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+The Project Gutenberg eBook of Søren Hjorth, by Sigurd Smith
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
+will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
+using this eBook.
+
+Title: Søren Hjorth
+       Inventor of the Dynamo-electric Principle
+
+Author: Sigurd Smith
+
+Translator: F. Sodemann
+
+Release Date: August 11, 2021 [eBook #66046]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Craig Kirkwood, and the Online Distributed
+             Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+             produced from images generously made available by The Internet
+             Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SØREN HJORTH ***
+
+Transcriber’s Notes:
+
+Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+The whole number part of a mixed fraction is separated from the
+fractional part with -, for example, 2-1/2.
+
+Additional Transcriber’s Notes are at the end.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+SØREN HJORTH
+
+
+
+
+SØREN HJORTH
+
+
+  INVENTOR OF THE
+  DYNAMO-ELECTRIC PRINCIPLE
+
+  BY
+
+  SIGURD SMITH
+  C. E., M. I. F.
+
+  PUBLISHED BY »ELEKTROTEKNISK FORENING« AT THE
+  EXPENSE OF THE CARLSBERG FOUNDATION
+
+  KØBENHAVN
+  PRINTED BY J. JORGENSEN & CO. (M. A. HANNOVER)
+  1912
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+This pamphlet is published simultaneously in English and in Danish, and
+is distributed among interested institutions all over the world.
+
+Translated by F. SODEMANN, C. E., M. I. F.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration]
+
+  _Handsworth, Birmingham,
+  Feb. 6th, 1851._
+
+... After this wonderful force has been discovered by Your Excellency,
+it has been my pride and interest that also the utilization thereof
+should be originated by a Dane....
+
+  (_Fragment of a letter from Hjorth
+  to H. C. Ørsted._)
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+Since the Life and Works of Søren Hjorth, the Dane was published in
+the Danish technical journal the »Elektroteknikeren«, in 1907, a
+statement concerning Hjorth’s rights of priority to the invention
+of the dynamo-electric principle has been sent to the leading
+foreign technical periodicals, viz. »Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift«,
+»L’éclairage électrique«, and »Electrical Engineering«. As this
+statement still stands uncontradicted, it seems reasonable to
+consider Hjorth’s priority rights to this principle to be generally
+acknowledged, even in the great centres of civilization. Therefore
+I highly appreciated the courtesy of Mr. Hjorth’s heirs, after the
+death of his step-daughter, Miss D. Ancker, in the autumn of 1908, in
+offering me an opportunity to peruse the large collection of letters,
+rough-copies, drawings, and sketch-books left by Hjorth, which threw
+new light on his interesting life and work. Where it was previously
+necessary to resort to guesswork alone, we are now able to base our
+statements on established facts and to follow Hjorth’s train of ideas
+almost from his first, to his last invention, and to see where he has
+right and where he failed.
+
+In the following pages, an account will be given of the results of
+these recent researches in connection with what was previously known
+about Hjorth.
+
+  Charlottenlund 1911.
+
+  _Sigurd Smith._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                      Page
+
+  Preface.
+
+  Søren Hjorth:
+
+    Childhood and Youth  1
+
+    The Railway          4
+
+    Electricity          7
+
+    Hard Times          18
+
+  Sources               29
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+SØREN HJORTH.
+
+
+
+
+Childhood and Youth.
+
+
+Søren Hjorth was born on the 13th of October, 1801. He spent his
+childhood at Vesterbygaard, an estate rented by his father, Jens
+Hjorth, in Jordløse Parish, north of Tissø. His mother’s maiden name
+was Margrethe Lassen. Of their numerous children only two, besides
+Søren, survived childhood.
+
+The parents became early aware that their son possessed great
+mechanical genius. He received his first education from the parish
+school-master. After Hjorth was confirmed, his father leased the
+beautiful estate Dragsholm, in Odsherred County, where he remained for
+many years, and after the death of his first wife, he married baroness
+Zytphen-Adeler.
+
+Though he did not have an opportunity of learning much in his
+childhood, Hjorth succeeded in his youth in passing an examination
+which admitted him to the Bar. Later on he became the steward of
+Bonderup Estate, near Korsør, but in this position he did not feel
+satisfied, and in 1828 he became a volunteer in the State Treasury,
+in Copenhagen. In 1836, he advanced to the position of Clerk of the
+Exchequer and secretary. Although Hjorth’s occupation, during the last
+30 years of his life, was mainly that of a civil engineer, he always
+continued to be addressed as Secretary Hjorth, and by this title he is
+still remembered by some of his surviving contemporaries.
+
+Hjorth’s interests while at the Treasury were not concentrated solely
+on his work there. Mechanical problems always fascinated him. It is
+told that, during this period, he made all kinds of experiments at
+Dragsholm, and, among other things, he constructed a thrashing-machine.
+In 1832 he constructed a rotary steam-engine, which was made by
+Schiødt, a mechanic residing at St. Annae Plads, and, upon Hjorth’s
+application, it was bought by the King for 500 rixdollars in notes.
+The King donated it to the newly founded Polytechnic Institute, this
+being the place where it might best be utilized and »where this
+original domestic invention might most suitably be placed«. The same
+year, Hjorth described in »Ursin’s Magazines for Artists and Artisans«
+a steam-car, invented by him and adapted to be propelled by means of
+the rotary steam-engine. So Hjorth once more made a petition to the
+Government for a subvention of 2000 to 2500 rixdollars to assist in the
+practical manufacture of this car. The decision on this application
+was postponed, however, at the suggestion of Professors Ørsted, Zeiss
+and Forchhammer, because Hjorth had not yet finished the installation
+of the boiler for the first steam-engine at the Polytechnic Institute.
+Hjorth did not succeed in making the engine work, as it was not made
+with sufficient accuracy. The sum for which the car was to be made, was
+never granted, as petitioned for, although Hjorth had given up using
+his rotary engine for it; and the car itself was probably never built.
+
+At that time, the use of steam-cars on the country roads attracted
+great attention in England, and many different constructions appeared.
+In 1834 Hjorth, aided by subventions from the »Rejersen Foundation« and
+the Government, went to England, in order to acquaint himself with the
+use of these steam-cars on high-roads and railroads. During these years
+he very actively investigated the use of steam-power, especially as a
+means of propulsion for vehicles and ships. With admirable interest
+and diligence he studied the steam propelled road-carriage, and for
+a long time he considered that to be the future means of conveyance.
+Although he did not succeed in getting his own steam-carriage put to
+practical use, he made many experiments on a steam car, and I am told
+by one of his passengers that on the level streets of Copenhagen and
+Frederiksberg all went very well, but the carriage could not climb
+Valby hill.
+
+During these years, Hjorth also attended the lectures at the
+Polytechnic Institute, and he was especially interested in Ørsted’s
+lectures on the physics of the globe, and on electricity and magnetism.
+
+Notwithstanding his unsuccessful experiments with the rotary
+steam-engine, Professors Ørsted, Zeiss and Forchhammer had to give
+him a warm recommendation, when he made a petition to the Ministry in
+order to get his expenses refunded by the Government. They mentioned
+his indefatigable zeal, his great diligence, and the considerable
+expense borne by him in the pursuit of his researches. The numerous and
+expensive experiments absorbed all the money Hjorth could procure: not
+only his salary was spent, but also such funds as he was able to raise
+among his friends.
+
+
+
+
+The Railway.
+
+
+In 1839 Hjorth made a journey to England, France and Belgium. By that
+time, he seems to have come to the conclusion that steam-carriages
+running on rails, are preferable to steam-carriages running on the
+high-road, at any rate he mainly studied locomotives and railroading
+during this journey.
+
+After his return to Denmark, he spent some years as manager of
+Marschall’s piano factory, though still at work with his railroad
+schemes, and in 1840 he happened to find a man named Schram, a
+book-keeper, who shared his interests and was able to assist him in the
+realisation of his ideas. In 1840, these two men published a detailed
+calculation of the probable revenues and expenses of a railroad between
+Copenhagen and Roskilde. This project, however, did not arouse any
+interest, and people were mostly inclined to smile at the idea, and it
+appeared impossible to induce competent men to take, any interest in the
+scheme, much less to invest money therein.
+
+Then, in 1841, they applied to the young »Industrial Association« which
+body referred the case to its special committee of commerce. Even this
+committee did not seem much inclined to listen to Hjorth’s and Schram’s
+proposition, but their undefatigable energy finally succeeded in
+persuading the committee of commerce to convoke a large meeting to be
+held on the 24th of March. Here it was decided to make an application
+to the Government for the surveying of the proposed railroad line and,
+to the surprise of many, the petition was granted. Hjorth, possessing
+distinctive agitatory faculties, showed great activity, delivering
+lectures and exhibiting models, and tried thereby to excite interest
+in his schemes. His contemporaries describe him as a sociable man of
+a winning and lovable disposition and possessing a certain persuasive
+power. He was well liked by his friends as well as by his many casual
+acquaintances. In 1841 both Hjorth and Schram were elected members
+of the Board of Representatives of the Industrial Association, and
+from 1841 to 1843 Hjorth was the vice-president of the association.
+Now there began to be some sympathy for their cause, and the Board of
+Representatives of the Industrial Association showed a willingness to
+follow the sub-committee elected, consisting of the two motionists and
+Lector, (later Professor) Wilkens of the Polytechnic Institute. The
+strenuous efforts of this sub-committee resulted in the Industrial
+Association submitting, in January 1843, an application for a franchise
+to form a stock-company for the purpose of building a railroad from
+Copenhagen, by way of Roskilde, to a sea-port on the western coast of
+Sealand. This franchise, was granted, for a period of 100 years, and
+on the 16th of April 1844 the Industrial Association issued a public
+invitation to take stock in a company whose stock capital was to be
+1-1/2 million rixdollars, a very considerable sum for those times. As
+early as in the beginning of May, most of the stock was taken--mainly
+in Hamburg. While the confidence in a scheme of this kind was but
+slight in Denmark, the speculation in railroad stocks was nearly
+culminating at the stock-exchanges of Germany and England; as a matter
+of fact, it became near being a swindle. The Sealand Railroad Company
+was founded on the 2nd of July 1844, and Hjorth became its first
+technical director, while Schram became its first general manager. The
+Industrial Association received 15000 rixdollars for the franchise,
+and from this sum it paid 3000 to Hjorth and Schram.
+
+In 1843, Hjorth was unanimously elected president of the Industrial
+Association. In 1845, he had to resign this office, but as it appeared
+very difficult to concentrate the votes in favour of a new president
+and vice-president, »Secretary Hjorth, to meet the general demand,
+accepted the vice-presidency«, which office he then held for a year.
+
+In the meantime, the railroad company had finished the construction
+of its first piece of road, from Copenhagen to Roskilde, and this was
+opened for traffic on the 27th of June 1847, some days before the
+time limit fixed. Even at that time it was decided, owing to Hjorth’s
+influence, to extend the road to Korsør. The cause of the delay in
+commencing this work was the railroad crisis which had just broken out
+in Germany and England, making it impossible to obtain money for the
+construction of railroads. This road, therefore, was not constructed
+until the government, in 1852, guaranteed an interest of 4% on the
+capital invested.
+
+Hjorth retained his position for about 4 years, and concerning this
+period he writes: »All the great difficulties and obstacles to be
+surmounted during the construction of the road influenced my health to
+such a degree that I broke down and was forced to abandon my position
+as technical director of the railroad before the expiration of my term
+of office, in order that I might take a water-cure at Klampenborg«.
+After he had, to some extent, regained his health there, and another
+board of directors had been elected, he made a travel to England which
+turned out to be of such great importance that we will describe it more
+fully in the following.
+
+
+
+
+Electricity.
+
+
+After Faraday, in 1831, had discovered how an electric current might be
+produced by means of a magnet, many people busied themselves by trying
+to put this invention into practical use, and numerous attempts were
+made to construct electro-magnetic and magneto-electric machines for
+useful purposes.
