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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Woman's Home
+by Catherine E. Beecher and Harriet Beecher Stowe
+#3 in our series by Harriet Beecher Stowe
+
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+Title: The American Woman's Home
+
+Author: Catherine E. Beecher and Harriet Beecher Stowe
+
+Release Date: September, 2004 [EBook #6598]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
+[This file was first posted on December 30, 2002]
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+Edition: 10
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+Language: English
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+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AMERICAN WOMAN'S HOME ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steve Schulze, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
+
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+
+
+AMERICAN WOMAN'S HOME: OR, PRINCIPLES OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE;
+
+
+BEING A GUIDE TO THE FORMATION AND MAINTENANCE OF ECONOMICAL,
+HEALTHFUL, BEAUTIFUL, AND CHRISTIAN HOMES.
+
+BY CATHERINE E. BEECHER AND HARRIET BEECHER STOWE
+
+TO THE WOMEN OF AMERICA, IN WHOSE HANDS REST THE REAL DESTINIES OF
+THE REPUBLIC, AS MOULDED BY THE EARLY TRAINING AND PRESERVED AMID
+THE MATURER INFLUENCES OF HOME, THIS VOLUME IS AFFECTIONATELY
+INSCRIBED.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+_INTRODUCTION._
+
+The chief cause of woman's disabilities and sufferings, that women are
+not trained, as men are, for their peculiar duties--Aim of this volume
+to elevate the honor and remuneration of domestic employment--Woman's
+duties, and her utter lack of training for them--Qualifications of the
+writers of this volume to teach the matters proposed--Experience and
+study of woman's work--Conviction of the dignity and importance of
+it--The great social and moral power in her keeping--The principles
+and teachings of Jesus Christ the true basis of woman's rights and
+duties.
+
+I.
+
+_THE CHRISTIAN FAMILY._
+
+Object of the Family State--Duty of the elder and stronger to raise
+the younger, weaker, and more ignorant to an equality of
+advantages--Discipline of the family--The example of Christ one of
+self-sacrifice as man's elder brother--His assumption of a low
+estate--His manual labor--His trade--Woman the chief minister of the
+family estate--Man the out-door laborer and provider--Labor and
+self-denial in the mutual relations of home-life, honorable, healthful,
+economical, enjoyable, and Christian.
+
+II.
+
+_A CHRISTIAN HOUSE._
+
+True wisdom in building a home--Necessity of economizing time, labor,
+and expense, by the close packing of conveniences--Plan of a model
+cottage--Proportions--Piazzas--Entry--Stairs and landings--Large
+room--Movable Screen--Convenient bedsteads--A good mattress--A cheap
+and convenient ottoman--Kitchen and stove-room--The stove-room and
+its arrangements--Second or attic story--Closets, corner
+dressing-tables, windows, balconies, water and earth-closets, shoe-bag,
+piece-bag--Basement, closets, refrigerator, washtubs,
+etc.--Laundry--General wood-work--Conservatories-Average estimate of
+cost.
+
+III.
+
+_A HEALTHFUL HOME._
+
+Household murder--Poisoning and starvation the inevitable result of
+bad air in public halls and private homes--Good air as needful as good
+food--Structure and operations of the lungs and their capillaries and
+air-cells--How people in a confined room will deprive the air of oxygen
+and overload it with refuse carbonic acid-Starvation of the living
+body deprived of oxygen--The skin and its twenty-eight miles of
+perspiratory tubes--Reciprocal action of plants and animals--Historical
+examples of foul-air poisoning--Outward effects of habitual breathing
+of bad air--Quotations from scientific authorities.
+
+IV.
+
+_SCIENTIFIC DOMESTIC VENTILATION._
+
+An open fireplace secures due ventilation--Evils of substituting
+air-tight stoves and furnace heating--Tendency of warm air to rise and
+of cool air to sink--Ventilation of mines--Ignorance of architects--Poor
+ventilation in most houses--Mode of ventilating laboratories--Creation
+of a current of warm air in a flue open at top and bottom of the
+room--Flue to be built into chimney: method of utilizing it.
+
+V. STOVES, FURNACES, AND CHIMNEYS.
+
+The general properties of heat, conduction, convection, radiation,
+reflection--Cooking done by radiation the simplest but most wasteful
+mode: by convection (as in stoves and furnaces) the cheapest--The
+range--The model cooking-stove--Interior arrangements and
+principles--Contrivances for economizing heat, labor, time, fuel,
+trouble, and expense--Its durability, simplicity, etc.--Chimneys: why
+they smoke and how to cure them--Furnaces: the dryness of their
+heat--Necessity of moisture in warm air--How to obtain and regulate it.
+
+VI.
+
+_HOME DECORATION._
+
+Significance of beauty in making home attractive and useful in
+education--Exemplification of economical and tasteful furniture--The
+carpet, lounge, lambrequins, curtains, ottomans, easy-chair,
+centre-table--Money left for pictures--Chromes--Pretty frames--
+Engravings--Statuettes--Educatory influence of works of art--Natural
+adornments--Materials in the woods and fields--Parlor-gardens--Hanging
+baskets--Fern-shields--Ivy, its beauty and tractableness--Window, with
+flowers, vines, and pretty plants--Rustic stand for flowers--Ward's
+case--How to make it economically--Bowls and vases of rustic work for
+growing plants--Ferns, how and when to gather them--General remarks.
+
+VII.
+
+_THE CARE OF HEALTH._
+
+Importance of some knowledge of the body and its needs--Fearful
+responsibility of entering upon domestic duties in ignorance--The
+fundamental vital principle--Cell-life--Wonders of the microscope
+--Cell-multiplication--Constant interplay of decay and growth necessary
+to life--The red and white cells of the blood--Secreting and converting
+power--The nervous system--The brain and the nerves--Structural
+arrangement and functions--The ganglionic system--The nervous
+fluid--Necessity of properly apportioned exercise to nerves of sensation
+and of motion--Evils of excessive or insufficient exercise--Equal
+development of the whole.
+
+VIII.
+
+_DOMESTIC EXERCISE._
+
+Connection of muscles and nerves--Microscopic cellular muscular
+fibre--Its mode of action--Dependence on the nerves of voluntary and
+involuntary motion--How exercise of muscles quickens circulation of
+the blood which maintains all the processes of life--Dependence of
+equilibrium upon proper muscular activity--Importance of securing
+exercise that will interest the mind.
+
+IX.
+
+_HEALTHFUL FOOD._
+
+Apportionment of elements in food: carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,
+calcium, iron, silicon, etc.--Large proportion of water in the human
+body--Dr. Holmes on the interchange of death and life--Constituent
+parts of a kernel of wheat--Comparison of different kinds of
+food--General directions for diet--Hunger the proper guide and guard
+of appetite--Evils of over-eating--Structure and operations of the
+stomach--Times and quantity for eating--Stimulating and nourishing
+food--Americans eat too much meat--Wholesome effects of Lenten
+fasting--Matter and manner of eating--Causes of debilitation from
+misuse of food.
+
+X.
+
+_HEALTHFUL DRINKS._
+
+Stimulating drinks not necessary--Their immediate evil effects upon
+the human body and tendency to grow into habitual desires--The
+arguments for and against stimulus--Microscopic revelations of the
+effects of alcohol on the cellular tissue of the brain--Opinions of
+high scientific authorities against its use--No need of resorting to
+stimulants either for refreshment, nourishment, or pleasure--Tea and
+coffee an extensive cause of much nervous debility and suffering--Tend
+to wasteful use in the kitchen--Are seldom agreeable at first to
+children--Are dangerous to sensitive, nervous organizations, and should
+be at least regulated--Hot drinks unwholesome, debilitating, and
+destructive to teeth, throat, and stomach--Warm drinks agreeable and
+not unhealthful--Cold drinks not to be too freely used during
+meals--Drinking while eating always injurious to digestion.
+
+XI.
+
+_CLEANLINESS._
+
+Health and comfort depend on cleanliness--Scientific treatment of the
+skin, the most complicated organ of the body--Structure and arrangement
+of the skin, its layers, cells, nerves, capillaries, absorbents,
+oil-tubes, perspiration-tubes, etc.--The mucous membrane--Phlegm--The
+secreting organs--The liver, kidney, pancreas, salivary and lachrymal
+glands--Sympathetic connection of all the bodily organs--Intimate
+connection of the skin with all the other organs--Proper mode of
+treating the skin--Experiment showing happy effects of good treatment.
+
+XII.
+
+_CLOTHING._
+
+Fashion attacks the very foundation of the body, the bones--Bones
+composed of animal and mineral elements--General construction and
+arrangement--Health of bones dependent on nourishment and exercise
+of body--Spine--Distortions produced by tight dressing--Pressure of
+interior organs upon each other and upon the bones--Displacement of
+stomach, diaphragm, heart, intestines, and pelvic or lower organs--Women
+liable to peculiar distresses--A well-fitted jacket to replace stiff
+corsets, supporting the bust above and the under skirts below--Dressing
+of young children--Safe for a healthy child to wear as little clothing
+as will make it thoroughly comfortable--Nature the guide--The very
+young and the very old need the most clothing.
+
+XIII.
+
+_GOOD COOKING._
+
+Bad cooking prevalent in America-Abundance of excellent material--
+General management of food here very wasteful and extravagant--Five
+great departments of Cookery--_Bread_-What it should be, how to
+spoil and how to make it--Different modes of aeration--Baking--Evils
+of hot bread.--_Butter_-Contrast between the butter of America
+and of European countries-How to make good butter.--_Meat_-Generally
+used too newly killed--Lack of nicety in butcher's work--Economy of
+French butchery, curving, and trimming--Modes of cooking meats--The
+frying-pan--True way of using it--The French art of making delicious
+soups and stews--_Vegetables_--Their number and variety in America--The
+potato--How to cook it, a simple yet difficult operation--Roasted,
+boiled, fried.--_Tea_--Warm table drinks generally--Coffee--Tea--
+Chocolate.--_Confectionery_--Ornamental cookery--Pastry, ices, jellies.
+
+XIV.
+
+_EARLY RISING._ A virtue peculiarly American and democratic--In
+aristocratic countries, labor considered degrading--The hours of
+sunlight generally devoted to labor by the working classes and to sleep
+by the indolent and wealthy--Sunlight necessary to health and growth
+whether of vegetables or animals--Particularly needful for the
+sick--Substitution of artificial light and heat, by night, a great
+waste of money--Eight hours' sleep enough--Excessive sleep
+debilitating--Early rising necessary to a well-regulated family, to
+the amount of work to be done, to the community, to schools, and to
+all classes in American society.
+
+XV.
+
+_DOMESTIC MANNERS._
+
+Good manners the expression of benevolence in personal
+intercourse--Serious defects in manners of the Americans-Causes of
+abrupt manners to be found in American life--Want of clear
+discrimination between men--Necessity for distinctions of superiority:
+and subordination--Importance that young mothers should seriously
+endeavor to remedy this defect, while educating their
+children--Democratic principal of equal rights to be applied, not to
+our own interests but to those of others--The same courtesy to be
+extended to all classes--Necessary distinctions arising from mutual
+relations to be observed--The strong to defer to the weak--Precedence
+yielded by men to women in America--Good manners must be cultivated
+in early life--Mutual relations of husband and wife--Parents and
+children--The rearing of children to courtesy--De Tocqueville on
+American manners.
+
+XVI.
+
+_GOOD TEMPER IN THE HOUSEKEEPER._
+
+Easier for a household under the guidance of an equable temper in the
+mistress---Dissatisfied looks and sharp tones destroy the comfort of
+system, neatness, and economy--Considerations to aid the
+housekeeper--Importance and dignity of her duties--Difficulties to
+be overcome--Good policy to calculate beforehand upon the derangement
+of well-arranged plans--Object of housekeeping, the comfort and
+well-being of the family--The end should not be sacrificed to secure
+the means--Possible to refrain from angry tones--Mild speech most
+effective--Exemplification--Allowances to be made for servants and
+children--Power of religion to impart dignity and importance to the
+ordinary and petty details of domestic life.
+
+XVII.
+
+_HABITS OF SYSTEM AND ORDER._
+
+Relative importance and difficulty of the duties a woman is called to
+perform--Her duties not trivial--A habit of system and order
+necessary--Right apportionment of time--General principles--
+Christianity to be the foundation--Intellectual and social interests
+to be preferred to gratification of taste or appetite--Neglect of
+health a sin in the sight of God--Regular season of rest appointed by
+the Creator--Divisions of time--Systematic arrangement of house articles
+and other conveniences--Regular employment for each member of a
+family--Children--Family work--Forming habits of system--Early rising
+a very great aid--Due apportionment of time to the several duties.
+
+XVIII.
+
+_GIVING IN CHARITY._
+
+No point of duty more difficult to fix by rule than charity--First
+consideration--Object for which we are placed in this world--Self-
+denying Benevolence.--Second consideration--Natural principles not to
+be exterminated, but regulated and controlled.--Third
+consideration--Superfluities sometimes proper, and sometimes
+not--Fourth consideration--No rule of duty right for one and not for
+all--The opposite of this principle tested--Some use of superfluities
+necessary--Plan for keeping an account of necessities and
+superfluities--Untoward results of our actions do not always prove
+that we deserve blame--General principles to guide in deciding upon
+objects of charity--Who are our neighbors--The most in need to be
+first relieved--Not much need of charity for physical wants in this
+country--Associated charities--Indiscriminate charity--Impropriety
+of judging the charities of others.
+
+XIX.
+
+_ECONOMY OF TIME AND EXPENSES_
+
+Economy, value, and right apportionment of time--Laws appointed by God
+for the Jews--Christianity removes the restrictions laid on the Jews,
+but demands all our time to be devoted to our own best interests and
+the good of our fellow-men--Enjoyment connected with every duty--Various
+modes of economizing time--System and order--Uniting several objects
+in one employment--Odd intervals of time--Aiding others in economizing
+time--Economy in expenses--Contradictory notions--General principles
+in which all agree--Knowledge of income and expenses--Evils of want
+of system and forethought--Young ladies should early learn to be
+systematic and economical.
+
+XX.
+
+_HEALTH OF MIND._
+
+Intimate connection between the body and mind--Brain excited by improper
+stimulants taken into the stomach--Mental faculties then
+affected--Causes of mental disease--Want of oxygenized blood--Fresh
+air absolutely necessary--Excessive exercise of the intellect or
+feelings--Such attention to religion as prevents the performance of
+other duties, wrong--Unusual precocity in children usually the result
+of a diseased brain--Idiocy often the result, or the precocious child
+sinks below the average of mankind--This evil yet prevalent in colleges
+and other seminaries--A medical man necessary in every seminary--Some
+pupils always needing restraint in regard to study--A third cause of
+mental disease, the want of appropriate exercise of the various
+faculties of the mind--Extract from Dr. Combe--Beneficial results of
+active intellectual employments--Indications of a diseased mind.
+
+XXI.
+
+_THE CARE OF INFANTS._
+
+Herbert Spencer on the treatment of offspring--Absurdity of undertaking
+to rear children without any knowledge of how to do it--Foolish
+management of parents generally the cause of evils ascribed to
+Providence--Errors of management during the first two years--Food of
+child and of mother--Warning as to use of too much medicine--Fresh air--
+Care of the skin--Dress--Sleep--Bathing--Change of air--Habits--Dangers
+of the teething period--Constipation--Diarrhea--Teething--How to relieve
+its dangers--Feverishness--Use of water.
+
+XXII.
+
+_THE MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN._
+
+Physical education of children--Animal diet to be avoided for the very
+young--Result of treatment at Albany Orphan Asylum--Good ventilation of
+nurseries and schools--Moral training to consist in forming _habits_ of
+submission, self-denial, and benevolence-General suggestions--Extremes
+of sternness and laxity to be avoided--Appreciation of childish desires
+and feelings--Sympathy--Partaking in games and employments--Inculcation
+of principles preferable to multiplication of commands--Rewards rather
+than penalties--Severe tones of voice--Children to be kept
+happy--Sensitive children--Self-denial--Deceit and honesty--Immodesty
+and delicacy--Dreadful penalties consequent upon youthful
+impurities--Religious training.
+
+XXIII.
+
+_DOMESTIC AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL DUTIES._
+
+Children need more amusement than older persons--Its object, to afford
+rest and recreation to the mind and body--Example of Christ--No
+amusements to be introduced that will tempt the weak or over-excite
+the young--Puritan customs--Work followed by play--Dramatic exercises,
+dancing, and festivity wholesomely enjoyed--The nine o'clock bell--The
+drama and the dance--Card-playing--Novel-reading--Taste for solid
+reading--Cultivation of fruits and flowers--Music--Collecting of shells,
+plants, and minerals--Games--Exercise of mechanical skill for
+boys--Sewing, cutting, and fitting--General suggestions--Social and
+domestic duties--Family attachments--Hospitality.
+
+XXIV.
+
+_CARE OF THE AGED._
+
+Preservation of the aged, designed to give opportunity for self-denial
+and loving care--Patience, sympathy, and labor for them to be regarded
+as privileges in a family--The young should respect and minister unto
+the aged--Treating them as valued members of the family--Engaging them
+in domestic Games and sports--Reading aloud-Courteous attention to
+their opinions--Assistance in retarding decay of faculties by helping
+them to exercise--Keeping up interest of the infirm in domestic
+affairs--Great care to preserve animal heat--Ingratitude to the aged,
+its baseness--Chinese regard for old age.
+
+XXV.
+
+_THE CARE OF SERVANTS._
+
+Origin of the Yankee term "help"--Days of good health and intelligent
+house-keeping--Growth of wealth tends to multiply hired service--
+American young women should be trained in housekeeping for the guidance
+of ignorant and shiftless servants--Difficulty of teaching
+servants--Reaction of society in favor of women's intellectuality, in
+danger of causing a new reaction--American girls should do more
+work--Social estimate of domestic service--Dearth of intelligent
+domestic help--Proper mode of treating servants--General rules and
+special suggestions--Hints from experience--Woman's first "right,"
+liberty to do what she can--Domestic duties not to be neglected for
+operations in other spheres--Servants to be treated with respect--Errors
+of heartless and of too indulgent employers--Mistresses of American
+families necessarily missionaries and instructors.
+
+XXVI.
+
+_CARE Of THE SICK._
+
+Prominence given to care and cure of the sick by our Saviour--Every
+woman should know what to do in the case of illness--Simple remedies
+best--Fasting and perspiration--Evils of constipation--Modes of
+relieving it--Remedies for colds--Unwise to tempt the appetite of the
+sick--Suggestion for the sick-room--Ventilation--Needful articles--The
+room, bed, and person of the patient to be kept neat--Care to preserve
+animal warmth--The sick, the delicate, the aged--Food always to be
+carefully prepared and neatly served--Little modes of refreshment--
+Implicit obedience to the physician--Care in purchasing medicines--
+Exhibition of cheerfulness, gentleness, and sympathy--Knowledge and
+experience of mind--Lack of competent nurses--Failings of nurses--
+Sensitiveness of the sick--"Sisters of Charity," the reason why they are
+such excellent nurses--Illness in the family a providential opportunity
+of training children to love and usefulness.
+
+XXVII.
+
+_ACCIDENTS AND ANTIDOTES._
+
+Mode of treating cuts, wounds, severed arteries--Bad bruises to be
+bathed In hot water--Sprains treated with hot fomentation and
+rest--Burns cured by creosote, wood-soot, or flour--Drowning; most
+approved mode of treatment--Poisons and their antidotes--Soda,
+saleratus, potash, sulphuric or oxalic acid, lime or baryta, iodine
+or iodide of potassium, prussic acid, antimony, arsenic, lead, nitrate
+of silver, phosphorus, alcohol, tobacco, opium, strychnia--Bleeding
+at the lungs, stomach, throat, nose--Accidents from lightning--
+Stupefaction, from coal-gas or foul air--Fire--Fainting--Coolness and
+presence of mind.
+
+XXVIII.
+
+_SEWING, CUTTING, AND MENDING._
+
+Different kinds of Stitch--Overstitch--Hems--Tucks--Fells--Gores--
+Buttonholes--Whipping--Gathering--Darning--Basting--Sewing--Work-
+baskets--To make a frock--Patterns--Fitting--Lining--Thin Silks--
+Fitted and plain silks--Plaids--Stripes--Linen and Cotton--How to
+buy--Shirts--Chemises--Night-gowns--Under-skirts--Mending--Silk
+dresses--Broadcloth--Hose--Shoes, etc.--Bedding--Mattresses--
+Sheeting--Bed-linen.
+
+XXIX.
+
+_FIRES AND LIGHTS._
+
+Wood fires--Shallow fireplaces--Utensils--The best wood for fires
+--How to measure a load--Splitting and piling--Ashes--Cleaning up--
+Stoves and grates--Ventilation--Moisture--Stove-pipe thimbles--
+Anthracite coal--Bituminous coal--Care to be used in erecting stoves
+and pipes--Lights--Poor economy to use bad light--Gas--Oil--Kerosene--
+Points to be considered: Steadiness, Color, Heat--Argand burners--
+Dangers of kerosene--Tests of its safety and light-giving qualities--
+Care of lamps--Utensils needed--Shades--Night-lamps--How to make
+candles--Moulded--Dipped--Rush-lights.
+
+XXX.
+
+_THE CARE OF ROOMS._
+
+Parlors--Cleansing--Furniture--Pictures--Hearths and jambs--Stains in
+marble--Carpets--Chambers and bedrooms--Ventilation--How to make a bed
+properly--Servants should have single beds and comfortable
+rooms--Kitchens--Light--Air--Cleanliness--How to make a cheap
+oil-cloth--The sink--Washing dishes--Kitchen furniture--Crockery--
+Ironware--Tinware--Basketware--Other articles--Closets--Cellars--Dryness
+and cleanliness imperative necessities--Store-rooms--Modes of destroying
+insects and vermin.
+
+XXXI.
+
+_THE CARE OF YARDS AND GARDENS._
+
+Preparation of soil for pot-plants--For hot-beds--For planting flower
+seeds--For garden seeds--Transplanting--To re-pot house plants--The
+laying out of yards and gardens--Transplanting trees--The care of
+house plants.
+
+XXXII.
+
+_THE PROPAGATION OF PLANTS._
+
+Propagation of bulbous roots--Propagation of plants by shoots--By
+layers-Budding and grafting--The outer and inner bark--Detailed
+description of operations--Seed-fruit--Stone-fruit--Rose hushes--
+Ingrafting--Stock grafting--Pruning--Perpendicular shoots to be taken
+out, horizontal or curved shoots retained--All fruit-buds coming out
+after midsummer to be rubbed off--Suckers--Pruning to be done after
+sap is in circulation.--Thinning--Leaves to be removed when they shade
+fruit near maturity--Fruit to be removed when too abundant for good
+quality--How to judge.
+
+XXXIII.
+
+_THE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT._
+
+A pleasant, easy, and profitable occupation--Soil for a nursery--
+Planting of seeds--Transplanting--Pruning--Filberts--Figs--Currants--
+Gooseberries--Raspberries--Strawberries--Grapes--Modes of preserving
+fruit trees--The yellows--Moths--Caterpillars--Brulure-Curculio--Canker-
+worm.
+
+XXXIV.
+
+_THE CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS._
+
+Interesting association of animals with man, from childhood to
+age--Domestic animals apt to catch the spirit of their masters--
+Important necessities--Good feeding--Shelter--Cleanliness--Destruction
+of parasitic vermin--Salt and water--Light--Exercise--Rule for
+breeding--Care of Horses: feeding, grooming, special treatment--Cows:
+stabling, feed, calving, milking, tethering--Swine: naturally cleanly,
+breeding, fresh water, charcoal, feeding--Sheep: winter treatment--Diet
+--Sorting--Use of sheep in clearing land-Pasture--Hedges and
+fences--Poultry--Turkeys--Geese--Ducks--Fowls--Dairy work
+generally--Bees--Care of domestic animals, occupation for women.
+
+XXXV.
+
+_EARTH-CLOSETS._
+
+Deodorization and preservation of excrementitious matter--The
+earth-closet--Waring's pamphlet--The agricultural argument--Necessity
+of returning to the soil the elements taken from it--Earth-closet
+based on power of clay and inorganic matter to absorb and retain odors
+and fertilizing matter--Its construction--Mode of use--The ordinary
+privy--The commode or portable house-privy--Especial directions:
+things to be observed--Repeated use of earth--Other
+advantages--Sick-rooms--House-labor--Cleanliness--Economy.
