tined silver fork; this
-    will separate the curd. Strain through two thicknesses of
-    cheese-cloth, saving the whey as this is the part you are to
-    use; add a pint of water, a half ounce of sugar of milk, three
-    ounces of cream and four ounces of the white of egg. The whites
-    may be dropped into a quart fruit jar, a pint of the whey added,
-    the top screwed on and the jar thoroughly shaken until the
-    whites are well mixed with the whey; then add them to the
-    remaining quantity and stand at once in a very cold place. This
-    will be given in quantities from two to three ounces in an
-    ordinary nursing bottle.
-
-
-                               _RECIPES_
-                  _of the Nathan Straus Laboratories_
-
-Formula by Dr. A. R. Green for 1st to 4th week:—
-
-     ¾ ounces of 16% Cream
-     3 ounces of Full Milk
-    19 ounces of   Water
-    1½ ounces Milk Sugar
-
-This mixture fills 8 bottles—each to contain 3 ounces. Feed 2½ hours
-apart.
-
-
-Formula by Prof. A. Jacobi for 3d to 7th month:—
-
-    18 ounces of Full Milk
-    18 ounces of  Barley Water
-     1 ounces of  Cane Sugar
-    20 grains of Table Salt (less than ¼ teaspoonful)
-
-This mixture fills 6 bottles—each to contain 6 ounces. Feed 3 hours
-apart.
-
-
-Formula by Prof. R. G. Freeman for 1st to 3d month:—
-
-    1½ ounces of 16% Cream
-    3  ounces of Full Milk
-    13 ounces of Water
-    ½  ounce     Lime Water
-    1  ounce     Milk-Sugar
-
-This mixture fills 6 bottles—each to contain 3 ounces. Feed 3 hours
-apart.
-
-
-Formula by Dr. A. F. Hess for 7th to 9th month:—
-
-    22½ ounces of Full Milk
-    7½  ounces of Oat or Barley Water
-    1½  ounces of Cane Sugar
-    30  grains of Table Salt (about ¼ teaspoonful)
-
-This mixture fills 5 bottles—each to contain 6 ounces. Feed 3½ hours
-apart.
-
-
-Formula by Prof. R. G. Freeman for 2d to 6th month:—
-
-    18 ounces of Full Milk
-    16½ ounces of Water
-    1½ ounces of Limewater
-    1½ ounces of Milk Sugar
-
-This mixture fills 6 bottles—each to contain 6 ounces. Feed 3 hours
-apart.
-
-
-After 9th month:—
-
-Full pasteurized milk, 8 ounces every 4 hours.
-
-
-When the modified milk can be obtained from a dairy laboratory where it
-is prepared with scientific care and accuracy, it is better to use it
-than to depend on home-made preparations, and in many cases a doctor’s
-prescription may be necessary. Even if the modified cow’s milk is
-prepared so as to contain apparently the same proportion of the various
-groups of nutrients as mother’s milk, there may still be some essential
-difference. For instance, the protein in human milk consists mainly of
-albumin, while that of cow’s milk is mostly casein. It is often a
-question whether the individual baby can digest the casein without
-trouble. A trifle of rennet ferment,—a fraction of a Junket
-Tablet,—added to the modified cow’s milk just before feeding may be
-beneficial to overcome that defect. A little limewater also is healthful
-as it neutralizes any acid that may develop in the mixture. For the
-particular needs of the individual baby, a competent doctor should be
-asked to prescribe.
-
-
-                       MILK FOR GROWING CHILDREN
-
-[Illustration]
-
-When the child is big enough to thrive on undiluted, unmodified cow’s
-milk, it should not only be allowed, but urged, to continue on a diet in
-which this, the best of all foods, is the most essential part. An
-excellent form in which to feed milk to the growing child is junket.
-Eaten slowly with a spoon as a pudding, it is exposed to the action of
-digestion much better than milk swallowed by the glassful in a hurry and
-even if it is cold there is no danger of defective rennet action in the
-stomach because such action has already taken place.
-
-Doctors still disagree as to the desirability of pasteurizing milk for
-young children (see “Pasteurization,” Chapter I), some holding that the
-digestibility is affected by the process. The truth is probably that
-strong pasteurization at a temperature above 157° and holding the heated
-milk unnecessarily long at such high temperature do change the
-properties of the milk so as to make it harder to digest, but that the
-main difficulty is in the change of diet from raw to pasteurized milk or
-vice versa. Let the child get used to the change by making it gradual,
-diminishing the amount of one and increasing the amount of the other
-from day to day in a week, until the change is completed, and there will
-usually be little if any trouble. The secretions of digestive ferments
-in the stomach soon adapt themselves to the change in the food. The same
-holds good in case of other changes, as, for instance, from whole milk
-to more or less fatless milk, with additions of cereals or other partial
-substitutes;—it is always advisable to make any change in the child’s
-diet gradual.
-
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
-                               CHAPTER V
-
-                              MILK COOKERY
-
-
-Milk should also be used a great deal more than it is by grown persons,
-not only as a drink but in the daily cookery. In some homes milk in some
-form is a part of every menu and the meals are more delicious,
-attractive and nourishing than the ordinary milkless diet, and are also
-less expensive, as the milk takes the place of part of the meat. Dr.
-Graham Tusk of Cornell University, who represented the United States on
-the Interallied Council of Alimentation, says:
-
-    “No family of five should spend any money for meat until three
-    quarts of milk have been purchased, and this should be done even
-    though the price of milk should go to twenty cents a quart.
-    Absolutely nothing in the food line will keep children so
-    healthy as their daily supply of milk.”
-
-In cooking with milk it is well to remember:
-
-1. That, although milk is a liquid, it contains a large amount of solid
-food and of exceedingly nourishing, palatable and easily digestible
-food, much more than many vegetables or fruits. While milk has 13% of
-solid matter, water-melon has only 2%, turnips 4%, beets 12%, etc. When
-substituting milk for water, you add _nourishment_ to the food and it is
-well to keep in mind the ingredients,—the amount of protein, fat, etc.,
-added in the form of milk, which may take the place of other similar
-ingredients in the combination.
-
-2. That if milk is even but slightly sour, or if some other acid is
-added to it,—in the form of fruit, for instance,—it is apt to curdle by
-scalding or boiling.
-
-The limits of a single chapter do not allow many recipes to be given,
-but a few are furnished under each of the several kinds of milk dishes,
-and a clever domestic science pupil or the ordinary good housekeeper and
-cook can easily add to these recipes indefinitely, by following out the
-simple suggestions offered.
-
-All measurements are level.
-
-
-                                 SOUPS
-
-=Cream Soups.=—So-called cream soups may be made with or without the
-addition of meat stock. For example:
-
-                            =Asparagus Soup=
-
-    3 cups veal or chicken broth
-    1 can asparagus
-    ¼ cup butter
-    ¼ cup flour
-    1 qt. scalded milk
-    Salt and pepper
-
-Reserve tips of asparagus. Add stalks to cold stock, boil fifteen
-minutes, rub through sieve, thicken with butter and flour cooked
-together, add milk, tips, salt and pepper. If fresh asparagus is used,
-cut one bunch in small pieces, boil in as little water as will cover,
-remove tough bits of stalk, add two cups stock and proceed as above.
-
-
-                         =Cream of Celery Soup=
-
-                    3 cups veal or chicken broth
-                    3 cups celery cut in inch pieces
-                    4 cups milk
-                    Yolks 2 eggs
-                    ½ cup cream
-                    Salt and pepper
-
-Boil celery in broth till tender. Rub through sieve, add milk, bring to
-the boiling point and add egg yolks beaten and diluted with cream.
-
-
-                             =Spinach Soup=
-
-                          4 cups broth
-                          2 qts. spinach
-                          3 cups boiling water
-                          2 cups milk
-                          ¼ cup butter
-                          ½ cup flour
-                          Salt and pepper
-
-Wash the spinach and cook thirty minutes in boiling water to which ⅛
-teaspoon soda has been added. Drain and chop fine. Add stock and butter
-and flour cooked together, milk and seasoning.
-
-Cauliflower, mushrooms, lettuce, string beans, onions and other
-vegetables may be used for soups in the same way. _In all of these
-recipes milk may be substituted for the stock._ The soups will be more
-nourishing, many like them better, and they are more easily prepared.
-
-If canned vegetables are used they may be added to the thickened milk,
-which should be made in the proportions of one quart of milk to two
-tablespoons butter or substitute and two tablespoons flour. One can of
-beans, peas, asparagus, or corn, may be added to three pints of
-thickened milk.
-
-If fresh vegetables are used, they should be boiled in as little water
-as possible and this water added with the vegetables to the hot,
-thickened milk. The addition of one-half to one cup of cream to these
-soups improves their taste but is not necessary. If the cream is whipped
-and added just before serving, the appearance is also much improved. The
-vegetables may be pressed through a sieve or not, as preferred. If the
-soup is to be served in cups it is better to do this or chop the
-vegetables very fine, but if the soup is to be served in soup plates it
-looks attractive and is more substantial if the vegetables are cut in
-inch pieces and left in the soup.
-
-All cooks are familiar with _cornlet soup_, _tomato_ _bisque_, and
-_oyster_ and _clam stews_, the foundation of which is also milk. Plenty
-of good recipes for them can be found in any standard cook book.
-
-=Cereal Cream Soups.=—There is another class of soups used much in
-Europe but, unfortunately, little known here. They are very nourishing,
-easy of preparation, and delicious.
-
-A few recipes will suffice to introduce the housewife to this class of
-soups and she can then easily add to the varieties herself. Her family
-will enjoy the new dishes for their good taste and their novelty.
-Croutons, crackers, zwieback, or toast may be served with any of them.
-They should always be prepared in a double boiler.
-
-
-                              =Rice Soup=
-
-                          1 qt. milk
-                          ⅓ cup rice
-                          1 tablespoon butter
-                          1 tablespoon sugar
-
-Heat the milk in a double boiler, add the rice and cook two hours. Add
-sugar and butter. Sprinkle cinnamon on each plate of soup when serving.
-
-
-                              =Sago Soup=
-
-                          1 qt. milk
-                          4 tablespoons sago
-                          1 tablespoon butter
-                          1 egg yolk
-                          2 tablespoons sugar
-
-Heat the milk in a double boiler, add sago and cook one-half hour. Care
-must be taken to stir the mixture often when the sago is first added or
-it will lump. Add butter and egg yolk beaten with sugar.
-
-
-                             =Oatmeal Soup=
-
-                          1 cup oat flakes
-                          1 pint boiling water
-                          2 tablespoons sugar
-                          1 pint milk
-                          1 tablespoon butter
-
-Add oat flakes to water and boil one-half hour. Add milk and boil
-one-half hour, add sugar and butter.
-
-
-                    =Farina or Cream of Wheat Soup=
-
-                     3 pints milk
-                     ½ cup farina or cream of wheat
-                     1 tablespoon butter
-                     1 tablespoon sugar
-
-Scald milk and add cereal slowly. Cook one hour and add butter and sugar
-and a sprinkling of nutmeg.
-
-
-                            =Milk Chowders=
-
-Chowders are also a very acceptable way of serving milk. For rich
-chowders the proportions used are: Two cups of milk or of milk and
-water, 1 cup of potatoes cut into small pieces and 1 pound of fish. For
-flavoring add an onion fried in two tablespoons of fat tried out from
-salt pork. While these proportions make a rich dish, it is possible to
-reduce the amount of fish greatly, to leave it out entirely, to use
-small portions of left-over fish or some salt codfish which has been
-freshened, or to substitute corn for it. Such dishes are palatable and
-of reasonably high nutritive value, providing the greater part of the
-liquid used is milk.
-
-Similar, but less rich and thick, is:
-
-
-                              =Milk Stew=
-
- 1 qt. of milk
- 1 cupful raw potatoes cut into small pieces
- 2 tablespoonfuls of butter or bacon fat
- 1 cupful of codfish cut into small pieces or just enough to flavor the
-    stew
-
-Soak the fish in lukewarm water until it is soft and the salt removed.
-Cook the potatoes in water until tender, drain them, add the milk and
-codfish, and bring to the boiling point; add the butter and salt to
-taste.
-
-In place of the codfish, fresh fish, clams, oysters, or a little chipped
-beef may be used. Or the fish may be omitted and the soup made savory
-and palatable by adding a few drops of onion juice, or cheese or a
-vegetable cut into small pieces and cooked thoroughly.
-
-
-                              MILK CEREALS
-
-Most cereals are better cooked in milk than in water and those not
-familiar with this method have no idea of the many good dishes which
-they can thus easily provide for their families. Cereals so prepared
-make an especially good wholesome breakfast or supper for school
-children and the writer has never seen an adult, who, on a cold night,
-did not enjoy a dish of rice, or corn meal, boiled in milk and served
-with cream and sugar for supper. Milk cereals must always be cooked in a
-double boiler and the milk must be hot when the cereal is added.
-
-     Rice            1 cup to 3 cups milk, boil 2 hours
-     Cornmeal        1 cup to 4 cups milk, boil 1 to 2 hours
-     Fine Hominy     1 cup to 4 cups milk, boil 1 hour
-     Cream of Wheat  1 cup to 4 cups milk, boil 1 hour
-     Farina          1 cup to 4 cups milk, boil 1 hour
-
-
-=Cream of Wheat or Farina Pudding= is also delicious. It is prepared in
-the same way, but ¾ cup of cereal only is added to 1 quart hot milk.
-Just before serving, a teaspoonful of vanilla is added, and two beaten
-eggs are folded in. It is eaten with cream, or milk, and sugar, or with
-maple syrup.
-
-
-                       LUNCHEON AND SUPPER DISHES
-
-Dishes prepared principally of milk, with the addition of either eggs,
-cheese, meat, or vegetables are particularly adapted for luncheon or
-supper use. Here again a few standard recipes are given which can be
-varied to make any desired number of good, wholesome and delicious
-dishes.
-
-=Creamed Dishes.=—The same sauce may be used to cream _cold chicken_,
-_lamb_, _veal_, _chipped beef_, and cold boiled or baked _fish_, canned
-_salmon_, _lobster_ or _shrimps_, according to the following recipe:
-
-
-                           =Creamed Chicken=
-
-                2 cups cold cooked chicken cut into dice
-                3 tablespoons butter
-                3 tablespoons flour
-                1½ cups milk
-                Salt and pepper
-
-Melt butter and add the flour and milk. Bring to the boiling point and
-add diced chicken. Season with salt and pepper.
-
-Many grate a small onion into the sauce before adding the chicken. The
-writer does not favor indiscriminate use of onion as it tends to make
-all dishes taste alike. It seems better to use sometimes a little celery
-or celery salt, sometimes an onion, and again frequently no flavor but
-the chicken or meat or fish. One’s cooking is thus more distinctive and
-varied.
-
-If the creamed mixture is turned into a baking dish, covered with
-buttered bread or cracker crumbs and browned in the oven, the result is
-even more pleasing.
-
-Such a sauce flavored with cheese makes a good and very nutritious gravy
-to pour over cauliflower and cabbage or to serve with boiled rice or
-hominy or poured over toast.
-
-
-                           CREAMED VEGETABLES
-
-In creaming vegetables the proportion is usually 1 cup of sauce to 2
-cups of vegetables. _Potatoes_, _asparagus_, _cauliflower_, _boiled
-onions_, _beans_, and _carrots_, _beets_ or _peas_ are all delicious
-served in this way.
-
-
-                          =Eggs and Asparagus=
-
-Cream asparagus. Arrange in a baking dish, alternate layers of the
-asparagus and slices of hard boiled eggs. Cover with buttered crumbs and
-bake till crumbs are a delicate brown.
-
-=Souffles.=—Souffles are always delightful, and while many consider them
-difficult to make they are really very simple and if made correctly are
-always to be depended upon. They should, however, be eaten at once when
-baked.
-
-_Salmon_, _chicken_, _lamb_, _veal_, _ham_ and _cheese_, and also many
-vegetables such as _asparagus_, _cauliflower_ and _peas_ may be prepared
-in this way. Elaborate recipes are often given, but the following is
-entirely sufficient and always satisfactory:
-
-    2 cups chopped meat or vegetables cut fine
-    2 cups thick white sauce
-    Yolks of 2 eggs
-    Whites of 2 eggs
-
-To the meat or vegetables add white sauce (2 tablespoons butter and 3
-tablespoons flour to 1 cup milk) and beaten yolks. Cool and add whites
-beaten stiff. Bake 30 minutes in moderate oven. This makes a dish large
-enough to serve four or five persons.
-
-A similar dish, Cheese Fondu, is also good, and can stand longer than a
-souffle before serving.
-
-
-                             =Cheese Fondu=
-
-                          2 cups milk
-                          2 cups minced cheese
-                          1 cup bread crumbs
-                          2 eggs beaten
-
-Bake in a hot oven for twenty minutes.
-
-Variations of this dish are made by substituting one cup minced ham for
-one cup of the cheese, or by using two cups of ham and omitting the
-cheese altogether.
-
-
-                               MILK TOAST
-
-A very good way to serve milk toast is to toast bread thoroughly and to
-pour hot milk over it at the time of serving. In serving milk toast in
-this way all the dishes should be kept very hot. A heavy earthenware
-pitcher may be used for serving the hot milk, as it retains heat for a
-long time.
-
-
-                          EGGS POACHED IN MILK
-
-Eggs are much better poached in milk than in water. If served on toast
-the hot milk may be poured on the egg if a soft toast is desired. If
-not, dip the eggs out of the milk with a perforated spoon and lay on the
-toast in the usual way, adding salt and butter.
-
-
-                   CHEESE DISHES AS MEAT SUBSTITUTES
-
-Meat is wholesome and relished by most persons, yet it is not essential
-to a well-balanced meal, and there are many housekeepers who, for one
-reason or another, are interested in lessening the amount of meat which
-they provide or to substitute some other foods for it.
-
-Cheese naturally suggests itself as a substitute for meat, since it is
-rich in the same kinds of nutrients which meat supplies, is a staple
-food with which everyone is familiar, and is one which can be used in a
-great variety of ways. In substituting cheese for meat, pains should be
-taken to serve dishes which are relished by members of the family. A
-number of recipes for dishes which are made with cheese follow:
-
-
-                             =Cheese Soup=
-
-                        1 qt. milk
-                        1 onion grated
-                        1 blade mace
-                        2 tablespoons butter
-                        2 tablespoons flour
-                        ½ c. grated cheese
-                        2 egg yolks
-                        1 teaspoon salt
-                        ¼ teaspoon white pepper
-
-Scald milk, onion, mace and pepper pod. Melt butter in saucepan, blend
-flour with melted butter. Strain milk and seasonings and add gradually
-to flour mixture, stirring all the time. Return to double boiler to
-cook. When creamy, add the cheese, salt and pepper, stirring until
-cheese is melted. Then pour over well-beaten egg yolks, stirring all the
-time. Whip until frothing and serve.
-
-
-                          =Delmonico Potatoes=
-
-Arrange creamed potatoes and grated cheese in alternate layers. Cover
-with buttered crumbs and bake till crumbs are brown.
-
-
-                     =Stuffed Potatoes with Cheese=
-
-Split hot baked potatoes lengthwise and remove contents without injuring
-skin of potato. Put potato through ricer or mash, add salt and pepper to
-taste and enough hot milk to make of proper consistency. Beat until
-light, refill the skin, piling up lightly. Sprinkle thickly with grated
-cheese and reheat in oven until cheese is melted and a delicate brown.
-
-
-                         =Macaroni with Cheese=
-
-                 1 cup macaroni
-                 2 qts. boiling salted water
-                 2 cups white sauce
-                 1 cup grated cheese
-                 1 cup buttered bread or cracker crumbs
-
-Break macaroni into one-inch pieces. Cook in boiling water until tender.
-(If macaroni is put in a wire basket in kettle, it will not stick to the
-kettle.) Drain and run cold water through it.
-
-Make sauce:
-
-                          2 tablespoons butter
-                          2 tablespoons flour
-                          1 teaspoon salt
-                          2 cups milk
-
-Add cheese and macaroni. Cover with crumbs and bake until crumbs are
-brown.
-
-
-                        =Rice Baked with Cheese=
-
-                   1 cup rice
-                   2 qts. boiling salted water
-                   ½ lb. grated cheese
-                   Milk
-                   Buttered crumbs (bread or cracker)
-
-Add rice to boiling water. When tender drain, cover bottom of buttered
-baking dish, sprinkle with grated cheese and a little paprika. Add
-alternate layers of rice and cheese until dish is full. Add milk nearly
-to fill dish. Cover with crumbs and bake until milk is absorbed and
-crumbs are brown.
-
-
-                   =Cheese Souffle with Bread Crumbs=
-
-                 1 cup scalded milk
-                 1 cup soft, stale bread crumbs
-                 ¼ lb. mild cheese, cut in small pieces
-                 1 tablespoon butter
-                 ¼ teaspoon salt
-                 2 egg yolks
-                 2 egg whites
-
-Mix milk, bread crumbs, cheese, melted butter and salt. Add yolks of
-eggs beaten until lemon colored. Cut and fold in whites of eggs beaten
-until stiff. Pour into a buttered baking dish and bake twenty minutes in
-a moderate oven.
-
-
-                            =Cheese Souffle=
-
-                          2 tablespoons butter
-                          3  tablespoons flour
-                          ½ cup scalded milk
-                          ½ teaspoon salt
-                          Few grains cayenne
-                          ¼ cup grated cheese
-                          Yolks of 3 eggs
-                          Whites of 3 eggs
-
-Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour and mix well; add scalded
-milk gradually and seasonings; cook two minutes. Remove pan to back of
-stove and add cheese and well-beaten yolks of eggs. Set pan where
-mixture will cool. When cold, add the whites of eggs beaten until stiff
-and dry. Turn into a buttered baking dish and bake twenty minutes in a
-slow oven. Serve the moment it comes from the oven.
-
-
-                            =English Monkey=
-
-                   1 cup bread crumbs
-                   2 cups milk
-                   1 cup grated cheese
-                   ½ teaspoon salt
-                   ¼ teaspoon white pepper or paprika
-                   1 egg
-                   1 tablespoon melted butter
-
-Scald milk in double boiler and add bread crumbs to it. Then add grated
-cheese, melted butter and seasonings. Cook in double boiler until cheese
-is melted; add the slightly-beaten egg gradually. Cook five minutes and
-serve on dry toast.
-
-
-                        =Cheese Omelette No. 1=
-
-                        4 eggs
-                        ½ teaspoon salt
-                        Few grains pepper
-                        4 tablespoons hot water
-                        1 tablespoons butter
-                        1 cup grated cheese
-
-Beat yolks of eggs thoroughly; add salt, pepper and hot water. Beat
-whites till stiff and dry; add cheese and fold into first mixture. Melt
-butter in pan, turn in mixture and cook slowly. When well raised and a
-delicate brown underneath, place pan in hot oven to cook top. Fold and
-turn on hot platter.
-
-
-                        =Cheese Omelette No. 2=
-
-Make as above, omitting cheese. Make two cups of hot, white sauce; add 1
-cup grated cheese, melt and pour around the omelette.
-
-
-                        =Baked Eggs with Cheese=
-
-                        4 eggs
-                        1 cup grated cheese
-                        1 cup soft bread crumbs
-                        ¼ teaspoon salt
-                        Few grains cayenne
-                        2 cups white sauce
-
-Break the eggs into a buttered baking dish and cook in hot oven until
-they begin to turn white around the edges. Then cover eggs with the
-white sauce and over this put the mixture of crumbs, cheese and
-seasonings. Brown in very hot oven, so eggs will not be overcooked by
-time cheese is brown. If preferred, or for variety, the cheese may be
-added to the white sauce and only the seasoned crumbs put on the top.
-
-
-                             =Boston Roast=
-
-           1 can kidney beans or same amount of cooked beans
-           Salt
-           ½ lb. grated cheese
-           Bread crumbs
-
-Mash beans or put them through a meat grinder. Add the cheese and
-sufficient bread crumbs to make the mixture stiff enough to be formed
-into a roll. Place in buttered baking pan and bake in moderate oven.
-Baste frequently with one-half cup hot water, in which one tablespoon
-butter is melted. Serve the roast with tomato sauce. If desired, a few
-drops of onion juice or a little finely chopped onion may be added to
-flavor this dish.
-
-
-                         =Camouflaged Cabbage=
-
-Remove the heart from a small cabbage, cut or chop the remainder into
-half inch pieces, boil in salted water exactly twenty minutes and drain.
-For one pint of this cooked cabbage make a sauce of:
-
-    2 tablespoons butter
-    2 tablespoons flour
-    ½ cup milk
-    ½ cup cheese
-
-When thoroughly blended add the cabbage; cover with buttered crumbs and
-bake twenty minutes. The result is a good dish for supper or luncheon
-and it is well named.
-
-
-                             CHEESE SALADS
-
-
-                       =Cheese and Pimento Salad=
-
-Stuff canned pimentos with cream cheese, cut into slices, place on
-lettuce leaves and serve with mayonnaise dressing.
-
-
-                       =Cheese and Celery Salad=
-
-Select celery stalks with deep grooves in them; wash and dry on clean
-towel. Mix a small cream cheese with a bit of salt, and ¼ cup finely
-chopped nuts (pecans are best). Fill grooves in celery stalk with the
-cheese mixture and chill. When ready to serve cut stalks into small
-pieces with sharp knife. Serve on lettuce leaves with French dressing.
-
-For a pleasant addition to fruit salad, fill tender celery stalks with
-roquefort cheese, and lay one or two on each plate of salad.
-
-
-                       =Pepper and Cheese Salad=
-
-Remove top and seeds from a sweet green pepper. Scald it with boiling
-water, letting it stand in water about ten minutes. Mix soft cream
-cheese with chopped nuts, or with tiny cubes of cooked beets and fill
-pepper with this mixture; chill well, cut in thin slices with sharp
-knife and serve on bed of head lettuce with French dressing.
-
-Apples can also be used (with cheese and nuts) by removing core without
-breaking the apple.
-
-
-                             COTTAGE CHEESE
-                 (See also under the chapter on Cheese)
-
-All that has been said of cheese as a valuable food and as a substitute
-for meat, applies equally to cottage cheese and it is so easily
-prepared, inexpensive and generally relished that it should be used much
-more freely than it is.
-
-The following recipes are only a few of the many that might be given,
-but the careful cook should evolve other combinations equally
-attractive.
-
-
-                 =Cottage Cheese by Government Method=
-
-                  (From Food Administration Bulletin)
-
-Unit, 1 gallon. For lesser amounts, measurements to be divided
-accordingly.
-
-Take 1 gallon of sweet skim milk; add ¾ cup of clean, sour milk and stir
-as it is put in. Raise the temperature in hot water to 75 degrees
-Fahrenheit, using a dairy thermometer. Remove from heat and place where
-it is to remain until set. Add ⅛ of a junket tablet thoroughly dissolved
-in a tablespoon of cold water; stir while adding. Cover with cloth and
-leave for 12 to 16 hours in even temperature, about 75 degrees
-Fahrenheit. At end of this period there should be a slight whey on the
-top and when poured out the curd should cleave sharply. Drain through
-cotton cloth, not cheese-cloth. When whey has been drained out, work in
-1 or 2 teaspoons of salt to the cheese, according to taste; 1½ to 2
-pounds of cheese should be obtained from a gallon of milk.
-
-For table use it is advisable to work in 1 or 2 tablespoons of cream to
-the pound. For use in cooking, this is not necessary.
-
-One may also make cottage cheese of freshly soured milk by simply
-heating it in a double boiler till whey forms, letting it stand an hour
-and then turning it into a cheese-cloth bag to drain. To the dry curd
-formed add sweet or sour cream and salt to taste. When made in this way
-care must be taken that the milk is freshly soured—if it is old it will
-have a bitter taste and the cheese will not be good.
-
-
-                      =Cottage Cheese Sandwiches=
-
-Thin slices of rye, brown or white bread, buttered, with fillings of
-cottage cheese in combination with jelly, marmalade, pimentoes, lettuce
-or mayonnaise are all good.
-
-
-                    =Cottage Cheese Club Sandwiches=
-
-Toast slices of bread, cut diamond shape and spread with butter and
-cottage cheese or cottage cheese alone and put together with any one of
-the following combinations:
-
-Tomato, lettuce and mayonnaise dressing.
-
-Thin slices of ham spread with mustard and lettuce.
-
-Sliced, tart apple, chopped nuts and drops of French dressing.
-
-Sliced orange and mayonnaise.
-
-Sliced Spanish onion, a hot fried egg sprinkled with Worcestershire
-sauce.
-
-Thin slices of tomato, bacon, chicken, lettuce and mayonnaise dressing.
-
-
-                    =Cottage Cheese Salad Dressing=
-
-        ½ cup cottage cheese
-        1 tablespoon vinegar
-        ½ teaspoon sugar
-        ¼ teaspoon salt
-        1 cup heavy cream (either sweet or sour) whipped stiff.
-
-Mix in order given. A chopped hard boiled egg improves it.
-
-A similar salad dressing, although containing no cottage cheese, may be
-given here also.
-
-
-                      =Sour Cream Salad Dressing=
-
-                 1 cup sour cream—whipped
-                 1 tablespoon vinegar
-                 1 tablespoon olive oil
-                 ¼ teaspoon salt
-                 (1 teaspoon sugar, if desired)
-                 2 hard boiled egg yolks finely chopped
-
-Mix in order given.
-
-Either of these is particularly good with green vegetables.
-
-For a fruit salad the eggs should be omitted and double the amount of
-sugar used.
-
-
-                         =Cottage Cheese Salad=
-
-Lettuce, sliced cucumber or green, sweet peppers, cottage cheese formed
-in small balls or slices, mayonnaise or French dressing.
-
-
-                          =Cottage Cheese Pie=
-
-                       1 cup cottage cheese
-                       ⅔ cup sugar
-                       ⅔ cup milk
-                       2 egg yolks, beaten
-                       1 tablespoon melted butter
-                       Salt
-                       ¼ teaspoon vanilla
-
-Mix the ingredients in the order given. Bake the pie in one crust. Cool
-it slightly and cover it with meringue made by adding 2 tablespoons of
-sugar and ½ teaspoon of vanilla to the beaten white of 2 eggs and brown
-it in a slow oven.
-
-
-                          =Devonshire Dainty=
-
-Serve on individual plates ½ cup cottage cheese to which has been added
-2 tablespoonfuls whipped cream (sweet or sour). Over this pour ½ cup
-currant jam.
-
-Pass saltines or other dry, unsweetened crackers.
-
-
-                        MILK BREADS AND BISCUITS
-
-
-                          =Parker House Rolls=
-
-             2 cups scalded milk (skim)
-             3 tablespoons butter
-             1 teaspoon salt
-             1 yeast cake dissolved in ¼ cup lukewarm water
-
-Dissolve yeast in water, melt butter, combine all ingredients except
-flour. Add 3 cups flour gradually, beating vigorously. Let rise till
-light; cut down and knead in 2½ cups flour. Cover and allow to rise
-until three times original bulk. Roll ½ inch thick. Cut, spread half
-with butter and fold over. Put in buttered tins to rise, placing 1 inch
-apart. Bake when light in a hot oven 15 to 20 minutes.
-
-
-                               =Popovers=
-
-                        1 cup flour
-                        ¼ teaspoon salt
-                        2 eggs
-                        ½ teaspoon melted butter
-                        1 cup milk
-
-Beat eggs thoroughly. Add gradually, while beating, the milk and flour,
-to which salt has been added. Add butter and beat two minutes with Dover
-egg beater. Put a half teaspoon of butter in hissing hot iron gem pans.
-Fill half with batter and bake thirty minutes in a hot oven. Serve
-immediately.
-
-
-                           =Boston Nut Bread=
-
-                          ½ cup molasses
-                          1 teaspoon soda
-                          2 cups sour milk
-                          2 cups graham flour
-                          1 teaspoon salt
-                          ½ cup sugar
-                          1 cup chopped nuts
-                          1½ cups white flour
-
-Mix and sift all the dry ingredients. Add molasses to the milk and
-combine this gradually with the dry materials. Add the nuts. Half fill
-baking powder cans, with oiled cover, and let stand one-half hour. Bake
-three-quarters of an hour in moderate oven.
-
-
-                          =Sour Milk Biscuit=
-
-                  1 qt. flour
-                  1 teaspoon soda
-                  1 teaspoon salt
-                  1 teaspoon sugar
-                  2 tablespoons butter
-                  Sour milk to moisten (about 1½ cups)
-
-Sift dry ingredients together, cut in butter with knife, add milk to
-make a stiff dough. Roll out thin and bake in hot oven. Serve with honey
-or maple syrup.
-
-
-                             =Gingerbread=
-
-                          4 tablespoons butter
-                          ½ cup sugar
-                          1 egg
-                          ½ cup molasses
-                          2 teaspoons cocoa
-                          ½ cup sour milk
-                          1¾ cups flour
-                          ¾ teaspoon soda
-                          1 teaspoon ginger
-                          1 teaspoon cinnamon
-                          ¼ teaspoon salt
-                          1 teaspoon allspice
-
-Sift flour and spices, salt and soda together. Mix other ingredients in
-the order given and combine mixtures. Bake in moderate oven 30 minutes.
-
-
-                          =Sour Milk Waffles=
-
-                          1 egg
-                          1 cup sour milk
-                          1 cup flour
-                          1 tablespoon butter
-                          1 teaspoon soda
-                          ½ teaspoon salt
-
-Beat egg thoroughly, add sour milk, flour and salt. Dissolve soda in ½
-tablespoon cold water. Add to mixture. Beat thoroughly. Cook on oiled,
-hot waffle iron and serve hot with maple syrup.
-
-
-                          =Sweet Milk Waffles=
-
-                       2 cups flour
-                       3 teaspoons baking powder
-                       ½ teaspoon salt
-                       1¼ cups milk
-                       Yolks 2 eggs
-                       Whites 2 eggs
-                       2 tablespoons butter
-
-Mix and sift dry ingredients, add milk, beaten yolks, butter and egg
-whites beaten stiff.
-
-
-                       =Buttermilk Griddle Cakes=
-
-                           2 cups buttermilk
-                           2 cups flour
-                           1 teaspoon soda
-                           1 egg beaten
-
-Mix in order given.
-
-
-                       =Sweet Milk Griddle Cakes=
-
-                     1 egg beaten
-                     2 cups milk
-                     3 cups flour sifted with
-                     3 teaspoons baking powder and
-                     ½ teaspoon salt
-                     2 tablespoons melted butter
-
-Mix in order given.
-
-
-                          =Boston Brown Bread=
-
-                        1 cup whole wheat flour
-                        2 cups graham flour
-                        1 teaspoon soda
-                        1 teaspoon salt
-                        2 cups sour milk
-                        ½ cup molasses
-
-Mix dry ingredients thoroughly. Mix the sour milk and molasses. Stir in
-dry ingredients, beating thoroughly. Turn into well buttered pound
-baking powder cans. Cover tightly and steam three hours. Take from can
-and slice, ½ cup raisins or nuts can be added to the dough mixture, if
-desired.
-
-
-                                DESSERTS
-
-For desserts the number of custards, creams and puddings made with milk
-is legion, and they are so well known and can be so easily varied that
-only a few stock recipes need be given.
-
-
-                            =Boiled Custard=
-
-                          2 cups scalded milk
-                          Yolks 2 eggs
-                          ¼ cup sugar
-                          ⅛ teaspoon salt
-                          ½ teaspoon vanilla
-
-Beat eggs slightly, add sugar and salt; stir constantly while adding
-gradually hot milk. Cook in double boiler, continue stirring until
-mixture thickens and a coating is formed on the spoon; strain
-immediately, chill and flavor. If cooked too long the custard will
-curdle. Should this happen, by using a Dover egg beater it may be
-restored to a smooth consistency, but custard will not be as thick. Eggs
-should be beaten slightly for custard that it may be of smooth, thick
-consistency. To prevent scum from forming, cover with a perforated tin
-or sprinkle with granulated sugar when cooling.
-
-
-                  =Blanc Mange or Cornstarch Pudding=
-
-                            1 qt. milk
-                            ½ cup cornstarch
-                            Pinch of salt
-                            3 eggs
-                            ½ cup sugar
-
-Heat milk to boiling, add cornstarch dissolved in a little cold milk and
-a pinch of salt. Boil five minutes, add yolks of eggs beaten with sugar.
-Boil 2 minutes longer, remove from fire and beat in the whipped whites
-of eggs. Flavor with vanilla or lemon. Serve cold with cream and sugar
-or canned peaches or pears.
-
-This is used also as a filling for cream pie, using the beaten whites of
-eggs, sweetened for a meringue and browning slightly in oven. Bake the
-crust before filling with the cream.
-
-
-                            =Baked Custard=
-
-                          4 cups scalded milk
-                          4 eggs
-                          ½ cup sugar
-                          ¼ teaspoon salt
-                          Few gratings nutmeg
-
-Beat eggs slightly, add sugar and salt, pour on slowly scalded milk,
-strain in buttered mold, set in pan of hot water. Sprinkle with nutmeg
-and bake in slow oven until firm, which may be readily determined by
-running a silver knife through custard. If knife comes out clean,
-custard is done. During baking care must be taken that water surrounding
-mold does not reach boiling point or custard will whey. Always bear in
-mind that eggs and milk combination must be cooked at a low temperature.
-For cup custards allow three eggs to four cups milk; for large molded
-custard four or five eggs; if fewer eggs are used, custard is liable to
-crack when turned on a serving dish.
-
-
-                     =Baked Apple, Southern Style=
-
-[Illustration]
-
-                           6 choice apples
-                           ½ cup sugar
-                           1 qt. milk
-                           Salt
-                           4 eggs
-                           ⅔ cup sugar
-                           1 teaspoon vanilla
-
-Pare and core apples that are not too sour to hold their shape when
-baked. Put in a pudding dish, sprinkle the half cupful of sugar over and
-around them, also filling place where the core was taken out. Put in
-oven and bake. Remove from oven and pour around them the milk mixture
-made thus: Beat the eggs well, add sugar and beat again, add milk, salt
-and vanilla. Bake slowly until a knife-blade will come out clean after
-insertion in the custard. Serve hot or cold, with or without whipped
-cream. This is an especially good dessert for children.
-
-
-                            =Coffee Custard=
-
-                          2 cups milk
-                          1 cup strong coffee
-                          3 eggs
-                          ¼ cup sugar
-                          ⅛ teaspoon salt
-                          ¼ teaspoon vanilla
-
-Beat eggs slightly; add sugar, salt, vanilla, milk and coffee. Strain
-into buttered individual molds, set in pan of hot water and bake until
-firm.
-
-
-                           =Caramel Custard=
-
-                          4 cups scalded milk
-                          5 eggs
-                          ½ teaspoon salt
-                          1 teaspoon vanilla
-                          ½ cup sugar
-
-Put sugar in omelette pan, stirring constantly over hot part of range
-until melted to a syrup of light brown color. Add gradually to milk,
-being careful that milk does not bubble up and go over, as is liable on
-account of high temperature of sugar. As soon as sugar is melted in
-milk, add mixture gradually to eggs slightly beaten, add salt and
-flavoring, then strain in buttered mold. Bake as custard. Chill and
-serve with caramel sauce.
-
-
-                             =Rice Pudding=
-
- 1 qt. milk
- ⅓ cup rice
- ½ teaspoon salt
- ⅛ teaspoon ground nutmeg, or cinnamon, or grated rind of ¼ of a lemon
-
-Wash the rice thoroughly, mix the ingredients and bake three hours or
-more in a very slow oven, stirring occasionally at first.
-
-
-                           =Tapioca Custard=
-
-Add to the list of ingredients for boiled custard ¼ cup of pearl
-tapioca. Soak the tapioca in water for an hour or two, drain it, and
-cook in the milk until it is transparent. Proceed as for boiled custard.
-
-
-                GENERAL RECIPE FOR CEREAL-MILK PUDDINGS
-
-Bread and rice puddings, made with milk and eggs, are familiar to all
-cooks. Made without eggs, the following will be found suggestive:
-
-For a quart of milk allow ⅓ of a cup of any coarse cereal (rice,
-cornmeal, cracked wheat, oatmeal or barley); add ⅓ of a cup of brown,
-white or maple sugar, syrup, honey or molasses; ½ teaspoon salt; ⅛
-teaspoon spice. The flavoring may be omitted when honey or molasses is
-used.
-
-The above recipe makes quite a large pudding. It is often convenient to
-make a smaller one, and enough for a child’s dinner can be made in the
-double boiler, allowing two level or one rounding tablespoon of cereal
-to a cup of salted and flavored milk. Cook an hour and sweeten slightly.
-
-These puddings, if made thin, may be poured over stewed prunes or other
-cooked fruits, and are a good and economical substitute for the cream or
-soft custard usually used for that purpose.
-
-A very old recipe for a baked corn pudding has recently been given to
-the author.
-
-
-                         =Indian Meal Custard=
-
-                 1 pt. sweet milk, when hot add slowly
-                 ½ cup cornmeal
-                 Pinch salt
-                 ½ teaspoon each cinnamon and ginger
-                 Sugar to taste
-                 1 tablespoon molasses
-                 Boil 5 minutes, and add
-                 2 beaten eggs
-                 1 pt. milk
-                 Bake about one-half hour or till set.