+
+No wonder that these efforts attracted Hjorth’s attention, and, as
+early as 1842, he had drafted an electro-magnetic machine, consisting
+of a stationary circle of magnets, whose poles were directed against
+the poles of a moveable circle of magnets. In 1843 this sketch was
+deposited with the Royal Scientific Society, but the sketch itself, as
+well as the explanation belonging to it, are very incomplete.
+
+In the month of April, 1848, Hjorth made a petition to the government
+for a subvention of 200 rixdollars, in order that he might go to
+England to get an electro-magnetic machine[1] designed by him, made
+there. Hjorth had noticed that, in a piece of iron encircled by
+an electric current, the magnetism only to a certain extent would
+increase, with the strength of current, there being a point of
+saturation for the iron. When this point has been reached, it will be
+of no use to increase the intensity of the current, since the magnetism
+will not increase any further. On the basis of this observation, Hjorth
+had constructed his machine, but he had confided the details thereof
+only to Professors Ørsted and Forchhammer. In the report on Hjorth’s
+petition made by these two professors to the Board of Trade, they,
+curiously enough, take exception to the above-mentioned observation
+by Hjorth, while its correctness will now be acknowledged by any
+electrician. These professors, however, advised that Hjorth’s petition
+should be granted, using this liberal argument, worded by Ørsted:
+»Regarding the petitioner’s new electro-magnetic machine, we must state
+that we find it quite ingenious, and although we are not convinced
+that it will produce remarkable effects, we should consider it useful
+to have a working model executed. Having during so many years worked
+for this case, the petitioner might perhaps, by the execution of such
+a model, be enabled to make some further invention, which would bring
+him nearer to the goal. Indefatigable zeal has often accomplished its
+purpose, where science had to declare the means at first used, to be
+entirely inadequate, but where, by continued work, entirely different
+means, previously unknown to the inventor, were found. Inasmuch as the
+sum of 200 rixdollars asked for is so small, we find it advisable to
+grant the subvention. Still we cannot refrain from remarking that the
+petitioner’s machine may just as well be made here as at any other
+place«.
+
+Thus the discoverer of electro-magnetism cleared the road which was
+to lead to the most beautiful application of electro-magnetism, that
+application which, before all others, has been of radically reforming
+importance during the last half century, thereby throwing double
+splendor on Ørsted’s name.
+
+Soon after his arrival at London, in the summer of 1848, through a
+firm which he knew from an earlier period of his life, Hjorth made
+the acquaintance of a nephew of Bramah, the renowned mechanician and
+inventor of the Bramah-lock. Hjorth’s invention was then laid before a
+friend of Bramah’s, a civil engineer named Gregory, who had made the
+study of magnetism his specialty. Gregory at once persuaded Bramah
+to bear the expense of making a machine, and of securing patents in
+England and several other countries, on condition that the expected
+profits should be divided between him and Hjorth. Later on, B. Taylor
+and Normann Innis were taken in as partners, paying together £1000, and
+then Charles Stovin (£600) and Robert Broad, of the Henley Iron Works
+(£500). Two machines were now made, according to Hjorth’s directions,
+by the firm of Robinson & Sons, Pimlico, London. One of these is
+shown in Fig. 1, and is apparently quite an ingenious imitation
+of the steam-engines of those days. _C_ is a movable, _A_ a fixed
+electro-magnet. Their peculiar shape, involving several conical pins
+fitting into corresponding cavities, was thought to be advantageous for
+the distribution of the effect of the magnetic force over a longer
+stroke. The »piston« _C_, reciprocating up and down, drives a crank
+shaft having two opposite cranks. To either of the cranks there is a
+corresponding group of magnets. An eccentric fixed on the shaft, moves
+a »slide valve«, alternately closing the circuit of one or the other
+of the two groups of magnets. When the one piston is at its lowest
+position, the circuit of the other group of magnets is closed, and
+its piston is attracted, until it reaches its bottom position; then
+the current is shifted, and the other piston attracted, etc. In order
+to avoid the formation of sparks at the circuit breaker, an ingenious
+device was provided, closing the current of one group of magnets,
+immediately before that of the other one was broken. The first machine
+was made with a 4 inch stroke, the next one with 13-1/2 inch stroke.
+The magnetic attraction per square inch of the piston, had about the
+same magnitude as the pressure per square inch in the low pressure
+steam-engines of those days. The patent application was filed in London
+as early as in October 1848, and it was granted on the 26th of April
+1849[2]. On the 21st of September, the same year, Hjorth obtained
+a fifteen year monopoly in the kingdom of Denmark, to manufacture
+machines, utilizing electro-magnetism as motive power in the above
+described manner.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Hjorth’s Electromotor.]
+
+The larger of the machines here referred to was shown in action
+to several technical experts, and created considerable sensation,
+especially on account of the great length of stroke attained--13-1/2
+inches--and the uniform motion of the machine. The machine is mentioned
+in »Mining Journal«, for the 5th of May, and 16th of June 1849, and an
+extract of these articles is published in the »Flyveposten« for the 3rd
+of July the same year.
+
+Hjorth was invited to show the machine at the Royal Society, and at
+the annual meeting of the Society of Civil Engineers, of which he was
+a member. It was exhibited at the Universal Exhibition in London, in
+1851. In the catalogue it was highly commended, and it received the
+only prize-medal awarded to electrical machines.
+
+There was, however, one essential obstacle to the practical use of this
+machine, namely the lack of means for cheaply producing electricity
+in the quantities required by the electromotor. Wet batteries were
+expensive to use, and if the machine were to become useful in practice,
+a powerful »dry battery« would be a necessity. Most of the then known
+machines producing electricity, were fitted with permanent steel
+magnets, and as the point of magnetic saturation of steel is low,
+these machines were unable to produce any considerable quantities
+of electric energy. Hjorth therefore imposed upon himself the task
+of building a dry battery. His sketch-book from 1851 is full of new
+schemes for such batteries and improvements on those already existing
+(Woolrich’s, Elkington’s and Paine’s). From this it appears, among
+other things, that he was fully aware that, when the spools suddenly
+entered or left the field, difficulties would arise in the commutation,
+and he therefore improved the machine by bending the field magnets,
+obtaining thereby a gradually increasing and decreasing field, the
+same thing which is, nowadays, attained by using pointed or obliquely
+cut pole-shoes.--It would be very tempting to study more closely these
+sketch-books with their neatly colored drawings, showing how many
+different ideas have been fostered by him, before the actual production
+of the first dynamo, in 1854. Most of the descriptions and notes have
+been written in the English language, which he used almost as readily
+as his native tongue. On the 1st of May, 1851, Hjorth writes in his
+sketch-book, beside a sketch of a machine having copper discs for
+armature conductors and cast iron electro-magnets: »_By passing the
+current on the said way round the Electromagnets, these will of course
+be excited in proportion to the strength of the same, and the more they
+are excited, the more will the discs be influenced by the magnets, a
+mutual action thus taking place_«.
+
+So it appears that Hjorth, as early as on the 1st of May 1851, with
+perfect clearness, has pronounced the dynamo-electric principle.
+
+Under the date of June 24th, 1851, we find sketched out another
+beautiful idea for the construction of a dynamo. It must be regretted
+that this machine has not been executed, as it would certainly have
+proved superior to his dynamo of 1855, which has many points in common
+with this project. Fig. 2 shows a reproduction of this page of the
+sketch-book. There is no descriptive text to this sketch, only at
+one side of the drawing, these very significant words are written:
+»Magneto-Electric arrangement with mutual action«. All the six
+powerful held magnets are of cast iron, and they are wound so as to be
+magnetized by the current, produced by the dynamo itself[3].
+
+[Illustration: Fig 2. Facsimile of a Page of Hjorth’s Sketch Book, June
+24th 1851.]
+
+In November, 1851, Hjorth returned to Copenhagen, and here he continued
+what he had commenced in England. In May, 1852, he deposited with the
+»Society of Sciences« some papers, signed by Professors Scharling and
+Forchhammer in December, 1851. These papers contain two descriptions,
+written in English, and two drawings of »dry batteries«. These consist
+of 3 or 4 circular rows of vertical steel rod magnets, placed one
+above the other, and disposed round a vertical shaft, carrying 2 or 3
+circular rows of armatures. Each armature consists of a piece of soft
+iron, and is wound with a strip of copper, in a special manner. There
+are, in each row, as many armatures as magnets. The hollow shaft, as
+well as the magnets, which are fitted with shoes of soft iron, are
+wound, and encircled by the current produced in the armatures. With
+regard to the magnetic arrangement, this machine comes very near to the
+one patented by Brett in 1848, and it will be noticed that it cannot
+be said to be constructed according to the dynamo principle, as the
+»mutual« action plays no important part, the magnets being permanent
+steel magnets, hardly adapted to receive much extra magnetism by the
+current of the machine. Hjorth points out, as the novel feature of
+these machines, the division of the steel magnets into many small ones,
+with an armature corresponding to each magnet. Hereby he claims, for
+the same weight of the steel magnets, a larger capacity of the machine
+than if he had used fewer, but larger steel magnets[4]. The machine
+is fitted with a commutator for direct current.--In March, 1854, the
+sketch-book contains another sketch of a dynamo, with clear indication
+of the dynamo principle, approximately as it was patented on the 14th
+of October the same year[5]. This sketch is reproduced in Fig. 3. The
+machine has two permanent cast iron magnets and two electro-magnets.
+The armature cores are fitted with oblique pole-shoes. The description
+is very brief and contains the same as the patent specification.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. Facsimile of a Page of Hjorth’s Sketch Book,
+March 1854.]
+
+In 1853 Hjorth negotiated with a certain Dr. Watson, who had
+constructed a »dry battery« by means of which Hjorth had meant to drive
+his electro-magnetic machine. The object of their negotiations was
+to buy out Hjorth’s above-named partners, and to form a new company
+for the purpose of exploiting the above-mentioned two machines. The
+partnership, however, was not realized, and in spring of 1854, Hjorth
+himself commenced to have a 3 HP battery built in Copenhagen. The
+machine was fitted with cast iron magnets, and in all probability it
+was similar to the project of March 1854, and agreed with the patent of
+October, the same year.
+
+This patent specification reads as follows: »The main feature of this
+battery consists in applying one, two, or several permanent magnets
+_A_, of cast iron, and shaped as shewn in the drawing (Figs. 4 and 5),
+in connection with an equal number or more electro-magnets _B_, shaped
+as indicated in drawing, in such a manner _that the currents induced
+in the coils of the revolving armatures are allowed to pass round the
+electro-magnets; consequently, the more the electro-magnets are excited
+in the said manner, the more will the armatures C be excited, and
+the more electricity of course induced in the respective coilings_;
+and while a mutual and accelerating force is produced in this manner
+between the electro-magnets and the armatures, an additional or
+secondary current is at the same time induced in the coiling of the
+electro-magnets by the motion of the armatures, the said current
+flowing in the same direction as that of the primary current, after
+having passed the commutator. The direction of the current induced
+in the coils of the armatures will, of course, be reversed according
+to the change of the respective polarities, and the commutator _D_
+is therefore applied for the purpose of causing the current to flow
+constantly in one direction«. Then follows a description of the
+commutator of the dynamo. Finally the pole-shoes, or false poles,
+provided on the magnets as well as on the armatures, are mentioned. He
+points out that the false poles have on the side of attraction, a long
+straight edge, as distant from the centre as possible, while on the
+side of separation, either one has a sharp point, nearer to the axis
+of revolution, »all with a view to avoid reactionary currents, and at
+the same time to facilitate the motion of the armature«. »While steel
+magnets also may be applied instead of cast-iron magnets, the permanent
+magnets may be coiled like the electro-magnets, which also will serve
+to make them more permanent«.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Hjorth’s Dynamo 1854.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Hjorth’s Dynamo 1854. Fragment of the Patent
+Drawing.]
+
+From the above-named sketch-book notations, and the patent
+specification, it will be seen that Hjorth, during the years 1851-54,
+has repeatedly pronounced the dynamo principle with perfect clearness,
+and that he has utilized it in several projects.