+
+XXXVI.
+
+_WARMING AND VENTILATION._
+
+Open fireplace nearest to natural mode by which earth is warmed and
+ventilated--Origin of diseases--Necessity of pure air to life
+--Statistics--General principles of ventilation--Mode of Lewis
+Leeds--Ventilation of buildings planned in this work--The pure-air
+conductor--The foul-air exhausting-flue--Stoves--Detailed
+arrangements--Warming--Economy of time, labor, and expense in the
+cottage plan--After all schemes, the open fireplace the best.
+
+XXXVII.
+
+_CARE OF THE HOMELESS, THE HELPLESS, AND THE VICIOUS._
+
+Recommendations of the Massachusetts Board of State Charities--Pauper
+and criminal classes should be scattered in Christian homes instead
+of gathered into large institutions--Facts recently published concerning
+the poor of New-York--Sufferings of the poor, deterioration of the
+rich--Christian principles of benevolence--Plan for a Christian city
+house--Suggestions to wealthy and unoccupied women--Roman Catholic
+works--Protestant duties--The highest mission of woman.
+XXXVIII.
+
+_THE CHRISTIAN NEIGHBORHOOD._
+
+Spirit of Christian Missions--Present organizations under church
+direction too mechanical--Christian family influence the true instrument
+of Gospel propagation--Practical suggestions for gathering a Christian
+family in neglected neighborhoods--Plan of church, school-house, and
+family-dwelling in one building--Mode of use for various
+purposes--Nucleus and gathering of a family--Christian work for
+Christian women--Children--Orphans--Servants--Neglected ones--Household
+training--Roman Catholic Nuns--The South--The West--The neglected
+interior of older States--Power of such examples--Rapid spread of their
+influence--Anticipation of the glorious consummation to be hoped
+for--Prophecy in the Scriptures--Cowper's noble vision of the millennial
+glory.
+
+APPEAL TO AMERICAN WOMEN.
+
+GLOSSARY OF WORDS AND REFERENCES
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The authors of this volume, while they sympathize with every honest
+effort to relieve the disabilities and sufferings of their sex, are
+confident that the chief cause of these evils is the fact that the
+honor and duties of the family state are not duly appreciated, that
+women are not trained for these duties as men are trained for their
+trades and professions, and that, as the consequence, family labor is
+poorly done, poorly paid, and regarded as menial and disgraceful.
+
+To be the nurse of young children, a cook, or a housemaid, is regarded
+as the lowest and last resort of poverty, and one which no woman of
+culture and position can assume without loss of caste and
+respectability.
+
+It is the aim of this volume to elevate both the honor and the
+remuneration of all the employments that sustain the many difficult
+and sacred duties of the family state, and thus to render each
+department of woman's true profession as much desired and respected
+as are the most honored professions of men.
+
+When the other sex are to be instructed in law, medicine, or divinity,
+they are favored with numerous institutions richly endowed, with
+teachers of the highest talents and acquirements, with extensive
+libraries, and abundant and costly apparatus. With such advantages
+they devote nearly ten of the best years of life to preparing themselves
+for their profession; and to secure the public from unqualified members
+of these professions, none can enter them until examined by a competent
+body, who certify to their due preparation for their duties.
+
+Woman's profession embraces the care and nursing of the body in the
+critical periods of infancy and sickness, the training of the human
+mind in the most impressible period of childhood, the instruction and
+control of servants, and most of the government and economies of the
+family state. These duties of woman are as sacred and important as any
+ordained to man; and yet no such advantages for preparation have been
+accorded to her, nor is there any qualified body to certify the public
+that a woman is duly prepared to give proper instruction in her
+profession.
+
+This unfortunate want, and also the questions frequently asked
+concerning the domestic qualifications of both the authors of this
+work, who have formerly written upon such topics, make it needful to
+give some account of the advantages they have enjoyed in preparation
+for the important office assumed as teachers of woman's domestic duties.
+
+The sister whose name is subscribed is the eldest of nine children by
+her own mother, and of four by her step-mother; and having a natural
+love for children, she found it a pleasure as well as a duty to aid
+in the care of infancy and childhood. At sixteen, she was deprived of
+a mother, who was remarkable not only for intelligence and culture,
+but for a natural taste and skill in domestic handicraft. Her place
+was awhile filled by an aunt remarkable for her habits of neatness and
+order, and especially for her economy. She was, in the course of time,
+replaced by a stepmother, who had been accustomed to a superior style
+of housekeeping, and was an expert in all departments of domestic
+administration.
+
+Under these successive housekeepers, the writer learned not only to
+perform in the most approved manner all the manual employments of
+domestic life, but to honor and enjoy these duties.
+
+At twenty-three, she commenced the institution which ever since has
+flourished as "The Hartford Female Seminary," where, at the age of
+twelve, the sister now united with her in the authorship of this work
+became her pupil, and, after a few years, her associate. The removal
+of the family to the West, and failure of health, ended a connection
+with the Hartford Seminary, and originated a similar one in Cincinnati,
+of which the younger authoress of this work was associate principal
+till her marriage.
+
+At this time, the work on _Domestic Economy_, of which this volume
+may be called an enlarged edition, although a great portion of it is
+entirely new, embodying the latest results of science, was prepared
+by the writer as a part of the _Massachusetts School Library_,
+and has since been extensively introduced as a text-book into public
+schools and higher female seminaries. It was followed by its sequel,
+_The Domestic Receipt-Book_, widely circulated by the Harpers in
+every State of the Union.
+
+These two works have been entirely remodeled, former topics rewritten,
+and many new ones introduced, so as to include all that is properly
+embraced in a complete Encyclopedia of Domestic Economy.
+
+In addition to the opportunities mentioned, the elder sister, for many
+years, has been studying the causes and the remedies for the decay of
+constitution and loss of health so increasingly prevalent among American
+women, aiming to promote the establishment of _endowed_ institutions, in
+which women shall be properly trained for their profession, as both
+housekeepers and health-keepers. What advantages have thus been received
+and the results thus obtained will appear in succeeding pages.
+
+During the upward progress of the age, and the advance of a more
+enlightened Christianity, the writers of this volume have gained more
+elevated views of the true mission of woman--of the dignity and
+importance of her distinctive duties, and of the true happiness which
+will be the reward of a right appreciation of this mission, and a
+proper performance of these duties.
+
+There is at the present time an increasing agitation of the public
+mind, evolving many theories and some crude speculations as to woman's
+rights and duties. That there is a great social and moral power in her
+keeping, which is now seeking expression by organization, is manifest,
+and that resulting plans and efforts will involve some mistakes, some
+collisions, and some failures, all must expect.
+
+But to intelligent, reflecting, and benevolent women--whose faith rests
+on the character and teachings of Jesus Christ--there are great
+principles revealed by Him, which in the end will secure the grand
+result which He taught and suffered to achieve. It is hoped that in
+the following pages these principles will be so exhibited and
+illustrated as to aid in securing those rights and advantages which
+Christ's religion aims to provide for all, and especially for the most
+weak and defenseless of His children.
+
+CATHARINE E. BEECHER.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE CHRISTIAN FAMILY.
+
+
+It is the aim of this volume to elevate both the honor and the
+remuneration of all employments that sustain the many difficult and
+varied duties of the family state, and thus to render each department
+of woman's profession as much desired and respected as are the most
+honored professions of men.
+
+What, then, is the end designed by the family state which Jesus Christ
+came into this world to secure?
+
+It is to provide for the training of our race to the highest possible
+intelligence, virtue, and happiness, by means of the self-sacrificing
+labors of the wise and good, and this with chief reference to a future
+immortal existence. The distinctive feature of the family is
+self-sacrificing labor of the stronger and wiser members to raise the
+weaker and more ignorant to equal advantages. The father undergoes
+toil and self-denial to provide a home, and then the mother becomes
+a self-sacrificing laborer to train its inmates. The useless,
+troublesome infant is served in the humblest offices; while both parents
+unite in training it to an equality with themselves in every advantage.
+Soon the older children become helpers to raise the younger to a level
+with their own. When any are sick, those who are well become
+self-sacrificing ministers. When the parents are old and useless, the
+children become their self-sacrificing servants.
+
+Thus the discipline of the family state is one of daily self-devotion
+of the stronger and wiser to elevate and support the weaker members.
+Nothing could be more contrary to its first principles than for the
+older and more capable children to combine to secure to themselves the
+highest advantages, enforcing the drudgeries on the younger, at the
+sacrifice of their equal culture.
+
+Jesus Christ came to teach the fatherhood of God and consequent
+brotherhood of man. He came as the "first-born Son" of God and the
+Elder Brother of man, to teach by example the self-sacrifice by which
+the great family of man is to be raised to equality of advantages as
+children of God. For this end, he "humbled himself" from the highest
+to the lowest place. He chose for his birthplace the most despised
+village; for his parents the lowest in rank; for his trade, to labor
+with his hands as a carpenter, being "subject to his parents" thirty
+years. And, what is very significant, his trade was that which prepares
+the family home, as if he would teach that the great duty of man is
+labor--to provide for and train weak and ignorant creatures. Jesus
+Christ worked with his hands nearly thirty years, and preached less
+than three. And he taught that his kingdom is exactly opposite to that
+of the world, where all are striving for the highest positions. "Whoso
+will be great shall be your minister, and whoso will be chiefest shall
+be servant of all."
+
+The family state then, is the aptest earthly illustration of the
+heavenly kingdom, and in it woman is its chief minister. Her great
+mission is self-denial, in training its members to self-sacrificing
+labors for the ignorant and weak: if not her own children, then the
+neglected children of her Father in heaven. She is to rear all under
+her care to lay up treasures, not on earth, but in heaven. All the
+pleasures of this life end here; but those who train immortal minds
+are to reap the fruit of their labor through eternal ages.
+
+To man is appointed the out-door labor--to till the earth, dig the
+mines, toil in the foundries, traverse the ocean, transport merchandise,
+labor in manufactories, construct houses, conduct civil, municipal,
+and state affairs, and all the heavy work, which, most of the day,
+excludes him from the comforts of a home. But the great stimulus to
+all these toils, implanted in the heart of every true man, is the
+desire for a home of his own, and the hopes of paternity. Every man
+who truly lives for immortality responds to the beatitude, "Children
+are a heritage from the Lord: blessed is the man that hath his quiver
+full of them!" The more a father and mother live under the influence
+of that "immortality which Christ hath brought to light," the more is
+the blessedness of rearing a family understood and appreciated. Every
+child trained aright is to dwell forever in exalted bliss with those
+that gave it life and trained it for heaven.
+
+The blessed privileges of the family state are not confined to those
+who rear children of their own. Any woman who can earn a livelihood,
+as every woman should be trained to do, can take a properly qualified
+female associate, and institute a family of her own, receiving to its
+heavenly influences the orphan, the sick, the homeless, and the sinful,
+and by motherly devotion train them to follow the self-denying example
+of Christ, in educating his earthly children for true happiness in
+this life and for his eternal home.
+
+And such is the blessedness of aiding to sustain a truly Christian
+home, that no one comes so near the pattern of the All-perfect One as
+those who might hold what men call a higher place, and yet humble
+themselves to the lowest in order to aid in training the young, "not
+as men-pleasers, but as servants to Christ, with good-will doing service
+as to the Lord, and not to men." Such are preparing for high places
+in the kingdom of heaven. "Whosoever will be chiefest among you, let
+him be your servant."
+
+It is often the case that the true humility of Christ is not understood.
+It was not in having a low opinion of his own character and claims,
+but it was in taking a low place in order to raise others to a higher.
+The worldling seeks to raise himself and family to an equality with
+others, or, if possible, a superiority to them. The true follower of
+Christ comes down in order to elevate others.
+
+The maxims and institutions of this world have ever been antagonistic
+to the teachings and example of Jesus Christ. Men toil for wealth,
+honor, and power, not as means for raising others to an equality with
+themselves, but mainly for earthly, selfish advantages. Although the
+experience of this life shows that children brought up to labor have
+the fairest chance for a virtuous and prosperous life, and for hope
+of future eternal blessedness, yet it is the aim of most parents who
+can do so, to lay up wealth that their children need not labor with
+the hands as Christ did. And although exhorted by our Lord not to lay
+up treasure on earth, but rather the imperishable riches which are
+gained in toiling to train the ignorant and reform the sinful, as yet
+a large portion of the professed followers of Christ, like his first
+disciples, are "slow of heart to believe."
+
+Not less have the sacred ministries of the family state been undervalued
+and warred upon in other directions; for example, the Romish Church
+has made celibacy a prime virtue, and given its highest honors to those
+who forsake the family state as ordained by God. Thus came great
+communities of monks and nuns, shut out from the love and labors of
+a Christian home; thus, also, came the monkish systems of education,
+collecting the young in great establishments away from the watch and
+care of parents, and the healthful and self-sacrificing labors of a
+home. Thus both religion and education have conspired to degrade the
+family state.
+
+Still more have civil laws and social customs been opposed to the
+principles of Jesus Christ. It has ever been assumed that the learned,
+the rich, and the powerful are not to labor with the hands, as Christ
+did, and as Paul did when he would "not eat any man's bread for naught,
+but wrought with labor, not because we have not power "[to live
+without hand-work,]" but to make ourselves an example."(2 Thess. 3.)
+
+Instead of this, manual labor has been made dishonorable and unrefined
+by being forced on the ignorant and poor. Especially has the most
+important of all hand-labor, that which sustains the family, been thus
+disgraced; so that to nurse young children, and provide the food of
+a family by labor, is deemed the lowest of all positions in honor and
+profit, and the last resort of poverty. And so our Lord, who himself
+took the form of a servant, teaches, "How hardly shall they that have
+riches enter the kingdom of heaven!"--that kingdom in which all are
+toiling to raise the weak, ignorant, and sinful to such equality with
+themselves as the children of a loving family enjoy. One mode in
+which riches have led to antagonism with the true end of the family state
+is in the style of living, by which the hand-labor, most important to
+health, comfort, and beauty, is confined to the most ignorant and
+neglected members of society, without any effort being made to raise
+them to equal advantages with the wise and cultivated.
+
+And, the higher civilization has advanced, the more have children been
+trained to feel that to labor, as did Christ and Paul, is disgraceful,
+and to be made the portion of a degraded class. Children, of the rich
+grow up with the feeling that servants are to work for them, and they
+themselves are not to work. To the minds of most children and servants,
+"to be a lady," is almost synonymous with "to be waited on, and do no
+work," It is the earnest desire of the authors of this volume to make
+plain the falsity of this growing popular feeling, and to show how
+much happier and more efficient family life will become when it is
+strengthened, sustained, and adorned by family work.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+A CHRISTIAN HOUSE.
+
+
+In the Divine Word it is written, "The wise woman buildeth her house."
+To be "wise," is "to choose the best means for accomplishing the best
+end." It has been shown that the best end for a woman to seek is the
+training of God's children for their eternal home, by guiding them to
+intelligence, virtue, and true happiness. When, therefore, the wise
+woman seeks a home in which to exercise this ministry, she will aim
+to secure a house so planned that it will provide in the best manner
+for health, industry, and economy, those cardinal requisites of domestic
+enjoyment and success. To aid in this, is the object of the following
+drawings and descriptions, which will illustrate a style of living
+more conformed to the great design for which the family is instituted
+than that which ordinarily prevails among those classes which take the
+lead in forming the customs of society. The aim will be to exhibit
+modes of economizing labor, time, and expenses, so as to secure health,
+thrift, and domestic happiness to persons of limited means, in a measure
+rarely attained even by those who possess wealth.
+
+At the head of this chapter is a sketch of what may be properly called
+a Christian house; that is, a house contrived for the express purpose
+of enabling every member of a family to labor with the hands for the
+common good, and by modes at once healthful, economical, and tasteful.
+Of course, much of the instruction conveyed in the following pages is
+chiefly applicable to the wants and habits of those living either in
+the country or in such suburban vicinities as give space of ground for
+healthful outdoor occupation in the family service, although the general
+principles of house-building and house-keeping are of necessity
+universal in their application--as true in the busy confines of the
+city as in the freer and purer quietude of the country. So far as
+circumstances can be made to yield the opportunity, it will be assumed
+that the family state demands some outdoor labor for all. The
+cultivation of flowers to ornament the table and house, of fruits and
+vegetables for food, of silk and cotton for clothing, and the care of
+horse, cow, and dairy, can be so divided that each and all of the
+family, some part of the day, can take exercise in the pure air, under
+the magnetic and healthful rays of the sun. Every head of a family
+should seek a soil and climate which will afford such opportunities.
+Railroads, enabling men toiling in cities to rear families in the
+country, are on this account a special blessing. So, also, is the
+opening of the South to free labor, where, in the pure and mild climate
+of the uplands, open-air labor can proceed most of the year, and women
+and children labor out of doors as well as within.
+
+In the following drawings are presented modes of economizing time,
+labor, and expense by the close packing of conveniences. By such
+methods, small and economical houses can be made to secure most of the
+comforts and many of the refinements of large and expensive ones. The
+cottage at the head of this chapter is projected on a plan which can
+be adapted to a warm or cold climate with little change. By adding
+another story, it would serve a large family.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+Fig. 1 shows the ground-plan of the first floor. On the inside it is
+forty-three feet long and twenty-five wide, excluding conservatories
+and front and back projections. Its inside height from floor to ceiling
+is ten feet. The piazzas each side of the front projection have
+sliding-windows to the floor, and can, by glazed sashes, be made
+green-houses in winter. In a warm climate, piazzas can be made at the
+back side also.
+
+In the description and arrangement, the leading aim is to show how
+time, labor, and expense are saved, not only in the building but in
+furniture and its arrangement. With this aim, the ground-floor and its
+furniture will first be shown, then the second story and its furniture,
+and then the basement and its conveniences. The conservatories are
+appendages not necessary to housekeeping, but useful in many ways
+pointed out more at large in other chapters.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+The entry has arched recesses behind the front doors, (Fig. 2,)
+furnished with hooks for over-clothes in both--a box for over-shoes
+in one, and a stand for umbrellas in the other. The roof of the recess
+is for statuettes, busts, or flowers. The stairs turn twice with broad
+steps, making a recess at the lower landing, whore a table is set with
+a vase of flowers, (Fig. 3.) On one side of the recess is a closet,
+arched to correspond with the arch over the stairs. A bracket over the
+first broad stair, with flowers or statuettes, is visible from the
+entrance, and pictures can be hung as in the illustration.
+
+The large room on the left can be made to serve the purpose of several
+rooms by means of a _movable screen_. By shifting this rolling screen
+from one part of the room to another, two apartments are always
+available, of any desired size within the limits of the large room.
+One side of the screen fronts what may be used as the parlor or
+sitting-room; the other side is arranged for bedroom conveniences. Of
+this, Fig. 4 shows the front side;--covered first with strong canvas,
+stretched and nailed on. Over this is pasted panel-paper, and the
+upper part is made to resemble an ornamental cornice by fresco-paper.
+Pictures can be hung in the panels, or be pasted on and varnished with
+white varnish. To prevent the absorption of the varnish, a wash of gum
+isinglass (fish-glue) must be applied twice.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. CLOSET, RECESS, STAIR LANDING.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig 5.]
+
+Fig. 5 shows the back or inside of the movable screen toward the part
+of the room used as the bedroom. On one side, and at the top and bottom,
+it has shelves with _shelf-boxes_, which are cheaper and better than
+drawers, and much preferred by those using them. Handles are cut in the
+front and back side, as seen in Fig. 6. Half an inch space must be
+between the box and the shelf over it, and as much each side, so that it
+can be taken out and put in easily. The central part of the screen's
+interior is a wardrobe.
+
+[Image: Panel screens]
+
+This screen must be so high as nearly to reach the ceiling, in order
+to prevent it from overturning. It is to fill the width of the room,
+except two feet on each side. A projecting cleat or strip, reaching
+nearly to the top of the screen, three inches wide, is to be screwed
+to the front sides, on which light frame doors are to be hung, covered
+with canvas and panel-paper like the front of the screen. The inside
+of these doors is furnished with hooks for clothing, for which the
+projection makes room. The whole screen is to be eighteen inches deep
+at the top and two feet deep at the base, giving a solid foundation.
+It is moved on four wooden rollers, one foot long and four inches in
+diameter. The pivots of the rollers and the parts where there is
+friction must be rubbed with hard soap, and then a child can move the
+whole easily.
+
+A curtain is to be hung across the whole interior of the screen by
+rings, on a strong wire. The curtain should be in three parts, with
+lead or large nails in the hems to keep it in place. The wood-work
+must be put together with screws, as the screen is too large to pass
+through a, door.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+At the end of the room, behind the screen, are two couches, to be run
+one under the other, as in Fig. 7. The upper one is made with four
+posts, each three feet high and three inches square, set on casters
+two inches high. The frame is to be fourteen inches from the floor,
+seven feet long, two feet four inches wide, and three inches in
+thickness. At the head, and at the foot, is to be screwed a notched
+two-inch board, three inches wide, as in Fig. 8. The mortises are to
+be one inch wide and deep, and one inch apart, to revive slats made
+of ash, oak, or spruce, one inch square, placed lengthwise of the
+couch. The slats being small, and so near together, and running
+lengthwise, make a better spring frame than wire coils. If they warp,
+they can be turned. They must not be fastened at the ends, except by
+insertion in the notches. Across the posts, and of equal height with
+them, are to be screwed head and foot-boards.
+
+The under couch is like the upper, except these dimensions: posts,
+nine inches high, including castors; frame, six feet two inches long,
+two feet four inches wide. The frame should be as near the floor as
+possible, resting on the casters.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.]
+
+The most healthful and comfortable mattress is made by a case, open
+in the centre and fastened together with buttons, as in Fig. 9; to be
+filled with oat straw, which is softer than wheat or rye. This can be
+adjusted to the figure, and often renewed.
+
+Fig. 10 represents the upper couch when covered, with the under couch
+put beneath it. The coverlid should match the curtain of the screen;
+and the pillows, by day, should have a case of the same.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.]
+
+Fig. 11 is an ottoman, made as a box, with a lid on hinges. A cushion
+is fastened to this lid by strings at each corner, passing through
+holes in the box lid and tied inside. The cushion to be cut square,
+with side pieces; stuffed with hair, and stitched through like a
+mattress. Side handles are made by cords fastened inside with knots.
+The box must be two inches larger at the bottom than at the top, and
+the lid and cushion the same size as the bottom, to give it a tasteful
+shape. This ottoman is set on casters, and is a great convenience for
+holding articles, while serving also as a seat.
+
+The expense of the screen, where lumber averages $4 a hundred, and
+carpenter labor $3 a day, would be about $30, and the two couches about
+$6. The material for covering might be cheap and yet pretty. A woman
+with these directions, and a son or husband who would use plane and
+saw, could thus secure much additional room, and also what amounts to
+two bureaus, two large trunks, one large wardrobe, and a wash-stand,
+for less than $20--the mere cost of materials. The screen and couches
+can be so arranged as to have one room serve first as a large and airy
+sleeping-room; then, in the morning, it may be used as sitting-room
+one side of the screen, and breakfast-room the other; and lastly,
+through the day it can be made a large parlor on the front side, and
+a sewing or retiring-room the other side. The needless spaces usually
+devoted to kitchen, entries, halls, back-stairs, pantries, store-rooms,
+and closets, by this method would be used in adding to the size of the
+large room, so variously used by day and by night.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.]
+
+Fig. 12 is an enlarged plan of the kitchen and stove-room. The chimney
+and stove-room are contrived to ventilate the whole house, by a mode
+exhibited in another chapter.
+
+Between the two rooms glazed sliding-doors, passing each other, serve
+to shut out heat and smells from the kitchen. The sides of the
+stove-room must be lined with shelves; those on the side by the cellar
+stairs, to be one foot wide, and eighteen inches apart; on the other
+side, shelves may be narrower, eight inches wide and nine inches apart.
+Boxes with lids, to receive stove utensils, must be placed near the
+stove.
+
+On these shelves, and in the closet and boxes, can be placed every
+material used for cooking, all the table and cooking utensils, and all
+the articles used in house work, and yet much spare room will be left.
