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diff --git a/old/66046-0.txt b/old/66046-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index e867918..0000000 --- a/old/66046-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1351 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Søren Hjorth, by Sigurd Smith - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Søren Hjorth - Inventor of the Dynamo-electric Principle - -Author: Sigurd Smith - -Translator: F. Sodemann - -Release Date: August 11, 2021 [eBook #66046] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Craig Kirkwood, and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The Internet - Archive/American Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SØREN HJORTH *** - -Transcriber’s Notes: - -Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - -The whole number part of a mixed fraction is separated from the -fractional part with -, for example, 2-1/2. - -Additional Transcriber’s Notes are at the end. - - * * * * * - -SØREN HJORTH - - - - -SØREN HJORTH - - - INVENTOR OF THE - DYNAMO-ELECTRIC PRINCIPLE - - BY - - SIGURD SMITH - C. E., M. I. F. - - PUBLISHED BY »ELEKTROTEKNISK FORENING« AT THE - EXPENSE OF THE CARLSBERG FOUNDATION - - KØBENHAVN - PRINTED BY J. JORGENSEN & CO. (M. A. HANNOVER) - 1912 - - * * * * * - -This pamphlet is published simultaneously in English and in Danish, and -is distributed among interested institutions all over the world. - -Translated by F. SODEMANN, C. E., M. I. F. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration] - - _Handsworth, Birmingham, - Feb. 6th, 1851._ - -... After this wonderful force has been discovered by Your Excellency, -it has been my pride and interest that also the utilization thereof -should be originated by a Dane.... - - (_Fragment of a letter from Hjorth - to H. C. Ørsted._) - - - - -PREFACE. - - -Since the Life and Works of Søren Hjorth, the Dane was published in -the Danish technical journal the »Elektroteknikeren«, in 1907, a -statement concerning Hjorth’s rights of priority to the invention -of the dynamo-electric principle has been sent to the leading -foreign technical periodicals, viz. »Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift«, -»L’éclairage électrique«, and »Electrical Engineering«. As this -statement still stands uncontradicted, it seems reasonable to -consider Hjorth’s priority rights to this principle to be generally -acknowledged, even in the great centres of civilization. Therefore -I highly appreciated the courtesy of Mr. Hjorth’s heirs, after the -death of his step-daughter, Miss D. Ancker, in the autumn of 1908, in -offering me an opportunity to peruse the large collection of letters, -rough-copies, drawings, and sketch-books left by Hjorth, which threw -new light on his interesting life and work. Where it was previously -necessary to resort to guesswork alone, we are now able to base our -statements on established facts and to follow Hjorth’s train of ideas -almost from his first, to his last invention, and to see where he has -right and where he failed. - -In the following pages, an account will be given of the results of -these recent researches in connection with what was previously known -about Hjorth. - - Charlottenlund 1911. - - _Sigurd Smith._ - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - Page - - Preface. - - Søren Hjorth: - - Childhood and Youth 1 - - The Railway 4 - - Electricity 7 - - Hard Times 18 - - Sources 29 - - * * * * * - -SØREN HJORTH. - - - - -Childhood and Youth. - - -Søren Hjorth was born on the 13th of October, 1801. He spent his -childhood at Vesterbygaard, an estate rented by his father, Jens -Hjorth, in Jordløse Parish, north of Tissø. His mother’s maiden name -was Margrethe Lassen. Of their numerous children only two, besides -Søren, survived childhood. - -The parents became early aware that their son possessed great -mechanical genius. He received his first education from the parish -school-master. After Hjorth was confirmed, his father leased the -beautiful estate Dragsholm, in Odsherred County, where he remained for -many years, and after the death of his first wife, he married baroness -Zytphen-Adeler. - -Though he did not have an opportunity of learning much in his -childhood, Hjorth succeeded in his youth in passing an examination -which admitted him to the Bar. Later on he became the steward of -Bonderup Estate, near Korsør, but in this position he did not feel -satisfied, and in 1828 he became a volunteer in the State Treasury, -in Copenhagen. In 1836, he advanced to the position of Clerk of the -Exchequer and secretary. Although Hjorth’s occupation, during the last -30 years of his life, was mainly that of a civil engineer, he always -continued to be addressed as Secretary Hjorth, and by this title he is -still remembered by some of his surviving contemporaries. - -Hjorth’s interests while at the Treasury were not concentrated solely -on his work there. Mechanical problems always fascinated him. It is -told that, during this period, he made all kinds of experiments at -Dragsholm, and, among other things, he constructed a thrashing-machine. -In 1832 he constructed a rotary steam-engine, which was made by -Schiødt, a mechanic residing at St. Annae Plads, and, upon Hjorth’s -application, it was bought by the King for 500 rixdollars in notes. -The King donated it to the newly founded Polytechnic Institute, this -being the place where it might best be utilized and »where this -original domestic invention might most suitably be placed«. The same -year, Hjorth described in »Ursin’s Magazines for Artists and Artisans« -a steam-car, invented by him and adapted to be propelled by means of -the rotary steam-engine. So Hjorth once more made a petition to the -Government for a subvention of 2000 to 2500 rixdollars to assist in the -practical manufacture of this car. The decision on this application -was postponed, however, at the suggestion of Professors Ørsted, Zeiss -and Forchhammer, because Hjorth had not yet finished the installation -of the boiler for the first steam-engine at the Polytechnic Institute. -Hjorth did not succeed in making the engine work, as it was not made -with sufficient accuracy. The sum for which the car was to be made, was -never granted, as petitioned for, although Hjorth had given up using -his rotary engine for it; and the car itself was probably never built. - -At that time, the use of steam-cars on the country roads attracted -great attention in England, and many different constructions appeared. -In 1834 Hjorth, aided by subventions from the »Rejersen Foundation« and -the