-
-
-                       =Milk and Fruit Mold[11]=
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Milk and fruit mold
-]
-
-                3½ cups hot milk,
-                ½ cup cold milk,
-                5 tablespoons granulated sugar
-                10 tablespoons cornstarch
-                2 beaten egg whites
-                1 teaspoon almond extract,
-                ½ teaspoon salt
-                Candied cherries, cut into small pieces
-
-Heat milk in double boiler. Mix cornstarch with cold milk, stir it into
-the hot milk, add salt and sugar and cook, stirring occasionally, for 10
-minutes. Remove from fire, fold in the beaten whites and add the
-flavoring. Rinse mold in cold water, drain, pour in part of the cooked
-mixture, add a layer of cherries and continue until mold is filled. Set
-on ice to chill. May be served in tall glasses, as illustrated, or
-unmolded on a flat serving platter.
-
-
-                           =Caramel Rice[11]=
-
-                     6 cups milk
-                     1 cup rice
-                     1¼ cups granulated sugar
-                     1 teaspoon salt
-                     2 slightly beaten eggs
-                     Grated rind of half an orange
-
-Cook rice, salt, the quarter cup of sugar and milk together in a double
-boiler until rice is tender. Remove from fire, add grated rind and
-beaten eggs and mix well.
-
-Put the cup of sugar in a small saucepan over the fire and stir
-constantly until it is a golden brown liquid. Have a mold heating, and
-when very hot pour the liquid in it, turning the mold so that all parts
-are coated. Turn the rice into the mold and set it in a pan of water in
-a hot oven for 20 minutes, having the mold covered the entire time.
-
-Remove from oven, let stand until cold, unmold and serve with the
-caramel sauce that is in the mold.
-
-
-                            =Milk Cream=[11]
-
-                      1½ cups hot milk
-                      ½ cup cold milk
-                      ⅜ cup granulated sugar
-                      3 eggs
-                      ½ ounce granulated gelatine
-                      1 teaspoon vanilla
-                      Pinch of salt
-
-Soak gelatine in the cold milk for 10 minutes. Heat balance of milk in a
-double boiler, add salt, sugar and beaten yolks, stirring constantly.
-Cook until mixture coats the spoon, remove from fire, add soaked
-gelatine and stir until dissolved. Then set aside to cool and when
-beginning to thicken add flavoring and mix in lightly the stiffly beaten
-whites.
-
-Rinse a mold in cold water, drain, pour in mixture and set in a cold
-place until firm. Unmold and serve plain or with thin cream.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Milk cream
-]
-
-
-                             =Plain Junket=
-
-Heat a quart of milk until lukewarm, not to exceed 100° F. Remove from
-fire; sweeten and flavor to taste, using vanilla or any other desired
-flavor. Dissolve one Junket Tablet in cold water and stir the solution
-quickly into the lukewarm milk. Pour immediately into individual serving
-dishes, sherbet glasses, bowls or the like, and let stand warm until
-thickened. When “set” remove to ice box or other cool place without
-stirring and let stand until serving time. Serve with or without whipped
-cream, a sprinkle of nutmeg, or a few strawberries on the top, etc.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Plain junket
-]
-
-
-                           =Chocolate Junket=
-
-Sweeten a quart of milk with half a cup of sugar. Melt one square of
-chocolate or two tablespoonfuls of cocoa, add half a cup of the milk and
-boil one minute. Remove from fire and add the remainder of the milk,
-which must not be boiled, and a teaspoonful of vanilla. Probably the
-mixture will be lukewarm, if not, warm until it is. Stir in dissolved
-Junket Tablet, pour at once into serving dishes and leave undisturbed
-until set. Chill and serve. If whipped cream sweetened and flavored with
-vanilla is heaped upon the Chocolate Junket when serving, a most
-attractive dessert is obtained, and Chocolate Junket frozen makes a
-delicious ice cream.
-
-
-                            =Coffee Junket=
-
-One-half cup very strong coffee, ½ cup sugar, added to 1¾ pints of
-heated milk. Dissolve. Add your Junket Tablet and finish as ordinary
-Junket. Serve with cream.
-
-An endless variety of Junkets can be made by varying flavor and color,
-by adding fruit or preserves, etc., and in the sick room various
-medicines or stimulants, peptone, wine, etc., may conveniently be
-administered as an ingredient in the pudding.
-
-
-                          =“Prepared Junket”=
-
-_Prepared Junket_ in which all the ingredients are found except the milk
-is on the market in the form of a powder called “Nesnah.” It is put up
-in various flavors and is easily and quickly made when milk is at
-disposal.
-
-Heat 1 qt. milk lukewarm, remove from fire, add one package of the
-prepared Junket and dissolve quickly and thoroughly by vigorous stirring
-for ½ minute only. Pour immediately into individual serving dishes and
-let stand in warm room until thoroughly set. Place in ice box until
-serving time. Serve with or without plain or whipped cream.
-
-
-                             MILK BEVERAGES
-
-
-                                 =Whey=
-
-                        1 qt. fresh milk
-                        1 Junket Tablet
-                        1 tablespoon cold water
-
-Heat the milk until lukewarm and add the tablet dissolved in the cold
-water. Allow it to set in a warm room. Then break up the curd gently and
-strain it through two thicknesses of cheese-cloth, being careful to
-remove all the casein. Cool at once and serve cold, without or with
-sweetening, and flavor as desired.
-
-
-                              =Lemon Whey=
-
-                          1 qt. hot milk
-                          3 tablespoons sugar
-                          ½ cup lemon juice
-
-Heat the milk in a double boiler and add the lemon juice. Cook without
-stirring until the whey separates. Strain through cheese-cloth and add
-the sugar. Serve hot or cold, garnished with small slices of lemon.
-
-
-                          =Cinnamon and Milk=
-
-                             1 qt. new milk
-                             Stick cinnamon
-                             Sugar
-
-Boil milk with sufficient cinnamon to flavor as desired. Sweeten and
-serve warm or cold.
-
-
-                              =Rice Milk=
-
-                            1 ounce rice
-                            1 pint milk
-                            1 saltspoon salt
-                            1 teaspoon sugar
-
-Soak the rice twelve hours. Add the scalded milk, salt and sugar. Stir
-well and cook one hour; then rub through a fine sieve. Thin with more
-hot milk and serve.
-
-
-                     =Kumyss= (see also Chapter II)
-
-                       ⅙ cake Fleischmann’s yeast
-                       1¼ tablespoons sugar
-                       1 tablespoon water
-                       1 quart milk
-
-Make a thin syrup of the sugar and water and cook one minute. Soften the
-yeast in two tablespoons of lukewarm milk. Heat the milk until lukewarm,
-add other ingredients and shake. Put in stone, sterile bottles, place in
-an upright position for twelve hours, at 70° (kitchen heat); then turn
-on side and leave at a temperature of 50° (lower part of ice box). Ready
-for use after the first twenty-four hours; often kept several days, but
-the longer it is kept the less palatable it is. It should look like
-thick, foamy cream.
-
-
-                            =Egg Milk Shake=
-
-                               1 egg
-                               1 cup milk
-                               Sugar
-                               Vanilla
-
-Break the egg into a large glass and beat well. Add sugar and a couple
-of drops of vanilla or a dust of nutmeg and beat again. Fill up glass
-with rich milk. This makes a very nourishing drink.
-
-
-                           =Buttermilk Shake=
-
-                        1 cup buttermilk
-                        1 egg
-                        Sugar
-                        Few drops lemon extract
-                        Salt
-
-Break egg into bowl, beat thoroughly with egg beater, add sugar,
-flavoring, a tiny pinch of salt and buttermilk. Beat again till light
-and foamy. Turn into glass.
-
-
-                         =Buttermilk Lemonade=
-
-A variation may be made from ordinary buttermilk by the addition of
-lemon juice and sugar. “Buttermilk lemonade” usually requires the juice
-of three lemons to one quart of buttermilk. The quantity of lemon and
-sugar, however, should be varied to suit the taste of the individual.
-The beverage is delightful and is especially refreshing on a hot summer
-day.
-
-One may also use the juice of two oranges and one lemon to one quart of
-buttermilk, instead of the lemons alone.
-
-Many people like the clear buttermilk slightly sweetened with a few
-grains of salt added.
-
-
-                              =Chocolate=
-
-                          1½ squares chocolate
-                          4 tablespoons sugar
-                          Few grains salt
-                          1 cup boiling water
-                          3 cups milk
-                          ½ teaspoon vanilla
-
-Scald milk. Melt chocolate in small saucepan and gradually add boiling
-water. When smooth add to scalded milk, sweeten and add salt and
-vanilla. Mill with Dover egg beater, and serve, putting a large teaspoon
-of whipped cream on each cup.
-
-
-                                =Cocoa=
-
-                           ¼ cup cocoa
-                           ¼ cup sugar
-                           Few grains salt
-                           1 cup water
-                           3 cups milk
-                           ½ teaspoon vanilla
-
-Mix cocoa and sugar, add water and stir into milk already heated in
-double boiler. Cook 15 minutes, add vanilla and salt. Serve with whipped
-cream. A famous cook known to the writer adds 1 teaspoon cornstarch
-dissolved in 1 tablespoon cold water to the cocoa when nearly ready for
-the table. It adds to the apparent richness of the beverage.
-
-
-                       MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS
-
-1. A tablespoonful of milk put in the pan before frying eggs will keep
-them tender.
-
-2. Covering cold chicken or other meat with buttermilk will keep it for
-twenty-four hours or more, without affecting the meat except to make it
-more tender.
-
-3. Custards and ice cream kept too long in warm weather may cause
-ptomaine poisoning.
-
-4. Keep milk covered to shut out flavors from other food.
-
-5. Milk warm from the cow should not be kept in a closed receptacle.
-
-6. Danish cooks soak a piece of veal in skim milk overnight before
-roasting it, to improve the flavor.
-
-7. Sliced ham covered with milk and baked in a moderate oven for an hour
-has delicate flavor and is always tender.
-
-
-                            THE THERMOMETER
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Dairy and household thermometers
-]
-
-In the United States and Canada as well as in England _Fahrenheit’s_
-thermometer is generally used according to which water freezes at 32°
-and boils at 212° at ordinary air pressure, leaving 180 degrees between
-the freezing and the boiling point. In some countries in Europe
-Réaumur’s thermometer is used with 0° for the freezing point and 80° for
-boiling. In France and for scientific work in all countries, however,
-the Celsius or Centigrade system is employed for measuring heat and
-cold, having 0° for freezing and 100° for boiling. As there are 180°
-Fahrenheit, 80° Réaumur and 100° Centigrade between freezing and
-boiling, the divisions are therefore as 9° F. to 4° R. and 5° C.
-
-To change from degrees of F. above the freezing point to the other
-systems deduct 32, divide the remainder by 9 and multiply by 4 or by 5
-respectively. To change from C. to F. divide by 5, multiply by 9 and add
-32, etc. As the metric system is gradually being introduced everywhere
-instead of the old systems for weights and measures, so also is the
-Centigrade thermometer being substituted for the others and in cookery
-it may soon be used exclusively.
-
-
-                          WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
-
-    1 pound = 16 ounces = 453.6 grams
-    1 ounce = 16 drams = 28.35 grams
-    1 kilogram = 1000 grams = 2.2 pounds
-    1 gram = 15.43 grains = .035 ounces
-
-    1 gallon = 4 quarts = 3.785 liters
-    1 quart = 2 pints =.9464 liters
-    1 pint = 16 fluid ounces = .4731 liters
-    1 fluid ounce = 8 drams = 29.57 c.c.
-    1 liter = 1000 cubic centimeters = 1.0567 quarts
-
-    1 mile = 5280 feet = 1.6 kilometer
-    1 foot = 12 inches = .3048 meter
-    1 kilometer = 1000 meters = .6214 mile
-    1 meter = 100 centimeters = 39.37 inches
-
-    1 acre = 43,560 sq. ft. = .4047 hectare
-    1 sq. ft. = 144 sq. inches = 9.29 sq. decimeters
-    1 hectare = 10,000 sq. meters = 2.471 acres
-    1 square meter = 100 sq. decimeters = 10.764 sq. ft.
-    1 bushel = 4 pecks = .3552 hectoliter
-    1 hectoliter = 2.8377 bushels
-
-    1 U. S. gallon = 128 ounces = 231 cb. inches
-    1 Imperial gallon (English and Canadian) = 160 ounces = 277 cb. in.
-    6 U. S. gallons = 5 Imperial gallons
-
-    1 gallon of water weighs 8.34 pounds
-    1 gallon of milk weighs 8.6 pounds
-    A 40 quart can of milk = 86 pounds
-
-
-              _Approximate Household Weights and Measures_
-
-    4 saltspoonfuls = 1 teaspoonful
-    3 flat teaspoonfuls = 1 heaping teaspoonful
-    1 heaping tablespoonful of granulated sugar = nearly 1 ounce
-    1 rounded tablespoonful of butter = 1 ounce
-    2 ordinary cups of granulated sugar = 1 pound
-    3 ordinary cups of wheat flour = 1 pound
-    1 pound of granulated sugar = 1 pint
-
-    4 flat teaspoonfuls of liquid = 1 flat tablespoonful = ½ fluid ounce
-    4 large tablespoonfuls = 1 ordinary wine glass = 2 fluid ounces
-    1 pint = 2 cups or glasses
-    1 cup or glass = 8 fluid ounces.
-
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
-                               END NOTES
-
-
------
-
-Footnote 1:
-
-  From circular No. 85 of a series of statements prepared under the
-  direction of the Secretary of Agriculture, covering the agricultural
-  situation for 1918.
-
-Footnote 2:
-
-  _The Babcock Test_ is operated as follows: When the milk has been
-  thoroughly mixed and a true sample has been taken the _pipette_ is
-  filled to the mark by sucking the milk into it until it stands a
-  little above the mark on the stem, then quickly placing a dry finger
-  over the end of the pipette and allowing the milk to escape until it
-  just reaches the mark. The quantity thus measured off is 17.6 c.c. The
-  pipette is then emptied into the _test bottle_ by placing the point in
-  the neck and allowing the milk to flow slowly down the inside of the
-  neck, taking care not to lose any of the milk. Blow the last drops out
-  of the pipette into the bottle.
-
-  The _measuring glass_, holding 17.5 c.c., is filled to the mark with
-  _sulphuric acid_ of a specific gravity of 1.82 to 1.83 and this is
-  poured into the milk in the test bottle. The acid is a strong poison
-  and must be handled with care. Pour it slowly down along the wall of
-  the bottle which is held at an angle and turned slowly during the
-  operation.
-
-  Now give the bottle a rotary motion to thoroughly mix the milk and the
-  acid, shaking vigorously towards the end of the operation so as to be
-  sure not to leave any of the acid which is heavier than the milk at
-  the bottom of the bottle.
-
-  _Whirling._—The bottles are then placed in the centrifugal machine and
-  whirled for five minutes at the proper speed—from 600 to 1200
-  revolutions per minute—according to the diameter of the machine and as
-  stated in the directions which come with the tester. The mixture of
-  milk and acid is hot enough if the whirling is done at once, but if it
-  is allowed to cool the bottles should be placed in hot water of 150 to
-  170° for about 15 minutes; whirling at full speed for 4 minutes brings
-  all the fat to the top.
-
-  Hot water is now added until the bottle is filled almost to the scale
-  on the neck and the bottles are again placed in the machine and
-  whirled at full speed for one minute. Hot water is then again added
-  until the lower end of the fat column is within the scale, preferably
-  at the 1% or 2% mark on the neck of the bottle. Whirl once more for
-  one or two minutes and then read off the percentage of fat on the
-  scale. Each division represents 0.2% fat. The fat column is measured
-  from the lower line between the fat and the water to the point where
-  the top of the fat column touches the wall of the neck. A pair of
-  dividers are handy for measuring the fat column and reading off the
-  percentage of fat in the milk. The bottle with contents should be
-  warm—about 140°—when the measure is taken.
-
-  For testing skim milk and cream special forms of test bottles are
-  used—which are described in the circulars coming with the testers and
-  students who desire fuller information are referred to Farrington and
-  Woll’s “Testing Milk and its Products,” published by the Mendota Book
-  Co., Madison, Wis.
-
-Footnote 3:
-
-  The _Acid Test_ depends upon what in the laboratory is called
-  “titration” and makes use of a “burette,” a long, graduated measuring
-  tube provided with a pinch-cock. This burette is filled with an alkali
-  solution of known strength, usually a “tenth normal” solution of
-  caustic soda. A certain amount of the milk to be tested is measured
-  off into a glass or a white porcelain cup. As a 17.6 c.c. pipette
-  belonging to the Babcock test usually is at hand, that may be used for
-  this purpose. A few drops of an _Indicator_ is added to the milk and
-  under constant stirring the soda solution is allowed to drip into it
-  until suddenly it turns pink. The color will quickly disappear,
-  however, and a few more drops of the alkali are added and stirred in
-  several times until a faint but distinct pink color remains for some
-  time. That indicates that the acid in the milk has been neutralized
-  and the amount of the soda solution consumed is then read off on the
-  scale on the burette. By dividing the number of c.c. of the soda
-  solution used by two, the tenths per cent of lactic acid in the milk
-  is found. For example, if it takes 4 c.c. of the soda solution to
-  neutralize 17.6 c.c. milk, the acidity is .2%. This depends upon the
-  fact that 1 c.c. of a tenth normal soda neutralizes .009 gram of
-  lactic acid and that therefore the per cent of acid in the milk is
-  equal to .009 multiplied by the number of c.c. of soda solution used,
-  divided by the number of c.c. of milk and multiplied by 100.
-
-  If 50 c.c. of milk is taken instead of 17.6 the calculation is changed
-  accordingly.
-
-Footnote 4:
-
-  Farmers’ Bulletin No. 602, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
-
-Footnote 5:
-
-  _Butter Color_ is made of the coloring matter of “Annatto” dissolved
-  in a refined vegetable (salad) oil. The Annatto tree (Bixa Orelana)
-  grows in the tropics and the seed which has a thin coating of this
-  beautiful coloring matter comes mostly from the West Indian Islands,
-  Jamaica, Porto Rico and Guadeloupe. It is perfectly harmless and is
-  used by the natives to flavor and color soup and other foods much as
-  we use tomatoes.
-
-Footnote 6:
-
-  The Marschall Rennet Test consists of a graduated cup (a) with a fine
-  hole for an outlet in the bottom. One cubic centimeter of a standard
-  rennet extract is diluted with water in the glass bottle (c). The cup
-  is filled with milk and placed on the corner of the cheese vat, the
-  milk being allowed to run through the fine hole in the bottom of the
-  cup. The moment the surface of the milk reaches the upper mark of the
-  graduation in the cup the diluted rennet extract is added and quickly
-  stirred into the milk with the spattle (d).
-
-  When the milk begins to curdle it stops running out. The sweeter the
-  milk is the more will run out before coagulation stops it and the mark
-  on the scale at which it stops indicates the degree of acidity or
-  ripening. The point is to have the milk alike every day and if, for
-  instance, the cheesemaker has found that his cheese is best if he adds
-  the rennet to the milk in the vat when the test shows 2½, he wants to
-  ripen the milk to that degree every day. So, if the test shows 3 or 4,
-  it indicates that the milk is not sufficiently ripened and it should
-  be allowed to stand warm for a longer time before it is set with
-  rennet.
-
-Footnote 7:
-
-  The Acidemeter for making an Acid Test is described in Chapter I.
-
-Footnote 8:
-
-  Rennet (see under “Ferments” in Chapter I) is prepared from the third
-  division of the stomach of the suckling or milk-fed calf. Fifty years
-  ago cheesemakers used to make their own rennet by soaking salted
-  calves’ stomachs in sour whey, and our grandmothers used a piece of a
-  dry, salted stomach to make Junket or “Curds and Whey.” About 1868,
-  Christian Hansen, of Copenhagen, Denmark, began the preparation of
-  Commercial Rennet Extract which soon supplanted the home-made rennet
-  in all countries wherever cheese was made. Nowadays rennet in liquid
-  or powder or tablet form for cheesemaking, and Junket Tablets for milk
-  puddings, are prepared pure and of known strength in laboratories and
-  handled by druggists and dealers in dairy supplies.
-
-  The fresh stomachs are saved by the farmers or butchers and are either
-  blown up and dried in the air protected from sunlight and rain, or
-  split lengthwise and spread out flat and salted on both sides.
-
-  In the laboratory the ferment is extracted by chemicals and a pure,
-  clear liquid extract is prepared, of uniform strength and good keeping
-  quality. Or the extract is condensed into a powder which again is
-  compressed into tablets of great strength.
-
-  The ferment acts best when the milk is lukewarm, but it will do the
-  work at temperatures ranging from 50°, or even lower, to 120° F.
-  Strongly pasteurized or sterilized milk will not curdle with rennet,
-  but milk pasteurized at a low temperature is not changed enough to
-  prevent it from making a firm curd. More rennet does not make a firmer
-  curd but causes the milk to curdle quicker; less rennet makes the
-  process slower. Diluted milk will not curdle firmly, and the failure
-  of milk to make a smooth coagulum of the usual consistency and in the
-  usual time, the temperature being right and the regular amount of a
-  standard rennet being used, is a never-failing proof that something is
-  the matter with the milk. It has been changed from its natural
-  condition by over-heating in pasteurization or by watering or
-  doctoring, or it has not been properly ripened.
-
-Footnote 9:
-
-  W. O. Atwater, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 142.
-
-Footnote 10:
-
-  Dr. E. V. McCollum in “Hoard’s Dairyman.”
-
-Footnote 11:
-
-  Prepared for “The Story of Milk” by A. Louise Andrea.
-
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
-                              BIBLIOGRAPHY
-
-
-Cheese Making; John W. Decker, Columbus, O.
-
-The Milk Question; M. J. Rosenau, Houghton-Mifflin Co., Boston.
-
-The Manufacture of Cheese of the Cheddar Type from Pasteurized Milk; J.
-    L. Sammis and A. T. Bruhn, Bulletin 165, Bureau of Animal Industry,
-    Washington, D. C.
-
-Dairy Laboratory Guide; Charles W. Melick, D. Van Nostrand Company, New
-    York City.
-
-Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen; F. W. Woll, John Wiley & Sons, New
-    York City.
-
-Testing Milk and Its Products; E. H. Farrington and F. W. Woll, Mendota
-    Book Company, Madison, Wis.
-
-Farmers’ Clean Milk Book; Dr. Charles E. North, John Wiley & Sons, New
-    York.
-
-Ost og Osteproduktion; G. Ellbrecht, Nordisk Forlag, Copenhagen,
-    Denmark.
-
-Outlines of Dairy Bacteriology; N. L. Russell, Madison, Wis.
-
-A B C in Butter Making; J. H. Monrad, Urner-Barry Co., New York.
-
-A B C in Cheese Making; J. H. Monrad, Urner-Barry Co., New York.
-
-Dairy Chemistry; Henry Droop Richmond, Charles Griffin and Company,
-    Ltd., London.
-
-Milk, its Nature and Composition; C. M. Aikman, Adams and Charles Black,
-    London.
-
-Milk and Its Products; H. H. Wing, The Macmillan Co., New York.
-
-Principles and Practice of Buttermaking; G. L. McKay and C. Larsen, John
-    Wiley & Sons, New York.
-
-Science and Practice of Cheese Making; L. L. Van Slyke and Chas. A.
-    Publow, Orange Judd Company, New York.
-
-Agricultural Bacteriology; H. W. Conn, P. Blakiston’s Son & Co.,
-    Philadelphia.
-
-Creaming Milk by Centrifugal Force; J. D. Frederiksen, Little Falls,
-    N.Y.
-
-The Common Sense of the Milk Question; John Spargo, The Macmillan
-    Company, New York.
-
-Practical Dairy Husbandry; X. A. Willard, Excelsior Publishing House,
-    New York.
-
-Maelkeri Bakteriologi; Orla Jensen, Copenhagen.
-
-Maelkeribruget i Danmark, Bernhard Boggild, Copenhagen.
-
-Mejerivaesenet i Nord-Amerika; J. D. Frederiksen, Copenhagen.
-
-Modern Dairy Guide; Martin H. Meyer, Madison, Wis.
-
-La Laiterie; A. F. Pouriau, Librairie Audot, Lebroc & Cie, Paris.
-
-The Dairying Industry in Canada; J. A. Ruddick, Dept. of Agriculture,
-    Ottawa, Canada.
-
-Canadian Dairying; Henry H. Dean, William Briggs, Toronto.
-
-The Business of Dairying; Clarence B. Lane, Orange Judd Co., New York.
-
-Questions and Answers on Buttermaking; Chas. A. Publow, Orange Judd
-    Company, New York.
-
-The Prolongation of Life; Elie Metchnikoff, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New
-    York.
-
-The Bacillus of Long Life; Loudon M. Douglas, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New
-    York.
-
-The Book of Butter; Edward Sewall Guthrie, The Macmillan Co., New York.
-
-The Care and Feeding of Children; L. Emmett Holt, M. D., D. Appleton &
-    Co.
-
-
-                Printed in the United States of America
-
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
-
-The following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan
-books on kindred subjects.
-
-
-
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-The Book of Ice Cream
-
-                           BY WALTER N. FISK
-
-                                                          _Cloth, 12 mo_
-
-This book is intended to aid the student and the commercial manufacturer
-in better understanding the principles of making and handling ice cream.
-It is not primarily intended as a recipe-book, although many recipes are
-included in the text.
-
-The first five chapters consist in a general discussion of the materials
-used in the manufacture of ice cream as well as the stabilizers and
-fillers and flavoring materials. The next chapter deals with the
-classification of ice creams, and here the recipes are given. The
-equipment and refrigeration are then explained in a separate chapter,
-followed by three chapters devoted to the actual making of ice cream.
-
-The concluding pages are taken up with an analysis of the qualities of
-ice cream and of the bacteriology of its manufacture. Such a discussion
-should be useful both to the student in the class-room and the
-progressive manufacturer.
-
-                  *       *       *       *       *
-
-                         THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
-               Publishers   64-66 Fifth Avenue   New York
-
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-                       THE RURAL TEXT-BOOK SERIES
-
-                         EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY
-
-Butter
-
-                            BY E. S. GUTHRIE
-
-      Professor in the Dairy Department, New York State College of
-                    Agriculture, Cornell University
-
-                  *       *       *       *       *
-
-                                                   _Cloth, 12mo, $1.75._
-
-A practical discussion of the general characteristics of butter, and of
-all of the problems connected with its manufacture and marketing,
-together with a brief history of the product. Among the topics
-considered are the history of butter; composition and food value of
-butter; cleansing and care of dairy utensils; care of milk and cream;
-cream separation; grading milk and cream and neutralizing acidity;
-pasteurization; cream ripening; churning, washing, salting and packing
-butter; flavors of butter; storage of butter; marketing; whey butter,
-renovated and ladled butter; margarine, and testing.
-
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-The Book of Cheese
-
-                            BY CHARLES THOM
-
-     Mycologist in charge of Microbiological Laboratory, Bureau of
-      Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture; formerly
-       Investigator in Cheese at Connecticut Agricultural College
-
-                                  AND
-
-                             WALTER W. FISK
-
-         Assistant Professor of Dairy Industry, New York State
-              College of Agriculture at Cornell University
-
-                                                   _Cloth, 12mo, $1.90._
-
-An exposition of the processes of making and handling a series of
-important varieties of cheese. The kinds considered are those made
-commercially in America or widely met in the trade here. The relation of
-cheese to milk and to its production and composition has been presented
-in so far as required for this purpose.
-
-After a general statement on cheese, the authors consider the following
-subjects: The milk in its relation to cheese; Coagulating materials;
-Lactic starters; Curd making; Classification of cheese; Cheese with sour
-milk flavor; Soft cheeses ripened by mold; Soft cheeses ripened by
-bacteria; Semi-hard cheeses; The hard cheeses; Cheddar cheese making;
-Composition and yield of cheddar cheese; Cheddar cheese ripening; The
-Swiss and Italian groups; Miscellaneous varieties and by-products;
-Cheese factory construction, equipment, organization; History and
-development of the cheese industry in America; Testing; Marketing;
-Cheese in the household.
-
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-A Manual of Milk Products
-
-                         BY W. A. STOCKING, JR.
-
-    Professor of Dairy Bacteriology in the New York State College of
-                   Agriculture at Cornell University
-
-                                                    _Cloth, 12mo, $2.50_
-
-This is a very recent addition to the Rural Manual Series under the
-editorship of L. H. Bailey. The work is intended to serve as a reference
-book covering the entire subject of milk and its products. There are
-chapters on The Chemical Composition of Milk, The Factors Which
-Influence Its Composition, Physical Properties, The Various Tests Used
-in the Study of Milk, The Production and Handling of Milk, Butter
-Making, The Cream Supply, Butter Making on the Farm, Cheese Making, and
-the Bacteriology of Dairy Products.
-
-
-Milk and Its Products
-
-                            BY HENRY H. WING
-           Professor of Dairy Husbandry in Cornell University
-
-   _New Revised Edition, with new illustrations, cloth, 12mo, $1.60_
-
-The revolution in dairy practice, brought about by the introduction of
-the centrifugal cream separator and the Babcock test for fat, by a more
-definite knowledge regarding the various fermentations that so greatly
-influence milk, and the manufacture of its products, have demanded the
-publication of a book that shall give to the dairyman, and particularly
-to the dairy student, in simple, concise form, the principles underlying
-modern dairy practice. Such has been Professor Wing’s purpose in this
-work. This is not a new edition of the author’s very successful volume
-published under the same title many years ago; it is, in reality, an
-entirely new book, having been wholly reset and enlarged by the addition
-of new matter, both text and illustrations. The author’s aim has been at
-all times to give the present state of knowledge as supported by the
-weight of evidence and the opinions of those whose authority is highest.
-
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-
-
- ● Transcriber’s Notes:
-    ○ Footnotes have been gathered and moved to their own section.
-    ○ Missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected.
-    ○ Typographical errors were silently corrected.
-    ○ Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only
-      when a predominant form was found in this book.
-    ○ Text that was in:
-      italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_);
-      bold by is enclosed by “equal” signs (=bold=).
-
-
-
-*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF MILK ***
-
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
-be renamed.
-
-Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
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-<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Story of Milk, by Johan D. Frederiksen</div>
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-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
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-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Story of Milk</p>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Johan D. Frederiksen</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: August 14, 2021 [eBook #66061]</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div>
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-<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Barry Abrahamsen, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)</div>
-
-<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF MILK ***</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/cover.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c000' />
-</div>
-<div>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_I'>I</span>
-  <h1 class='c001'>THE STORY OF MILK</h1>
-</div>
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c002' />
-</div>
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_II'>II</span>
-<img src='images/frontis.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Well kept creamery with attractive surroundings</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c000' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c003'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_III'>III</span><span class='c004'>THE STORY OF MILK</span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i-title.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
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-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div><span class='c005'>BY</span></div>
-    <div class='c000'><span class='c006'>JOHAN D. FREDERIKSEN</span></div>
-    <div class='c000'><span class='c007'>GRADUATE OF THE ROYAL DANISH AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, AUTHOR</span></div>
-    <div><span class='c007'>OF “CHEESE MAKING IN AMERICA” (IN DANISH), “CREAMING</span></div>
-    <div><span class='c007'>MILK BY CENTRIFUGAL FORCE,” ETC., GENERAL MANAGER</span></div>
-    <div><span class='c007'>OF CHR. HANSEN’S LABORATORY, MANUFACTURERS</span></div>
-    <div><span class='c007'>OF DAIRY AND MILK-FOOD PREPARATIONS,</span></div>
-    <div><span class='c007'>LITTLE FALLS, N.Y.</span></div>
-    <div class='c003'><span class='c005'><span class="blackletter">New York</span></span></div>
-    <div><span class='c006'>THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</span></div>
-    <div>1919</div>
-    <div class='c008'><i>All rights reserved</i></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c008' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c002'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_IV'>IV</span><span class='sc'>Copyright</span>, 1919</div>
-    <div class='c000'><span class='sc'>By</span> THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</div>
-    <div class='c000'>Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1919</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c002' />
-</div>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_V'>V</span>
-  <h2 class='c009'>TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2>
-</div>
-<h3 class='c010'><i>HISTORICAL</i></h3>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c000'>
-    <div><span class='sc'>Chapter I</span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table0' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='90%' />
-<col width='9%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c012'><span class='small'>PAGE</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><span class='sc'>Production, Composition and Characteristics of Milk</span></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Milk Ferments</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Pasteurization</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Dairy Cattle</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Milk-Breeds</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Beef-Cattle</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_4'>4</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Food and Water</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—The Barn</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_9'>9</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Milking</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_10'>10</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Test the Cows</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_11'>11</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Healthy Cows</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Composition of Milk</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Butter-fat</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Casein and Albumen</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_14'>14</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Milk-Sugar</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_14'>14</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Mineral Matters</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_15'>15</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>How to Test Milk</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_15'>15</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—The Babcock Test</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_16'>16</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Sampling</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—The Lactometer</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_18'>18</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Acidity Test</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_19'>19</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Ferments</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_20'>20</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Enzymes</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_21'>21</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Rennet</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_20'>20</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Pepsin</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_21'>21</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_VI'>VI</span><i>Bacteria</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_21'>21</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Lactic Acid Bacilli</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_21'>21</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>The Control of Bacteria</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_22'>22</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Cleanliness</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_22'>22</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Heat</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_22'>22</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Cooling</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_22'>22</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Disinfectants</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Pasteurization</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Pure Cultures</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_30'>30</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Starters</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_32'>32</a></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><span class='sc'>Chapter II</span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table0' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='90%' />
-<col width='9%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><span class='sc'>Milk Supply and Creamery Products</span></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_35'>35</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Milk Supply</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_35'>35</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Bovine Tuberculosis</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_35'>35</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Milk as a Disease Carrier</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_36'>36</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Bacteria Count</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_36'>36</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Certified Milk</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_36'>36</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—The Sanitary Code</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_38'>38</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—New York State Milk Grading</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_38'>38</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—City Delivery</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_39'>39</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Milk Stations</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_41'>41</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Skim Milk</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_44'>44</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Cream</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_44'>44</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—The Separator</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Percentage of Butter-fat</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Standardizing Cream</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Pasteurized Cream</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_49'>49</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Whipped Cream</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_49'>49</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Emulsified Cream</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Ice Cream</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_52'>52</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Freezers</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_52'>52</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Classification of Ice Cream</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_56'>56</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Ice Cream Recipes</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_56'>56</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_VII'>VII</span><i>Butter</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Dairy Butter</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_70'>70</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Centrifugal Creaming</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_70'>70</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Co-operative Creameries</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_70'>70</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Ripening the Cream</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_71'>71</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Coloring</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_74'>74</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Churning</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_75'>75</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Working</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Salting</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Composition</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Overrun</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Packing</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Sweet Butter</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Renovated Butter</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_80'>80</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Oleomargarine</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_80'>80</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Coco-Butter</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_80'>80</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Buttermilk</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_80'>80</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Cooling Essential</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_81'>81</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Commercial Buttermilk</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_81'>81</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Ripening</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_82'>82</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Breaking up the Curd</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_82'>82</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Thick Milk</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_82'>82</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Yoghourt</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Fermented Milk</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Koumis</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Kefir</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_85'>85</a></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><span class='sc'>Chapter III</span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table0' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='90%' />
-<col width='9%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><span class='sc'>Cheese</span></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_86'>86</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Cheddar Cheese</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_89'>89</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>The Factory System</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_99'>99</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Ripening the Milk</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_90'>90</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Coloring and Setting with Rennet</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_92'>92</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Cutting the Curd</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_94'>94</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_VIII'>VIII</span>—“Cooking”</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_94'>94</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Matting</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_95'>95</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Salting</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Pressing</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Curing</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Form, size and packing</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_98'>98</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Cleaning the vats</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_101'>101</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Yield</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_102'>102</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Composition</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_102'>102</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Qualities</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_103'>103</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Cheese Made from Pasteurized Milk</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_103'>103</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Making Cheddar Cheese on the Farm</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_104'>104</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Other Types of Hard Cheese</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_111'>111</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Gouda</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_112'>112</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Edam</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_112'>112</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Swiss</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_115'>115</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Roquefort</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_120'>120</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Parmesan</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_123'>123</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Caccio Cavallo</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_124'>124</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Limburger</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_125'>125</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Brick</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_125'>125</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Munster</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_126'>126</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Soft Rennet Cheese</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_126'>126</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Neufchatel</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_126'>126</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Cream Cheese</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_127'>127</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Cured Soft Cheese</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_128'>128</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—French Soft Cheese</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_128'>128</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Cottage Cheese</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_129'>129</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Making Cottage Cheese with Rennet</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_132'>132</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Snappy Cheese</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_134'>134</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Club Cheese</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_134'>134</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Whey Cheese</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_134'>134</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Milk-Sugar</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_135'>135</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_IX'>IX</span><i>Casein</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_135'>135</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Milk Powder</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Just-Hatmaker Process</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Eckenberg Process</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Merrell-Soule Process</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Economic Process</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Skim-Milk Powder</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Whole-Milk Powder</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Condensed and Evaporated Milk</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_137'>137</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Whey</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_138'>138</a></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><span class='sc'>Chapter IV</span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table0' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='90%' />
-<col width='9%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><span class='sc'>Milk as a Food</span></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_139'>139</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Nutrients</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_139'>139</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Protein</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_139'>139</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Fats and Carbohydrates</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_139'>139</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Mineral Matters</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_140'>140</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Relation</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_140'>140</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Nutritive Ratio</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_140'>140</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Calories</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_141'>141</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Fallacy of Theoretical Valuation</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_143'>143</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—“Something Unknown”</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_143'>143</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Care of Milk in the House</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_145'>145</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Keep the Milk Cool</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_145'>145</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Top-Milk</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_146'>146</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Milk for Infants</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_148'>148</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Modifying Milk</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_148'>148</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Recipes for Infant Food</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_149'>149</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Milk for Growing Children</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_152'>152</a></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><span class='sc'>Chapter V</span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table0' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='90%' />
-<col width='9%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><span class='sc'>Milk Cookery</span></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_154'>154</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Soups</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_155'>155</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><span class='pageno' id='Page_X'>X</span>—Cream Soups</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_155'>155</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Cereal Cream Soups</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_157'>157</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Milk Chowders</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_158'>158</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Milk Stews</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_158'>158</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Milk Cereals</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_159'>159</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Luncheon and Supper Dishes</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_159'>159</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Creamed Dishes</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_160'>160</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Souffles</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_161'>161</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Cheese Fondu</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_161'>161</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>—Milk Toast</td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Cheese Dishes as Meat Substitutes</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Cheese Salads</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_166'>166</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Cottage Cheese</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_167'>167</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Milk Breads and Biscuits</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_170'>170</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Desserts</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_172'>172</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Junkets</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_179'>179</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Milk Beverages</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_181'>181</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Miscellaneous Suggestions</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_184'>184</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>The Thermometer</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_184'>184</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Weights and Measures</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>End Notes</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#fns'>187</a></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'><i>Bibliography</i></td>
-    <td class='c012'><a href='#bib'>188</a></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c008' />
-</div>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_XI'>XI</span>
-  <h2 class='c009'>INTRODUCTION</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='c013'>The conception of this “Story of Milk” dates many
-years back. In his life-long study of problems connected
-with dairy farming and milk industries in two
-of the world’s greatest dairy countries, Denmark and
-the United States, the author has felt the need of a
-concise handbook covering this interesting subject. In
-his forty years of work in the manufacture and distribution
-of dairy and milk-food preparations he has
-been brought constantly into contact with men and
-women interested in the production of milk and has
-found a persistent demand for a book that might be
-consulted by anybody in regard to questions related to
-these greatest of all foods, which are, or ought to be,
-a most important part of the daily diet of children and
-adults alike, at all times, everywhere.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>There was a time during the war when, frightened
-by the soaring of the price which had remained remarkably
-low for many years, much too low in fact
-compared with the cost of other food, people began to
-cut down the consumption of milk to an alarming
-extent. Even the National Food Administration for
-a short time recommended saving in the wrong place,
-forgetting that, at the highest figures reached during
-the temporary shortage, milk was still one of the cheapest
-of foods and that it was absolutely indispensable
-for growing children and exceedingly beneficial for men
-and women who were called upon to exercise their
-physical and mental powers as never before. But with
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_XII'>XII</span>men like Dean Russell of the Wisconsin Agricultural
-College in the Department and Dr. Graham Lusk
-of Cornell University representing the United States
-on the Inter-Allied Council of Alimentation, the Food
-Administration could not long maintain this mistaken
-attitude but quickly joined the College authorities and
-the representatives of the dairy industry in advocating
-a liberal use of milk. And the Department of Agriculture
-sent out over the country a large force of demonstrators
-to show the people how to use milk in making
-cottage cheese and many other ways, and Agricultural
-Colleges, Farm Bureaus and Home Economics Agents
-worked hand in hand with Washington in disseminating
-the knowledge of handling and utilizing milk.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>A genuine interest has been aroused in our country in
-the economy and conservation of food, and in “The
-Story of Milk” the author hopes to place at the disposal
-of the student of Domestic Science a comprehensive
-book of reference which may open the eyes of
-many to the fact that there is no more interesting subject
-than “Milk” in connection with the study of the
-welfare and physical improvement of humanity, and
-that milk and its products should be used to a much
-greater extent than heretofore.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>It would make a long list of references if the author
-should mention the sources on which he has drawn for
-information beyond his own life-long experience in the
-dairy and related industries. He desires to express his
-sincere appreciation of the kindness and ready response
-of institutions and friends to whom he has appealed
-for photographs and cuts which have enabled him to
-illustrate the text so liberally. In the back of the book
-will be found a brief bibliography of standard dairy
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_XIII'>XIII</span>literature in which students may find material for
-further information.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Many interesting data and several excellent illustrations
-have been obtained from the bulletins and collections
-of the Department of Agriculture in Washington
-and the Dairy Schools at Ithaca, N.Y., Madison, Wis.,
-and Ames, Ia.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The Chapter on Milk Cookery was written and classified
-by the author’s wife, whose practical experience
-will make it useful alike to housekeepers and students
-of Domestic Science.</p>
-<div class='c015'><span class='sc'>J. D. Frederiksen.</span></div>
-<p class='c016'>Little Falls, N.Y.,</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>April, 1919</i>.</p>
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c008' />
-</div>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_XV'>XV</span>
-  <h2 class='c009'>HISTORICAL</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='c013'>Milk and its products have been known and used from
-time immemorial. In the Bible milk and milk foods
-are mentioned in some thirty places. In Gen. 18:8 we
-read: “... and he (Abraham’s servant) took butter
-and milk and set it before them ...”; 1 Sam. 17:28:
-“And Jesse said unto David, his son: ... bring these
-ten cheeses unto the captain of their thousand and look
-how thy brethren fare....”; Prov. 30:33: “For the
-churning of milk bringeth forth butter,” etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Though in some of these passages butter is mentioned
-it is hardly probably that this product was really made
-or used at the time under the climatic conditions in
-Palestine. More likely it was various kinds of curd
-and cheese which the translator called butter. At any
-rate, the Hebrews of that far-off day coveted milk and
-its products among their most valued foods. From
-Egyptian, Greek and Roman history it appears that
-knowledge of cheese goes back to the most ancient
-times and that it was made from the milk of sheep,
-goats, cows, asses, mares, in fact from all domestic
-animals; in the far North, Lapps and Eskimos still
-make it from the milk of the reindeer, the Arabs use
-camel’s milk, Llama cheese is famous in the Cordilleras
-and Zebu cheese in Ceylon and India.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Even in ancient times the great food value of dairy
-products was recognized. Plinius tells of Zoroaster that
-for twenty years he lived exclusively on cheese, and
-Plutarch calls cheese one of the most nourishing of foods.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>As time went by, the cow excelled all other domestic
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_XVI'>XVI</span>animals in capacity for the production of milk and by
-constant use through centuries for the one special purpose,—by
-care in feeding, breeding and selection,—special
-breeds of cattle were developed which gave milk
-in extraordinarily large quantities.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i-xvi.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>From Maelkeritidende, Copenhagen</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figleft id002'>
-<img src='images/i-xvii-a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Thomas R. Segelcke, father of scientific dairying in Denmark</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figleft id002'>
-<img src='images/i-xvii-b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>L. B. Arnold, noted dairy expert and writer, of Herkimer County, N.Y.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>In the cold climate of the northern countries where
-butter will keep for a long time it has been made for
-centuries. The illustration above is from a mural painting
-in an old church in Finland. Evidently at the time
-when that was built the devil already played havoc
-with the churn and even up to the days of our grand-fathers
-his Satanic Majesty was often accused of preventing
-the butter from “coming.”</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_XVII'>XVII</span>Not until the middle of the nineteenth century did
-dairying take its place among the important industries
-of the world and science begin to be applied in its development.
