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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-22 19:09:38 -0800 |
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diff --git a/old/66046-h/66046-h.htm b/old/66046-h/66046-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 8fd5713..0000000 --- a/old/66046-h/66046-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1919 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> - <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> - <title> - SØREN HJORTH, by Sigurd Smith—A Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <style type="text/css"> - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - h1,h2,h3 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; -} - -p { - margin-top: .51em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .49em; -} - -.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} -.p4 {margin-top: 4em;} - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; -} - -hr.tb {width: 45%; margin-left: 27.5%; margin-right: 27.5%;} -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} -@media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } - -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} -.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid; - padding-top: 0;} - -table { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; -} - -/*Table of Contents format*/ -table.toc { max-width: 30em;} -td.toctitle { text-align: left; vertical-align: top; text-indent: -1.3em; padding-left: 1.3em;} -td.toctitle1 { text-align: left; vertical-align: top; padding-left: 1.3em;} -td.tocpage { text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom; padding-left: 1em;} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-variant: normal; -} /* page numbers */ - -.boxit{ - max-width: 38em; - padding: 1em; - border: 0em solid black; - margin: 0 auto; } - -/*Indent-padding*/ -.il2{padding-left:2em} -.ir0{text-align:right;} -.ir2{text-align:right; padding-right:2em} - -/*fractions*/ -.fnum, .fden { font-size: .7em; } -.fnum { vertical-align: text-top } -.fden { vertical-align: text-bottom } - -.nowrap { - white-space:nowrap; - word-spacing:-0.2em; -} -/* end fractions */ - -.center {text-align: center;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - -.caption {font-weight: bold;} - -/* Images */ - -img { - max-width: 100%; - height: auto; -} - -img.w100 {width: 100%;} - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} - -.figleft { - float: left; - clear: left; - margin-left: 0; - margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-top: 1em; - margin-right: 1em; - padding: 0; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} -/* comment out next line and uncomment the following one for floating figleft on ebookmaker output */ -/*.x-ebookmaker .figleft {float: none; text-align: center; margin-right: 0;}*/ - .x-ebookmaker .figleft {float: left;} - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnotes {border: dashed 0.05em;} - -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} - -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: top; - font-size: .66em; - text-decoration: none; -} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - -/*CSS to set font sizes*/ -/*font sizes for non-header font changes*/ -.xlargefont{font-size: x-large} -.largefont{font-size: large} -.smallfont{font-size: small} - -/*for drop caps*/ -p.dropcap { - text-indent: 0em; -} - -p.dropcap:first-letter{ - float: left; - font-size: 2.75em; - padding-right: 0.05em; - margin-top: 0.1em; - margin-bottom: -0.1em; - line-height: 0.65em; -} - -.x-ebookmaker p.dropcap:first-letter{ - font-size: 1em; - padding-right: 0em; - margin-top: 0em; - margin-bottom: 0em; - line-height: 1em; -} - -/*Half-title page CSS*/ -#half-title{ - page-break-before: always; - page-break-after: always; - text-align: center; - font-size: x-large; - padding: 6em 0; -} - -/* Illustration classes */ -.illowp100 {width: 100%;} -.illowp46 {width: 46%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp46 {width: 100%;} -.illowp47 {width: 47%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp47 {width: 100%;} -.illowp48 {width: 48%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp48 {width: 100%;} -.illowp54 {width: 54%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp54 {width: 100%;} -.illowp93 {width: 93%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp93 {width: 100%;} - </style> - </head> -<body> - -<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Søren Hjorth, by Sigurd Smith</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Søren Hjorth</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0;'>Inventor of the Dynamo-electric Principle</p> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Sigurd Smith</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Translator: F. Sodemann</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: August 11, 2021 [eBook #66046]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Craig Kirkwood, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SØREN HJORTH ***</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp48" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> - <img id="coverpage" class="w100" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Cover." /> -</div> - -<p id="half-title">SØREN HJORTH</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp47" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/titlepage.jpg" alt="Title page." /> -</div> - -<hr class="tb x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h1 class="nobreak">SØREN HJORTH</h1> -</div> - -<p class="center largefont p2">INVENTOR OF THE<br /> -DYNAMO-ELECTRIC PRINCIPLE</p> - -<p class="center smallfont p2">BY</p> - -<p class="center">SIGURD SMITH<br /> -<span class="smallfont">C. E., M. I. F.</span></p> - -<p class="center smallfont p2">PUBLISHED BY »ELEKTROTEKNISK FORENING« AT THE<br /> -EXPENSE OF THE CARLSBERG FOUNDATION</p> - -<p class="center p2">KØBENHAVN<br /> -<span class="smcap smallfont" style="line-height:1.5">Printed by J. Jorgensen & Co. (M. A. Hannover)</span><br /> -1912 -</p> - -<hr class="tb x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center">This pamphlet is published simultaneously<br /> -in English and in Danish,<br /> -and is distributed among interested<br /> -institutions all over the world.</p> - -<p class="center p4">Translated by F. SODEMANN, C. E., M. I. F.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="tb x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="figcenter illowp54" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/img005.jpg" alt="Protrait of Hjorth." /> -</div> - -<div class="boxit"> -<p class="ir0"><em>Handsworth, Birmingham,<br /> -<span class="ir2">Feb. 6th, 1851.</span></em></p> - -<p class="ir0">... After this wonderful force<br /> -has been discovered by Your Excellency,<br /> -it has been my pride and interest that<br /> -also the utilization thereof should be<br /> -originated by a Dane....</p> - -<p class="ir0">(<em>Fragment of a letter from Hjorth<br /> -to H. C. Ørsted.</em>)</p> -</div></div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Since the Life and Works of Søren Hjorth, the Dane -was published in the Danish technical journal the »Elektroteknikeren«, -in 1907, a statement concerning Hjorth’s -rights of priority to the invention of the dynamo-electric -principle has been sent to the leading foreign technical -periodicals, viz. »Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift«, »L’éclairage -électrique«, and »Electrical Engineering«. As this statement -still stands uncontradicted, it seems reasonable to -consider Hjorth’s priority rights to this principle to be -generally acknowledged, even in the great centres of civilization. -Therefore I highly appreciated the courtesy of -Mr. Hjorth’s heirs, after the death of his step-daughter, -Miss D. Ancker, in the autumn of 1908, in offering me -an opportunity to peruse the large collection of letters, -rough-copies, drawings, and sketch-books left by Hjorth, -which threw new light on his interesting life and work. -Where it was previously necessary to resort to guesswork -alone, we are now able to base our statements on -established facts and to follow Hjorth’s train of ideas -almost from his first, to his last invention, and to see -where he has right and where he failed.