Government, went to England, in order to acquaint himself with the -use of these steam-cars on high-roads and railroads. During these years -he very actively investigated the use of steam-power, especially as a -means of propulsion for vehicles and ships. With admirable interest -and diligence he studied the steam propelled road-carriage, and for -a long time he considered that to be the future means of conveyance. -Although he did not succeed in getting his own steam-carriage put to -practical use, he made many experiments on a steam car, and I am told -by one of his passengers that on the level streets of Copenhagen and -Frederiksberg all went very well, but the carriage could not climb -Valby hill. - -During these years, Hjorth also attended the lectures at the -Polytechnic Institute, and he was especially interested in Ørsted’s -lectures on the physics of the globe, and on electricity and magnetism. - -Notwithstanding his unsuccessful experiments with the rotary -steam-engine, Professors Ørsted, Zeiss and Forchhammer had to give -him a warm recommendation, when he made a petition to the Ministry in -order to get his expenses refunded by the Government. They mentioned -his indefatigable zeal, his great diligence, and the considerable -expense borne by him in the pursuit of his researches. The numerous and -expensive experiments absorbed all the money Hjorth could procure: not -only his salary was spent, but also such funds as he was able to raise -among his friends. - - - - -The Railway. - - -In 1839 Hjorth made a journey to England, France and Belgium. By that -time, he seems to have come to the conclusion that steam-carriages -running on rails, are preferable to steam-carriages running on the -high-road, at any rate he mainly studied locomotives and railroading -during this journey. - -After his return to Denmark, he spent some years as manager of -Marschall’s piano factory, though still at work with his railroad -schemes, and in 1840 he happened to find a man named Schram, a -book-keeper, who shared his interests and was able to assist him in the -realisation of his ideas. In 1840, these two men published a detailed -calculation of the probable revenues and expenses of a railroad between -Copenhagen and Roskilde. This project, however, did not arouse any -interest, and people were mostly inclined to smile at the idea, and it -appeared impossible to induce competent men to take, any interest in the -scheme, much less to invest money therein. - -Then, in 1841, they applied to the young »Industrial Association« which -body referred the case to its special committee of commerce. Even this -committee did not seem much inclined to listen to Hjorth’s and Schram’s -proposition, but their undefatigable energy finally succeeded in -persuading the committee of commerce to convoke a large meeting to be -held on the 24th of March. Here it was decided to make an application -to the Government for the surveying of the proposed railroad line and, -to the surprise of many, the petition was granted. Hjorth, possessing -distinctive agitatory faculties, showed great activity, delivering -lectures and exhibiting models, and tried thereby to excite interest -in his schemes. His contemporaries describe him as a sociable man of -a winning and lovable disposition and possessing a certain persuasive -power. He was well liked by his friends as well as by his many casual -acquaintances. In 1841 both Hjorth and Schram were elected members -of the Board of Representatives of the Industrial Association, and -from 1841 to 1843 Hjorth was the vice-president of the association. -Now there began to be some sympathy for their cause, and the Board of -Representatives of the Industrial Association showed a willingness to -follow the sub-committee elected, consisting of the two motionists and -Lector, (later Professor) Wilkens of the Polytechnic Institute. The -strenuous efforts of this sub-committee resulted in the Industrial -Association submitting, in January 1843, an application for a franchise -to form a stock-company for the purpose of building a railroad from -Copenhagen, by way of Roskilde, to a sea-port on the western coast of -Sealand. This franchise, was granted, for a period of 100 years, and -on the 16th of April 1844 the Industrial Association issued a public -invitation to take stock in a company whose stock capital was to be -1-1/2 million rixdollars, a very considerable sum for those times. As -early as in the beginning of May, most of the stock was taken--mainly -in Hamburg. While the confidence in a scheme of this kind was but -slight in Denmark, the speculation in railroad stocks was nearly -culminating at the stock-exchanges of Germany and England; as a matter -of fact, it became near being a swindle. The Sealand Railroad Company -was founded on the 2nd of July 1844, and Hjorth became its first -technical director, while Schram became its first general manager. The -Industrial Association received 15000 rixdollars for the franchise, -and from this sum it paid 3000 to Hjorth and Schram. - -In 1843, Hjorth was unanimously elected president of the Industrial -Association. In 1845, he had to resign this office, but as it appeared -very difficult to concentrate the votes in favour of a new president -and vice-president, »Secretary Hjorth, to meet the general demand, -accepted the vice-presidency«, which office he then held for a year. - -In the meantime, the railroad company had finished the construction -of its first piece of road, from Copenhagen to Roskilde, and this was -opened for traffic on the 27th of June 1847, some days before the -time limit fixed. Even at that time it was decided, owing to Hjorth’s -influence, to extend the road to Korsør. The cause of the delay in -commencing this work was the railroad crisis which had just broken out -in Germany and England, making it impossible to obtain money for the -construction of railroads. This road, therefore, was not constructed -until the government, in 1852, guaranteed an interest of 4% on the -capital invested. - -Hjorth retained his position for about 4 years, and concerning this -period he writes: »All the great difficulties and obstacles to be -surmounted during the construction of the road influenced my health to -such a degree that I broke down and was forced to abandon my position -as technical director of the railroad before the expiration of my term -of office, in order that I might take a water-cure at Klampenborg«. -After he had, to some extent, regained his health there, and another -board of directors had been elected, he made a travel to England which -turned out to