-Between 1860 and 1870 Thomas R.
-Segelcke, the “Father of Scientific Dairying” in Denmark,
-introduced the thermometer in churning instead
-of the rule of thumb and started the keeping of records
-in the manufacture of butter. N. J. Fjord started a
-series of experiments in the creameries, continued
-through the next decades, and which became models
-for similar work throughout the world, covering pasteurization,
-ice houses and cold storage, comparison
-between various systems for raising the cream, separators,
-feeding rations, etc., and Denmark developed its
-agriculture and dairy industry to an enviable position.
-About the same time Dr. Schatzman applied scientific
-methods in cheese making in Switzerland and Jesse
-Williams started the first American cheese factory near
-Rome, N.Y., while L. B. Arnold, X. A. Willard, Harris
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_XVIII'>XVIII</span>Lewis, Harry Burrell and many other progressive dairymen
-made Herkimer County cheese famous.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>From New York, dairy farming spread rapidly westward
-through Ohio to Michigan and Northern Illinois,
-where butter making was developed around Elgin, and
-to Wisconsin, where Governor Hoard preached the
-gospel of progress, Babcock invented and gave to the
-world the famous test that bears his name and Russell
-made a specialty of dairy bacteriology.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id003'>
-<img src='images/i-xviii-a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>J. H. Monrad, the “Pen and Ink” buttermaker of New York Produce Review</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figcenter id003'>
-<img src='images/i-xviii-b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Governor W. D. Hoard, of Wisconsin, promotor of progressive methods of dairying</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figcenter id003'>
-<img src='images/i-xviii-c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>J. A. Ruddick, Dairy Commissioner of Canada</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>J. H. Monrad, Assistant Dairy Commissioner of
-Illinois, student, writer and lecturer on dairy subjects,
-collected and indexed one of the most complete
-and valuable libraries of dairy literature found
-anywhere, which after his death in 1915 was taken
-over and installed in special rooms by Chr. Hansen’s
-Laboratorium in Copenhagen, where a librarian
-is keeping it up to date and it is open to the public.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>In Canada, Dairy Commissioners Jas. W. Robertson
-and J. A. Ruddick, D. M. McPherson, the “Cheese
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_XIX'>XIX</span>King,” and others contributed to an enormous development
-of the manufacture of high-class cheese, and
-in New Zealand and Australia similar progress was
-made.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Business and science have vied with each other in increasing
-the output of dairy products and improving
-their quality. In the table below, showing estimates
-for 1917, some interesting figures are given of the
-amount of milk produced in the United States and the
-uses to which it is applied.<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c017'><sup>[1]</sup></a></p>
-
-<div class='fn'>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><i>Uses to which milk is put (calculations based on estimates)</i></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='std-table'>
-
-<table class='table1' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='56%' />
-<col width='28%' />
-<col width='15%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
- <th class='btt bbt c018'>Item</th>
- <th class='btt bbt c019'>Lbs. of Milk</th>
- <th class='btt bbt c012'>Per Cent</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c020'>Product of 22,768,000 cows at 3,716 lbs. per an.</td>
-    <td class='c019'>84,611,350,000</td>
-    <td class='c012'>──</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c020'>Disposition of milk product:</td>
-    <td class='c019'>─────</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c020'>1,650,000,000 lbs. of butter (at 21 lbs. milk)</td>
-    <td class='c019'>34,663,850,000</td>
-    <td class='c012'>41.0</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c020'>420,000,000 lbs. of cheese (at 10 lbs. milk)</td>
-    <td class='c019'>4,200,000,000</td>
-    <td class='c012'>5.0</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c020'>975,000,000 lbs. of condensed milk (at 2½ lbs. milk)</td>
-    <td class='c019'>2,437,500,000</td>
-    <td class='c012'>2.9</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c020'>210,000,000 gals. of ice cream (weighing 6 lbs. to the gallon, 10% fat)</td>
-    <td class='c019'>3,150,000,000</td>
-    <td class='c012'>3.7</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c020'>100,000,000 persons; 45% at 0.7 lb. a day (cities) farms with dairy cows, 30%, 1.5 lbs. per day; other farms and small towns, 25%, 1 lb. a day, approximately</td>
-    <td class='c019'>36,500,000,000</td>
-    <td class='c012'>43.1</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c020'>17,500,000 calves, whole milk (estimated) requirement</td>
-    <td class='c019'>3,660,000,000</td>
-    <td class='c012'>4.3</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c020'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c019'>─────</td>
-    <td class='c012'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c020'>Total</td>
-    <td class='c019'>84,611,350,000</td>
-    <td class='c012'>100.0</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-</div>
-
-<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_XX'>XX</span>Although the table accounts for all the milk produced,
-it does not tell the whole story, since the preparation
-of a number of products results in the formation
-of vast quantities of by-products that are not used to
-the fullest advantage for human food.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>New York City alone consumes 1,600,000 quarts of
-milk a day, but even this enormous quantity means
-only 0.6 pint per capita. The consuming public has
-been slow to realize the value of milk and its products,
-and too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the fact
-that even at the largely increased cost of all dairy
-products they are still some of the cheapest and the
-most healthful of foods, especially for growing children,
-and should be used in much larger quantities.</p>
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c008' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c002'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_XXI'>XXI</span><span class='c021'>THE STORY OF MILK</span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c002' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span><span class='c021'>THE STORY OF MILK</span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <h2 id='ch01' class='c009'>CHAPTER I<br /> <br /><span class='sc'>Production, Composition and Characteristics of Milk, Milk Ferments, Pasteurization</span></h2>
-</div>
-<h3 class='c010'>DAIRY CATTLE</h3>
-<div  class='figright id002'>
-<img src='images/i001.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Holstein</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c022'>A number of typical but widely different breeds of
-dairy cows have been developed in various dairy countries,
-each owing to the soil and the climatic conditions
-of its home, as well as to the skill and fancy of the
-breeders, its characteristic features, form, color, etc.</p>
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>
-<img src='images/i002.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Herd of pure-bred Holstein cows on a farm in central New York</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Milk-Breeds.</b>—The black and white <i>Holstein-Friesians</i>
-(which, by the way, had their home in Holland and not
-in Holstein) are known for
-their large production of
-not very rich milk, while
-the <i>Guernseys</i> and <i>Jerseys</i>
-give milk exceedingly
-rich in butter-fat.
-A good Holstein cow will
-give from 7,000 to 10,000
-lbs. of milk in a year,
-containing from 3¼% to 4% butter-fat. Some of them
-produce as much as 20,000 to 30,000 lbs. in a year—nearly
-4,000 gallons—just think of it! Jersey cows will
-usually not produce as much in quantity as the Holsteins
-but Jersey milk often contains 5% or 6% or more
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>butter-fat, and a few of the best have been known to
-produce 800 to 900 lbs. of butter in one year, an amount
-equal to the cow’s own
-weight. The red <i>Danish</i>
-cow is an exceedingly good
-and highly bred milk producer
-which, however, has
-not been introduced in
-the United States, but the
-Scotch <i>Ayrshires</i> and the
-<i>Brown Swiss</i> are other
-well-known dairy breeds
-which are in favor with many American farmers.</p>
-<div  class='figright id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>
-<img src='images/i003a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Guernsey</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'>But, alas! too many herds of dairy cattle average less
-than 5,000 lbs. of milk per cow per year and do not
-pay for their feed.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i003b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Jersey cows</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figleft id002'>
-<img src='images/i004a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Red Danish</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figleft id002'>
-<img src='images/i004b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Ayrshire</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figleft id002'>
-<img src='images/i004c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Shorthorn, beef-strain</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>Many native cows respond,
-however, to good
-care and feed and with
-a thoroughbred bull a
-satisfactory herd can
-readily be built up from
-carefully selected native
-stock. Such continued
-cross-breeding is more apt to succeed than attempts to
-cross two thoroughbred
-breeds because the characteristic
-features in
-full-blooded animals are
-so strong as to invariably
-predominate in
-the progeny over the
-less pronounced forms
-and tendencies inherent
-in native cows. But
-where two full-blooded
-animals are mated and the strong characteristics in
-each are fighting for
-predominance the result
-is apt to be a poor, ill-proportioned
-offspring
-as the result of atavism.</p>
-
-<div  class='figleft id002'>
-<img src='images/i005.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Shorthorn, milk-strain</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Beef-Cattle.</b>—Cattle
-bred and developed for
-the purpose of producing
-beef rather than
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>milk are called by contrast beef-cattle. As examples of
-beef-cows look at the <i>Shorthorns</i> or the <i>Herefords</i> or the
-<i>Polled Angus</i> at the next State Fair you visit and notice
-the square, deep, smooth body with muscles and fat
-strongly developed in
-contrast to the loosely
-built, bony milk-cow
-with its tendency to
-turn all its food into
-milk at the expense of
-the body. There are,
-however, also among
-the Shorthorns, strains
-of good milkers, but as
-a rule these beef-breeds are not selected for the dairy
-farm, and “dual purpose” cows are not usually profitable.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Food and Water.</b>—The natural food for the dairy
-cow in summer is grass, and where rich, succulent grass
-and clover grow in abundance, as on the fertile meadows
-of Holland and the Channel Islands, or the Swiss Alps,
-the highly cultivated Danish farms, the eastern and
-middle-western states of America, etc., dairying early
-reached its highest development. As the value of milk
-and its products for human food became more generally
-recognized and all-the-year-round production was
-forced, it was found necessary to feed the cows heavily
-in winter too, not only hay, but also grain and succulent
-food such as beets and corn-ensilage (green corn cut,
-stalks, cobs and all, and packed in a silo), and science
-was taken into play to formulate <i>Balanced Rations</i> containing
-the proper amounts and proportions of the various
-nutrients—Protein, Fat and Carbohydrates. It
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>is not the place here to go deeper into this problem
-which has long been a subject for thorough research
-and experiments. In fact, more attention has been
-paid to the feeding of cattle than to the proper nourishment
-of human beings, and much of what we know
-about the latter has been deducted from experience
-and study on the dairy farm, and from laboratory work
-along that line. In the chapter on “Milk as a Food”
-we are taking up food values, etc., in relation to the
-feeding of children and men. Suffice it here to say
-that the same fundamental principles apply to the feeding
-of calves and cattle for the production of milk and
-beef. And we wish to emphasize the fact that, with
-due consideration to the proper proportion between the
-various groups of nutrients, it is much more important
-that the food is succulent, appetizing and easily digestible
-than that the ration shall be accurately balanced.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i006.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Cutting ensilage and filling the silo</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>This fact, long well known to practical breeders and
-dairymen, has recently been confirmed by Dr. E. V.
-McCullom to whose experiments further reference is
-made in the chapter on milk as a food for children. He
-shows that there is a very great difference in the quality
-of Protein and Fat from various sources and that there
-is “Something Unknown” in butter-fat, for instance,
-which is absent in most other fats and which is vital
-for the growth of the child as well as for the proper
-nourishment of man. This unknown but essential substance
-is also found, in small quantities, in the leaves
-of certain plants, as in alfalfa, while it is absent in the
-grain of the cereals.</p>
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>
-<img src='images/i008.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>An abundant crop of alfalfa hay; cut three times during the summer. Supplies protein in the ration</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>In modern dairy farming <i>alfalfa</i> is considered an indispensable
-source for protein, and corn-ensilage or beets
-for carbohydrates, while bran, cottonseed meal or oil
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>cake, malt-sprouts, gluten, distillers’ grain, etc., may
-be used to advantage in various combinations.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i020.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Cows milked with machine</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>Contrary to a general impression one cannot feed fat
-into the milk. A large amount of oil cake or other food
-rich in fat in the daily ration does not increase the percentage
-of butter-fat in the milk. Rather, it depends
-largely upon the breed and to some extent upon the
-period of lactation. Provided the food agrees with her
-digestion and keeps the cow in a good, healthy condition,
-the composition of the milk is not changed to any
-appreciable extent by a change in make-up of the food.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>It goes without saying that to produce from 20 to 50
-lbs. of milk a day the cow must have an abundance of
-<i>fresh, pure water</i> to drink and she should not have access
-to stagnant water.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>The Barn</b> must be clean, light and well ventilated and
-the cows should be milked with clean hands into a clean
-pail which is covered as far as possible so as to prevent
-dust from falling into the milk, or with one of the
-excellent milking machines which are now frequently
-used in large dairies. The milk is strained and cooled
-immediately after milking.</p>
-<div  class='figleft id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>
-<img src='images/i010a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Milking machine</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figleft id002'>
-<img src='images/i010b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic004'>
-<p><span class='small'>In the partly covered milk-pail dust does not fall as readily as in the one entirely open</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Milking.</b>—The cows are usually milked twice a day;
-occasionally, when the highest possible yield is desired,
-as in important tests, three or four times. The first
-five days after the birth of the calf the milk,—the
-Colostrum so called,—is not
-normal and should not be used
-for human consumption. It
-may be fed to the calf. The
-first three to four months the
-yield of milk generally is
-higher than later, when it
-gradually drops until after
-about ten months it stops altogether
-and the cow goes
-“dry” at least for some six
-weeks before dropping the
-next calf. The highest annual
-yield may be obtained by having the cows “come in”
-in the Fall or early Winter and feeding them well all
-Winter to keep up
-an abundant flow of
-milk. Then, when
-they come out on
-pasture in the
-Spring,—in the latitude
-of the Great
-Lakes about May
-15th,—the fresh,
-rich feed will stimulate
-production and
-give it a fresh start
-so that the milk-pail may continue to be filled during
-the next few months and the shrinkage of the yield will
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>not occur until the time when the pastures dry up.
-The cow will then go dry in the early Fall, when feed
-is scarce. Usually, however, the cows are allowed to
-“come in” in the Spring and the yield of milk begins
-to shrink in the late Summer with little or nothing
-in the Winter.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i011.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Milking on a Danish farm</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Test the Cows.</b>—To ascertain if a cow pays for her
-feed the amount and the quality of the milk should
-be tested and computed for the year. If the milk from
-each cow cannot be weighed every day it may be done
-regularly once a month or preferably oftener. If it is
-weighed morning and evening once every ten days it
-is easy to keep the account by multiplying the number
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>of pounds by ten and adding the totals for the year.
-Occasionally the milk may be subjected to the Babcock
-Test to ascertain its richness; three or four times during
-the period of lactation is sufficient.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Where farmers do not have time to do the testing
-themselves they often combine and hire a young
-man or woman, trained in an agricultural college, to
-go around from farm to farm and do the work. These
-experts not only test the yield and the percentage of
-fat but also weigh and compute the feed so as to help
-the farmer make up his rations and calculate whether
-each cow pays for her feed or not. The members of
-these associations meet and compare notes and a
-friendly rivalry is stimulated which may do much
-toward increasing production. As a matter of fact,
-where Cow Test Associations have been introduced,
-both yield and quality of the milk have been largely
-increased.</p>
-
-<div  class='figright id002'>
-<img src='images/i013.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Dr. Bernhard Bang of Copenhagen, Denmark</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Healthy Cows</b> alone can be depended upon to produce
-sanitary milk. In many herds of milk-cows tuberculosis
-is prevalent, and constant vigilance is necessary
-to prevent its spread. The <i>Tuberculin Test</i> discovered
-by Koch is invaluable for the purpose of ascertaining
-the presence of tuberculosis. It is not necessary, however,
-to kill every infected animal. Only where the
-lungs or the udder is affected and a physical examination
-shows an advanced stage of the disease such
-radical means are advisable. When the tuberculin test
-was first introduced many valuable herds were wantonly
-and foolishly killed off because some of the highly developed
-dairy cows showed reaction to the test while
-worthless scrubs were allowed to live and spread the
-disease. For only the intelligent and public-spirited
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>owners of fine herds submitted their
-cows to the test, a reaction to which,
-under ill-advised regulations, permitted
-state officials to condemn the
-infected herds. In Denmark Dr.
-Bernhard Bang introduced a system
-of isolation of the infected
-animals which together with <i>Compulsory
-Pasteurization</i> of the milk
-from such cows has proved efficient
-for the eradication of tuberculosis,
-and the <i>Bang Method</i> is now generally
-recognized as the proper way of handling the
-matter.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div>COMPOSITION OF COW’S MILK</div>
-    <div class='c000'>Cow’s milk contains on an average in 100 lbs.:</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table2' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='11%' />
-<col width='88%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c019'>87</td>
-    <td class='c023'>lbs. of water</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c019'>4</td>
-    <td class='c023'>lbs. of butter-fat</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c019'>3¼</td>
-    <td class='c023'>lbs. of casein and albumin (protein)</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c019'>5</td>
-    <td class='c023'>lbs. of milk sugar</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c019'>¾</td>
-    <td class='c023'>lbs. of ash (mineral matter)</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c019'>&nbsp;</td>
-    <td class='c023'>100 lbs. total.</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class='c014'>It consists therefore of 87% water and 13% “solids,”
-4 of which are fat and 9, “solids—not fat.”
-<b>Butter-Fat</b> is found in milk in the form of minute
-globules suspended in the liquid. As fat or oil is lighter
-than water (has less specific gravity) it naturally floats
-and the fat globules therefore soon rise to the top when
-milk stands at rest, forming a layer of <i>cream</i> which
-may be skimmed off from the <i>milk</i>. In chemical composition
-butter-fat is very nearly the same as other
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>animal and vegetable
-fats, but the
-slight variation
-may make a lot
-of difference in digestibility
-and palatability as well as in
-nutritive value, and it is a mistake to consider
-Oleomargarine, Butterine, Nut-Butter and
-other substitutes for butter “just as good”
-because a chemical analysis shows them
-to contain “almost” the same elements
-or compounds. These products may be good
-and legitimate if sold for what they are, but
-should never be allowed to be sold or served
-for what they are not, genuine butter.</p>
-
-<div  class='figleft id002'>
-<img src='images/i014.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Composition of cow’s milk</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Casein and Albumin</b> are the proteids or
-nitrogenous matters of the milk, in chemical
-composition and in food value much the
-same as the protein in beans and peas or
-in meat, or the white of eggs. Casein is present
-in much larger quantity than albumin and is
-distinguished from the latter by being precipitated
-by rennet, which has no effect on
-albumin. Casein may also be precipitated by
-acids, while it required boiling as well as acidity
-to throw the albumin out of solution.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Milk-Sugar</b> is related to the vegetable sugars,
-glucose, cane sugar, etc., and remains in solution
-in the whey which separates out from
-the cheese-curd when milk is curdled with rennet
-or acids. The whey also contains the mineral
-matters or <i>ash</i>, which consists largely of phosphate
-of lime, of use to the young in building up bones.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>When whey is boiled down to a thick syrup and
-left to stand, the sugar will crystallize out and may
-be separated from the liquid, still holding in solution
-the mineral matters.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i015a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Fat globules as they appear under the microscope</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Mineral Matters.</b>—These may be gathered as <i>ash</i>
-by boiling off the water from this liquid or from the
-whole milk and burning the rest, as all the constituents
-except the ash belong to what in
-chemistry is called organic matter,
-which disappears in the air by burning.</p>
-<div  class='figleft id002'>
-<img src='images/i015b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Dr. S. M. Babcock of Madison, Wis.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<h3 class='c010'>HOW TO TEST MILK</h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>Milk may be adulterated or decreased
-in value either by skimming
-or by watering. In either case the
-percentage of the most valuable constituent,
-the butter-fat, is diminished.
-It is upon this fact that the most practical
-test, the Babcock, is based.</p>
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>
-<img src='images/i016.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Babcock test outfit</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>The Babcock Test.</b><a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c017'><sup>[2]</sup></a>—By treating a sample of milk
-with strong sulphuric acid the butter-fat is liberated as
-an oil. By subjecting the mixture to centrifugal force
-the light butter oil is separated from the rest of the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>milk and the percentage can be easily determined.
-Centrifugal force had already been used in the Fjord
-Cream Test, but it remained for Dr.
-Babcock to work out the splendid
-practical and reliable test which bears
-his name and in which he has given
-to the world an invention of incalculable
-value.</p>
-
-<div class='fn'>
-
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figright id002'>
-<img src='images/i017.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>A two-bottle machine</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Sampling.</b>—Whether it is new milk
-or skim milk or buttermilk or cream
-that is to be tested the first thing to observe is to take
-a <i>truly representative sample</i>. The liquid must be thoroughly
-mixed by pouring it several times from one vessel
-to another, or stirring vigorously.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>It may not always be convenient to make a test immediately
-when the sample is taken. In the creamery
-where the milk is paid for according to its fat contents,
-samples are taken every day from every patron’s
-milk and it would take too much time for the butter
-maker to test all of these samples before they would
-spoil. A preservative, corrosive sublimate,—poisonous
-but all right for the purpose,—is therefore added and
-all the samples of one farmer’s milk for several days
-or a whole week are put together in one glass to be kept
-and tested at one time. This is called a composite test
-and has proven entirely satisfactory.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>The Lactometer</b> has been used to discover adulterations,
-depending upon the difference in specific gravity
-of the various constituents. The specific gravity of
-whole milk is about 1.032 which means that, if a certain
-volume of water weighs 1.000 weight units, the same
-volume of whole milk weighs 1.032, the same volume
-of butter-fat weighs, say, .900, or of cream about 1.000,
-and of skim milk 1.036 units. If the Lactometer shows
-a sample of milk to have a higher specific gravity than
-1.032 it may therefore be suspected of having been
-skimmed. But it will readily be seen that by removing
-from whole milk some of the cream and adding water,
-the specific gravity can easily be brought back to normal
-for whole milk. This test is therefore unreliable and has
-been discarded with the advent of the Babcock.</p>
-<div  class='figright id005'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>
-<img src='images/i019.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>The acidemeter</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Acidity Test.</b><a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c017'><sup>[3]</sup></a>—The acidity, or sourness, of milk or
-cream, which depends upon the amount of lactic acid
-developed in it, may
-be tested by a liquid
-normal alkali or by the
-Farrington Alkaline
-Tablets, a solution of
-which added to sour
-milk neutralizes the
-acid. A few drops of
-an indicator, Phenolpthalein,
-added to the
-milk, turns it pink
-when all the acid has
-been neutralized, and
-the amount of alkali
-solution used shows
-the percentage of acid
-in the milk. This is
-quite important in
-preparing “starters”
-for ripening the cream
-in butter making or
-milk in cheese making,
-and in the manufacture of “Commercial Buttermilk,”
-etc.</p>
-
-<div class='fn'>
-
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>There are other tests used in scientific dairying as the
-<i>Fermentation Test</i> to ascertain the relative purity of
-milk, the <i>Casein Test</i>, etc., but the above are those
-mostly used besides the <i>Bacterial Count</i> which is mentioned
-under the chapter on “Milk Supply,” and the
-<i>Rennet Test</i> described under “Cheese Making.”</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>FERMENTS</h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>Two classes of ferments are of importance in connection
-with milk: (1) “unorganized” or chemical ferments,
-the “enzymes,” and (2) “organized” ferments
-such as bacteria and yeast.</p>
-<h4 class='c024'><i>Enzymes</i></h4>
-<p class='c022'><b>Rennet.</b>—Among the unorganized ferments, <i>Rennet</i>
-or <i>Rennin</i> is highly important on account of its power
-of coagulating or curdling milk by precipitation of the
-casein. Rennet is extracted from the stomach of the
-suckling or milk-fed calf, where it serves in digesting
-the calf’s food. It is in the market in the form of a
-liquid extract as well as a dry powder compressed into
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>tablets (Rennet Tablets and Junket Tablets). The
-characteristics and use of rennet are described under
-“Cheese Making” in Chapter <a href='#ch03'>III</a>.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Pepsin</b> is another enzyme the office of which in the
-process of digestion is to dissolve albuminoids. It is
-not considered identical with rennet though in an acid
-solution it will curdle milk. It occurs in the stomachs
-of grown animals fed on solid food and is usually produced
-from hogs’ stomachs.</p>
-<h4 class='c025'>Bacteria</h4>
-
-<p class='c022'>Everywhere, in the air, in water, in the soil, and
-clinging to every object in the world, are minute organisms
-known under the common names of <i>bacteria</i>
-or <i>microbes</i>. In contrast to rennet and the other
-“unorganized” ferments, bacteria belong to the “organized”
-class. Some are harmful, producing putrefaction,
-dissolution, poisons or disease; others are beneficial,
-leading to desirable fermentations and changes;
-others again are indifferent, neither good nor bad, but
-harmless.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>As the milk comes from the cow it is almost free from
-bacteria, but milk makes an excellent soil for many of
-these organisms to grow in, and they soon get in, to
-multiply with enormous rapidity at any temperature
-from 60° to 100° F.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Lactic Acid Bacilli</b> are bacteria of special importance
-to the dairyman, for they convert sugar of milk into
-lactic acid and produce various more or less agreeable
-flavors. They are also powerful germicides and scavengers,
-destroying or neutralizing the products of other
-bacteria which in the absence of these bacteria and the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>lactic acid produced by them would play havoc with the
-food and produce putrefaction or disease. Everybody
-who handles milk knows that pure sour milk or buttermilk
-in which lactic acid bacteria abound keeps well
-for a long time, free from other fermentations which
-have no chance to develop in their presence. It is due
-to this purifying property that Metchnikoff recommended
-Bulgarian sour milk as a health food, asserting
-that it prevents harmful fermentations in the digestive
-channel.</p>
-<h4 class='c025'>The Control of Bacteria</h4>
-
-<p class='c022'>The principal means at our disposal to prevent or
-control and regulate bacterial growth are:</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Cleanliness</i>, <i>Heat</i>, <i>Cold</i> and <i>Disinfectants</i>.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Cleanliness.</b>—Only the most scrupulous cleanliness
-will prevent contamination. Hence the necessity of
-thorough scouring and sterilizing of all utensils, and
-the need for fresh air and pure water.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Heat.</b>—The prevention of fermentation in milk by
-heating is called “sterilization” or “pasteurization”
-according to the intensity of the heat and the length
-of time the milk is subjected to it. Boiling destroys
-almost all bacterial life. Some germs require, however,
-exposure to a much higher temperature, up to 250° F.
-(boiling under pressure), to be entirely eradicated, but
-for all practical purposes a thorough boiling is considered
-sufficient to eliminate all danger of contamination.
-Such boiling is usually termed <i>Sterilization</i>.</p>
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>
-<img src='images/i023.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Effect of heating milk to various temperatures.<br />Published by the Toronto Board of Health</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Cooling</b> checks bacterial growth and but few germs
-thrive at a temperature below 50° F. The following
-table and diagram<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c017'><sup>[4]</sup></a> show how quickly bacteria multiply
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>in milk at ordinary room temperature, 68° to 70°,
-which emphasizes the importance of keeping milk cool.</p>
-
-<div class='fn'>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><i>Relative growth of bacteria when held at different temperatures</i></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<table class='table3' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='16%' />
-<col width='16%' />
-<col width='16%' />
-<col width='16%' />
-<col width='16%' />
-<col width='16%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
- <th class='btt bbt c026'><br />Tem. of<br />Milk</th>
- <th class='btt bbt blt c026'>No. of bacteria per c.c. at beginning</th>
- <th class='btt bbt blt c026'><br />At end<br />of 6 hrs.</th>
- <th class='btt bbt blt c026'><br />At end of<br />12 hrs.</th>
- <th class='btt bbt blt c026'><br />At end of<br />24 hrs.</th>
- <th class='btt bbt blt c026'><br />At end of<br />40 hrs.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c026'>°F.</td>
- <td class='blt c026'>&nbsp;</td>
- <td class='blt c026'>&nbsp;</td>
- <td class='blt c026'>&nbsp;</td>
- <td class='blt c026'>&nbsp;</td>
- <td class='blt c026'>&nbsp;</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c026'>50</td>
- <td class='blt c026'>10</td>
- <td class='blt c026'>12</td>
- <td class='blt c026'>15</td>
- <td class='blt c026'>41</td>
- <td class='blt c026'>62</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
- <td class='bbt c026'>68</td>
- <td class='bbt blt c026'>10</td>
- <td class='bbt blt c026'>17</td>
- <td class='bbt blt c026'>242</td>
- <td class='bbt blt c026'>61,280</td>
- <td class='bbt blt c026'>3,574,990</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-<div  class='figleft id005'>
-<img src='images/i024a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Milk cooler</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c027'>If the milk had contained 1,000 bacteria per cubic
-centimeter at the beginning, the part held at 50° F.
-would have contained 4,100 bacteria at the end of 24
-hours, while that held at 68° F. would have contained
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>6,128,000. The effect of temperature upon the growth
-of bacteria is shown graphically in the cut.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>But even <i>frost does not kill</i> the bacteria. If milk
-which has been kept sweet or at the desired degree of
-sourness by cooling is allowed to get warm again, the
-bacteria which have been kept dormant will get a fresh
-start. For this reason milk and cream for city supply
-should not only be cooled strongly, but must be kept
-thoroughly chilled up to the time they are used, which
-means that they should be delivered cool to the consumer,
-and kept on ice in the house, never being allowed
-to warm up until used.</p>
-
-<div  class='figleft id005'>
-<img src='images/i024b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>The diagram (after Conn) shows the rapidity with which bacteria multiply in milk not properly cooled. A single bacterium (a) in 24 hours multiplied to 5 (b) in milk kept at 50° F.; (c) represents the number that develop from a single bacterium in milk kept 24 hours at 70° F.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Disinfectants.</b>—Antiseptics, such as benzoate of soda,
-formalin, boracic acid, etc., are not permissible <i>in</i>
-milk, but <i>disinfectants</i> such as soda, lime, washing
-powders, etc., should be freely used in cleaning utensils,
-bottles, floors and walls where milk is handled,
-so as to prevent as far as possible
-any infection.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>PASTEURIZATION</h3>
-<div  class='figright id002'>
-<img src='images/i025.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic004'>
-<p><span class='small'>Louis Pasteur, French scientist and originator of the process of pasteurization.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c022'>Pasteurization depends upon the
-fact that almost all bacteria, and
-especially the disease-producing species,
-are checked in their growth and
-made harmless, if not totally destroyed,
-by instantaneous exposure
-to a temperature of 175° F., or a
-more or less prolonged exposure to
-lower temperature, for instance
-for 20 minutes to 157° or 30 minutes to 145°. These
-lower temperatures are recommended in the case of new
-milk to be consumed as such, in order not to change its
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>digestibility. Pasteurizers with “holding devices” are
-therefore largely taking the place of the “continuous”
-sterilizing machines, which allow only momentary exposure
-to the highest temperature.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Whatever method is used it is essential that after the
-heating is finished the milk should be cooled as quickly
-as possible to a temperature sufficiently low to prevent
-development of the germs that have not been entirely
-destroyed by the heat and which, if the milk is left
-for any length of time at a temperature favorable for
-bacterial life—anywhere between 65° and 110°,—will
-begin to grow again. Cool the milk to below 60° and
-if possible to 50° or 40°.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Sometimes a second pasteurization is practiced, the
-milk being purposely allowed to stand at 70° to 80°
-for 12 to 24 hours after the first pasteurization for the
-germs which escaped destruction to develop into full-grown
-bacteria. They are then killed by the second
-heating before the milk is finally chilled to stop any
-further growth.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Pasteurization can be done by placing the milk in
-any tin or enamelled or glass vessel, set in another vessel
-containing water (a double boiler). Heat until the
-milk has reached the desired temperature, hold it at
-that temperature the necessary time, and then place
-the vessel in cold running water or in ice water until
-the milk is thoroughly chilled. It is not advisable to
-place the hot milk in the ice box as cooling in air is too
-slow. Not until it is thoroughly cooled in water is it
-safe to put it in the ice box to <i>keep</i> it cool.</p>
-
-<div  class='figright id002'>
-<img src='images/i027a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>N. J. Fjord, Danish investigator</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>In the seventies Prof. N. J. Fjord, in Denmark, applied
-to milk the process which had been developed by
-Louis Pasteur in France to give keeping quality to wine
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>and beer. A Danish dairy expert, J. Moldenhauer,
-now connected with the New York State Department
-of Agriculture, first brought the
-process to this country and used
-pasteurization in a city creamery in
-Kentucky. American experiment
-stations established the temperatures
-and the time of exposure necessary
-for best results, and no one has
-done more for the introduction of
-pasteurization than the New York
-philanthropist, Nathan Straus, who
-has established pasteurizing plants
-and milk distributing stations in
-many localities, thereby contributing so largely to the
-lowering of the death rate among the children of the
-poor.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i027b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>The Straus Pasteurizer</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figcenter id006'>
-<img src='images/i028.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>A continuous pasteurizer</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>The following directions are given by the Straus
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>Pasteurized Milk Laboratories of New York for the
-pasteurization of milk for babies:</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>1. Only use fresh, filtered milk, which has been kept
-cold, and proceed as follows:</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>2. Set the bottles, after they have been thoroughly
-cleaned, into the tray (a), fill them to the neck, and put
-on the corks or patent stoppers.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>3. The pot (b) is then placed on a wooden surface
-(table or floor) and filled to the three supports (in the
-pot) with boiling water.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>4. Place tray (a), with the filled bottles, into the pot
-(b), so that the bottom of the tray rests on the three
-supports, and put cover (c) on quickly.</p>
-<div  class='figcenter id006'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>
-<img src='images/i029.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Milk cooler</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>5. After the bottles have been warmed up by the
-steam for five minutes, remove the cover quickly, turn
-the tray so that it drops into the water. The cover is
-to be put on again immediately. This manipulation
-is to be made very quickly, so that as little steam as
-possible can escape. Thus it remains for twenty-five
-minutes.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>6. Now take the tray out of the water and cool the
-bottles with cold water and ice as quickly as possible,
-and keep them at this low temperature till used.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>7. Before use, warm the milk—in the bottles—to
-blood heat. Never pour it into another vessel.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>8. The milk must not be used for children later than
-twenty-four hours after pasteurization. Never use
-remnants.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>In a <i>Continuous Pasteurizer</i> a constant stream of
-milk is fed into the machine, heated by flowing over
-a metal surface with steam or hot water on the opposite
-side, and cooled by running over a cooler furnished
-with a stream of cold water or ice water.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>PURE CULTURES</h3>
-<div  class='figleft id002'>
-<img src='images/i030.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Professor V. Storch, originator of pure cultures for ripening cream and milk</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c022'>Before 1890 it was supposed that the flavor of fine
-butter depended upon certain volatile oils and acids
-peculiar to butter-fat. In the early
-nineties Professor V. Storch of
-the Danish Experiment Station
-showed, however, that it was
-due rather to the products of
-bacteria and he isolated the lactic
-acid bacilli which would produce
-such exquisite flavor even when perfectly
-neutral and tasteless butter-fat
-was churned with milk acidified
-or ripened with a pure culture of
-these bacilli. In this country Dr.
-H. W. Conn of Wesleyan University,
-Storrs, Conn., did much to advance the theory and
-practice of ripening cream with a pure culture starter.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>“Pure cultures” are produced in the bacteriological
-laboratory by picking out under the microscope colonies
-of the desired species of bacteria, planting them
-in a sterilized medium and allowing them to grow under
-the most favorable conditions and with the exclusion
-of all other germs.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id006'>
-<img src='images/i031a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Streptococcus lacticus (Storch, No. 18)</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figcenter id006'>
-<img src='images/i031b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Bacterium lactis acidi (from Storch)</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>When such a culture has reached its maximum growth
-it is transplanted into a larger quantity of a sterilized
-medium containing proper nourishment for the particular
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>organism. In the bacteriological laboratory,
-where alone absolute sterility of utensils and medium,
-and entire exclusion of foreign infection are possible,
-the culture may remain pure while this inoculation and
-propagation are repeated over and over again. But
-when the propagation is carried on in the house or the
-dairy, for instance in preparing starters or buttermilk,
-such absolute cleanliness is impossible and in the long
-run infections will creep in from the air or from the
-utensils and after a while it becomes necessary to
-start with a new “pure culture.” How often such
-renewal must be resorted to depends largely upon the
-surroundings and the care of the operator. Usually it
-must be done after a week’s time, although it is surprising
-to find milk preparations made by the simplest
-processes equal in purity to those prepared with the
-assistance of bacteriological science and technique.