</p> - -<p>In the following pages, an account will be given of -the results of these recent researches in connection with -what was previously known about Hjorth.</p> - -<p class="il2">Charlottenlund 1911.</p> - -<p class="ir2"> <em>Sigurd Smith.</em></p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak">CONTENTS.</h2> -</div> - - -<div class="center"> -<table class="toc" border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="toctitle"></td><td class="tocpage">Page</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="toctitle"><a href="#PREFACE">Preface.</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="toctitle">Søren Hjorth:</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="toctitle1">Childhood and Youth</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Ref_1">1</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="toctitle1">The Railway</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Ref_4">4</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="toctitle1">Electricity</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Ref_7">7</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="toctitle1">Hard Times</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Ref_18">18</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="toctitle">Sources</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Ref_29">29</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum">[1]</span></p> -<p class="center xlargefont nobreak" style="margin-bottom:1em" id="Ref_1"> -SØREN HJORTH.</p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">Childhood and Youth.</h2> -</div> - - -<p class="dropcap">Søren Hjorth was born on the 13th of October, 1801. -He spent his childhood at Vesterbygaard, an estate -rented by his father, Jens Hjorth, in Jordløse Parish, -north of Tissø. His mother’s maiden name was Margrethe -Lassen. Of their numerous children only two, -besides Søren, survived childhood.</p> - -<p>The parents became early aware that their son possessed -great mechanical genius. He received his first -education from the parish school-master. After Hjorth -was confirmed, his father leased the beautiful estate -Dragsholm, in Odsherred County, where he remained -for many years, and after the death of his first wife, he -married baroness Zytphen-Adeler.</p> - -<p>Though he did not have an opportunity of learning -much in his childhood, Hjorth succeeded in his youth -in passing an examination which admitted him to the -Bar. Later on he became the steward of Bonderup -Estate, near Korsør, but in this position he did not feel -satisfied, and in 1828 he became a volunteer in the State -Treasury, in Copenhagen. In 1836, he advanced to -the position of Clerk of the Exchequer and secretary.<span class="pagenum">[2]</span> -Although Hjorth’s occupation, during the last 30 years -of his life, was mainly that of a civil engineer, he always -continued to be addressed as Secretary Hjorth, and -by this title he is still remembered by some of his -surviving contemporaries.</p> - -<p>Hjorth’s interests while at the Treasury were not concentrated -solely on his work there. Mechanical problems -always fascinated him. It is told that, during -this period, he made all kinds of experiments at Dragsholm, -and, among other things, he constructed a thrashing-machine. -In 1832 he constructed a rotary steam-engine, -which was made by Schiødt, a mechanic residing at -St. Annae Plads, and, upon Hjorth’s application, it was -bought by the King for 500 rixdollars in notes. The -King donated it to the newly founded Polytechnic Institute, -this being the place where it might best be utilized -and »where this original domestic invention might most -suitably be placed«. The same year, Hjorth described -in »Ursin’s Magazines for Artists and Artisans« a steam-car, -invented by him and adapted to be propelled by -means of the rotary steam-engine. So Hjorth once more -made a petition to the Government for a subvention of -2000 to 2500 rixdollars to assist in the practical manufacture -of this car. The decision on this application was -postponed, however, at the suggestion of Professors Ørsted, -Zeiss and Forchhammer, because Hjorth had not -yet finished the installation of the boiler for the first -steam-engine at the Polytechnic Institute. Hjorth did -not succeed in making the engine work, as it was not -made with sufficient accuracy. The sum for which the -car was to be made, was never granted, as petitioned -for, although Hjorth had given up using his rotary -engine for it; and the car itself was probably never built.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum">[3]</span></p> - -<p>At that time, the use of steam-cars on the country -roads attracted great attention in England, and many -different constructions appeared. In 1834 Hjorth, aided -by subventions from the »Rejersen Foundation« and the -Government, went to England, in order to acquaint himself -with the use of these steam-cars on high-roads and -railroads. During these years he very actively investigated -the use of steam-power, especially as a means of -propulsion for vehicles and ships. With admirable -interest and diligence he studied the steam propelled -road-carriage, and for a long time he considered that -to be the future means of conveyance. Although he -did not succeed in getting his own steam-carriage put -to practical use, he made many experiments on a steam -car, and I am told by one of his passengers that on the -level streets of Copenhagen and Frederiksberg all went -very well, but the carriage could not climb Valby hill.</p> - -<p>During these years, Hjorth also attended the lectures -at the Polytechnic Institute, and he was especially interested -in Ørsted’s lectures on the physics of the globe, -and on electricity and magnetism.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding his unsuccessful experiments with -the rotary steam-engine, Professors Ørsted, Zeiss and -Forchhammer had to give him a warm recommendation, -when he made a petition to the Ministry in order to -get his expenses refunded by the Government. They -mentioned his indefatigable zeal, his great diligence, and -the considerable expense borne by him in the pursuit -of his researches. The numerous and expensive experiments -absorbed all the money Hjorth could procure: not -only his salary was spent, but also such funds as he -was able to raise among his friends.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum">[4]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Ref_4">The Railway.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>In 1839 Hjorth made a journey to England, France -and Belgium. By that time, he seems to have come to -the conclusion that steam-carriages running on rails, are -preferable to steam-carriages running on the high-road, -at any rate he mainly studied locomotives and railroading -during this journey.</p> - -<p>After his return to Denmark, he spent some years -as manager of Marschall’s piano factory, though still at -work with his railroad schemes, and in 1840 he happened -to find a man named Schram, a book-keeper, who -shared his interests and was able to assist him in the -realisation of his ideas. In 1840, these two men published -a detailed calculation of the probable revenues and expenses -of a railroad between Copenhagen and Roskilde. -This project, however, did not arouse any interest, and -people were mostly inclined to smile at the idea, and -it appeared impossible to induce competent men to take, -any interest in the scheme, much less to invest money -therein.