+
+It is worth noting that Hjorth’s so-called »permanent« magnets
+are of cast iron. This shows that Hjorth has known of remanence,
+or permanence. He has known that cast iron always possesses some
+slight magnetism, either induced by the earth magnetism or as a
+remnant--remnant magnetism--left over from its being magnetized in a
+coil. It has heretofore been assumed that Siemens was the first to call
+attention to this property of iron, in his paper in the transactions
+of the Royal Society, of the 14th of February, 1867.--Thus Hjorth
+used this weak remanent magnetism in the large cast iron magnets
+to produce the initial current in the dynamo, which then excites
+itself.--At the end of the patent specification, Hjorth points out that
+the remanent magnets may also be coiled (compare Fig. 2), and thereby
+he comes closer to the later dynamo constructions.
+
+Hjorth is quite right, according to the patent specification, in
+giving the pole-shoes such a shape that the armature is gradually
+demagnetized, and in stating that the object of this is thereby to
+avoid reactionary currents, and consequently the formation of sparks;
+while he is mistaken in believing to be able to facilitate the motion
+of the armature by giving the pole-shoes a certain special shape,
+because in that case, the machine would be a _perpetuum mobile_.
+
+Together with the above-mentioned dynamo, Hjorth had an electromotor
+made in Copenhagen, essentially similar to the one exhibited in 1851.
+When in the autumn 1854 the machines were finished, Hjorth was called
+back to England, in order to continue the work on his inventions.
+It is not known whether the machines were sent to England or not;
+at any rate they aroused some interest there, and he had a new and
+larger dynamo built by Messrs Malcolm & Campbell; of Liverpool, 7
+India Buildings, at the expense of Malcolm and others. This machine
+was patented in 1855[6], and is shown in Fig. 6, which is reproduced
+from a photograph. Here, too, the dynamo principle has been followed,
+but each electro-magnet is composed of one solid and one tubular
+electro-magnet, the latter enclosing the former, the two together
+forming a so-called »_cup magnet_«, a construction which has also been
+used by later inventors. Hjorth describes the action of the battery as
+follows: »_The permanent magnets acting on the armatures, brought in
+succession between their poles, induce a current in the coils of the
+armatures, which current, after having been caused by the commutator
+to flow in one direction, passes round the electro-magnets, charging
+the same and acting on the armatures. By the mutual action between the
+electro-magnets and the armatures, an accelerating force is obtained,
+which in the result produces electricity greater in quantity and
+intensity than has heretofore been obtained by any similar means._« At
+the same time, Hjorth allowed the dynamo patent of 1854 to lapse, it
+being merely a provisional patent.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. Hjorth’s Dynamo 1855, from an old Photograph.]
+
+Together with the dynamo patent of 1854, Hjorth secured a provisional
+patent on an improved electromotor[7], and together with the dynamo
+patent of 1855, he obtained the complete patent on the above mentioned
+electromotor, as well as on another construction thereof[8]. The former
+consisted of hollow, horizontal electro-magnets (cylinders), being of
+a special shape inside, adapting them to give to an electro-magnetic
+piston, reciprocating within them, a long and steady stroke. By means
+of a crank, the stroke was transformed into a rotary motion. The
+other electro-motor consisted of wheels, with protruding teeth, which
+were set in rotary motion by the teeth being attracted into hollow
+electro-magnets.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] According to the usual terminology of those times, an
+»electro-magnetic« machine means a machine driven by electricity, an
+electromotor, while, on the other hand, a »magneto electric battery«,
+or a »dry battery« is a machine for producing electricity.
+
+[2] Specification of Patent No. 12295, 1848.
+
+[3] After the publication of my first treatise in the
+»Elektroteknikeren«, for February 1907, various parties have objected
+that Hjorth, in his dynamos, did not use the dynamo principle in
+its purest form, as he had one large, unwound, cast iron magnet.
+On the contrary, the above-mentioned leaf of his sketch-book shows
+that Hjorth, as early as in 1851, has used the dynamo principle in
+its purest from--exactly the same as used by Siemens in 1867--as all
+the field magnets have been wound cast iron magnets, and the initial
+current is induced by the remnant magnetism of these magnets. _S. S._
+
+[4] This is correct, as long as he uses armatures with but a single
+winding, because, in that case, the number of armature windings
+is proportional to the number of steel magnets. Whereas Hjorth is
+mistaken, when in 1867 he makes the same statement about a machine,
+where nothing prevents the armature from being fitted with a great
+number of windings.
+
+[5] Specification of Patent No. 2198, 1854.
+
+[6] Specification of Patent No. 806, 1855.
+
+[7] Specification of Patent No. 2199, 1854.
+
+[8] Specifications of Patents No. 807 and 808, 1855.
+
+
+
+
+Hard Times.
+
+
+In May, 1856, Hjorth returned from England, disappointed. It will be
+noted that through the electro-motor Hjorth was led to occupy himself
+with the dynamo machine. The dynamo was built in order to produce
+motive power for the motor. All the time he was working on these two
+inventions, it was his firm belief that if he could make the dynamo
+drive the electro-motor, he would be able to attain a substantial
+saving in power, get much more power out of the electro-motor than was
+consumed in driving the dynamo. The machines would, as it were, run
+automatically. He could not understand, why Dr. Watson was sceptical
+with regard to this manner of battery action. He intended to install
+his machines in ships and locomotives, which would then be propelled
+with a minimum consumption of power. In short, the combination of
+dynamo and electro-motor imagined by Hjorth was to be a _perpetuum
+mobile_. It has certainly been the great disappointment of his journey
+to England, that this scheme failed.
+
+On reading about this mistake, one is inclined to base the judgment
+of Hjorth upon assumptions belonging to the present time. But this
+would be a great injustice to him. The axiom that the quantity of
+energy in nature is unalterable, and consequently a _perpetuum mobile_
+an impossibility, has, as it were, been imbued by our own generation
+with the mother’s milk. Not so with Hjorth. Not until the forties of
+the last century, did Mayer, Joule and Colding, the City Engineer of
+Copenhagen, set forth their theories about the permanency of energy,
+and about the convertibility of heat into mechanical activity, and
+of the latter into heat again. These theories, however, were very
+slowly accepted, even by scientists. It is, therefore, no wonder that
+a man like Hjorth, having no special scientific training, could not
+easily digest the new theory and Hjorth did not have any instinctive
+sensation of having entered upon a hopeless and impossible track. On
+the contrary, he imagined the new wonderful form of energy to conceal
+unestimable possibilities which he had only to wrest from nature.
+
+Though Hjorth was thus ship-wrecked on his favourite idea, he
+nevertheless discovered new land, fertile for coming generations. His
+intrepid zeal guided him, as Ørsted had anticipated, in spite of his
+lack of scientific education, on to the road leading to the splendid
+results of this day.
+
+None of Hjorth’s original partners participated in the manufacture of
+his latest machines, and possibly this was due to his above-mentioned
+erroneous idea. Only one of his English friends, Wm. Macredie, of
+Melbourne, maintained his attachment to Hjorth and his confidence in
+him to the last. He was always very interested in Hjorth’s schemes,
+and, besides, he shared his religious creed.
+
+Hjorth was very anxious as to his future. When he returned from
+England, he stood quite destitute and felt depressed by poverty. His
+health was not of the best, and his formerly so neat hand-writing had
+become unsteady. He received, shortly after his return, a communication
+from his English partners that they wished to have the dynamo patented
+in Denmark and France, which showed that they had faith in this
+machine, but nevertheless these were hard times for Hjorth.
+
+The dynamo remained for some time with Malcolm, in Liverpool, and
+negotiations for its sale were several times entered into, but were
+without results. It was tested on several occasions, but these tests
+proved that it could not yield as much as might be expected from
+its size. The uncoiled magnets, which were originally of cast iron,
+were replaced by more powerful steel magnets. Upon the whole, this
+dynamo had a rather eventful existence, for first every other magnet
+pole was removed (see Fig. 6), and then it was proposed to rewind the
+magnets. In May, 1857, it was donated to the Polytechnic Institute,
+Regent Street, in London. Among the papers left by Hjorth, there are
+a daguerreotype and a photograph of this machine, (from which the
+accompanying Fig. 6 is reproduced).
+
+Notwithstanding a thorough search of the London museums, it has been
+impossible to trace this machine, which is said to have been seen in
+London during the nineties.
+
+Hjorth was now compelled to find a new means of earning his livelihood,
+and to make new connections. In 1857, he became the representative of
+Cyclop’s Steel Manufactory, Charles Cammell, of Sheffield, and in 1859,
+he applied for and obtained a licence as a translator of English in
+Copenhagen. Finally he had a kind of engineering and patent office,
+assisting strangers in obtaining monopolies, and doing work for new
+railroads, bridges etc. In the beginning of the sixties he caused a
+research to be made concerning the use of coals from Hornholm and
+Silkeborg, and the use of peat for briquettes. In April, 1860, he
+applied to the government for a position, enabling him to work for the
+building of new railroads in Denmark, and at the same time he referred
+to his previous merits in that direction. As he had not, within a year
+thereafter, received any position, he made a petition for a yearly
+pension, in case such a position could not be given to him. As »the
+idea of building the Sealand railroad, as well as the general location
+of this road, is mainly due to Secretary Hjorth ... and further more,
+no small share in the completion of the undertaking is due to him«, it
+was proposed, on the budget for 1861-62, to grant a pension to Hjorth.
+That year and the following ones, until his death, he received 500
+rixdollars.
+
+During these years, Hjorth lived at 10 Nørrebrogade. In 1845, he
+married Vilhelmine Ancker, née Hansen (born on the 27th of March,
+1805), the widow of the farmer Diderick Ancker, of »Lille Egede«, and
+thereby he became the step-father of two daughters. This marriage was
+childless.
+
+This carefully dressed little man[9] in top-hat and high-heeled shoes,
+was well known, and very well liked in many circles. He was always
+amiable and willing to help, and it is known that he has, at great
+personal sacrifice, assisted young artisans who were in hard luck. In
+society he attracted attention by his power of fascination and by his
+universal knowledge. On Sundays he was regularly seen directing his
+steps to St. John’s church, where, for many years, he was a member of
+Rev. Frimodt’s congregation.
+
+During the period of depression above described, Hjorth could naturally
+not very well afford to occupy himself with experiments, nor had he
+much time. Still, in 1857, he secured permission to undertake, at the
+navy yard, some experiments concerning the carrying capacity of a
+magnet at varying distances between the pole and the armature, and at
+the same time he sketched out the construction of an electro-motor,
+especially well adapted to utilize the magnetic attraction. This
+electro-motor was built in Copenhagen with funds granted by the
+»Classenske Fideicommis«. When it was finished, Hjorth applied for the
+money needed to make it double acting.
+
+In autumn 1860, Hjorth was in Paris, and there he worked for his
+electrical inventions.
+
+In 1866, Wilde published his machine, in which the current needed to
+magnetize the electro-magnets was produced by a permanent magnet.
+This is exactly the principle, underlying the dynamos built by Hjorth
+in 1854 and 1855. Hjorth’s good friend, Wm. Macredie, Melbourne,
+sent Hjorth a clipping from an English periodical mentioning Wilde’s
+machine, and called his attention to the identity.
+
+It is to be regretted that Hjorth’s answer is not known, as his
+copy-book for 1866 has been lost.
+
+Considering the data at hand when Hjorth’s biography was published
+in 1907, one might be inclined to believe that Hjorth had invented
+the dynamo principle and then dropped it at once, going back to steel
+magnets. It is, however, clearly evidenced, by the papers left by
+Hjorth, that this has not been the case, but that Hjorth has used the
+dynamo principle, in various, more or less pure, forms, in practically
+all his projects from 1851 to 1870.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. Sketch of Hjorth’s Magneto-Electric Machine
+1867.]
+
+As previously mentioned, Hjorth had been disappointed in his attempts
+to produce energy through an electrical transmission of power, but
+this did not cause him to relinquish the idea of producing energy by
+electric means. He took this up again in a new form in his old age. In
+order to have this idea carried out in practice, Hjorth had a machine
+built, a description and drawing of which is to be found in a pamphlet
+published later on in French and Danish. From this it appears that the
+machine was not originally built according to the dynamo principle.