-This is, for instance, the case in Bulgaria, where the
-famous Yoghourt sour milk is prepared pure without
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>special care and in Denmark where the country is fairly
-permeated with the lactic acid bacilli used in ripening
-the cream for the celebrated Danish butter and where
-careful buttermakers often maintain their starters for
-months or even for years without “renewal.”</p>
-
-<div  class='figleft id005'>
-<img src='images/i032.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Typical lactic acid bacteria<br />(L. A. Rogers)</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>There are many different varieties of bacteria which
-convert sugar of milk into lactic acid, at the same time
-developing flavors more or less agreeable and characteristic
-for the various
-products. In the bacteriological
-laboratory
-certain species are selected
-which will produce
-the results desired
-for the particular
-purpose in view.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Starters.</b>—Beginning
-with a commercial dry
-culture in the form of
-a powder as generally
-used in the creamery
-or the cheese factory
-as well as for the preparation
-of commercial buttermilk, or with buttermilk tablets
-as used in the ordinary household or the hospital,
-such culture is added to a small quantity of thoroughly
-pasteurized milk. If fresh, sweet skim milk is available it
-is preferable to whole milk as the butter-fat in the latter
-only interferes with the process; but either can be used.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Milk for starters should be strongly pasteurized by
-being kept at a temperature near the boiling point—at
-least 180°—for 40 to 60 minutes, then cooled to the
-degree at which it is to be set, usually between 65° and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>75°, somewhat higher for the first propagation with the
-pure culture than for the subsequent transplantings
-when the bacteria, more or less dormant in the dry
-powder or tablets, have attained full vitality. Some
-species of bacteria, as the Bacillus Bulgaricus, require
-higher temperatures—90° to 100° or even 110°—than
-others. The culture having been thoroughly incorporated
-in the milk by vigorous and repeated stirring
-or shaking, the milk is left at rest in an incubator or a
-waterbath or wrapped in paper or cloth in a warm room
-where an even temperature can be maintained, until
-it is curdled, which may take 18 to 24 hours or even
-longer for the first propagation.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>One part of this curdled milk is now added to 5 or 10
-parts of fresh pasteurized milk and set to ripen in the
-same way as described above, possibly at a little lower
-temperature, and this is repeated every day, thus maintaining
-the “Mother Starter.” After the second or
-third propagation the bulk of each batch is used as a
-starter in the larger lot of material to be ripened, be it
-cream for butter or milk for cheese or for commercial
-buttermilk, while a little is taken for maintenance of
-the mother starter as described above.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The <i>amount of starter</i> to prepare every day depends
-upon the amount of milk or cream to be ripened and
-the per cent of starter used in same. For instance, if
-you have ten gallons of cream to ripen every day in
-which you wish to use about 10% or 12% starter, or one
-gallon, take a little less than one pint of the first or
-second propagation for one gallon of milk; the next
-day use one pint of this to add to a gallon of fresh
-starter milk, and the remaining gallon to add to the
-ten gallons of cream, and so on every day.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>If you have 4,000 lbs. of milk in the cheese vat to
-ripen with 2% or 80 lbs. starter, prepare 88 lbs. of
-mother starter. If, on the other hand, you wish to
-make only a quart of buttermilk every day, take, say,
-two buttermilk tablets, crush them thoroughly in a
-spoonful of pasteurized milk and stir this into a tumblerful
-of the same milk; let stand till it is thickened
-the next day and use a tablespoonful of this thickened
-milk in a quart of fresh pasteurized milk which when
-ripened is your buttermilk, from which you take out
-a tablespoonful for starter in the next batch, and so on.
-In this case there is no “mother starter” except that
-perhaps the first tumblerful prepared with the tablets
-may be called so, but afterwards the starter is taken
-right out of the finished product every day.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The process may be modified to suit special purposes
-and local conditions, but the following precautions
-should be strictly observed: (1) to interrupt the ripening
-immediately by quick and intense cooling as soon
-as it has reached the proper point in case the ripened
-product is not used at once, and (2) to <i>keep</i> it ice-cold
-until it is used. If this is done, it may be kept for two
-or three days without deterioration if it is not convenient
-to make it fresh every day which, however, should
-be the rule.</p>
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c008' />
-</div>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>
-  <h2 id='ch02' class='c009'>CHAPTER II<br /> <br /><span class='sc'>Milk Supply and Creamery Products</span></h2>
-</div>
-<p class='c013'>In the first chapter the composition of cow’s milk
-and the nature of its constituents have been considered,
-the most important tests for its richness and purity
-have been described, and the ferments have been mentioned
-which instigate changes for good or for bad,
-together with the means at disposal for regulating their
-activity. To use these means intelligently in handling
-milk and its products is the key to the dairyman’s
-success.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>We shall now briefly consider the various steps that
-are of importance in modern dairy industry.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>MILK SUPPLY</h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>In the first place, the farmer must furnish pure, clean,
-unadulterated milk, fresh from the cow and cooled
-immediately after milking. His cows must be healthy.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Bovine Tuberculosis.</b>—Many milk-cows, for the very
-reason that they have been bred with the one purpose
-in view of turning all their food into milk and wasting
-as little as possible in building up the body, are more
-or less weak-chested and apt to suffer from tuberculosis.
-Unless this disease is so far advanced as to
-affect the general health of the cow, or it has spread
-to the milk organs, the udder and the teats, it is not
-so dangerous as has heretofore been supposed. It is
-now held by the great majority of physicians that
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>bovine tuberculosis is hardly ever transmitted to grown
-persons and seldom to children. Neither is it hereditary.
-Nevertheless, wherever it is possible to have
-the herd tested with tuberculin, segregating, if not
-killing, the animals which show by reaction that they
-are somewhat tuberculous, it should be done. Milk
-from such cows should always be pasteurized.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Milk as a Disease Carrier.</b>—A greater danger lies
-in the fact that, warm as it comes from the cow, milk
-is an ideal medium for human disease germs to grow
-in, and may thus become a great conveyor of such
-germs. For this reason it is of the greatest importance
-that the milkers are healthy and clean, that the udders
-and teats be free from dirt, and the milk pail covered
-as far as possible; the barn must be clean, and every
-source of infection excluded. This fact also points to
-the advisability of pasteurization. On page <a href='#Page_23'>23</a> a chart
-is shown, published by the Toronto Board of Health
-and indicating the temperatures at which various germs
-of disease are made harmless.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Bacterial Count.</b>—The test for clean milk now mostly
-used is the “Bacterial Count,” the number of bacteria—or
-rather colonies of bacteria—found in a cubic
-centimeter of the milk. It would be better if the nature
-or quality of the bacteria could be taken into consideration
-as well as the quantity, but that being as yet
-impracticable, the next best thing is to depend upon
-the number. Ordinary good milk often contains hundreds
-of thousands of bacteria in a cubic centimeter,
-but where the greatest cleanliness is observed the
-number may be less than 1,000.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Certified Milk</b> is now sold in many cities which, according
-to varying city ordinances, is guaranteed to
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>have less than 10,000 or 20,000 or 30,000 bacteria, as
-the case may be.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i037.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Counting the bacteria in a cubic centimeter of milk</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>The cost of producing certified milk places it beyond
-the reach of the great majority of consumers. But
-such care and cleanliness as can be observed by the
-farmer and the milkman without extra expense should
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>be insisted upon, and milk which nevertheless contains
-a large number of bacteria can be made safe by pasteurization.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>The Sanitary Code.</b>—The regulation of the production
-and delivery of milk in cities and towns as well
-as at creameries and cheese factories, the “Sanitary
-Code” established by state and municipal health authorities,
-has been very effective in improving the
-quality of the supply. So enormous have been the
-improvements in caring for and handling the products
-by the large establishments engaged in the delivery of
-milk as to make the increase in cost seem trifling compared
-with the great benefit to the public health secured
-by these agencies.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>New York State Milk Grading.</b>—The New York
-State Board of Health prescribes a grading for milk
-offered for sale, the most important features of which
-are as follows:</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Certified.</i>—Must be produced under specially sanitary
-conditions approved by a county medical commission.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Grade A Raw.</i>—Cows must be tuberculin tested and
-milk must not contain over 60,000 bacteria per cubic
-centimeter.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Grade A Pasteurized.</i>—Cows must be subjected to
-physical examination and milk must not contain more
-than 200,000 bacteria before, nor more than 30,000
-after pasteurization.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Other grades permitted under the rules, all subject
-to inspection and approval of the authorities, are:</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-l'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'><i>Grade B Raw.</i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i>Grade B Pasteurized.</i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i>Grade C Raw.</i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i>Grade C Pasteurized.</i></div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>Deliveries must be made within a certain time after
-production or pasteurization, barns and milk stations
-are inspected, and altogether such safeguards are employed
-as to make the supply exceedingly safe and
-reliable.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>City Delivery.</b>—In villages and small cities the milk
-supply is still to a large extent in the hands of farmers
-who come to town early in the morning peddling their
-milk, often at considerable waste of time for horse and
-man. Or a number of peddlers go over the same route
-so that it takes a dozen wagons to cover a town where
-three or four could do it.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>As long as there was no efficient regulation as to price
-and quality such waste was perhaps unavoidable, as
-competition on the part of the producers and distributors
-was the only means of protection for the consumers.
-But lately state and municipal control is
-being exercised to such an extent as to largely eliminate
-the danger of poor milk and exorbitant prices. Further
-development of organized delivery systems so much to
-be desired for sanitary as well as for economical reasons,
-may be looked for as soon as normal conditions return
-after the close of the war. The delivery of milk is one
-of the things that in the interest of public health must
-be under the strictest official control, and <i>co-operation</i>
-between farmers and consumers is the logical system
-for elimination of unnecessary expenses of distribution
-and for prompt and satisfactory service. Their interests
-are or should be identical and both classes are
-hurt by inefficient and wasteful delivery.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>In the large cities there has grown up an industry
-which largely monopolizes the milk supply and which
-until lately was powerful enough to dictate prices and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>conditions both for producers and consumers. Several
-attempts have been made from time to time by farmers
-to combine to regulate prices and dictate the terms to
-the middlemen. Such attempts have, however, invariably
-failed as long as they were built on false
-economic principles and prompted by selfish interests
-only. No farmers’ association can be strong enough to
-ignore the law of supply and demand, and it is only
-quite recently that the <i>Dairymen’s League</i> has succeeded
-in influencing the market by taking into consideration
-the actual cost of production of milk as
-worked out by the agricultural colleges, and fixing the
-price on a scientific basis. There is one other element
-entering into the causes on which the price to the consumers
-depends, namely, <i>Transportation</i>, and while
-municipal boards of health are looking after the sanitary
-conditions and prevention of adulteration, State and
-Federal authorities are stepping in as moderators or
-arbitrators to reconcile the interests of the <i>Producers</i>,
-the <i>Railroad Companies</i>, the <i>Distributors</i> and the <i>Consumers</i>.
-The next step in the development will no
-doubt be towards full co-operation between producers
-and consumers and, to a large extent, elimination of
-the “middlemen.”</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>It should not be forgotten, however, that while the
-much abused middlemen in time past have been able to
-dictate terms and prices and have often abused the
-privilege; they have at the same time used their influence
-and power to improve the milk supply. As the
-supply of oil and gasoline has been perfected and cheapened
-by the all-powerful Standard Oil Co. as a monopoly
-crushing all competition, so the “Milk Trust” has
-improved the distribution of milk and has built up the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>magnificent sanitary plants in which milk is handled,
-pasteurized, bottled and distributed in a way that
-might not have been possible without the monopoly.
-It has served a good purpose, but has at the same time
-acquired such power that official control has become
-necessary for the protection of producers and consumers
-alike, and the time may be near when these two
-classes will combine and take the matter into their own
-hands so that the distribution may be done at actual
-cost.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i042.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Milk station in the country where milk is received from the farmers to be shipped to the city</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Milk Stations</b> are plants erected in dairy sections in
-the country either by the city milk supply houses or
-by co-operating farmers, where the milk is delivered
-and handled so as to make it ready for shipment to
-the city. As in the creamery and the cheese factory,
-the milk is carefully examined and, if it is not sweet
-and pure, it is rejected and sent back to the farm. Any
-impure flavor remains in the cover for some time and
-is easily detected by smelling of the cover as soon as
-it is removed from the can.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>A sample is taken and put aside for the Babcock
-test and perhaps another for the Fermentation test.
-Each farmer’s milk is weighed in the <i>Weigh Can</i> and
-run through a cheese-cloth strainer. The further treatment
-varies in different plants. The milk may simply
-be cooled by running it over a cold water or brine cooler
-and placing it in shipping cans in the refrigerator or in
-ice water until the milk-train comes along to pick up
-the cans. Or it may be clarified by running it through
-a centrifugal machine, the same as a separator, in which,
-however, cream and milk are not separated, but impurities
-are thrown out by the centrifugal force and
-deposited on the wall of the bowl, and the purified
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>milk may then be pasteurized and bottled before being
-shipped to the city.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i043.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Receiving milk at the milk station</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>Arriving in the city in iced cars the milk is taken to
-one of the elaborate plants in which it is pasteurized
-and bottled, if that has not been done at the country
-station. The machinery used in these plants is getting
-more and more perfect and expensive and leaves little
-to be desired as to sanitary requirements and economy
-in handling. Pasteurizers, bottling machines, bottle-washing
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>machines, conveyors, etc., are wonders of ingenuity,
-and one needs only to see one of these modern
-plants to understand that in a large city milk can only
-be handled to advantage in expensive establishments.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Skim Milk</b> is one of the cheapest of foods and under
-proper regulations its sale should not be prohibited.
-The reason why in times past skim milk has been discredited
-and excluded from sale was that, as produced
-by the old methods of raising the cream, before the
-advent of the separator, it was always more or less
-old and sour before it was available and certainly before
-it could be distributed to consumers. Under such
-conditions it was hardly ever fit for human food. But
-when produced by the separator and pasteurized and
-cooled immediately after—within a few hours after
-milking, which is entirely feasible—it is an excellent
-and nutritious food for adults and even for children
-over two years of age. Ripened with a pure culture of
-lactic acid bacteria, it makes a healthful, refreshing
-drink, like buttermilk. Only when it is allowed to sour
-without proper care or control does skim milk, as whole
-milk does, become unfit for food or drink. On a cold
-winter morning when men are going to work (or perhaps
-are looking for work which they cannot find),
-and children are on their way to school, often underfed,
-a street-corner wagon or stand where boiling hot, fresh,
-sweet skim milk might be distributed at a cent or two
-a glass would be a blessing in any city.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i045.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Pasteurizing and bottling milk in a Borden plant</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<h3 class='c010'>CREAM</h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>When new milk is left at rest the cream will rise
-to the top and after 12 to 24 hours a cream-line can
-be seen in the bottle. This cream-line is sharper
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>and more easily seen in raw milk than in pasteurized
-milk and its absence is not always a sure sign of
-lack of richness or purity of the milk. By cooling the
-milk thoroughly so that it will keep, almost all the
-cream will be at the top in forty-eight hours and can
-be skimmed off. The cream can be used for coffee or
-on cereals or fruits or puddings; the skim milk left
-will still hold ½% or more of butter-fat and can be
-used to drink or for cooking.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>The Separator.</b>—On the farm or in the creamery the
-cream is no longer raised by gravity, that is, by letting
-the milk “set” either in shallow pans on the kitchen
-shelf or in deep cans in ice water, but the fresh, warm
-milk is run through the separator in a continuous
-stream.</p>
-
-<div  class='figleft id002'>
-<img src='images/i046.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Early conception of the separator</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>It was noticed that the rising of the cream due to the
-difference in specific gravity between the butter-fat and
-the milk-“serum” (the watery
-solution of the other constituents)
-might be greatly hastened
-by subjecting the milk to centrifugal
-force. This physical phenomenon
-was taken advantage
-of in the first conception of the
-separator where it was shown
-that if a pail of milk was whirled
-around like a stone in a sling the
-heavier milk-serum would be
-thrown towards the bottom of the
-separator pail with so much greater force
-than the lighter cream (butter-fat mixed with a small
-part of the serum) that the separation which would take
-48 hours in the milk at rest, could be accomplished in a
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>few minutes when exposed to centrifugal force. From
-this early crude attempt the continuous <i>bowl-separator</i>
-was developed and still later a
-number of divisions in the bowl
-were designed which increased
-the capacity and efficiency of
-the machine wonderfully. The
-most successful separator was
-designed by Dr. Gustaf De
-Laval of Sweden and the machines
-bearing his name are used
-all over the world where butter
-is made. But there are many
-other excellent separators on
-the market.</p>
-
-<div  class='figright id002'>
-<img src='images/i047a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Dr. Gustaf De Laval of Sweden, inventor of the separator bearing his name</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>In the machine the milk is
-separated instantaneously by centrifugal force and runs
-out through two tubes, one for cream and the other for
-skim milk. A small modern hand
-machine will take care of from 200
-to 1,000 lbs. of milk an hour, and
-power machines are built to separate
-6,000 lbs. or more. By regulating
-the cream-outlet a heavier
-or lighter cream can be produced.</p>
-
-<div  class='figleft id002'>
-<img src='images/i047b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Hand separator</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>Suppose we are separating some
-milk containing 4% butter-fat. If
-⅛ of this milk is separated out as
-cream and contains all the butter-fat,
-the cream will be eight times as
-rich in butter-fat as the original
-milk; 32% of the cream will be butter-fat. Such cream
-is called “32% cream.” If we take ¼ as cream, we get a
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>cream four times as rich as the milk, a “16% cream.”
-So out of 100 lbs. of milk we can take 12½ lbs. (⅛)
-of 32% cream, 25 lbs. (¼) of 16% cream, etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Although the skim milk is really valuable as a food,
-it is worth but little commercially; the cream containing
-the butter-fat is the expensive part of the milk,
-and we must be prepared to pay for the cream all that
-the milk would have cost.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Percentage of Butter-Fat.</b>—The “richness” of cream
-or milk and their value depend upon the amount of
-butter-fat in them. So cream or milk is often called
-“30% cream” or “20% cream” or “4% milk” according
-as 30% or 20% or 4% of the fluid is butter-fat; 30%
-cream is quite rich; ordinary market cream varies between
-18% and 40%, though it may fall below 18%, or it
-may be sold as a very expensive article as high as 60%.
-Rich milk may contain more than 6% of butter-fat and
-skim milk less than 0.1 of one per cent. The average
-for good whole milk is between 3% and 4½%.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>For a long time scientists and scientific dairymen
-were the only ones to speak of milk and cream in terms
-of percentage of butter-fat. Now, however, people are
-beginning to realize how valuable a part of the milk
-the butter-fat is and are paying more attention to the
-actual percentage of butter-fat in the cream or milk
-they use. So it is no longer unusual to see a dairyman
-advertise cream of a certain percentage or to hear a
-housewife ask for it specifically.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Standardizing Cream.</b>—For ice cream or for preparing
-modified milk for babies, it is often desirable to
-dilute rich cream to a certain lower standard. The
-following simple steps can be taken to find out how
-much milk to add for diluting:</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>1. From the test—fat-percentage—of the rich cream
-subtract the test desired.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>2. From the test desired subtract the test of the
-milk used for diluting.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>3. Divide the first difference by the second, and the
-result will be the number of pints (or pounds) of milk
-to be added for each pint (or pound) of the rich cream.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>For instance, you may want to thin some 30% cream
-to 10% for making ice cream. The milk to be added
-is skim milk. Then:</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>1. 30 - 10 = 20.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>2. 10 - 0 = 10.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>3. 20 divided by 10 = 2. So for each pint of rich
-cream you may add 2 pints of skim milk.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Or you may wish to thin the 30% cream with whole
-milk, which has 4% butter-fat. Again:</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>1. 30 - 10 = 20.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>2. 10 - 4 = 6.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>3. 20 divided by 6 = 3⅓. So you may add 3⅓
-pints of the whole milk to each pint of the 30% cream
-and still have a 10% cream.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Pasteurized Cream</b> does not look as rich as raw
-cream, and fresh, sweet cream appears to be thinner
-than when it is 24 hours old and slightly ripened. So
-it is well, when buying cream, not to judge by appearances.
-Demand of the milkman that he furnish you
-cream of a certain percentage of butter-fat and see to
-it that you get what you pay for. If you have no
-Babcock tester the milk inspector will test the cream
-for you.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Whipped Cream.</b>—For whipping, cream must be
-fairly rich, from 24% to 32%, and it must be cold.
-Fresh, sweet cream does not whip as readily as that
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>which has been kept for 12 or 24 hours in ice water.
-There is no other secret connected with the process.
-Use a rich cream, suitably cooled and aged, and with
-a good beater there can be no trouble in getting a fine,
-stiff whipped cream. If the cream is too thin or too
-warm it may not become stiff. Sometimes, when it
-is beaten too long, it turns into butter and buttermilk.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i050.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Installation in a Danish creamery.<br />From the separator at the right the cream runs through the continuous pasteurizer which forces it up over the cooler whence it runs into the cream-vat at the left.<br />(From Boggild—Maelkeribruget i Danmark)</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Emulsified Cream.</b>—One of the recent additions to
-the already elaborate machinery used in the creamery,
-the milk supply or the ice cream business, is the <i>Emulsifier.</i>
-To be sure, emulsifiers were used thirty to forty
-years ago to mix animal and vegetable fats—oleomargarine
-oil, lard and cottonseed oil—into skim milk
-for “Filled Cheese” or for Butterine, but lately they
-are serving new purposes in the milk industry. By forcing
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>melted butter-fat or oil mixed with water or skim
-milk through exceedingly small apertures under high
-pressure, or otherwise breaking up the mixture, an
-emulsion can be formed in which the fat globules are
-much finer even than those in natural milk or cream,
-and separation can be prevented. The force used in
-these emulsifiers may be produced by powerful pumps,
-or a steam jet, or centrifugal force under high speed;
-whichever system is used the machines answer the same
-purpose, to produce a permanent emulsion in which the
-oil or fat will stay in suspension even after cooling. In
-some milk supply plants and ice cream factories all the
-cream is emulsified and the system has especially been
-applied since the advent of the milk powder. It is now
-a not infrequent practice to run the new milk through
-the separator, make sweet, unsalted butter from the
-cream, and milk powder from the skim milk, and to
-ship or store these products separately where or until
-cream is wanted and then bring them together again
-by running them through the emulsifier with a suitable
-amount of water. At first thought this process would
-seem impractical and uneconomical. But it has proven
-good business because in many cases and places skim
-milk powder and butter keep better separately or can
-be shipped at long distance to better advantage than
-new milk or cream or condensed milk. In ice cream
-factories business may be dull in cold weather and
-cream is perhaps not provided and not available, when
-suddenly a hot spell brings orders for large quantities.
-With a stock of skim milk powder and butter on hand
-in the refrigerator, and an emulsifier to mix these
-products, cream can be produced on short notice and
-there will be no danger of shortage.</p>
-<div>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>
-  <h3 class='c010'>ICE CREAM</h3>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c022'>Ice cream has fast become the national dessert served
-on all festive occasions, winter and summer. Originally
-it meant a frozen mixture of sweetened and flavored
-milk and cream, but the name has long been applied to
-all kinds of frozen delicacies in which cream enters as
-a constituent. Not even there has the line been drawn,
-but gums, gelatine, cornstarch, eggs and other “fillers”
-have been substituted or added to thicken the mixtures
-and give “body” to “creams,” which have but little relation
-to the genuine emulsion of butter-fat from cow’s
-milk. Standardization has been attempted by National
-and State food authorities with varying success of enforcement.
-While the application of the name to a great
-variety of frozen desserts has no doubt become legitimate
-by long usage it may properly be demanded that
-as an article of merchandise
-“ice cream”
-shall contain at least
-8% to 12% butter-fat
-and that no ingredients
-dangerous
-to health enter into
-its manufacture.</p>
-
-<div  class='figleft id002'>
-<img src='images/i052.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Hand freezer</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Freezers.</b>—The
-freezing is usually
-done by contact of
-the material with
-metal cooled on the
-other side by a
-“freezing mixture” of salt and ice which produces
-temperatures far below the freezing point of water
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>while air is whipped into the cream by the rapid motion
-of the beater. A great variety of excellent freezers of
-this kind for hand or for power are on the market
-which answer the purpose for making ice cream at
-home or at the ice cream parlor.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Coarse-grained salt and crushed ice, mixed in the
-proportion of 1 part salt to 4 parts of ice, are constantly
-filled into the space surrounding the ice cream can, and
-the brine produced by the melting of the mixture is
-gradually drawn off from the tub. In a good freezer
-the operation should not take over fifteen minutes.
-When the cream is frozen to a soft mush, stop the beater
-and scrape down the hard particles which may have
-accumulated on the sides of the can, add any ingredients
-which may be better incorporated at this stage than
-mixed into the original material, such as crushed fruit
-or preserves, and finish the freezing without carrying
-it too far.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Remove the beater, stir the cream which should still
-be soft enough to handle, and pack in ice with only a
-little salt. Or the cream may be transferred from the
-freezer can to the shipping can and packed in it. If
-bricks are wanted the soft cream is packed in molds of
-the desired shape and size and buried in the freezing
-mixture to harden.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>In modern ice cream factories <i>Brine Freezers</i> are generally
-used. In a <i>Refrigerator Plant</i> intensely low temperatures
-are produced by the vaporizing of compressed
-ammonia or carbonic acid in an ice machine, and brine
-circulating in iron pipes is cooled by such medium and
-may, in turn, cool the air in the <i>Cold Storage</i> room, or
-the cream in the freezer, or pure water in metal boxes
-for the manufacture of <i>Artificial Ice.</i>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>It has been attempted to make the brine freezers
-<i>continuous</i>, the cream mixture being fed into the machine
-at one end and discharged frozen at the other.
-But this system has not so far been successful, and intermittent
-or batch freezers are most practical yet
-both for hand and for power.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i054.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Power brine freezer</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>Rich material, frozen in a good machine, whether
-intermittent or continuous, will expand from 50% to
-100%, and the original material should not fill the
-freezer can more than half full.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The manufacture of ice cream has been the subject
-of study and experiments for years in the Dairy Department
-of the Agricultural College at Ames, Iowa,
-where Professor M. Mortensen has worked out a comprehensive
-classification from which any manufacturer
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>may readily choose his formulas, modifying them to
-suit his local conditions and special problems. The
-outline kindly furnished the author by Professor Mortensen
-is so interesting and instructive as to be well
-worth copying substantially in full, leaving out the
-“Ices” in which no milk or cream is used and which
-are therefore not of special interest in connection with
-the purpose of this book—the use of more and better
-milk.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i055.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Ice cream factory</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>
-  <h4 class='c025'>CLASSIFICATION ADOPTED AT IOWA EXPERIMENT STATION</h4>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c022'>Considering the work of former writers as well as
-names used by business men, the following classification
-was worked out by the station:</p>
-<table class='table4' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='28%' />
-<col width='71%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c019'>I.</td>
-    <td class='c023'>Plain Ice Creams.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c019'>II.</td>
-    <td class='c023'>Nut Ice Creams.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c019'>III.</td>
-    <td class='c023'>Fruit Ice Creams.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c019'>IV.</td>
-    <td class='c023'>Bisque Ice Creams.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c019'>V.</td>
-    <td class='c023'>Parfaits.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c019'>VI.</td>
-    <td class='c023'>Mousses.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c019'>VII.</td>
-    <td class='c023'>Puddings.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c019'>VIII.</td>
-    <td class='c023'>Aufaits.</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c019'>IX.</td>
-    <td class='c023'>Lactos.</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-<h4 class='c025'>Explanation and Formulas</h4>
-
-<p class='c022'>I. <i>Plain Ice Cream</i> is a frozen product made from
-cream and sugar with or without a natural flavoring.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Formulas are given for making ten gallons of finished
-ice cream.</p>
-<p class='c013'><i>Vanilla Ice Cream</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>5 gallons 25% cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>8 lbs. sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 oz. vanilla extract</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Chocolate Ice Cream</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>5 gallons cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>10 lbs. sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>1½ lbs. bitter chocolate</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 oz. vanilla extract</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Maple Ice Cream</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>5 gallons 25% cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>6 lbs. cane sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 lbs. maple sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 oz. caramel</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 oz. vanilla extract</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span><i>Caramel Ice Cream</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>5 gallons 25% cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>8 lbs. sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>12 oz. caramel</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 oz. vanilla extract</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Coffee Ice Cream</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>5 gallons 25% cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>8 lbs. cane sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>Extract from 1 lb. coffee</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Mint Ice Cream</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>5 gallons 25% cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>8 lbs. cane sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 pt. concentrated Creme de Menthe syrup</div>
-      <div class='line'>Few drops green coloring.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>II. <i>Nut Ice Cream</i> is a frozen product made from
-cream and sugar and sound non-rancid nuts.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Walnut Ice Cream</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>5 gallons 25% cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>8 lbs. cane sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 oz. vanilla extract</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 lbs. of walnut meats.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>According to this general formula the following nut
-ice creams may be prepared by substituting different
-kinds of nut meats:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c029'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'><i>Chestnut Ice Cream</i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i>Filbert Ice Cream</i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i>Hazelnut Ice Cream</i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i>Pecan Ice Cream</i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i>Peanut Ice Cream</i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i>Almond Ice Cream</i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i>Pistachio Ice Cream</i>.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>At times pistachio ice cream is made from oil of pistachio
-instead of from the nuts. If thus prepared, it
-will come under the head of plain ice cream.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>III. <i>Fruit Ice Cream</i> is a frozen product made from
-cream, sugar and sound, clean, mature fruits.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Strawberry Ice Cream</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>5 gallons 25% cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>8 lbs. sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ gallon crushed strawberries.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>Employing the same formula the following creams
-may be made by merely substituting other fruits and
-berries for the strawberries. The amount of sugar may
-be varied according to the acidity of the fruit.</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c029'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'><i>Pineapple Ice Cream</i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i>Raspberry Ice Cream</i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i>Cherry Ice Cream</i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i>Peach Ice Cream</i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i>Apricot Ice Cream</i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i>Currant Ice Cream</i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i>Grape Ice Cream</i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i>Cranberry Ice Cream</i>.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>Preparation of <i>lemon</i> and <i>orange</i> ice creams cannot
-be included under this general rule. These creams may
-be prepared as follows:</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Lemon Ice Cream</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>5 gallons 25% cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>10 lbs. sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 pts. lemon juice</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 pt. orange juice</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Orange Ice Cream</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>5 gallons 25% cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>10 lbs. sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 qts. orange juice</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ pt. lemon juice.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>IV. <i>Bisque Ice Cream</i> is a frozen product made from
-cream, sugar and bread products, marshmallows or
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>other confections, with or without other natural
-flavoring.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Macaroon Ice Cream</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>5 gallons 25% cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>8 lbs. sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 oz. vanilla extract</div>
-      <div class='line'>5 lbs. ground macaroons.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>From this formula we can make:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>Grape Nut Ice Cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>Nabisco Ice Cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>Sponge Cake Ice Cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>Marshmallow Ice Cream.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>V. <i>Parfait</i> is a frozen product made from cream,
-sugar and egg yolks with or without nuts or fruits and
-other natural flavoring.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Walnut Parfait</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>4 gallons 30% cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>Yolks of 10 dozen eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>14 lbs. sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 oz. vanilla extract</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 lbs. walnut meats.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>From this formula by substituting the nut meats we
-can make:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'><i>Filbert Parfait</i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i>Almond Parfait</i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i>Peanut Parfait</i></div>
-      <div class='line'><i>Hazelnut Parfait</i>, etc.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>By substituting the same proportion of fruits as are
-used for fruit ice cream, for the vanilla extract and nut
-meats, fruit parfaits such as strawberry, raspberry and
-cherry parfaits and others may be prepared.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span><i>Coffee Parfait</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>4 gallons 30% cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>Yolks of 10 dozen eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>14 lbs. sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>Extract from 1 lb. coffee</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Maple Parfait</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>4 gallons 30% cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>Yolks of 10 dozen eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 lbs. maple sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>10 lbs. cane sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 oz. caramel paste</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Tutti-Frutti</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>4 gallons 30% cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>Yolks of 10 dozen eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>14 lbs. cane sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 oz. vanilla extract</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 lbs. candied cherries</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 lbs. candied assorted fruit</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 lbs. pineapple.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>VI. <i>Mousse</i> is a frozen whipped cream to which sugar
-and natural flavoring have been added.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Cranberry Mousse</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>2 gallons 30% cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 lbs. cane sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 qt. cranberry juice</div>
-      <div class='line'>¼ pt. lemon juice.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>From the same formula combinations may be made
-with various other fruit juices and natural flavors, such
-as coffee, vanilla, maple, caramel, pistachio, etc.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Sultana roll</i>, as indicated by the name, is made in a
-round mold. The center of the mold is filled with
-tutti-frutti, and the outside with pistachio mousse.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>VII. <i>Pudding</i> is a product made from cream or milk,
-with sugar, eggs, nuts and fruits, highly flavored.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span><i>Nesselrode Pudding</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>3 gallons 30% cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>10 dozen eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>10 lbs. cane sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 oz. vanilla extract</div>
-      <div class='line'>6 lbs. candied cherries and assorted fruits</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 lbs. raisins</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 lbs. macaroons</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Manhattan Pudding</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>3 gallons 30% cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>10 dozen eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>12 lbs. sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 qts. orange juice</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 pt. lemon juice</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 lbs. walnut meats</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 lbs. pecan meats</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 lbs. cherries and assorted fruits</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Plum Pudding</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>3 gallons 30% cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>10 dozen eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>10 lbs. sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>2½ lbs. chocolate</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 lbs. cherries and assorted fruits</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 lbs. raisins</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 lbs. figs</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 lb. walnut meats</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 teaspoonfuls ground cinnamon</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ teaspoonful ground cloves.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>VIII. <i>Aufait</i> is a brick cream consisting of layers of
-one or more kinds of cream with solid layers of frozen
-fruits.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Fig aufait may be made from three layers of cream
-of various flavors with two layers of whole or sliced
-figs. It is most satisfactory to slice the figs lengthwise
-in halves.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Other aufaits may be made from a variety of preserved
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>fruits and berries and combined with different
-creams.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>IX. <i>Lacto</i> is a product manufactured from skimmed
-or whole sour milk, eggs and sugar, with or without
-natural flavoring.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Formulas for lactos may be found in Bulletin No. 140
-published by the Ames Station.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>As an example, the following mixture will make 5
-gallons of</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Cherry Lacto</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>3 gallons lacto milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>9 pounds sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>12 eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 quart of cherry juice or concentrated cherry syrup</div>
-      <div class='line'>1½ pints lemon juice</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>“Lacto Milk” is the same as described under “Commercial
-Buttermilk” and “Thick Milk,” pages 81 and 82.</p>
-
-<p class='c030'>The sugar is first dissolved in the lacto milk. The eggs are then
-prepared. The whites and yolks are kept in separate containers
-and each lot is beaten with an egg beater. Both the yolks and
-whites are then added to the milk. The mixture is thoroughly
-stirred and strained through a fine wire gauze. The fruit juices
-are added last. The freezer is now run until it turns with difficulty
-when the paddle is removed. The brine is removed and the freezer
-repacked with ice and salt and left for an hour before the contents
-are served.</p>
-
-<p class='c031'>Orange, Mint, Pineapple, Maraschino, Raspberry or Grape Lacto
-may be prepared by substituting any of these flavors for the Cherry.</p>
-
-<p class='c022'>X. <i>Ices</i> are frozen products made from water or
-sweet skimmed or whole milk, and sugar, with or without
-eggs, fruit juices or other natural flavoring.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Ices may be for convenience divided into <i>sherbets</i>,
-<i>milk sherbets</i>, <i>frappes</i>, <i>punches</i> and <i>souffles</i>.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Milk Sherbet</i> is an ice made from sweet skimmed or
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>whole milk with egg albumen, sugar and natural flavoring,
-frozen to the consistency of ice cream.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Pineapple Milk Sherbet</i>:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>6 gallons milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>20 lbs. sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>Whites of 2 dozen eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 gallon pineapple pulp</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 qt. lemon juice.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>Milk sherbets of various flavors may be prepared
-according to above formula by substituting other
-flavorings.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The formulas presented above have been given
-mainly for the purpose of making clear the difference
-between the various groups. Numerous other formulas
-may be prepared on the same general outline.</p>
-
-<hr class='c032' />
-
-<p class='c014'>Prof. Mortensen’s formulas are mostly made out for
-ten gallons of ice cream. It is hardly necessary to call
-attention to the fact that they can easily be adapted to
-any smaller quantities by reducing each of the ingredients
-alike. For instance, to make:</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>1 gallon of Plain Vanilla Ice Cream</i>, divide the figures
-given above by 10 and use:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>2 quarts 25% cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>¾ lbs. sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ oz. vanilla extract.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>To make:</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>1 quart of Strawberry Ice Cream</i>, divide by 40 and use:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c028'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 pint 25% cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 oz. sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>Crushed strawberries to taste.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>
-<img src='images/i064.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Professor Mortensen, behind the vat at the left, giving a lesson in the making of ice cream at Ames</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>It will be noticed that in the formulas worked out
-at Ames as above, very rich cream is used,—with a
-fat contents of 25% or 30%,—which makes exceedingly
-rich ice creams and great expansion in freezing. The
-ordinary ice cream maker will usually employ cheaper
-material, mixing some milk in the cream and standardizing
-the material to suit his local trade. Also most
-housekeepers making ice cream at home will find it
-convenient and economical to use a mixture of milk
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>and cream and in doing so one must not expect so
-much expansion.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>In many places outside of dairy sections cream is
-scarce and <i>condensed milk</i> is substituted to a large
-extent. Lately milk powder has come into use and
-<i>Emulsified Cream</i> has become popular. Skim-milk
-powder and unsalted butter may be kept in stock and
-be available at any time, and by means of an <i>Emulsifier</i>
-they are united again into a product identical with the
-milk or cream from which they were originally separated.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Junket Ice Cream.</b>—By setting a mixture of milk
-and cream with a solution of Junket Tablets and allowing
-it to jelly before freezing, the body of the cream
-may be improved so that a material of comparatively
-low fat-percentage will make a very good ice cream,
-rich enough for most people and especially well suited
-for invalids and children. Ice-cold milk or cream is
-rather hard to digest for a weak or delicate stomach
-because the action of the rennet in the digestive juice
-is imperfect and slow except at blood-temperature. In
-Junket Ice Cream, however, such action takes place
-before it is eaten and the digestive ferment of the
-stomach is relieved of that function. For that reason
-Junket Ice Cream is considered healthier than the
-ordinary frozen products and may be indulged in freely
-by children and invalids.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The following are examples of tested Junket Ice
-Creams:</p>
-
-<h4 class='c024'>Vanilla Ice Cream</h4>
-
-<p class='c030'>Dissolve two Junket Tablets in a tablespoonful of cold water, heat
-two quarts of milk and one pint of cream lukewarm in which has
-been dissolved one cup of sugar and two teaspoonfuls of vanilla
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>flavor, then add the dissolved Junket Tablet, stir quickly for one-half
-minute and pour into ice cream can, let stand undisturbed ten
-or fifteen minutes or until set. Pack with ice and salt and freeze.</p>
-
-<h4 class='c024'>Pistachio Ice Cream</h4>
-
-<p class='c022'>Excerpt from an article by Alice Bradley in “Woman’s Home
-Companion”</p>
-
-<p class='c030'>This is the best ice cream for the money that we know. It may
-be made ready for the freezer early in the morning, and kept in the
-ice box until it is convenient to freeze it. It is quite possible to
-utilize cream that is not perfectly fresh.</p>
-
-<p class='c031'>Put in the can of the freezer one pint of milk, one-half cup of heavy
-cream, one-third cup sugar, one teaspoonful vanilla, one-half
-teaspoon of almond extract, a few grains of salt, and vegetable
-color paste to make a delicate green color. Set the freezer in a pan
-of hot water. As soon as the mixture is lukewarm, add one Junket
-Tablet dissolved in one tablespoon cold water. Mix thoroughly
-and let stand until firm. Put in the ice box until ready to freeze,
-then put can in the freezer tub, adjust the crank, put in three small
-measures of ice that has been crushed in a heavy bag or shaved
-fine with an ice shaver, cover this evenly with one measure of rock
-salt, add three measures more of ice and one of salt, let stand five
-minutes and then turn the crank of the freezer for about ten minutes,
-when it may be turned a little more rapidly. Continue the turning
-until the mixture is firm.</p>
-
-<p class='c031'>Remove the dasher, pack ice cream solidly into the can, surround
-with four measures of ice to one of salt, cover with heavy burlap
-bag or newspaper and keep in a cold place until needed. Be sure
-the opening in the side of the freezer tub is not plugged up, so that
-any surplus of salt water will drain off instead of getting into the
-freezer. It may be necessary to repack the freezer if the cream is
-frozen very long in advance of the meal. The cream may be put
-into a mold, set in the fireless cooker kettle, surrounded with ice
-and salt and left in the fireless cooker all day. Peel peaches, cut in
-thin slices, sprinkle with sugar and set in the ice box to chill. To
-serve, place peaches in chilled dessert glasses, cover with ice cream
-and garnish each with a candied cherry.</p>
-
-<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>In the following recipes the cream is added after the
-junket prepared from mixtures of milk, sugar and
-flavors has been partly frozen, a method which is
-preferred by many.</p>
-
-<h4 class='c024'>Coffee Ice Cream</h4>
-
-<p class='c030'>Make a cup of very strong coffee, add it to two quarts of warm
-milk in which one cup of sugar has been dissolved, taste in order to
-see if the flavor is strong enough, add three dissolved Junket Tablets,
-stir quickly for one-half minute, pour into ice cream can and let
-stand undisturbed ten or fifteen minutes or until set. Pack with
-ice and salt; freeze to a thick mush before adding one pint of
-cream, then continue freezing.</p>
-
-<h4 class='c024'><i>Simmons College Peach Ice Cream</i></h4>
-
-<p class='c030'>Heat two quarts of milk lukewarm in which has been dissolved
-one cup of sugar and two teaspoonfuls of vanilla flavor, add
-two dissolved Junket Tablets, stir quickly for one-half minute and
-pour into ice cream can, let stand undisturbed ten or fifteen minutes
-or until set. Pack with ice and salt; freeze to a thick mush before
-adding one pint of cream and crushed and sweetened peaches, then
-continue freezing. Save the needed amount of peaches to serve on
-top of ice cream.</p>
-
-<p class='c022'>Frozen pudding, strawberries, bananas, or pineapple,
-may be added in this way when making any Junket
-Ice Cream.</p>
-
-<h4 class='c024'><i>Orange Sherbet</i></h4>
-
-<p class='c030'>Heat two quarts of milk lukewarm in which has been dissolved
-two cups of sugar, then add two dissolved Junket Tablets, stir
-quickly for a minute and pour into freezer can, let it stand ten or
-fifteen minutes before packing with ice and salt; freeze to a thick
-mush, then add juice and grated rind of six oranges and continue to
-freeze.</p>
-
-<p class='c022'><span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span><b>Raspberry Sherbet</b> may be made in the same way by
-substituting for the juice and rind of oranges one quart
-of crushed and sweetened raspberries, and</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Pineapple Sherbet</b> by substituting two cups of grated
-and sweetened pineapple.</p>
-
-<h4 class='c024'><i>Custard Ice Cream</i></h4>
-
-<p class='c033'>When cream is scarce many housekeepers substitute a mixture
-of eggs and milk. The following is a good standard recipe which
-can be varied by using different fruits and flavors the same as in
-any of the above combinations.</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l c034'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 quart milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 teaspoons vanilla (more if desired)</div>
-      <div class='line'>2½ cups sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 quart cream (or rich milk)</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c035'>Scald milk, add sugar, then add the well-beaten eggs. Cook until
-thick, remove from fire and cool. Be careful not to cook too long
-or it will curdle. Then add the cream and vanilla and freeze.</p>
-<div>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>
-  <h3 class='c010'>BUTTER</h3>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c022'>As everybody knows, butter is one of the oldest and
-most important products of the dairy industry and
-since the middle of the nineteenth century, when science
-was first applied to it, the art of buttermaking has
-gradually been developed to a high degree of perfection,
-while the taste for fine butter has grown apace with its
-manufacture.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Between 1840 and 1850 the large estates in Holstein,
-then connected with Denmark, were known for their
-fine dairies and excellent butter, made in a practical
-way without much attention to the reason for the
-rules that were gradually worked out.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>A class of superior dairymaids was educated on these
-large farms, many of whom were hired by progressive
-farmers on the Danish islands where an effort was made
-at that time to introduce better methods of dairying.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The practical handicraft of these imported expert
-dairymaids was supplemented and regulated by the
-scientific work of Professor Segelcke and his pupils and
-from the Sixties buttermaking became an art in Denmark
-which was subjected to the most searching study
-and improvements. Danish butter soon captured the
-English market where previously Isigny (from Northern
-France) and Dutch butter had commanded the highest
-prices, and Danish sweet butter put up in sealed tin
-cans also became known all over the world as the only
-butter that would stand export to the Tropics.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>In this country Orange County, N.Y., first produced
-a high-class article and, later, Elgin, Ill., became the
-center that stood for the top of perfection. Thence
-the industry soon spread over the middle western states,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>largely populated by Scandinavian immigrants many
-of whom were skilled buttermakers, educated in the
-old countries. Even up to this day it is noticeable that
-the list of prize winning buttermakers at the National
-Dairy Shows and other exhibitions is largely made up
-of Scandinavian names. In Minnesota, for instance, as
-fine butter is now made as anywhere in the world.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Dairy Butter.</i>—In the early days of the industry
-butter was made at home on the farm. The milk was
-set in shallow vessels,—in the Holstein and Danish
-dairies in wooden tubs 24 inches in diameter placed
-on the stone or concrete floor in the milk-vault, a cool
-cellar partly underground,—or in tin pans on the
-pantry shelf. After 36 to 48 hours the cream was
-skimmed off with a flat scoop, often both cream and
-skim milk being sour.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>About 1860 the deep tin can was introduced, set in
-cold running water or, where ice was available, in ice
-water. This was a great improvement over the shallow
-setting system. It was now possible to raise most of
-the cream in 24 hours leaving not to exceed ½%
-butter-fat in the skim milk, and to have both cream
-and skim milk sweet.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Centrifugal Creaming.</i>—But the climax of perfection
-was not reached until the separator (see under Cream)
-was invented about 1879 and cream was raised instantaneously.