</p> - -<p>Then, in 1841, they applied to the young »Industrial -Association« which body referred the case to its special -committee of commerce. Even this committee did not -seem much inclined to listen to Hjorth’s and Schram’s -proposition, but their undefatigable energy finally succeeded -in persuading the committee of commerce to convoke -a large meeting to be held on the 24th of March. -Here it was decided to make an application to the Government -for the surveying of the proposed railroad line and, -to the surprise of many, the petition was granted. Hjorth, -possessing distinctive agitatory faculties, showed great -activity, delivering lectures and exhibiting models, and<span class="pagenum">[5]</span> -tried thereby to excite interest in his schemes. His contemporaries -describe him as a sociable man of a winning -and lovable disposition and possessing a certain -persuasive power. He was well liked by his friends -as well as by his many casual acquaintances. In 1841 -both Hjorth and Schram were elected members of the -Board of Representatives of the Industrial Association, -and from 1841 to 1843 Hjorth was the vice-president of -the association. Now there began to be some sympathy -for their cause, and the Board of Representatives of the -Industrial Association showed a willingness to follow the -sub-committee elected, consisting of the two motionists -and Lector, (later Professor) Wilkens of the Polytechnic -Institute. The strenuous efforts of this sub-committee -resulted in the Industrial Association submitting, in January -1843, an application for a franchise to form a -stock-company for the purpose of building a railroad -from Copenhagen, by way of Roskilde, to a sea-port on -the western coast of Sealand. This franchise, was granted, -for a period of 100 years, and on the 16th of April 1844 -the Industrial Association issued a public invitation to -take stock in a company whose stock capital was to -be <span class="nowrap">1 <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">2</span></span> million rixdollars, a very considerable sum for -those times. As early as in the beginning of May, most -of the stock was taken—mainly in Hamburg. While -the confidence in a scheme of this kind was but slight -in Denmark, the speculation in railroad stocks was -nearly culminating at the stock-exchanges of Germany -and England; as a matter of fact, it became near being -a swindle. The Sealand Railroad Company was founded -on the 2nd of July 1844, and Hjorth became its first -technical director, while Schram became its first general -manager. The Industrial Association received 15000 rixdollars<span class="pagenum">[6]</span> -for the franchise, and from this sum it paid -3000 to Hjorth and Schram.</p> - -<p>In 1843, Hjorth was unanimously elected president -of the Industrial Association. In 1845, he had to -resign this office, but as it appeared very difficult to -concentrate the votes in favour of a new president and -vice-president, »Secretary Hjorth, to meet the general -demand, accepted the vice-presidency«, which office he -then held for a year.</p> - -<p>In the meantime, the railroad company had finished -the construction of its first piece of road, from Copenhagen -to Roskilde, and this was opened for traffic on -the 27th of June 1847, some days before the time limit -fixed. Even at that time it was decided, owing to Hjorth’s -influence, to extend the road to Korsør. The cause of -the delay in commencing this work was the railroad -crisis which had just broken out in Germany and England, -making it impossible to obtain money for the construction -of railroads. This road, therefore, was not constructed -until the government, in 1852, guaranteed an -interest of 4% on the capital invested.</p> - -<p>Hjorth retained his position for about 4 years, and -concerning this period he writes: »All the great difficulties -and obstacles to be surmounted during the construction -of the road influenced my health to such a -degree that I broke down and was forced to abandon -my position as technical director of the railroad before -the expiration of my term of office, in order that I might -take a water-cure at Klampenborg«. After he had, to -some extent, regained his health there, and another -board of directors had been elected, he made a travel -to England which turned out to be of such great importance -that we will describe it more fully in the -following.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum">[7]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Ref_7">Electricity.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>After Faraday, in 1831, had discovered how an electric -current might be produced by means of a magnet, many -people busied themselves by trying to put this invention -into practical use, and numerous attempts were -made to construct electro-magnetic and magneto-electric -machines for useful purposes.</p> - -<p>No wonder that these efforts attracted Hjorth’s attention, -and, as early as 1842, he had drafted an electro-magnetic -machine, consisting of a stationary circle of magnets, -whose poles were directed against the poles of a -moveable circle of magnets. In 1843 this sketch was -deposited with the Royal Scientific Society, but the -sketch itself, as well as the explanation belonging to it, -are very incomplete.</p> - -<p>In the month of April, 1848, Hjorth made a petition -to the government for a subvention of 200 rixdollars, in -order that he might go to England to get an electro-magnetic -machine<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> designed by him, made there. Hjorth -had noticed that, in a piece of iron encircled by an electric -current, the magnetism only to a certain extent would -increase, with the strength of current, there being a point -of saturation for the iron. When this point has been -reached, it will be of no use to increase the intensity -of the current, since the magnetism will not increase -any further. On the basis of this observation, Hjorth -had constructed his machine, but he had confided the<span class="pagenum">[8]</span> -details thereof only to Professors Ørsted and Forchhammer. -In the report on Hjorth’s petition made by -these two professors to the Board of Trade, they, curiously -enough, take exception to the above-mentioned -observation by Hjorth, while its correctness will now be -acknowledged by any electrician. These professors, however, -advised that Hjorth’s petition should be granted, -using this liberal argument, worded by Ørsted: »Regarding -the petitioner’s new electro-magnetic machine, we -must state that we find it quite ingenious, and although -we are not convinced that it will produce remarkable -effects, we should consider it useful to have a working -model executed. Having during so many years worked -for this case, the petitioner might perhaps, by the execution -of such a model, be enabled to make some further -invention, which would bring him nearer to the goal. -Indefatigable zeal has often accomplished its purpose, -where science had to declare the means at first used, to -be entirely inadequate, but where, by continued work, -entirely different means, previously unknown to the inventor, -were found. Inasmuch as the sum of 200 rixdollars -asked for is so small, we find it advisable to grant the -subvention. Still we cannot refrain from remarking that -the petitioner’s machine may just as well be made here -as at any other place«.</p> - -<p>Thus the discoverer of electro-magnetism cleared the -road which was to lead to the most beautiful application -of electro-magnetism, that application which, before -all others, has been of radically reforming importance -during the last half century, thereby throwing double -splendor on Ørsted’s name.