be of such great importance that we will describe it more -fully in the following. - - - - -Electricity. - - -After Faraday, in 1831, had discovered how an electric current might be -produced by means of a magnet, many people busied themselves by trying -to put this invention into practical use, and numerous attempts were -made to construct electro-magnetic and magneto-electric machines for -useful purposes. - -No wonder that these efforts attracted Hjorth’s attention, and, as -early as 1842, he had drafted an electro-magnetic machine, consisting -of a stationary circle of magnets, whose poles were directed against -the poles of a moveable circle of magnets. In 1843 this sketch was -deposited with the Royal Scientific Society, but the sketch itself, as -well as the explanation belonging to it, are very incomplete. - -In the month of April, 1848, Hjorth made a petition to the government -for a subvention of 200 rixdollars, in order that he might go to -England to get an electro-magnetic machine[1] designed by him, made -there. Hjorth had noticed that, in a piece of iron encircled by -an electric current, the magnetism only to a certain extent would -increase, with the strength of current, there being a point of -saturation for the iron. When this point has been reached, it will be -of no use to increase the intensity of the current, since the magnetism -will not increase any further. On the basis of this observation, Hjorth -had constructed his machine, but he had confided the details thereof -only to Professors Ørsted and Forchhammer. In the report on Hjorth’s -petition made by these two professors to the Board of Trade, they, -curiously enough, take exception to the above-mentioned observation -by Hjorth, while its correctness will now be acknowledged by any -electrician. These professors, however, advised that Hjorth’s petition -should be granted, using this liberal argument, worded by Ørsted: -»Regarding the petitioner’s new electro-magnetic machine, we must state -that we find it quite ingenious, and although we are not convinced -that it will produce remarkable effects, we should consider it useful -to have a working model executed. Having during so many years worked -for this case, the petitioner might perhaps, by the execution of such -a model, be enabled to make some further invention, which would bring -him nearer to the goal. Indefatigable zeal has often accomplished its -purpose, where science had to declare the means at first used, to be -entirely inadequate, but where, by continued work, entirely different -means, previously unknown to the inventor, were found. Inasmuch as the -sum of 200 rixdollars asked for is so small, we find it advisable to -grant the subvention. Still we cannot refrain from remarking that the -petitioner’s machine may just as well be made here as at any other -place«. - -Thus the discoverer of electro-magnetism cleared the road which was -to lead to the most beautiful application of electro-magnetism, that -application which, before all others, has been of radically reforming -importance during the last half century, thereby throwing double -splendor on Ørsted’s name. - -Soon after his arrival at London, in the summer of 1848, through a -firm which he knew from an earlier period of his life, Hjorth made -the acquaintance of a nephew of Bramah, the renowned mechanician and -inventor of the Bramah-lock. Hjorth’s invention was then laid before a -friend of Bramah’s, a civil engineer named Gregory, who had made the -study of magnetism his specialty. Gregory at once persuaded Bramah -to bear the expense of making a machine, and of securing patents in -England and several other countries, on condition that the expected -profits should be divided between him and Hjorth. Later on, B. Taylor -and Normann Innis were taken in as partners, paying together £1000, and -then Charles Stovin (£600) and Robert Broad, of the Henley Iron Works -(£500). Two machines were now made, according to Hjorth’s directions, -by the firm of Robinson & Sons, Pimlico, London. One of these is -shown in Fig. 1, and is apparently quite an ingenious imitation -of the steam-engines of those days. _C_ is a movable, _A_ a fixed -electro-magnet. Their peculiar shape, involving several conical pins -fitting into corresponding cavities, was thought to be advantageous for -the distribution of the effect of the magnetic force over a longer -stroke. The »piston« _C_, reciprocating up and down, drives a crank -shaft having two opposite cranks. To either of the cranks there is a -corresponding group of magnets. An eccentric fixed on the shaft, moves -a »slide valve«, alternately closing the circuit of one or the other -of the two groups of magnets. When the one piston is at its lowest -position, the circuit of the other group of magnets is closed, and -its piston is attracted, until it reaches its bottom position; then -the current is shifted, and the other piston attracted, etc. In order -to avoid the formation of sparks at the circuit breaker, an ingenious -device was provided, closing the current of one group of magnets, -immediately before that of the other one was broken. The first machine -was made with a 4 inch stroke, the next one with 13-1/2 inch stroke. -The magnetic attraction per square inch of the piston, had about the -same magnitude as the pressure per square inch in the low pressure -steam-engines of those days. The patent application was filed in London -as early as in October 1848, and it was granted on the 26th of April -1849[2]. On the 21st of September, the same year, Hjorth obtained -a fifteen year monopoly in the kingdom of Denmark, to manufacture -machines, utilizing electro-magnetism as motive power in the above -described manner. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1. Hjorth’s Electromotor.] - -The larger of the machines here referred to was shown in action -to several technical experts, and created considerable sensation, -especially on account of the great length of stroke attained--13-1/2 -inches--and the uniform motion of the machine. The machine is mentioned -in »Mining Journal«, for the 5th of May, and 16th of June 1849, and an -extract of these articles is published in the »Flyveposten« for the 3rd -of July the same year. - -Hjorth was invited to show the machine at the Royal Society, and at -the annual meeting of the Society of Civil Engineers, of which he was -a member. It was exhibited at the Universal Exhibition in London, in -1851. In the catalogue it was highly commended, and it received the -only prize-medal awarded to electrical machines. - -There was, however, one essential obstacle to the practical use of this -machine, namely the lack of means for cheaply producing electricity -in the quantities required by the electromotor. Wet batteries were -expensive to use, and if the machine were to become useful in practice, -a powerful »dry battery« would be a necessity. Most of the then known -machines producing electricity, were fitted with permanent steel -magnets, and as the point of magnetic saturation of steel is low, -these machines were unable to produce any considerable quantities -of electric energy. Hjorth therefore imposed upon himself the task -of building a dry battery. His sketch-book from 1851 is full of new -schemes for such batteries and improvements on those already existing -(Woolrich’s, Elkington’s and Paine’s). From this it appears, among -other things, that he was fully aware that, when the spools suddenly -entered or left the field, difficulties would arise in the commutation, -and he therefore improved the machine by bending the field magnets, -obtaining thereby a gradually increasing and decreasing field, the -same thing which is, nowadays, attained by using pointed or obliquely -cut pole-shoes.--It would be very tempting to study more closely these -sketch-books with their neatly colored drawings, showing how many -different ideas have been fostered by him, before the actual production -of the first dynamo, in 1854. Most of the descriptions and notes have -been written in the English language, which he used almost as readily -as his native tongue. On the 1st of May, 1851, Hjorth writes in his -sketch-book, beside a sketch of a machine having copper discs for -armature conductors and cast iron electro-magnets: »_By passing the -current on the said way round the Electromagnets, these will of course -be excited in proportion to the strength of the same, and the more they -are excited, the more will the discs be influenced by the magnets, a -mutual action thus taking place_«. - -So it appears that Hjorth, as early as on the 1st of May 1851, with -perfect clearness, has pronounced the dynamo-electric principle. - -Under the date of June 24th, 1851, we find sketched out another -beautiful idea for the construction of a dynamo. It must be regretted -that this machine has not been executed, as it would certainly have -proved superior to his dynamo of 1855, which has many points in common -with this project. Fig. 2 shows a reproduction of this page of the -sketch-book. There is no descriptive text to this sketch, only at -one side of the drawing, these very significant words are written: -»Magneto-Electric arrangement with mutual action«. All the six -powerful held magnets are of cast iron, and they are wound so as to be -magnetized by the current, produced by the dynamo itself[3]. - -[Illustration: Fig 2. Facsimile of a Page of Hjorth’s Sketch Book, June -24th 1851.] - -In November, 1851, Hjorth returned to Copenhagen, and here he continued -what he had commenced in England. In May, 1852, he deposited with the -»Society of Sciences« some papers, signed by Professors Scharling and -Forchhammer in December, 1851. These papers contain two descriptions, -written in English, and two drawings of »dry batteries«. These consist -of 3 or 4 circular rows of vertical steel rod magnets, placed one -above the other, and disposed round a vertical shaft, carrying 2 or 3 -circular rows of armatures. Each armature consists of a piece of soft -iron, and is wound with a strip of copper, in a special manner. There -are, in each row, as many armatures as magnets. The hollow shaft, as -well as the magnets, which are fitted with shoes of soft iron, are -wound, and encircled by the current produced in the armatures. With -regard to the magnetic arrangement, this machine comes very near to the -one patented by Brett in 1848, and it will be noticed that it cannot -be said to be constructed according to the dynamo principle, as the -»mutual« action plays no important part, the magnets being permanent -steel magnets, hardly adapted to receive much extra magnetism by the -current of the machine. Hjorth points out, as the novel feature of -these machines, the division of the steel magnets into many small ones, -with an armature corresponding to each magnet. Hereby he claims, for -the same weight of the steel magnets, a larger capacity of the machine -than if he had used fewer, but larger steel magnets[4]. The machine -is fitted with a commutator for direct current.--In March, 1854, the -sketch-book contains another sketch of a dynamo, with clear indication -of the dynamo principle, approximately as it was patented on the 14th -of October the same year[5]. This sketch is reproduced in Fig. 3. The -machine has two permanent cast iron magnets and two electro-magnets. -The armature cores are fitted with oblique pole-shoes. The description -is very brief and contains the same as the patent specification. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3. Facsimile of a Page of Hjorth’s Sketch Book, -March 1854.] - -In 1853 Hjorth negotiated with a certain Dr. Watson, who had -constructed a »dry battery« by means of which Hjorth had meant to drive -his electro-magnetic machine. The object of their negotiations was -to buy out Hjorth’s above-named partners, and to form a new company -for the purpose of exploiting the above-mentioned two machines. The -partnership, however, was not realized, and in spring of 1854, Hjorth -himself commenced to have a 3 HP battery built in Copenhagen. The -machine was fitted with cast iron magnets, and in all probability it -was similar to the project of March 1854, and agreed with the patent of -October, the same year. - -This patent specification reads as follows: »The main feature of this -battery consists in applying one, two, or several permanent magnets -_A_, of cast iron, and shaped as shewn in the drawing (Figs. 4 and 5), -in connection with an equal number or more electro-magnets _B_, shaped -as indicated in drawing, in such a manner _that the currents induced -in the coils of the revolving armatures are allowed to pass round the -electro-magnets; consequently, the more the electro-magnets are excited -in the said manner, the more will the armatures C be excited, and -the more electricity of course induced in the respective coilings_; -and while a mutual and accelerating force is produced in this manner -between the electro-magnets and the armatures, an additional or -secondary current is at the same time induced in the coiling of the -electro-magnets by the motion of the armatures, the said current -flowing in the same direction as that of the primary current, after -having