-For a long time it was the object of
-the manufacturers to produce <i>power separators</i> of larger
-and larger capacity, handling from 6,000 to 10,000
-lbs. of milk an hour.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Co-operative Creameries</b> were established, taking in
-20,000 lbs. of milk and more a day. But in thinly
-settled sections where the roads were poor it was expensive
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>to haul the milk a long distance to the creamery
-and <i>hand separators</i> were introduced, each farmer skimming
-his own milk fresh from the cows and delivering
-the cream, only, to the creamery. This system has
-the advantage of leaving the skim milk on the farm
-in the very best condition for the calves and hogs and
-of saving time and expenses in transportation. It has
-the disadvantage that many farmers can hardly be
-expected to handle all of these separators as skilfully
-and cleanly as the creamery expert can run his one or
-few machines, and consequently that the skimming is
-more or less imperfect—more butter-fat being left in
-the skim milk and more impurities in the cream than
-in the whole-milk creamery. But in practice the advantages
-of the hand separator and cream-gathering
-system seem to be greater than the disadvantages and
-it is rapidly taking the place of the whole-milk creameries.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Ripening the Cream.</i>—Butter may be made by
-churning whole milk, but usually it is made from cream
-that has been “ripened” or soured by standing for
-about 10 hours at a temperature of from 65° to 75° F.
-Modern buttermakers often pasteurize the cream and
-then add a “starter” to sour it. By preparing the
-starter with a pure culture of lactic acid bacteria
-one can get the desired acidity and aroma, and exclude
-undesirable flavors (as to Pure Cultures and
-Starters, see under “Bacteria” and “Commercial Buttermilk”).</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i072.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Sanitary Cream Ripener showing coil swung up into cleaning position</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>The process of ripening requires considerable skill
-and attention and is one of the most delicate functions
-the buttermaker is called upon to perform. In the
-first place the cream must be faultless, sweet and pure
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>before it is set to ripen, so the buttermaker will have
-full control of the fermentation. For, if it is already
-turned or partly fermented, no skill will avail to bring
-it back to perfection. But with a first class, pure cream
-the operator has it in his power to turn out perfect
-butter. In the big western creameries cream is often
-collected from farms at a distance of a hundred miles
-or more and in warm weather such cream is likely to
-arrive at the central plant in more or less advanced
-condition. It is therefore difficult for the <i>centralizers</i>
-to make really first-class butter while the “whole-milk
-creamery” as well as the farmer handling his own
-milk are in position to control the ripening from
-the beginning,—starting with pure material and being
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>able to develop the desired flavor and acidity in the
-cream.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>After adding the starter to the cream it must be kept
-at a uniform temperature of 65 to 75° during the ripening
-process and it must be watched carefully and occasionally
-stirred gently until the consistency, aroma
-and acidity are as desired. Then it should be cooled
-quickly to stop further fermentation and if it is not to
-be churned at once it should be kept cold until churning
-time. Usually it is safer to set the cream in the morning
-and hasten the ripening so it will be completed in the
-evening rather than to leave it overnight warm. For,
-if it is finished in the evening, the cream may be cooled
-and placed in ice water overnight and one is sure to
-have it in good condition for churning in the morning.
-But it is quite feasible for the experienced operator to
-regulate the process so the cream will not be fully
-ripened in the morning until he is on hand to watch it
-and see that the process does not go too far. Taste
-and smell will tell when it is just right, and the <i>acid
-test</i> may also be applied to determine when to stop
-the fermentation. An acidity of .5% is usually desired.
-When the condition is right, chill the cream, cooling it
-to below 50°—preferably down towards 40°—and leave
-it in ice water or in the refrigerator until churning time;
-then temper it to the proper temperature for churning.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Even if it is to be churned soon after the ripening
-is completed it is best to chill it and then raise the
-temperature to the point wanted for churning. This
-gives a better “grain” and “body” to the butter than
-if the ripened cream is just cooled to the churning
-temperature, and is especially desirable when the cream
-has been pasteurized.</p>
-<div  class='figcenter id006'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>
-<img src='images/i074.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Branch of the Annatto tree</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Coloring.</b>—When the cream is ready it is poured into
-the churn and a little butter color is added. Some
-people prefer butter very light or even uncolored, but
-usually 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls of a standard butter color<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c017'><sup>[5]</sup></a>
-to 10 gallons of cream will be found right, varying
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>according to the season and the breed of cows furnishing
-the milk. The butter-fat in Guernsey and Jersey
-milk is naturally highly colored, while that in Holstein
-milk is comparatively white. When the cows are on
-fresh pasture in the early summer the butter-fat is
-more highly colored than when they are on dry food.
-The amount of coloring to be added to the cream is
-regulated to overcome such variations and make the
-butter of uniform color all the year round.</p>
-
-<div class='fn'>
-
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id006'>
-<img src='images/i075.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Adding the butter color</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Churning.</b>—Hundreds of varieties of churns have
-been constructed from time to time; 2,000 years ago
-Pliny described the old dash churn much the same as
-still occasionally used on the farm, and the principle
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>involved in the process has not been changed. The
-object is to make the fat globules conglomerate into
-grains that can be collected and leave as little butter-fat
-as possible in the buttermilk.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id003'>
-<img src='images/i076a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Old Arabian churn made out of the skin of a goat</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figcenter id003'>
-<img src='images/i076b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Ancient churn</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figcenter id003'>
-<img src='images/i076c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Danish churn</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>The best temperature for churning varies from 48°
-to 56° and must be determined by local conditions and
-experience.  To allow plenty
-of room for the cream to
-shake about, the churn should not be much more than
-half full. When the globules of fat suspended in the
-milk stick together and form granules as large as good
-sized pin-heads it is time to stop the churn and drain
-off the buttermilk. If the butter fails to “come” in
-half an hour or forty minutes it may be because the
-cream in the churn is too warm or too cold. A little
-cold or warm water, as the case may be, can be added
-as a simple remedy.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i077.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Churning room in a large modern creamery</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>Toward the end of the process care must be taken
-that the churn is stopped at the right moment, when
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>the butter will separate clear from the buttermilk.
-After the buttermilk is drawn off pure cold water is
-poured into the churn and the butter granules are
-rinsed in it. This water again is drawn off and fresh
-cold water put in.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i078.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Butter worker</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Working the Butter.</b>—The butter can now be taken
-out with a sieve and worked on the butter-worker, or
-it may be worked in the churn. “Working” the butter
-consists in squeezing out the buttermilk and kneading
-the butter into a smooth but not “greasy” mass. If
-it is too warm and if it is worked too much, with a
-sliding motion instead of just pressing, the butter is
-apt to become greasy. If there seems to be any danger
-of greasiness, it is better to stop and put the butter
-in a cool place for a few hours to recover its elasticity.
-The working can then be finished safely.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span><b>Salting.</b>—During this working process salt is added
-and thoroughly distributed and worked in. About half
-an ounce of salt is used for a pound of butter.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Composition of Butter.</b>—When finished, the butter
-ought not to contain more than 12% to 15% of water,
-and there should be at least 80% of butter-fat. If all
-the butter-fat originally in the milk could be taken out
-in the butter, 100 lbs. of 4% milk should yield 4.88%
-(4.88 lbs.) of butter with 82% butter-fat. But a little
-is lost in the skim milk and more in the buttermilk,
-which usually contains ½% fat, so that about 4½
-lbs. is all the butter that can be expected from 100 lbs.
-of milk.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Overrun.</b>—Creamery men are much interested in the
-“Overrun” which means the increase from the churn
-over the amount of fat in the milk. For instance, if a
-quantity of milk containing 100 lbs. butter-fat as shown
-by the Babcock Test produces 114 lbs. of finished
-butter, the overrun is 14%. The buttermaker who
-gets the largest overrun by reducing the loss of butter-fat
-in the skim milk and the buttermilk to a minimum,
-keeping the percentage of water in the butter just
-below 16%, and yet producing high scoring butter, is
-considered most efficient.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Packing.</b>—For the market, butter is packed in tubs
-or stone jars. Or it is molded in neat one-pound bricks
-and wrapped in parchment paper.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Sweet Butter.</b>—Real “sweet” butter is churned from
-fresh, sweet, unsoured cream. But usually the name
-is given to the <i>unsalted</i> and <i>uncolored</i> butter that
-many people relish. Without the salt it does not keep
-as well as ordinary butter, and must be eaten quite
-fresh. Well-made salted butter will keep for months
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>with ordinary care, and in cold storage it may be kept
-a year. But when it comes out of cold storage it must
-be used within a few weeks, for butter, like other cold
-storage foods, will soon spoil and become rancid when
-it is exposed to a higher temperature for any length of
-time.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Renovated Butter.</b>—Butter that has become old and
-rancid can be “renovated.” The butter is melted and
-the butter-oil washed,—aërated in the renovating
-plants,—and then churned with fine-flavored sour skim
-milk. From the sour skim milk it gets back its old
-butter flavor. The granular physical consistency of
-fresh butter is gained by pouring the emulsified mixture
-over cracked ice or into ice water. By the time the
-excess of “buttermilk” has been removed by working,
-and salt has been mixed in, the renovated butter may
-be almost as good as fresh creamery butter.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Oleomargarine</b> or <b>Butterine</b> is made in much the same
-way. A mixture of beef-fat (the soft part of beef-tallow)
-and lard and cottonseed oil is churned with
-sour milk and worked and granulated like renovated
-butter. For the better grades, some of the finest
-creamery butter is mixed with it, so that the mixture
-can hardly be distinguished from real butter.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Coco-butter</b>, <b>Nut-butter</b>, etc., in great variety, are now
-also on the market as substitutes for butter, all prepared
-in a similar way, but lacking the vital unknown
-element that makes genuine butter so superior to
-substitutes.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>BUTTERMILK</h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>If the cream has been carefully ripened, with or
-without a pure culture starter, and it has shown the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>proper sourness when churned, the buttermilk will be
-of a pleasing taste and flavor. Its thickness will of
-course depend upon the amount of water, if any, added
-to the cream in the churn during the buttermaking.
-If the buttermilk is to be used for human food care
-must be taken not to dilute it too much.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Cooling Essential.</b>—If buttermilk is left to stand for
-hours in a warm room, fermentation goes on and may
-soon spoil the buttermilk by making it sloppy or bitter.
-It should therefore be cooled at once when drawn from
-the churn; if kept in ice water it may remain in fine
-flavor for several days. Well taken care of it is not
-only a pleasing and refreshing drink but eminently
-healthful. In cooking, too, it can be used to advantage.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Commercial Buttermilk</b> or <b>Cultured Milk</b> is simply carefully
-soured milk. It can be made at home from fresh
-milk either whole or skimmed or partly skimmed. Partially
-skimmed milk containing from 1% to 2% butter-fat
-is plenty rich enough and even better for most purposes
-than whole milk. The essential qualities of good
-buttermilk depend upon the proper ripening of the
-cream or milk, the development of a pure “breed” of
-healthful bacteria in a clean field free from weeds. Such
-a plantation or “culture” may be grown in milk as
-well as in cream. Its function is to turn the sugar of
-milk into lactic acid under the development of pleasing
-flavors and whether the butter-fat is removed by the
-separator or by churning makes little difference. In
-natural buttermilk there is always a little butter-fat—at
-least ½%—left, mostly in the form of fine granules,
-too small to be retained in the butter. If the same
-amount of butter-fat is left in skim milk and that is
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>ripened and churned, the product will be identically
-the same as natural buttermilk from ripened cream.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Ripening.</b>—For best result the milk should be pasteurized,
-not necessarily as thoroughly as for starters,
-but sufficiently so as to destroy all obnoxious bacteria
-and give those introduced through a pure culture
-starter a chance to grow. Buttermilk may, however,
-also be made from good, clean, unpasteurized milk of
-good flavor. Whether pasteurized or not the milk is
-set to ripen with from 5 to 10% starter at a temperature
-of from 65 to 75°. The preparation of starters is described
-under “Bacteria” and the ripening of the milk
-for “buttermilk” is essentially the same process (see
-also under <i>Ripening</i> of cream for butter). When ripened
-to the desired acidity,—say .5% to .6% by the
-acid test,—stop further fermentation by thorough
-cooling.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Breaking up the Curd.</b>—After cooling, the ripened
-milk may be broken up fine and if vigorously shaken
-or “churned” it will remain smooth and creamy. Otherwise
-it may separate into curd and whey. If churned
-long enough for the butter to form, it becomes absolutely
-identical with real buttermilk. But, for all
-practical purposes, a vigorous shaking for a few minutes
-is enough.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Thick Milk.</b>—“Thick Milk” as eaten in Scandinavia
-is made in the same way as commercial buttermilk,
-except that the milk—rich whole milk—is set to
-ripen in the bowl in which it is to be served. Instead
-of being churned or stirred, it is left thick, to be served
-as a pudding, like Junket made from sweet milk. The
-rich layer of cream that forms on top is excellent.
-“Thick Milk” is eaten plain with the oatmeal for
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>breakfast, or as a dessert with grated stale bread and
-sugar spread over it.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The uses of buttermilk in making pancakes and for
-many other culinary purposes are mentioned in the
-chapter on “Milk Cookery.”</p>
-
-<div  class='figright id002'>
-<img src='images/i083.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Dr. Elie Metchnikoff, author of “The Prolongation of Life”</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Yoghourt</b> or <b>Bulgarian Sour Milk</b> is prepared with a
-culture of bacteria originally found in Bulgaria where
-Metchnikoff, the late director of
-the Pasteur Institute of Paris, found
-people living to exceptional old age
-which he ascribed to the fact that
-their principal diet is sour milk of
-very high acidity.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The theory is that a luxurious
-growth of lactic acid bacilli, acting
-as a germicide, destroys other fermentations
-in the lower intestines.
-The bacilli active in Yoghourt require
-a somewhat higher temperature
-for their best growth than the
-lactic acid bacilli predominant in sour cream for the
-finest butter, a fact which must be taken into consideration
-in preparing the various products.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>FERMENTED MILK</h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>In the preparation of Koumis, Kefir and other fermented
-milks of the same class, Yeast plays an important
-part, changing some of the milk-sugar into the
-alcohol which is found in these preparations in quantities
-up to 2%.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i084.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Baba Vasilka, 126 years old and her son, Tudor, 101;<br />Bulgarian peasants whose principal food has been sour milk all their lives</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Koumis</b> was first made from mare’s milk by the Tartars,
-but is now prepared in this country from cow’s
-milk by the addition of sugar and yeast. As carbonic
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>acid is developed in the process it is quite effervescent
-and may be regarded both as a food and a stimulant.
-It is sometimes prescribed by physicians in cases when
-the patient cannot retain other food.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Kefir</b> is a similar preparation originally made in the
-Caucasus by a fermentation started by Kefir grains
-which contain both yeast and various bacteria. The
-dry Kefir grains are soaked, first in lukewarm water,
-later in lukewarm milk, for several days, until they
-develop so much gas as to float on the top. A couple
-of tablespoonfuls of the grains are then added to a
-quart of milk which is left to ferment at 70° F. under
-frequent stirring or shaking. When the fermentation
-is fully developed the grains are strained off and the
-milk is bottled and kept for 1 to 2 days at 60°. The
-grains may be used at once again in fresh milk, and
-when the manufacture is finished they may be dried
-and kept, to be used again another time.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id007'>
-<img src='images/i085.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Kefir grains of natural size; a, b and c dried; d, e and f soaked (Orla Jensen, Milk Bacteriology)</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c008' />
-</div>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>
-  <h2 id='ch03' class='c009'>CHAPTER III<br /> <br /><span class='fss'>CHEESE</span></h2>
-</div>
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i086.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Students making cheese in the University cheese factory, Madison, Wis.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c013'>Most of the following pages on <i>Cheese</i> were published
-in 1918 as a separate pamphlet to meet an urgent demand
-for brief directions along this line during the
-Food Conservation campaign. The copy has, however,
-been revised and new material has been added
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>with the view of making this chapter more useful to
-those who desire to study in detail the manufacture
-of various fancy foreign types of cheese such as Edam,
-Swiss, Brick, Roquefort, etc., which are now made in
-this country in constantly increasing quantities.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>For more complete directions in cheese making
-students are referred to “A B C in Cheese Making”
-by J. H. Monrad, and other technical works.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Cheese of a thousand different kinds is made, varying
-in properties and appearance from the solid, yet mellow
-and agreeable Cheddar cheese to the semi-soft, malodorous
-Limburger, the delicious, soft Neufchatel and
-Cream cheese, or the sweet Myseost of Norway. In
-India cheese was made centuries ago; to-day it is produced
-the world over, in the caves of the Swiss Alps and
-in the most modern and scientific American cheese
-factories and laboratories. Of these myriad types we
-can here describe only a few.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Cheese may be classified into that made with rennet
-and that made without. Of cheese made with rennet
-some is what is called hard, some soft.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The English and American <i>Cheddar</i>—the common
-<i>American cheese</i>—the <i>Dutch Gouda</i> and <i>Edam</i>, the
-Swiss <i>Gruyere</i>, and the Italian <i>Parmesan</i> are all hard
-cheese made with rennet. As examples of the soft
-varieties may be mentioned the French <i>Camembert</i> and
-<i>Brie</i>, <i>Cream</i> and <i>Neufchatel</i> cheese. In a class by themselves
-are such cheeses as the French <i>Roquefort</i>, the
-English <i>Stilton</i>, and the Italian <i>Gorgonzola</i>, their peculiar
-flavors being derived from molds implanted in the
-curd.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i088.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>When cheese is made without rennet, the milk is
-allowed to curdle by natural acidity or it is in some other
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>way made acid. Among the varieties made by this
-method the common <i>Cottage</i> cheese is the best known.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>For many years imitations of foreign varieties such as
-Swiss and Limburger have been made in Northern New
-York and Wisconsin. As a result of the war and the
-cutting off of foreign cheese imports, the State of Wisconsin
-has built up a large business in these fancy varieties.
-New types have lately been added, as the
-<i>Romano</i>, <i>Riggiano</i>, and <i>Myzethra</i>, which are of Italian
-and Greek origin. Some of these are made of whole
-milk, some of partly-skimmed milk, and others of the
-albumin of the whey.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Let us briefly review the characteristic features in
-the making of the older types.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>CHEDDAR CHEESE</h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>For a hundred years or more this famous cheese has
-been made and marketed at the village of Cheddar near
-Bristol, England.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>In the middle of the nineteenth century a farmer in
-that neighborhood, Joseph Harding of Marksbury Vale,
-systematized the manufacture and it was his method
-that became the model for cheesemaking in America.
-In this country it was first made in Herkimer County,
-N.Y., where Harry Burrell not only made cheese for
-the home market, but also exported to England, and
-his son, David H. Burrell, at Little Falls later developed
-the machinery which became the standard for the
-American and Canadian cheese factories.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The factory system by which cheese was made from
-milk brought together from several farms, originated
-near Rome, N.Y., and soon cheesemaking became an
-important industry throughout Central and Northern
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>New York whence it spread into Pennsylvania, Ohio
-and the West, as well as to Canada. To-day Wisconsin
-makes more cheese than all the other states together
-and Canada largely supplies England with Cheddar
-cheese of excellent quality.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id003'>
-<img src='images/i090a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Joseph Harding, who systematized the making of Cheddar cheese in England</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figcenter id003'>
-<img src='images/i090b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>David H. Burrell,<br />who introduced laborsaving machinery and supplies in the cheese factories</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figcenter id003'>
-<img src='images/i090c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Jesse Williams, father of the American factory system</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<h4 class='c024'><i>The Factory System</i></h4>
-
-<p class='c022'>The milk is delivered in the morning by the farmers
-at the factory and is weighed and strained through
-cheese-cloth into the cheese vat. When it is all in the
-vat it is warmed to a temperature of 86° F. by letting
-steam into the water surrounding the bottom and sides
-of the jacketed vat.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id003'>
-<img src='images/i091a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>A measuring glass and an accurate thermometer are indispensable</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figcenter id003'>
-<img src='images/i091b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>The Marschall rennet test</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Ripening.</b>—The milk should be slightly acid, not
-noticeably sour, yet sufficiently ripened for the proper
-fermentation to take place in the process that follows.
-The best cheesemakers regulate the ripening by adding
-a starter to the sweet milk and allowing the lactic acid
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>bacteria to multiply in the milk until a <i>Rennet Test</i><a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c017'><sup>[6]</sup></a> or
-<i>Acid Test</i><a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c017'><sup>[7]</sup></a> shows that the desired degree of acidity has
-been reached. The starter may be sour whey or preferably
-prepared from sweet skim milk or whole milk
-with a commercial lactic acid culture as described in
-Chapter <a href='#ch01'>I</a> under <i>Ferments</i> and <i>Buttermilk</i>. From 1% to
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>2% starter is usually sufficient. An acidity of .18% to
-.20% or 2½ degrees on the Rennet Test is usually desired
-before the rennet is added.</p>
-
-<div class='fn'>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class='fn'>
-
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id003'>
-<img src='images/i092a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Christian D. A. Hansen, inventor of commercial rennet extract</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figcenter id008'>
-<img src='images/i092b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Blowing up the rennets to dry them</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Adding Color and Rennet.</b><a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c017'><sup>[8]</sup></a>—If the cheese is to be
-colored, from 1 to 2 ounces of liquid cheese color (Annatto
-dissolved in an alkali) per 1,000 lbs. of milk is now
-added and thoroughly mixed into the milk which is
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>then set with rennet. Three ounces of a standard rennet
-extract to 1,000 lbs. of milk is usually sufficient.
-Enough should be used so that the milk will show beginning
-coagulation in 10 to 15 minutes and be ready to
-cut in 30 to 40 minutes.</p>
-
-<div class='fn'>
-
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>The extract should be diluted with ten times as much
-water and is then poured into the milk under vigorous
-stirring so as to be thoroughly distributed and incorporated
-in the whole mass.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Owing to the scarcity of the raw material for rennet
-extract during the war, pepsin extracted from hogs’
-stomachs has been substituted in many factories and is
-used either in dry form or as a liquid extract instead
-of rennet extract.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>With pepsin as the coagulant it is necessary to ripen
-the milk somewhat further than if rennet is used, in
-fact to the danger-point where a little more acidity is
-apt to do harm and produce a dry and crumbly cheese
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>and loss of butter-fat in the whey. Most cheesemakers
-therefore prefer rennet when they can get it.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The rennet having been added, the milk is left undisturbed
-until a firm curd has been formed. When
-the curd breaks or splits sharply before the finger
-pushed slowly through it, it is ready to be “cut.”</p>
-
-<div  class='figleft id002'>
-<img src='images/i094.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Curd knives</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Cutting.</b>—Two sets of curd knives are used, each
-consisting of a metal frame in which tinned steel blades
-are hung, in one vertically
-and in the other horizontally.
-The vertical knife is first carried
-slowly through the curd
-lengthwise and crosswise; the
-horizontal set of blades is
-then moved carefully through
-the length of the vat. When
-the cutting is over, the entire
-mass should be in cubes about
-half an inch square.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The whey that begins to
-separate out should be clear
-and yellow. Milky whey is a
-sign that the butter-fat is escaping
-in it; the curd has
-been broken up too violently.
-In curdling, the casein encases
-the butter-fat and the object of the breaking up of
-the curd in the vat is to expel the whey but retain the
-fat in the cheese.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>“Cooking” the Curd.</b>—Gentle heat is now applied to
-raise the temperature gradually to 98° or 100° in the
-course of about 30 minutes. Meanwhile the small
-pieces of curd are kept floating in the whey by gentle
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>stirring with a rake and the hands, and are not allowed
-to pack at the bottom of the vat. The heating is easily
-regulated by opening the steam valve little by little.
-Through the “cooking” the pieces of curd shrink to
-some extent and are hardened so that they will gradually
-stand livelier stirring without losing butter-fat.
-After the cooking the curd is left for an hour or so in
-the whey for a slight acidity to develop and it is then
-shoved toward the sides of the vat and the whey is
-drained off. Here again the “Acid Test” may assist
-in determining when the whey should be drawn.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i095.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Cutting the curd</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Cheddaring or Matting.</b>—After thorough draining,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>the curd is packed together in the bottom of the vat or
-on a “sink” provided with a false bottom covered with
-cheese-cloth. After fermenting for 10 or 15 minutes it
-is cut into large pieces which are again packed together
-for further matting. The exact condition to be attained
-can be determined only by experience.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i096.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>“Cheddaring” or “Matting” the curd</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>A simple test, the “Hot Iron Test,” may, however,
-help the cheesemaker to judge of this point. A handful
-of curd squeezed together and touched to a hot
-steam pipe or an iron rod heated almost red-hot in
-the fire under the boiler, and slowly withdrawn, will
-leave threads sticking to the iron. Depending upon the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>maturity of the curd, the threads will break at a length
-of from ½ to 2 inches. Usually fermentation is considered
-sufficient when threads 1½ inches long are
-formed by this test.</p>
-
-<div  class='figright id005'>
-<img src='images/i097.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Curd mill</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Salting.</b>—The matting is then interrupted by breaking
-up and salting
-the curd. This
-can be done by
-hand or by a
-curd-mill which
-cuts or breaks
-up the curd and
-permits a thorough
-mixing in
-of the salt. Two
-or three pounds
-of salt to one
-hundred pounds of curd, or the curd from 1,000 lbs. of
-milk, is the usual ratio.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Pressing.</b>—Stirring and cooling the salted curd to
-about 80° F. makes it ready for packing into the hoops
-in which it is to be pressed. The hoop is usually a
-cylinder of heavy tin with a “follower” of wood on
-which the pressure is applied. Before the curd is put
-in, the hoop is lined with cheese-cloth which remains
-on the cheese, when it is taken out. The press mostly
-used in the factory is the continuous pressure “gang-press”
-in which a number of cheeses can be pressed at
-the same time.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Curing.</b>—After 18 hours’ pressure the cheese is taken
-out of the press and out of the hoop, weighed and placed
-on a shelf or table in the curing room. For the first
-week or ten days it is kept at a temperature of about
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>70°, later the cheese is removed to a cooler room and
-possibly placed in cold storage. Usually it is paraffined
-to prevent too much drying and cracking of the rind.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i098.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Filling the curd into the hoops</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>To cure a first-class Cheddar cheese takes from three
-to six months, but most of the American cheese is made
-to cure much more quickly and is eaten two to four
-months old. Indeed, it is generally shipped from the
-factory eight to ten days old and whatever further
-curing it gets is in the warehouse of the commissionman
-or in the grocery store.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i099.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>The Gang press</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Form, Size and Packing.</b>—The old style American
-cheese is cylindrical, about 14 inches in diameter, and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>varying in depth to weigh between 60 and 80 pounds.
-Various other forms are now often made, square and
-long or in fancy shapes, such as a ball or a pineapple.
-Aside from such freaks, which have never become very
-popular, other deviations from the large, standard,
-American Cheddar, are also made to a considerable
-extent. People who have visited the beautiful National
-Dairy Shows held in turn in Chicago, Springfield, Mass.,
-and Columbus, O., the National Milk and Dairy Farm
-Expositions of New York City, the Ontario Provincial
-Fair held each year at Toronto, or the annual State
-Fairs in New York, Wisconsin, Michigan and other
-cheesemaking sections will have in mind first the prominent
-exhibits of the regular Cheddar, showing a uniformity
-in texture, form and taste that is really remarkable.
-But one will also admire the variety of other
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>forms. There are the <i>Flats</i> or <i>Twins</i>, packed two in a
-box and weighing together the same as one <i>American</i>;
-the <i>Young Americas</i> packed four in a box; the <i>Longhorns</i>
-of six to eight inches in diameter; others made like a loaf
-of bread and creased so that a pound or two may be
-cut off fairly accurately, etc.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i100.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Taking the cheese out of the press</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>The <i>Giant Cheeses</i>, weighing five to six tons, occasionally
-exhibited and cut up at World Fairs and on
-similar occasions are, like the pineapple cheese, a curiosity
-rather than an industrial product.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>One of the best forms, in the writer’s opinion, is the
-small 5-lb. cheese, proportioned exactly like the large
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>American. This makes a suitable size for an average
-family, the members of which have learned to appreciate
-a good cheese. If it is made smaller, too much is
-lost in the rind; if larger it gets too old before it can be
-consumed by one family.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i101.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Curing room</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>The larger cheeses are usually packed in neat, snug-fitting
-elm-wood boxes, with thin “Scale Boards” on
-the top and bottom of the cheese, the smaller ones in
-paraffined pressed pulp or pasteboard boxes.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Cleaning the Vats and Utensils.</b>—Like every other
-place where milk and its products are handled, the
-cheese factory must be kept scrupulously clean. Vats
-and utensils should be rinsed first with cold or lukewarm
-water or whey, then scrubbed with boiling hot water
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>and if necessary with soda, soap, or washing powder.
-The surroundings should be kept neat and attractive,
-and the cheesemaker must see that the transportation
-cans are kept clean by the farmers
-and the milk delivered in
-good condition.</p>
-
-<div  class='figleft id002'>
-<img src='images/i102.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Cheese box</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Yield.</b>—The yield is around
-10% of the milk. To make a
-pound of fresh cheese takes
-from nine to eleven pounds of
-milk. In curing, a part of the
-weight is lost by evaporation,
-but this loss is reduced to a
-minimum by paraffining.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>In some localities an increased
-yield is obtained by washing the
-curd and making it absorb all
-the water it can hold. The process is not commendable
-and while it may sell to some extent, in certain markets
-where a soft, fresh cheese is liked, “washed” or
-“soaked” curd cheese can never compare favorably in
-quality with a well-made, firm Cheddar cheese that is
-mellowed down by long-time curing to a consistency so
-it will fairly melt in your mouth.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Composition.</b>—The American cheese contains almost
-all the casein and the butter-fat of the milk, besides
-such portions of the milk-albumin, milk-sugar, and
-mineral matter as are held in the water or whey which
-is retained in the cheese. In round figures average
-American cheese contains equal parts of casein, butter-fat
-and water, 30 to 35% of each. In order to protect
-the honest maker and the consumer and prevent
-“soaking” of the curd to an extent that may be
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>considered fraudulent, the dairy laws of the State of
-New York limit the contents of water permissible to
-40% and 42% respectively for certain classes of cheese.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Qualities.</b>—A good Cheddar cheese should be mellow,
-yet solid, without holes, and of an agreeable taste,
-neither sharp nor bitter. Cheese can be made of skim
-milk, but it is hardly palatable. In the fall of the year,
-when the average milk is rich in butter-fat, 1% or 2%
-butter-fat may be taken from the milk and the resulting
-partly-skimmed milk will still make a fairly
-good cheese, hardly distinguishable from full cream
-cheese. Under the laws of the State of New York it
-must, however, be marked “Skim Milk Cheese.”</p>
-
-<h4 class='c024'>Cheese Made from Pasteurized Milk</h4>
-
-<p class='c022'>From time to time attempts have been made to make
-Cheddar cheese from pasteurized milk. If the milk
-is heated to 145° only, and held for 30 minutes at such
-temperature, its property to form a firm curd with
-rennet is not destroyed and it will make a fine cheese,
-but if it is pasteurized at a higher temperature it will
-not curdle firmly until it is ripened or otherwise brought
-back to the condition required for satisfactory action
-of the rennet ferment. Thorough ripening with a pure
-culture starter will do it, or an addition of muriatic
-acid will accomplish the same in a shorter time, but
-care must be taken not to use too much, which would
-make the cheese dry and crumbly. Dr. J. L. Sammis
-and A. T. Bruhn of the Wisconsin Dairy School worked
-out the problem and systematized a process which is described
-in Bulletin 165 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture
-and by which it is claimed a first-class cheese can
-be made regularly from thoroughly pasteurized milk.</p>
-
-<div>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>
-  <h4 class='c024'>Making Cheddar Cheese on the Farm</h4>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i104.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>American outfit for farm cheese making</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figright id002'>
-<img src='images/i105a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Plain wooden vat and curd mill</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c022'>It takes quite a little experience to make a good
-Cheddar cheese and, unless one has the time and opportunity
-to study it and make it an every-day practice,
-it is not as a rule advisable to attempt making Cheddar
-cheese in the home from the milk of one or a few cows.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The amateur will usually find it easier to make Neufchatel
-or Cream or Cottage cheese for home use or for
-the home market.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id009'>
-<img src='images/i105b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Danish kettle and cheese vat</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>If Cheddar cheese is to be made regularly it is best
-to get an outfit consisting of a small boiler and a jacketed
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>vat, although cheese may be made in a plain wooden
-tub or any other convenient vessel. The double bottomed
-vat generally used in American as well as in
-Danish dairies facilitates
-both the heating
-of the milk before setting
-and the “cooking”
-of the curd in
-the whey after cutting.
-Either low pressure
-steam, or—better—water
-heated by steam,
-is introduced in the
-space between the outer, wooden bottom and the inner,
-tinned steel or copper bottom. If it is cool the milk
-should be warmed to 86° F. In the summer it may be
-warm enough as it comes in, fresh from the cow. If
-not, heat it by steam or by setting it in a “shot-gun”
-can in another vessel of hot water, stirring frequently,
-until the thermometer shows 86°. It may be well to
-add a little buttermilk or sour whey from the preceding
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>day, or a pure culture starter made with Buttermilk
-Tablets, not to exceed 1% or 2%.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id009'>
-<img src='images/i106.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Cutting the curd</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>If it is desired to make colored cheese add a teaspoonful
-of liquid cheese color, or ½ cheese color tablet
-dissolved in warm water, to 100 pounds of milk, more
-or less according to season and the shade of color desired
-in the cheese.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Next add the rennet. Where cheese is made from
-less than 500 lbs. of milk Rennet Tablets are handy, one
-tablet to 80 or 100 lbs. For less than 50 lbs. of milk,
-Junket Tablets may be used, one to a gallon. Dissolve
-the tablet, or tablets, or fraction of a tablet, as the case
-may be, in <i>cold</i> water and stir the solution well into the
-milk, making sure of thorough mixing. Let stand covered
-for half an hour until a firm curd is formed. Cut
-or break the curd very carefully with a big knife or
-spoon or home-made fork with wires across the prongs,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>imitating as far as possible the operation with curd
-knives in the factory.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id008'>
-<img src='images/i107a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Taking the temperature of the milk in a shot-gun can</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figcenter id010'>
-<img src='images/i107b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Curd fork</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figcenter id003'>
-<img src='images/i107c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Mold or “Hoop”</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>“Cook” the curd as in factory cheesemaking. If
-steam is not available, allow the curd to settle and dip
-off some of the whey which is then heated and poured
-back on the curd so as to raise the temperature of the
-whole mass about 2 degrees. Repeat this several times,
-gradually raising the temperature to 100°, a few degrees
-at a time.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Keep the curd gently stirred up and floating in the
-whey and do not allow it to lie on the bottom of the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>vat long enough to pack firmly together, stirring once
-in a while until by smell and taste (if not also by acid
-or hot iron tests) it appears to be sufficiently fermented
-for the whey to be drawn, a condition that can only be
-learned by experience. This will
-be about two or three hours from
-the time the rennet is added.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id006'>
-<img src='images/i108a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Diagram of lever press</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figcenter id008'>
-<img src='images/i108b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Combined screw and lever press</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>Draw the whey and press more
-out of the curd with the hands.
-Let the curd mat and break it up
-alternately several times; finally
-crumble and pulverize it and keep
-it stirred with the hands, adding
-salt at the rate of three to four
-ounces to the curd from 100 lbs.
-of milk and continuing the stirring until the curd is
-cooled down to below 80°, when it should be packed
-into the hoop and put to press. This salting and cooling
-may take another hour. The hoop may be made of
-wood or heavy tin of any size desired, with a loose follower
-of wood. The sides and bottom should be perforated
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>to allow the whey to escape. Or it may be a
-cylinder without top or bottom, placed on a corrugated
-piece of board. Line the hoop with cheese-cloth before
-putting in the curd.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i109.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Upright factory and dairy cheese press</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>For pressing, a home-made lever-press, as outlined in
-the diagram, may be made of a plank or bar, one end
-of which (<i>C</i>), is stuck under a piece of a board nailed
-on the wall while at the other end a weight (<i>K</i>) is applied
-which may be moved in and out to regulate the
-pressure. The hoop is placed under the plank at the
-fulcrum (<i>K</i><sub>1</sub>) near the wall. If a compound lever-press
-or a screw-press is available it is better. It is important
-that the pressure is applied straight so as to make the
-cheese even and not one side lower than the other.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>Begin with light pressure and increase it gradually
-every hour until at night the full pressure is applied.
-After an hour take the cheese out and turn it in the
-hoop, then return it to the press and at night apply
-full pressure. The next morning take it out and weigh
-it and place it on the shelf to cure in a room of moderate
-temperature, turning it every day. After a couple
-of weeks it may be removed to a cool cellar and rubbed
-with grease. In two to three months it should be sufficiently
-matured for consumption.</p>
-<div>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>
-  <h3 class='c010'>OTHER TYPES OF HARD CHEESE MADE WITH RENNET</h3>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i111.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>A variety of domestic and foreign cheese made at the dairy school of the University of Wisconsin</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c022'>In the manufacture of the Dutch Gouda, the Danish
-Export, and other similar types, the “cooking” and
-matting of the curd, characteristic of the English and
-American Cheddar, are more or less omitted. Otherwise
-the process and the result are not greatly different.