</p> - -<p>Soon after his arrival at London, in the summer of -1848, through a firm which he knew from an earlier<span class="pagenum">[9]</span> -period of his life, Hjorth made the acquaintance of a -nephew of Bramah, the renowned mechanician and inventor -of the Bramah-lock. Hjorth’s invention was then -laid before a friend of Bramah’s, a civil engineer named -Gregory, who had made the study of magnetism his -specialty. Gregory at once persuaded Bramah to bear -the expense of making a machine, and of securing patents -in England and several other countries, on condition that -the expected profits should be divided between him and -Hjorth. Later on, B. Taylor and Normann Innis were -taken in as partners, paying together £1000, and then -Charles Stovin (£600) and Robert Broad, of the Henley Iron -Works (£500). Two machines were now made, according -to Hjorth’s directions, by the firm of Robinson & Sons, -Pimlico, London. One of these is shown in <a id="R_img019" href="#img019">Fig. 1</a>, and -is apparently quite an ingenious imitation of the steam-engines -of those days. <em>C</em> is a movable, <em>A</em> a fixed -electro-magnet. Their peculiar shape, involving several -conical pins fitting into corresponding cavities, was -thought to be advantageous for the distribution of the<span class="pagenum">[10]</span> -effect of the magnetic force over a longer stroke. The -»piston« <em>C</em>, reciprocating up and down, drives a crank -shaft having two opposite cranks. To either of the cranks -there is a corresponding group of magnets. An eccentric -fixed on the shaft, moves a »slide valve«, alternately -closing the circuit of one or the other of the two -groups of magnets. When the one piston is at its lowest -position, the circuit of the other group of magnets is -closed, and its piston is attracted, until it reaches its -bottom position; then the current is shifted, and the -other piston attracted, etc. In order to avoid the formation -of sparks at the circuit breaker, an ingenious device -was provided, closing the current of one group of magnets, -immediately before that of the other one was broken. -The first machine was made with a 4 inch stroke, the -next one with <span class="nowrap">13 <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">2</span></span> inch stroke. The magnetic attraction -per square inch of the piston, had about the same -magnitude as the pressure per square inch in the low -pressure steam-engines of those days. The patent application -was filed in London as early as in October 1848, -and it was granted on the 26th of April 1849<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>. On the -21st of September, the same year, Hjorth obtained a -fifteen year monopoly in the kingdom of Denmark, to -manufacture machines, utilizing electro-magnetism as -motive power in the above described manner.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="img019" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/img019.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="center"><a href="#R_img019">Fig. 1. Hjorth’s Electromotor.</a></p></div> -</div> - -<p>The larger of the machines here referred to was -shown in action to several technical experts, and created -considerable sensation, especially on account of the great -length of stroke attained—<span class="nowrap">13 <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">2</span></span> inches—and the uniform -motion of the machine. The machine is mentioned -in »Mining Journal«, for the 5th of May, and 16th of<span class="pagenum">[11]</span> -June 1849, and an extract of these articles is published -in the »Flyveposten« for the 3rd of July the same year.</p> - -<p>Hjorth was invited to show the machine at the Royal -Society, and at the annual meeting of the Society of -Civil Engineers, of which he was a member. It was exhibited -at the Universal Exhibition in London, in 1851. -In the catalogue it was highly commended, and it received -the only prize-medal awarded to electrical machines.</p> - -<p>There was, however, one essential obstacle to the -practical use of this machine, namely the lack of means -for cheaply producing electricity in the quantities required -by the electromotor. Wet batteries were expensive -to use, and if the machine were to become useful -in practice, a powerful »dry battery« would be a necessity. -Most of the then known machines producing electricity, -were fitted with permanent steel magnets, and -as the point of magnetic saturation of steel is low, these -machines were unable to produce any considerable -quantities of electric energy. Hjorth therefore imposed -upon himself the task of building a dry battery. His -sketch-book from 1851 is full of new schemes for such -batteries and improvements on those already existing -(Woolrich’s, Elkington’s and Paine’s). From this it appears, -among other things, that he was fully aware that, -when the spools suddenly entered or left the field, -difficulties would arise in the commutation, and he -therefore improved the machine by bending the field -magnets, obtaining thereby a gradually increasing and -decreasing field, the same thing which is, nowadays, -attained by using pointed or obliquely cut pole-shoes.—It -would be very tempting to study more closely these -sketch-books with their neatly colored drawings, showing<span class="pagenum">[12]</span> -how many different ideas have been fostered by him, -before the actual production of the first dynamo, in 1854. -Most of the descriptions and notes have been written in -the English language, which he used almost as readily -as his native tongue. On the 1st of May, 1851, Hjorth -writes in his sketch-book, beside a sketch of a machine -having copper discs for armature conductors and -cast iron electro-magnets: »<em>By passing the current on the -said way round the Electromagnets, these will of course -be excited in proportion to the strength of the same, and -the more they are excited, the more will the discs be influenced -by the magnets, a mutual action thus taking -place</em>«.</p> - -<p>So it appears that Hjorth, as early as on the 1st of -May 1851, with perfect clearness, has pronounced the -dynamo-electric principle.</p> - -<p>Under the date of June 24th, 1851, we find sketched -out another beautiful idea for the construction of a -dynamo. It must be regretted that this machine has not -been executed, as it would certainly have proved superior -to his dynamo of 1855, which has many points in -common with this project. <a id="R_img024" href="#img024">Fig. 2</a> shows a reproduction -of this page of the sketch-book. There is no descriptive -text to this sketch, only at one side of the drawing, these -very significant words are written: »Magneto-Electric -arrangement with mutual action«. All the six powerful -held magnets are of cast iron, and they are wound so -as to be magnetized by the current, produced by the -dynamo itself<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="img024" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/img024.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="center"><a href="#R_img024">Fig 2. Facsimile of a Page of Hjorth’s Sketch Book, June 24th 1851.</a></p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum">[13]</span></p> - -<p>In November, 1851, Hjorth returned to Copenhagen, -and here he continued what he had commenced in -England. In May, 1852, he deposited with the »Society -of Sciences« some papers, signed by Professors -Scharling and Forchhammer in December, 1851. These -papers contain two descriptions, written in English, and -two drawings of »dry batteries«. These consist of 3 or 4 -circular rows of vertical steel rod magnets, placed one -above the other, and disposed round a vertical shaft, -carrying 2 or 3 circular rows of armatures. Each armature -consists of a piece of soft iron, and is wound with -a strip of copper, in a special manner. There are, in each -row, as many armatures as magnets. The hollow shaft, -as well as the magnets, which are fitted with shoes of -soft iron, are wound, and encircled by the current produced -in the armatures. With regard to the magnetic -arrangement, this machine comes very near to the one -patented by Brett in 1848, and it will be noticed that -it cannot be said to be constructed according to the dynamo -principle, as the »mutual« action plays no important -part, the magnets being permanent steel magnets, -hardly adapted to receive much extra magnetism -by the current of the machine. Hjorth points out, as -the novel feature of these machines, the division of the -steel magnets into many small ones, with an armature -corresponding to each magnet. Hereby he claims, for -the same weight of the steel magnets, a larger capacity -of the machine than if he had used fewer, but larger<span class="pagenum">[14]</span> -steel magnets<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>. The machine is fitted with a commutator -for direct current.