+The cook's galley in a steamship has every article and utensil used
+in cooking for two hundred persons, in a space not larger than this
+stove-room, and so arranged that with one or two steps the cook can
+reach all he uses.
+
+In contrast to this, in most large houses, the table furniture, the
+cooking materials and utensils, the sink, and the eating-room, are at
+such distances apart, that half the time and strength is employed in
+walking back and forth to collect and return the articles used.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.]
+
+Fig. 13 is an enlarged plan of the sink and cooking-form. Two windows
+make a better circulation of air in warm weather, by having one open
+at top and the other at the bottom, while the light is better adjusted
+for working, in case of weak eyes.
+
+The flour-barrel just fills the closet, which has a door for admission,
+and a lid to raise when used. Beside it, is the form for cooking, with
+a moulding-board laid on it; one side used for preparing vegetables
+and meat, and the other for moulding bread. The sink has two pumps,
+for well and for rain-water--one having a forcing power to throw water
+into the reservoir in the garret, which supplies the water-closet
+and bath-room. On the other side of the sink is the dish-drainer, with a
+ledge on the edge next the sink, to hold the dishes, and grooves cut
+to let the water drain into the sink. It has hinges, so that it can
+either rest on the cook-form or be turned over and cover the sink.
+Under the sink are shelf-boxes placed on two shelves run into grooves,
+with other grooves above and below, so that one may move the shelves
+and increase or diminish the spaces between. The shelf-boxes can be
+used for scouring-materials, dish-towels, and dish-cloths; also to
+hold bowls for bits of butter, fats, etc. Under these two shelves is
+room for two pails, and a jar for soap-grease.
+
+Under the cook-form are shelves and shelf-boxes for unbolted wheat,
+corn-meal, rye, etc. Beneath these, for white and brown sugar, are
+wooden can-pails, which are the best articles in which to keep these
+constant necessities. Beside them is the tin molasses-can with a tight,
+movable cover, and a cork in the spout. This is much better than a jug
+for molasses, and also for vinegar and oil, being easier to clean and
+to handle. Other articles and implements for cooking can be arranged
+on or under the shelves at the side and front. A small cooking-tray,
+holding pepper, salt, dredging-box, knife and spoon, should stand close
+at hand by the stove, (Fig. 14.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.]
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.]
+
+The articles used for setting tables are to be placed on the shelves
+at the front and side of the sink. Two tumbler-trays, made of
+pasteboard, covered with varnished fancy papers and divided by wires,
+(as shown in Fig. 15,) save many steps in setting and clearing table.
+Similar trays, (Fig. 16,) for knives and forks and spoons, serve the
+same purpose.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.]
+
+The sink should be three feet long and three inches deep, its width
+matching the cook-form.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.]
+
+Fig. 17 is the second or attic story. The main objection to attic rooms
+is their warmth in summer, owing to the heated roof. This is prevented
+by so enlarging the closets each side that their walls meet the ceiling
+under the garret floor, thus excluding all the roof. In the
+bed-chambers, corner dressing-tables, as Fig. 18, instead of projecting
+bureaus, save much space for use, and give a handsome form and finish
+to the room. In the bath-room must be the opening to the garret, and
+a step-ladder to reach it. A reservoir in the garret, supplied by a
+forcing-pump in the cellar or at the sink, must be well supported by
+timbers, and the plumbing must be well done, or much annoyance will
+ensue.
+
+The large chambers are to be lighted by large windows or glazed
+sliding-doors, opening upon the balcony. A roof can be put over the
+balcony and its sides inclosed by windows, and the chamber extend into
+it, and be thus much enlarged.
+
+The water-closets must have the latest improvements for safe discharge,
+and there will be no trouble. They cost no more than an out-door
+building, and save from the most disagreeable house-labor.
+A great improvement, called _earth-closets_, will probably take the
+place of water-closets to some extent; though at present the water
+is the more convenient. A description of the earth-closet will be given
+in another chapter relating to tenement-houses for the poor in large
+cities.
+
+The method of ventilating all the chambers, and also the cellar, will
+be described in another chapter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.]
+
+Fig. 19 represents a shoe-bag, that can be fastened to the side of a
+closet or closet-door.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.]
+
+Fig. 20 represents a piece-bag, and is a very great labor and
+space-saving invention. It is made of calico, and fastened to the side
+of a closet or a door, to hold all the bundles that are usually stowed
+in trunks and drawers. India-rubber or elastic tape drawn into hems
+to hold the contents of the bag is better than tape-strings. Each bag
+should be labeled with the name of its contents, written with indelible
+ink on white tape sewed on to the bag. Such systematic arrangement
+saves much time and annoyance. Drawers or trunks to hold these articles
+can not be kept so easily in good order, and moreover, occupy spaces
+saved by this contrivance.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21. Floor plan]
+
+Fig. 21 is the basement. It has the floor and sides plastered, and is
+lighted with glazed doors. A form is raised close by the cellar stairs,
+for baskets, pails, and tubs. Here, also, the refrigerator can be
+placed, or, what is better, an ice-closet can be made, as designated
+in the illustration. The floor of the basement must be an inclined
+plane toward a drain, and be plastered with water-lime. The wash-tubs
+have plugs in the bottom to let off water, and cocks and pipes over
+them bringing cold water from the reservoir in the garret and hot water
+from the laundry stove. This saves much heavy labor of emptying tubs
+and carrying water.
+
+The laundry closet has a stove for heating irons, and also a kettle
+on top for heating water. Slides or clothes-frames are made to draw
+out to receive wet clothes, and then run into the closet to dry. This
+saves health as well as time and money, and the clothes are as white
+as when dried outdoors.
+
+The wood-work of the house, for doors, windows, etc., should be oiled
+chestnut, butternut, white-wood, and pine. This is cheaper, handsomer,
+and more easy to keep clean than painted wood.
+
+In Fig. 21 are planned two conservatories, and few understand their
+value in the training of the young. They provide soil, in which
+children, through the winter months, can be starting seeds and plants
+for their gardens find raising valuable, tender plants. Every child
+should cultivate flowers and fruits to sell and to give away, and thus
+be taught to learn the value of money and to practice both economy and
+benevolence.
+
+According to the calculation of a house-carpenter, in a place where
+the average price of lumber is $4 a hundred, and carpenter work $3 a
+day, such a house can be built for $1600. For those practicing the
+closest economy, two small families could occupy it, by dividing the
+kitchen, and yet have room enough. Or one large room and the chamber
+over it can be left till increase of family and means require
+enlargement.
+
+A strong horse and carryall, with a cow, garden, vineyard, and orchard,
+on a few acres, would secure all the substantial comforts found in
+great establishments, without the trouble of ill-qualified servants.
+
+And if the parents and children were united in the daily labors of the
+house, garden, and fruit culture; such thrift, health, and happiness
+would be secured as is but rarely found among the rich.
+
+Let us suppose a colony of cultivated and Christian people, having
+abundant wealth, who now are living as the wealthy usually do,
+emigrating to some of the beautiful Southern uplands, where are rocks,
+hills, valleys, and mountains as picturesque as those of New England,
+where the thermometer but rarely reaches 90 degrees in summer, and in
+winter as rarely sinks below freezing-point, so that outdoor labor goes
+on all the year, where the fertile soil is easily worked, where rich
+tropical fruits and flowers abound, where cotton and silk can be raised
+by children around their home, where the produce of vineyards and
+orchards finds steady markets by railroads ready made; suppose such
+a colony, with a central church and school-room, library, hall for
+sports, and a common laundry, (taking the most trying part of domestic
+labor from each house,)--suppose each family to train the children to
+labor with the hands as a healthful and honorable duty; suppose all
+this, which is perfectly practicable, would not the enjoyment of this
+life be increased, and also abundant treasures be laid up in heaven,
+by using the wealth thus economized in diffusing similar enjoyments
+and culture among the poor, ignorant, and neglected ones in desolated
+sections where many now are perishing for want of such Christian example
+and influences?
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+A HEALTHFUL HOME.
+
+
+When "the wise woman buildeth her house," the first consideration will
+be the health of the inmates. The first and most indispensable requisite
+for health is pure air, both by day and night.
+
+If the parents of a family should daily withhold from their children
+a large portion of food needful to growth and health, and every night
+should administer to each a small dose of poison, it would be called
+murder of the most hideous character. But it is probable that more
+than one half of this nation are doing that very thing. The murderous
+operation is perpetrated daily and nightly, in our parlors, our
+bed-rooms, our kitchens, our schoolrooms; and even our churches are
+no asylum from the barbarity. Nor can we escape by our railroads, for
+even there the same dreadful work is going on.
+
+The only palliating circumstance is the ignorance of those who commit
+these wholesale murders. As saith the Scripture, "The people do perish
+for lack of knowledge." And it is this lack of knowledge which it is
+woman's special business to supply, in first training her household
+to intelligence as the indispensable road to virtue and happiness.
+
+The above statements will be illustrated by some account of the manner
+in which the body is supplied with healthful nutriment. There are two
+modes of nourishing the body, one is by food and the other by air. In
+the stomach the food is dissolved, and the nutritious portion is
+absorbed by the blood, and then is earned by blood-vessels to the
+lungs, where it receives oxygen from the air we breathe. This oxygen
+is as necessary to the nourishment of the body as the food for the
+stomach. In a full-grown man weighing one hundred and fifty-four pounds,
+one hundred and eleven pounds consists of oxygen, obtained chiefly
+from the air we breathe. Thus the lungs feed the body with oxygen, as
+really as the stomach supplies the other food required.
+
+The lungs occupy the upper portion of the body from the collar-bone
+to the lower ribs, and between their two lobes is placed the heart.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.]
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.]
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+Fig. 22 shows the position of the lungs, though not the exact shape.
+On the right hand is the exterior of one of the lobes, and on the left
+hand are seen the branching tubes of the interior, through which the
+air we breathe passes to the exceedingly minute air-cells of which the
+lungs chiefly consist. Fig. 23 shows the outside of a cluster of these
+air-cells, and Fig. 24 is the inside view. The lining membrane of each
+air-cell is covered by a network of minute blood-vessels called
+_capillaries_ which, magnified several hundred times, appear in the
+microscope as at Fig. 25. Every air-cell has a blood-vessel that brings
+blood from the heart, which meanders through its capillaries till it
+reaches another blood-vessel that carries it back to the heart, as
+seen in Fig. 26. In this passage of the blood through these capillaries,
+the air in the air-cell imparts its oxygen to the blood, and receives
+in exchange carbonic acid and watery vapor. These latter are expired
+at every breath into the atmosphere.
+
+By calculating the number of air cells in a small portion of the lungs,
+under a microscope, it is ascertained that there are no less than
+eighteen million of these wonderful little purifiers and feeders of
+the body. By their ceaseless ministries, every grown person receives,
+each day, thirty-three hogsheads of air into the lungs to nourish and
+vitalize every part of the body, and also to carry off its impurities.
+
+But the heart has a most important agency in this operation. Fig. 27
+is a diagram of the heart, which is placed between the two lobes of
+the lungs. The right side of the heart receives the dark and impure
+blood, which is loaded with carbonic acid. It is brought from every
+point of the body by branching veins that unite in the upper and the
+lower _vena cava_, which discharge into the right side of the heart.
+This impure blood passes to the capillaries of the air-cells in the
+lungs, where it gives off carbonic acid, and, taking oxygen from the
+air, then returns to the left side of the heart, from whence it is sent
+out through the _aorta_ and its myriad branching arteries to every part
+of the body. When the upper portion of the heart contracts, it forces
+both the pure blood from the lungs, and the impure blood from the body,
+through the valves marked V, V, into the lower part. When the lower
+portion contracts, it closes the valves and forces the impure blood into
+the lungs on one side, and also on the other side forces the purified
+blood through the aorta and arteries to all parts of the body.
+
+As before stated, the lungs consist chiefly of air-cells, the walls
+of which are lined with minute blood-vessels; and we know that in every
+man these air-cells number _eighteen millions_.
+
+Now every beat of the heart sends two ounces of blood into the minute,
+hair-like blood-vessels, called capillaries, that line these air-cells,
+where the air in the air-cells gives its oxygen to the blood, and in
+its place receives carbonic acid. This gas is then expired by the lungs
+into the surrounding atmosphere.
+
+Thus, by this powerful little organ, the heart, no less than
+twenty-eight pounds of blood, in a common-sized man, is sent three
+times every hour through the lungs, giving out carbonic acid and watery
+vapor, and receiving the life-inspiring oxygen.
+
+Whether all this blood shall convey the nourishing and invigorating
+oxygen to every part of the body, or return unrelieved of carbonic
+acid, depends entirely on the pureness of the atmosphere that is
+breathed.
+
+Every time we think or feel, this mental action dissolves some particles
+of the brain and nerves, which pass into the blood to be thrown out
+of the body through the lungs and skin. In like manner, whenever we
+move any muscle, some of its particles decay and pass away. It is in
+the capillaries, which are all over the body, that this change takes
+place. The blood-vessels that convey the pure blood from the heart,
+divide into myriads of little branches that terminate in capillary
+vessels like those lining the air-cells of the lungs. The blood meanders
+through these minute capillaries, depositing the oxygen taken from the
+lungs and the food of the stomach, and receiving in return the decayed
+matter, which is chiefly carbonic acid.
+
+This carbonic acid is formed by the union of oxygen with _carbon_ or
+_charcoal_, which forms a large portion of the body. Watery vapor is
+also formed in the capillaries by the union of oxygen with the hydrogen
+contained in the food and drink that nourish the body.
+
+During this process in the capillaries, the bright red blood of the
+arteries changes to the purple blood of the veins, which is carried
+back to the heart, to be sent to the lungs as before described. A
+portion of the oxygen received in the lungs unites with the dissolved
+food sent from the stomach into the blood, and no food can nourish the
+body till it has received a proper supply of oxygen in the lungs. At
+every breath a half-pint of blood receives its needed oxygen in the
+lungs, and at the same time gives out an equal amount of carbonic acid
+and water.
+
+Now, this carbonic acid, if received into the lungs, undiluted by
+sufficient air, is a fatal poison, causing certain death. When it is
+mixed with only a small portion of air, it is a slow poison, which
+imperceptibly undermines the constitution.
+
+We now can understand how it is that all who live in houses where the
+breathing of inmates has deprived the air of oxygen, and loaded it
+with carbonic acid, may truly be said to be poisoned and starved;
+poisoned with carbonic acid, and starved for want of oxygen.
+
+Whenever oxygen unites with carbon to form carbonic acid, or with
+hydrogen to form water, heat is generated Thus it is that a land of
+combustion is constantly going on in the capillaries all over the body.
+It is this burning of the decaying portions of the body that causes
+animal heat. It is a process similar to that which takes place when
+lamps and candles are burning. The oil and tallows which are chiefly
+carbon and hydrogen, unite with the oxygen of the air and form carbonic
+acid and watery vapor, producing heat during the process. So in the
+capillaries all over the body, the carbon and hydrogen supplied to the
+blood by the stomach, unite with the oxygen gained in the lungs, and
+cause the heat which is diffused all over the body.
+
+The skin also performs an office, similar to that of the lungs. In the
+skin of every adult there are no less than seven million minute
+perspirating tubes, each one fourth of an inch long. If all these were
+united in one length, they would extend twenty-eight miles. These
+minute tubes are lined with capillary blood-vessels, which are
+constantly sending out not only carbonic acid, but other gases and
+particles of decayed matter. The skin and lungs together, in one day
+and night, throw out three quarters of a pound of charcoal as carbonic
+acid, beside other gases and water.
+
+While the bodies of men and animals are filling the air with the
+poisonous carbonic acid, and using up the life-giving oxygen, the trees
+and plants are performing an exactly contrary process; for they are
+absorbing carbonic acid and giving out oxygen. Thus, by a wonderful
+arrangement of the beneficent Creator, a constant equilibrium is
+preserved. What animals use is provided by vegetables, and what
+vegetables require is furnished by animals; and all goes on, day and
+night, without care or thought of man.
+
+The human race in its infancy was placed in a mild and genial clime,
+where each separate family dwelt in tents, and breathed, both day and
+night, the pure air of heaven. And when they became scattered abroad
+to colder climes, the open fire-place secured a full supply of pure
+air. But civilization has increased economies and conveniences far
+ahead of the knowledge needed by the common people for their healthful
+use. Tight sleeping-rooms, and close, air-tight stoves, are now starving
+and poisoning more than one half of this nation. It seems impossible
+to make people know their danger. And the remedy for this is the light
+of knowledge and intelligence which it is woman's special mission to
+bestow, as she controls and regulates the ministries of a home.
+
+The poisoning process is thus exhibited in Mrs. Stowe's "House and
+Home Papers," and can not be recalled too often:
+
+"No other gift of God, so precious, so inspiring, is treated with such
+utter irreverence and contempt in the calculations of us mortals as
+this same air of heaven. A sermon on oxygen, if we had a preacher who
+understood the subject, might do more to repress sin than the most
+orthodox discourse to show when and how and why sin came. A minister
+gets up in a crowded lecture-room, where the mephitic air almost makes
+the candles burn blue, and bewails the deadness of the church--the
+church the while, drugged by the poisoned air, growing sleepier and
+sleepier, though they feel dreadfully wicked for being so.
+
+"Little Jim, who, fresh from his afternoon's ramble in the fields,
+last evening said his prayers dutifully, and lay down to sleep in a
+most Christian frame, this morning sits up in bed with his hair
+bristling with crossness, strikes at his nurse, and declares he won't
+say his prayers--that he don't want to be good. The simple difference
+is, that the child, having slept in a close box of a room, his brain
+all night fed by poison, is in a mild state of moral insanity. Delicate
+women remark that it takes them till eleven or twelve o'clock to get
+up their strength in the morning. Query, Do they sleep with closed
+windows and doors, and with heavy bed-curtains?
+
+"The houses built by our ancestors were better ventilated in certain
+respects than modern ones, with all their improvements. The great
+central chimney, with its open fire-places in the different rooms,
+created a constant current which carried off foul and vitiated air.
+In these days, how common is it to provide rooms with only a flue for
+a stove! This flue is kept shut in summer, and in winter opened only
+to admit a close stove, which burns away the vital portion of the air
+quite as fast as the occupants breathe it away. The sealing up of
+fire-places and introduction of air-tight stoves may, doubtless, be
+a saving of fuel; it saves, too, more than that; in thousands and
+thousands of cases it has saved people from all further human wants,
+and put an end forever to any needs short of the six feet of narrow
+earth which are man's only inalienable property. In other words, since
+the invention of air-tight stoves, thousands have died of slow poison.
+
+"It is a terrible thing to reflect upon, that our northern winters
+last from November to May, six long months, in which many families
+confine themselves to one room, of which every window-crack has been
+carefully calked to make it air-tight, where an air-tight stove keeps
+the atmosphere at a temperature between eighty and ninety; and the
+inmates, sitting there with all their winter clothes on, become
+enervated both by the heat and by the poisoned air, for which there
+is no escape but the occasional opening of a door.
+
+"It is no wonder that the first result of all this is such a delicacy
+of skin and lungs that about half the inmates are obliged to give up
+going into the open air during the six cold months, because they
+invariably catch cold if they do so. It is no wonder that the cold
+caught about the first of December has by the first of March become
+a fixed consumption, and that the opening of the spring, which ought
+to bring life and health, in so many cases brings death.
+
+"We hear of the lean condition in which the poor bears emerge from
+their six months' wintering, during which they subsist on the fat which
+they have acquired the previous summer. Even so, in our long winters,
+multitudes of delicate people subsist on the daily waning strength
+which they acquired in the season when windows and doors were open,
+and fresh air was a constant luxury. No wonder we hear of spring fever
+and spring biliousness, and have thousands of nostrums for clearing
+the blood in the spring. All these things are the pantings and
+palpitations of a system run down under slow poison, unable to get a
+step further.
+
+"Better, far better, the old houses of the olden time, with their great
+roaring fires, and their bed-rooms where the snow came in and the
+wintry winds whistled. Then, to be sure, you froze your back while you
+burned your face, your water froze nightly in your pitcher, your breath
+congealed in ice-wreaths on the blankets, and you could write your
+name on the pretty snow-wreath that had sifted in through the
+window-cracks. But you woke full of life and vigor, you looked out
+into the whirling snow-storms without a shiver, and thought nothing
+of plunging through drifts as high as your head on your daily way to
+school. You jingled in sleighs, you snow-balled, you lived in snow
+like a snow-bird, and your blood coursed and tingled, in full tide of
+good, merry, real life, through your veins--none of the slow-creeping,
+black blood which clogs the brain and lies like a weight on the vital
+wheels!"
+
+To illustrate the effects of this poison, the horrors of "the Black
+Hole of Calcutta" are often referred to, where one hundred and forty-six
+men were crowded into a room only eighteen feet square with but two
+small windows, and in a hot climate. After a night of such horrible
+torments as chill the blood to read, the morning showed a pile of one
+hundred and twenty-three dead men and twenty-three half dead that were
+finally recovered only to a life of weakness and suffering.
+
+In another case, a captain of the steamer Londonderry, in 1848, from
+sheer ignorance of the consequences, in a storm, shut up his passengers
+in a tight room without windows. The agonies, groans, curses, and
+shrieks that followed were horrible. The struggling mass finally burst
+the door, and the captain found seventy-two of the two hundred already
+dead; while others, with blood starting from their eyes and ears, and
+their bodies in convulsions, were restored, many only to a life of
+sickness and debility.
+
+It is ascertained by experiments that breathing bad air tends so to
+reduce all the processes of the body, that less oxygen is demanded and
+less carbonic acid sent out. This, of course, lessens the vitality and
+weakens the constitution; and it accounts for the fact that a person
+of full health, accustomed to pure air, suffers from bad air far more
+than those who are accustomed to it. The body of strong and healthy
+persons demands more oxygen, and throws off more carbonic acid, and
+is distressed when the supply fails. But the one reduced by bad air
+feels little inconvenience, because all the functions of life are so
+slow that less oxygen is needed, and less carbonic acid thrown out.
+And the sensibilities being deadened, the evil is not felt. This
+provision of nature prolongs many lives, though it turns vigorous
+constitutions into feeble ones. Were it not for this change in the
+constitution, thousands in badly ventilated rooms and houses would
+come to a speedy death.
+
+One of the results of unventilated rooms is _scrofula_, A distinguished
+French physician, M. Baudeloque, states that:
+
+"The repeated respiration of the same atmosphere is _the_ cause of
+scrofula. If there be entirely pure air, there may be bad food, bad
+clothing, and want of personal cleanliness, but scrofulous disease can
+not exist. This disease _never_ attacks persons who pass their lives in
+the open air, and always manifests itself when they abide in air which
+is unrenewed. _Invariably_ it will be found that a truly scrofulous
+disease is caused by vitiated air; and it is not necessary that there
+should be a prolonged stay in such an atmosphere. Often, several hours
+each day is sufficient. Thus persons may live in the most healthy
+country, pass most of the day in the open air, and yet become scrofulous
+by sleeping in a close room where the air is not renewed. This is the
+case with many shepherds who pass their nights in small huts with no
+opening but a door closed tight at night."
+
+The same writer illustrates this, by the history of a French village
+where the inhabitants all slept in close, unventilated houses. Nearly
+all were seized with scrofula, and many families became wholly extinct,
+their last members dying "rotten with scrofula." A fire destroyed a
+large part of this village. Houses were then built to secure pure air,
+and scrofula disappeared from the part thus rebuilt.
+
+We are informed by medical writers that defective ventilation is one
+great cause of diseased joints, as well as of diseases of the eyes,
+ears, and skin.
+
+Foul air is the leading cause of tubercular and scrofulous consumption,
+so very common in our country. Dr, Guy, in his examination before
+public health commissioners in Great Britain, says: "Deficient
+ventilation I believe to be more fatal than _all other causes_ put
+together." He states that consumption is twice as common among
+tradesmen as among the gentry, owing to the bad ventilation of their
+stores and dwellings.
+
+Dr. Griscom, in his work on Uses and Abuses of Air, says:
+
+"Food carried from the stomach to the blood can not become _nutritive_
+till it is properly oxygenated in the lungs; so that a small quantity of
+food, even if less wholesome, may be made nutritive by pure air as it
+passes through the lungs. But the best of food can not be changed into
+nutritive blood till it is vitalized by pure air in the lungs."