-They are all “hard” or solid cheese of the same class,
-though there are hundreds of varieties in different
-localities, each with some peculiarity of its own.</p>
-<div  class='figleft id002'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>
-<img src='images/i112a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Gouda cheese</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Gouda Cheese.</b>—The <i>Gouda</i>, like the <i>Danish Export</i>
-cheese, is made from whole or partly-skimmed milk
-which is set with rennet at 90° F. and is coagulated,
-ready for cutting, in fifteen to twenty minutes. The
-curd is broken with the “lyre,” so called, a frame on
-which piano wires are suspended.
-The curd is but slightly “cooked”
-and the whey is drawn while still
-sweet. After being pressed with
-the hands in the vat to squeeze
-out the whey the curd, still quite
-warm, is put into wooden molds and worked and
-squeezed in them with the hands for half an hour to
-eliminate more whey, when the mold is placed in a
-regular press for 12 to 18 hours. To salt it the cheese
-is placed in a strong brine where it remains for several
-days. It is then put on the shelf in the
-curing room where it is turned and
-rubbed daily and in four to six weeks it
-is marketed. The cheese is about 10
-inches in diameter by 4 to 5 inches
-high.</p>
-
-<div  class='figright id011'>
-<img src='images/i112b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>The Lyre</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Edam Cheese.</b>—The ball-shaped red
-<i>Edam</i> is also made in Holland by a
-similar method to that of the Gouda.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Fresh milk is set at from 90° to
-93° F. in summer and up to 97° in winter,—colored
-to a rather high yellow
-with Annatto. Add sufficient rennet to coagulate the
-milk in 8 to 15 minutes. Cut curd carefully with the
-“lyre” and break with fork into very fine pieces, as
-small peas. Leave to settle for 3 to 4 minutes, putting
-cover on the vat if the temperature in the room is
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>below 60°. When settled, the curd is gently pushed
-into a heap which takes 5 to 6 minutes and the whey
-is removed with a dipper. Weight is applied for 5
-minutes and the tub or vat is tipped so the whey will
-drain off while the curd is held back with the dipper.
-This pressing is repeated twice more for 4 and 3 minutes
-respectively.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i113.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Curing room in a Gouda cheese factory</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>The curd should now be elastic and firm and show a
-temperature, in winter of at least 83°, in summer at
-most 90°. If necessary the temperature is regulated
-by pouring hot whey (not exceeding 104°) or cold water
-over the curd.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The mold is then placed in the vat and two handfuls
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>of curd put in which is squeezed and worked thoroughly
-with the hands. More curd is added and worked in
-the same way and this is repeated until the mold is
-full with a large top on, which is pressed with the hands
-for 4 or 5 minutes, turning the cheese 3 or 4 times and
-opening the drain holes if plugged up. Some makers
-sprinkle a teaspoonful of fine salt in the bottom of the
-mold, but in warm weather it is better
-to work in a quarter of an ounce of salt.
-This work must be done quickly so the
-curd will not cool.</p>
-
-<div  class='figleft id012'>
-<img src='images/i114.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Mold for Edam cheese</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>When thus formed the cheese is dipped
-for 1 or 2 minutes in fresh whey heated
-to 126° (in winter 131°) and pressed with
-the hands in the mold for another 2
-minutes when it is carefully wiped off by
-rolling on a fine cloth to remove the last
-drop of whey. The cheese is then wrapped in a
-fine cloth, placed in the mold and put to press, in
-the Spring for 5 to 7 hours, later in the year for
-12 hours. The cloth is now removed and the cheese
-is put in a larger mold which is placed in a water-tight
-salting box provided with a cover and a drain-hole
-in one end. The first day a pinch of salt is put
-on the top of the cheese and the next the whole cheese
-is rolled in damp salt, turned and put back in the mold,
-a liberal quantity of salt being placed on the top. This
-is repeated every day until the cheese from being soft
-and elastic becomes hard which as a rule takes 8 to 10
-days for a 4 lb. and 12 days for a 10-12 lb. cheese.
-Finally the cheese is left a few hours in the brine collected
-in the box, washed, wiped and placed on the
-shelf in the curing room.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>The curing room should be light and well ventilated,
-never above 72° nor below 45°. Windows must not be
-opened to admit dry wind or moist air. If too dry the
-cheese will crack and if too moist it will be covered with
-deleterious yellowish red fungi. The cheese is turned
-daily the first month, later every other day or twice a
-week. When 24 to 30 days old the cheese is soaked for
-one hour in water of 68 to 77°, washed with a brush,
-dried for 20 to 40 minutes in the sun and returned to
-the shelf. This is repeated two weeks later and then
-the cheese is painted with linseed oil and left on the
-shelf until shortly before shipping when it is scraped
-with a sharp knife and painted according to the demand
-of the particular market for which it is prepared; yellowish
-with Annatto for England and Spain, red with
-Turnsole for other countries. When dry it is rubbed
-with a little butter and red color.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Swiss Cheese.</b>—The Swiss Gruyere or Emmenthal
-also belongs to this class. It is characterized by its
-form and size, being large, round and flat, weighing 100
-to 140 lbs. or more, and by the large holes which are
-wanted in Swiss, but not tolerated in American or
-Dutch cheese. It was formerly supposed that first-class
-Swiss cheese could only be made in the Alps, but
-very good imitations have long been made in Northern
-New York and in Wisconsin. Besides in the usual
-large round form, the same as the genuine imported
-Emmenthaler, American Swiss or “Switzer” is also
-made in <i>blocks</i>, six inches square and twenty inches
-long, weighing 25 to 30 lbs.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Until lately Swiss cheese has been made in the old-fashioned
-way, the factory and tools being of the
-simplest description. The milk was heated in a copper
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>cauldron hanging on a crane, enabling the cheesemaker
-to swing it on or off the fireplace. Nowadays the kettle
-is usually jacketed and heated with steam. The round
-form is still preferred to the American cheese vat, however,
-as it adapts itself better to the peculiar method
-of handling the curd.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i116.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Swiss cheese</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>The milk is set with rennet at a temperature of 90°
-F. in summer and 95° in winter, sufficient rennet being
-used to make a firm curd in thirty to forty minutes.
-But very little color is added. The curd is cut with a
-long, sharp wooden knife, the “cheese sword,” first one
-way into sheets, then, as soon as the cuts stand clear,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>beginning to expel the whey, crossways, into vertical
-sticks, two inches square.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id003'>
-<img src='images/i117a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Scoop</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figcenter id013'>
-<img src='images/i117b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Cheese sword</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figcenter id006'>
-<img src='images/i117c.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Cutting the curd with the scoop</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<div  class='figcenter id008'>
-<img src='images/i117d.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Tools for stirring the curd</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>No horizontal knife is used, but a few minutes after
-the last vertical cutting the curd is further broken by
-the “scoop,” a wooden spoon or ladle about eight inches
-long, thirteen inches wide, one and one-half inches
-deep, and provided with a short handle. Standing at
-one side of the kettle, the cheesemaker scoops off a
-layer from the top and, drawing the scoop towards
-himself, drops the pieces of curd close to the side of
-the kettle. This movement is repeated, at first slowly,
-then faster, and soon the whole mass of curd is moving,
-the pieces cut off going down along the side of the
-kettle and the rest of the sticks sliding upward along
-the other side, to be attacked by the scoop as soon as
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>they come to the top. All the curd having been cut
-into square pieces, it is further broken by the stirrer,
-a stick at the lower end of which a few cross sticks or
-wings of brass wire are fixed, the whole mass being
-kept in constant motion.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Cooking the Curd.</b>—After breaking up the curd to
-the size of peas or beans, the stirring is discontinued
-for about ten minutes, when it is begun again and the
-kettle is turned over the fire, or steam is applied, to
-heat the curd to 140° under constant stirring which is
-continued for 45 to 60 minutes after this temperature
-has been reached. The condition of the curd is judged
-by squeezing a handful and noticing its elasticity and
-consistency. It is important to stop stirring at the
-right moment. More whey is expelled in making Swiss
-cheese than for Cheddar cheese.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The cooking and agitating having been finished, the
-mass, which now consists of grains the size of wheat, is
-once more stirred up with such force as to make it
-form a funnel at the center and it is then left at rest
-for five to ten minutes.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The curd, forming a rather solid cake at the bottom
-of the kettle, is now lifted out without being broken.
-One end of a large piece of cloth is folded around a
-flexible rod. Bending over the kettle the maker takes
-hold of both ends of the rod and gathering the other
-end of the cloth between his teeth, pushes the rod down
-along the farther side of the kettle, letting it follow the
-bottom towards himself until the whole mass of curd
-is gathered in the cloth, when it is lifted out of the kettle
-and placed in the hoop on the press table. The hoop
-can be enlarged or diminished to take care of a varying
-amount of curd which is put into it in the same solid
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>cake as formed in the kettle without being broken.
-Pressure is applied, at first, gently, later heavier and
-after half an hour the cheese is taken out, turned and
-provided with fresh bandage, put back into press and
-left till the next day.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i119.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>In Swiss cheese making the curd is lifted out of the vat with a strong cloth</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>Curing and Salting.—The cheese is first placed in a
-curing room above ground and heated in winter. After
-a few weeks it is removed to the cellar. Sometimes
-three to five cheese are piled one on the top of the
-other for a few days with a few handfuls of salt between
-them. The salting proper is done by rubbing and
-brushing dry salt and the brine formed from same into
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>the cheese,—altogether 4 to 5 lbs. of salt to 100 lbs. of
-cheese. Every day it is rubbed with a dry rag and the
-cheese is turned and salted on the other side until the
-salt is thoroughly incorporated.</p>
-
-<div  class='figleft id005'>
-<img src='images/i120.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Swiss cheese press</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>The cheese is cured for at least 100 days in the factory
-and is usually stored
-for another three to
-six months by the
-dealer before it is
-ready for the consumer.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Roquefort.</b>—The
-French <i>Roquefort</i> is
-inoculated with a
-mold from stale
-bread which spreads
-through the cheese
-and produces the
-peculiar flavor of this
-type. It is made
-from sheep’s milk
-and was formerly
-cured in cool subterranean
-caverns, but
-now in elaborate curing
-houses. In this
-country imitation
-Roquefort is made of cow’s milk and cured in cold
-storage.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>It should be remembered, however, that sheep’s milk
-is very rich in fat and that a rich Roquefort that will
-compare favorably with the genuine cannot be made
-from cow’s milk without an addition of cream if sheep’s
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>or goat’s milk is not available. In France a small
-addition of cow’s milk to the sheep’s milk—not to
-exceed 10%—is often used.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Around Roquefort a milk ewe produces on an average
-135 lbs. of milk a year, which makes up to 35 lbs. of
-cheese.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i121.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Milking the ewes at Roquefort, France (G. Ellbrecht)</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>The milk is set at about 80° with rennet sufficient to
-coagulate it in 1½ to 2 hours. To cut or break and
-stir the curd, tools similar to those used in the manufacture
-of Dutch cheese are employed and stirring is
-continued until the pieces of curd are about the size
-of peas when the whey is dipped off and the curd is
-further broken with the hand and placed on a cloth to
-drain. In fifteen minutes it is ready to be put into the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>hoops which are either of glazed stoneware or perforated
-tin, 8 inches in diameter by 4 in. high.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Ground stale, moldy bread is sprinkled in the curd
-as it is put into the hoop, at the rate of 1 part of bread
-to 10,000 parts of curd. This moldy bread is prepared
-from 2 parts of wheat flour and 1 part of rye flour
-leavened with sour yeast and vinegar and baked hard.
-The loaf is placed in a dark, moist cellar to mold. In
-six weeks it is penetrated with mold when it is dried
-at 86° and pulverized, forming the powder used for
-inoculation into the cheese-curd.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>When the hoops are filled they are placed in large
-wooden boxes at a temperature of 65° to 70° for the
-whey to drain off. The first few days the cheese is
-turned three times a day, later once a day, and when five
-days old it is brought into the curing room where it
-remains until it is firm enough to be shipped to the
-large cold storage establishments, where it is taken care
-of until ready for the general market.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>In the “caves” a high degree of moisture, a low
-temperature—40° to 50°—and pure air are essential
-conditions.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The cheese is first <i>salted</i> by being rubbed repeatedly
-with salt on all sides. The slime forming on the surface
-is brushed or scraped off so as not to prevent the admission
-of air, which is essential to the curing. In
-order to further facilitate the penetration with air the
-cheese is now <i>pricked</i> with numerous needles by means
-of a machine and placed on the shelf in the cave where
-the proper moisture and temperature are maintained.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Various fermentations are now developing, one after
-another, regulated by scraping, ventilation, etc., until
-in six to twelve weeks the cheese is ready for the market
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>and is packed for shipment in paper or in tinfoil and
-in wicker baskets or airtight boxes, according to destination,—for
-home consumption or for export.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i123.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Curing room in a Roquefort cheese factory (G. Ellbrecht)</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Parmesan Cheese</b> is an Italian cheese made mostly
-in the Valley of the River Po and named from the City
-of Parma. It is produced from partly-skimmed milk
-and is allowed to become hard and dry, being used
-grated with macaroni.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The milk is set with rennet at a comparatively high
-temperature, about 95° F., and when it is firmly curdled
-it is broken up and stirred rather vigorously, which
-makes the curd fine and dry. Color is now added—powdered
-<i>Saffron</i>—at the rate of 0.5 gram to 100 kg.
-milk. The curd is cooked slowly under constant stirring
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>to a temperature up towards 100° when the whey should
-be perceptibly acid.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The curd is then allowed to settle in the round kettle
-and when fairly firm it is lifted up in a cloth, the same
-as in Swiss cheesemaking. The mold is also much the
-same as the Swiss and the curd is but slightly pressed.
-In the course of the day the cheese is turned once or
-twice and put into fresh cloth. The next day it is put
-into the curing room when it is rubbed with salt. In a
-few months the cheese is cured and is then scraped
-and polished with linseed oil. Sometimes it is kept
-in storage two or three years in a dark room at a
-temperature of 63° F. The composition averages:
-32% water, 21% fat, 41% nitrogenous matters and
-6% ash.</p>
-
-<div  class='figleft id014'>
-<img src='images/i124.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Caccio Cavallo</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Caccio Cavallo</b> is made in Southern Italy of a form
-almost like a beetroot. The milk is set with rennet at
-about 95° F. and after the curd has been
-broken up the whey is dipped off and
-heated to boiling when it is poured back
-on the curd. The mass is then allowed
-to ferment eight to fourteen hours according
-to the temperature of the air.
-The quality of the cheese depends largely
-on this fermentation. The fermented
-curd is cut into pieces and submerged in
-boiling water and is then kneaded and formed into the
-desired shape.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>After lying in cold water for two hours and in brine
-for thirty hours it is dried and smoked until it attains
-a fine golden color. It is made in various sizes, from 5
-to 20 pounds, and the yield is said to vary from 10% to
-16% of the milk. Caccio Cavallo is eaten on bread as
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>well as with macaroni and is much relished by the
-Italians.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Limburger</b>, <b>Brick</b>, <b>Munster</b> and other similar semi-soft
-cheese of the proverbial strong flavor, originated
-in Belgium and Bavaria, but are now largely made in
-Northern New York and Wisconsin as well.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>For Limburger the milk is not ripened as for Cheddar
-but is set with rennet quite sweet at a temperature of
-about 90°; the curd is cut rather soft, care being taken,
-however, not to lose butter-fat. The curd is but slightly
-“cooked,” to a temperature not to exceed 96°, and is
-not salted in the vat but is dipped out into perforated
-wooden boxes or molds about 5 inches square and left
-to drain without pressure. The cheese are placed edgeways
-like bricks on shelves and are rubbed with salt
-and turned every day until cured. During the curing
-process moisture exudes and a fermentation takes place
-which develops the well-known “Limburger” flavor.
-After eight or ten weeks the cheese is packed in paper
-and tinfoil and is ready for the market.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Brick</b> cheese is something between a Cheddar and a
-Limburger, of a milder flavor than either, not as hard
-as the former but firmer than the latter.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The milk is slightly ripened and is set with rennet at
-86° so as to coagulate in 20 minutes. The curd is
-“cooked” to 110° or more and is not allowed to “mat”
-as for Cheddar cheese, but is dipped out of the vat
-before much acidity has developed, into the molds,
-which are rectangular boxes without top or bottom
-placed on a draining table where the whey runs off.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The mold is usually 5 inches wide, 8 inches deep and
-10 inches long. When it is filled with curd a follower
-is put on the top and a slight weight, a couple of bricks,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>on the follower. The cheese is turned a few times and
-the next day it is taken out of the mold and placed on
-the salting table. The salting is done by rubbing the
-cheese on all sides with salt which penetrates the curd
-and draws out moisture. This is repeated for 3 days
-and the cheese is then left to cure, being washed and
-wiped off every week to prevent molding.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Brick cheese is shipped one or two months old. It
-is wrapped in paper and packed twenty in a box.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Munster Cheese</b> is very much the same as Brick
-except for the form, it being round, molded in a perforated
-tin hoop instead of the box used for Limburger
-and Brick.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>SOFT RENNET CHEESE</h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>The soft cheese made with rennet may be classified
-as <i>fresh</i> and <i>cured</i>.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Neufchatel.</b>—The fresh soft cheese of the <i>Neufchatel</i>
-or <i>Cream Cheese</i> type is easily made and may be produced
-in any house from a small quantity of milk. The
-milk is set at a comparatively low temperature, usually
-72° F., with very little rennet, just enough to coagulate
-the milk in about eighteen hours. During that time a
-slight acidity develops in the milk. When it is firmly
-curdled it is carefully dipped on to cheese-cloth suspended
-on a frame, or into cotton bags where it drains
-overnight.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>To make the cheese quickly a starter is sometimes
-used and more rennet employed. The milk is heated
-to 80° F., 25% starter and 7½ c.c. of rennet extract,
-or one rennet tablet per hundred pounds of milk, are
-added and the milk curdles in about 30 minutes.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>After draining for a few hours the curd is gently
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>pressed for a similar time. When the whey is fairly
-well expelled, the curd is kneaded or run through a meat
-cutter with a little salt, not more than 2½ oz. to 10 lbs.
-of curd. The outfit and the manipulation is essentially
-the same as described under Cottage cheese.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>A superior quality is obtained by pasteurizing the
-milk and if that is done a pure culture starter should
-always be used. If the slow setting method is used a
-very small amount of starter, say ½%, is sufficient, but
-when the quick process is employed 10% to 25% may be
-added.</p>
-
-<div  class='figright id015'>
-<img src='images/i127.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Molding Neufchatel cheese</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>To give it a good appearance for market, the cheese
-is molded in little tin molds very much like a quarter-pound
-baking powder
-can with open ends.
-The cylindrical roll
-of cheese is wrapped
-in parchment paper
-and tinfoil and is immediately
-ready for
-consumption. In an
-ice box it will keep
-for a week or so.
-Neufchatel cheese
-may be made from
-whole milk or partly-skimmed
-milk. The yield is from 10 to 20 lbs. out of
-100 lbs. of milk.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Cream Cheese</b> is usually made in the same way. A
-mixture of cream and milk containing about 10%
-butter-fat is used, though sometimes the cream is not
-added until the time of salting. The mold is square,
-2½” × 1½” × 2” deep. These soft kinds of cheese are
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>often mixed with chopped peppers, olives or nuts and
-make excellent sandwiches.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Cured Soft Cheese.</b>—For <i>Cream</i> or <i>Neufchatel</i> cheese,
-made for curing, the curd is salted more than for fresh
-cheese, or the molded cheese is rolled in salt. For a
-week or two it is placed in a curing room on straw
-mats or the like where it ferments slightly before being
-wrapped and packed for shipment.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>French Soft Cheese.</b>—The many forms of French soft
-cheese as represented by the <i>Brie</i>, the <i>Camembert</i>, etc.,
-are subjected to special fermentations which give to
-each its peculiar flavor. Attempts have been made to
-use pure cultures of the bacteria active in such fermentations
-and so reduce the art of cheesemaking to
-a more scientific process. But it has been found that
-any desired kind of cheese cannot be made simply by
-adding a culture of this or that bacterium to pasteurized
-milk. Of vastly greater importance for the development
-of the proper bacteria and flavor is the handling of the
-milk and the curd by the experienced cheesemaker.
-Inoculation with a pure culture alone does not make
-the special cheese wanted.</p>
-<div>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>
-  <h3 class='c010'>CHEESE MADE WITHOUT RENNET</h3>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figright id016'>
-<img src='images/i129.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Mono-service jar</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c022'><b>Cottage Cheese.</b>—Of the sour milk types the common
-<i>Cottage Cheese</i> is the best known. It is made from skim
-milk which in a warm room will curdle when sour,
-whether rennet and a starter are used or not. The thick
-sour milk is heated to anywhere
-between 100° and
-120° and dipped into bags
-of cheese-cloth hung up for
-draining. The next day
-light pressure is applied for
-12 to 24 hours, when the
-curd is kneaded, slightly
-salted, formed into balls
-and wrapped in parchment
-paper or packed into jars.
-For this purpose paraffined
-paper jars are very practical.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The more the curd is
-heated in the whey the
-drier will be the cheese. Often it is improved by allowing
-the curd to become rather dry and then working new
-milk or a little cream into it, according to the use to
-which it is to be put—whether it is for bakers’ stock
-or for the table.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Simple directions for making Cottage cheese are
-given in Farmers’ Bulletin 850 and A. I. 17, issued by
-the United States Department of Agriculture from
-which we reprint the following and copy the accompanying
-illustrations:</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>
-<img src='images/i130.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Pouring the curdled milk on cloth to drain</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>“One gallon of skim milk will make about 1½ pounds
-of cheese. If the milk is sweet it should be placed in a
-pan and allowed to remain in a clean warm place at a
-temperature of about 75° F., until it clabbers. The
-clabbered milk should have a clean, sour flavor. Ordinarily
-this will take about 30 hours, but when it is
-desirable to hasten the process a small quantity of
-clean-flavored sour milk may be mixed with the sweet
-milk.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>“As soon as the milk has thickened or firmly clabbered
-it should be cut into pieces 2 inches square, after
-which the curd should be stirred thoroughly with a
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>spoon. Place the pan of broken curd in a vessel of
-hot water so as to raise the temperature to 100° F.
-Cook at that temperature for about 30 minutes, during
-which time stir gently with a spoon for 1 minute at 5-minute
-intervals.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i131.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Lifting the cloth back and forth to facilitate draining</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>“At the conclusion of the heating, pour the curd
-and whey into a small cheese-cloth bag (a clean salt
-bag will do nicely) and hang the bag in a fruit-strainer
-rack to drain, or the curd may be poured into a colander
-or a strainer over which a piece of cheese-cloth has been
-laid. After 5 or 10 minutes work the curd toward the
-center with a spoon. Raising and lowering the ends
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>of the cloth helps to make the whey drain faster. To
-complete the draining tie the end of the bag together
-and hang it up. Since there is some danger that the
-curd will become too dry, draining should stop when
-the whey ceases to flow in a steady stream.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id009'>
-<img src='images/i132.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Pressing the curd</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>“The curd is then emptied from the bag and worked
-with a spoon or a butter paddle until it becomes fine
-in grain, smooth, and of the consistency of mashed
-potatoes. Sour or sweet cream may be added to increase
-the smoothness and palatability and improve
-the flavor. Then the cheese is salted according to taste,
-about one teaspoonful to a pound of curd.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>“Because of the ease with which the cheese can be
-made it is desirable to make it often so that it may be
-eaten fresh, although if it is kept cold it will not spoil
-for several days. If the cheese is not to be eaten
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>promptly it should be stored in an earthenware or glass
-vessel rather than in one of tin or wood, and kept in a
-cold place.”</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id006'>
-<img src='images/i133.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Apparatus needed in making cottage cheese</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Making Cottage Cheese with Rennet.</b>—In the bulletin
-mentioned a method is also given for making the cheese
-with rennet or pepsin. Junket Tablets make a convenient
-form of rennet to be used for this purpose.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The advantages claimed for this method are:</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>1. A finer textured and more uniform cheese.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>2. The making requires less time and attention.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>3. Losses of fat in the whey are reduced.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The process is the same as described above except
-that a solution of <i>Junket Tablets</i> is added to the milk
-at the rate of one tablet to 100 lbs. of milk. For less
-milk use a fraction of a tablet, or dissolve one tablet
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>in ten tablespoonfuls of water and use one spoonful
-of the solution for each 10 lbs. of milk.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>If a starter is used the rennet solution is added immediately
-after the starter is put in; if no starter is used
-the milk is left for five or six hours at 80° F. to ripen before
-adding the rennet. The milk will curdle overnight.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>After draining for thirty minutes on cotton sheeting
-the ends of the cloth are tied together and a weight is
-placed on top to press the curd gently until the desired
-consistency is attained.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Salt may be worked in at the rate of 2½ ounces to 10
-lbs. of curd. If desired, add sweet or sour cream at
-the rate of ½ pint to 10 lbs. of curd or ¼ pint of cream
-to the product from 30 lbs. of milk.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>It will be seen that Cottage cheese made with rennet
-is really the same as Neufchatel cheese, the only difference
-being in the form and packing or wrapping of the
-finished cheese.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Snappy Cheese.</b>—By allowing the sour skim milk
-curd to ferment under careful regulation, a variety of
-sharp, snappy, more or less hard cheese can be made.
-Though there is no general demand for them, some
-kinds are quite popular in their own restricted localities.
-The Danish <i>Appetite cheese</i> is only one of the many varieties
-which have as many names.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Club Cheese</b> and similar varieties are made by grinding
-up old dry cheese with a little butter and packing
-the product in jars or other attractive packages. American,
-Roquefort, or any other well-known type may be
-used as the stock for these cheeses. Everywhere they
-are favorites in dining cars and lunch rooms.</p>
-
-<div  class='figright id015'>
-<img src='images/i135.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Milking the goat in Norway</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-<p class='c014'><b>Whey Cheese.</b>—In Switzerland the so-called <i>Zieger
-cheese</i> is made from sour whey, the albumin being coagulated
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span>by heat and,
-with whatever butter-fat
-there may be left
-in the whey, skimmed
-off the top. In Norway
-<i>Myseost</i> (“Ost”
-is Norwegian for
-cheese) is made by
-boiling down whey
-almost to dryness.
-If goat milk is available
-to mix in, it
-improves the cheese.
-The main substance
-is sugar of milk and
-the cheese has a sweet, syrupy flavor.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>MILK SUGAR</h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>The by-product, sugar of milk, is produced by acidifying
-the whey, heating to boiling and neutralizing with
-lime until the albumin is coagulated. It is then filtered
-out and the clarified liquid is concentrated in vacuum.
-From the thick syrup the sugar is allowed to crystallize
-out, leaving the salts or mineral matters (milk-ash) in
-the remaining liquid. The use of milk-sugar is limited
-to medicinal purposes and for modifying milk for infants.
-The production is therefore not very extensive.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>CASEIN</h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>In a number of creameries casein is produced from
-skim milk by precipitating it with an acid and drying
-and pulverizing the precipitate. Casein is widely
-used as a substitute for ivory, in billiard balls, buttons,
-etc. It is also used as glue, and as a binder in paints.</p>
-<div>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span>
-  <h3 class='c010'>MILK POWDER</h3>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c022'>The production and use of dry milk has increased
-enormously during the last few years and the processes
-of manufacture have been improved well-nigh to perfection.
-There are several methods practiced, the most
-important being the following:</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The <i>Just-Hatmaker</i>, in which a large metal drum or
-cylinder revolves slowly in a tank of milk. The drum
-is heated by steam inside and, as it rolls out of the milk,
-the metal surface picks up a thin film of milk which
-quickly dries and is removed by a scraper.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The <i>Eckenberg</i> process employs vacuum evaporating
-pans, like those used for making condensed milk and
-maple syrup.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The <i>Merrell-Soule</i> Company’s method consists in
-driving a blast of hot air into a fine spray of milk,
-which at once reduces the milk to a fine powder.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>In the “<i>Economic</i>” process the milk is dried by hot
-air the same as in the Merrell-Soule method, but in
-dropping through a tower from a height of some 30
-feet the milk meets several blasts of air of different
-temperatures. It is claimed that in this way alone rich
-milk and cream may be reduced to a powder without
-injury to, or change of, the original fat globules.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Skim Milk Powder.</b>—Beautiful skim milk powders
-are now made which dissolve perfectly in water. Containing,
-as they do, the extremely nourishing constituents
-of the fatless milk in a most palatable form, they
-can be used in baking and in many food products to
-great advantage.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Whole Milk Powder.</b>—Until recently dried whole
-milk was not produced of good keeping quality as the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span>butter-fat had a tendency to become rancid before
-many months. But improvements are constantly
-being made and milk powders of every degree of richness
-bid fair to take the place of fresh milk on board
-ships and in other places where milk must be kept a
-long time before being used.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>In many new food preparations of value, milk powder
-is filling a long-felt want. Dissolved in 8 or 9 times as
-much water, milk powder makes a liquid almost identical
-with pasteurized fresh milk.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>It has already been mentioned under the chapter on
-“Cream” and under “Ice Cream” how skim milk
-powder and unsalted butter, <i>emulsified</i> in a suitable
-amount of water or milk, make an excellent material
-for ice cream.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>CONDENSED AND EVAPORATED MILK</h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>Milk cannot be boiled down in a common open kettle
-or steam boiler without being scorched. Evaporating
-or condensing is therefore usually done in a vacuum
-pan at a low temperature. Condensed to one-third of
-its volume and excluded from the air by canning, milk
-will keep well for months, and has many uses as a substitute
-for fresh milk. Often sugar is added as a preservative,
-and where sugar would be added anyway,
-as in coffee, ice cream, etc., this is unobjectionable.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>For purposes where sugar is not wanted, unsweetened
-condensed or evaporated milk is on the market,
-so carefully made that the taste of the original milk
-is hardly changed at all by the process. When water
-is added in the proportion of two parts of water to one
-of the evaporated milk, the fluid obtained excels even
-that from milk powder in its resemblance to fresh milk.</p>
-<div>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>
-  <h3 class='c010'>WHEY</h3>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c022'>Whey is a by-product in cheesemaking. Usually
-it is fed to hogs and especially together with grain or
-bran it makes an excellent food for them. But whey
-is also prepared for human food. In the hospital or
-in the home it serves as a substitute for milk when a
-mild diet of easily digested food is temporarily required
-for a weak stomach. For such purposes it must
-not be allowed to become acid as in cheesemaking, but
-should be prepared as the chief product from sweet
-new milk or freshly separated skim milk. The sweet
-milk is set with rennet—one Junket Tablet, dissolved
-in cold water, to a quart of milk—at a temperature of
-90° to 100° F. As soon as a firm curd is formed it is
-carefully broken up and transferred to a strainer of
-cheese-cloth. Unless it is to be used at once, the whey
-strained off should be immediately cooled to 50° or
-lower. If left at a higher temperature it will soon
-become sour. A teaspoonful of limewater to a quart,
-or a pinch of soda, will help to keep it sweet. Still,
-in any event, it should not be kept long, but prepared
-fresh when required.</p>
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c008' />
-</div>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>
-  <h2 class='c009'>CHAPTER IV<br /> <br /><span class='sc'>Milk as a Food</span></h2>
-</div>
-<p class='c013'>Milk is first of all the food for the young,—until a
-certain age the only food, and a perfect food. It contains
-but little refuse or waste and is under favorable
-conditions almost wholly digestible.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>NUTRIENTS</h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>All foods contain certain groups of nutrients which
-may be classified according to various functions in nutrition
-and their chemical composition.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Protein.</b>—The protein group of nutrients contains
-nitrogen and is necessary for building up the tissues
-of the body, the muscles and the tendons which also
-contain nitrogen. Only by this group can tissues
-wasted by constant wear and tear be rebuilt. Proteins
-are the flesh-forming group. To some degree the proteins
-or albuminoids are also active in producing fat
-in the body, but the other groups of nutrients, especially
-the fats, also contribute.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Fats and Carbohydrates.</b>—Another important function
-of food is to produce and maintain the animal
-heat. The main sources of this necessity are the fats
-and the carbohydrates, so called because they consist
-of the element carbon combined with oxygen and
-hydrogen, the last two in the exact proportion in which
-they are combined in water. All of these three groups
-furnish the fuel, so to speak, for the body, but they
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>are not equal in this respect. Pound for pound, when
-burned in the body, the fats yield 2¼ times as much
-heat as protein or the carbohydrates.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Mineral Matters.</b>—Finally there are in all foods the
-mineral matters, a group containing a number of salts
-which are indispensable because they are constituents
-of every part of the body. Phosphate of lime, for instance,
-makes up one-half of the substance of the bones,
-and the sulphates and chlorides of potash and soda,
-iron, etc., are everywhere present in smaller quantities.
-No food in which any of them is lacking is complete.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Relation.</b>—The value of a food depends largely upon
-the relation of one group of nutrients to another.
-Proper nutrition can only be obtained when a sufficient
-amount of flesh-forming as well as of heat-producing
-nutrients are present, when the “nutritive ratio” is
-properly balanced for the particular purpose in view,
-be it the growth of the child, the maintenance of the
-body, the restoration of matter consumed by labor of
-body or brain, or the supply of heat to make up for
-cold surroundings.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Milk contains all</b> of these groups of nutrients. The
-protein is represented in milk by the casein and albumin,
-the fats by the butter-fat, the carbohydrates
-by milk-sugar, and the mineral matters by the milk-ash.
-Human milk contains them in a perfect proportion
-for infants, and for all purposes of nutrition cow’s
-milk may be used to make up a “balanced ration,”
-if not alone, then in connection with other food.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Nutritive Ratio.</b>—As we said before, the “nutritive
-ratio” of a food means the ratio of its flesh-forming
-constituents—proteins—to its heat-producing nutrients—carbohydrates
-and fats. Cow’s milk, containing
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>3.25% protein, 4% fat and 5% milk-sugar, has a nutritive
-ratio of 1 : 4.3, i. e., 1 part of protein to 4.3 parts
-of heat-giving nutrients, counting the fat equal to 2¼
-of carbohydrates (multiplying the 4% fat by 2¼ makes
-9, added to the 5% of sugar, makes 14; 3.25 to 14
-equals 1 to 4.3). Skim milk, containing 3.4% protein,
-0.2% fat, and 5.1% sugar, has a ratio of 1 : 1.6 (3.4 :
-5.45). Mother’s milk, containing 2% protein, 4% fat,
-and 6.5% carbohydrates, has a ratio of 1 : 7.75. To
-substitute cow’s milk for mother’s, it must therefore
-be “modified.”</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Calories.</b>—Another way of comparing various foods
-than by the nutritive ratio is by measuring their “fuel
-value” or energy-producing capacity. The amount of
-heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram
-of water 1° C., or one pound 4° F., is called a calorie.
-By extensive feeding experiments the caloric value of
-the various nutrient groups has been estimated as
-follows:</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>Protein at 1820 calories per pound<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c017'><sup>[9]</sup></a></div>
-      <div class='line'>Fats    at 4040 calories per pound</div>
-      <div class='line'>Carbohydrates at 1820 calories per pound</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='fn'>
-
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>Measured by this rule the fuel value of:</p>
-<table class='table5' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='47%' />
-<col width='52%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>Whole milk is</td>
-    <td class='c023'>310 calories per pound</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>Skim milk is</td>
-    <td class='c023'>160 calories per pound</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>Full cream cheese is</td>
-    <td class='c023'>1885 calories per pound</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>Butter is</td>
-    <td class='c023'>3410 calories per pound</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-<p class='c013'>Compared with other food, milk, although not suited
-to act as the sole food of adults, is one of the best and
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>cheapest articles of diet, and should be much more
-extensively used.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The following table, compiled by specialists of the
-U. S. Department of Agriculture, shows the quantities
-of various foods needed to supply as much protein or
-energy as 1 quart of milk:</p>
-<div class='std-table'>
-
-<table class='table6' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='50%' />
-<col width='50%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
- <th class='btt bbt blt c026'>Protein</th>
- <th class='btt bbt blt brt c026'>Energy</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
- <td class='bbt blt c036'>1 quart of milk is equal to—<br />7 ounces of sirloin steak<br /> 6 ounces of round steak<br />4.3 eggs <br /> 8.6 ounces of fowl</td>
- <td class='bbt blt brt c036'>1 quart of milk is equal to— <br />11.3 ounces of sirloin steak <br />14.9 ounces of round steak<br />9 eggs<br />14.5 ounces of fowl</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-</div>
-<p class='c013'>Another method of comparison is shown by the table
-below, in which the relative value of certain foods as
-economical sources of protein is given:</p>
-
-<div class='std-table'>
-
-<table class='table7' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='30%' />
-<col width='34%' />
-<col width='34%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
- <th class='btt bbt blt c026'><br />Milk at—</th>
- <th class='btt bbt blt c026'>Is as cheap as<br />sirloin steak at—</th>
- <th class='btt bbt blt brt c026'><br />Or eggs at—</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
- <td class='blt c026'>7 cents a quart</td>
- <td class='blt c026'>16.3 cents a pound</td>
- <td class='blt brt c026'>17.6 cents a dozen</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
- <td class='blt c026'>8 cents a quart</td>
- <td class='blt c026'>18.6 cents a pound</td>
- <td class='blt brt c026'>20.1 cents a dozen</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
- <td class='blt c026'>9 cents a quart</td>
- <td class='blt c026'>21.0 cents a pound</td>
- <td class='blt brt c026'>22.6 cents a dozen</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
- <td class='blt c026'>10 cents a quart</td>
- <td class='blt c026'>23.3 cents a pound</td>
- <td class='blt brt c026'>25.1 cents a dozen</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
- <td class='blt c026'>12 cents a quart</td>
- <td class='blt c026'>27.9 cents a pound</td>
- <td class='blt brt c026'>30.2 cents a dozen</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
- <td class='bbt blt c026'>15 cents a quart</td>
- <td class='bbt blt c026'>34.9 cents a pound</td>
- <td class='bbt blt brt c026'>37.7 cents a dozen</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-</div>
-<p class='c013'>According to this table, if milk is selling at 10 cents
-a quart, sirloin steak must sell as low as 23.3 cents a
-pound, and eggs at 25.1 cents a dozen to supply protein
-at equal cost.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span><i>To Supply Energy at Equal Cost</i></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='std-table'>
-
-<table class='table7' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='30%' />
-<col width='34%' />
-<col width='34%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
- <th class='btt bbt blt c037'><br />When milk is—</th>
- <th class='btt bbt blt c026'>Sirloin steak<br />must not<br />be more than—</th>
- <th class='btt bbt blt brt c026'><br />And eggs not<br />more than—</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
- <td class='blt c037'>7 cents a quart</td>
- <td class='blt c026'>9.9 cents a pound</td>
- <td class='blt brt c038'>9.3 cents a dozen</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
- <td class='blt c037'>8 cents a quart</td>
- <td class='blt c026'>11.3 cents a pound</td>
- <td class='blt brt c038'>10.6 cents a dozen</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
- <td class='blt c037'>9 cents a quart</td>
- <td class='blt c026'>12.8 cents a pound</td>
- <td class='blt brt c038'>11.9 cents a dozen</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
- <td class='blt c037'>10 cents a quart</td>
- <td class='blt c026'>14.2 cents a pound</td>
- <td class='blt brt c038'>13.2 cents a dozen</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
- <td class='blt c037'>12 cents a quart</td>
- <td class='blt c026'>17.0 cents a pound</td>
- <td class='blt brt c038'>15.9 cents a dozen</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
- <td class='bbt blt c037'>15 cents a quart</td>
- <td class='bbt blt c026'>21.3 cents a pound</td>
- <td class='bbt blt brt c038'>19.8 cents a dozen</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-</div>
-<p class='c013'><b>Fallacy of Theoretical Valuation.</b>—While the contents
-of protein and the ratio between digestible protein
-and fats and carbohydrates on one hand, and the
-fuel or energy value on the other, have long been the
-only recognized measures for food values, they are admittedly
-quite inadequate and insufficient
-and although they are a
-great help when used with discrimination
-in making up food rations,
-they are often abused by persons
-who do not take their fallacies into
-consideration.</p>
-
-<div  class='figright id012'>
-<img src='images/i143.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Dr. E. V. McCollum</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>“<b>Something Unknown.</b>”—Recent
-investigations by Dr. F. G. Hopkins,
-of Cambridge, England, and Dr. E.