—In March, 1854, the sketch-book -contains another sketch of a dynamo, with clear -indication of the dynamo principle, approximately as it -was patented on the 14th of October the same year<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>. -This sketch is reproduced in <a id="R_025" href="#img025">Fig. 3</a>. The machine has -two permanent cast iron magnets and two electro-magnets. -The armature cores are fitted with oblique pole-shoes. -The description is very brief and contains the -same as the patent specification.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp47" id="img025" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/img025.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="center"><a href="#R_025">Fig. 3. Facsimile of a Page of Hjorth’s Sketch Book, March 1854.</a></p></div> -</div> - -<p>In 1853 Hjorth negotiated with a certain Dr. Watson, -who had constructed a »dry battery« by means of which -Hjorth had meant to drive his electro-magnetic machine. -The object of their negotiations was to buy out Hjorth’s -above-named partners, and to form a new company -for the purpose of exploiting the above-mentioned two -machines. The partnership, however, was not realized, -and in spring of 1854, Hjorth himself commenced to have -a 3 HP battery built in Copenhagen. The machine was -fitted with cast iron magnets, and in all probability it -was similar to the project of March 1854, and agreed -with the patent of October, the same year.</p> - -<p>This patent specification reads as follows: »The main -feature of this battery consists in applying one, two, or -several permanent magnets <em>A</em>, of cast iron, and shaped as -shewn in the drawing (Figs. <a id="R_029a" href="#img029a">4</a> and <a id="R_029b" href="#img029b">5</a>), in connection with an -equal number or more electro-magnets <em>B</em>, shaped as indicated<span class="pagenum">[15]</span> -in drawing, in such a manner <em>that the currents induced -in the coils of the revolving armatures are allowed to -pass round the electro-magnets; consequently, the more the -electro-magnets are excited in the said manner, the more -will the armatures C be excited, and the more electricity -of course induced in the respective coilings</em>; and while -a mutual and accelerating force is produced in this -manner between the electro-magnets and the armatures, -an additional or secondary current is at the same time -induced in the coiling of the electro-magnets by the -motion of the armatures, the said current flowing in the -same direction as that of the primary current, after -having passed the commutator. The direction of the<span class="pagenum">[16]</span> -current induced in the coils of the armatures will, of -course, be reversed according to the change of the respective -polarities, and the commutator <em>D</em> is therefore applied -for the purpose of causing the current to flow constantly -in one direction«. Then follows a description of -the commutator of the dynamo. Finally the pole-shoes, -or false poles, provided on the magnets as well as on -the armatures, are mentioned. He points out that the -false poles have on the side of attraction, a long straight -edge, as distant from the centre as possible, while on -the side of separation, either one has a sharp point, -nearer to the axis of revolution, »all with a view to -avoid reactionary currents, and at the same time to -facilitate the motion of the armature«. »While steel -magnets also may be applied instead of cast-iron magnets, -the permanent magnets may be coiled like the -electro-magnets, which also will serve to make them -more permanent«.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="img029a" style="max-width: 26.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/img029a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="center"><a href="#R_029a">Fig. 4. Hjorth’s Dynamo 1854.</a></p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="img029b" style="max-width: 26.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/img029b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="center"><a href="#R_029b">Fig. 5. Hjorth’s Dynamo 1854. Fragment of the Patent Drawing.</a></p></div> -</div> - -<p>From the above-named sketch-book notations, and -the patent specification, it will be seen that Hjorth, during -the years 1851-54, has repeatedly pronounced the dynamo -principle with perfect clearness, and that he has -utilized it in several projects.</p> - -<p>It is worth noting that Hjorth’s so-called »permanent« -magnets are of cast iron. This shows that Hjorth has -known of remanence, or permanence. He has known that -cast iron always possesses some slight magnetism, either -induced by the earth magnetism or as a remnant—remnant -magnetism—left over from its being magnetized -in a coil. It has heretofore been assumed that Siemens -was the first to call attention to this property of iron, in -his paper in the transactions of the Royal Society, of -the 14th of February, 1867.—Thus Hjorth used this<span class="pagenum">[17]</span> -weak remanent magnetism in the large cast iron magnets -to produce the initial current in the dynamo, which then -excites itself.—At the end of the patent specification, -Hjorth points out that the remanent magnets may also -be coiled (compare <a href="#img024">Fig. 2</a>), and thereby he comes closer -to the later dynamo constructions.</p> - -<p>Hjorth is quite right, according to the patent specification, -in giving the pole-shoes such a shape that the -armature is gradually demagnetized, and in stating that -the object of this is thereby to avoid reactionary currents, -and consequently the formation of sparks; while -he is mistaken in believing to be able to facilitate the -motion of the armature by giving the pole-shoes a certain -special shape, because in that case, the machine -would be a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perpetuum mobile</i>.</p> - -<p>Together with the above-mentioned dynamo, Hjorth -had an electromotor made in Copenhagen, essentially -similar to the one exhibited in 1851. When in the -autumn 1854 the machines were finished, Hjorth was -called back to England, in order to continue the work -on his inventions. It is not known whether the machines -were sent to England or not; at any rate they aroused -some interest there, and he had a new and larger dynamo -built by Messrs Malcolm & Campbell; of Liverpool, -7 India Buildings, at the expense of Malcolm and others. -This machine was patented in 1855<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>, and is shown in -<a id="R_img032" href="#img032">Fig. 6</a>, which is reproduced from a photograph. Here, too, -the dynamo principle has been followed, but each electro-magnet -is composed of one solid and one tubular electro-magnet, -the latter enclosing the former, the two together -forming a so-called »<em>cup magnet</em>«, a construction which<span class="pagenum">[18]</span> -has also been used by later inventors. Hjorth describes -the action of the battery as follows: »<em>The permanent magnets -acting on the armatures, brought in succession between -their poles, induce a current in the coils of the armatures, -which current, after having been caused by the commutator -to flow in one direction, passes round the electro-magnets, -charging the same and acting on the armatures. By -the mutual action between the electro-magnets and the armatures, -an accelerating force is obtained, which in the -result produces electricity greater in quantity and intensity -than has heretofore been obtained by any similar means.</em>« -At the same time, Hjorth allowed the dynamo patent -of 1854 to lapse, it being merely a provisional patent.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="img032" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/img032.