+
+And again:
+
+"To those who have the care and instruction of the rising
+generation--the future fathers and mothers of men--this subject of
+ventilation commends itself with an interest surpassing every other.
+Nothing can more convincingly establish the belief in the existence
+of something vitally wrong in the habits and circumstances of civilized
+life than the appalling fact that _one fourth_ of all who are born die
+before reaching the fifth year, and _one half_ the deaths of mankind
+occur under the twentieth year. Let those who have these things in
+charge answer to their own consciences how they discharge their duty in
+supplying to the young a _pure atmosphere_, which is the _first_
+requisite for _healthy bodies_ and _sound minds_."
+
+On the subject of infant mortality the experience of savages should
+teach the more civilized. Professor Brewer, who traveled extensively
+among the Indians of our western territories, states: "I have rarely
+seen a sick boy among the Indians." Catlin, the painter, who resided
+and traveled so much among these people, states that infant mortality
+is very small among them, the reason, of course, being abundant exercise
+and pure air.
+
+Dr. Dio Lewis, whose labors in the cause of health are well known, in
+his very useful work, _Weak Lungs and How to Make them Strong_, says:
+
+"As a medical man I have visited thousands of sickrooms, and have not
+found in _one in a hundred_ of them a pure atmosphere. I have often
+returned from church doubting whether I had not committed a sin in
+exposing myself so long to its poisonous air. There are in our great
+cities churches costing $50,000, in the construction of which, not
+fifty cents were expended in providing means for ventilation. Ten
+thousand dollars for ornament, but not ten cents for pure air!
+
+"Unventilated parlors, with gas-burners, (each consuming as much oxygen
+as several men,) made as tight as possible, and a party of ladies and
+gentlemen spending half the night in them! In 1861, I visited a
+legislative hall, the legislature being in session. I remained half
+an hour in the most impure air I ever breathed. Our school-houses are,
+some of them, so vile in this respect, that I would prefer to have my
+son remain in utter ignorance of books rather than to breathe, six
+hours every day, such a poisonous atmosphere. Theatres and concert-rooms
+are so foul that only reckless people continue to visit them. Twelve
+hours in a railway-car exhausts one, not by the journeying, but because
+of the devitalized air. While crossing the ocean in a Cunard steamer,
+I was amazed that men who knew enough to construct such ships did not
+know enough to furnish air to the passengers. The distress of
+sea-sickness is greatly intensified by the sickening air of the ship.
+Were carbonic acid _only black_, what a contrast there would be
+between our hotels in their elaborate ornament!"
+
+"Some time since I visited an establishment where one hundred and fifty
+girls, in a single room, were engaged in needle-work. Pale-faced, and
+with low vitality and feeble circulation, they were unconscious that
+they were breathing air that at once produced in me dizziness and a
+sense of suffocation. If I had remained a week with, them, I should,
+by reduced vitality, have become unconscious of the vileness of the
+air!"
+
+There is a prevailing prejudice against _night air_ as unhealthful
+to be admitted into sleeping-rooms, which is owing wholly to sheer
+ignorance. In the night every body necessarily breathes night air and
+no other. When admitted from without into a sleeping-room it is colder,
+and therefore heavier, than the air within, so it sinks to the bottom
+of the room and forces out an equal quantity of the impure air, warmed
+and vitiated by passing through the lungs of inmates. Thus the question
+is, Shall we shut up a chamber and breathe night air vitiated with
+carbonic acid or night air that is pure? The only real difficulty about
+night air is, that usually it is damper, and therefore colder and more
+likely to chill. This is easily prevented by sufficient bed-clothing.
+
+One other very prevalent mistake is found even in books written by
+learned men. It is often thought that carbonic acid, being heavier
+than common air, sinks to the floor of sleeping-rooms, so that the low
+trundle-beds for children should not be used. This is all a mistake;
+for, as a fact, in close sleeping-rooms the purest air is below and
+the most impure above. It is true that carbonic acid is heavier than
+common air, when pure; but this it rarely is except in chemical
+experiments. It is the property of all gases, as well as of the two
+(oxygen and nitrogen) composing the atmosphere, that when brought
+together they always are entirely mixed, each being equally diffused
+exactly as it would be if alone. Thus the carbonic acid from the skin
+and lungs, being warmed in the body, rises as does the common air,
+with which it mixes, toward the top of a room; so that usually there
+is more carbonic acid at the top than at the bottom of a room.
+[Footnote: Prof. Brewer, of the Tale Scientific School, says: "As a
+fact, often demonstrated by analysis, there is generally more carbonic
+acid near the ceiling than near the floor."] Both common air and
+carbonic acid expand and become lighter in the same proportions; that
+is, for every degree of added heat they expand at the rate of 1/480
+of their bulk.
+
+Here, let it be remembered, that in ill-ventilated rooms the carbonic
+acid is not the only cause of disease. Experiments seem to prove that
+other matter thrown out of the body, through the lungs and skin, is
+as truly excrement and in a state of decay as that ejected from the
+bowels, and as poisonous to the animal system. Carbonic acid has no
+odor; but we are warned by the disagreeable effluvia of close
+sleeping-rooms of the other poison thus thrown into the air from the
+skin and lungs. There is one provision of nature that is little
+understood, which saves the lives of thousands living in unventilated
+houses; and that is, the passage of pure air inward and impure air
+outward through the pores of bricks, wood, stone, and mortar. Were
+such dwellings changed to tin, which is not thus porous, in less than
+a week thousands and tens of thousands would be in danger of perishing
+by suffocation.
+
+These statements give some idea of the evils to be remedied. But the
+most difficult point is _how_ to secure the remedy. For often the
+attempt to secure pure air by one class of persons brings chills,
+colds, and disease on another class, from mere ignorance or
+mismanagement.
+
+To illustrate this, it must be borne in mind that those who live in
+warm, close, and unventilated rooms are much more liable to take cold
+from exposure to draughts and cold air than those of vigorous vitality
+accustomed to breathe pure air.
+
+Thus the strong and healthy husband, feeling the want of pure air in
+the night, and knowing its importance, keeps windows open and makes
+such draughts that the wife, who lives all day in a close room and
+thus is low in vitality, can not bear the change, has colds, and
+sometimes perishes a victim to wrong modes of ventilation.
+
+So, even in health-establishments, the patients will pass most of their
+days and nights in badly-ventilated rooms. But at times the physician,
+or some earnest patient, insists on a mode of ventilation that brings
+more evil than good to the delicate inmates.
+
+The grand art of ventilating houses is by some method that will empty
+rooms of the vitiated air and bring in a supply of pure air _by small
+and imperceptible currents_.
+
+But this important duty of a Christian woman is one that demands more
+science, care, and attention than almost any other; and yet, to prepare
+her for this duty has never been any part of female education. Young
+women are taught to draw mathematical diagrams and to solve astronomical
+problems; but few, if any, of them are taught to solve the problem of
+a house constructed to secure pure and moist air by day and night for
+all its inmates.
+
+The heating and management of the air we breathe is one of the most
+complicated problems of domestic economy, as will be farther illustrated
+in the succeeding chapter; and yet it is one of which, most American
+women are profoundly ignorant.
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+SCIENTIFIC DOMESTIC VENTILATION.
+
+We have seen in the preceding pages the process through which the air
+is rendered unhealthful by close rooms and want of ventilation. Every
+person inspires air about twenty times each minute, using half a pint
+each time. At this rate, every pair of lungs vitiates one hogshead of
+air every hour. The membrane that lines the multitudinous air-cells
+of the lungs in which the capillaries are, should it be united in one
+sheet, would cover the floor of a room twelve feet square. Every breath
+brings a surface of air in contact with this extent of capillaries,
+by which the air inspired gives up most of its oxygen and receives
+carbonic acid in its stead. These facts furnish a guide for the proper
+ventilation of rooms. Just in proportion to the number of persons in
+a room or a house, should be the amount of air brought in and carried
+out by arrangements for ventilation. But how rarely is this rule
+regarded in building houses or in the care of families by housekeepers!
+
+The evils resulting from the substitution of stoves instead of the
+open fireplace, have led scientific and benevolent men to contrive
+various modes of supplying pure air to both public and private houses.
+But as yet little has been accomplished, except for a few of the more
+intelligent and wealthy. The great majority of the American people,
+owing to sheer ignorance, are, for want of pure air, being poisoned
+and starved; the result being weakened constitutions, frequent disease,
+and shortened life.
+
+Whenever a family-room is heated by an open fire, it is duly ventilated,
+as the impure air is constantly passing off through the chimney, while,
+to supply the vacated space, the pure air presses in through the cracks
+of doors, windows, and floors. No such supply is gained for rooms
+warmed by stoves. And yet, from mistaken motives of economy, as well
+as from ignorance of the resulting evils, multitudes of householders
+are thus destroying health and shortening life, especially in regard
+to women and children who spend most of their time within-doors.
+
+The most successful modes of making "a healthful home" by a full supply
+of pure air to every inmate, will now be described and illustrated.
+
+It is the common property of both air and water to expand, become
+lighter and rise, just in proportion as they are heated; and therefore
+it is the invariable law that cool air sinks, thus replacing the warmer
+air below. Thus, whenever cool air enters a warm room, it sinks downward
+and takes the place of an equal amount of the warmer air, which is
+constantly tending upward and outward. This principle of all fluids
+is illustrated by the following experiment:
+
+Take a glass jar about a foot high and three inches in diameter, and
+with a wire to aid in placing it aright, sink a small bit of lighted
+candle so as to stand in the centre at the bottom. (Fig. 28.) The
+candle will heat the air of the jar, which will rise a little on one
+side, while the colder air without will begin falling on the other
+side. These two currents will so conflict as finally to cease, and
+then the candle, having no supply of oxygen from fresh air, will begin
+to go out. Insert a bit of stiff paper so as to divide the mouth of
+the jar, and instantly the cold and warm air are not in conflict as
+before, because a current is formed each side of the paper; the cold
+air descending on one aide and the warm air ascending the other side,
+as indicated by the arrows. As long as the paper remains, the candle
+will burn, and as soon as it is removed, it will begin to go out, and
+can be restored by again inserting the paper.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28]
+[Illustration: Fig. 29]
+
+This illustrates the mode by which coal-mines are ventilated when
+filled with carbonic acid. A shaft divided into two passages, (Fig.
+29,) is let down into the mine, where the air is warmer than the outside
+air. Immediately the colder air outside presses down into the mine,
+through the passage which is highest, being admitted by the escape of
+an equal quantity of the warmer air, which rises through the lower
+passage of the shaft, this being the first available opening for it
+to rise through. A current is thus created, which continues as long
+as the inside air is warmer than that without the mine, and no longer.
+Sometimes a fire is kindled in the mine, in order to continue or
+increase the warmth, and consequent upward current of its air.
+
+This illustrates one of the cases where a "wise woman that buildeth
+her house" is greatly needed. For, owing to the ignorance of architects,
+house-builders, and men in general, they have been building
+school-houses, dwelling-houses, churches, and colleges, with the most
+absurd and senseless contrivances for ventilation, and all from not
+applying this simple principle of science. On this point, Prof. Brewer,
+of the Scientific School of Yale College, writes thus:
+
+"I have been in public buildings, (I have one in mind now, filled with
+dormitories,) which cost half a million, where they attempted to
+ventilate every room by a flue, long and narrow, built into partition
+walls, and extending up into the capacious garret of the fifth story.
+Every room in the building had one such flue, with an opening into it
+at the floor and at the ceiling. It is needless to say that the whole
+concern was entirely useless. Had these flues been of proper
+proportions, and properly divided, the desired ventilation would have
+been secured."
+
+And this piece of ignorant folly was perpetrated in the midst of learned
+professors, teaching the laws of fluids and the laws of health.
+
+A learned physician also thus wrote to the author of this chapter:
+"The subject of the ventilation of our dwelling-houses is one of the
+most important questions of our times. How many thousands are victims
+to a slow suicide and murder, the chief instrument of which is want
+of ventilation! How few are aware of the fact that every person, every
+day, vitiates thirty-three hogsheads of the air, and that each
+inspiration takes one fifth of the oxygen, and returns as much carbonic
+acid, from every pair of lungs in a room! How few understand that after
+air has received ten per cent of this fatal gas, if drawn into the
+lungs, it can no longer take carbonic acid from the capillaries! No
+wonder there is so much impaired nervous and muscular energy, so much
+scrofula, tubercles, catarrhs, dyspepsia, and typhoid diseases. I hope
+you can do much to remedy the poisonous air of thousands and thousands
+of stove-heated rooms."
+
+In a cold climate and wintry weather, the grand impediment to
+ventilating rooms by opening doors or windows is the dangerous currents
+thus produced, which are so injurious to the delicate ones that for
+their sake it can not be done. Then, also, as a matter of economy, the
+poor can not afford to practice a method which carries off the heat
+generated by their stinted store of fuel. Even in a warm season and
+climate, there are frequent periods when the air without is damp and
+chilly, and yet at nearly the same temperature as that in the house.
+At such times, the opening of windows often has little effect in
+emptying a room of vitiated air. The ventilating-flues, such as are
+used in mines, have, in such cases, but little influence; for it is
+only when outside air is colder that a current can be produced within
+by this method.
+
+The most successful mode of ventilating a house is by creating a current
+of warm air in a flue, into which an opening is made at both the top
+and the bottom of a room, while a similar opening for outside air is
+made at the opposite side of the room. This is the mode employed in
+chemical laboratories for removing smells and injurious gases.
+
+The laboratory-closet is closed with glazed doors, and has an opening
+to receive pure air through a conductor from without. The stove or
+furnace within has a pipe which joins a larger cast-iron chimney-pipe,
+which is warmed by the smoke it receives from this and other fires.
+This cast-iron pipe is surrounded by a brick flue, through which air
+passes from below to be warmed by the pipe, and thus an upward current
+of warm air is created. Openings are then made at the top and bottom
+of the laboratory-closet into the warm-air flue, and the gases and
+smells are pressed by the colder air into this flue, and are carried
+off in the current of warm air.
+
+The same method is employed in the dwelling-house shown in a preceding
+chapter. A cast-iron pipe is made in sections, which are to be united,
+and the whole fastened at top and bottom in the centre of the warm-air
+flue by ears extending to the bricks, and fastened when the flue is
+in process of building. Projecting openings to receive the pipes of
+the furnace, the laundry stove, and two stoves in each story, should
+be provided, which must be closed when not in use. A large opening is
+to be made into the warm-air fine, and through this the kitchen
+stove-pipe is to pass, and be joined to the cast-iron chimney-pipe.
+Thus the smoke of the kitchen stove will warm the iron chimney-pipe,
+and this will warm the air of the flue, causing a current upward, and
+this current will draw the heat and smells of cooking out of the kitchen
+into the opening of the warm-air flue. Every room surrounding the
+chimney has an opening at the top and bottom into the warm-air Hue for
+ventilation, as also have the bathroom and water-closets.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.]
+
+The writer has examined the methods most employed at the present time,
+which are all modifications of the two modes here described. One is
+that of Robinson, patented by a Boston company, which is a modification
+of the mining mode. It consists of the two ventilating tubes, such as
+are employed in mines, united in one shaft with a roof to keep out
+rain, and a valve to regulate the entrance and exit of air, as
+illustrated in Fig. 30. This method works well in certain circumstances,
+but fails so often as to prove very unreliable. Another mode is that
+of Ruttan, which is effected by heating air. This also has certain
+advantages and disadvantages. But the mode adopted for the preceding
+cottage plan is free from the difficulties of both the above methods,
+while it will surely ventilate every room in the house, both by day
+and night, and at all seasons, without any risk to health, and requiring
+no attention or care from the family.
+
+By means of a very small amount of fuel in the kitchen stove, to be
+described hereafter, the whole house can be ventilated, and all the
+cooking done both in warm and cold weather. This stove will also warm
+the whole house, in the Northern States, eight or nine months in the
+year. Two Franklin stoves, in addition, will warm the whole house
+during the three or four remaining coldest months.
+
+In a warm climate or season, by means of the non-conducting castings,
+the stove will ventilate the house and do all the cooking, without
+imparting heat or smells to any part of the house except the
+stove-closet.
+
+At the close of this volume, drawings, prepared by Mr. Lewis Leeds,
+are given, more fully to illustrate this mode of warming and
+ventilation, and in so plain and simple a form that any intelligent
+woman who has read this work can see that the plan is properly executed,
+even with workmen so entirely ignorant on this important subject as
+are most house-builders, especially in the newer territories. In the
+same article, directions are given as to the best modes of ventilating
+houses that are already built without any arrangements for ventilation.
+
+
+
+
+V.
+THE CONSTRUCTION AND CARE OF STOVES, FURNACES, AND CHIMNEYS.
+
+
+If all American housekeepers could be taught how to select and manage
+the most economical and convenient apparatus for cooking and for warming
+a house, many millions now wasted by ignorance and neglect would be
+saved. Every woman should be taught the scientific principles in regard
+to heat, and then their application to practical purposes, for her own
+benefit, and also to enable her to train her children and servants in
+this important duty of home life on which health and comfort so much
+depend.
+
+The laws that regulate the generation, diffusion, and preservation of
+heat as yet are a sealed mystery to thousands of young women who imagine
+they are completing a suitable education in courses of instruction
+from which most that is practical in future domestic life is wholly
+excluded. We therefore give a brief outline of some of the leading
+scientific principles which every housekeeper should understand and
+employ, in order to perform successfully one of her most important
+duties.
+
+Concerning the essential nature of heat, and its intimate relations
+with the other great natural forces, light, electricity, etc., we shall
+not attempt to treat, but shall, for practical purposes, assume it to
+be a separate and independent force. Heat or caloric, then, has certain
+powers or principles. Let us consider them:
+
+First, we find _Conduction_, by which heat passes from one particle
+to another next to it; as when one end of a poker is warmed by placing
+the other end in the fire. The bodies which allow this power free
+course are called conductors, and those which do not are named
+non-conductors, Metals are good conductors; feathers, wool, and furs
+are poor conductors; and water, air, and gases are non-conductors.
+
+Another principle of heat is _Convection_, by which water, air, and
+gases are warmed. This is, literally, the process of _conveying_ heat
+from one portion of a fluid body to another by currents resulting from
+changes of temperature. It is secured by bringing one portion of a
+liquid or gas into contact with a heated surface, whereby it becomes
+lighter and expanded in volume. In consequence, the cooler and heavier
+particles above pressing downward, the lighter ones rise upward, when
+the former, being heated, rise in their turn, and give place to others
+again descending from above. Thus a constant motion of currents and
+interchange of particles is produced until, as in a vessel of water, the
+whole body comes to an equal temperature. Air is heated in the same way.
+In case of a hot stove, the air that touches it is heated, becomes
+lighter, and rises, giving place to cooler and heavier particles, which,
+when heated, also ascend. It is owing to this process that the air of a
+room is warmest at the top and coolest at the bottom. It is owing to
+this principle, also, that water and air can not be heated by fire from
+above. For the particles of these bodies, being non-conductors, do not
+impart heat to each other; and when the warmest are at the top, they can
+not take the place of cooler and heavier ones below.
+
+Another principle of heat (which it shares with light) is _Radiation_,
+by which all things send out heat to surrounding cooler bodies. Some
+bodies will absorb radiated heat, others will reflect it, and others
+allow it to pass through them without either absorbing or reflecting
+Thus, black and rough substances absorb heat, (or light,) colored and
+smooth articles reflect it, while air allows it to pass through without
+either absorbing or reflecting. It is owing to this, that rough and
+black vessels boil water sooner than smooth and light-colored ones.
+
+Another principle is _Reflection_, by which heat radiated to a
+surface is turned back from it when not absorbed or allowed to pass
+through; just as a ball rebounds from a wall; just as sound is thrown
+back from a hill, making echo; just as rays of light are reflected
+from a mirror. And, as with light, the rays of heat are always reflected
+from a surface in an angle exactly corresponding to the direction in
+which it strikes that surface. Thus, if heated are comes to an object
+perpendicularly--that is, at right angles, it will be reflected back
+in the same line. If it strikes obliquely, it is reflected obliquely,
+at an angle with the surface precisely the same as the angle with which
+it first struck. And, of course, if it moves toward the surface and
+comes upon it in a line having so small an angle with it as to be
+almost parallel with it, the heated air is spread wide and diffused
+through a larger space than when the angles are greater and the width
+of reflection less.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.]
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.]
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.]
+
+The simplest mode of warming a house and cooking food is by radiated
+heat from fires; but this is the most wasteful method, as respects
+time, labor, and expense. The most convenient, economical, and
+labor-saving mode of employing heat is by convection, as applied in
+stoves and furnaces. But for want of proper care and scientific
+knowledge this method has proved very destructive to health. When
+warming and cooking were done by open fires, houses were well supplied
+with pure air, as is rarely the case in rooms heated by stoves. For
+such is the prevailing ignorance on this subject that, as long as
+stoves save labor and warm the air, the great majority of people,
+especially among the poor, will use them in ways that involve
+debilitated constitutions and frequent disease.
+
+The most common modes of cooking, where open fires are relinquished,
+are by the range and the cooking-stove. The range is inferior to the
+stove in these respects: it is less economical, demanding much more
+fuel; it endangers the dress of the cook while standing near for various
+operations; it requires more stooping than the stove while cooking;
+it will not keep a fire all night, as do the best stoves; it will not
+burn wood and coal equally well; and lastly, if it warms the kitchen
+sufficiently in winter, it is too warm for summer. Some prefer it
+because the fumes of cooking can be carried off; but stoves properly
+arranged accomplish this equally well.
+
+After extensive inquiry and many personal experiments, the author has
+found a cooking-stove constructed on true scientific principles, which
+unites convenience, comfort, and economy in a remarkable manner. Of
+this stove, drawings and descriptions will now be given, as the best
+mode of illustrating the practical applications of these principles
+to the art of cooking, and to show how much American women have suffered
+and how much they have been imposed upon for want of proper knowledge
+in this branch of their profession. And every woman can understand
+what follows with much less effort than young girls at high-schools
+give to the first problems of Geometry--for which they will never have
+any practical use, while attention to this problem of home affairs
+will cultivate the intellect quite as much as the abstract reasonings
+of Algebra and Geometry.,
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.]
+
+Fig. 34 represents a portion of the interior of this cooking-stove.
+First, notice the fire-box, which has corrugated (literally, wrinkled)
+sides, by which space is economized, so that as much heating surface
+is secured as if they were one third larger; as the heat radiates from
+every part of the undulating surface, which is one third greater in
+superficial extent than if it were plane. The shape of the fire-box
+also secures more heat by having oblique sides--which radiate more
+effectively into the oven beneath than if they were perpendicular, as
+illustrated below--while also it is sunk into the oven, so as to radiate
+from three instead of from two sides, as in most other stoves, the
+front of whose fire-boxes with their grates are built so as to be the
+front of the stove itself.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 35. Model Stove]
+[Illustration: Fig 36. Ordinary Stove]
+
+The oven is the space under and around the back and front sides of the
+fire-box. The oven-bottom is not introduced in the diagram, but it is
+a horizontal plate between the fire-box and what is represented as the
+"flue-plate," which separates the oven from the bottom of the stove.
+The top of the oven is the horizontal corrugated plate passing from
+the rear edge of the fire-box to the back flues. These are three in
+number--the back centre-flue, which is closed to the heat and smoke
+coming over the oven from the fire-box by a damper--and the two back
+corner-flues. Down these two corner-flues passes the current of hot
+air and smoke, having first drawn across the corrugated oven-top. The
+arrows show its descent through these flues, from which it obliquely
+strikes and passes over the flue-plate, then under it, and then out
+through the centre back-flue, which is open at the bottom, up into the
+smoke-pipe.
+
+The flue-plate is placed obliquely, to accumulate heat by forcing and
+compression; for the back space where the smoke enters from the
+corner-flues is largest, and decreases toward the front, so that the
+hot current is compressed in a narrow space, between the oven-bottom
+and the flue-plate at the place where the bent arrows are seen. Here
+again it enters a wider space, under the flue-plate, and proceeds to
+another narrow one, between the flue-plate and the bottom of the stove,
+and thus is compressed and retained longer than if not impeded by these
+various contrivances. The heat and smoke also strike the plate
+obliquely, and thus, by reflection from its surface, impart more heat
+than if the passage was a horizontal one.