passed the commutator. The direction of the current induced -in the coils of the armatures will, of course, be reversed according -to the change of the respective polarities, and the commutator _D_ -is therefore applied for the purpose of causing the current to flow -constantly in one direction«. Then follows a description of the -commutator of the dynamo. Finally the pole-shoes, or false poles, -provided on the magnets as well as on the armatures, are mentioned. He -points out that the false poles have on the side of attraction, a long -straight edge, as distant from the centre as possible, while on the -side of separation, either one has a sharp point, nearer to the axis -of revolution, »all with a view to avoid reactionary currents, and at -the same time to facilitate the motion of the armature«. »While steel -magnets also may be applied instead of cast-iron magnets, the permanent -magnets may be coiled like the electro-magnets, which also will serve -to make them more permanent«. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4. Hjorth’s Dynamo 1854.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 5. Hjorth’s Dynamo 1854. Fragment of the Patent -Drawing.] - -From the above-named sketch-book notations, and the patent -specification, it will be seen that Hjorth, during the years 1851-54, -has repeatedly pronounced the dynamo principle with perfect clearness, -and that he has utilized it in several projects. - -It is worth noting that Hjorth’s so-called »permanent« magnets -are of cast iron. This shows that Hjorth has known of remanence, -or permanence. He has known that cast iron always possesses some -slight magnetism, either induced by the earth magnetism or as a -remnant--remnant magnetism--left over from its being magnetized in a -coil. It has heretofore been assumed that Siemens was the first to call -attention to this property of iron, in his paper in the transactions -of the Royal Society, of the 14th of February, 1867.--Thus Hjorth -used this weak remanent magnetism in the large cast iron magnets -to produce the initial current in the dynamo, which then excites -itself.--At the end of the patent specification, Hjorth points out that -the remanent magnets may also be coiled (compare Fig. 2), and thereby -he comes closer to the later dynamo constructions. - -Hjorth is quite right, according to the patent specification, in -giving the pole-shoes such a shape that the armature is gradually -demagnetized, and in stating that the object of this is thereby to -avoid reactionary currents, and consequently the formation of sparks; -while he is mistaken in believing to be able to facilitate the motion -of the armature by giving the pole-shoes a certain special shape, -because in that case, the machine would be a _perpetuum mobile_. - -Together with the above-mentioned dynamo, Hjorth had an electromotor -made in Copenhagen, essentially similar to the one exhibited in 1851. -When in the autumn 1854 the machines were finished, Hjorth was called -back to England, in order to continue the work on his inventions. -It is not known whether the machines were sent to England or not; -at any rate they aroused some interest there, and he had a new and -larger dynamo built by Messrs Malcolm & Campbell; of Liverpool, 7 -India Buildings, at the expense of Malcolm and others. This machine -was patented in 1855[6], and is shown in Fig. 6, which is reproduced -from a photograph. Here, too, the dynamo principle has been followed, -but each electro-magnet is composed of one solid and one tubular -electro-magnet, the latter enclosing the former, the two together -forming a so-called »_cup magnet_«, a construction which has also been -used by later inventors. Hjorth describes the action of the battery as -follows: »_The permanent magnets acting on the armatures, brought in -succession between their poles, induce a current in the coils of the -armatures, which current, after having been caused by the commutator -to flow in one direction, passes round the electro-magnets, charging -the same and acting on the armatures. By the mutual action between the -electro-magnets and the armatures, an accelerating force is obtained, -which in the result produces electricity greater in quantity and -intensity than has heretofore been obtained by any similar means._« At -the same time, Hjorth allowed the dynamo patent of 1854 to lapse, it -being merely a provisional patent. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6. Hjorth’s Dynamo 1855, from an old Photograph.] - -Together with the dynamo patent of 1854, Hjorth secured a provisional -patent on an improved electromotor[7], and together with the dynamo -patent of 1855, he obtained the complete patent on the above mentioned -electromotor, as well as on another construction thereof[8]. The former -consisted of hollow, horizontal electro-magnets (cylinders), being of -a special shape inside, adapting them to give to an electro-magnetic -piston, reciprocating within them, a long and steady stroke. By means -of a crank, the stroke was transformed into a rotary motion. The -other electro-motor consisted of wheels, with protruding teeth, which -were set in rotary motion by the teeth being attracted into hollow -electro-magnets. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] According to the usual terminology of those times, an -»electro-magnetic« machine means a machine driven by electricity, an -electromotor, while, on the other hand, a »magneto electric battery«, -or a »dry battery« is a machine for producing electricity. - -[2] Specification of Patent No. 12295, 1848. - -[3] After the publication of my first treatise in the -»Elektroteknikeren«, for February 1907, various parties have objected -that Hjorth, in his dynamos, did not use the dynamo principle in -its purest form, as he had one large, unwound, cast iron magnet. -On the contrary, the above-mentioned leaf of his sketch-book shows -that Hjorth, as early as in 1851, has used the dynamo principle in -its purest from--exactly the same as used by Siemens in 1867--as all -the field magnets have been wound cast iron magnets, and the initial -current is induced by the remnant magnetism of these magnets. _S. S._ - -[4] This is correct, as long as he uses armatures with but a single -winding, because, in that case, the number of armature windings -is proportional to the number of steel magnets. Whereas Hjorth is -mistaken, when in 1867 he makes the same statement about a machine, -where nothing prevents the armature from being fitted with a great -number of windings. - -[5] Specification of Patent No. 2198, 1854. - -[6] Specification