+Hjorth found no advantage in using the expensive electro-magnets, as
+it was his main object to prove that, by his special arrangement of
+armatures and magnets, he could reduce the power required to produce
+a certain amount of electrical energy. The machine, in its manner
+of construction, reminds one to some extent, of Hjorth’s project of
+1851. Two or three rings, or wheels, of armature coils _A_ (see Fig.
+7) revolve between three or four circular rows of magnets _M_. This
+decreased consumption of power was to be attained by offsetting the
+armature wheels somewhat relatively to one another, for instance so
+that when one armature of the topmost wheel was opposite one magnet
+pole, an armature of the next armature wheel would be spaced one
+quarter of a pole distance from a pole, and an armature of the lowest
+wheel would be one half pole distance from a pole. As it is well known,
+this idea is entirely erroneous, it being contrary to the axiom of the
+constancy of energy.
+
+The machine was built into a casing, and was sent to the Paris
+exhibition of 1867. Hjorth was always very careful not to give any
+information about his inventions to anybody. At the end of April, he
+went to Paris himself. The machine had suffered some injury on the
+journey, and had to be repaired in Paris, and therefore it made its
+appearance rather late. Still he succeeded in having it submitted to
+the judgment of the jury, and a test of electrolytic deposition was
+made, which proved entirely successful.
+
+In Paris he met a certain business-man who, later on, requested to
+enter into partnership with Hjorth. This man was an adventurer, whose
+ambition was to become a Knight of Danebrog. It is only to be regretted
+that this person obtained so great a power over Hjorth, and understood
+how to deceive him. The previously mentioned pamphlet, edited by the
+partner, and named »Batterie magnéto-électrique de Søren Hjorth«, is a
+document of the poorest kind.
+
+Through his partner, Hjorth was introduced to various electricians
+and men of science, among others the renowned Samuel B. Morse, who
+recommended Hjorth’s machine, but took exception to his idea concerning
+the production of energy.
+
+The electrician who repaired Hjorth’s machine, introduced him to the
+president of the French Société d’Encouragement, who had proposed
+a competition for electrical machines, and had offered a prize
+of 3000 fr. for a machine, complying with the conditions given.
+Hjorth’s machine was sent to the society, but he did not succeed in
+obtaining the prize, which was awarded to the subsequently so famous
+»Alliance« machine. On the 7th of July, Hjorth, probably prompted by
+his partner, obtained an audience of Emperor Napoleon III. After he
+had demonstrated his invention, and shown the letter from Professor
+Morse, the Emperor asked him what he could do for him, and Hjorth
+answered that his highest desire was to have a larger machine built,
+and he requested the Emperor’s protection and assistance, in order to
+accomplish this. The Emperor ordered an examination of the machine
+to be made. The well-known Professor Jamin was retained as an expert,
+and Hjorth demonstrated the machine before him. On the following day
+it was examined, in the presence of Hjorth and his partner, by Jamin
+and other men of science. They subsequently had the machine sent to
+the exposition, where they measured the voltage and intensity of
+current, and expressed their satisfaction, as to the results attained.
+Nevertheless Hjorth was disappointed to receive, the next day, through
+the representative of the Emperor, General Favé, a communication that
+the subvention applied for could not be granted.
+
+At the exposition, a great sensation was created by a dynamo exhibited
+by Ladd. This machine had two electro-magnets and two armatures,
+the current being directed from the smaller armature round the
+electro-magnets and taken from the larger armature to the exterior
+circuit, lights for instance. Thus the machine was evidently built
+according to the dynamo principle.
+
+In order to claim his right of priority to this principle, Hjorth went
+to the prominent authority on physics, Count Th. du Moncel, who later
+on became the editor of »La lumière électrique«. As Hjorth himself did
+not know French, the interview probably took place through his partner.
+About this, Moncel writes in the above mentioned periodical, in 1883,
+that Hjorth’s representative was not very conversant with electrical
+matters; therefore he was unable to express himself clearly, and
+consequently Hjorth’s rights of priority were not acknowledged.
+
+Having received the Emperor’s refusal, Hjorth went home, broken down by
+illness and disappointments.
+
+In 1868-69 Hjorth, due to the interest taken in his case by the
+manufacturer Mr. Kähler, succeeded in having a small machine built in
+this gentleman’s shop in Korsør. At the same time, a larger machine was
+made in Copenhagen, the necessary funds being contributed by several
+country gentlemen and merchants interested in the case. Finally, in
+December, 1868, a body of prominent men addressed the government,
+petitioning a subvention of 15,000 rixdollars to be given to Hjorth, in
+order to enable him to build a new and larger machine. As the Ministry
+was not inclined to grant a sum of this size, it proposed to grant
+1000 rixdollars, in order to have the existing machines examined by
+Professor Hummel and other experts. This proposition was accepted by
+Hjorth, and a commission was formed, consisting of Professor Hummel,
+assisted by Professor Holten, Instructor Lorenz and Winstrup, a
+mechanic. As early as December, 1868, Professor Hummel, together with
+head-master Ibsen from Sorø, had visited dyer Gülich of Christianshavn,
+where one of the machines was located, and they made a few tests,
+which Hummel himself did not consider to be of any importance. The
+experiments were to be made in April, 1869, after an assistant had
+made a preliminary experiment, but then Kähler reported that he had
+taken the machine apart, in order to make an alteration therein, and
+that this would take a couple of months. It appears, from a letter
+from Hjorth to the Ministry of the Interior, that Hjorth had arrived
+at the conclusion that he must resort to the use of electro-magnets,
+to a certain extent, at least, on account of »the steel, by continued
+use, losing part of its magnetic power, which necessitates its being
+re-magnetized«, and partly because »it appears that electro-magnets
+may be made to yield a considerably larger magnetic power than steel
+magnets, by means of the electrical current induced thereby«. As this
+change to the dynamo principle was estimated to cost 400 rixdollars,
+Hjorth was informed, in April 1869, that this amount would be paid out
+of the sum, granted for the experiments, when the smaller machine had
+been re-built.
+
+Hjorth’s answer to this was a petition that the 400 rixdollars might
+be spent on any battery, which he might build. Hereafter the case died
+out. His petition was not answered until in April 1870, and the answer
+was a refusal.--At that time Hjorth was in delicate health, and his
+energy had been broken, and a few month’s afterwards he died, on the
+28th of August, 1870. He was survived by his wife, who died on the 30th
+of September 1885.
+
+This indefatigable worker did not succeed in seeing or reaping the
+harvest of his work for the utilization of electricity,--perhaps his
+aim had been too high. At a period when in all countries stone was
+added to stone in the foundation now supporting electrical engineering,
+we Danes have also made our contribution. Hjorth did not possess the
+profound knowledge nor the sharper insight necessary in order to avoid
+errors, but his perseverance, his industry, and his sacrifices, ought
+to be acknowledged, and his name ought to be venerated on account of
+his contributions to the development of electric machinery.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[9] Hjorth’s English passport, from 1855, contains this information:
+Height: 5 feet 7 inches, Complexion: fresh, Eyes and Hair: grey.
+
+
+
+
+SOURCES.
+
+
+After Hjorth’s death, few knew that he had discovered the dynamo
+principle. If Hjorth himself had understood the importance of this
+discovery, and the magnitude of the revolutions to be caused thereby,
+he would undoubtedly have endeavoured to propagate the knowledge
+thereof. It was not until 1879, when Colonel Bolton read a paper before
+the Society of Telegraph Engineers in London, that Hjorth’s patent No.
+2198, of 1854, was again brought out of oblivion, and accompanied by
+these words: »This appears to involve the principle which was later
+on taken up by others«. Count du Moncel, who had received Hjorth’s
+representative in 1867, when reading these words, was reminded of the
+case. Thereafter he has given Hjorth a fair redress in the above-cited
+article in the valuable periodical »La lumière électrique«, edited by
+him, the heading being »The Actual Inventor of the Principle of the
+Dynamo-Electric Machine«.
+
+Among the few printed sources of information concerning Søren Hjorth
+and his inventions, the following may also be mentioned:
+
+  _C. Nyrop_: Industriforeningen i København, 1838-1888.
+  _Du Moncel_: L’éclairage électrique, 1884, page 102.
+  _Electrician_, July 8th, 1882.
+  _La lumière électrique_, 1883, VIII, page 58.
+
+The most important source is the papers, left by Hjorth, which comprise
+a considerable collection of drawings, letters, and rough copies of
+letters written by him. These documents furnish full information,
+not only of Hjorth’s inventions, but also of his entire reasoning
+and manner of being. Probably the most interesting of all are his
+note-books and sketch-books, wherein he used to note down his ideas in
+English, and which are accompanied by neatly made, coloured sketches.
+These papers were not accessible to the public until the autumn of
+1908, and they are now preserved in the archives and library of the
+Polytechnic Institute in Copenhagen.
+
+Important contributions to Hjorth’s history have also been obtained
+from the State Archives, the Archives of the Society of Science, the
+Archives of the Polytechnic Institute and from the papers left by H. C.
+Ørsted.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber’s Notes:
+
+Footnotes have been moved to the end of each chapter and relabeled
+consecutively through the document.
+
+Illustrations have been moved to paragraph breaks near where they are
+mentioned.
+
+Punctuation has been made consistent.
+
+Variations in spelling and hyphenation were retained as they appear in
+the original publication, except that obvious typographical errors have
+been corrected.
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SØREN HJORTH ***
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+<body>
+
+<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Søren Hjorth, by Sigurd Smith</div>
+
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
+at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
+are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
+country where you are located before using this eBook.
+</div>
+
+<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Søren Hjorth</p>
+<p style='display:block; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0;'>Inventor of the Dynamo-electric Principle</p>
+
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Sigurd Smith</div>
+
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Translator: F. Sodemann</div>
+
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: August 11, 2021 [eBook #66046]</div>
+
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div>
+
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div>
+
+<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Craig Kirkwood, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)</div>
+
+<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SØREN HJORTH ***</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp48" style="max-width: 40.625em;">
+  <img id="coverpage" class="w100" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Cover." />
+</div>
+
+<p id="half-title">SØREN HJORTH</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp47" style="max-width: 40.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/titlepage.jpg" alt="Title page." />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="tb x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h1 class="nobreak">SØREN HJORTH</h1>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center largefont p2">INVENTOR OF THE<br />
+DYNAMO-ELECTRIC PRINCIPLE</p>
+
+<p class="center smallfont p2">BY</p>
+
+<p class="center">SIGURD SMITH<br />
+<span class="smallfont">C. E., M. I. F.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center smallfont p2">PUBLISHED BY »ELEKTROTEKNISK FORENING« AT THE<br />
+EXPENSE OF THE CARLSBERG FOUNDATION</p>
+
+<p class="center p2">KØBENHAVN<br />
+<span class="smcap smallfont" style="line-height:1.5">Printed by J. Jorgensen &amp; Co. (M. A. Hannover)</span><br />
+1912
+</p>
+
+<hr class="tb x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="center">This pamphlet is published simultaneously<br />
+in English and in Danish,<br />
+and is distributed among interested<br />
+institutions all over the world.</p>
+
+<p class="center p4">Translated by F. SODEMANN, C. E., M. I. F.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="tb x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<div class="figcenter illowp54" style="max-width: 40.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/img005.jpg" alt="Protrait of Hjorth." />
+</div>
+
+<div class="boxit">
+<p class="ir0"><em>Handsworth, Birmingham,<br />
+<span class="ir2">Feb. 6th, 1851.</span></em></p>
+
+<p class="ir0">... After this wonderful force<br />
+has been discovered by Your Excellency,<br />
+it has been my pride and interest that<br />
+also the utilization thereof should be<br />
+originated by a Dane....</p>
+
+<p class="ir0">(<em>Fragment of a letter from Hjorth<br />
+to H. C. Ørsted.</em>)</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Since the Life and Works of Søren Hjorth, the Dane
+was published in the Danish technical journal the »Elektroteknikeren«,
+in 1907, a statement concerning Hjorth’s
+rights of priority to the invention of the dynamo-electric
+principle has been sent to the leading foreign technical
+periodicals, viz. »Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift«, »L’éclairage
+électrique«, and »Electrical Engineering«. As this statement
+still stands uncontradicted, it seems reasonable to
+consider Hjorth’s priority rights to this principle to be
+generally acknowledged, even in the great centres of civilization.