+
+The external radiation is regulated by the use of nonconducting plaster
+applied to the flue-plate and to the sides of the corner-flues, so
+that the heat is prevented from radiating in any direction except
+toward the oven. The doors, sides, and bottom of the stove are lined
+with tin casings, which hold a stratum of air, also a non-conductor.
+These are so arranged as to be removed whenever the weather becomes
+cold, so that the heat may then radiate into the kitchen. The outer
+edges of the oven are also similarly protected from loss of heat by
+tin casings and air-spaces, and the oven-doors opening at the front
+of the store are provided with the same economical savers of heat.
+High tin covers placed on the top prevent the heat from radiating above
+the stove. These are exceedingly useful, as the space under them is
+well heated and arranged for baking, for heating irons, and many other
+incidental necessities. Cake and pies can be baked on the top, while
+the oven is used for bread or for meats. When all the casings and
+covers are on, almost all the heat is confined within the stove, and
+whenever heat for the room is wanted, opening the front oven-doors
+turns it out into the kitchen.
+
+Another contrivance is that of ventilating-holes in the front doors,
+through which fresh air is brought into the oven. This secures several
+purposes: it carries off the fumes of cooking meats, and prevents the
+mixing of flavors when different articles are cooked in the oven; it
+drives the heat that accumulates between the fire-box and front doors
+down around the oven, and equalizes its heat, so that articles need
+not be moved while baking; and lastly, as the air passes through the
+holes of the fire-box, it causes the burning of gases in the smoke,
+and thus increases heat. When wood or bituminous coal is used,
+perforated metal linings are put in the fire-box, and the result is
+the burning of smoke and gases that otherwise would pass into the
+chimney. This is a great discovery in the economy of fuel, which can
+be applied in many ways.
+
+Heretofore, most cooking-stoves have had dumping-grates, which are
+inconvenient from the dust produced, are uneconomical in the use of
+fuel, and disadvantageous from too many or too loose joints. But
+recently this stove has been provided with a dumping-grate which
+also will sift ashes, and can be cleaned without dust and the other
+objectionable features of dumping-grates. A further account of this
+stove, and the mode of purchasing and using it, will be given at the
+close of the book.
+
+Those who are taught to manage the stove properly keep the fire going
+all night, and equally well with wood or coal, thus saving the expense
+of kindling and the trouble of starting a new fire. When the fuel is
+of good quality, all that is needed in the morning is to draw the
+back-damper, snake the grate, and add more fuel.
+
+Another remarkable feature of this store is the extension-top, on which
+is placed a water reservoir, constantly heated by the smoke as it
+passes from the stove, through one or two uniting passages, to the
+smoke-pipe. Under this is placed a closet for warming and keeping hot
+the dishes, vegetables, meats, etc., while preparing for dinner. It
+is also very useful in drying fruit; and when large baking is required,
+a small appended pot for charcoal turns it into a fine large oven,
+that bakes as nicely as a brick oven.
+
+Another useful appendage is a common tin oven, in which roasting can
+be done in front of the stove, the oven-doors being removed for the
+purpose. The roast will be done as perfectly as by an open fire.
+
+This stove is furnished with pipes for heating water, like the
+water-back of ranges, and these can be taken or left out at pleasure.
+So also the top covers, the baking-stool and pot, and the summer-back,
+bottom, and side-casings can be used or omitted as preferred.
+
+[Illustration Fig 37]
+
+Fig. 37 exhibits the stove completed, with all its appendages, as they
+might be employed in cooking for a large number.
+
+Its capacity, convenience, and economy as a stove may be estimated by
+the following fact: With proper management of dampers, one
+ordinary-sized coal-hod of anthracite coal will, for twenty-four hours,
+keep the stove running, keep seventeen gallons of water hot at all
+hours, bake pies and puddings in the warm closet, heat flat-irons under
+the back cover, boil tea-kettle and one pot under the front cover,
+bake bread in the oven, and cook a turkey in the tin roaster in front.
+The author has numerous friends, who, after trying the best ranges,
+have dismissed them for this stove, and in two or three years cleared
+the whole expense by the saving of fuel.
+
+The remarkable durability of this stove is another economic feature.
+For in addition to its fine castings and nice-fitting workmanship, all
+the parts liable to burn out are so protected by linings, and other
+contrivances easily renewed, that the stove itself may pass from one
+generation to another, as do ordinary chimneys. The writer has visited
+in families where this stove had been in constant use for eighteen and
+twenty years, and was still as good as new. In most other families the
+stoves are broken, burnt-out, or thrown aside for improved patterns
+every four, five, or six years, and sometimes, to the knowledge of the
+writer, still oftener.
+
+Another excellent point is that, although it is so complicated in its
+various contrivances as to demand intelligent management in order to
+secure all its advantages, it also can be used satisfactorily even
+when the mistress and maid are equally careless and ignorant of its
+distinctive merits. To such it offers all the advantages of ordinary
+good stoves, and is extensively used by those who take no pains to
+understand and apply its peculiar advantages.
+
+But the writer has managed the stove herself in all the details of
+cooking, and is confident that any housekeeper of common sense, who
+is instructed properly, and who also aims to have her kitchen affairs
+managed with strict economy, can easily train any servant who is willing
+to learn, so as to gain the full advantages offered. And even without
+any instructions at all, except the printed directions sent with the
+stove, an intelligent woman can, by due attention, though not without,
+both manage it, and teach her children and servants to do likewise.
+And whenever this stove has failed to give the highest satisfaction,
+it has been, either because the housekeeper was not apprized of its
+peculiarities, or because she did not give sufficient attention to the
+matter, or was not able or willing to superintend and direct its
+management.
+
+The consequence has been that, in families where this stove has been
+understood and managed aright, it has saved nearly one half of the
+fuel that would be used in ordinary stoves, constructed with the usual
+disregard of scientific and economic laws. And it is because we know
+this particular stove to be convenient, reliable, and economically
+efficient beyond ordinary experience, in the important housekeeping
+element of kitchen labor, that we devote to it so much space and pains
+to describe its advantageous points.
+
+CHIMNEYS.
+
+One of the most serious evils in domestic life is often found in
+chimneys that will not properly draw the smoke of a fire or stove.
+Although chimneys have been building for a thousand years, the artisans
+of the present day seem strangely ignorant of the true method of
+constructing them so as always to carry smoke upward instead of
+downward. It is rarely the case that a large house is built in which
+there is not some flue or chimney which "will not draw." One of the
+reasons why the stove described as excelling all others is sometimes
+cast aside for a poorer one is, that it requires a properly constructed
+chimney, and multitudes of women do not know how to secure it. The
+writer in early life shed many a bitter tear, drawn forth by smoke
+from an ill-constructed kitchen-chimney, and thousands all over the
+land can report the same experience.
+
+The following are some of the causes and the remedies for this evil.
+
+The most common cause of poor chimney draughts is too large an opening
+for the fireplace, either too wide or too high in front, or having too
+large a throat for the smoke. In a lower story, the fireplace should
+not be larger than thirty inches wide, twenty-five inches high, and
+fifteen deep. In the story above, it should be eighteen inches square
+and fifteen inches deep.
+
+Another cause is too short a flue, and the remedy is to lengthen it.
+As a general rule, the longer the flue the stronger the draught. But
+in calculating the length of a flue, reference must be had to
+side-flues, if any open into it. Where this is the case, the length
+of the main flue is to be considered as extending only from the bottom
+to the point where the upper flue joins it, and where the lower will
+receive air from the upper flue. If a smoky flue can not be increased
+in length, either by closing an upper flue or lengthening the chimney,
+the fireplace must be contracted so that all the air near the fire
+will be heated and thus pressed upward.
+
+If a flue has more than one opening, in some cases it is impossible
+to secure a good draught. Sometimes it will work well and sometimes
+it will not. The only safe rule is to have a separate flue to each
+fire.
+
+Another cause of poor draughts is too tight a room, so that the cold
+air from without can not enter to press the warm air up the chimney.
+The remedy is to admit a small current of air from without.
+
+Another cause is two chimneys in one room, or in rooms opening together,
+in which the draught in one is much stronger than in the other. In
+this case, the stronger draught will draw away from the weaker. The
+remedy is, for each room to have a proper supply of outside air; or,
+in a single room, to stop one of the chimneys.
+
+Another cause is the too close vicinity of a hill or buildings higher
+than the top of the chimney, and the remedy for this is to raise the
+chimney.
+
+Another cause is the descent, into unused fireplaces, of smoke from
+other chimneys near. The remedy is to close the throat of the unused
+chimney.
+
+Another cause is a door opening toward the fireplace, on the same side
+of the room, so that its draught passes along the wall and makes a
+current that draws out the smoke. The remedy is to change the hanging
+of the door so as to open another way.
+
+Another cause is strong winds. The remedy is a turn-cap on top of the
+chimney.
+
+Another cause is the roughness of the inside of a chimney, or
+projections which impede the passage of the smoke. Every chimney should
+be built of equal dimensions from bottom to top, with no projections
+into it, with as few bends as possible, and with the surface of the
+inside as smooth as possible.
+
+Another cause of poor draughts is openings into the chimney of chambers
+for stove-pipes. The remedy is to close them, or insert stove-pipes
+that are in use.
+
+Another cause is the falling out of brick in some part of the chimney
+so that outer air is admitted. The remedy is to close the opening.
+
+The draught of a stove may be affected by most of these causes. It
+also demands that the fireplace have a tight fire-board, or that the
+throat he carefully filled. For neglecting this, many a good stove has
+been thrown aside and a poor one taken in its place.
+
+If all young women had committed to memory these causes of evil and
+their remedies, many a badly-built chimney might have been cured, and
+many smoke-drawn tears, sighs, ill-tempers, and irritating words
+avoided.
+
+But there are dangers in this direction which demand special attention.
+Where one flue has two stoves or fireplaces, in rooms one above the
+other, in certain states of the atmosphere, the lower room, being the
+warmer, the colder air and carbonic acid in the room above will pass
+down into the lower room through the opening for the stove or the
+fireplace.
+
+This occurred not long since in a boarding-school, when the gas in a
+room above flowed into a lower one, and suffocated several to death.
+This room had no mode of ventilation, and several persons slept in it,
+and were thus stifled. Professor Brewer states a similar case in the
+family of a relative. An anthracite stove was used in the upper room;
+and on one still, close night, the gas from this stove descended through
+the flue and the opening into a room below, and stifled two persons
+to insensibility, though, by proper efforts, their lives were saved.
+Many such cases have occurred where rooms have been thus filled with
+poisonous gases, and servants and children destroyed, or their
+constitutions injured, simply because housekeepers are not properly
+instructed in this important branch of their profession.
+
+
+FURNACES.
+
+There is no improved mechanism in the economy of domestic life requiring
+more intelligent management than furnaces. Let us then consider some
+of the principles involved.
+
+The earth is heated by radiation from the sun. The air is not warmed
+by the passage of the sun's heat through it, but by convection from
+the earth, in the same way that it is warmed by the surfaces of stoves.
+The lower stratum of air is warmed by the earth and by objects which
+have been warmed by radiated heat from the sun. The particles of air
+thus heated expand, become lighter, and rise, being replaced by the
+descent of the cooler and heavier particles from above, which, on being
+warmed also rise, and give place to others. Owing to this process, the
+air is warmest nearest the earth, and grows cooler as height increases.
+
+The air has a strong attraction for water, and always holds a certain
+quantity as invisible vapor. The warmer the air, the more moisture it
+demands, and it will draw it from all objects within reach. The air
+holds water according to its temperature. Thus, at fifty-two degrees,
+Fahrenheit's thermometer, it holds half the moisture it can sustain;
+but at thirty-six degrees, it will hold only one eighty-sixth part.
+The earth and all plants and trees are constantly sending out moisture;
+and when the air has received all it can hold, without depositing it
+as dew, it is said to be _saturated_, and the point of temperature
+at which dew begins to form, by condensation, upon the surface of the
+earth and its vegetation, is called the _dew-point_. When air,
+at a given temperature, has only forty per cent of the moisture it
+requires for saturation, it is said to be dry. In a hot summer day,
+the air will hold far more moisture than in cool days. In summer,
+out-door air rarely holds less than half its volume of water. In 1838,
+at Cambridge, Massachusetts, and New-Haven, Connecticut, at seventy
+degrees, Fahrenheit, the air held eighty per cent of moisture.
+
+In New Orleans, the air often retains ninety per cent of the moisture
+it is capable of holding; and in cool days at the North, in foggy
+weather, the air is sometimes wholly saturated.
+
+When air holds all the moisture it can, without depositing dew, its
+moisture is called 100. When it holds three fourths of this, it is
+said to be at seventy-five per cent. When it holds only one half, it
+is at fifty per cent. When it holds only one fourth, it is at
+twenty-five per cent, etc.
+
+Sanitary observers teach that the proper amount of moisture in the air
+ranges from forty to seventy per cent of saturation.
+
+Now, furnaces, which are of course used only in winter, receive outside
+air at a low temperature, holding little moisture; This it sucks up,
+like a sponge, from the walls and furniture of a house. If it is taken
+into the human lungs, it draws much of its required moisture from the
+body, often causing dryness of lips and throat, and painfully affecting
+the lungs. Prof. Brewer, of the Scientific School of New-Haven, who
+has experimented extensively on this subject, states that, while forty
+per cent of moisture is needed in air to make it healthful, most stoves
+and furnaces do not, by any contrivances, supply one half of this, or
+not twenty per cent. He says most furnace-heated air is dryer than is
+ever breathed in the hottest deserts of Sahara.
+
+Thus, for want of proper instruction, most American housekeepers not
+only poison their families with carbonic acid and starve them for want
+of oxygen, but also diminish health and comfort for want of a due
+supply of moisture in the air. And often when a remedy is sought, by
+evaporating water in the furnace, it is without knowing that the amount
+evaporated depends, not on the quantity of water in the vessel, but
+on the extent of evaporating surface exposed to the air. A quart of
+water in a wide shallow pan will give more moisture than two gallons
+with a small surface exposed to heat.
+
+There is also no little wise economy in expense attained by keeping
+a proper supply of moisture in the air. For it is found that the body
+radiates its heat less in moist than in dry air, so that a person feels
+as warm at a lower temperature when the air has a proper supply of
+moisture, as in a much higher temperature of dry air. Of course, less
+fuel is needed to warm a house when water is evaporated in stove and
+furnace-heated rooms. It is said by those who have experimented, that
+the saving in fuel is twenty per cent when the air is duly supplied
+with moisture.
+
+There is a very ingenious instrument, called the hygrodeik, which
+indicates the exact amount of moisture in the air. It consists of two
+thermometers side by side, one of which has its bulb surrounded by
+floss-silk wrapping, which is kept constantly wet by communication
+with a cup of water near it. The water around the bulb evaporates just
+in proportion to the heat of the air around it. The changing of water
+to vapor draws heat from the nearest object, and this being the bulb
+of the thermometer, the mercury is cooled and sinks. Then the difference
+between the two thermometers shows the amount of moisture in the air
+by a pointer on a dial-plate constructed by simple mechanism for this
+purpose.
+
+There is one very important matter in regard to the use of furnaces,
+which is thus stated by Professor Brewer:
+
+"I think it is a well-established fact that carbonic oxide will
+pass through iron. It is always formed in great abundance in any
+_anthracite_ fire, but especially in anthracite stoves and furnaces.
+Moreover, furnaces _always_ leak, more or less; how much they leak
+depending on the care and skill with which they are managed. Carbonic
+oxide is much more poisonous than carbonic acid. Doubtless some carbonic
+oxide finds its way into all furnace-heated houses, especially where
+anthracite is used; the amount varying with the kind of furnace and its
+management. As to how much escapes into a room, and its specific effect
+upon the health of its occupants, we have no accurate data, no analysis
+to show the quantity, and no observations to show the relation between
+the quantity inhaled and the health of those exposed; all is mere
+conjecture upon this point; but the inference is very strong that it has
+a very injurious effect, producing headaches, weariness, and other
+similar symptoms.
+
+"Recent pamphlets lay the blame of all the bad effects of anthracite
+furnaces and stoves to the carbonic oxide mingled in the air. I think
+these pamphlets have a bad influence. _Excessive dryness_ also has bad
+effects. So also the excessive heat in the evenings and coolness in the
+mornings has a share in these evils. But how much in addition is owing
+to carbonic oxide, we can not know, until we know something of the
+actual amount of this gas in rooms, and as yet we know absolutely
+nothing definite. In fact, it will be a difficult thing to _prove_."
+
+There are other difficulties connected with furnaces which should be
+considered. It is necessary to perfect health that an equal circulation
+of the blood be preserved. The greatest impediment to this is keeping
+the head warmer than the feet. This is especially to be avoided in a
+nation where the brain is by constant activity drawing the blood from
+the extremities. And nowhere is this more important than in schools,
+churches, colleges, lecture and recitation-rooms, where the brain is
+called into active exercise. And yet, furnace-heated rooms always keep
+the feet in the coldest air, on cool floors, while the head is in the
+warmest air.
+
+Another difficulty is the fact that all bodies tend to radiate their
+heat to each other, till an equal temperature exists. Thus, the human
+body is constantly radiating its heat to the walls, floors, and cooler
+bodies around. At the same time, a thermometer is affected in the same
+way, radiating its heat to cooler bodies around, so that it always
+marks a lower degree of heat than actually exists in the warm air
+around it. Owing to these facts, the injected air of a furnace is
+always warmer than is good for the lungs, and much warmer than is ever
+needed in rooms warmed by radiation from fires or heated surfaces. The
+cooler the air we inspire, the more oxygen is received, the faster the
+blood circulates, and the greater is the vigor imparted to brain,
+nerves, and muscles.
+
+Scientific men have been contriving various modes of meeting these
+difficulties, and at the close of this volume some results will be
+given to aid a woman in selecting and managing the most healthful and
+economical furnace, or in providing some better method of warming a
+house. Some account will also be given of the danger involved in
+gas-stoves, and some other recent inventions for cooking and heating.
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+HOME DECORATION.
+
+
+Having duly arranged for the physical necessities of a healthful and
+comfortable home, we next approach the important subject of _beauty_ in
+reference to the decoration of houses. For while the aesthetic element
+must be subordinate to the requirements of physical existence, and, as a
+matter of expense, should be held of inferior consequence to means of
+higher moral growth; it yet holds a place of great significance among
+the influences which make home happy and attractive, which give it a
+constant and wholesome power over the young, and contributes much to the
+education of the entire household in refinement, intellectual
+development, and moral sensibility.
+
+Here we are met by those who tell us that of course they want their
+houses handsome, and that, when they get money enough, they intend to
+have them so, but at present they are too poor, and because they are
+poor they dismiss the subject altogether, and live without any regard
+to it.
+
+We have often seen people who said that they could not afford to make
+their houses beautiful, who had spent upon them, outside or in, an
+amount of money which did not produce either beauty or comfort, and
+which, if judiciously applied, might have made the house quite charming.
+
+For example, a man, in building his house, takes a plan of an architect.
+This plan includes, on the outside, a number of what Andrew Fairservice
+called "curlywurlies" and "whigmaliries," which make the house neither
+prettier nor more comfortable, and which take up a good deal of money.
+We would venture to say that we could buy the chromo of Bierstadt's
+"Sunset in the Yosemite Valley," and four others like it, for half the
+sum that we have sometimes seen laid out on a very ugly, narrow, awkward
+porch on the outside of a house. The only use of this porch was to
+cost money, and to cause every body who looked at it to exclaim as
+they went by, "What ever induced that man to put a thing like that on
+the outside of his house?"
+
+Then, again, in the inside of houses, we have seen a dwelling looking
+very bald and bare, when a sufficient sum of money had been expended
+on one article to have made the whole very pretty: and it has come
+about in this way.
+
+We will suppose the couple who own the house to be in the condition
+in which people generally are after they have built a house--having
+spent more than they could afford on the building itself, and yet
+feeling themselves under the necessity of getting some furniture.
+"Now," says the housewife, "I must at least have a parlor-carpet. We
+must get that to begin with, and other things as we go on." She goes
+to a store to look at carpets. The clerks are smiling and obliging,
+and sweetly complacent. The storekeeper, perhaps, is a neighbor or a
+friend, and after exhibiting various patterns, he tells her of a
+Brussels carpet he is selling wonderfully cheap--actually a dollar
+and a quarter less a yard than the usual price of Brussels, and the
+reason is that it is an unfashionable pattern, and he has a good deal
+of it, and wishes to close it off.
+
+She looks at it and thinks it is not at all the kind of carpet she
+meant to buy, but then it is Brussels, and so cheap! And as she
+hesitates, her friend tells her that she will find it "cheapest in the
+end--that one Brussels carpet will outlast three or four ingrains,"
+etc., etc.
+
+The result of all this is, that she buys the Brussels carpet, which,
+with all its reduction in price, is one third dearer than the ingrain
+would have been, and not half so pretty. When she comes home, she will
+find that she has spent, we will say eighty dollars, for a very homely
+carpet whose greatest merit it is an affliction to remember--namely,
+that it will outlast three ordinary carpets. And because she has bought
+this carpet she can not afford to paper the walls or put up any
+window-curtains, and can not even begin to think of buying any pictures.
+
+Now let us see what eighty dollars could have done for that room. We
+will suppose, in the first place, she invests in thirteen rolls of
+wall-paper of a lovely shade of buff, which will make the room look
+sunshiny in the day-time, and light up brilliantly in the evening.
+Thirteen rolls of good satin paper, at thirty-seven cents a roll,
+expends four dollars and eighty-one cents. A maroon bordering, made
+in imitation of the choicest French style, which can not at a distance
+be told from it, can be bought for six cents a yard. This will bring
+the paper to about five dollars and a half; and our friends will give
+a day of their time to putting it on. The room already begins to look
+furnished.
+
+Then, let us cover the floor with, say, thirty yards of good matting,
+at fifty cents a yard. This gives us a carpet for fifteen dollars. We
+are here stopped by the prejudice that matting is not good economy,
+because it wears out so soon. We humbly submit that it is precisely
+the thing for a parlor, which is reserved for the reception-room of
+friends, and for our own dressed leisure hours. Matting is not good
+economy in a dining-room or a hard-worn sitting-room; but such a parlor
+as we are describing is precisely the place where it answers to the
+very best advantage.
+
+We have in mind one very attractive parlor which has been, both for
+summer and winter, the daily sitting-room for the leisure hours of a
+husband and wife, and family of children, where a plain straw matting
+has done service for seven years. That parlor is in a city, and these
+friends are in the habit of receiving visits from people who live upon
+velvet and Brussels; but they prefer to spend the money which such
+carpets would cost on other modes of embellishment; and this parlor
+has often been cited to us as a very attractive room.
+
+And now our friends, having got thus far, are requested to select some
+one tint or color which shall be the prevailing one in the furniture
+of the room. Shall it be green? Shall it be blue? Shall it be crimson?
+To carry on our illustration, we will choose green, and we proceed
+with it to create furniture for our room. Let us imagine that on one
+side of the fireplace there be, as there is often, a recess about six
+feet long and three feet deep. Fill this recess with a rough frame
+with four stout legs, one foot high, and upon the top of the frame
+have an elastic rack of slats. Make a mattress for this, or, if you
+wish to avoid that trouble, you can get a nice mattress for the sum
+of two dollars, made of cane-shavings or husks. Cover this with a
+green English furniture print. The glazed English comes at about
+twenty-five cents a yard, the glazed French at seventy-five cents a
+yard, and a nice article of yard-wide French twill (very strong) is
+from seventy-five to eighty cents a yard.
+
+With any of these cover your lounge. Make two large, square pillows
+of the same substance as the mattress, and set up at the back. If you
+happen to have one or two feather pillows that you can spare for the
+purpose, shake them down into a square shape and cover them with the
+same print, and you will then have for pillows for your lounge--one
+at each end, and two at the back, and you will find it answers for all
+the purposes of a sofa.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.]