of Patent No. 806, 1855. - -[7] Specification of Patent No. 2199, 1854. - -[8] Specifications of Patents No. 807 and 808, 1855. - - - - -Hard Times. - - -In May, 1856, Hjorth returned from England, disappointed. It will be -noted that through the electro-motor Hjorth was led to occupy himself -with the dynamo machine. The dynamo was built in order to produce -motive power for the motor. All the time he was working on these two -inventions, it was his firm belief that if he could make the dynamo -drive the electro-motor, he would be able to attain a substantial -saving in power, get much more power out of the electro-motor than was -consumed in driving the dynamo. The machines would, as it were, run -automatically. He could not understand, why Dr. Watson was sceptical -with regard to this manner of battery action. He intended to install -his machines in ships and locomotives, which would then be propelled -with a minimum consumption of power. In short, the combination of -dynamo and electro-motor imagined by Hjorth was to be a _perpetuum -mobile_. It has certainly been the great disappointment of his journey -to England, that this scheme failed. - -On reading about this mistake, one is inclined to base the judgment -of Hjorth upon assumptions belonging to the present time. But this -would be a great injustice to him. The axiom that the quantity of -energy in nature is unalterable, and consequently a _perpetuum mobile_ -an impossibility, has, as it were, been imbued by our own generation -with the mother’s milk. Not so with Hjorth. Not until the forties of -the last century, did Mayer, Joule and Colding, the City Engineer of -Copenhagen, set forth their theories about the permanency of energy, -and about the convertibility of heat into mechanical activity, and -of the latter into heat again. These theories, however, were very -slowly accepted, even by scientists. It is, therefore, no wonder that -a man like Hjorth, having no special scientific training, could not -easily digest the new theory and Hjorth did not have any instinctive -sensation of having entered upon a hopeless and impossible track. On -the contrary, he imagined the new wonderful form of energy to conceal -unestimable possibilities which he had only to wrest from nature. - -Though Hjorth was thus ship-wrecked on his favourite idea, he -nevertheless discovered new land, fertile for coming generations. His -intrepid zeal guided him, as Ørsted had anticipated, in spite of his -lack of scientific education, on to the road leading to the splendid -results of this day. - -None of Hjorth’s original partners participated in the manufacture of -his latest machines, and possibly this was due to his above-mentioned -erroneous idea. Only one of his English friends, Wm. Macredie, of -Melbourne, maintained his attachment to Hjorth and his confidence in -him to the last. He was always very interested in Hjorth’s schemes, -and, besides, he shared his religious creed. - -Hjorth was very anxious as to his future. When he returned from -England, he stood quite destitute and felt depressed by poverty. His -health was not of the best, and his formerly so neat hand-writing had -become unsteady. He received, shortly after his return, a communication -from his English partners that they wished to have the dynamo patented -in Denmark and France, which showed that they had faith in this -machine, but nevertheless these were hard times for Hjorth. - -The dynamo remained for some time with Malcolm, in Liverpool, and -negotiations for its sale were several times entered into, but were -without results. It was tested on several occasions, but these tests -proved that it could not yield as much as might be expected from -its size. The uncoiled magnets, which were originally of cast iron, -were replaced by more powerful steel magnets. Upon the whole, this -dynamo had a rather eventful existence, for first every other magnet -pole was removed (see Fig. 6), and then it was proposed to rewind the -magnets. In May, 1857, it was donated to the Polytechnic Institute, -Regent Street, in London. Among the papers left by Hjorth, there are -a daguerreotype and a photograph of this machine, (from which the -accompanying Fig. 6 is reproduced). - -Notwithstanding a thorough search of the London museums, it has been -impossible to trace this machine, which is said to have been seen in -London during the nineties. - -Hjorth was now compelled to find a new means of earning his livelihood, -and to make new connections. In 1857, he became the representative of -Cyclop’s Steel Manufactory, Charles Cammell, of Sheffield, and in 1859, -he applied for and obtained a licence as a translator of English in -Copenhagen. Finally he had a kind of engineering and patent office, -assisting strangers in obtaining monopolies, and doing work for new -railroads, bridges etc. In the beginning of the sixties he caused a -research to be made concerning the use of coals from Hornholm and -Silkeborg, and the use of peat for briquettes. In April, 1860, he -applied to the government for a position, enabling him to work for the -building of new railroads in Denmark, and at the same time he referred -to his previous merits in that direction. As he had not, within a year -thereafter, received any position, he made a petition for a yearly -pension, in case such a position could not be given to him. As »the -idea of building the Sealand railroad, as well as the general location -of this road, is mainly due to Secretary Hjorth ... and further more, -no small share in the completion of the undertaking is due to him«, it -was proposed, on the budget for 1861-62, to grant a pension to Hjorth. -That year and the following ones, until his death, he received 500 -rixdollars. - -During these years, Hjorth lived at 10 Nørrebrogade. In 1845, he -married Vilhelmine Ancker, née Hansen (born on the 27th of March, -1805), the widow of the farmer Diderick Ancker, of »Lille Egede«, and -thereby he became the step-father of two daughters. This marriage was -childless. - -This carefully dressed little man[9] in top-hat and high-heeled shoes, -was well known, and very well liked in many circles. He was always -amiable and willing to help, and it is known that he has, at great -personal sacrifice, assisted young artisans who were in hard luck. In -society he attracted attention by his power of fascination and by his -universal knowledge. On Sundays he was regularly seen directing his -steps to St. John’s church, where, for many years, he was a member of -Rev. Frimodt’s congregation. - -During the period of depression above described, Hjorth could