-V. McCollum, formerly of Wisconsin,
-now of the Johns Hopkins University, have
-proven conclusively that one food ingredient cannot
-always be substituted for another with impunity even
-though the most searching chemical analysis shows
-them both alike in contents and digestibility. There is
-“Something Unknown” in certain foods—“Vitamines”
-some call it—essential especially in promoting the
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>growth of the young, which our present knowledge of
-chemistry cannot explain. In Bulletin No. 17 of the
-Wisconsin Experiment Station experiments with the
-feeding of rats are described which show how butter-fat
-could not be replaced in the ration by vegetable fats of
-apparently the same composition and digestibility without
-disastrous results, and similar conditions have been
-found in regard to other foodstuffs, proteins as well as
-fats. The yolk of eggs and butter-fat contain this unknown
-something which is absolutely essential for the
-growth of the child and which is missing in most substitutes,
-especially in lard and vegetable fats.</p>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i144.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic004'>
-<p><span class='small'>The rat on the left got five per cent of cottonseed oil and the one on the right got instead one and a half per cent of butter-fat, otherwise their rations were alike. These results are typical for any ration made up of purified foodstuffs with butter-fat in them as compared with any fat of plant origin. The plant fats lack an unknown something without which growth cannot proceed.</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>The above illustration is from the work of McCollum
-and Davis at the Wisconsin Experiment
-Station.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Realizing the fallacy of the old rules for making up
-rations for the feeding of farm animals, Professor
-Evvard of Iowa is trying the <i>reliability</i> of the <i>instincts</i>
-of animals as a guide to the proper selection of the most
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>favorable combinations and proportions of food ingredients.<a id='r10' /><a href='#f10' class='c017'><sup>[10]</sup></a></p>
-
-<div class='fn'>
-
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>We mention these experiments as a warning against
-placing too great reliance on the caloric theory or the
-relation of nutrients in making up food rations. We
-have yet much to learn and the good housewife trying
-to cook according to scientific rules will do well not to
-neglect the palatability of the food, but to watch the
-“instinct” which causes the child or the adult to reject
-or approve of, and enjoy, the food, which in most cases
-is a better guide than calories or protein contents, or
-the ration between the various groups of nutrients.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>CARE OF MILK IN THE HOME</h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>If received fresh and warm from the cow, milk should
-at once be strained through absorbent cotton or several
-thicknesses of cheese-cloth into wide-mouthed bottles
-or glass jars and placed in running water or ice water
-to cool as quickly as possible. If obtained from the
-milkman it may be left in the bottle in which it is received.
-The practice of delivering milk “loose,” dipping
-it from the wagon, should not be permitted, and
-is fast being abolished. Public safety demands that it
-should be bottled on the farm or in the creamery or
-milk station under sanitary conditions.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Keep the Milk Cool.</b>—If the milk when delivered at
-the house is not cold enough to keep sweet as long as
-desired, it should, we repeat, be placed in ice water or
-cold running water until thoroughly cooled. Even if
-the air is cold, in the ice box, for instance, the milk
-cannot be cooled quickly enough without water. After
-it has been cooled in water it may be put in the ice
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>box. In most ice boxes the temperature is allowed to
-rise higher than is generally supposed, and it is better
-to keep the milk bottle next to the ice than in the food
-compartments.</p>
-
-<div  class='figleft id015'>
-<img src='images/i146.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>A clean ice box</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>Milk and cream easily absorb flavors from the air
-and should not be kept in open vessels next to other
-food. Any housekeeper
-knows how
-quickly milk or cream
-will be tainted by
-standing in the same
-compartment with
-onions or muskmelons;
-if the bottle
-is not covered, milk
-may also be contaminated
-by other less
-noticeable but more
-harmful vapors from
-nearby products. Let
-the milkman furnish
-you with some extra
-milk bottle caps, or cover your milk bottle with an inverted
-tumbler.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>As has been shown in previous chapters, milk is a
-favorable soil for all sorts of germs and bacteria to grow
-in. It must therefore be kept from contamination
-with the utmost care, and everything that comes in
-contact with it must be scrupulously clean.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Top-Milk.</b>—When the milk has been standing at
-rest three or four hours, the top-milk will be considerably
-richer than the rest. If such rich milk is wanted
-for any particular purpose it may be poured off, to be
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>eaten with cereals, berries, etc. In twelve hours most
-of the cream will rise and may be skimmed off, although
-thirty-six or even forty-eight hours may be required to
-get all that can be obtained by setting. The half-skimmed
-milk left when the top-milk has been removed
-after 3 to 6 hours’ setting will still contain 2% or more
-of butter-fat and is very good for drinking; even the
-skim milk from which the cream has been taken after
-12 hours’ setting is still an excellent beverage, provided
-it is sweet. Perfectly skimmed, almost entirely fatless,
-milk may be used in various ways in cooking, to make
-up for lack of protein in many other food products.
-But care must be taken that it is pure and sweet, or
-rather, its condition, sweet or sour, must be under the
-perfect control of the housekeeper. If a sample of milk
-will stand scalding or even boiling without curdling,
-it is usually fresh and in good condition for any use.
-On the other hand, if it curdles by scalding, it is beyond
-control and it may or may not make good sour milk,
-depending on the bacteria working in it.</p>
-<div>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>
-  <h3 class='c010'>MILK FOR INFANTS</h3>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i148.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c022'>Comparing cow’s milk with mother’s milk, it will be
-seen that the latter contains less protein, about the
-same percentage of fat and more carbohydrates than
-the former. A comparison may be made from the following
-table of average composition in round figures:</p>
-<table class='table8' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='22%' />
-<col width='11%' />
-<col width='11%' />
-<col width='11%' />
-<col width='11%' />
-<col width='11%' />
-<col width='11%' />
-<col width='11%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
- <th class='btt bbt brt c037'></th>
- <th class='btt bbt brt c026'><br />Water</th>
- <th class='btt bbt brt c026'><br />Total solids</th>
- <th class='btt bbt brt c026'><br />Protein</th>
- <th class='btt bbt brt c026'><br />Fat</th>
- <th class='btt bbt brt c026'><br />Milk- sugar</th>
- <th class='btt bbt brt c026'><br />Mineral matters</th>
- <th class='btt bbt c026'>Fuel value per lb.</th>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
- <td class='bbt brt c037'>&nbsp;</td>
- <td class='bbt brt c026'>Per cent</td>
- <td class='bbt brt c026'>Per cent</td>
- <td class='bbt brt c026'>Per cent</td>
- <td class='bbt brt c026'>Per cent</td>
- <td class='bbt brt c026'>Per cent</td>
- <td class='bbt brt c026'>Per cent</td>
- <td class='bbt c026'>Calories</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
- <td class='bbt brt c037'>Mother’s Milk</td>
- <td class='bbt brt c026'>87</td>
- <td class='bbt brt c026'>13</td>
- <td class='bbt brt c026'>2</td>
- <td class='bbt brt c026'>4</td>
- <td class='bbt brt c026'>6.5</td>
- <td class='bbt brt c026'>0.5</td>
- <td class='bbt c026'>316</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
- <td class='bbt brt c037'>Cow’s Milk</td>
- <td class='bbt brt c026'>87</td>
- <td class='bbt brt c026'>13</td>
- <td class='bbt brt c026'>3.25</td>
- <td class='bbt brt c026'>4</td>
- <td class='bbt brt c026'>5</td>
- <td class='bbt brt c026'>0.75</td>
- <td class='bbt c026'>312</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-<p class='c013'><b>Modifying Milk.</b>—Undiluted cow’s milk is too rich
-in protein and in salts for infants and, when fed without
-modification, must be diluted with an equal amount
-of water during the first two or three months. Such dilution,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span>however, also reduces the percentage of fat, which
-should remain the same, and of carbohydrates, which
-should be increased. In order to modify or “humanize”
-cow’s milk so as to make its composition nearly the
-same as that of mother’s milk, simple dilution with
-water is therefore not sufficient.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>There are, however, various other methods which
-may be used to advantage. For instance, top-milk
-from a bottle of fresh milk which has stood 4 or 6 hours
-in ice water will contain 6 to 8% of fat. By diluting
-this with an equal part of water, the percentage
-of protein, fat and mineral matter will be about right,
-and sugar, either cane-sugar or milk-sugar, may be
-added to supply the carbohydrates. Or carefully prepared
-sweet whey containing milk-sugar, or barley
-water, may be added to the thin cream in place of some
-of the pure water.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The following recipes have been used with good
-results:</p>
-<h4 class='c025'>Mrs. Pospyhala’s Recipe</h4>
-
-<p class='c030'><b>Infant Food.</b>—Warm 1½ quarts of milk to blood heat. Remove
-from fire and add one Junket Tablet dissolved in a spoonful
-of cold water. Let the milk set until it forms a solid mass, then
-stir it up in order to break the curd. Place it back on the fire and
-stir until quite smooth, not allowing it to get any warmer than
-blood heat. It is then ready to strain through two thicknesses of
-cheese-cloth and care must be taken to squeeze well so as to obtain
-as much of the whey as possible, which is very important. Add one
-tablespoonful of sugar to sweeten. Pour into nursing bottles, the
-amount being according to the age of the baby. A sufficient number
-of bottles are prepared for 24 hours’ feeding. Care should be
-taken to keep the milk in a cool place as it will sour the same as
-fresh milk. Every time the baby is fed the milk must be warmed
-by placing the bottle in a pan of water and heating to the right
-temperature.</p>
-<div>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>
-  <h4 class='c025'><i>Mrs. Rorer’s Recipe</i></h4>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c030'>Where cow’s milk, even when diluted, or partly modified as in
-the home fashion, disagrees with the infant, this mixture may be
-used with good results: heat two quarts of milk to 100° F. Add
-two Junket Tablets dissolved in a tablespoonful of cold water.
-When the milk is congealed and perfectly solid draw through it
-backward and forward an ordinary four-tined silver fork; this will
-separate the curd. Strain through two thicknesses of cheese-cloth,
-saving the whey as this is the part you are to use; add a pint of
-water, a half ounce of sugar of milk, three ounces of cream and
-four ounces of the white of egg. The whites may be dropped into
-a quart fruit jar, a pint of the whey added, the top screwed on and
-the jar thoroughly shaken until the whites are well mixed with
-the whey; then add them to the remaining quantity and stand at
-once in a very cold place. This will be given in quantities from
-two to three ounces in an ordinary nursing bottle.</p>
-<h4 class='c025'><i>RECIPES</i><br /><i>of the Nathan Straus Laboratories</i></h4>
-
-<p class='c039'>Formula by Dr. A. R. Green for 1st to 4th week:—</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line in1'>¾ ounces of 16% Cream</div>
-      <div class='line in1'>3 ounces of Full Milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>19 ounces of   Water</div>
-      <div class='line'>1½ ounces Milk Sugar</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>This mixture fills 8 bottles—each
-to contain 3 ounces. Feed
-2½ hours apart.</p>
-<p class='c040'>Formula by Prof. A. Jacobi for 3d to 7th month:—</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>18 ounces of Full Milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>18 ounces of  Barley Water</div>
-      <div class='line in1'>1 ounces of  Cane Sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>20 grains of Table Salt (less than ¼ teaspoonful)</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>This mixture fills 6 bottles—each
-to contain 6 ounces. Feed
-3 hours apart.</p>
-<p class='c040'>Formula by Prof. R. G. Freeman for 1st to 3d month:—</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1½ ounces of 16% Cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>3  ounces of Full Milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>13 ounces of Water</div>
-      <div class='line'>½  ounce     Lime Water</div>
-      <div class='line'>1  ounce     Milk-Sugar</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>This mixture fills 6 bottles—each
-to contain 3 ounces. Feed 3
-hours apart.</p>
-<p class='c040'><span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>Formula by Dr. A. F. Hess for 7th to 9th month:—</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>22½ ounces of Full Milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>7½  ounces of Oat or Barley Water</div>
-      <div class='line'>1½  ounces of Cane Sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>30  grains of Table Salt (about ¼ teaspoonful)</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>This mixture fills 5 bottles—each
-to contain 6 ounces. Feed
-3½ hours apart.</p>
-<p class='c040'>Formula by Prof. R. G. Freeman for 2d to 6th month:—</p>
-<div class='lg-container-l'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>18 ounces of Full Milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>16½ ounces of Water</div>
-      <div class='line'>1½ ounces of Limewater</div>
-      <div class='line'>1½ ounces of Milk Sugar</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>This mixture fills 6 bottles—each
-to contain 6 ounces. Feed
-3 hours apart.</p>
-<p class='c013'>After 9th month:—</p>
-<p class='c014'>Full pasteurized milk, 8 ounces
-every 4 hours.</p>
-<p class='c013'>When the modified milk can be obtained from a
-dairy laboratory where it is prepared with scientific
-care and accuracy, it is better to use it than to depend
-on home-made preparations, and in many cases a doctor’s
-prescription may be necessary. Even if the modified
-cow’s milk is prepared so as to contain apparently
-the same proportion of the various groups of nutrients
-as mother’s milk, there may still be some essential
-difference. For instance, the protein in human milk
-consists mainly of albumin, while that of cow’s milk
-is mostly casein. It is often a question whether the
-individual baby can digest the casein without trouble.
-A trifle of rennet ferment,—a fraction of a Junket
-Tablet,—added to the modified cow’s milk just before
-feeding may be beneficial to overcome that defect. A
-little limewater also is healthful as it neutralizes any
-acid that may develop in the mixture. For the particular
-needs of the individual baby, a competent doctor
-should be asked to prescribe.</p>
-<div>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>
-  <h3 class='c010'>MILK FOR GROWING CHILDREN</h3>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i152.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c022'>When the child is big enough to thrive on undiluted,
-unmodified cow’s milk, it should not only be allowed,
-but urged, to continue on a diet in which this, the
-best of all foods, is the most essential part. An excellent
-form in which to feed milk to the growing child is
-junket. Eaten slowly with a spoon as a pudding, it is
-exposed to the action of digestion much better than
-milk swallowed by the glassful in a hurry and even if it
-is cold there is no danger of defective rennet action in
-the stomach because such action has already taken
-place.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Doctors still disagree as to the desirability of pasteurizing
-milk for young children (see “Pasteurization,”
-Chapter <a href='#ch01'>I</a>), some holding that the digestibility is affected
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>by the process. The truth is probably that
-strong pasteurization at a temperature above 157° and
-holding the heated milk unnecessarily long at such high
-temperature do change the properties of the milk so
-as to make it harder to digest, but that the main difficulty
-is in the change of diet from raw to pasteurized
-milk or vice versa. Let the child get used to the change
-by making it gradual, diminishing the amount of one
-and increasing the amount of the other from day to day
-in a week, until the change is completed, and there will
-usually be little if any trouble. The secretions of digestive
-ferments in the stomach soon adapt themselves
-to the change in the food. The same holds good in
-case of other changes, as, for instance, from whole
-milk to more or less fatless milk, with additions of
-cereals or other partial substitutes;—it is always advisable
-to make any change in the child’s diet gradual.</p>
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c008' />
-</div>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span>
-  <h2 class='c009'>CHAPTER V<br /> <br /><span class='sc'>Milk Cookery</span></h2>
-</div>
-<p class='c013'>Milk should also be used a great deal more than it
-is by grown persons, not only as a drink but in the
-daily cookery. In some homes milk in some form is
-a part of every menu and the meals are more delicious,
-attractive and nourishing than the ordinary milkless
-diet, and are also less expensive, as the milk takes the
-place of part of the meat. Dr. Graham Tusk of Cornell
-University, who represented the United States on the
-Interallied Council of Alimentation, says:</p>
-
-<p class='c030'>“No family of five should spend any money for meat
-until three quarts of milk have been purchased, and
-this should be done even though the price of milk
-should go to twenty cents a quart. Absolutely nothing
-in the food line will keep children so healthy as their
-daily supply of milk.”</p>
-
-<p class='c022'>In cooking with milk it is well to remember:</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>1. That, although milk is a liquid, it contains a
-large amount of solid food and of exceedingly nourishing,
-palatable and easily digestible food, much more
-than many vegetables or fruits. While milk has 13%
-of solid matter, water-melon has only 2%, turnips 4%,
-beets 12%, etc. When substituting milk for water,
-you add <i>nourishment</i> to the food and it is well to keep
-in mind the ingredients,—the amount of protein, fat,
-etc., added in the form of milk, which may take the
-place of other similar ingredients in the combination.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>2. That if milk is even but slightly sour, or if some
-other acid is added to it,—in the form of fruit, for instance,—it
-is apt to curdle by scalding or boiling.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The limits of a single chapter do not allow many
-recipes to be given, but a few are furnished under each
-of the several kinds of milk dishes, and a clever domestic
-science pupil or the ordinary good housekeeper and
-cook can easily add to these recipes indefinitely, by
-following out the simple suggestions offered.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>All measurements are level.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>SOUPS</h3>
-<p class='c022'><b>Cream Soups.</b>—So-called cream soups may be made
-with or without the addition of meat stock. For
-example:</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div><b>Asparagus Soup</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-l'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>3 cups veal or chicken broth</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 can asparagus</div>
-      <div class='line'>¼ cup butter</div>
-      <div class='line'>¼ cup flour</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 qt. scalded milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>Salt and pepper</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Reserve tips of asparagus. Add stalks to cold stock, boil fifteen
-minutes, rub through sieve, thicken with butter and flour cooked
-together, add milk, tips, salt and pepper. If fresh asparagus is used,
-cut one bunch in small pieces, boil in as little water as will cover,
-remove tough bits of stalk, add two cups stock and proceed as above.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Cream of Celery Soup</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>3 cups veal or chicken broth</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 cups celery cut in inch pieces</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 cups milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>Yolks 2 eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup cream</div>
-      <div class='line'>Salt and pepper</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Boil celery in broth till tender. Rub through sieve, add milk,
-bring to the boiling point and add egg yolks beaten and diluted
-with cream.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span><b>Spinach Soup</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>4 cups broth</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 qts. spinach</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 cups boiling water</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>¼ cup butter</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup flour</div>
-      <div class='line'>Salt and pepper</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Wash the spinach and cook thirty minutes in boiling water to
-which ⅛ teaspoon soda has been added. Drain and chop fine.
-Add stock and butter and flour cooked together, milk and seasoning.</p>
-
-<p class='c022'>Cauliflower, mushrooms, lettuce, string beans, onions
-and other vegetables may be used for soups in the
-same way. <i>In all of these recipes milk may be substituted
-for the stock.</i> The soups will be more nourishing, many
-like them better, and they are more easily prepared.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>If canned vegetables are used they may be added to
-the thickened milk, which should be made in the proportions
-of one quart of milk to two tablespoons butter
-or substitute and two tablespoons flour. One can of
-beans, peas, asparagus, or corn, may be added to three
-pints of thickened milk.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>If fresh vegetables are used, they should be boiled
-in as little water as possible and this water added with
-the vegetables to the hot, thickened milk. The addition
-of one-half to one cup of cream to these soups improves
-their taste but is not necessary. If the cream
-is whipped and added just before serving, the appearance
-is also much improved. The vegetables may be
-pressed through a sieve or not, as preferred. If the
-soup is to be served in cups it is better to do this or
-chop the vegetables very fine, but if the soup is to be
-served in soup plates it looks attractive and is more
-substantial if the vegetables are cut in inch pieces and
-left in the soup.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>All cooks are familiar with <i>cornlet soup</i>, <i>tomato</i>
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span><i>bisque</i>, and <i>oyster</i> and <i>clam stews</i>, the foundation of
-which is also milk. Plenty of good recipes for them
-can be found in any standard cook book.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><b>Cereal Cream Soups.</b>—There is another class of soups
-used much in Europe but, unfortunately, little known
-here. They are very nourishing, easy of preparation,
-and delicious.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>A few recipes will suffice to introduce the housewife
-to this class of soups and she can then easily add to the
-varieties herself. Her family will enjoy the new dishes
-for their good taste and their novelty. Croutons,
-crackers, zwieback, or toast may be served with any
-of them. They should always be prepared in a double
-boiler.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Rice Soup</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 qt. milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>⅓ cup rice</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 tablespoon butter</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 tablespoon sugar</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Heat the milk in a double boiler, add the rice and cook two hours.
-Add sugar and butter. Sprinkle cinnamon on each plate of soup
-when serving.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Sago Soup</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 qt. milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 tablespoons sago</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 tablespoon butter</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 egg yolk</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 tablespoons sugar</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Heat the milk in a double boiler, add sago and cook one-half hour.
-Care must be taken to stir the mixture often when the sago is first
-added or it will lump. Add butter and egg yolk beaten with sugar.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Oatmeal Soup</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup oat flakes</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 pint boiling water</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 tablespoons sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 pint milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 tablespoon butter</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Add oat flakes to water and boil one-half hour. Add milk and
-boil one-half hour, add sugar and butter.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span><b>Farina or Cream of Wheat Soup</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>3 pints milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup farina or cream of wheat</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 tablespoon butter</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 tablespoon sugar</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Scald milk and add cereal slowly. Cook one hour and add butter
-and sugar and a sprinkling of nutmeg.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Milk Chowders</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Chowders are also a very acceptable way of serving milk. For
-rich chowders the proportions used are: Two cups of milk or of
-milk and water, 1 cup of potatoes cut into small pieces and 1 pound
-of fish. For flavoring add an onion fried in two tablespoons of fat
-tried out from salt pork. While these proportions make a rich dish,
-it is possible to reduce the amount of fish greatly, to leave it out
-entirely, to use small portions of left-over fish or some salt codfish
-which has been freshened, or to substitute corn for it. Such dishes
-are palatable and of reasonably high nutritive value, providing the
-greater part of the liquid used is milk.</p>
-
-<p class='c022'>Similar, but less rich and thick, is:</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Milk Stew</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 qt. of milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cupful raw potatoes cut into small pieces</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 tablespoonfuls of butter or bacon fat</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cupful of codfish cut into small pieces or just enough to flavor the stew</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Soak the fish in lukewarm water until it is soft and the salt removed.
-Cook the potatoes in water until tender, drain them, add
-the milk and codfish, and bring to the boiling point; add the butter
-and salt to taste.</p>
-
-<p class='c022'>In place of the codfish, fresh fish, clams, oysters, or
-a little chipped beef may be used. Or the fish may be
-omitted and the soup made savory and palatable by
-adding a few drops of onion juice, or cheese or a vegetable
-cut into small pieces and cooked thoroughly.</p>
-<div>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>
-  <h3 class='c010'>MILK CEREALS</h3>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c022'>Most cereals are better cooked in milk than in water
-and those not familiar with this method have no idea
-of the many good dishes which they can thus easily
-provide for their families. Cereals so prepared make
-an especially good wholesome breakfast or supper for
-school children and the writer has never seen an adult,
-who, on a cold night, did not enjoy a dish of rice, or
-corn meal, boiled in milk and served with cream and
-sugar for supper. Milk cereals must always be cooked
-in a double boiler and the milk must be hot when the
-cereal is added.</p>
-
-<div class='std-table'>
-
-<table class='table9' summary=''>
-<colgroup>
-<col width='25%' />
-<col width='75%' />
-</colgroup>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>Rice</td>
-    <td class='c023'>1 cup to 3 cups milk, boil 2 hours</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>Cornmeal</td>
-    <td class='c023'>1 cup to 4 cups milk, boil 1 to 2 hours</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>Fine Hominy</td>
-    <td class='c023'>1 cup to 4 cups milk, boil 1 hour</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>Cream of Wheat</td>
-    <td class='c023'>1 cup to 4 cups milk, boil 1 hour</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class='c011'>Farina</td>
-    <td class='c023'>1 cup to 4 cups milk, boil 1 hour</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-</div>
-<p class='c013'><b>Cream of Wheat or Farina Pudding</b> is also delicious.
-It is prepared in the same way, but ¾ cup of cereal
-only is added to 1 quart hot milk. Just before serving,
-a teaspoonful of vanilla is added, and two beaten eggs
-are folded in. It is eaten with cream, or milk, and
-sugar, or with maple syrup.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>LUNCHEON AND SUPPER DISHES</h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>Dishes prepared principally of milk, with the addition
-of either eggs, cheese, meat, or vegetables are particularly
-adapted for luncheon or supper use. Here again
-a few standard recipes are given which can be varied
-to make any desired number of good, wholesome and
-delicious dishes.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span><b>Creamed Dishes.</b>—The same sauce may be used to
-cream <i>cold chicken</i>, <i>lamb</i>, <i>veal</i>, <i>chipped beef</i>, and cold
-boiled or baked <i>fish</i>, canned <i>salmon</i>, <i>lobster</i> or <i>shrimps</i>,
-according to the following recipe:</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Creamed Chicken</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups cold cooked chicken cut into dice</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 tablespoons butter</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 tablespoons flour</div>
-      <div class='line'>1½ cups milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>Salt and pepper</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Melt butter and add the flour and milk. Bring to the boiling
-point and add diced chicken. Season with salt and pepper.</p>
-
-<p class='c022'>Many grate a small onion into the sauce before adding
-the chicken. The writer does not favor indiscriminate
-use of onion as it tends to make all dishes taste
-alike. It seems better to use sometimes a little celery
-or celery salt, sometimes an onion, and again frequently
-no flavor but the chicken or meat or fish. One’s cooking
-is thus more distinctive and varied.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>If the creamed mixture is turned into a baking dish,
-covered with buttered bread or cracker crumbs and
-browned in the oven, the result is even more pleasing.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Such a sauce flavored with cheese makes a good and
-very nutritious gravy to pour over cauliflower and cabbage
-or to serve with boiled rice or hominy or poured
-over toast.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>CREAMED VEGETABLES</h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>In creaming vegetables the proportion is usually 1
-cup of sauce to 2 cups of vegetables. <i>Potatoes</i>, <i>asparagus</i>,
-<i>cauliflower</i>, <i>boiled onions</i>, <i>beans</i>, and <i>carrots</i>,
-<i>beets</i> or <i>peas</i> are all delicious served in this way.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span><b>Eggs and Asparagus</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Cream asparagus. Arrange in a baking dish, alternate layers of
-the asparagus and slices of hard boiled eggs. Cover with buttered
-crumbs and bake till crumbs are a delicate brown.</p>
-
-<p class='c022'><b>Souffles.</b>—Souffles are always delightful, and while
-many consider them difficult to make they are really
-very simple and if made correctly are always to be depended
-upon. They should, however, be eaten at once
-when baked.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Salmon</i>, <i>chicken</i>, <i>lamb</i>, <i>veal</i>, <i>ham</i> and <i>cheese</i>, and also
-many vegetables such as <i>asparagus</i>, <i>cauliflower</i> and
-<i>peas</i> may be prepared in this way. Elaborate recipes
-are often given, but the following is entirely sufficient
-and always satisfactory:</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-l'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups chopped meat or vegetables cut fine</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups thick white sauce</div>
-      <div class='line'>Yolks of 2 eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>Whites of 2 eggs</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>To the meat or vegetables add white sauce (2 tablespoons butter
-and 3 tablespoons flour to 1 cup milk) and beaten yolks. Cool and
-add whites beaten stiff. Bake 30 minutes in moderate oven. This
-makes a dish large enough to serve four or five persons.</p>
-
-<p class='c022'>A similar dish, Cheese Fondu, is also good, and can
-stand longer than a souffle before serving.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Cheese Fondu</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups minced cheese</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup bread crumbs</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 eggs beaten</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Bake in a hot oven for twenty minutes.</p>
-
-<p class='c022'>Variations of this dish are made by substituting one
-cup minced ham for one cup of the cheese, or by
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>using two cups of ham and omitting the cheese altogether.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>MILK TOAST</h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>A very good way to serve milk toast is to toast bread
-thoroughly and to pour hot milk over it at the time of
-serving. In serving milk toast in this way all the
-dishes should be kept very hot. A heavy earthenware
-pitcher may be used for serving the hot milk, as it
-retains heat for a long time.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>EGGS POACHED IN MILK</h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>Eggs are much better poached in milk than in water.
-If served on toast the hot milk may be poured on the
-egg if a soft toast is desired. If not, dip the eggs out
-of the milk with a perforated spoon and lay on the
-toast in the usual way, adding salt and butter.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>CHEESE DISHES AS MEAT SUBSTITUTES</h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>Meat is wholesome and relished by most persons,
-yet it is not essential to a well-balanced meal, and there
-are many housekeepers who, for one reason or another,
-are interested in lessening the amount of meat which
-they provide or to substitute some other foods for it.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Cheese naturally suggests itself as a substitute for
-meat, since it is rich in the same kinds of nutrients
-which meat supplies, is a staple food with which everyone
-is familiar, and is one which can be used in a great
-variety of ways. In substituting cheese for meat, pains
-should be taken to serve dishes which are relished by
-members of the family. A number of recipes for dishes
-which are made with cheese follow:</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span><b>Cheese Soup</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 qt. milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 onion grated</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 blade mace</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 tablespoons butter</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 tablespoons flour</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ c. grated cheese</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 egg yolks</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>¼ teaspoon white pepper</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Scald milk, onion, mace and pepper pod. Melt butter in saucepan,
-blend flour with melted butter. Strain milk and seasonings
-and add gradually to flour mixture, stirring all the time. Return
-to double boiler to cook. When creamy, add the cheese, salt and
-pepper, stirring until cheese is melted. Then pour over well-beaten
-egg yolks, stirring all the time. Whip until frothing and serve.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Delmonico Potatoes</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Arrange creamed potatoes and grated cheese in alternate layers.
-Cover with buttered crumbs and bake till crumbs are brown.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Stuffed Potatoes with Cheese</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Split hot baked potatoes lengthwise and remove contents without
-injuring skin of potato. Put potato through ricer or mash, add salt
-and pepper to taste and enough hot milk to make of proper consistency.
-Beat until light, refill the skin, piling up lightly. Sprinkle
-thickly with grated cheese and reheat in oven until cheese is melted
-and a delicate brown.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Macaroni with Cheese</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup macaroni</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 qts. boiling salted water</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups white sauce</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup grated cheese</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup buttered bread or cracker crumbs</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Break macaroni into one-inch pieces. Cook in boiling water
-until tender. (If macaroni is put in a wire basket in kettle, it will
-not stick to the kettle.) Drain and run cold water through it.</p>
-
-<p class='c022'>Make sauce:</p>
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>2 tablespoons butter</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 tablespoons flour</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups milk</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Add cheese and macaroni. Cover with crumbs and bake until
-crumbs are brown.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span><b>Rice Baked with Cheese</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup rice</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 qts. boiling salted water</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ lb. grated cheese</div>
-      <div class='line'>Milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>Buttered crumbs (bread or cracker)</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Add rice to boiling water. When tender drain, cover bottom
-of buttered baking dish, sprinkle with grated cheese and a little
-paprika. Add alternate layers of rice and cheese until dish is full.
-Add milk nearly to fill dish. Cover with crumbs and bake until
-milk is absorbed and crumbs are brown.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Cheese Souffle with Bread Crumbs</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup scalded milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup soft, stale bread crumbs</div>
-      <div class='line'>¼ lb. mild cheese, cut in small pieces</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 tablespoon butter</div>
-      <div class='line'>¼ teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 egg yolks</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 egg whites</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Mix milk, bread crumbs, cheese, melted butter and salt. Add
-yolks of eggs beaten until lemon colored. Cut and fold in whites of
-eggs beaten until stiff. Pour into a buttered baking dish and bake
-twenty minutes in a moderate oven.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Cheese Souffle</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>2 tablespoons butter</div>
-      <div class='line'>3  tablespoons flour</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup scalded milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>Few grains cayenne</div>
-      <div class='line'>¼ cup grated cheese</div>
-      <div class='line'>Yolks of 3 eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>Whites of 3 eggs</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour and mix well; add
-scalded milk gradually and seasonings; cook two minutes. Remove
-pan to back of stove and add cheese and well-beaten yolks of eggs.
-Set pan where mixture will cool. When cold, add the whites of
-eggs beaten until stiff and dry. Turn into a buttered baking dish
-and bake twenty minutes in a slow oven. Serve the moment it
-comes from the oven.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span><b>English Monkey</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup bread crumbs</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup grated cheese</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>¼ teaspoon white pepper or paprika</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 egg</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 tablespoon melted butter</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Scald milk in double boiler and add bread crumbs to it. Then
-add grated cheese, melted butter and seasonings. Cook in double
-boiler until cheese is melted; add the slightly-beaten egg gradually.
-Cook five minutes and serve on dry toast.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Cheese Omelette No. 1</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>4 eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>Few grains pepper</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 tablespoons hot water</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 tablespoons butter</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup grated cheese</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Beat yolks of eggs thoroughly; add salt, pepper and hot water.
-Beat whites till stiff and dry; add cheese and fold into first mixture.
-Melt butter in pan, turn in mixture and cook slowly. When well
-raised and a delicate brown underneath, place pan in hot oven to
-cook top. Fold and turn on hot platter.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Cheese Omelette No. 2</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Make as above, omitting cheese. Make two cups of hot, white
-sauce; add 1 cup grated cheese, melt and pour around the omelette.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Baked Eggs with Cheese</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>4 eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup grated cheese</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup soft bread crumbs</div>
-      <div class='line'>¼ teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>Few grains cayenne</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups white sauce</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Break the eggs into a buttered baking dish and cook in hot oven
-until they begin to turn white around the edges. Then cover eggs
-with the white sauce and over this put the mixture of crumbs,
-cheese and seasonings. Brown in very hot oven, so eggs will not
-be overcooked by time cheese is brown. If preferred, or for variety,
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>the cheese may be added to the white sauce and only the seasoned
-crumbs put on the top.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Boston Roast</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 can kidney beans or same amount of cooked beans</div>
-      <div class='line'>Salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ lb. grated cheese</div>
-      <div class='line'>Bread crumbs</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Mash beans or put them through a meat grinder. Add the cheese
-and sufficient bread crumbs to make the mixture stiff enough to be
-formed into a roll. Place in buttered baking pan and bake in moderate
-oven. Baste frequently with one-half cup hot water, in which
-one tablespoon butter is melted. Serve the roast with tomato sauce.
-If desired, a few drops of onion juice or a little finely chopped onion
-may be added to flavor this dish.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Camouflaged Cabbage</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Remove the heart from a small cabbage, cut or chop the remainder
-into half inch pieces, boil in salted water exactly twenty minutes
-and drain. For one pint of this cooked cabbage make a sauce of:</p>
-
-<div class='lg-container-l c041'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>2 tablespoons butter</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 tablespoons flour</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup cheese</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c042'>When thoroughly blended add the cabbage;
-cover with buttered crumbs and bake twenty minutes. The result
-is a good dish for supper or luncheon and it is well named.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>CHEESE SALADS</h3>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Cheese and Pimento Salad</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Stuff canned pimentos with cream cheese, cut into slices, place
-on lettuce leaves and serve with mayonnaise dressing.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Cheese and Celery Salad</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Select celery stalks with deep grooves in them; wash and dry on
-clean towel. Mix a small cream cheese with a bit of salt, and ¼
-cup finely chopped nuts (pecans are best). Fill grooves in celery
-stalk with the cheese mixture and chill. When ready to serve cut
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>stalks into small pieces with sharp knife. Serve on lettuce leaves
-with French dressing.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>For a pleasant addition to fruit salad, fill tender celery stalks
-with roquefort cheese, and lay one or two on each plate of salad.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Pepper and Cheese Salad</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Remove top and seeds from a sweet green pepper. Scald it with
-boiling water, letting it stand in water about ten minutes. Mix
-soft cream cheese with chopped nuts, or with tiny cubes of cooked
-beets and fill pepper with this mixture; chill well, cut in thin slices
-with sharp knife and serve on bed of head lettuce with French
-dressing.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>Apples can also be used (with cheese and nuts) by removing core
-without breaking the apple.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>COTTAGE CHEESE<br /><span class='c007'>(See also under the chapter on Cheese)</span></h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>All that has been said of cheese as a valuable food
-and as a substitute for meat, applies equally to cottage
-cheese and it is so easily prepared, inexpensive and
-generally relished that it should be used much more
-freely than it is.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The following recipes are only a few of the many
-that might be given, but the careful cook should evolve
-other combinations equally attractive.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Cottage Cheese by Government Method</b></div>
-    <div class='c000'>(From Food Administration Bulletin)</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Unit, 1 gallon. For lesser amounts, measurements to be divided
-accordingly.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>Take 1 gallon of sweet skim milk; add ¾ cup of clean, sour milk
-and stir as it is put in. Raise the temperature in hot water to 75
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>degrees Fahrenheit, using a dairy thermometer. Remove from heat
-and place where it is to remain until set. Add ⅛ of a junket
-tablet thoroughly dissolved in a tablespoon of cold water; stir while
-adding. Cover with cloth and leave for 12 to 16 hours in even
-temperature, about 75 degrees Fahrenheit. At end of this period
-there should be a slight whey on the top and when poured out the
-curd should cleave sharply. Drain through cotton cloth, not
-cheese-cloth. When whey has been drained out, work in 1 or 2
-teaspoons of salt to the cheese, according to taste; 1½ to 2 pounds
-of cheese should be obtained from a gallon of milk.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>For table use it is advisable to work in 1 or 2 tablespoons of cream
-to the pound. For use in cooking, this is not necessary.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>One may also make cottage cheese of freshly soured milk by
-simply heating it in a double boiler till whey forms, letting it stand
-an hour and then turning it into a cheese-cloth bag to drain. To
-the dry curd formed add sweet or sour cream and salt to taste.
-When made in this way care must be taken that the milk is freshly
-soured—if it is old it will have a bitter taste and the cheese will not
-be good.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Cottage Cheese Sandwiches</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Thin slices of rye, brown or white bread, buttered, with fillings
-of cottage cheese in combination with jelly, marmalade, pimentoes,
-lettuce or mayonnaise are all good.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Cottage Cheese Club Sandwiches</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Toast slices of bread, cut diamond shape and spread with butter
-and cottage cheese or cottage cheese alone and put together
-with any one of the following combinations:</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>Tomato, lettuce and mayonnaise dressing.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>Thin slices of ham spread with mustard and lettuce.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>Sliced, tart apple, chopped nuts and drops of French dressing.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>Sliced orange and mayonnaise.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>Sliced Spanish onion, a hot fried egg sprinkled with Worcestershire
-sauce.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>Thin slices of tomato, bacon, chicken, lettuce and mayonnaise
-dressing.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span><b>Cottage Cheese Salad Dressing</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup cottage cheese</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 tablespoon vinegar</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ teaspoon sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>¼ teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup heavy cream (either sweet or sour) whipped stiff.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Mix in order given. A chopped hard boiled egg improves it.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>A similar salad dressing, although containing no cottage cheese,
-may be given here also.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Sour Cream Salad Dressing</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup sour cream—whipped</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 tablespoon vinegar</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 tablespoon olive oil</div>
-      <div class='line'>¼ teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>(1 teaspoon sugar, if desired)</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 hard boiled egg yolks finely chopped</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Mix in order given.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>Either of these is particularly good with green vegetables.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>For a fruit salad the eggs should be omitted and double the
-amount of sugar used.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Cottage Cheese Salad</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Lettuce, sliced cucumber or green, sweet peppers, cottage cheese
-formed in small balls or slices, mayonnaise or French dressing.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Cottage Cheese Pie</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup cottage cheese</div>
-      <div class='line'>⅔ cup sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>⅔ cup milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 egg yolks, beaten</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 tablespoon melted butter</div>
-      <div class='line'>Salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>¼ teaspoon vanilla</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Mix the ingredients in the order given. Bake the pie in one crust.
-Cool it slightly and cover it with meringue made by adding 2 tablespoons
-of sugar and ½ teaspoon of vanilla to the beaten white of
-2 eggs and brown it in a slow oven.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span><b>Devonshire Dainty</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Serve on individual plates ½ cup cottage cheese to which has
-been added 2 tablespoonfuls whipped cream (sweet or sour). Over
-this pour ½ cup currant jam.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>Pass saltines or other dry, unsweetened crackers.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>MILK BREADS AND BISCUITS</h3>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Parker House Rolls</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups scalded milk (skim)</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 tablespoons butter</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 yeast cake dissolved in ¼ cup lukewarm water</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Dissolve yeast in water, melt butter, combine all ingredients
-except flour. Add 3 cups flour gradually, beating vigorously. Let
-rise till light; cut down and knead in 2½ cups flour. Cover and
-allow to rise until three times original bulk. Roll ½ inch thick.
-Cut, spread half with butter and fold over. Put in buttered tins
-to rise, placing 1 inch apart. Bake when light in a hot oven 15 to
-20 minutes.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Popovers</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup flour</div>
-      <div class='line'>¼ teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ teaspoon melted butter</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup milk</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Beat eggs thoroughly. Add gradually, while beating, the milk
-and flour, to which salt has been added. Add butter and beat two
-minutes with Dover egg beater. Put a half teaspoon of butter in
-hissing hot iron gem pans. Fill half with batter and bake thirty
-minutes in a hot oven. Serve immediately.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Boston Nut Bread</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup molasses</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon soda</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups sour milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups graham flour</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup chopped nuts</div>
-      <div class='line'>1½ cups white flour</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Mix and sift all the dry ingredients. Add molasses to the milk
-and combine this gradually with the dry materials. Add the nuts.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span>Half fill baking powder cans, with oiled cover, and let stand one-half
-hour. Bake three-quarters of an hour in moderate oven.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Sour Milk Biscuit</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 qt. flour</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon soda</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 tablespoons butter</div>
-      <div class='line'>Sour milk to moisten (about 1½ cups)</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Sift dry ingredients together, cut in butter with knife, add milk
-to make a stiff dough. Roll out thin and bake in hot oven. Serve
-with honey or maple syrup.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Gingerbread</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>4 tablespoons butter</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 egg</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup molasses</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 teaspoons cocoa</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup sour milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>1¾ cups flour</div>
-      <div class='line'>¾ teaspoon soda</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon ginger</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon cinnamon</div>
-      <div class='line'>¼ teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon allspice</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Sift flour and spices, salt and soda together. Mix other ingredients
-in the order given and combine mixtures. Bake in moderate oven
-30 minutes.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Sour Milk Waffles</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 egg</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup sour milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup flour</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 tablespoon butter</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon soda</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ teaspoon salt</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Beat egg thoroughly, add sour milk, flour and salt. Dissolve soda
-in ½ tablespoon cold water. Add to mixture. Beat thoroughly.