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="center"><a href="#R_img032">Fig. 6. Hjorth’s Dynamo 1855, from an old Photograph.</a></p></div> -</div> - -<p>Together with the dynamo patent of 1854, Hjorth -secured a provisional patent on an improved electromotor<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>, -and together with the dynamo patent of 1855, -he obtained the complete patent on the above mentioned -electromotor, as well as on another construction -thereof<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>. The former consisted of hollow, horizontal -electro-magnets (cylinders), being of a special shape inside, -adapting them to give to an electro-magnetic piston, -reciprocating within them, a long and steady stroke. By -means of a crank, the stroke was transformed into a -rotary motion. The other electro-motor consisted of wheels, -with protruding teeth, which were set in rotary motion -by the teeth being attracted into hollow electro-magnets.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Ref_18">Hard Times.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>In May, 1856, Hjorth returned from England, disappointed. -It will be noted that through the electro-motor -Hjorth was led to occupy himself with the dynamo machine.<span class="pagenum">[19]</span> -The dynamo was built in order to produce motive -power for the motor. All the time he was working -on these two inventions, it was his firm belief that if he -could make the dynamo drive the electro-motor, he -would be able to attain a substantial saving in power, -get much more power out of the electro-motor than was -consumed in driving the dynamo. The machines would, -as it were, run automatically. He could not understand, -why Dr. Watson was sceptical with regard to this -manner of battery action. He intended to install his -machines in ships and locomotives, which would then -be propelled with a minimum consumption of power. In -short, the combination of dynamo and electro-motor imagined -by Hjorth was to be a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perpetuum mobile</i>. It has -certainly been the great disappointment of his journey -to England, that this scheme failed.</p> - -<p>On reading about this mistake, one is inclined to base -the judgment of Hjorth upon assumptions belonging to -the present time. But this would be a great injustice to -him. The axiom that the quantity of energy in nature -is unalterable, and consequently a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perpetuum mobile</i> an -impossibility, has, as it were, been imbued by our own -generation with the mother’s milk. Not so with Hjorth. -Not until the forties of the last century, did Mayer, Joule -and Colding, the City Engineer of Copenhagen, set forth -their theories about the permanency of energy, and about -the convertibility of heat into mechanical activity, and -of the latter into heat again. These theories, however, -were very slowly accepted, even by scientists. It is, -therefore, no wonder that a man like Hjorth, having no -special scientific training, could not easily digest the -new theory and Hjorth did not have any instinctive -sensation of having entered upon a hopeless and impossible<span class="pagenum">[20]</span> -track. On the contrary, he imagined the new -wonderful form of energy to conceal unestimable possibilities -which he had only to wrest from nature.</p> - -<p>Though Hjorth was thus ship-wrecked on his favourite -idea, he nevertheless discovered new land, fertile for coming -generations. His intrepid zeal guided him, as Ørsted -had anticipated, in spite of his lack of scientific education, -on to the road leading to the splendid results of -this day.</p> - -<p>None of Hjorth’s original partners participated in the -manufacture of his latest machines, and possibly this -was due to his above-mentioned erroneous idea. Only -one of his English friends, Wm. Macredie, of Melbourne, -maintained his attachment to Hjorth and his confidence -in him to the last. He was always very interested in -Hjorth’s schemes, and, besides, he shared his religious -creed.</p> - -<p>Hjorth was very anxious as to his future. When he -returned from England, he stood quite destitute and felt -depressed by poverty. His health was not of the best, -and his formerly so neat hand-writing had become unsteady. -He received, shortly after his return, a communication -from his English partners that they wished -to have the dynamo patented in Denmark and France, -which showed that they had faith in this machine, but -nevertheless these were hard times for Hjorth.</p> - -<p>The dynamo remained for some time with Malcolm, -in Liverpool, and negotiations for its sale were several -times entered into, but were without results. It was -tested on several occasions, but these tests proved that -it could not yield as much as might be expected from -its size. The uncoiled magnets, which were originally -of cast iron, were replaced by more powerful steel magnets.<span class="pagenum">[21]</span> -Upon the whole, this dynamo had a rather -eventful existence, for first every other magnet pole was -removed (see <a href="#img032">Fig. 6</a>), and then it was proposed to rewind -the magnets. In May, 1857, it was donated to the -Polytechnic Institute, Regent Street, in London. Among -the papers left by Hjorth, there are a daguerreotype and -a photograph of this machine, (from which the accompanying -<a href="#img032">Fig. 6</a> is reproduced).</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding a thorough search of the London -museums, it has been impossible to trace this machine, -which is said to have been seen in London during the -nineties.</p> - -<p>Hjorth was now compelled to find a new means of earning -his livelihood, and to make new connections. In 1857, -he became the representative of Cyclop’s Steel Manufactory, -Charles Cammell, of Sheffield, and in 1859, he applied -for and obtained a licence as a translator of English in -Copenhagen. Finally he had a kind of engineering and -patent office, assisting strangers in obtaining monopolies, -and doing work for new railroads, bridges etc. In the -beginning of the sixties he caused a research to be made -concerning the use of coals from Hornholm and Silkeborg, -and the use of peat for briquettes. In April, 1860, -he applied to the government for a position, enabling -him to work for the building of new railroads in Denmark, -and at the same time he referred to his previous -merits in that direction. As he had not, within a year -thereafter, received any position, he made a petition -for a yearly pension, in case such a position could not -be given to him. As »the idea of building the Sealand -railroad, as well as the general location of this road, -is mainly due to Secretary Hjorth ... and further -more, no small share in the completion of the undertaking<span class="pagenum">[22]</span> -is due to him«, it was proposed, on the budget -for 1861-62, to grant a pension to Hjorth. That year -and the following ones, until his death, he received -500 rixdollars.</p> - -<p>During these years, Hjorth lived at 10 Nørrebrogade. -In 1845, he married Vilhelmine Ancker, née Hansen (born -on the 27th of March, 1805), the widow of the farmer -Diderick Ancker, of »Lille Egede«, and thereby he became -the step-father of two daughters. This marriage was -childless.</p> - -<p>This carefully dressed little man<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> in top-hat and -high-heeled shoes, was well known, and very well liked -in many circles. He was always amiable and willing to -help, and it is known that he has, at great personal -sacrifice, assisted young artisans who were in hard luck. -In society he attracted attention by his power of fascination -and by his universal knowledge. On Sundays he -was regularly seen directing his steps to St. John’s -church, where, for many years, he was a member of -Rev. Frimodt’s congregation.