naturally -not very well afford to occupy himself with experiments, nor had he -much time. Still, in 1857, he secured permission to undertake, at the -navy yard, some experiments concerning the carrying capacity of a -magnet at varying distances between the pole and the armature, and at -the same time he sketched out the construction of an electro-motor, -especially well adapted to utilize the magnetic attraction. This -electro-motor was built in Copenhagen with funds granted by the -»Classenske Fideicommis«. When it was finished, Hjorth applied for the -money needed to make it double acting. - -In autumn 1860, Hjorth was in Paris, and there he worked for his -electrical inventions. - -In 1866, Wilde published his machine, in which the current needed to -magnetize the electro-magnets was produced by a permanent magnet. -This is exactly the principle, underlying the dynamos built by Hjorth -in 1854 and 1855. Hjorth’s good friend, Wm. Macredie, Melbourne, -sent Hjorth a clipping from an English periodical mentioning Wilde’s -machine, and called his attention to the identity. - -It is to be regretted that Hjorth’s answer is not known, as his -copy-book for 1866 has been lost. - -Considering the data at hand when Hjorth’s biography was published -in 1907, one might be inclined to believe that Hjorth had invented -the dynamo principle and then dropped it at once, going back to steel -magnets. It is, however, clearly evidenced, by the papers left by -Hjorth, that this has not been the case, but that Hjorth has used the -dynamo principle, in various, more or less pure, forms, in practically -all his projects from 1851 to 1870. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7. Sketch of Hjorth’s Magneto-Electric Machine -1867.] - -As previously mentioned, Hjorth had been disappointed in his attempts -to produce energy through an electrical transmission of power, but -this did not cause him to relinquish the idea of producing energy by -electric means. He took this up again in a new form in his old age. In -order to have this idea carried out in practice, Hjorth had a machine -built, a description and drawing of which is to be found in a pamphlet -published later on in French and Danish. From this it appears that the -machine was not originally built according to the dynamo principle. -Hjorth found no advantage in using the expensive electro-magnets, as -it was his main object to prove that, by his special arrangement of -armatures and magnets, he could reduce the power required to produce -a certain amount of electrical energy. The machine, in its manner -of construction, reminds one to some extent, of Hjorth’s project of -1851. Two or three rings, or wheels, of armature coils _A_ (see Fig. -7) revolve between three or four circular rows of magnets _M_. This -decreased consumption of power was to be attained by offsetting the -armature wheels somewhat relatively to one another, for instance so -that when one armature of the topmost wheel was opposite one magnet -pole, an armature of the next armature wheel would be spaced one -quarter of a pole distance from a pole, and an armature of the lowest -wheel would be one half pole distance from a pole. As it is well known, -this idea is entirely erroneous, it being contrary to the axiom of the -constancy of energy. - -The machine was built into a casing, and was sent to the Paris -exhibition of 1867. Hjorth was always very careful not to give any -information about his inventions to anybody. At the end of April, he -went to Paris himself. The machine had suffered some injury on the -journey, and had to be repaired in Paris, and therefore it made its -appearance rather late. Still he succeeded in having it submitted to -the judgment of the jury, and a test of electrolytic deposition was -made, which proved entirely successful. - -In Paris he met a certain business-man who, later on, requested to -enter into partnership with Hjorth. This man was an adventurer, whose -ambition was to become a Knight of Danebrog. It is only to be regretted -that this person obtained so great a power over Hjorth, and understood -how to deceive him. The previously mentioned pamphlet, edited by the -partner, and named »Batterie magnéto-électrique de Søren Hjorth«, is a -document of the poorest kind. - -Through his partner, Hjorth was introduced to various electricians -and men of science, among others the renowned Samuel B. Morse, who -recommended Hjorth’s machine, but took exception to his idea concerning -the production of energy. - -The electrician who repaired Hjorth’s machine, introduced him to the -president of the French Société d’Encouragement, who had proposed -a competition for electrical machines, and had offered a prize -of 3000 fr. for a machine, complying with the conditions given. -Hjorth’s machine was sent to the society, but he did not succeed in -obtaining the prize, which was awarded to the subsequently so famous -»Alliance« machine. On the 7th of July, Hjorth, probably prompted by -his partner, obtained an audience of Emperor Napoleon III. After he -had demonstrated his invention, and shown the letter from Professor -Morse, the Emperor asked him what he could do for him, and Hjorth -answered that his highest desire was to have a larger machine built, -and he requested the Emperor’s protection and assistance, in order to -accomplish this. The Emperor ordered an examination of the machine -to be made. The well-known Professor Jamin was retained as an expert, -and Hjorth demonstrated the machine before him. On the following day -it was examined, in the presence of Hjorth and his partner, by Jamin -and other men of science. They subsequently had the machine sent to -the exposition, where they measured the voltage and intensity of -current, and expressed their satisfaction, as to the results attained. -Nevertheless Hjorth was disappointed to receive, the next day, through -the representative of the Emperor, General Favé, a communication that -the subvention applied for could not be granted. - -At the exposition, a great sensation was created by a dynamo exhibited -by Ladd. This machine had two electro-magnets and two armatures, -the current being directed from the smaller armature round the -electro-magnets and taken from the larger armature to the exterior -circuit, lights for instance. Thus the machine was evidently built -according to the dynamo principle. - -In order to claim his right of priority to this principle, Hjorth went -to the prominent authority on physics, Count Th. du Moncel, who later -on became the editor of »La lumière électrique«. As Hjorth himself did -not know French, the