-Cook on oiled, hot waffle iron and serve hot with maple syrup.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Sweet Milk Waffles</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups flour</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 teaspoons baking powder</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>1¼ cups milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>Yolks 2 eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>Whites 2 eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 tablespoons butter</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Mix and sift dry ingredients, add milk, beaten yolks, butter and
-egg whites beaten stiff.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span><b>Buttermilk Griddle Cakes</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups buttermilk</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups flour</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon soda</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 egg beaten</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Mix in order given.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Sweet Milk Griddle Cakes</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 egg beaten</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 cups flour sifted with</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 teaspoons baking powder and</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 tablespoons melted butter</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Mix in order given.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Boston Brown Bread</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup whole wheat flour</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups graham flour</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon soda</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups sour milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup molasses</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Mix dry ingredients thoroughly. Mix the sour milk and molasses.
-Stir in dry ingredients, beating thoroughly. Turn into well buttered
-pound baking powder cans. Cover tightly and steam three hours.
-Take from can and slice, ½ cup raisins or nuts can be added to the
-dough mixture, if desired.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>DESSERTS</h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>For desserts the number of custards, creams and
-puddings made with milk is legion, and they are so
-well known and can be so easily varied that only a few
-stock recipes need be given.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Boiled Custard</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups scalded milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>Yolks 2 eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>¼ cup sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>⅛ teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ teaspoon vanilla</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Beat eggs slightly, add sugar and salt; stir constantly while adding
-gradually hot milk. Cook in double boiler, continue stirring until
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>mixture thickens and a coating is formed on the spoon; strain immediately,
-chill and flavor. If cooked too long the custard will curdle.
-Should this happen, by using a Dover egg beater it may be restored
-to a smooth consistency, but custard will not be as thick. Eggs
-should be beaten slightly for custard that it may be of smooth,
-thick consistency. To prevent scum from forming, cover with a
-perforated tin or sprinkle with granulated sugar when cooling.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Blanc Mange or Cornstarch Pudding</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 qt. milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup cornstarch</div>
-      <div class='line'>Pinch of salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup sugar</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Heat milk to boiling, add cornstarch dissolved in a little cold
-milk and a pinch of salt. Boil five minutes, add yolks of eggs
-beaten with sugar. Boil 2 minutes longer, remove from fire and
-beat in the whipped whites of eggs. Flavor with vanilla or lemon.
-Serve cold with cream and sugar or canned peaches or pears.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>This is used also as a filling for cream pie, using the beaten whites
-of eggs, sweetened for a meringue and browning slightly in oven.
-Bake the crust before filling with the cream.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Baked Custard</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>4 cups scalded milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>¼ teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>Few gratings nutmeg</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Beat eggs slightly, add sugar and salt, pour on slowly scalded milk,
-strain in buttered mold, set in pan of hot water. Sprinkle with
-nutmeg and bake in slow oven until firm, which may be readily
-determined by running a silver knife through custard. If knife
-comes out clean, custard is done. During baking care must be taken
-that water surrounding mold does not reach boiling point or custard
-will whey. Always bear in mind that eggs and milk combination
-must be cooked at a low temperature. For cup custards allow
-three eggs to four cups milk; for large molded custard four or five
-eggs; if fewer eggs are used, custard is liable to crack when turned
-on a serving dish.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span><b>Baked Apple, Southern Style</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i174.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>6 choice apples</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 qt. milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>Salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>⅔ cup sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon vanilla</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Pare and core apples that are not too sour to hold their shape
-when baked. Put in a pudding dish, sprinkle the half cupful of
-sugar over and around them, also filling place where the core was
-taken out. Put in oven and bake. Remove from oven and pour
-around them the milk mixture made thus: Beat the eggs well,
-add sugar and beat again, add milk, salt and vanilla. Bake slowly
-until a knife-blade will come out clean after insertion in the custard.
-Serve hot or cold, with or without whipped cream. This is an especially
-good dessert for children.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Coffee Custard</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>2 cups milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup strong coffee</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>¼ cup sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>⅛ teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>¼ teaspoon vanilla</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'><span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>Beat eggs slightly; add sugar, salt, vanilla, milk and coffee.
-Strain into buttered individual molds, set in pan of hot water
-and bake until firm.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Caramel Custard</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>4 cups scalded milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>5 eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon vanilla</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup sugar</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Put sugar in omelette pan, stirring constantly over hot part of
-range until melted to a syrup of light brown color. Add gradually
-to milk, being careful that milk does not bubble up and go over,
-as is liable on account of high temperature of sugar. As soon as
-sugar is melted in milk, add mixture gradually to eggs slightly
-beaten, add salt and flavoring, then strain in buttered mold. Bake
-as custard. Chill and serve with caramel sauce.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Rice Pudding</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 qt. milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>⅓ cup rice</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>⅛ teaspoon ground nutmeg, or cinnamon, or grated rind of ¼ of a lemon</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Wash the rice thoroughly, mix the ingredients and bake three
-hours or more in a very slow oven, stirring occasionally at first.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Tapioca Custard</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Add to the list of ingredients for boiled custard ¼ cup of pearl
-tapioca. Soak the tapioca in water for an hour or two, drain it,
-and cook in the milk until it is transparent. Proceed as for boiled
-custard.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>GENERAL RECIPE FOR CEREAL-MILK PUDDINGS</h3>
-
-<p class='c022'>Bread and rice puddings, made with milk and eggs,
-are familiar to all cooks. Made without eggs, the following
-will be found suggestive:</p>
-
-<p class='c033'><span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>For a quart of milk allow ⅓ of a cup of any coarse cereal (rice,
-cornmeal, cracked wheat, oatmeal or barley); add ⅓ of a cup of
-brown, white or maple sugar, syrup, honey or molasses; ½ teaspoon
-salt; ⅛ teaspoon spice. The flavoring may be omitted when honey
-or molasses is used.</p>
-
-<p class='c022'>The above recipe makes quite a large pudding. It
-is often convenient to make a smaller one, and enough
-for a child’s dinner can be made in the double boiler,
-allowing two level or one rounding tablespoon of cereal
-to a cup of salted and flavored milk. Cook an hour
-and sweeten slightly.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>These puddings, if made thin, may be poured over
-stewed prunes or other cooked fruits, and are a good
-and economical substitute for the cream or soft custard
-usually used for that purpose.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>A very old recipe for a baked corn pudding has recently
-been given to the author.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Indian Meal Custard</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 pt. sweet milk, when hot add slowly</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup cornmeal</div>
-      <div class='line'>Pinch salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ teaspoon each cinnamon and ginger</div>
-      <div class='line'>Sugar to taste</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 tablespoon molasses</div>
-      <div class='line'>Boil 5 minutes, and add</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 beaten eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 pt. milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>Bake about one-half hour or till set.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span><b>Milk and Fruit Mold<a id='r11' /><a href='#f11' class='c017'><sup>[11]</sup></a></b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='fn'>
-
-</div>
-
-<div  class='figcenter id009'>
-<img src='images/i177.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Milk and fruit mold</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>3½ cups hot milk,</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup cold milk,</div>
-      <div class='line'>5 tablespoons granulated sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>10 tablespoons cornstarch</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 beaten egg whites</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon almond extract,</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>Candied cherries, cut into small pieces</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Heat milk in double boiler. Mix cornstarch with cold milk, stir
-it into the hot milk, add salt and sugar and cook, stirring occasionally,
-for 10 minutes. Remove from fire, fold in the beaten whites
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>and add the flavoring. Rinse mold in cold water, drain, pour in
-part of the cooked mixture, add a layer of cherries and continue
-until mold is filled. Set on ice to chill. May be served in tall
-glasses, as illustrated, or unmolded on a flat serving platter.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Caramel Rice<a href='#f11' class='c017'><sup>[11]</sup></a></b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>6 cups milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup rice</div>
-      <div class='line'>1¼ cups granulated sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 slightly beaten eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>Grated rind of half an orange</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Cook rice, salt, the quarter cup of sugar and milk together in a
-double boiler until rice is tender. Remove from fire, add grated
-rind and beaten eggs and mix well.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>Put the cup of sugar in a small saucepan over the fire and stir
-constantly until it is a golden brown liquid. Have a mold heating,
-and when very hot pour the liquid in it, turning the mold so that
-all parts are coated. Turn the rice into the mold and set it in a pan
-of water in a hot oven for 20 minutes, having the mold covered the
-entire time.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>Remove from oven, let stand until cold, unmold and serve with
-the caramel sauce that is in the mold.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Milk Cream</b><a href='#f11' class='c017'><sup>[11]</sup></a></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1½ cups hot milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup cold milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>⅜ cup granulated sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 eggs</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ ounce granulated gelatine</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon vanilla</div>
-      <div class='line'>Pinch of salt</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Soak gelatine in the cold milk for 10 minutes. Heat balance of
-milk in a double boiler, add salt, sugar and beaten yolks, stirring
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>constantly. Cook until mixture coats the spoon, remove from fire,
-add soaked gelatine and stir until dissolved. Then set aside to
-cool and when beginning to thicken add flavoring and mix in lightly
-the stiffly beaten whites.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>Rinse a mold in cold water, drain, pour in mixture and set in a
-cold place until firm. Unmold and serve plain or with thin cream.</p>
-<div  class='figcenter id001'>
-<img src='images/i179a.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Milk cream</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Plain Junket</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Heat a quart of milk until lukewarm, not to exceed 100° F. Remove
-from fire; sweeten and flavor to taste, using vanilla or any
-other desired flavor. Dissolve one Junket Tablet in cold water and
-stir the solution quickly into the lukewarm milk. Pour immediately
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>into individual serving dishes, sherbet glasses, bowls or the like,
-and let stand warm until thickened. When “set” remove to ice
-box or other cool place without stirring and let stand until serving
-time. Serve with or without whipped cream, a sprinkle of nutmeg,
-or a few strawberries on the top, etc.</p>
-<div  class='figcenter id009'>
-<img src='images/i179b.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Plain junket</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Chocolate Junket</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Sweeten a quart of milk with half a cup of sugar. Melt one
-square of chocolate or two tablespoonfuls of cocoa, add half a cup
-of the milk and boil one minute. Remove from fire and add the
-remainder of the milk, which must not be boiled, and a teaspoonful
-of vanilla. Probably the mixture will be lukewarm, if not, warm
-until it is. Stir in dissolved Junket Tablet, pour at once into serving
-dishes and leave undisturbed until set. Chill and serve. If whipped
-cream sweetened and flavored with vanilla is heaped upon the
-Chocolate Junket when serving, a most attractive dessert is obtained,
-and Chocolate Junket frozen makes a delicious ice cream.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Coffee Junket</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>One-half cup very strong coffee, ½ cup sugar, added to 1¾ pints
-of heated milk. Dissolve. Add your Junket Tablet and finish as
-ordinary Junket. Serve with cream.</p>
-
-<p class='c022'>An endless variety of Junkets can be made by varying
-flavor and color, by adding fruit or preserves, etc.,
-and in the sick room various medicines or stimulants,
-peptone, wine, etc., may conveniently be administered
-as an ingredient in the pudding.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>“Prepared Junket”</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'><i>Prepared Junket</i> in which all the ingredients are
-found except the milk is on the market in the form of
-a powder called “Nesnah.” It is put up in various
-flavors and is easily and quickly made when milk is at
-disposal.</p>
-
-<p class='c033'><span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>Heat 1 qt. milk lukewarm, remove from fire, add one package
-of the prepared Junket and dissolve quickly and thoroughly by
-vigorous stirring for ½ minute only. Pour immediately into individual
-serving dishes and let stand in warm room until thoroughly
-set. Place in ice box until serving time. Serve with or without
-plain or whipped cream.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>MILK BEVERAGES</h3>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Whey</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 qt. fresh milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 Junket Tablet</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 tablespoon cold water</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Heat the milk until lukewarm and add the tablet dissolved in the
-cold water. Allow it to set in a warm room. Then break up the
-curd gently and strain it through two thicknesses of cheese-cloth,
-being careful to remove all the casein. Cool at once and serve cold,
-without or with sweetening, and flavor as desired.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Lemon Whey</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 qt. hot milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 tablespoons sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ cup lemon juice</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Heat the milk in a double boiler and add the lemon juice. Cook
-without stirring until the whey separates. Strain through cheese-cloth
-and add the sugar. Serve hot or cold, garnished with small
-slices of lemon.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Cinnamon and Milk</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 qt. new milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>Stick cinnamon</div>
-      <div class='line'>Sugar</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Boil milk with sufficient cinnamon to flavor as desired. Sweeten
-and serve warm or cold.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Rice Milk</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 ounce rice</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 pint milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 saltspoon salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 teaspoon sugar</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Soak the rice twelve hours. Add the scalded milk, salt and sugar.
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>Stir well and cook one hour; then rub through a fine sieve. Thin
-with more hot milk and serve.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Kumyss</b> (see also Chapter <a href='#ch02'>II</a>)</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>⅙ cake Fleischmann’s yeast</div>
-      <div class='line'>1¼ tablespoons sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 tablespoon water</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 quart milk</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Make a thin syrup of the sugar and water and cook one minute.
-Soften the yeast in two tablespoons of lukewarm milk. Heat the
-milk until lukewarm, add other ingredients and shake. Put in
-stone, sterile bottles, place in an upright position for twelve hours,
-at 70° (kitchen heat); then turn on side and leave at a temperature
-of 50° (lower part of ice box). Ready for use after the first twenty-four
-hours; often kept several days, but the longer it is kept the less
-palatable it is. It should look like thick, foamy cream.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Egg Milk Shake</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 egg</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>Sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>Vanilla</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Break the egg into a large glass and beat well. Add sugar and
-a couple of drops of vanilla or a dust of nutmeg and beat again.
-Fill up glass with rich milk. This makes a very nourishing drink.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Buttermilk Shake</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup buttermilk</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 egg</div>
-      <div class='line'>Sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>Few drops lemon extract</div>
-      <div class='line'>Salt</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Break egg into bowl, beat thoroughly with egg beater, add sugar,
-flavoring, a tiny pinch of salt and buttermilk. Beat again till
-light and foamy. Turn into glass.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Buttermilk Lemonade</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>A variation may be made from ordinary buttermilk
-by the addition of lemon juice and sugar. “Buttermilk
-lemonade” usually requires the juice of three
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span>lemons to one quart of buttermilk. The quantity
-of lemon and sugar, however, should be varied to suit
-the taste of the individual. The beverage is delightful
-and is especially refreshing on a hot summer day.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>One may also use the juice of two oranges and one
-lemon to one quart of buttermilk, instead of the lemons
-alone.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>Many people like the clear buttermilk slightly
-sweetened with a few grains of salt added.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Chocolate</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1½ squares chocolate</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 tablespoons sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>Few grains salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup boiling water</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 cups milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ teaspoon vanilla</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Scald milk. Melt chocolate in small saucepan and gradually
-add boiling water. When smooth add to scalded milk, sweeten and
-add salt and vanilla. Mill with Dover egg beater, and serve, putting
-a large teaspoon of whipped cream on each cup.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><b>Cocoa</b></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='lg-container-b'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>¼ cup cocoa</div>
-      <div class='line'>¼ cup sugar</div>
-      <div class='line'>Few grains salt</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup water</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 cups milk</div>
-      <div class='line'>½ teaspoon vanilla</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>Mix cocoa and sugar, add water and stir into milk already heated
-in double boiler. Cook 15 minutes, add vanilla and salt. Serve
-with whipped cream. A famous cook known to the writer adds 1
-teaspoon cornstarch dissolved in 1 tablespoon cold water to the
-cocoa when nearly ready for the table. It adds to the apparent
-richness of the beverage.</p>
-<div>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>
-  <h3 class='c010'>MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS</h3>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c033'>1. A tablespoonful of milk put in the pan before frying eggs will
-keep them tender.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>2. Covering cold chicken or other meat with buttermilk will keep
-it for twenty-four hours or more, without affecting the meat except
-to make it more tender.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>3. Custards and ice cream kept too long in
-warm weather may cause ptomaine poisoning.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>4. Keep milk covered to shut out flavors
-from other food.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>5. Milk warm from the cow should not be
-kept in a closed receptacle.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>6. Danish cooks soak a piece of veal in
-skim milk overnight before roasting it, to
-improve the flavor.</p>
-
-<p class='c035'>7. Sliced ham covered with milk and baked
-in a moderate oven for an hour has delicate
-flavor and is always tender.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>THE THERMOMETER</h3>
-
-<div  class='figleft id017'>
-<img src='images/i184.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' />
-<div class='ic001'>
-<p><span class='small'>Dairy and household thermometers</span></p>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c022'>In the United States and Canada
-as well as in England <i>Fahrenheit’s</i>
-thermometer is generally used according
-to which water freezes at 32°
-and boils at 212° at ordinary air
-pressure, leaving 180 degrees between
-the freezing and the boiling point.
-In some countries in Europe Réaumur’s
-thermometer is used with 0° for
-the freezing point and 80° for boiling. In France and
-for scientific work in all countries, however, the Celsius
-or Centigrade system is employed for measuring heat
-<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>and cold, having 0° for freezing and 100° for boiling.
-As there are 180° Fahrenheit, 80° Réaumur and 100°
-Centigrade between freezing and boiling, the divisions
-are therefore as 9° F. to 4° R. and 5° C.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>To change from degrees of F. above the freezing
-point to the other systems deduct 32, divide the remainder
-by 9 and multiply by 4 or by 5 respectively.
-To change from C. to F. divide by 5, multiply by 9 and
-add 32, etc. As the metric system is gradually being
-introduced everywhere instead of the old systems for
-weights and measures, so also is the Centigrade thermometer
-being substituted for the others and in cookery
-it may soon be used exclusively.</p>
-<h3 class='c010'>WEIGHTS AND MEASURES</h3>
-
-<div class='lg-container-l c000'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 pound = 16 ounces = 453.6 grams</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 ounce = 16 drams = 28.35 grams</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 kilogram = 1000 grams = 2.2 pounds</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 gram = 15.43 grains = .035 ounces</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 gallon = 4 quarts = 3.785 liters</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 quart = 2 pints =.9464 liters</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 pint = 16 fluid ounces = .4731 liters</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 fluid ounce = 8 drams = 29.57 c.c.</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 liter = 1000 cubic centimeters = 1.0567 quarts</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 mile = 5280 feet = 1.6 kilometer</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 foot = 12 inches = .3048 meter</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 kilometer = 1000 meters = .6214 mile</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 meter = 100 centimeters = 39.37 inches</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 acre = 43,560 sq. ft. = .4047 hectare</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 sq. ft. = 144 sq. inches = 9.29 sq. decimeters</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 hectare = 10,000 sq. meters = 2.471 acres</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 square meter = 100 sq. decimeters = 10.764 sq. ft.</div>
-      <div class='line'><span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>1 bushel = 4 pecks = .3552 hectoliter</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 hectoliter = 2.8377 bushels</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 U. S. gallon = 128 ounces = 231 cb. inches</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 Imperial gallon (English and Canadian) = 160 ounces = 277 cb. in.</div>
-      <div class='line'>6 U. S. gallons = 5 Imperial gallons</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>1 gallon of water weighs 8.34 pounds</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 gallon of milk weighs 8.6 pounds</div>
-      <div class='line'>A 40 quart can of milk = 86 pounds</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<h4 class='c025'><i>Approximate Household Weights and Measures</i></h4>
-
-<div class='lg-container-l c000'>
-  <div class='linegroup'>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>4 saltspoonfuls = 1 teaspoonful</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 flat teaspoonfuls = 1 heaping teaspoonful</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 heaping tablespoonful of granulated sugar = nearly 1 ounce</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 rounded tablespoonful of butter = 1 ounce</div>
-      <div class='line'>2 ordinary cups of granulated sugar = 1 pound</div>
-      <div class='line'>3 ordinary cups of wheat flour = 1 pound</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 pound of granulated sugar = 1 pint</div>
-    </div>
-    <div class='group'>
-      <div class='line'>4 flat teaspoonfuls of liquid = 1 flat tablespoonful = ½ fluid ounce</div>
-      <div class='line'>4 large tablespoonfuls = 1 ordinary wine glass = 2 fluid ounces</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 pint = 2 cups or glasses</div>
-      <div class='line'>1 cup or glass = 8 fluid ounces.</div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c008' />
-</div>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>
-  <h2 id='fns' class='c009'>END NOTES</h2>
-</div>
-<hr class='c043' />
-<div class='footnote' id='f1'>
-<p class='c044'><span class='label'><a href='#r1'>1</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>From circular No. 85 of a series of statements prepared under the
-direction of the Secretary of Agriculture, covering the agricultural
-situation for 1918.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f2'>
-<p class='c044'><span class='label'><a href='#r2'>2</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i>The Babcock Test</i> is operated as follows: When the milk has been
-thoroughly mixed and a true sample has been taken the <i>pipette</i> is filled
-to the mark by sucking the milk into it until it stands a little above the
-mark on the stem, then quickly placing a dry finger over the end of
-the pipette and allowing the milk to escape until it just reaches the mark.
-The quantity thus measured off is 17.6 c.c. The pipette is then emptied
-into the <i>test bottle</i> by placing the point in the neck and allowing the milk
-to flow slowly down the inside of the neck, taking care not to lose any
-of the milk. Blow the last drops out of the pipette into the bottle.</p>
-
-<p class='c044'>The <i>measuring glass</i>, holding 17.5 c.c., is filled to the mark with
-<i>sulphuric acid</i> of a specific gravity of 1.82 to 1.83 and this is poured into
-the milk in the test bottle. The acid is a strong poison and must be
-handled with care. Pour it slowly down along the wall of the bottle
-which is held at an angle and turned slowly during the operation.</p>
-
-<p class='c044'>Now give the bottle a rotary motion to thoroughly mix the milk
-and the acid, shaking vigorously towards the end of the operation so
-as to be sure not to leave any of the acid which is heavier than the milk
-at the bottom of the bottle.</p>
-
-<p class='c044'><i>Whirling.</i>—The bottles are then placed in the centrifugal machine
-and whirled for five minutes at the proper speed—from 600 to 1200
-revolutions per minute—according to the diameter of the machine
-and as stated in the directions which come with the tester. The mixture
-of milk and acid is hot enough if the whirling is done at once, but
-if it is allowed to cool the bottles should be placed in hot water of 150
-to 170° for about 15 minutes; whirling at full speed for 4 minutes brings
-all the fat to the top.</p>
-
-<p class='c044'>Hot water is now added until the bottle is filled almost to the scale
-on the neck and the bottles are again placed in the machine and whirled
-at full speed for one minute. Hot water is then again added until
-the lower end of the fat column is within the scale, preferably at the
-1% or 2% mark on the neck of the bottle. Whirl once more for
-one or two minutes and then read off the percentage of fat on the scale.
-Each division represents 0.2% fat. The fat column is measured from
-the lower line between the fat and the water to the point where the top
-of the fat column touches the wall of the neck. A pair of dividers are
-handy for measuring the fat column and reading off the percentage of
-fat in the milk. The bottle with contents should be warm—about 140°—when
-the measure is taken.</p>
-
-<p class='c044'>For testing skim milk and cream special forms of test bottles are
-used—which are described in the circulars coming with the testers and
-students who desire fuller information are referred to Farrington and
-Woll’s “Testing Milk and its Products,” published by the Mendota
-Book Co., Madison, Wis.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f3'>
-<p class='c044'><span class='label'><a href='#r3'>3</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The <i>Acid Test</i> depends upon what in the laboratory is called “titration”
-and makes use of a “burette,” a long, graduated measuring tube
-provided with a pinch-cock. This burette is filled with an alkali solution
-of known strength, usually a “tenth normal” solution of caustic
-soda. A certain amount of the milk to be tested is measured off into
-a glass or a white porcelain cup. As a 17.6 c.c. pipette belonging to the
-Babcock test usually is at hand, that may be used for this purpose.
-A few drops of an <i>Indicator</i> is added to the milk and under constant
-stirring the soda solution is allowed to drip into it until suddenly it turns
-pink. The color will quickly disappear, however, and a few more
-drops of the alkali are added and stirred in several times until a faint
-but distinct pink color remains for some time. That indicates that the
-acid in the milk has been neutralized and the amount of the soda solution
-consumed is then read off on the scale on the burette. By dividing
-the number of c.c. of the soda solution used by two, the tenths per cent
-of lactic acid in the milk is found. For example, if it takes 4 c.c. of the
-soda solution to neutralize 17.6 c.c. milk, the acidity is .2%. This depends
-upon the fact that 1 c.c. of a tenth normal soda neutralizes .009
-gram of lactic acid and that therefore the per cent of acid in the milk
-is equal to .009 multiplied by the number of c.c. of soda solution used,
-divided by the number of c.c. of milk and multiplied by 100.</p>
-
-<p class='c044'>If 50 c.c. of milk is taken instead of 17.6 the calculation is changed
-accordingly.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f4'>
-<p class='c044'><span class='label'><a href='#r4'>4</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Farmers’ Bulletin No. 602, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f5'>
-<p class='c044'><span class='label'><a href='#r5'>5</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i>Butter Color</i> is made of the coloring matter of “Annatto” dissolved
-in a refined vegetable (salad) oil. The Annatto tree (Bixa Orelana)
-grows in the tropics and the seed which has a thin coating of this beautiful
-coloring matter comes mostly from the West Indian Islands, Jamaica,
-Porto Rico and Guadeloupe. It is perfectly harmless and is used by
-the natives to flavor and color soup and other foods much as we use
-tomatoes.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f6'>
-<p class='c044'><span class='label'><a href='#r6'>6</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The Marschall Rennet Test consists of a graduated cup (a) with
-a fine hole for an outlet in the bottom. One cubic centimeter of a standard
-rennet extract is diluted with water in the glass bottle (c). The cup
-is filled with milk and placed on the corner of the cheese vat, the milk
-being allowed to run through the fine hole in the bottom of the cup.
-The moment the surface of the milk reaches the upper mark of the
-graduation in the cup the diluted rennet extract is added and quickly
-stirred into the milk with the spattle (d).</p>
-
-<p class='c044'>When the milk begins to curdle it stops running out. The sweeter
-the milk is the more will run out before coagulation stops it and the
-mark on the scale at which it stops indicates the degree of acidity or
-ripening. The point is to have the milk alike every day and if, for instance,
-the cheesemaker has found that his cheese is best if he adds the
-rennet to the milk in the vat when the test shows 2½, he wants to ripen
-the milk to that degree every day. So, if the test shows 3 or 4, it indicates
-that the milk is not sufficiently ripened and it should be allowed
-to stand warm for a longer time before it is set with rennet.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f7'>
-<p class='c044'><span class='label'><a href='#r7'>7</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The Acidemeter for making an Acid Test is described in Chapter <a href='#ch01'>I</a>.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f8'>
-<p class='c044'><span class='label'><a href='#r8'>8</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Rennet (see under “Ferments” in Chapter <a href='#ch01'>I</a>) is prepared from the
-third division of the stomach of the suckling or milk-fed calf. Fifty
-years ago cheesemakers used to make their own rennet by soaking
-salted calves’ stomachs in sour whey, and our grandmothers used a piece
-of a dry, salted stomach to make Junket or “Curds and Whey.” About
-1868, Christian Hansen, of Copenhagen, Denmark, began the preparation
-of Commercial Rennet Extract which soon supplanted the
-home-made rennet in all countries wherever cheese was made. Nowadays
-rennet in liquid or powder or tablet form for cheesemaking, and
-Junket Tablets for milk puddings, are prepared pure and of known
-strength in laboratories and handled by druggists and dealers in dairy
-supplies.</p>
-
-<p class='c044'>The fresh stomachs are saved by the farmers or butchers and are
-either blown up and dried in the air protected from sunlight and rain,
-or split lengthwise and spread out flat and salted on both sides.</p>
-
-<p class='c044'>In the laboratory the ferment is extracted by chemicals and a pure,
-clear liquid extract is prepared, of uniform strength and good keeping
-quality. Or the extract is condensed into a powder which again is
-compressed into tablets of great strength.</p>
-
-<p class='c044'>The ferment acts best when the milk is lukewarm, but it will do the
-work at temperatures ranging from 50°, or even lower, to 120° F.
-Strongly pasteurized or sterilized milk will not curdle with rennet,
-but milk pasteurized at a low temperature is not changed enough to
-prevent it from making a firm curd. More rennet does not make a
-firmer curd but causes the milk to curdle quicker; less rennet makes
-the process slower. Diluted milk will not curdle firmly, and the failure
-of milk to make a smooth coagulum of the usual consistency and in
-the usual time, the temperature being right and the regular amount
-of a standard rennet being used, is a never-failing proof that something
-is the matter with the milk. It has been changed from its natural condition
-by over-heating in pasteurization or by watering or doctoring,
-or it has not been properly ripened.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f9'>
-<p class='c044'><span class='label'><a href='#r9'>9</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>W. O. Atwater, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 142.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f10'>
-<p class='c044'><span class='label'><a href='#r10'>10</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Dr. E. V. McCollum in “Hoard’s Dairyman.”</p>
-</div>
-<div class='footnote' id='f11'>
-<p class='c044'><span class='label'><a href='#r11'>11</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Prepared for “The Story of Milk” by A. Louise Andrea.</p>
-</div>
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c008' />
-</div>
-<div class='chapter'>
-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span>
-  <h2 id='bib' class='c009'>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2>
-</div>
-<p class='c045'>Cheese Making; John W. Decker, Columbus, O.</p>
-<p class='c046'>The Milk Question; M. J. Rosenau, Houghton-Mifflin Co., Boston.</p>
-<p class='c046'>The Manufacture of Cheese of the Cheddar Type from Pasteurized
-Milk; J. L. Sammis and A. T. Bruhn, Bulletin 165, Bureau
-of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C.</p>
-<p class='c046'>Dairy Laboratory Guide; Charles W. Melick, D. Van Nostrand
-Company, New York City.</p>
-<p class='c046'>Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen; F. W. Woll, John Wiley &amp;
-Sons, New York City.</p>
-<p class='c046'>Testing Milk and Its Products; E. H. Farrington and F. W. Woll,
-Mendota Book Company, Madison, Wis.</p>
-<p class='c046'>Farmers’ Clean Milk Book; Dr. Charles E. North, John Wiley &amp;
-Sons, New York.</p>
-<p class='c046'>Ost og Osteproduktion; G. Ellbrecht, Nordisk Forlag, Copenhagen,
-Denmark.</p>
-<p class='c046'>Outlines of Dairy Bacteriology; N. L. Russell, Madison, Wis.</p>
-<p class='c046'>A B C in Butter Making; J. H. Monrad, Urner-Barry Co., New
-York.</p>
-<p class='c046'>A B C in Cheese Making; J. H. Monrad, Urner-Barry Co., New
-York.</p>
-<p class='c046'>Dairy Chemistry; Henry Droop Richmond, Charles Griffin and
-Company, Ltd., London.</p>
-<p class='c046'>Milk, its Nature and Composition; C. M. Aikman, Adams and
-Charles Black, London.</p>
-<p class='c046'>Milk and Its Products; H. H. Wing, The Macmillan Co., New York.</p>
-<p class='c046'>Principles and Practice of Buttermaking; G. L. McKay and C.
-Larsen, John Wiley &amp; Sons, New York.</p>
-<p class='c046'>Science and Practice of Cheese Making; L. L. Van Slyke and Chas.
-A. Publow, Orange Judd Company, New York.</p>
-<p class='c046'>Agricultural Bacteriology; H. W. Conn, P. Blakiston’s Son &amp; Co.,
-Philadelphia.</p>
-<p class='c046'>Creaming Milk by Centrifugal Force; J. D. Frederiksen, Little
-Falls, N.Y.</p>
-<p class='c046'><span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>The Common Sense of the Milk Question; John Spargo, The Macmillan
-Company, New York.</p>
-<p class='c046'>Practical Dairy Husbandry; X. A. Willard, Excelsior Publishing
-House, New York.</p>
-<p class='c046'>Maelkeri Bakteriologi; Orla Jensen, Copenhagen.</p>
-<p class='c046'>Maelkeribruget i Danmark, Bernhard Boggild, Copenhagen.</p>
-<p class='c046'>Mejerivaesenet i Nord-Amerika; J. D. Frederiksen, Copenhagen.</p>
-<p class='c046'>Modern Dairy Guide; Martin H. Meyer, Madison, Wis.</p>
-<p class='c046'>La Laiterie; A. F. Pouriau, Librairie Audot, Lebroc &amp; Cie, Paris.</p>
-<p class='c046'>The Dairying Industry in Canada; J. A. Ruddick, Dept. of Agriculture,
-Ottawa, Canada.</p>
-<p class='c046'>Canadian Dairying; Henry H. Dean, William Briggs, Toronto.</p>
-<p class='c046'>The Business of Dairying; Clarence B. Lane, Orange Judd Co.,
-New York.</p>
-<p class='c046'>Questions and Answers on Buttermaking; Chas. A. Publow, Orange
-Judd Company, New York.</p>
-<p class='c046'>The Prolongation of Life; Elie Metchnikoff, G. P. Putnam’s Sons,
-New York.</p>
-<p class='c046'>The Bacillus of Long Life; Loudon M. Douglas, G. P. Putnam’s
-Sons, New York.</p>
-<p class='c046'>The Book of Butter; Edward Sewall Guthrie, The Macmillan Co.,
-New York.</p>
-<p class='c046'>The Care and Feeding of Children; L. Emmett Holt, M. D.,
-D. Appleton &amp; Co.</p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div>Printed in the United States of America</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c008' />
-</div>
-<p class='c047'><span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>&nbsp;</p>
-<div class='box1'>
-
-<p class='drop-capa0_25_0_7 c044'>The following pages contain advertisements of a few
-of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects.</p>
-
-</div>
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c002' />
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'><span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span><span class='xlarge'>The Book of Ice Cream</span></p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div><span class='sc'>By WALTER N. FISK</span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c015'><i>Cloth, 12 mo</i></div>
-
-<p class='c014'>This book is intended to aid the student and the
-commercial manufacturer in better understanding
-the principles of making and handling ice cream.
-It is not primarily intended as a recipe-book, although
-many recipes are included in the text.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The first five chapters consist in a general discussion
-of the materials used in the manufacture
-of ice cream as well as the stabilizers and fillers
-and flavoring materials. The next chapter deals
-with the classification of ice creams, and here the
-recipes are given. The equipment and refrigeration
-are then explained in a separate chapter, followed
-by three chapters devoted to the actual
-making of ice cream.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>The concluding pages are taken up with an
-analysis of the qualities of ice cream and of the
-bacteriology of its manufacture. Such a discussion
-should be useful both to the student in the
-class-room and the progressive manufacturer.</p>
-
-<hr class='c032' />
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div>THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</div>
-    <div>Publishers&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;64-66 Fifth Avenue&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;New York</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c008' />
-</div>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-<div class='nf-center c008'>
-    <div><span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span>THE RURAL TEXT-BOOK SERIES</div>
-    <div class='c000'><span class='sc'>Edited by L. H. Bailey</span></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'><span class='xlarge'>Butter</span></p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div><span class='sc'>By E. S. GUTHRIE</span></div>
-    <div class='c000'>Professor in the Dairy Department, New York State College of</div>
-    <div>Agriculture, Cornell University</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<hr class='c032' />
-<div class='c015'><i>Cloth, 12mo, $1.75.</i></div>
-
-<p class='c014'>A practical discussion of the general characteristics
-of butter, and of all of the problems connected with its
-manufacture and marketing, together with a brief history
-of the product. Among the topics considered are
-the history of butter; composition and food value of
-butter; cleansing and care of dairy utensils; care of
-milk and cream; cream separation; grading milk and
-cream and neutralizing acidity; pasteurization; cream
-ripening; churning, washing, salting and packing
-butter; flavors of butter; storage of butter; marketing;
-whey butter, renovated and ladled butter; margarine,
-and testing.</p>
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c008' />
-</div>
-<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span><span class='xlarge'>The Book of Cheese</span></p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div><span class='sc'>By CHARLES THOM</span></div>
-    <div class='c000'>Mycologist in charge of Microbiological Laboratory, Bureau of</div>
-    <div>Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture; formerly</div>
-    <div>Investigator in Cheese at Connecticut Agricultural College</div>
-    <div class='c000'>AND</div>
-    <div class='c000'>WALTER W. FISK</div>
-    <div class='c000'>Assistant Professor of Dairy Industry, New York State</div>
-    <div>College of Agriculture at Cornell University</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c015'><i>Cloth, 12mo, $1.90.</i></div>
-
-<p class='c014'>An exposition of the processes of making and handling
-a series of important varieties of cheese. The
-kinds considered are those made commercially in America
-or widely met in the trade here. The relation of
-cheese to milk and to its production and composition
-has been presented in so far as required for this purpose.</p>
-
-<p class='c014'>After a general statement on cheese, the authors consider
-the following subjects: The milk in its relation to
-cheese; Coagulating materials; Lactic starters; Curd
-making; Classification of cheese; Cheese with sour milk
-flavor; Soft cheeses ripened by mold; Soft cheeses
-ripened by bacteria; Semi-hard cheeses; The hard
-cheeses; Cheddar cheese making; Composition and
-yield of cheddar cheese; Cheddar cheese ripening;
-The Swiss and Italian groups; Miscellaneous varieties
-and by-products; Cheese factory construction, equipment,
-organization; History and development of the
-cheese industry in America; Testing; Marketing;
-Cheese in the household.</p>
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c008' />
-</div>
-<p class='c013'><span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span><span class='xlarge'>A Manual of Milk Products</span></p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div><span class='sc'>By W. A. STOCKING, Jr.</span></div>
-    <div class='c000'>Professor of Dairy Bacteriology in the New York State College of</div>
-    <div>Agriculture at Cornell University</div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<div class='c015'><i>Cloth, 12mo, $2.50</i></div>
-
-<p class='c014'>This is a very recent addition to the Rural Manual
-Series under the editorship of L. H. Bailey. The work is
-intended to serve as a reference book covering the entire
-subject of milk and its products. There are chapters on
-The Chemical Composition of Milk, The Factors Which Influence
-Its Composition, Physical Properties, The Various
-Tests Used in the Study of Milk, The Production and
-Handling of Milk, Butter Making, The Cream Supply,
-Butter Making on the Farm, Cheese Making, and the Bacteriology
-of Dairy Products.</p>
-
-<p class='c013'><span class='xlarge'>Milk and Its Products</span></p>
-
-<div class='nf-center-c0'>
-  <div class='nf-center'>
-    <div><span class='sc'>By HENRY H. WING</span></div>
-    <div>Professor of Dairy Husbandry in Cornell University</div>
-    <div class='c000'><i>New Revised Edition, with new illustrations, cloth, 12mo, $1.60</i></div>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class='c014'>The revolution in dairy practice, brought about by the
-introduction of the centrifugal cream separator and the
-Babcock test for fat, by a more definite knowledge regarding
-the various fermentations that so greatly influence milk,
-and the manufacture of its products, have demanded the
-publication of a book that shall give to the dairyman, and
-particularly to the dairy student, in simple, concise form,
-the principles underlying modern dairy practice. Such has
-been Professor Wing’s purpose in this work. This is not a
-new edition of the author’s very successful volume published
-under the same title many years ago; it is, in reality, an
-entirely new book, having been wholly reset and enlarged by
-the addition of new matter, both text and illustrations. The
-author’s aim has been at all times to give the present state
-of knowledge as supported by the weight of evidence and the
-opinions of those whose authority is highest.</p>
-<div class='pbb'>
- <hr class='pb c008' />
-</div>
-<p class='c014'>&nbsp;</p>
-<div class='tnbox'>
-
- <ul class='ul_1 c008'>
-    <li>Transcriber’s Notes:
-      <ul  class='ul_2'>
-        <li>Footnotes have been gathered and moved to their <a href='#fns'>own section</a>.
-        </li>
-        <li>Missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected.
-        </li>
-        <li>Typographical errors were silently corrected.
-        </li>
-        <li>Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only when a predominant 
-        form was found in this book.
-        </li>
-      </ul>
-    </li>
-  </ul>
-
-</div>
-<p class='c014'>&nbsp;</p>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF MILK ***</div>
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