+Therefore I highly appreciated the courtesy of
+Mr. Hjorth’s heirs, after the death of his step-daughter,
+Miss D. Ancker, in the autumn of 1908, in offering me
+an opportunity to peruse the large collection of letters,
+rough-copies, drawings, and sketch-books left by Hjorth,
+which threw new light on his interesting life and work.
+Where it was previously necessary to resort to guesswork
+alone, we are now able to base our statements on
+established facts and to follow Hjorth’s train of ideas
+almost from his first, to his last invention, and to see
+where he has right and where he failed.</p>
+
+<p>In the following pages, an account will be given of
+the results of these recent researches in connection with
+what was previously known about Hjorth.</p>
+
+<p class="il2">Charlottenlund 1911.</p>
+
+<p class="ir2"> <em>Sigurd Smith.</em></p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak">CONTENTS.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="toc" border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="toctitle"></td><td class="tocpage">Page</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toctitle"><a href="#PREFACE">Preface.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toctitle">Søren Hjorth:</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toctitle1">Childhood and Youth</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Ref_1">1</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toctitle1">The Railway</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Ref_4">4</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toctitle1">Electricity</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Ref_7">7</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toctitle1">Hard Times</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Ref_18">18</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toctitle">Sources</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Ref_29">29</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum">[1]</span></p>
+<p class="center xlargefont nobreak" style="margin-bottom:1em" id="Ref_1">
+SØREN HJORTH.</p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">Childhood and Youth.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="dropcap">Søren Hjorth was born on the 13th of October, 1801.
+He spent his childhood at Vesterbygaard, an estate
+rented by his father, Jens Hjorth, in Jordløse Parish,
+north of Tissø. His mother’s maiden name was Margrethe
+Lassen. Of their numerous children only two,
+besides Søren, survived childhood.</p>
+
+<p>The parents became early aware that their son possessed
+great mechanical genius. He received his first
+education from the parish school-master. After Hjorth
+was confirmed, his father leased the beautiful estate
+Dragsholm, in Odsherred County, where he remained
+for many years, and after the death of his first wife, he
+married baroness Zytphen-Adeler.</p>
+
+<p>Though he did not have an opportunity of learning
+much in his childhood, Hjorth succeeded in his youth
+in passing an examination which admitted him to the
+Bar. Later on he became the steward of Bonderup
+Estate, near Korsør, but in this position he did not feel
+satisfied, and in 1828 he became a volunteer in the State
+Treasury, in Copenhagen. In 1836, he advanced to
+the position of Clerk of the Exchequer and secretary.<span class="pagenum">[2]</span>
+Although Hjorth’s occupation, during the last 30 years
+of his life, was mainly that of a civil engineer, he always
+continued to be addressed as Secretary Hjorth, and
+by this title he is still remembered by some of his
+surviving contemporaries.</p>
+
+<p>Hjorth’s interests while at the Treasury were not concentrated
+solely on his work there. Mechanical problems
+always fascinated him. It is told that, during
+this period, he made all kinds of experiments at Dragsholm,
+and, among other things, he constructed a thrashing-machine.
+In 1832 he constructed a rotary steam-engine,
+which was made by Schiødt, a mechanic residing at
+St. Annae Plads, and, upon Hjorth’s application, it was
+bought by the King for 500 rixdollars in notes. The
+King donated it to the newly founded Polytechnic Institute,
+this being the place where it might best be utilized
+and »where this original domestic invention might most
+suitably be placed«. The same year, Hjorth described
+in »Ursin’s Magazines for Artists and Artisans« a steam-car,
+invented by him and adapted to be propelled by
+means of the rotary steam-engine. So Hjorth once more
+made a petition to the Government for a subvention of
+2000 to 2500 rixdollars to assist in the practical manufacture
+of this car. The decision on this application was
+postponed, however, at the suggestion of Professors Ørsted,
+Zeiss and Forchhammer, because Hjorth had not
+yet finished the installation of the boiler for the first
+steam-engine at the Polytechnic Institute. Hjorth did
+not succeed in making the engine work, as it was not
+made with sufficient accuracy. The sum for which the
+car was to be made, was never granted, as petitioned
+for, although Hjorth had given up using his rotary
+engine for it; and the car itself was probably never built.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[3]</span></p>
+
+<p>At that time, the use of steam-cars on the country
+roads attracted great attention in England, and many
+different constructions appeared. In 1834 Hjorth, aided
+by subventions from the »Rejersen Foundation« and the
+Government, went to England, in order to acquaint himself
+with the use of these steam-cars on high-roads and
+railroads. During these years he very actively investigated
+the use of steam-power, especially as a means of
+propulsion for vehicles and ships. With admirable
+interest and diligence he studied the steam propelled
+road-carriage, and for a long time he considered that
+to be the future means of conveyance. Although he
+did not succeed in getting his own steam-carriage put
+to practical use, he made many experiments on a steam
+car, and I am told by one of his passengers that on the
+level streets of Copenhagen and Frederiksberg all went
+very well, but the carriage could not climb Valby hill.</p>
+
+<p>During these years, Hjorth also attended the lectures
+at the Polytechnic Institute, and he was especially interested
+in Ørsted’s lectures on the physics of the globe,
+and on electricity and magnetism.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding his unsuccessful experiments with
+the rotary steam-engine, Professors Ørsted, Zeiss and
+Forchhammer had to give him a warm recommendation,
+when he made a petition to the Ministry in order to
+get his expenses refunded by the Government. They
+mentioned his indefatigable zeal, his great diligence, and
+the considerable expense borne by him in the pursuit
+of his researches. The numerous and expensive experiments
+absorbed all the money Hjorth could procure: not
+only his salary was spent, but also such funds as he
+was able to raise among his friends.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum">[4]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Ref_4">The Railway.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>In 1839 Hjorth made a journey to England, France
+and Belgium. By that time, he seems to have come to
+the conclusion that steam-carriages running on rails, are
+preferable to steam-carriages running on the high-road,
+at any rate he mainly studied locomotives and railroading
+during this journey.</p>
+
+<p>After his return to Denmark, he spent some years
+as manager of Marschall’s piano factory, though still at
+work with his railroad schemes, and in 1840 he happened
+to find a man named Schram, a book-keeper, who
+shared his interests and was able to assist him in the
+realisation of his ideas. In 1840, these two men published
+a detailed calculation of the probable revenues and expenses
+of a railroad between Copenhagen and Roskilde.
+This project, however, did not arouse any interest, and
+people were mostly inclined to smile at the idea, and
+it appeared impossible to induce competent men to take,
+any interest in the scheme, much less to invest money
+therein.</p>
+
+<p>Then, in 1841, they applied to the young »Industrial
+Association« which body referred the case to its special
+committee of commerce. Even this committee did not
+seem much inclined to listen to Hjorth’s and Schram’s
+proposition, but their undefatigable energy finally succeeded
+in persuading the committee of commerce to convoke
+a large meeting to be held on the 24th of March.
+Here it was decided to make an application to the Government
+for the surveying of the proposed railroad line and,
+to the surprise of many, the petition was granted. Hjorth,
+possessing distinctive agitatory faculties, showed great
+activity, delivering lectures and exhibiting models, and<span class="pagenum">[5]</span>
+tried thereby to excite interest in his schemes. His contemporaries
+describe him as a sociable man of a winning
+and lovable disposition and possessing a certain
+persuasive power. He was well liked by his friends
+as well as by his many casual acquaintances. In 1841
+both Hjorth and Schram were elected members of the
+Board of Representatives of the Industrial Association,
+and from 1841 to 1843 Hjorth was the vice-president of
+the association. Now there began to be some sympathy
+for their cause, and the Board of Representatives of the
+Industrial Association showed a willingness to follow the
+sub-committee elected, consisting of the two motionists
+and Lector, (later Professor) Wilkens of the Polytechnic
+Institute. The strenuous efforts of this sub-committee
+resulted in the Industrial Association submitting, in January
+1843, an application for a franchise to form a
+stock-company for the purpose of building a railroad
+from Copenhagen, by way of Roskilde, to a sea-port on
+the western coast of Sealand. This franchise, was granted,
+for a period of 100 years, and on the 16th of April 1844
+the Industrial Association issued a public invitation to
+take stock in a company whose stock capital was to
+be <span class="nowrap">1 <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">2</span></span> million rixdollars, a very considerable sum for
+those times. As early as in the beginning of May, most
+of the stock was taken&mdash;mainly in Hamburg. While
+the confidence in a scheme of this kind was but slight
+in Denmark, the speculation in railroad stocks was
+nearly culminating at the stock-exchanges of Germany
+and England; as a matter of fact, it became near being
+a swindle. The Sealand Railroad Company was founded
+on the 2nd of July 1844, and Hjorth became its first
+technical director, while Schram became its first general
+manager. The Industrial Association received 15000 rixdollars<span class="pagenum">[6]</span>
+for the franchise, and from this sum it paid
+3000 to Hjorth and Schram.</p>
+
+<p>In 1843, Hjorth was unanimously elected president
+of the Industrial Association. In 1845, he had to
+resign this office, but as it appeared very difficult to
+concentrate the votes in favour of a new president and
+vice-president, »Secretary Hjorth, to meet the general
+demand, accepted the vice-presidency«, which office he
+then held for a year.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime, the railroad company had finished
+the construction of its first piece of road, from Copenhagen
+to Roskilde, and this was opened for traffic on
+the 27th of June 1847, some days before the time limit
+fixed. Even at that time it was decided, owing to Hjorth’s
+influence, to extend the road to Korsør. The cause of
+the delay in commencing this work was the railroad
+crisis which had just broken out in Germany and England,
+making it impossible to obtain money for the construction
+of railroads. This road, therefore, was not constructed
+until the government, in 1852, guaranteed an
+interest of 4% on the capital invested.</p>
+
+<p>Hjorth retained his position for about 4 years, and
+concerning this period he writes: »All the great difficulties
+and obstacles to be surmounted during the construction
+of the road influenced my health to such a
+degree that I broke down and was forced to abandon
+my position as technical director of the railroad before
+the expiration of my term of office, in order that I might
+take a water-cure at Klampenborg«. After he had, to
+some extent, regained his health there, and another
+board of directors had been elected, he made a travel
+to England which turned out to be of such great importance
+that we will describe it more fully in the
+following.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum">[7]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Ref_7">Electricity.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>After Faraday, in 1831, had discovered how an electric
+current might be produced by means of a magnet, many
+people busied themselves by trying to put this invention
+into practical use, and numerous attempts were
+made to construct electro-magnetic and magneto-electric
+machines for useful purposes.</p>
+
+<p>No wonder that these efforts attracted Hjorth’s attention,
+and, as early as 1842, he had drafted an electro-magnetic
+machine, consisting of a stationary circle of magnets,
+whose poles were directed against the poles of a
+moveable circle of magnets. In 1843 this sketch was
+deposited with the Royal Scientific Society, but the
+sketch itself, as well as the explanation belonging to it,
+are very incomplete.</p>
+
+<p>In the month of April, 1848, Hjorth made a petition
+to the government for a subvention of 200 rixdollars, in
+order that he might go to England to get an electro-magnetic
+machine<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> designed by him, made there. Hjorth
+had noticed that, in a piece of iron encircled by an electric
+current, the magnetism only to a certain extent would
+increase, with the strength of current, there being a point
+of saturation for the iron. When this point has been
+reached, it will be of no use to increase the intensity
+of the current, since the magnetism will not increase
+any further. On the basis of this observation, Hjorth
+had constructed his machine, but he had confided the<span class="pagenum">[8]</span>
+details thereof only to Professors Ørsted and Forchhammer.