</p> - -<p>During the period of depression above described, -Hjorth could naturally not very well afford to occupy -himself with experiments, nor had he much time. Still, -in 1857, he secured permission to undertake, at the navy -yard, some experiments concerning the carrying capacity -of a magnet at varying distances between the pole and -the armature, and at the same time he sketched out -the construction of an electro-motor, especially well -adapted to utilize the magnetic attraction. This electro-motor -was built in Copenhagen with funds granted by -the »Classenske Fideicommis«. When it was finished,<span class="pagenum">[23]</span> -Hjorth applied for the money needed to make it double -acting.</p> - -<p>In autumn 1860, Hjorth was in Paris, and there he -worked for his electrical inventions.</p> - -<p>In 1866, Wilde published his machine, in which the -current needed to magnetize the electro-magnets was -produced by a permanent magnet. This is exactly the -principle, underlying the dynamos built by Hjorth in -1854 and 1855. Hjorth’s good friend, Wm. Macredie, -Melbourne, sent Hjorth a clipping from an English -periodical mentioning Wilde’s machine, and called his -attention to the identity.</p> - -<p>It is to be regretted that Hjorth’s answer is not known, -as his copy-book for 1866 has been lost.</p> - -<p>Considering the data at hand when Hjorth’s biography -was published in 1907, one might be inclined to -believe that Hjorth had invented the dynamo principle -and then dropped it at once, going back to steel magnets. -It is, however, clearly evidenced, by the papers left by -Hjorth, that this has not been the case, but that Hjorth has -used the dynamo principle, in various, more or less pure, -forms, in practically all his projects from 1851 to 1870.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp48" id="img040" style="max-width: 20.3125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/img040.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="center"><a href="#R_040">Fig. 7. Sketch of Hjorth’s Magneto-Electric Machine 1867.</a></p></div> -</div> - -<p>As previously mentioned, Hjorth had been disappointed -in his attempts to produce energy through an electrical -transmission of power, but this did not cause him -to relinquish the idea of producing energy by electric -means. He took this up again in a new form in his old -age. In order to have this idea carried out in practice, -Hjorth had a machine built, a description and drawing of -which is to be found in a pamphlet published later on in -French and Danish. From this it appears that the machine -was not originally built according to the dynamo principle. -Hjorth found no advantage in using the expensive<span class="pagenum">[24]</span> -electro-magnets, as it was his main object to prove that, -by his special arrangement of armatures and magnets, -he could reduce the power required to produce a certain -amount of electrical energy. The machine, in its manner -of construction, reminds one to some extent, of Hjorth’s -project of 1851. Two or three rings, or wheels, of armature -coils <em>A</em> (see <a id="R_040" href="#img040">Fig. 7</a>) revolve -between three or four -circular rows of magnets -<em>M</em>. This decreased -consumption of power was -to be attained by offsetting -the armature wheels -somewhat relatively to one -another, for instance so -that when one armature -of the topmost wheel -was opposite one magnet -pole, an armature of the -next armature wheel would -be spaced one quarter of -a pole distance from a -pole, and an armature of -the lowest wheel would -be one half pole distance from a pole. As it is well -known, this idea is entirely erroneous, it being contrary -to the axiom of the constancy of energy.</p> - -<p>The machine was built into a casing, and was sent -to the Paris exhibition of 1867. Hjorth was always very -careful not to give any information about his inventions -to anybody. At the end of April, he went to Paris -himself. The machine had suffered some injury on the -journey, and had to be repaired in Paris, and therefore<span class="pagenum">[25]</span> -it made its appearance rather late. Still he succeeded -in having it submitted to the judgment of the jury, and -a test of electrolytic deposition was made, which proved -entirely successful.</p> - -<p>In Paris he met a certain business-man who, later -on, requested to enter into partnership with Hjorth. -This man was an adventurer, whose ambition was to -become a Knight of Danebrog. It is only to be regretted -that this person obtained so great a power over Hjorth, -and understood how to deceive him. The previously -mentioned pamphlet, edited by the partner, and named -»Batterie magnéto-électrique de Søren Hjorth«, is a document -of the poorest kind.</p> - -<p>Through his partner, Hjorth was introduced to various -electricians and men of science, among others the renowned -Samuel B. Morse, who recommended Hjorth’s -machine, but took exception to his idea concerning the -production of energy.</p> - -<p>The electrician who repaired Hjorth’s machine, introduced -him to the president of the French Société d’Encouragement, -who had proposed a competition for electrical -machines, and had offered a prize of 3000 fr. for -a machine, complying with the conditions given. Hjorth’s -machine was sent to the society, but he did not succeed -in obtaining the prize, which was awarded to the subsequently -so famous »Alliance« machine. On the 7th of -July, Hjorth, probably prompted by his partner, obtained -an audience of Emperor Napoleon III. After he had -demonstrated his invention, and shown the letter from -Professor Morse, the Emperor asked him what he could -do for him, and Hjorth answered that his highest desire -was to have a larger machine built, and he requested the -Emperor’s protection and assistance, in order to accomplish<span class="pagenum">[26]</span> -this. The Emperor ordered an examination of the -machine to be made. The well-known Professor Jamin -was retained as an expert, and Hjorth demonstrated the -machine before him. On the following day it was examined, -in the presence of Hjorth and his partner, by -Jamin and other men of science. They subsequently -had the machine sent to the exposition, where they measured -the voltage and intensity of current, and expressed -their satisfaction, as to the results attained. Nevertheless -Hjorth was disappointed to receive, the next day, through -the representative of the Emperor, General Favé, a communication -that the subvention applied for could not -be granted.</p> - -<p>At the exposition, a great sensation was created by -a dynamo exhibited by Ladd. This machine had two -electro-magnets and two armatures, the current being -directed from the smaller armature round the electro-magnets -and taken from the larger armature to the -exterior circuit, lights for instance. Thus the machine -was evidently built according to the dynamo principle.</p> - -<p>In order to claim his right of priority to this principle, -Hjorth went to the prominent authority on physics, -Count Th. du Moncel, who later on became the editor of -»La lumière électrique«. As Hjorth himself did not know -French, the interview probably took place through his -partner. About this, Moncel writes in the above mentioned -periodical, in 1883, that Hjorth’s representative was -not very conversant with electrical matters; therefore he -was unable to express himself clearly, and consequently -Hjorth’s rights of priority were not acknowledged.</p> - -<p>Having received the Emperor’s refusal, Hjorth went -home, broken down by illness and disappointments.