interview probably took place through his partner. -About this, Moncel writes in the above mentioned periodical, in 1883, -that Hjorth’s representative was not very conversant with electrical -matters; therefore he was unable to express himself clearly, and -consequently Hjorth’s rights of priority were not acknowledged. - -Having received the Emperor’s refusal, Hjorth went home, broken down by -illness and disappointments. - -In 1868-69 Hjorth, due to the interest taken in his case by the -manufacturer Mr. Kähler, succeeded in having a small machine built in -this gentleman’s shop in Korsør. At the same time, a larger machine was -made in Copenhagen, the necessary funds being contributed by several -country gentlemen and merchants interested in the case. Finally, in -December, 1868, a body of prominent men addressed the government, -petitioning a subvention of 15,000 rixdollars to be given to Hjorth, in -order to enable him to build a new and larger machine. As the Ministry -was not inclined to grant a sum of this size, it proposed to grant -1000 rixdollars, in order to have the existing machines examined by -Professor Hummel and other experts. This proposition was accepted by -Hjorth, and a commission was formed, consisting of Professor Hummel, -assisted by Professor Holten, Instructor Lorenz and Winstrup, a -mechanic. As early as December, 1868, Professor Hummel, together with -head-master Ibsen from Sorø, had visited dyer Gülich of Christianshavn, -where one of the machines was located, and they made a few tests, -which Hummel himself did not consider to be of any importance. The -experiments were to be made in April, 1869, after an assistant had -made a preliminary experiment, but then Kähler reported that he had -taken the machine apart, in order to make an alteration therein, and -that this would take a couple of months. It appears, from a letter -from Hjorth to the Ministry of the Interior, that Hjorth had arrived -at the conclusion that he must resort to the use of electro-magnets, -to a certain extent, at least, on account of »the steel, by continued -use, losing part of its magnetic power, which necessitates its being -re-magnetized«, and partly because »it appears that electro-magnets -may be made to yield a considerably larger magnetic power than steel -magnets, by means of the electrical current induced thereby«. As this -change to the dynamo principle was estimated to cost 400 rixdollars, -Hjorth was informed, in April 1869, that this amount would be paid out -of the sum, granted for the experiments, when the smaller machine had -been re-built. - -Hjorth’s answer to this was a petition that the 400 rixdollars might -be spent on any battery, which he might build. Hereafter the case died -out. His petition was not answered until in April 1870, and the answer -was a refusal.--At that time Hjorth was in delicate health, and his -energy had been broken, and a few month’s afterwards he died, on the -28th of August, 1870. He was survived by his wife, who died on the 30th -of September 1885. - -This indefatigable worker did not succeed in seeing or reaping the -harvest of his work for the utilization of electricity,--perhaps his -aim had been too high. At a period when in all countries stone was -added to stone in the foundation now supporting electrical engineering, -we Danes have also made our contribution. Hjorth did not possess the -profound knowledge nor the sharper insight necessary in order to avoid -errors, but his perseverance, his industry, and his sacrifices, ought -to be acknowledged, and his name ought to be venerated on account of -his contributions to the development of electric machinery. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[9] Hjorth’s English passport, from 1855, contains this information: -Height: 5 feet 7 inches, Complexion: fresh, Eyes and Hair: grey. - - - - -SOURCES. - - -After Hjorth’s death, few knew that he had discovered the dynamo -principle. If Hjorth himself had understood the importance of this -discovery, and the magnitude of the revolutions to be caused thereby, -he would undoubtedly have endeavoured to propagate the knowledge -thereof. It was not until 1879, when Colonel Bolton read a paper before -the Society of Telegraph Engineers in London, that Hjorth’s patent No. -2198, of 1854, was again brought out of oblivion, and accompanied by -these words: »This appears to involve the principle which was later -on taken up by others«. Count du Moncel, who had received Hjorth’s -representative in 1867, when reading these words, was reminded of the -case. Thereafter he has given Hjorth a fair redress in the above-cited -article in the valuable periodical »La lumière électrique«, edited by -him, the heading being »The Actual Inventor of the Principle of the -Dynamo-Electric Machine«. - -Among the few printed sources of information concerning Søren Hjorth -and his inventions, the following may also be mentioned: - - _C. Nyrop_: Industriforeningen i København, 1838-1888. - _Du Moncel_: L’éclairage électrique, 1884, page 102. - _Electrician_, July 8th, 1882. - _La lumière électrique_, 1883, VIII, page 58. - -The most important source is the papers, left by Hjorth, which comprise -a considerable collection of drawings, letters, and rough copies of -letters written by him. These documents furnish full information, -not only of Hjorth’s inventions, but also of his entire reasoning -and manner of being. Probably the most interesting of all are his -note-books and sketch-books, wherein he used to note down his ideas in -English, and which are accompanied by neatly made, coloured sketches. -These papers were not accessible to the public until the autumn of -1908, and they are now preserved in the archives and library of the -Polytechnic Institute in Copenhagen. - -Important contributions to Hjorth’s history have also been obtained -from the State Archives, the Archives of the Society of Science, the -Archives of the Polytechnic Institute and from the papers left by H. C. -Ørsted. - - * * * * * - -Transcriber’s Notes: - -Footnotes have been moved to the end of each chapter and relabeled -consecutively through the document. - -Illustrations have been moved to paragraph breaks near where they are -mentioned. - -Punctuation has been made consistent. - -Variations in spelling and hyphenation were retained as they appear in -the original publication, except that obvious typographical errors have -been corrected. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SØREN HJORTH *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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