+In the report on Hjorth’s petition made by
+these two professors to the Board of Trade, they, curiously
+enough, take exception to the above-mentioned
+observation by Hjorth, while its correctness will now be
+acknowledged by any electrician. These professors, however,
+advised that Hjorth’s petition should be granted,
+using this liberal argument, worded by Ørsted: »Regarding
+the petitioner’s new electro-magnetic machine, we
+must state that we find it quite ingenious, and although
+we are not convinced that it will produce remarkable
+effects, we should consider it useful to have a working
+model executed. Having during so many years worked
+for this case, the petitioner might perhaps, by the execution
+of such a model, be enabled to make some further
+invention, which would bring him nearer to the goal.
+Indefatigable zeal has often accomplished its purpose,
+where science had to declare the means at first used, to
+be entirely inadequate, but where, by continued work,
+entirely different means, previously unknown to the inventor,
+were found. Inasmuch as the sum of 200 rixdollars
+asked for is so small, we find it advisable to grant the
+subvention. Still we cannot refrain from remarking that
+the petitioner’s machine may just as well be made here
+as at any other place«.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the discoverer of electro-magnetism cleared the
+road which was to lead to the most beautiful application
+of electro-magnetism, that application which, before
+all others, has been of radically reforming importance
+during the last half century, thereby throwing double
+splendor on Ørsted’s name.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after his arrival at London, in the summer of
+1848, through a firm which he knew from an earlier<span class="pagenum">[9]</span>
+period of his life, Hjorth made the acquaintance of a
+nephew of Bramah, the renowned mechanician and inventor
+of the Bramah-lock. Hjorth’s invention was then
+laid before a friend of Bramah’s, a civil engineer named
+Gregory, who had made the study of magnetism his
+specialty. Gregory at once persuaded Bramah to bear
+the expense of making a machine, and of securing patents
+in England and several other countries, on condition that
+the expected profits should be divided between him and
+Hjorth. Later on, B. Taylor and Normann Innis were
+taken in as partners, paying together £1000, and then
+Charles Stovin (£600) and Robert Broad, of the Henley Iron
+Works (£500). Two machines were now made, according
+to Hjorth’s directions, by the firm of Robinson &amp; Sons,
+Pimlico, London. One of these is shown in <a id="R_img019" href="#img019">Fig. 1</a>, and
+is apparently quite an ingenious imitation of the steam-engines
+of those days. <em>C</em> is a movable, <em>A</em> a fixed
+electro-magnet. Their peculiar shape, involving several
+conical pins fitting into corresponding cavities, was
+thought to be advantageous for the distribution of the<span class="pagenum">[10]</span>
+effect of the magnetic force over a longer stroke. The
+»piston« <em>C</em>, reciprocating up and down, drives a crank
+shaft having two opposite cranks. To either of the cranks
+there is a corresponding group of magnets. An eccentric
+fixed on the shaft, moves a »slide valve«, alternately
+closing the circuit of one or the other of the two
+groups of magnets. When the one piston is at its lowest
+position, the circuit of the other group of magnets is
+closed, and its piston is attracted, until it reaches its
+bottom position; then the current is shifted, and the
+other piston attracted, etc. In order to avoid the formation
+of sparks at the circuit breaker, an ingenious device
+was provided, closing the current of one group of magnets,
+immediately before that of the other one was broken.
+The first machine was made with a 4 inch stroke, the
+next one with <span class="nowrap">13 <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">2</span></span> inch stroke. The magnetic attraction
+per square inch of the piston, had about the same
+magnitude as the pressure per square inch in the low
+pressure steam-engines of those days. The patent application
+was filed in London as early as in October 1848,
+and it was granted on the 26th of April 1849<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>. On the
+21st of September, the same year, Hjorth obtained a
+fifteen year monopoly in the kingdom of Denmark, to
+manufacture machines, utilizing electro-magnetism as
+motive power in the above described manner.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="img019" style="max-width: 40.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/img019.jpg" alt="" />
+  <div class="caption"><p class="center"><a href="#R_img019">Fig. 1. Hjorth’s Electromotor.</a></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The larger of the machines here referred to was
+shown in action to several technical experts, and created
+considerable sensation, especially on account of the great
+length of stroke attained&mdash;<span class="nowrap">13 <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">2</span></span> inches&mdash;and the uniform
+motion of the machine. The machine is mentioned
+in »Mining Journal«, for the 5th of May, and 16th of<span class="pagenum">[11]</span>
+June 1849, and an extract of these articles is published
+in the »Flyveposten« for the 3rd of July the same year.</p>
+
+<p>Hjorth was invited to show the machine at the Royal
+Society, and at the annual meeting of the Society of
+Civil Engineers, of which he was a member. It was exhibited
+at the Universal Exhibition in London, in 1851.
+In the catalogue it was highly commended, and it received
+the only prize-medal awarded to electrical machines.</p>
+
+<p>There was, however, one essential obstacle to the
+practical use of this machine, namely the lack of means
+for cheaply producing electricity in the quantities required
+by the electromotor. Wet batteries were expensive
+to use, and if the machine were to become useful
+in practice, a powerful »dry battery« would be a necessity.
+Most of the then known machines producing electricity,
+were fitted with permanent steel magnets, and
+as the point of magnetic saturation of steel is low, these
+machines were unable to produce any considerable
+quantities of electric energy. Hjorth therefore imposed
+upon himself the task of building a dry battery. His
+sketch-book from 1851 is full of new schemes for such
+batteries and improvements on those already existing
+(Woolrich’s, Elkington’s and Paine’s). From this it appears,
+among other things, that he was fully aware that,
+when the spools suddenly entered or left the field,
+difficulties would arise in the commutation, and he
+therefore improved the machine by bending the field
+magnets, obtaining thereby a gradually increasing and
+decreasing field, the same thing which is, nowadays,
+attained by using pointed or obliquely cut pole-shoes.&mdash;It
+would be very tempting to study more closely these
+sketch-books with their neatly colored drawings, showing<span class="pagenum">[12]</span>
+how many different ideas have been fostered by him,
+before the actual production of the first dynamo, in 1854.
+Most of the descriptions and notes have been written in
+the English language, which he used almost as readily
+as his native tongue. On the 1st of May, 1851, Hjorth
+writes in his sketch-book, beside a sketch of a machine
+having copper discs for armature conductors and
+cast iron electro-magnets: »<em>By passing the current on the
+said way round the Electromagnets, these will of course
+be excited in proportion to the strength of the same, and
+the more they are excited, the more will the discs be influenced
+by the magnets, a mutual action thus taking
+place</em>«.</p>
+
+<p>So it appears that Hjorth, as early as on the 1st of
+May 1851, with perfect clearness, has pronounced the
+dynamo-electric principle.</p>
+
+<p>Under the date of June 24th, 1851, we find sketched
+out another beautiful idea for the construction of a
+dynamo. It must be regretted that this machine has not
+been executed, as it would certainly have proved superior
+to his dynamo of 1855, which has many points in
+common with this project. <a id="R_img024" href="#img024">Fig. 2</a> shows a reproduction
+of this page of the sketch-book. There is no descriptive
+text to this sketch, only at one side of the drawing, these
+very significant words are written: »Magneto-Electric
+arrangement with mutual action«. All the six powerful
+held magnets are of cast iron, and they are wound so
+as to be magnetized by the current, produced by the
+dynamo itself<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="img024" style="max-width: 40.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/img024.jpg" alt="" />
+  <div class="caption"><p  class="center"><a href="#R_img024">Fig 2. Facsimile of a Page of Hjorth’s Sketch Book, June 24th 1851.</a></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[13]</span></p>
+
+<p>In November, 1851, Hjorth returned to Copenhagen,
+and here he continued what he had commenced in
+England. In May, 1852, he deposited with the »Society
+of Sciences« some papers, signed by Professors
+Scharling and Forchhammer in December, 1851. These
+papers contain two descriptions, written in English, and
+two drawings of »dry batteries«. These consist of 3 or 4
+circular rows of vertical steel rod magnets, placed one
+above the other, and disposed round a vertical shaft,
+carrying 2 or 3 circular rows of armatures. Each armature
+consists of a piece of soft iron, and is wound with
+a strip of copper, in a special manner. There are, in each
+row, as many armatures as magnets. The hollow shaft,
+as well as the magnets, which are fitted with shoes of
+soft iron, are wound, and encircled by the current produced
+in the armatures. With regard to the magnetic
+arrangement, this machine comes very near to the one
+patented by Brett in 1848, and it will be noticed that
+it cannot be said to be constructed according to the dynamo
+principle, as the »mutual« action plays no important
+part, the magnets being permanent steel magnets,
+hardly adapted to receive much extra magnetism
+by the current of the machine. Hjorth points out, as
+the novel feature of these machines, the division of the
+steel magnets into many small ones, with an armature
+corresponding to each magnet. Hereby he claims, for
+the same weight of the steel magnets, a larger capacity
+of the machine than if he had used fewer, but larger<span class="pagenum">[14]</span>
+steel magnets<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>. The machine is fitted with a commutator
+for direct current.&mdash;In March, 1854, the sketch-book
+contains another sketch of a dynamo, with clear
+indication of the dynamo principle, approximately as it
+was patented on the 14th of October the same year<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>.
+This sketch is reproduced in <a id="R_025" href="#img025">Fig. 3</a>. The machine has
+two permanent cast iron magnets and two electro-magnets.
+The armature cores are fitted with oblique pole-shoes.
+The description is very brief and contains the
+same as the patent specification.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp47" id="img025" style="max-width: 40.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/img025.jpg" alt="" />
+  <div class="caption"><p  class="center"><a href="#R_025">Fig. 3. Facsimile of a Page of Hjorth’s Sketch Book, March 1854.</a></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1853 Hjorth negotiated with a certain Dr. Watson,
+who had constructed a »dry battery« by means of which
+Hjorth had meant to drive his electro-magnetic machine.
+The object of their negotiations was to buy out Hjorth’s
+above-named partners, and to form a new company
+for the purpose of exploiting the above-mentioned two
+machines. The partnership, however, was not realized,
+and in spring of 1854, Hjorth himself commenced to have
+a 3 HP battery built in Copenhagen. The machine was
+fitted with cast iron magnets, and in all probability it
+was similar to the project of March 1854, and agreed
+with the patent of October, the same year.</p>
+
+<p>This patent specification reads as follows: »The main
+feature of this battery consists in applying one, two, or
+several permanent magnets <em>A</em>, of cast iron, and shaped as
+shewn in the drawing (Figs. <a id="R_029a" href="#img029a">4</a> and <a id="R_029b" href="#img029b">5</a>), in connection with an
+equal number or more electro-magnets <em>B</em>, shaped as indicated<span class="pagenum">[15]</span>
+in drawing, in such a manner <em>that the currents induced
+in the coils of the revolving armatures are allowed to
+pass round the electro-magnets; consequently, the more the
+electro-magnets are excited in the said manner, the more
+will the armatures C be excited, and the more electricity
+of course induced in the respective coilings</em>; and while
+a mutual and accelerating force is produced in this
+manner between the electro-magnets and the armatures,
+an additional or secondary current is at the same time
+induced in the coiling of the electro-magnets by the
+motion of the armatures, the said current flowing in the
+same direction as that of the primary current, after
+having passed the commutator. The direction of the<span class="pagenum">[16]</span>
+current induced in the coils of the armatures will, of
+course, be reversed according to the change of the respective
+polarities, and the commutator <em>D</em> is therefore applied
+for the purpose of causing the current to flow constantly
+in one direction«. Then follows a description of
+the commutator of the dynamo. Finally the pole-shoes,
+or false poles, provided on the magnets as well as on
+the armatures, are mentioned. He points out that the
+false poles have on the side of attraction, a long straight
+edge, as distant from the centre as possible, while on
+the side of separation, either one has a sharp point,
+nearer to the axis of revolution, »all with a view to
+avoid reactionary currents, and at the same time to
+facilitate the motion of the armature«. »While steel
+magnets also may be applied instead of cast-iron magnets,
+the permanent magnets may be coiled like the
+electro-magnets, which also will serve to make them
+more permanent«.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="img029a" style="max-width: 26.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/img029a.jpg" alt="" />
+  <div class="caption"><p class="center"><a href="#R_029a">Fig. 4. Hjorth’s Dynamo 1854.</a></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="img029b" style="max-width: 26.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/img029b.jpg" alt="" />
+  <div class="caption"><p  class="center"><a href="#R_029b">Fig. 5. Hjorth’s Dynamo 1854. Fragment of the Patent Drawing.</a></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>From the above-named sketch-book notations, and
+the patent specification, it will be seen that Hjorth, during
+the years 1851-54, has repeatedly pronounced the dynamo
+principle with perfect clearness, and that he has
+utilized it in several projects.</p>
+
+<p>It is worth noting that Hjorth’s so-called »permanent«
+magnets are of cast iron. This shows that Hjorth has
+known of remanence, or permanence. He has known that
+cast iron always possesses some slight magnetism, either
+induced by the earth magnetism or as a remnant&mdash;remnant
+magnetism&mdash;left over from its being magnetized
+in a coil. It has heretofore been assumed that Siemens
+was the first to call attention to this property of iron, in
+his paper in the transactions of the Royal Society, of
+the 14th of February, 1867.&mdash;Thus Hjorth used this<span class="pagenum">[17]</span>
+weak remanent magnetism in the large cast iron magnets
+to produce the initial current in the dynamo, which then
+excites itself.&mdash;At the end of the patent specification,
+Hjorth points out that the remanent magnets may also
+be coiled (compare <a href="#img024">Fig. 2</a>), and thereby he comes closer
+to the later dynamo constructions.</p>
+
+<p>Hjorth is quite right, according to the patent specification,
+in giving the pole-shoes such a shape that the
+armature is gradually demagnetized, and in stating that
+the object of this is thereby to avoid reactionary currents,
+and consequently the formation of sparks; while
+he is mistaken in believing to be able to facilitate the
+motion of the armature by giving the pole-shoes a certain
+special shape, because in that case, the machine
+would be a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perpetuum mobile</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Together with the above-mentioned dynamo, Hjorth
+had an electromotor made in Copenhagen, essentially
+similar to the one exhibited in 1851. When in the
+autumn 1854 the machines were finished, Hjorth was
+called back to England, in order to continue the work
+on his inventions. It is not known whether the machines
+were sent to England or not; at any rate they aroused
+some interest there, and he had a new and larger dynamo
+built by Messrs Malcolm &amp; Campbell; of Liverpool,
+7 India Buildings, at the expense of Malcolm and others.