+
+It will be a very pretty thing, now, to cut out of the same material
+as your lounge, sets of lambrequins (or, as they are called,
+_lamberkins_,) a land of pendent curtain-top, as shown in the
+illustration, to put over the windows, which are to be embellished
+with white muslin curtains. The cornices to your windows can be simply
+strips of wood covered with paper to match the bordering of your room,
+and the lambrequins, made of chintz like the lounge, can be trimmed
+with fringe or gimp of the same color. The patterns of these can be
+varied according to fancy, but simple designs are usually the prettiest.
+A tassel at the lowest point improves the appearance.
+
+The curtains can be made of plain white muslin, or some of the many
+styles that come for this purpose. If plain muslin is used, you can
+ornament them with hems an inch in width, in which insert a strip of
+gingham or chambray of the same color as your chintz. This will wash
+with the curtains without losing its color, or should it fade, it can
+easily be drawn out and replaced.
+
+The influence of white-muslin curtains in giving an air of grace and
+elegance to a room is astonishing. White curtains really create a room
+out of nothing. No matter how coarse the muslin, so it be white and
+hang in graceful folds, there is a charm in it that supplies the want
+of multitudes of other things.
+
+Very pretty curtain-muslin can be bought at thirty-seven cents a yard.
+It requires six yards for a window.
+
+Let your men-folk knock up for you, out of rough, unplaned boards,
+some ottoman frames, as described in Chapter II; stuff the tops with
+just the same material as the lounge, and cover them with the self-same
+chintz.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.]
+
+Now you have, suppose your selected color to be green, a green lounge
+in the corner and two green ottomans; you have white muslin curtains,
+with green lambrequins and borders, and your room already looks
+furnished. If you have in the house any broken-down arm-chair, reposing
+in the oblivion of the garret, draw it out--drive a nail here and
+there to hold it firm--stuff and pad, and stitch the padding through
+with a long upholsterer's needle, and cover it with the chintz like
+your other furniture. Presto--you create an easy-chair.
+
+Thus can broken and disgraced furniture reappear, and, being put into
+uniform with the general suit of your room, take a new lease of life.
+
+If you want a centre-table, consider this--that any kind of table,
+well concealed beneath the folds of _handsome drapery of a color
+corresponding to the general hue of the room,_ will look well.
+Instead of going to the cabinet-maker and paying from thirty to forty
+dollars upon a little, narrow, cold, marble-topped stand, that gives
+just room enough to hold a lamp and a book or two, reflect within
+yourself what a centre-table is made for. If you have in your house
+a good, broad, generous-topped table, take it, cover it with an ample
+cloth of green broadcloth. Such a cover, two and a half yards square,
+of fine green broadcloth, figured with black and with a pattern-border
+of grape-leaves, has been bought for ten dollars. In a room we wot of,
+it covers a cheap pine table, such as you may buy for four or five
+dollars any day; but you will be astonished to see how handsome an
+object this table makes under its green drapery. Probably you could
+make the cover more cheaply by getting the cloth and trimming its edge
+with a handsome border, selected for the purpose; but either way, it
+will be an economical and useful ornament. We set down our centre-table,
+therefore, as consisting mainly of a nice broadcloth cover, matching
+our curtains and lounge.
+
+We are sure that any one with "a heart that is humble" may command
+such a centre-table and cloth for fifteen dollars or less, and a family
+of five or six may all sit and work, or read, or write around it, and
+it is capable of entertaining a generous allowance of books and
+knick-knacks.
+
+You have now for your parlor the following figures:
+
+  Wall-paper and border,.................................... $5.50
+  Thirty yards matting,..................................... 15.00
+  Centre-table and cloth,................................... 15.00
+  Muslin for three windows,.................................. 6.75
+  Thirty yards green English chintz, at 25 cents,............ 7.50
+  Six chairs, at $2 each,................................... 12.00
+
+  Total,....................................................$61.75
+Subtracted from eighty dollars, which we set down as the price of the
+cheap, ugly Brussels carpet, we have our whole room papered, carpeted,
+curtained, and furnished, and we have nearly twenty dollars remaining
+for pictures.
+
+As a little suggestion in regard to the selection, you can got Miss
+Oakley's charming little cabinet picture of
+
+  "The Little Scrap-Book Maker" for........................ $7 50
+  Eastman Johnson's "Barefoot Boy,"................. (Prang) 5 00
+  Newman's "Blue-fringed Gentians,"..................(Prang) 6 00
+  Bierstadt's "Sunset in the Yo Semite Valley,"......(Prang)12 00
+
+Here are thirty dollars' worth of really admirable pictures of some
+of our best American artists, from which you can choose at your leisure.
+By sending to any leading picture-dealer, lists of pictures and prices
+will be forwarded to you. These chromos, being all varnished, can wait
+for frames until you can afford them. Or, what is better, because it
+is at once cheaper and a means of educating the ingenuity and the
+taste, you can make for yourselves pretty rustic frames in various
+modes. Take a very thin board, of the right size and shape, for the
+foundation or "mat;" saw out the inner oval or rectangular form to
+suit the picture. Nail on the edge a rustic frame made of branches of
+hard, seasoned wood, and garnish the corners with some pretty device;
+such, for instance, as a cluster of acorns; or, in place of the branches
+of trees, fasten on with glue small pine cones, with larger ones for
+corner ornaments. Or use the mosses of the wood or ocean shells for
+this purpose. It may be more convenient to get the mat or inner moulding
+from a framer, or have it made by your carpenter, with a groove behind
+to hold a glass. Here are also picture-frames of pretty effect, and
+very simply made. The one in Fig. 42 is made of either light or dark
+wood, neat, thin, and not very wide, with the ends simply broken, off,
+or cut so as to resoluble a rough break. The other is white pine, sawn
+into simple form, well smoothed, and marked with a delicate black
+tracery, as suggested in Fig. 43. This should also be varnished, then
+it will take a rich, yellow tinge, which harmonizes admirably with
+chromos, and lightens up engravings to singular advantage. Besides the
+American and the higher range of German and English chromos, there are
+very many pretty little French chromos, which can be had at prices
+from $1 to $5, including black walnut frames.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40]
+[Illustration: Fig. 41]
+[Illustration: Fig. 42]
+[Illustration: Fig. 43]
+
+We have been through this calculation merely to show our readers how
+much beautiful effect may be produced by a wise disposition of color
+and skill in arrangement. If any of our friends should ever carry it
+out, they will find that the buff paper, with its dark, narrow border;
+the green chintz repeated in the lounge, the ottomans, and lambrequins;
+the flowing, white curtains; the broad, generous centre-table, draped
+with its ample green cloth, will, when arranged together, produce an
+effect of grace and beauty far beyond what any one piece or even half
+a dozen pieces of expensive cabinet furniture could. The great, simple
+principle of beauty illustrated in this room is _harmony of color_.
+
+You can, in the same way, make a red room by using Turkey red for your
+draperies; or a blue room by using blue chintz. Let your chintz be of
+a small pattern, and one that is decided in color.
+
+We have given the plan of a room with matting on the floor because
+that is absolutely the cheapest cover. The price of thirty yards plain,
+good ingrain carpet, at $1.50 per yard, would be forty-five dollars;
+the difference between forty-five and fifteen dollars would _furnish_ a
+room with pictures such as we have instanced. However, the same
+programme can be even better carried out with a green ingrain carpet as
+the foundation of the color of the room.
+
+Our friends, who lived seven years upon matting, contrived to give
+their parlor in winter an effect of warmth and color by laying down,
+in front of the fire, a large square of carpeting, say three breadths,
+four yards long. This covered the gathering-place around the fire where
+the winter circle generally sits, and gave an appearance of warmth to
+the room.
+
+If we add this piece of carpeting to the estimates for our room, we
+still leave a margin for a picture, and make the programme equally
+adapted to summer and winter.
+
+Besides the chromos, which, when well selected and of the best class,
+give the charm of color which belongs to expensive paintings, there
+are engravings which finely reproduce much of the real spirit and
+beauty of the celebrated pictures of the world. And even this does not
+exhaust the resources of economical art; for there are few of the
+renowned statues, whether of antiquity or of modern times, that have
+not been accurately copied in plaster casts; and a few statuettes,
+costing perhaps five or six dollars each, will give a really elegant
+finish to your rooms-providing always that they are selected with
+discrimination and taste.
+
+The educating influence of these works of art can hardly be over-
+estimated. Surrounded by such suggestions of the beautiful, and such
+reminders of history and art, children are constantly trained to
+correctness of tote and refinement of thought, and stimulated--sometimes
+to efforts at artistic imitation, always to the eager and intelligent
+inquiry about the scenes, the places, the incidents represented. Just
+here, perhaps, we are met by some who grant all that we say on the
+subject of decoration by works of art, and who yet impatiently exclaim,
+"But I have _no_ money to spare for any thing of this sort. I am
+condemned to an absolute bareness, and beauty in my case is not to be
+thought of."
+
+Are you sure, my friend? If you live in the country, or can get into
+the country, and have your eyes opened and your wits about you, your
+house need not be condemned to an absolute bareness. Not so long as
+the woods are full of beautiful ferns and mosses, while every swamp
+shakes and nods with tremulous grasses, need you feel yourself an
+utterly disinherited child of nature, and deprived of its artistic use.
+
+For example: Take an old tin pan condemned to the retired list by
+reason of holes in the bottom, get twenty-five cents' worth of green
+paint for this and other purposes, and paint it. The holes in the
+bottom are a recommendation for its new service. If there are no holes,
+you must drill two or three, as drainage is essential. Now put a layer
+one inch deep of broken charcoal and potsherds over the bottom, and
+then soil, in the following proportions:
+
+Two fourths wood-soil, such as you find in forests, under trees.
+
+One fourth clean sand.
+
+One fourth meadow-soil, taken from under fresh turf. Mix with this
+some charcoal dust.
+
+In this soil plant all sorts of ferns, together with some few
+swamp-grasses; and around the edge put a border of money-plant or
+periwinkle to hang over. This will need to be watered once or twice
+a week, and it will grow and thrive all summer long in a corner of
+your room. Should you prefer, you can suspend it by wires and make a
+hanging-basket.--Ferns and wood-grasses need not have sunshine--they
+grow well in shadowy places.
+
+On this same principle you can convert a salt-box or an old drum of
+figs into a hanging-basket. Tack bark and pine-cones and moss upon the
+outside of it, drill holes and pass wires through it, and you have a
+woodland hanging-basket, which will hang and grow in any corner of
+your house.
+
+We have been into rooms which, by the simple disposition of articles
+of this kind, have been made to have an air so poetical and attractive
+that they seemed more like a nymph's cave than any thing in the real
+world.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.]
+
+Another mode of disposing of ferns is this: Take a flat piece of board
+sawed out something like a shield, with a hole at the top for hanging
+it up. Upon the board nail a wire pocket made of an ox-muzzle flattened
+on one side; or make something of the kind with stiff wire. Line this
+with a sheet of close moss, which appears green behind the wire
+net-work. Then you fill it with loose, spongy moss, such as you find
+in swamps, and plant therein great plumes of fern and various
+swamp-grasses; they will continue to grow there, and hang gracefully
+over. When watering, set a pail under for it to drip into. It needs
+only to keep this moss always damp, and to sprinkle these ferns
+occasionally with a whisk-broom, to have a most lovely ornament for
+your room or hall.
+
+The use of ivy in decorating a room is beginning to be generally
+acknowledged. It needs to be planted in the kind of soil we have
+described, in a well-drained pot or box, and to have its leaves
+thoroughly washed once or twice a year in strong suds made with
+soft-soap, to free it from dust and scale-bug; and an ivy will live
+and thrive and wind about in a room, year in and year out, will grow
+around pictures, and do almost any thing to oblige you that you can
+suggest to it. For instance, in a March number of _Hearth and Home_,
+[Footnote: A beautifully illustrated agricultural and family weekly
+paper, edited by Donald G. Mitchell(Ik Marvel) and Mrs. H. B. Stowe,]
+there is a picture of the most delightful library-window imaginable,
+whose chief charm consists in the running vines that start from a
+longitudinal box at the bottom of the window, and thence clamber
+up and about the casing and across the rustic frame-work erected for
+its convenience. On the opposite page we present another plain kind
+of window, ornamented with a variety of these rural economical
+adornings.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45.]
+In the centre is a Ward's case. On one side is a pot of _Fuchsia_.
+On the other side is a Calla Lily. In the hanging-baskets and on the
+brackets are the ferns and flowers that flourish in the deep woods,
+and around the window is the ivy, running from two boxes; and, in case
+the window has some sun, a _Nasturtium_ may spread its bright blossoms
+among the leaves. Then, in the winter, when there is less sun, the
+_Striped Spider-wort_, the _Smilax_ and the _Saxifraga_. _Samantosa_ (or
+_Wandering Jew_) may be substituted. Pretty brackets can be made of
+common pine, ornamented with odd-growing twigs or mosses or roots,
+scraped and varnished, or in their native state.
+
+A beautiful ornament for a room with pictures is German ivy. Slips of
+this will start without roots in bottles of water. Slide the bottle
+behind the picture, and the ivy will seem to come from fairyland, and
+hang its verdure in all manner of pretty curves around the picture.
+It may then be trained to travel toward other ivy, and thus aid in
+forming green cornice along the ceiling. We have seen some rooms that
+had an ivy cornice around the whole, giving the air of a leafy bower.
+
+There are some other odd devices to ornament a room. For example, a
+sponge, kept wet by daily immersion, can be filled with flax-seed and
+suspended by a cord, when it will ere long be covered with verdure and
+afterward with flowers.
+
+A sweet potato, laid in a bowl of water on a bracket, or still better,
+suspended by a knitting-needle, run through or laid across the bowl
+half in the water, will, in due time, make a beautiful verdant ornament.
+A large carrot, with the smallest half cut off, scooped out to hold
+water and then suspended with cords, will send out graceful shoots in
+rich profusion.
+
+Half a cocoa-nut shell, suspended, will hold earth or water for plants
+and make a pretty hanging-garden.
+
+It may be a very proper thing to direct the ingenuity and activity of
+children into the making of hanging-baskets and vases of rustic work.
+The best foundations are the cheap wooden bowls, which are quite easy
+to get, and the walks of children in the woods can be made interesting
+by their bringing home material for this rustic work. Different colored
+twigs and sprays of trees, such as the bright scarlet of the dog-wood,
+the yellow of the willow, the black of the birch, and the silvery gray
+of the poplar, may be combined in fanciful net-work. For this sort of
+work, no other investment is needed than a hammer and an assortment
+of different-sized tacks, and beautiful results will be produced.
+Fig. 46 is a stand for flowers, made of roots, scraped and varnished.
+But the greatest and cheapest and most delightful fountain of beauty
+is a "Ward case."
+
+[Illustration: Fig 46.]
+
+Now, immediately all our economical friends give up in despair. Ward's
+cases sell all the way along from eighteen to fifty dollars, and are,
+like every thing else in this lower world, regarded as the sole
+perquisites of the rich.
+
+Let us not be too sure. Plate-glass, and hot-house plants, and rare
+patterns, _are_ the especial inheritance of the rich; but any family may
+command all the requisites of a Ward case for a very small sum. Such a
+case is a small glass closet over a well-drained box of soil. You make a
+Ward case on a small scale when you turn a tumbler over a plant. The
+glass keeps the temperature moist and equable, and preserves the plants
+from dust, and the soil being well drained, they live and thrive
+accordingly. The requisites of these are the glass top and the bed of
+well-drained soil.
+
+Suppose you have a common cheap table, four feet long and two wide.
+Take off the top boards of your table, and with them board the bottom
+across tight and firm; then line it with zinc, and you will have a
+sort of box or sink on legs. Now make a top of common window-glass
+such as you would get for a cucumber-frame; let it be two and a half
+feet high, with a ridge-pole like a house, and a slanting roof of glass
+resting on this ridge-pole; on one end let there be a door two feet
+square.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.]
+
+We have seen a Ward case made in this way, in which the capabilities
+for producing ornamental effect were greatly beyond many of the most
+elaborate ones of the shops. It was large, and roomy, and cheap. Common
+window-sash and glass are not dear, and any man with moderate ingenuity
+could fashion such a glass closet for his wife; or a woman, not having
+such a husband, can do it herself.
+
+The sink or box part must have in the middle of it a hole of good size
+for drainage. In preparing for the reception of plants, first turn a
+plant-saucer over this hole, which may otherwise become stopped. Then,
+as directed for the other basket, proceed with a layer of broken
+charcoal and pot-sherds for drainage, two inches deep, and prepare the
+soil as directed above, and add to it some pounded charcoal, or the
+scrapings of the charcoal-bin. In short, more or less charcoal and
+charcoal-dust is always in order in the treatment of these moist
+subjects, as it keeps them from fermenting and growing sour.
+
+Now for filling the case.
+
+Our own native forest-ferns have a period in the winter months when
+they cease to grow. They are very particular in asserting their right
+to this yearly nap, and will not, on any consideration, grow for you
+out of their appointed season.
+
+Nevertheless, we shall tell you what we have tried ourselves, because
+greenhouse ferns are expensive, and often great cheats when you have
+bought them, and die on your hands in the most reckless and shameless
+manner. If you make a Ward case in the spring, your ferns will grow
+beautifully in it all summer; and in the autumn, though they stop
+growing, and cease to throw out leaves, yet the old leaves will remain
+fresh and green till the time for starting the new ones in the spring.
+
+But, supposing you wish to start your case in the fall, out of such
+things as you can find in the forest; by searching carefully the rocks
+and clefts and recesses of the forest, you can find a quantity of
+beautiful ferns whose leaves the frost has not yet assailed. Gather
+them carefully, remembering that the time of the plant's sleep has
+come, and that you must make the most of the leaves it now has, as you
+will not have a leaf more from it till its waking-up time in February
+or March. But we have succeeded, and you will succeed, in making a
+very charming and picturesque collection. You can make in your Ward
+case lovely little grottoes with any bits of shells, and minerals, and
+rocks you may have; you can lay down, here and there, fragments of
+broken looking-glass for the floor of your grottoes, and the effect
+of them will be magical. A square of looking-glass introduced into the
+back side of your case will produce charming effects.
+
+The trailing arbutus or May-flower, if cut up carefully in sods, and
+put into this Ward case, will come into bloom there a month sooner
+than it otherwise would, and gladden your eyes and heart.
+
+In the fall, if you can find the tufts of eye-bright or houstonia
+cerulia, and mingle them in with your mosses, you will find them
+blooming before winter is well over.
+
+But among the most beautiful things for such a case is the
+partridge-berry, with its red plums. The berries swell and increase
+in the moist atmosphere, and become intense in color, forming an
+admirable ornament.
+
+Then the ground pine, the princess pine, and various nameless pretty
+things of the woods, all flourish in these little conservatories. In
+getting your sod of trailing arbutus, remember that this plant forms
+its buds in the fall. You must, therefore, examine your sod carefully,
+and see if the buds are there; otherwise you will find no blossoms in
+the spring.
+
+There are one or two species of violets, also, that form their buds
+in the fall, and these too, will blossom early for you.
+
+We have never tried the wild anemones, the crowfoot, etc.; but as they
+all do well in moist, shady places, we recommend hopefully the
+experiment of putting some of them in.
+
+A Ward case has this recommendation over common house-plants, that it
+takes so little time and care. If well made in the outset, and
+thoroughly drenched with water when the plants are first put in, it
+will after that need only to be watered about once a month, and to be
+ventilated by occasionally leaving open the door for a half-hour or
+hour when the moisture obscures the glass and seems in excess.
+
+To women embarrassed with the care of little children, yet longing for
+the refreshment of something growing and beautiful, this indoor garden
+will be an untold treasure. The glass defends the plant from the
+inexpedient intermeddling of little fingers; while the little eyes,
+just on a level with the panes of glass, can look through and learn
+to enjoy the beautiful, silent miracles of nature.
+
+For an invalid's chamber, such a case would be an indescribable comfort.
+It is, in fact, a fragment of the green woods brought in and silently
+growing; it will refresh many a weary hour to watch it.
+
+
+
+VII.
+
+THE CARE OF HEALTH.
+
+There is no point where a woman is more liable to suffer from a want
+of knowledge and experience than in reference to the health of a family
+committed to her care. Many a young lady who never had any charge of
+the sick; who never took any care of an infant; who never obtained
+information on these subjects from books, or from the experience of
+others; in short, with little or no preparation, has found herself the
+principal attendant in dangerous sickness, the chief nurse of a feeble
+infant, and the responsible guardian of the health of a whole family.
+
+The care, the fear, the perplexity of a woman suddenly called to these
+unwonted duties, none can realize till they themselves feel it, or
+till they see some young and anxious novice first attempting to meet
+such responsibilities. To a woman of age and experience these duties
+often involve a measure of trial and difficulty at times deemed almost
+insupportable; how hard, then, must they press on the heart of the
+young and inexperienced!
+
+There is no really efficacious mode of preparing a woman to take a
+rational care of the health of a family, except by communicating that
+knowledge in regard to the construction of the body and the laws of
+health which is the basis of the medical profession. Not that a woman
+should undertake the minute and extensive investigation requisite for
+a physician; but she should gain a general knowledge of first
+principles, as a guide to her judgment in emergencies when she can
+rely on no other aid.
+
+With this end in view, in the preceding chapters some portions of the
+organs and functions of the human body have been presented, and others
+will now follow in connection with the practical duties which result
+from them.
+
+On the general subject of health, one recent discovery of science may
+here be introduced as having an important relation to every organ and
+function of the body, and as being one to which frequent reference
+will be made; and that is, the nature and operation of _cell-life_.
+
+By the aid of the microscope, we can examine the minute construction
+of plants and animals, in which we discover contrivances and operations,
+if not so sublime, yet more wonderful and interesting, than the vast
+systems of worlds revealed by the telescope.
+
+By this instrument it is now seen that the first formation, as well
+as future changes and actions, of all plants and animals are
+accomplished by means of small cells or bags containing various kinds
+of liquids. These cells are so minute that, of the smallest, some
+hundreds would not cover the dot of a printed _i_ on this page.
+They are of diverse shapes and contents, and perform various different
+operations.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 48.]
+
+The first formation of every animal is accomplished by the agency of
+cells, and may be illustrated by the egg of any bird or fowl. The
+exterior consists of a hard shell for protection, and this is lined
+with a tough skin, to which is fastened the yelk, (which means the
+_yellow_,) by fibrous strings, as seen at _a_, _a_, in the diagram. In
+the yelk floats the germ-cell, _b_, which is the point where the
+formation of the future animal commences. The yelk, being lighter than
+the white, rises upward, and the germ being still lighter, rises in the
+yelk. This is to bring both nearer to the vitalizing warmth of the
+brooding mother.
+
+New cells are gradually formed from the nourishing yelk around the
+germ, each being at first roundish in shape, and having a spot near
+the centre, called the nucleus. The reason why cells increase must
+remain a mystery, until we can penetrate the secrets of vital
+force--probably forever. But the mode in which they multiply is as
+follows: The first change noticed in a cell, when warmed into vital
+activity, is the appearance of a second nucleus within it, while the
+cell gradually becomes oval in form, and then is drawn inward at the
+middle, like an hour-glass, till the two sides meet. The two portions
+then divide, and two cells appear, each containing its own germinal
+nucleus. These both divide again in the same manner, proceeding in the
+ratio of 2, 4, 8, 16, and so on, until most of the yelk becomes a mass
+of cells.
+
+The central point of this mass, where the animal itself commences to
+appear, shows, first, a round-shaped figure, which soon assumes form
+like a pear, and then like a violin. Gradually the busy little cells
+arrange themselves to build up heart, lungs, brain, stomach, and limbs,
+for which the yelk and white furnish nutriment. There is a small bag
+of air fastened to one end inside of the shell; and when the animal
+is complete, this air is taken into its lungs, life begins, and out
+walks little chick, all its powers prepared, and ready to run, eat,
+and enjoy existence. Then, as soon as the animal uses its brain to
+think and feel, and its muscles to move, the cells which have been
+made up into these parts begin to decay, while new cells are formed
+from the blood to take their place. Time with life commences the
+constant process of decay and renewal all over the body.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49.]