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum">[27]</span></p> - -<p>In 1868-69 Hjorth, due to the interest taken in his -case by the manufacturer Mr. Kähler, succeeded in having -a small machine built in this gentleman’s shop in -Korsør. At the same time, a larger machine was made -in Copenhagen, the necessary funds being contributed -by several country gentlemen and merchants interested -in the case. Finally, in December, 1868, a body of prominent -men addressed the government, petitioning a subvention -of 15,000 rixdollars to be given to Hjorth, in -order to enable him to build a new and larger machine. -As the Ministry was not inclined to grant a sum of this -size, it proposed to grant 1000 rixdollars, in order to -have the existing machines examined by Professor Hummel -and other experts. This proposition was accepted -by Hjorth, and a commission was formed, consisting -of Professor Hummel, assisted by Professor Holten, Instructor -Lorenz and Winstrup, a mechanic. As early -as December, 1868, Professor Hummel, together with -head-master Ibsen from Sorø, had visited dyer Gülich -of Christianshavn, where one of the machines was located, -and they made a few tests, which Hummel himself -did not consider to be of any importance. The experiments -were to be made in April, 1869, after an -assistant had made a preliminary experiment, but then -Kähler reported that he had taken the machine apart, -in order to make an alteration therein, and that this -would take a couple of months. It appears, from a -letter from Hjorth to the Ministry of the Interior, that -Hjorth had arrived at the conclusion that he must -resort to the use of electro-magnets, to a certain extent, -at least, on account of »the steel, by continued use, losing -part of its magnetic power, which necessitates its being -re-magnetized«, and partly because »it appears that electro-magnets<span class="pagenum">[28]</span> -may be made to yield a considerably larger -magnetic power than steel magnets, by means of the electrical -current induced thereby«. As this change to the -dynamo principle was estimated to cost 400 rixdollars, -Hjorth was informed, in April 1869, that this amount -would be paid out of the sum, granted for the experiments, -when the smaller machine had been re-built.</p> - -<p>Hjorth’s answer to this was a petition that the 400 rixdollars -might be spent on any battery, which he might -build. Hereafter the case died out. His petition was -not answered until in April 1870, and the answer was a -refusal.—At that time Hjorth was in delicate health, -and his energy had been broken, and a few month’s -afterwards he died, on the 28th of August, 1870. He -was survived by his wife, who died on the 30th of September -1885.</p> - -<p>This indefatigable worker did not succeed in seeing -or reaping the harvest of his work for the utilization -of electricity,—perhaps his aim had been too high. At -a period when in all countries stone was added to stone -in the foundation now supporting electrical engineering, -we Danes have also made our contribution. Hjorth did -not possess the profound knowledge nor the sharper -insight necessary in order to avoid errors, but his perseverance, -his industry, and his sacrifices, ought to be -acknowledged, and his name ought to be venerated on -account of his contributions to the development of electric -machinery.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum">[29]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Ref_29">SOURCES.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>After Hjorth’s death, few knew that he had discovered the dynamo -principle. If Hjorth himself had understood the importance of -this discovery, and the magnitude of the revolutions to be caused -thereby, he would undoubtedly have endeavoured to propagate the -knowledge thereof. It was not until 1879, when Colonel Bolton read -a paper before the Society of Telegraph Engineers in London, that -Hjorth’s patent No. 2198, of 1854, was again brought out of oblivion, -and accompanied by these words: »This appears to involve the -principle which was later on taken up by others«. Count du Moncel, -who had received Hjorth’s representative in 1867, when reading these -words, was reminded of the case. Thereafter he has given Hjorth a -fair redress in the above-cited article in the valuable periodical »La -lumière électrique«, edited by him, the heading being »The Actual -Inventor of the Principle of the Dynamo-Electric Machine«.</p> - -<p>Among the few printed sources of information concerning Søren -Hjorth and his inventions, the following may also be mentioned:</p> - -<p style="margin-left:2em"><em>C. Nyrop</em>: Industriforeningen i København, 1838-1888.<br /> -<em>Du Moncel</em>: L’éclairage électrique, 1884, page 102.<br /> -<cite>Electrician</cite>, July 8th, 1882.<br /> -<cite>La lumière électrique</cite>, 1883, VIII, page 58.</p> - -<p>The most important source is the papers, left by Hjorth, which -comprise a considerable collection of drawings, letters, and rough -copies of letters written by him. These documents furnish full information, -not only of Hjorth’s inventions, but also of his entire reasoning -and manner of being. Probably the most interesting of all are his -note-books and sketch-books, wherein he used to note down his ideas -in English, and which are accompanied by neatly made, coloured -sketches. These papers were not accessible to the public until the -autumn of 1908, and they are now preserved in the archives and -library of the Polytechnic Institute in Copenhagen.</p> - -<p>Important contributions to Hjorth’s history have also been obtained -from the State Archives, the Archives of the Society of Science, -the Archives of the Polytechnic Institute and from the papers left by -H. C. Ørsted.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> According to the usual terminology of those times, an »electro-magnetic« -machine means a machine driven by electricity, an -electromotor, while, on the other hand, a »magneto electric battery«, -or a »dry battery« is a machine for producing electricity.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Specification of Patent No. 12295, 1848.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> After the publication of my first treatise in the »Elektroteknikeren«, -for February 1907, various parties have objected that Hjorth, in -his dynamos, did not use the dynamo principle in its purest -form, as he had one large, unwound, cast iron magnet. On the -contrary, the above-mentioned leaf of his sketch-book shows that -Hjorth, as early as in 1851, has used the dynamo principle in -its purest from—exactly the same as used by Siemens in 1867—as -all the field magnets have been wound cast iron magnets, and -the initial current is induced by the remnant magnetism of -these magnets. <span class="il2"><em>S. S.</em></span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> This is correct, as long as he uses armatures with but a single -winding, because, in that case, the number of armature windings -is proportional to the number of steel magnets. Whereas Hjorth -is mistaken, when in 1867 he makes the same statement about a -machine, where nothing prevents the armature from being fitted -with a great number of windings.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Specification of Patent No. 2198, 1854.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> Specification of Patent No. 806, 1855.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> Specification of Patent No. 2199, 1854.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> Specifications of Patents No. 807 and 808, 1855.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> Hjorth’s English passport, from 1855, contains this information: -Height: 5 feet 7 inches, Complexion: fresh, Eyes and Hair: grey.</p> - -</div></div> - -<hr class="tb x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="transnote"> -<h2 style="margin-top: 0em">Transcriber’s Notes:</h2> - -<p>Footnotes have been moved to the end of the text and relabeled -consecutively through the document.</p> - -<p>Illustrations have been moved to paragraph breaks near where they are -mentioned.</p> - -<p>Punctuation has been made consistent.</p> - -<p>Variations in spelling and hyphenation were retained as they appear in -the original publication, except that obvious typographical errors -have been corrected.</p> - -</div></div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SØREN HJORTH ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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