+This machine was patented in 1855<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>, and is shown in
+<a id="R_img032" href="#img032">Fig. 6</a>, which is reproduced from a photograph. Here, too,
+the dynamo principle has been followed, but each electro-magnet
+is composed of one solid and one tubular electro-magnet,
+the latter enclosing the former, the two together
+forming a so-called »<em>cup magnet</em>«, a construction which<span class="pagenum">[18]</span>
+has also been used by later inventors. Hjorth describes
+the action of the battery as follows: »<em>The permanent magnets
+acting on the armatures, brought in succession between
+their poles, induce a current in the coils of the armatures,
+which current, after having been caused by the commutator
+to flow in one direction, passes round the electro-magnets,
+charging the same and acting on the armatures. By
+the mutual action between the electro-magnets and the armatures,
+an accelerating force is obtained, which in the
+result produces electricity greater in quantity and intensity
+than has heretofore been obtained by any similar means.</em>«
+At the same time, Hjorth allowed the dynamo patent
+of 1854 to lapse, it being merely a provisional patent.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="img032" style="max-width: 40.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/img032.jpg" alt="" />
+  <div class="caption"><p  class="center"><a href="#R_img032">Fig. 6. Hjorth’s Dynamo 1855, from an old Photograph.</a></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Together with the dynamo patent of 1854, Hjorth
+secured a provisional patent on an improved electromotor<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>,
+and together with the dynamo patent of 1855,
+he obtained the complete patent on the above mentioned
+electromotor, as well as on another construction
+thereof<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>. The former consisted of hollow, horizontal
+electro-magnets (cylinders), being of a special shape inside,
+adapting them to give to an electro-magnetic piston,
+reciprocating within them, a long and steady stroke. By
+means of a crank, the stroke was transformed into a
+rotary motion. The other electro-motor consisted of wheels,
+with protruding teeth, which were set in rotary motion
+by the teeth being attracted into hollow electro-magnets.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Ref_18">Hard Times.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>In May, 1856, Hjorth returned from England, disappointed.
+It will be noted that through the electro-motor
+Hjorth was led to occupy himself with the dynamo machine.<span class="pagenum">[19]</span>
+The dynamo was built in order to produce motive
+power for the motor. All the time he was working
+on these two inventions, it was his firm belief that if he
+could make the dynamo drive the electro-motor, he
+would be able to attain a substantial saving in power,
+get much more power out of the electro-motor than was
+consumed in driving the dynamo. The machines would,
+as it were, run automatically. He could not understand,
+why Dr. Watson was sceptical with regard to this
+manner of battery action. He intended to install his
+machines in ships and locomotives, which would then
+be propelled with a minimum consumption of power. In
+short, the combination of dynamo and electro-motor imagined
+by Hjorth was to be a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perpetuum mobile</i>. It has
+certainly been the great disappointment of his journey
+to England, that this scheme failed.</p>
+
+<p>On reading about this mistake, one is inclined to base
+the judgment of Hjorth upon assumptions belonging to
+the present time. But this would be a great injustice to
+him. The axiom that the quantity of energy in nature
+is unalterable, and consequently a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perpetuum mobile</i> an
+impossibility, has, as it were, been imbued by our own
+generation with the mother’s milk. Not so with Hjorth.
+Not until the forties of the last century, did Mayer, Joule
+and Colding, the City Engineer of Copenhagen, set forth
+their theories about the permanency of energy, and about
+the convertibility of heat into mechanical activity, and
+of the latter into heat again. These theories, however,
+were very slowly accepted, even by scientists. It is,
+therefore, no wonder that a man like Hjorth, having no
+special scientific training, could not easily digest the
+new theory and Hjorth did not have any instinctive
+sensation of having entered upon a hopeless and impossible<span class="pagenum">[20]</span>
+track. On the contrary, he imagined the new
+wonderful form of energy to conceal unestimable possibilities
+which he had only to wrest from nature.</p>
+
+<p>Though Hjorth was thus ship-wrecked on his favourite
+idea, he nevertheless discovered new land, fertile for coming
+generations. His intrepid zeal guided him, as Ørsted
+had anticipated, in spite of his lack of scientific education,
+on to the road leading to the splendid results of
+this day.</p>
+
+<p>None of Hjorth’s original partners participated in the
+manufacture of his latest machines, and possibly this
+was due to his above-mentioned erroneous idea. Only
+one of his English friends, Wm. Macredie, of Melbourne,
+maintained his attachment to Hjorth and his confidence
+in him to the last. He was always very interested in
+Hjorth’s schemes, and, besides, he shared his religious
+creed.</p>
+
+<p>Hjorth was very anxious as to his future. When he
+returned from England, he stood quite destitute and felt
+depressed by poverty. His health was not of the best,
+and his formerly so neat hand-writing had become unsteady.
+He received, shortly after his return, a communication
+from his English partners that they wished
+to have the dynamo patented in Denmark and France,
+which showed that they had faith in this machine, but
+nevertheless these were hard times for Hjorth.</p>
+
+<p>The dynamo remained for some time with Malcolm,
+in Liverpool, and negotiations for its sale were several
+times entered into, but were without results. It was
+tested on several occasions, but these tests proved that
+it could not yield as much as might be expected from
+its size. The uncoiled magnets, which were originally
+of cast iron, were replaced by more powerful steel magnets.<span class="pagenum">[21]</span>
+Upon the whole, this dynamo had a rather
+eventful existence, for first every other magnet pole was
+removed (see <a href="#img032">Fig. 6</a>), and then it was proposed to rewind
+the magnets. In May, 1857, it was donated to the
+Polytechnic Institute, Regent Street, in London. Among
+the papers left by Hjorth, there are a daguerreotype and
+a photograph of this machine, (from which the accompanying
+<a href="#img032">Fig. 6</a> is reproduced).</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding a thorough search of the London
+museums, it has been impossible to trace this machine,
+which is said to have been seen in London during the
+nineties.</p>
+
+<p>Hjorth was now compelled to find a new means of earning
+his livelihood, and to make new connections. In 1857,
+he became the representative of Cyclop’s Steel Manufactory,
+Charles Cammell, of Sheffield, and in 1859, he applied
+for and obtained a licence as a translator of English in
+Copenhagen. Finally he had a kind of engineering and
+patent office, assisting strangers in obtaining monopolies,
+and doing work for new railroads, bridges etc. In the
+beginning of the sixties he caused a research to be made
+concerning the use of coals from Hornholm and Silkeborg,
+and the use of peat for briquettes. In April, 1860,
+he applied to the government for a position, enabling
+him to work for the building of new railroads in Denmark,
+and at the same time he referred to his previous
+merits in that direction. As he had not, within a year
+thereafter, received any position, he made a petition
+for a yearly pension, in case such a position could not
+be given to him. As »the idea of building the Sealand
+railroad, as well as the general location of this road,
+is mainly due to Secretary Hjorth ... and further
+more, no small share in the completion of the undertaking<span class="pagenum">[22]</span>
+is due to him«, it was proposed, on the budget
+for 1861-62, to grant a pension to Hjorth. That year
+and the following ones, until his death, he received
+500 rixdollars.</p>
+
+<p>During these years, Hjorth lived at 10 Nørrebrogade.
+In 1845, he married Vilhelmine Ancker, née Hansen (born
+on the 27th of March, 1805), the widow of the farmer
+Diderick Ancker, of »Lille Egede«, and thereby he became
+the step-father of two daughters. This marriage was
+childless.</p>
+
+<p>This carefully dressed little man<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> in top-hat and
+high-heeled shoes, was well known, and very well liked
+in many circles. He was always amiable and willing to
+help, and it is known that he has, at great personal
+sacrifice, assisted young artisans who were in hard luck.
+In society he attracted attention by his power of fascination
+and by his universal knowledge. On Sundays he
+was regularly seen directing his steps to St. John’s
+church, where, for many years, he was a member of
+Rev. Frimodt’s congregation.</p>
+
+<p>During the period of depression above described,
+Hjorth could naturally not very well afford to occupy
+himself with experiments, nor had he much time. Still,
+in 1857, he secured permission to undertake, at the navy
+yard, some experiments concerning the carrying capacity
+of a magnet at varying distances between the pole and
+the armature, and at the same time he sketched out
+the construction of an electro-motor, especially well
+adapted to utilize the magnetic attraction. This electro-motor
+was built in Copenhagen with funds granted by
+the »Classenske Fideicommis«. When it was finished,<span class="pagenum">[23]</span>
+Hjorth applied for the money needed to make it double
+acting.</p>
+
+<p>In autumn 1860, Hjorth was in Paris, and there he
+worked for his electrical inventions.</p>
+
+<p>In 1866, Wilde published his machine, in which the
+current needed to magnetize the electro-magnets was
+produced by a permanent magnet. This is exactly the
+principle, underlying the dynamos built by Hjorth in
+1854 and 1855. Hjorth’s good friend, Wm. Macredie,
+Melbourne, sent Hjorth a clipping from an English
+periodical mentioning Wilde’s machine, and called his
+attention to the identity.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be regretted that Hjorth’s answer is not known,
+as his copy-book for 1866 has been lost.</p>
+
+<p>Considering the data at hand when Hjorth’s biography
+was published in 1907, one might be inclined to
+believe that Hjorth had invented the dynamo principle
+and then dropped it at once, going back to steel magnets.
+It is, however, clearly evidenced, by the papers left by
+Hjorth, that this has not been the case, but that Hjorth has
+used the dynamo principle, in various, more or less pure,
+forms, in practically all his projects from 1851 to 1870.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft illowp48" id="img040" style="max-width: 20.3125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/img040.jpg" alt="" />
+  <div class="caption"><p  class="center"><a href="#R_040">Fig. 7. Sketch of Hjorth’s Magneto-Electric Machine 1867.</a></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As previously mentioned, Hjorth had been disappointed
+in his attempts to produce energy through an electrical
+transmission of power, but this did not cause him
+to relinquish the idea of producing energy by electric
+means. He took this up again in a new form in his old
+age. In order to have this idea carried out in practice,
+Hjorth had a machine built, a description and drawing of
+which is to be found in a pamphlet published later on in
+French and Danish. From this it appears that the machine
+was not originally built according to the dynamo principle.