+
+The liquid portion of the blood consists of material formed from food,
+air, and water. From this material the cells of the blood are formed:
+first, the white cells, which are incomplete in formation; and then
+the red cells, which are completed by the addition of the oxygen
+received from air in the lungs. Fig. 49 represents part of a magnified
+blood-vessel, _a_, _a_, in which the round cells are the white, and the
+oblong the red cells, floating in the blood. Surrounding the blood-
+vessels are the cells forming the adjacent membrane, _bb_, each having a
+nucleus in its centre.
+
+Cells have different powers of selecting and secreting diverse materials
+from the blood. Thus, some secrete bile to carry to the liver, others
+secrete saliva for the mouth, others take up the tears, and still
+others take material for the brain, muscles, and all other organs.
+Cells also have a converting power, of taking one kind of matter from
+the blood, and changing it to another kind. They are minute chemical
+laboratories all over the body, changing materials of one kind to
+another form in which they can be made useful.
+
+Both animal and vegetable substances are formed of cells. But the
+vegetable cells take up and use unorganized or simple, natural matter;
+whereas the animal cell only takes substances already organized into
+vegetable or animal life, and then changes one compound into another
+of different proportions and nature.
+
+These curious facts in regard to cell-life have important relations
+to the general subject of the care of health, and also to the cure of
+disease, as will be noticed in following chapters.
+
+
+THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
+
+There is another portion of the body, which is so intimately connected
+with every other that it is placed in this chapter as also having
+reference to every department in the general subject of the care of
+health.
+
+The body has no power to move itself, but is a collection of instruments
+to be used by the mind in securing various kinds of knowledge and
+enjoyment. The organs through which the mind thus operates are the
+_brain_ and _nerves_. The drawing (Fig. 50) represents them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50.]
+
+The brain lies in the skull, and is divided into the large or upper
+brain, marked 1, and the small or lower brain, marked 2. From the brain
+runs the spinal marrow through the spine or backbone. From each side
+of the spine the large nerves run out into innumerable smaller branches
+to every portion of the body. The drawing shows only some of the larger
+branches. Those marked 3 run to the neck and organs of the chest; those
+marked 4 go to the arms; those below the arms, marked 3, go to the
+trunk; and those marked 5 go to the legs.
+
+The brain and nerves consist of two kinds of nervous matter--the _gray_,
+which is supposed to be the portion that originates and controls a
+nervous fluid which imparts power of action; and the _white_, which
+seems to conduct this fluid to every part of the body.
+
+The brain and nervous system are divided into distinct portions, each
+having different offices to perform, and each acting independently of
+the others; as, for example, one portion is employed by the mind in
+thinking, and in feeling pleasurable or painful mental emotions; another
+in moving the muscles; while the nerves that run to the nose, ears,
+eyes, tongue, hands, and surface generally, are employed in seeing,
+hearing, smelling, tasting, and feeling all physical sensations.
+
+The _back_ portion of the spinal marrow and the nerves that run from it
+are employed in _sensation_, or the _sense of feeling_. These nerves
+extend over the whole body, but are largely developed in the network of
+nerves in the skin. The _front_ portion of the spinal marrow and its
+branches are employed in moving those muscles in all parts of the body
+which are controlled by the _will_ or _choice_ of the mind. These are
+called the _nerves of motion_.
+
+The nerves of sensation and nerves of motion, although they start from
+different portions of the spine, are united in the same _sheath_ or
+_cover_, till they terminate in the muscles. Thus, every muscle is moved
+by nerves of motion; while alongside of this nerve, in the same sheath,
+is a nerve of sensation. All the nerves of motion and sensation are
+connected with those portions of the brain used when we think, feel, and
+choose. By this arrangement the mind _knows_ what is wanted in all parts
+of the body by means of the nerves of sensation, and then it _acts_ by
+means of the nerves of motion.
+
+For example, when we feel the cold air on the skin, the nerves of
+sensation report to the brain, and thus to the mind, that the body is
+growing cold. The mind thus knows that more clothing is needed, and
+_wills_ to have the eyes look for it, and the hands and feet move
+to get it. This is done by the nerves of sight and of motion.
+
+Next are the nerves of _involuntary motion_, which move all those
+parts of the head, face, and body that are used in breathing, and in
+other operations connected with it. By these we continue to breathe
+when asleep, and whether we will to do so or not. There are also some
+of the nerves of voluntary motion that are mixed with these, which
+enable the mind to stop respiration, or to regulate it to a certain
+extent. But the mind has no power to stop it for any great length of
+time.
+
+There is another large and important system of nerves called the
+_sympathetic_ or _ganglionic_ system. It consists of small masses of
+gray and white nervous matter, that seem to be small brains with nerves
+running from them. These are called _ganglia_, and are arranged on each
+side of the spine, while small nerves from the spinal marrow run into
+them, thus uniting the sympathetic system with the nerves of the spine.
+These ganglia are also distributed around in various parts of the
+interior of the body, especially in the intestines, and all the
+different ganglia are connected with each other by nerves, thus making
+one system. It is the ganglionic system that carries on the circulation
+of the blood, the action of the capillaries, lymphatics, arteries, and
+veins, together with the work of secretion, absorption, and most of the
+internal working of the body, which goes forward without any knowledge
+or control of the mind.
+
+Every portion of the body has nerves of sensation coming from the
+spine, and also branches of the sympathetic or ganglionic system. The
+object of this is to form a sympathetic communication between the
+several parts of the body, and also to enable the mind to receive,
+through the brain, some general knowledge of the state of the whole
+system. It is owing to this that, when one portion of the body is
+affected, other portions sympathize. For example, if one part of the
+body is diseased, the stomach may so sympathize as to lose all appetite
+until the disease is removed.
+
+All the operations of the nervous system are performed by the influence
+of the nervous fluid, which is generated in the gray portions of the
+brain and ganglia. Whenever a nerve is cut off from its connection
+with these nervous centres, its power is gone, and the part to which
+it ministered becomes lifeless and incapable of motion.
+
+The brain and nerves can be overworked, and can also suffer for want
+of exercise, just as the muscles do. It is necessary for the perfect
+health of the brain and nerves that the several portions he exercised
+sufficiently, and that no part be exhausted by over-action. For
+example, the nerves of sensation may be very much exercised, and the
+nerves of motion have but little exercise. In this ease, one will be
+weakened by excess of work, and the other by the want of it.
+
+It is found by experience that the proper exercise of the nerves of
+motion tends to reduce any extreme susceptibility of the nerves of
+sensation. On the contrary, the neglect of such exercise tends to
+produce an excessive sensibility in the nerves of sensation.
+
+Whenever that part of the brain which is employed in thinking, feeling,
+and willing, is greatly exercised by hard study, or by excessive care
+or emotion, the blood tends to the brain to supply it with increased
+nourishment, just as it flows to the muscles when they are exercised.
+Over-exercise of this portion of the brain causes engorgement of the
+blood-vessels. This is sometimes indicated by pain, or by a sense of
+fullness in the head; but oftener the result is a debilitating drain
+on the nervous system, which depends for its supply on the healthful
+state of the brain.
+
+The brain has, as it were, a fountain of supply for the nervous fluid,
+which flows to all the nerves, and stimulates them to action. Some
+brains have a larger, and some a smaller fountain; so that a degree
+of mental activity that would entirely exhaust one, would make only
+a small and healthful drain upon another.
+
+The excessive use of certain portions of the brain tends to withdraw
+the nervous energy from other portions; so that when one part is
+debilitated by excess, another fails by neglect. For example, a person
+may so exhaust the brain power in the excessive use of the nerves of
+motion by hard work, as to leave little for any other faculty. On the
+other hand, the nerves of feeling and thinking may be so used as to
+withdraw the nervous fluid from the nerves of motion, and thus
+debilitate the muscles.
+
+Some animal propensities may be indulged to such excess as to produce
+a constant tendency of the blood to a certain portion of the brain,
+and to the organs connected with it, and thus cause a constant and
+excessive excitement, which finally becomes a disease. Sometimes a
+paralysis of this portion of the brain results from such an entire
+exhaustion of the nervous fountain and of the overworked nerves.
+
+Thus, also, the thinking portion of the brain may be so overworked as
+to drain the nervous fluid from other portions, which become debilitated
+by the loss. And in this way, also, the overworked portion may be
+diseased or paralyzed by the excess.
+
+The necessity for the _equal development_ of all portions of the brain
+by an appropriate exercise of _all_ the faculties of mind and body, and
+the influence of this upon happiness, is the most important portion of
+this subject, and will be more directly exhibited in another chapter.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+DOMESTIC EXERCISE.
+
+
+In a work which aims to influence women to train the young to honor
+domestic labor and to seek healthful exercise in home pursuits, there
+is special reason for explaining the construction of the muscles and
+their connection with the nerves, these being the chief organs of
+motion.
+
+The muscles, as seen by the naked eye, consist of very fine fibres or
+strings, bound up in smooth, silky casings of thin membrane. But each
+of these visible fibres or strings the microscope shows to be made up
+of still finer strings, numbering from five to eight hundred in each
+fibre. And each of these microscopic fibres is a series or chain of
+elastic cells, which are so minute that one hundred thousand would
+scarcely cover a capital O on this page.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51.]
+[Illustration: Fig. 52.]
+
+The peculiar property of the cells which compose the muscles is their
+elasticity, no other cells of the body having this property. At Fig.
+51 is a diagram representing a microscopic muscular fibre, in which
+the cells are relaxed, as in the natural state of rest. But when the
+muscle contracts, each of its numberless cells in all its small fibres
+becomes widened, making each fibre of the muscle shorter and thicker,
+as at Fig. 52. This explains the cause of the swelling out of muscles
+when they act.
+
+Every motion in every part of the body has a special muscle to produce
+it, and many have other muscles to restore the part moved to its natural
+state. The muscles that move or bend any part are called _flexors_,
+and those that restore the natural position are called _extensors_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53]
+
+Fig. 53 represents the muscles of the arm after the skin and flesh are
+removed. They are all in smooth silky cases, laid over each other, and
+separated both by the smooth membranes that encase them and by layers
+of fat, so as to move easily without interfering with each other. They
+are fastened to the bones by strong tendons and cartilages; and around
+the wrist, in the drawing, is shown a band of cartilage to confine
+them in place. The muscle marked 8 is the extensor that straightens
+the fingers after they have been closed by a flexor the other side of
+the arm. In like manner, each motion of the arm and fingers has one
+muscle to produce it and another to restore to the natural position.
+
+The muscles are dependent on the brain and nerves for power to move.
+It has been shown that the gray matter of the brain and spinal marrow
+furnishes the stimulating power that moves the muscles, and causes
+sensations of touch on the skin, and the other sensations of the several
+senses. The white part of the brain and spinal marrow consists solely
+of conducting tubes to transmit this influence. Each of the minute
+fibrils of the muscles has a small conducting nerve connecting it with
+the brain or spinal marrow, and in this respect each muscular fibril
+is separate from every other.
+
+When, therefore, the mind wills to move a flexor muscle of the arm,
+the gray matter sends out the stimulus through the nerves to the cells
+of each individual fibre of that muscle, and they contract. When this
+is done, the nerve of sensation reports it to the brain and mind. If
+the mind desires to return the arm to its former position, then follows
+the willing, and consequent stimulus sent through the nerves to the
+corresponding muscle; its cells contract, and the limb is restored.
+
+When the motion is a compound one, involving the action of several
+muscles at the same time, a multitude of impressions are sent back and
+forth to and from the brain through the nerves. But the person acting
+thus is unconscious of all this delicate and wonderful mechanism. He
+wills the movement, and instantly the requisite nervous power is sent
+to the required cells and fibres, and they perform the motions required.
+Many of the muscles are moved by the sympathetic system, over which
+the mind has but little control.
+
+Among the muscles and nerves so intimately connected, run the minute
+capillaries of the blood, which furnish nourishment to all.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54]
+
+Fig. 54 represents an artery a _a_, which brings pure blood to a muscle
+from the heart. After meandering through the capillaries at _c_, to
+distribute oxygen and food from the stomach, the blood enters the vein,
+_b_, loaded with carbonic acid and water taken up in the capillaries, to
+be carried to the lungs or skin, and thrown out into the air.
+
+The manner in which the exercise of the muscles quickens the circulation
+of the blood will now be explained. The veins abound in every part of
+every muscle, and the large veins have _valves_ which prevent the
+blood from flowing backward. If the wrist is grasped tightly, the veins
+of the hand are immediately swollen. This is owing to the fact that
+the blood is prevented from flowing toward the heart by this pressure,
+and by the vein-valves from returning into the arteries; while the
+arteries themselves, being placed deeper down, are not so compressed,
+and continue to send the blood into the hand, and thus it accumulates.
+As soon as this pressure is removed, the blood springs onward from the
+restraint with accelerated motion. This same process takes place when
+any of the muscles are exercised. The contraction of any muscle presses
+some of the veins, so that the blood can not flow the natural way,
+while the valves in the veins prevent its flowing backward. Meantime
+the arteries continue to press the blood along until the veins become
+swollen. Then, as soon as the muscle ceases its contraction, the blood
+flows faster from the previous accumulation.
+
+If, then, we use a number of muscles, and use them strongly and quickly,
+there are so many veins affected in this way as to quicken the whole
+circulation. The heart receives blood faster, and sends it to the lungs
+faster. Then the lungs work quicker, to furnish the oxygen required
+by the greater amount of blood. The blood returns with greater speed
+to the heart, and the heart sends it out with quicker action through
+the arteries to the capillaries. In the capillaries, too, the decayed
+matter is carried off faster, and then the stomach calls for more food
+to furnish new and pure blood. Thus it is that exercise gives new life
+and nourishment to every part of the body.
+
+It is the universal law of the human frame that _exercise_ is
+indispensable to the health of the several parts. Thus, if a
+blood-vessel be tied up, so as not to be used, it shrinks, and becomes
+a useless string; if a muscle be condemned to inaction, it shrinks in
+size and diminishes in power; and thus it is also with the bones.
+Inactivity produces softness, debility, and unfitness for the functions
+they are designed to perform.
+
+Now, the nerves, like all other parts of the body, gain and lose
+strength according as they are exercised. If they have too much or too
+little exercise, they lose strength; if they are exercised to a proper
+degree, they gain strength. When the mind is continuously excited, by
+business, study, or the imagination, the nerves of emotion and sensation
+are kept in constant action, while the nerves of motion are unemployed.
+If this is continued for a long time, the nerves of sensation lose
+their strength from over-action, and the nerves of motion lose their
+power from inactivity. In consequence, there is a morbid excitability
+of the nervous, and a debility of the muscular system, which make all
+exertion irksome and wearisome.
+
+The only mode of preserving the health of these systems is to keep up
+in them an equilibrium of action. For this purpose, occupations must
+be sought which exercise the muscles and interest the mind; and thus
+the equal action of both kinds of nerves is secured. This shows why
+exercise is so much more healthful and invigorating when the mind is
+interested, than when it is not. As an illustration, let a person go
+shopping with a friend, and have nothing to do but look on. How soon
+do the continuous walking and standing weary! But, suppose one, thus
+wearied, hears of the arrival of a very dear friend: she can instantly
+walk off a mile or two to meet her, without the least feeling of
+fatigue. By this is shown the importance of furnishing, for young
+persons, exercise in which they will take an interest. Long and formal
+walks, merely for exercise, though they do some good, in securing fresh
+air, and some exercise of the muscles, would be of triple benefit if
+changed to amusing sports, or to the cultivation of fruits and flowers,
+in which it is impossible to engage without acquiring a great interest.
+
+It shows, also, why it is far better to trust to useful domestic
+exercise at home than to send a young person out to walk for the mere
+purpose of exercise. Young girls can seldom be made to realize the
+value of health, and the need of exercise to secure it, so as to feel
+much interest in walking abroad, when they have no other object. But,
+if they are brought up to minister to the comfort and enjoyment of
+themselves and others, by performing domestic duties, they will
+constantly be interested and cheered in their exercise by the feeling
+of usefulness and the consciousness of having performed their duty.
+
+There are few young persons, it is hoped, who are brought up with such
+miserable habits of selfishness and indolence that they can not be
+made to feel happier by the consciousness of being usefully employed.
+And those who have never been accustomed to think or care for any one
+but themselves, and who seem to feel little pleasure in making
+themselves useful, by wise and proper influences can often be gradually
+awakened to the new pleasure of benevolent exertion to promote the
+comfort and enjoyment of others. And the more this sacred and elevating
+kind of enjoyment is tasted, the greater is the relish induced. Other
+enjoyments often cloy; but the heavenly pleasure secured by virtuous
+industry and benevolence, while it satisfies at the time, awakens fresh
+desires for the continuance of so ennobling a good.
+
+
+
+
+IX.
+
+HEALTHFUL FOOD.
+
+
+The person who decides what shall be the food and drink of a family,
+and the modes of its preparation, is the one who decides, to a greater
+or less extent, what shall be the health of that family. It is the
+opinion of most medical men, that intemperance in eating is one of the
+most fruitful of all causes of disease and death. If this be so, the
+woman who wisely adapts the food and cooking of her family to the laws
+of health removes one of the greatest risks which threatens the lives
+of those under her care. But, unfortunately, there is no other duty
+that has been involved in more doubt and perplexity. Were one to believe
+all that is said and written on this subject, the conclusion probably
+would be, that there is not one solitary article of food on God's earth
+which it is healthful to eat. Happily, however, there are general
+principles on this subject which, if understood and applied, will prove
+a safe guide to any woman of common sense; and it is the object of the
+following chapter to set forth these principles.
+
+All material things on earth, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, can
+be resolved into sixty-two simple substances, only fourteen of which
+are in the human body; and these, in certain proportions, in all
+mankind.
+
+Thus, in a man weighing 154 lbs. are found, 111 lbs. oxygen gas, and
+14 lbs. hydrogen gas, which, united, form water; 21 lbs. carbon; 3
+lbs. 8 oz. nitrogen gas; 1 lb. 12 oz. 190 grs. phosphorus; 2 lbs.
+calcium, the chief ingredient of bones; 2 oz. fluorine; 2 oz. 219 grs.
+sulphur; 2 oz 47 grs. chlorine; 2 oz. 116 grs. sodium; 100 grs. iron;
+290 grs. potassium; 12 grs. magnesium; and 2 grs. silicon.
+
+These simple substances are constantly passing out of the body through
+the lungs, skin, and other excreting organs.
+
+It is found that certain of these simple elements are used for one
+part of the body, and others for other parts, and this in certain
+regular proportions. Thus, carbon is the chief element of fat, and
+also supplies the fuel that combines with oxygen in the capillaries
+to produce animal heat. The nitrogen which we gain from our food and
+the air is the chief element of muscle; phosphorus is the chief element
+of brain and nerves; and calcium or lime is the hard portion of the
+bones. Iron is an important element of blood, and silicon supplies the
+hardest parts of the teeth, nails, and hair.
+
+Water, which is composed of the two gases, oxygen and hydrogen, is the
+largest portion of the body, forming its fluids; there is four times
+as much of carbon as there is of nitrogen in the body; while there is
+only two per cent as much phosphorus as carbon. A man weighing one
+hundred and fifty-four pounds, who leads an active life, takes into
+his stomach daily from two to three pounds of solid food, and from
+five to six pounds of liquid. At the same time he takes into his lungs,
+daily, four or five thousand gallons of air. This amounts to three
+thousand pounds of nutriment received through stomach and lungs, and
+then expelled from the body, in one year; or about twenty times the
+man's own weight.
+
+The change goes on in every minute point of the body, though in some
+parts much faster than in others; as set forth in the piquant and
+sprightly language of Dr. O. W. Holmes [Footnote: Atlantic Almanac,
+1869, p. 40.], who, giving a vivid picture of the constant decay and
+renewal of the body, says:
+
+"_Every organized being always lives immersed in a strong solution
+of its own elements._"
+
+"Sometimes, as in the case of the air-plant, the solution contains all
+its elements; but in higher plants, and in animals generally, some of
+the principal ones only. Take our own bodies, and we find the atmosphere
+contains the oxygen and the nitrogen, of which we are so largely made
+up, as its chief constituents; the hydrogen, also, in its watery vapor;
+the carbon, in its carbonic acid. What our air-bath does not furnish
+us, we must take in the form of nourishment, supplied through the
+digestive organs. But the first food we take, after we have set up for
+ourselves, is air, and the last food we take is air also. We are all
+chameleons in our diet, as we are all salamanders in our _habitats_,
+inasmuch as we live always in the fire of our own smouldering
+combustion; a gentle but constant flame, fanned every day by the same
+forty hogsheads of air which furnish us not with our daily bread, which
+we can live more than a day without touching, but with our momentary,
+and oftener than momentary, aliment, without which we can not live five
+minutes."
+
+"We are perishing and being born again at every instant. We do literally
+enter over and over again into the womb of that great mother, from
+whom we get our bones, and flesh, and blood, and marrow. 'I die daily'
+is true of all that live. If we cease to die, particle by particle,
+and to be born anew in the same proportion, the whole movement of life
+comes to an end, and swift, universal, irreparable decay resolves
+our frames into the parent elements."
+
+"The products of the internal fire which consumes us over and over
+again every year, pass off mainly in smoke and steam from the lungs
+and the skin. The smoke is only invisible, because the combustion is
+so perfect. The steam is plain enough in our breaths on a frosty
+morning; and an over-driven horse will show us, on a larger scale, the
+cloud that is always arising from own bodies."
+
+"Man walks, then, not only in a vain show, but wrapped in an uncelestial
+aureole of his own material exhalations. A great mist of gases and of
+vapor rises day and night from the whole realm of living nature. The
+water and the carbonic acid which animals exhale become the food of
+plants, whose leaves are at once lungs and mouths. The vegetable world
+reverses the breathing process of the animal creation, restoring the
+elements which that has combined and rendered effete for its own
+purposes, to their original condition. The salt-water ocean is a great
+aquarium. The air ocean in which we live is a 'Wardian case,' of larger
+dimensions."
+
+It is found that the simple elements will not nourish the body in their
+natural state, but only when organized, either as vegetable or animal
+food; and, to the dismay of the Grahamite or vegetarian school, it is
+now established by chemists that animal and vegetable food contain the
+same elements, and in nearly the same proportions.
+
+Thus, in animal food, carbon predominates in fats, while in vegetable
+food it shows itself in sugar, starch, and vegetable oils. Nitrogen
+is found in animal food in the albumen, fibrin, and caseine; while in
+vegetables it is in gluten, albumen, and caseine.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55]
+
+It is also a curious fact that, in all articles of food, the elements
+that nourish diverse parts of the body are divided into separable
+portions, and also that the proportions correspond in a great degree
+to the wants of the body. For example, a kernel of wheat contains all
+the articles demanded for every part of the body. Fig. 55 represents,
+upon an enlarged scale, the position and proportions of the chief
+elements required. The white central part is the largest in quantity,
+and is chiefly carbon in the form of starch, which supplies fat and
+fuel for the capillaries. The shaded outer portion is chiefly nitrogen,
+which nourishes the muscles, and the dark spot at the bottom is
+principally phosphorus, which nourishes the brain and nerves. And these
+elements are in due proportion to the demands of the body. A portion
+of the outer covering of a wheat-kernel holds lime, silica, and iron,
+which are needed by the body, and which are found in no other part of
+the grain. The woody fibre is not digested, but serves by its bulk and
+stimulating action to facilitate digestion. It is therefore evident
+that bread made of unbolted flour is more healthful than that made of
+superfine flour. The process of bolting removes all the woody fibre;
+the lime needed for the bones; the silica for hair, nails, and teeth;
+the iron for the blood; and most of the nitrogen and phosphorus needed
+for muscles, brain, and nerves.
+
+Experiments on animals prove that fine flour alone, which is chiefly
+carbon, will not sustain life more than a month, while unbolted flour
+furnishes all that is needed for every part of the body. There are
+cases where persons can not use such coarse bread, on account of its
+irritating action on inflamed coats of the stomach. For such, a kind
+of wheaten grit is provided, containing all the kernel of the wheat,
+except the outside woody fibre.
+
+When the body requires a given kind of diet, specially demanded by
+brain, lungs, or muscles, the appetite will crave food for it until
+the necessary amount of this article is secured. If, then, the food
+in which the needed aliment abounds is not supplied, other food will
+be taken in larger quantities than needed until that amount is gained.