+Hjorth found no advantage in using the expensive<span class="pagenum">[24]</span>
+electro-magnets, as it was his main object to prove that,
+by his special arrangement of armatures and magnets,
+he could reduce the power required to produce a certain
+amount of electrical energy. The machine, in its manner
+of construction, reminds one to some extent, of Hjorth’s
+project of 1851. Two or three rings, or wheels, of armature
+coils <em>A</em> (see <a id="R_040" href="#img040">Fig. 7</a>) revolve
+between three or four
+circular rows of magnets
+<em>M</em>. This decreased
+consumption of power was
+to be attained by offsetting
+the armature wheels
+somewhat relatively to one
+another, for instance so
+that when one armature
+of the topmost wheel
+was opposite one magnet
+pole, an armature of the
+next armature wheel would
+be spaced one quarter of
+a pole distance from a
+pole, and an armature of
+the lowest wheel would
+be one half pole distance from a pole. As it is well
+known, this idea is entirely erroneous, it being contrary
+to the axiom of the constancy of energy.</p>
+
+<p>The machine was built into a casing, and was sent
+to the Paris exhibition of 1867. Hjorth was always very
+careful not to give any information about his inventions
+to anybody. At the end of April, he went to Paris
+himself. The machine had suffered some injury on the
+journey, and had to be repaired in Paris, and therefore<span class="pagenum">[25]</span>
+it made its appearance rather late. Still he succeeded
+in having it submitted to the judgment of the jury, and
+a test of electrolytic deposition was made, which proved
+entirely successful.</p>
+
+<p>In Paris he met a certain business-man who, later
+on, requested to enter into partnership with Hjorth.
+This man was an adventurer, whose ambition was to
+become a Knight of Danebrog. It is only to be regretted
+that this person obtained so great a power over Hjorth,
+and understood how to deceive him. The previously
+mentioned pamphlet, edited by the partner, and named
+»Batterie magnéto-électrique de Søren Hjorth«, is a document
+of the poorest kind.</p>
+
+<p>Through his partner, Hjorth was introduced to various
+electricians and men of science, among others the renowned
+Samuel B. Morse, who recommended Hjorth’s
+machine, but took exception to his idea concerning the
+production of energy.</p>
+
+<p>The electrician who repaired Hjorth’s machine, introduced
+him to the president of the French Société d’Encouragement,
+who had proposed a competition for electrical
+machines, and had offered a prize of 3000 fr. for
+a machine, complying with the conditions given. Hjorth’s
+machine was sent to the society, but he did not succeed
+in obtaining the prize, which was awarded to the subsequently
+so famous »Alliance« machine. On the 7th of
+July, Hjorth, probably prompted by his partner, obtained
+an audience of Emperor Napoleon III. After he had
+demonstrated his invention, and shown the letter from
+Professor Morse, the Emperor asked him what he could
+do for him, and Hjorth answered that his highest desire
+was to have a larger machine built, and he requested the
+Emperor’s protection and assistance, in order to accomplish<span class="pagenum">[26]</span>
+this. The Emperor ordered an examination of the
+machine to be made. The well-known Professor Jamin
+was retained as an expert, and Hjorth demonstrated the
+machine before him. On the following day it was examined,
+in the presence of Hjorth and his partner, by
+Jamin and other men of science. They subsequently
+had the machine sent to the exposition, where they measured
+the voltage and intensity of current, and expressed
+their satisfaction, as to the results attained. Nevertheless
+Hjorth was disappointed to receive, the next day, through
+the representative of the Emperor, General Favé, a communication
+that the subvention applied for could not
+be granted.</p>
+
+<p>At the exposition, a great sensation was created by
+a dynamo exhibited by Ladd. This machine had two
+electro-magnets and two armatures, the current being
+directed from the smaller armature round the electro-magnets
+and taken from the larger armature to the
+exterior circuit, lights for instance. Thus the machine
+was evidently built according to the dynamo principle.</p>
+
+<p>In order to claim his right of priority to this principle,
+Hjorth went to the prominent authority on physics,
+Count Th. du Moncel, who later on became the editor of
+»La lumière électrique«. As Hjorth himself did not know
+French, the interview probably took place through his
+partner. About this, Moncel writes in the above mentioned
+periodical, in 1883, that Hjorth’s representative was
+not very conversant with electrical matters; therefore he
+was unable to express himself clearly, and consequently
+Hjorth’s rights of priority were not acknowledged.</p>
+
+<p>Having received the Emperor’s refusal, Hjorth went
+home, broken down by illness and disappointments.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[27]</span></p>
+
+<p>In 1868-69 Hjorth, due to the interest taken in his
+case by the manufacturer Mr. Kähler, succeeded in having
+a small machine built in this gentleman’s shop in
+Korsør. At the same time, a larger machine was made
+in Copenhagen, the necessary funds being contributed
+by several country gentlemen and merchants interested
+in the case. Finally, in December, 1868, a body of prominent
+men addressed the government, petitioning a subvention
+of 15,000 rixdollars to be given to Hjorth, in
+order to enable him to build a new and larger machine.
+As the Ministry was not inclined to grant a sum of this
+size, it proposed to grant 1000 rixdollars, in order to
+have the existing machines examined by Professor Hummel
+and other experts. This proposition was accepted
+by Hjorth, and a commission was formed, consisting
+of Professor Hummel, assisted by Professor Holten, Instructor
+Lorenz and Winstrup, a mechanic. As early
+as December, 1868, Professor Hummel, together with
+head-master Ibsen from Sorø, had visited dyer Gülich
+of Christianshavn, where one of the machines was located,
+and they made a few tests, which Hummel himself
+did not consider to be of any importance. The experiments
+were to be made in April, 1869, after an
+assistant had made a preliminary experiment, but then
+Kähler reported that he had taken the machine apart,
+in order to make an alteration therein, and that this
+would take a couple of months. It appears, from a
+letter from Hjorth to the Ministry of the Interior, that
+Hjorth had arrived at the conclusion that he must
+resort to the use of electro-magnets, to a certain extent,
+at least, on account of »the steel, by continued use, losing
+part of its magnetic power, which necessitates its being
+re-magnetized«, and partly because »it appears that electro-magnets<span class="pagenum">[28]</span>
+may be made to yield a considerably larger
+magnetic power than steel magnets, by means of the electrical
+current induced thereby«. As this change to the
+dynamo principle was estimated to cost 400 rixdollars,
+Hjorth was informed, in April 1869, that this amount
+would be paid out of the sum, granted for the experiments,
+when the smaller machine had been re-built.</p>
+
+<p>Hjorth’s answer to this was a petition that the 400 rixdollars
+might be spent on any battery, which he might
+build. Hereafter the case died out. His petition was
+not answered until in April 1870, and the answer was a
+refusal.&mdash;At that time Hjorth was in delicate health,
+and his energy had been broken, and a few month’s
+afterwards he died, on the 28th of August, 1870. He
+was survived by his wife, who died on the 30th of September
+1885.</p>
+
+<p>This indefatigable worker did not succeed in seeing
+or reaping the harvest of his work for the utilization
+of electricity,&mdash;perhaps his aim had been too high. At
+a period when in all countries stone was added to stone
+in the foundation now supporting electrical engineering,
+we Danes have also made our contribution. Hjorth did
+not possess the profound knowledge nor the sharper
+insight necessary in order to avoid errors, but his perseverance,
+his industry, and his sacrifices, ought to be
+acknowledged, and his name ought to be venerated on
+account of his contributions to the development of electric
+machinery.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum">[29]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Ref_29">SOURCES.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>After Hjorth’s death, few knew that he had discovered the dynamo
+principle. If Hjorth himself had understood the importance of
+this discovery, and the magnitude of the revolutions to be caused
+thereby, he would undoubtedly have endeavoured to propagate the
+knowledge thereof. It was not until 1879, when Colonel Bolton read
+a paper before the Society of Telegraph Engineers in London, that
+Hjorth’s patent No. 2198, of 1854, was again brought out of oblivion,
+and accompanied by these words: »This appears to involve the
+principle which was later on taken up by others«. Count du Moncel,
+who had received Hjorth’s representative in 1867, when reading these
+words, was reminded of the case. Thereafter he has given Hjorth a
+fair redress in the above-cited article in the valuable periodical »La
+lumière électrique«, edited by him, the heading being »The Actual
+Inventor of the Principle of the Dynamo-Electric Machine«.</p>
+
+<p>Among the few printed sources of information concerning Søren
+Hjorth and his inventions, the following may also be mentioned:</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left:2em"><em>C. Nyrop</em>: Industriforeningen i København, 1838-1888.<br />
+<em>Du Moncel</em>: L’éclairage électrique, 1884, page 102.<br />
+<cite>Electrician</cite>, July 8th, 1882.<br />
+<cite>La lumière électrique</cite>, 1883, VIII, page 58.</p>
+
+<p>The most important source is the papers, left by Hjorth, which
+comprise a considerable collection of drawings, letters, and rough
+copies of letters written by him. These documents furnish full information,
+not only of Hjorth’s inventions, but also of his entire reasoning
+and manner of being. Probably the most interesting of all are his
+note-books and sketch-books, wherein he used to note down his ideas
+in English, and which are accompanied by neatly made, coloured
+sketches. These papers were not accessible to the public until the
+autumn of 1908, and they are now preserved in the archives and
+library of the Polytechnic Institute in Copenhagen.</p>
+
+<p>Important contributions to Hjorth’s history have also been obtained
+from the State Archives, the Archives of the Society of Science,
+the Archives of the Polytechnic Institute and from the papers left by
+H. C. Ørsted.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> According to the usual terminology of those times, an »electro-magnetic«
+machine means a machine driven by electricity, an
+electromotor, while, on the other hand, a »magneto electric battery«,
+or a »dry battery« is a machine for producing electricity.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Specification of Patent No. 12295, 1848.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> After the publication of my first treatise in the »Elektroteknikeren«,
+for February 1907, various parties have objected that Hjorth, in
+his dynamos, did not use the dynamo principle in its purest
+form, as he had one large, unwound, cast iron magnet. On the
+contrary, the above-mentioned leaf of his sketch-book shows that
+Hjorth, as early as in 1851, has used the dynamo principle in
+its purest from&mdash;exactly the same as used by Siemens in 1867&mdash;as
+all the field magnets have been wound cast iron magnets, and
+the initial current is induced by the remnant magnetism of
+these magnets. <span class="il2"><em>S. S.</em></span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> This is correct, as long as he uses armatures with but a single
+winding, because, in that case, the number of armature windings
+is proportional to the number of steel magnets. Whereas Hjorth
+is mistaken, when in 1867 he makes the same statement about a
+machine, where nothing prevents the armature from being fitted
+with a great number of windings.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Specification of Patent No. 2198, 1854.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> Specification of Patent No. 806, 1855.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> Specification of Patent No. 2199, 1854.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> Specifications of Patents No. 807 and 808, 1855.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> Hjorth’s English passport, from 1855, contains this information:
+Height: 5 feet 7 inches, Complexion: fresh, Eyes and Hair: grey.</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="tb x-ebookmaker-drop" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<div class="transnote">
+<h2 style="margin-top: 0em">Transcriber’s Notes:</h2>
+
+<p>Footnotes have been moved to the end of the text and relabeled
+consecutively through the document.</p>
+
+<p>Illustrations have been moved to paragraph breaks near where they are
+mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>Punctuation has been made consistent.</p>
+
+<p>Variations in spelling and hyphenation were retained as they appear in
+the original publication, except that obvious typographical errors
+have been corrected.</p>
+
+</div></div>
+
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SØREN HJORTH ***</div>
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author	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-01-22 19:09:36 -0800
committer	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-01-22 19:09:36 -0800
commit	600d5e2688bb11f728631d84b18d4569a2a842b5 (patch)
tree	b3fae96a3b7db8a711afbc0f4dd6f81a70c1f8bd