+For all kinds of food have supplies for every want of the body, though
+in different proportions. Thus, for example, if the muscles are worked
+a great deal, food in which nitrogen abounds is required, and the
+appetite will continue until the requisite amount of nitrogen is
+secured. If, then, food is taken which has not the requisite quantity,
+the consequence is, that more is taken than the system can use, while
+the vital powers are needlessly taxed to throw off the excess.
+
+These facts were ascertained by Liebig, a celebrated German chemist
+and physicist, who, assisted by his government, conducted experiments
+on a large scale in prisons, in armies, and in hospitals. Among other
+results, he states that those who use potatoes for their principal
+food eat them in very much larger quantities than their bodies would
+demand if they used also other food. The reason is, that the potato
+has a very large proportion of starch that supplies only fuel for the
+capillaries and very little nitrogen to feed the muscles. For this
+reason lean meat is needed with potatoes.
+
+In comparing wheat and potatoes we find that in one hundred parts wheat
+there are fourteen parts nitrogen for muscle, and two parts phosphorus
+for brain and nerves. But in the potato there is only one part in one
+hundred for muscle, and nine tenths of one part of phosphorus for brain
+and nerves.
+
+The articles containing most of the three articles needed generally
+in the body are as follows: for fat and heat-making--butter, lard,
+sugar, and molasses; for muscle-making--lean meat, cheese, peas, beans,
+and lean fishes; for brain and nerves--shell-fish, lean meats, peas,
+beans, and very active birds and fishes who live chiefly on food in
+which phosphorus abounds. In a meat diet, the fat supplies carbon for
+the capillaries and the lean furnishes nutriment for muscle, brain,
+and nerves. Green vegetables, fruits, and berries furnish the acid and
+water needed.
+
+In grains used for food, the proportions of useful elements are varied;
+there is in some more of carbon and in others more of nitrogen and
+phosphorus. For example, in oats there is more of nitrogen for the
+muscles, and less carbon for the lungs, than can be found in wheat.
+In the corn of the North, where cold weather demands fuel for lungs
+and capillaries, there is much more carbon to supply it than is found
+in the Southern corn.
+
+From these statements it may be seen that one of the chief mistakes
+in providing food for families has been in changing the proportions
+of the elements nature has fitted for our food. Thus, fine wheat is
+deprived by bolting of some of the most important of its nourishing
+elements, leaving carbon chiefly, which, after supplying fuel fur the
+capillaries, must, if in excess, be sent out of the body; thus
+needlessly taxing all the excreting organs. So milk, which contains
+all the elements needed by the body, has the cream taken out and used
+for butter, which again is chiefly carbon. Then, sugar and molasses,
+cakes and candies, are chiefly carbon, and supply but very little of
+other nourishing elements, while to make them safe much exercise in
+cold and pure air is necessary. And yet it is the children of the rich,
+housed in chambers and school-rooms most of their time, who are fed
+with these dangerous dainties, thus weakening their constitutions, and
+inducing fevers, colds, and many other diseases. The proper digestion
+of food depends on the wants of the body, and on its power of
+appropriating the aliment supplied. The best of food can not be properly
+digested when it is not needed. All that the system requires will be
+used, and the rest will be thrown out by the several excreting organs,
+which thus are frequently over-taxed, and vital forces are wasted.
+Even food of poor quality may digest well if the demands of the system
+are urgent. The way to increase digestive power is to increase the
+demand for food by pure air and exercise of the muscles, quickening
+the blood, and arousing the whole system to a more rapid and vigorous
+rate of life.
+
+Rules for persons in full health, who enjoy pure air and exercise, are
+not suitable for those whose digestive powers are feeble, or who are
+diseased. On the other hand, many rules for invalids are not needed
+by the healthful, while rules for one class of invalids will not avail
+for other classes. Every weak stomach has its peculiar wants, and can
+not furnish guidance for others.
+
+We are now ready to consider intelligently the following general
+principles in regard to the proper selection of food:
+
+Vegetable and animal food are equally healthful if apportioned to the
+given circumstances.
+
+In cold weather, carbonaceous food, such as butter, fats, sugar,
+molasses, etc., can be used more safely than in warm weather. And they
+can be used more safely by those who exercise in the open air than by
+those of confined and sedentary habits.
+
+Students who need food with little carbon, and women who live in the
+house, should always seek coarse bread, fruits, and lean meats, and
+avoid butter, oils, sugar, and molasses, and articles containing them.
+
+Many students and women using little exercise in the open air, grow
+thin and weak, because the vital powers are exhausted in throwing off
+excess of food, especially of the carbonaceous. The liver is especially
+taxed in such cases, being unable to remove all the excess of
+carbonaceous matter from, the blood, and thus "biliousness" ensues,
+particularly on the approach of warm weather, when the air brings less
+oxygen than in cold.
+
+It is found, by experiment, that the supply of gastric juice, furnished
+from the blood by the arteries of the stomach, is proportioned, not
+to the amount of food put into the stomach, but to the wants of the
+body; so that it is possible to put much more into the stomach than
+can be digested. To guide and regulate in this matter, the sensation
+called _hunger_ is provided. In a healthy state of the body, as
+soon as the blood has lost its nutritive supplies, the craving of
+hunger is felt, and then, if the food is suitable, and is taken in the
+proper manner, this sensation ceases as soon as the stomach has received
+enough to supply the wants of the system. But our benevolent Creator,
+in this, as in our other duties, has connected enjoyment with the
+operation needful to sustain our bodies. In addition to the allaying
+of hunger, the gratification of the palate is secured by the immense
+variety of food, some articles of which are far more agreeable than
+others.
+
+This arrangement of Providence, designed for our happiness, has become,
+either through ignorance, or want of self-control, the chief cause of
+the many diseases and suffering which afflict those classes who have
+the means of seeking a variety to gratify the palate. If mankind had
+only one article of food, and only water to drink, though they would
+have less enjoyment in eating, they would never be tempted to put any
+more into the stomach than the calls of hunger require. But the customs
+of society, which present an incessant change, and a great variety of
+food, with those various condiments which stimulate appetite, lead
+almost every person very frequently to eat merely to gratify the palate,
+after the stomach has been abundantly supplied, so that hunger has
+ceased.
+
+When too great a supply of food is put into the stomach, the gastric
+juice dissolves only that portion which the wants of the system demand.
+Most of the remainder is ejected, in an unprepared state; the absorbents
+take portions of it into the system; and all the various functions of
+the body, which depend on the ministries of the blood, are thus
+gradually and imperceptibly injured. Very often, intemperance in eating
+produces immediate results, such as colic, headaches, pains of
+indigestion, and vertigo.
+
+But the more general result is a gradual undermining of all parts of
+the human frame; this imperceptibly shortening life, by so weakening
+the constitution, that it is ready to yield, at every point, to any
+uncommon risk or exposure. Thousands and thousands are parsing out of
+the world, from diseases occasioned by exposures which a healthy
+constitution could meet without any danger. It is owing to these
+considerations, that it becomes the duty of every woman, who has the
+responsibility of providing food for a family, to avoid a variety of
+tempting dishes. It is a much safer rule, to have only one kind of
+healthy food, for each meal, than the too abundant variety which is
+often met at the tables of almost all classes in this country. When
+there is to be any variety of dishes, they ought not to be successive,
+but so arranged as to give the opportunity of selection. How often is
+it the case, that persons, by the appearance of a favorite article,
+are tempted to eat merely to gratify the palate, when the stomach is
+already adequately supplied. All such intemperance wears on the
+constitution, and shortens life. It not infrequently happens that
+excess in eating produces a morbid appetite, which must constantly be
+denied.
+
+But the organization of the digestive organs demands, not only that
+food should be taken in proper quantities, but that it be taken at
+proper times.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56.]
+
+Fig. 56 shows one important feature of the digestive organs relating
+to this point. The part marked LM shows the muscles of the inner coat
+of the stomach, which run in one direction, and CM shows the muscles
+of the outer coat, running in another direction.
+
+As soon as the food enters the stomach, the muscles are excited by the
+nerves, and the _peristaltic motion_ commences. This is a powerful
+and constant exercise of the muscles of the stomach, which continues
+until the process of digestion is complete. During this time the blood
+is withdrawn from other parts of the system, to supply the demands of
+the stomach, which is laboring hard with all its muscles. When this
+motion ceases, and the digested food has gradually passed out, nature
+requires that the stomach should have a period of repose. And if another
+meal be eaten immediately after one is digested, the stomach is set
+to work again before it has had time to rest, and before a sufficient
+supply of gastric juice is provided.
+
+The general rule, then, is, that three hours be given to the stomach
+for labor, and two for rest; and in obedience to this, five hours, at
+least, ought to elapse between every two regular meals. In cases where
+exercise produces a flow of perspiration, more food is needed to supply
+the loss; and strong laboring men may safely eat as often as they feel
+the want of food. So, young and healthy children, who gambol and
+exercise ranch and whose bodies grow fast, may have a more frequent
+supply of food. But, as a general rule, meals should be five hours
+apart, and eating between meals avoided. There is nothing more unsafe,
+and wearing to the constitution, than a habit of eating at any time
+merely to gratify the palate. When a tempting article is presented,
+every person should exercise sufficient self-denial to wait till the
+proper time for eating arrives. Children, as well as grown persons,
+are often injured by eating between their regular meals, thus weakening
+the stomach by not affording it any time for rest.
+
+In deciding as to _quantity_ of food, there is one great difficulty
+to be met by a large portion of the community. The exercise of every
+part of the body is necessary to its health and perfection. The bones,
+the muscles, the nerves, the organs of digestion and respiration, and
+the skin, all demand exercise, in order properly to perform their
+functions. When the muscles of the body are called into action, all
+the blood-vessels entwined among them are frequently compressed. As
+the veins have valves so contrived that the blood can not run back,
+this compression hastens it forward toward the heart; which is
+immediately put in quicker motion, to send it into the lungs; and they,
+also, are thus stimulated to more rapid action, which is the cause of
+that panting which active exercise always occasions. The blood thus
+courses with greater celerity through the body, and sooner loses its
+nourishing properties. Then the stomach issues its mandate of hunger,
+and a new supply of food must be furnished.
+
+Thus it appears, as a general rule, that the quantity of food actually
+needed by the body depends on the amount of muscular exercise taken.
+A laboring man, in the open fields, probably throws off from his skin
+and lungs a much larger amount than a person of sedentary pursuits.
+In consequence of this, he demands a greater amount of food and drink.
+
+Those persons who keep their bodies in a state of health by sufficient
+exercise can always be guided by the calls of hunger. They can eat
+when they feel hungry, and stop when hunger ceases; and thus they will
+calculate exactly right. But the difficulty is, that a large part of
+the community, especially women, are so inactive in their habits that
+they seldom feel the calls of hunger. They habitually eat, merely to
+gratify the palate. This produces such a state of the system that they
+lose the guide which Nature has provided. They are not called to eat
+by hunger, nor admonished, by its cessation, when to stop. In
+consequence of this, such persons eat what pleases the palate, till
+they feel no more inclination for the article. It is probable that
+three fourths of the women in the wealthier circles sit down to each
+meal without any feeling of hunger, and eat merely on account of the
+gratification thus afforded them. Such persons find their appetite to
+depend almost solely upon the kind of food on the table. This is not
+the case with those who take the exercise which Nature demands. They
+approach their meals in such a state that almost any kind of food is
+acceptable.
+
+The question then arises, How are persons, who have lost the guide
+which Nature has provided, to determine as to the proper amount of
+food they shall take?
+
+The best method is for several days to take their ordinary exercise
+and eat only one or two articles of simple food, such as bread and
+milk, or bread and butter with cooked fruit, or lean meat with bread
+and vegetables, and at the same time eat less than the appetite demands.
+Then on the following two days, take just enough to satisfy the
+appetite, and on the third day notice the quantity which satisfies.
+After this, decide before eating that only this amount of simple food
+shall be taken.
+
+Persons who have a strong constitution, and take much exercise, may
+eat almost any thing with apparent impunity; but young children who
+are forming their constitutions, and persons who are delicate, and who
+take but little exercise, are very dependent for health on a proper
+selection of food.
+
+It is found that there are some kinds of food which afford nutriment
+to the blood, and do not produce any other effect on the system. There
+are other kinds, which are not only nourishing, but _stimulating_,
+so that they quicken the functions of the organs on which they operate.
+The condiments used in cookery, such as pepper, mustard, and spices,
+are of this nature. There are certain states of the system when these
+stimulants may be beneficial; such cases can only be pointed out by
+medical men.
+
+Persons in perfect health, and especially young children, never receive
+any benefit from such kind of food; and just in proportion as condiments
+operate to quicken the labors of the internal organs, they tend to
+wear down their powers. A person who thus keeps the body working under
+an unnatural excitement, _live faster_ than Nature designed, and
+the constitution is worn out just so much the sooner. A woman,
+therefore, should provide dishes for her family which are free from
+these stimulating condiments.
+
+It is also found, by experience, that the lean part of animal food is
+more stimulating than vegetable. This is the reason why, in cases of
+fevers or inflammations, medical men forbid the use of meat. A person
+who lives chiefly on animal food is under a higher degree of stimulus
+than if his food was chiefly composed of vegetable substances. His
+blood will flow faster, and all the functions of his body will be
+quickened. This makes it important to secure a proper proportion of
+animal and vegetable diet. Some medical men suppose that an exclusively
+vegetable diet is proved, by the experience of many individuals, to
+be fully sufficient to nourish the body; and bring, as evidence, the
+fact that some of the strongest and most robust men in the world are
+those who are trained, from infancy, exclusively on vegetable food.
+From this they infer that life will be shortened just in proportion
+as the diet is changed to more stimulating articles; and that, all
+other things being equal, children will have a better chance of health
+and long life if they are brought up solely on vegetable food.
+
+But, though this is not the common opinion of medical men, they all
+agree that, in America, far too large a portion of the diet consists
+of animal food. As a nation, the Americans are proverbial for the gross
+and luxurious diet with which they load their tables; and there can
+be no doubt that the general health of the nation would be increased
+by a change in our customs in this respect. To take meat but once a
+day, and this in small quantities, compared with the common practice,
+is a rule, the observance of which would probably greatly reduce the
+amount of fevers, eruptions, headaches, bilious attacks, and the many
+other ailments which are produced or aggravated by too gross a diet.
+
+The celebrated Roman physician, Baglivi, (who, from practicing
+extensively among Roman Catholics, had ample opportunities to observe,)
+mentions that, in Italy, an unusual number of people recover their
+health in the forty days of Lent, in consequence of the lower diet
+which is required as a religious duty. An American physician remarks,
+"For every reeling drunkard that disgraces our country, it contains
+one hundred gluttons--persons, I mean, who eat to excess, and suffer
+in consequence." Another distinguished physician says, "I believe that
+every stomach, not actually impaired by organic disease, will perform
+its functions, if it receives reasonable attention; and when we perceive
+the manner in which diet is generally conducted, both in regard to
+_quantity_ and _variety_ of articles of food and drink, which are mixed
+up in one heterogeneous mass--instead of being astonished at the
+prevalence of indigestion, our wonder must rather be that, in such
+circumstances, any stomach is capable of digesting at all."
+
+In regard to articles which are the most easily digested, only general
+rules can be given. Tender meats are digested more readily than those
+which are tough, or than many kinds of vegetable food. The farinaceous
+articles, such as rice, flour, corn, potatoes, and the like, are the
+most nutritious, and most easily digested. The popular notion, that
+meat is more nourishing than bread, is a great mistake. Good bread
+contains more nourishment than butcher's meat. The meat is more
+_stimulating_, and for this reason is more readily digested.
+
+A perfectly healthy stomach can digest almost any healthful food; but
+when the digestive powers are weak, every stomach has its peculiarities,
+and what is good for one is hurtful to another. In such cases,
+experiment alone can decide which are the most digestible articles of
+food. A person whose food troubles him must deduct one article after
+another, till he learns, by experience, which is the best for digestion.
+Much evil has been done, by assuming that the powers of one stomach
+are to be made the rule in regulating every other.
+
+The most unhealthful kinds of food are those which, are made so by bad
+cooking; such as sour and heavy bread, cakes, pie-crust, and other
+dishes consisting of fat mixed and cooked with flour. Rancid butter
+and high-seasoned food are equally unwholesome. The fewer mixtures
+there are in cooking, the more healthful is the food likely to be.
+
+There is one caution as to the _mode_ of eating which seems peculiarly
+needful to Americans. It is indispensable to good digestion, that food
+be well chewed and taken slowly. It needs to be thoroughly chewed and
+mixed with saliva, in order to prepare it for the action of the gastric
+juice, which, by the peristaltic motion, will be thus brought into
+contact with every one of the minute portions.
+
+It has been found that a solid lump of food requires much more time
+and labor of the stomach for digestion than divided substances. It has
+also been found, that as each bolus, or mouthful, enters the stomach,
+the latter closes, until the portion received has had some time to
+move around and combine with the gastric juice, and that the orifice
+of the stomach resists the entrance of any more till this is
+accomplished. But, if the eater persists in swallowing fast, the stomach
+yields; the food is then poured in more rapidly than the organ can
+perform its duty of preparative digestion; and evil results are sooner
+or later developed. This exhibits the folly of those hasty meals, so
+common to travelers and to men of business, and shows why children
+should be taught to eat slowly.
+
+After taking a full meal, it is very important to health that no great
+bodily or mental exertion be made till the labor of the stomach is
+over. Intense mental effort draws the blood to the head, and muscular
+exertions draw it to the muscles; and in consequence of this, the
+stomach loses the supply which it requires when performing its office.
+When the blood with its stimulating effects is thus withdrawn from the
+stomach, the adequate supply of gastric juice is not afforded, and
+indigestion is the result. The heaviness which follows a full meal is
+the indication which Nature gives of the need of quiet. When the meal
+is moderate, a sufficient quantity of gastric juice is exuded in an
+hour, or an hour and a half; after which, labor of body and mind may
+safely be resumed.
+
+When undigested food remains in the stomach, and is at last thrown out
+into the bowels, it proves an irritating substance, producing an
+inflamed state in the lining of the stomach and other organs.
+
+It is found that the stomach has the power of gradually accommodating
+indigestive powers to the food it habitually receives. Thus, animals
+which live on vegetables can gradually become accustomed to animal
+food; and the reverse is equally true. Thus, too, the human stomach
+can eventually accomplish the digestion of some kinds of food, which,
+at first, were indigestible.
+
+But any changes of this sort should be gradual; as those which are
+sudden are trying to the powers of the stomach, by furnishing matter
+for which its gastric juice is not prepared.
+
+Extremes of heat or cold are injurious to the process of digestion.
+Taking hot food or drink, habitually, tends to debilitate all the
+organs thus needlessly excited. In using cold substances, it is found
+that a certain degree of warmth in the stomach is indispensable to
+their digestion; so that, when the gastric juice is cooled below this
+temperature, it ceases to act. Indulging in large quantities of cold
+drinks, or eating ice-creams, after a meal, tends to reduce the
+temperature of the stomach, and thus to stop digestion. This shows the
+folly of those refreshments, in convivial meetings, where the guests
+are tempted to load the stomach with a variety such as would require
+the stomach of a stout farmer to digest; and then to wind up with ice-
+creams, thus lessening whatever ability might otherwise have existed
+to digest the heavy load. The fittest temperature for drinks, if taken
+when the food is in the digesting process, is blood heat. Cool drinks,
+and even ice, can be safely taken at other times, if not in excessive
+quantity. When the thirst is excessive, or the body weakened by fatigue,
+or when in a state of perspiration, large quantities of cold drinks
+are injurious.
+
+Fluids taken into the stomach are not subject to the slow process of
+digestion, but are immediately absorbed and carried into the blood.
+This is the reason why liquid nourishment, more speedily than solid
+food, restores from exhaustion. The minute vessels of the stomach
+absorb its fluids, which are carried into the blood, just as the minute
+extremities of the arteries open upon the inner surface of the stomach,
+and there exude the gastric juice from the blood.
+
+When food is chiefly liquid, (soup, for example,) the fluid part is
+rapidly absorbed. The solid parts remain, to be acted on by the gastric
+juice. In the case of St. Martin, [Footnote: The individual here
+referred to--Alexis St. Martin--was a young Canadian, eighteen years
+of age, of a good constitution and robust health, who, in 1822, was
+accidentally wounded by the discharge of a musket which: carried away
+a part of the ribs, lacerated one of two lobes of the lungs, and
+perforated the stomach, making a large aperture, which never closed;
+and which enabled Dr. Beaumont (a surgeon of the American army,
+stationed at Michilimackanac, under whose care the patient was placed)
+to witness all the processes of digestion and other functions of the
+body for several years.] in fifty minutes after taking soup, the fluids
+were absorbed, and the remainder was even thicker than is usual after
+eating solid food. This is the reason why soups are deemed bad for
+weak stomachs; as this residuum is more difficult of digestion than
+ordinary food.
+
+Highly-concentrated food, having much nourishment in a small bulk, is
+not favorable to digestion, because it can not be properly acted on
+by the muscular contractions of the stomach, and is not so minutely
+divided as to enable the gastric juice to act properly. This is the
+reason why a certain _bulk_ of food is needful to good digestion;
+and why those people who live on whale-oil and other highly nourishing
+food, in cold climates, mix vegetables and even sawdust with it to
+make it more acceptable and digestible. So in civilized lands, fruits
+and vegetables are mixed with more highly concentrated nourishment.
+For this reason also, soups, jellies, and arrow-root should have bread
+or crackers mixed with them. This affords another reason why coarse
+bread, of unbolted wheat, so often proves beneficial. Where, from
+inactive habits or other causes, the bowels become constipated and
+sluggish, this kind of food proves the appropriate remedy.
+
+One fact on this subject is worthy of notice. In England, under the
+administration of William Pitt, for two years or more there was such
+a scarcity of wheat that, to make it hold out longer, Parliament passed
+a law that the army should have all their bread made of unbolted flour.
+The result was, that the health of the soldiers improved so much as
+to be a subject of surprise to themselves, the officers, and the
+physicians. These last came out publicly and declared that the soldiers
+never before were so robust and healthy; and that disease had nearly
+disappeared from the army. The civic physicians joined and pronounced
+it the healthiest bread; and for a time schools, families, and public
+institutions used it almost exclusively. Even the nobility, convinced
+by these facts, adopted it for their common diet, and the fashion
+continued a long time after the scarcity ceased, until more luxurious
+habits resumed their sway.
+
+We thus see why children should not have cakes and candies allowed
+them between meals. Besides being largely carbonaceous, these are
+highly concentrated nourishments, and should be eaten with more bulky
+and less nourishing substances. The most indigestible of all kinds of
+food are fatty and oily substances, if heated. It is on this account
+that pie-crust and articles boiled and fried in fat or butter are
+deemed not so healthful as other food.
+
+The following, then, may be put down as the causes of a debilitated
+constitution from the misuse of food. Eating _too much,_ eating _too
+often,_ eating _too fast,_ eating food and condiments that are _too
+stimulating,_ eating food that is _too warm_ or _too cold,_ eating food
+that is _highly concentrated,_ without a proper admixture of less
+nourishing matter, and eating hot food that is _difficult of digestion._
+
+
+
+
+X.
+
+HEALTHFUL DRINKS.
+
+
+There is no direction in which a woman more needs both scientific
+knowledge and moral force than in using her influence to control her
+family in regard to stimulating beverages.
+
+It is a point fully established by experience that the full development
+of the human body and the vigorous exercise of all its functions can
+be secured without the use of stimulating drinks. It is, therefore,
+perfectly safe to bring up children never to use them, no hazard being
+incurred by such a course.
+
+It is also found by experience that there are two evils incurred by
+the use of stimulating drinks. The first is, their positive effect on
+the human system. Their peculiarity consists in so exciting the nervous
+system that all the functions of the body are accelerated, and the
+fluids are caused to move quicker than at their natural speed. This
+increased motion of the animal fluids always produces an agreeable
+effect on the mind. The intellect is invigorated, the imagination is
+excited, the spirits are enlivened; and these effects are so agreeable
+that all mankind, after having once experienced them, feel a great
+desire for their repetition.
+
+But this temporary invigoration of the system is always followed by
+a diminution of the powers of the stimulated organs; so that, though
+in all cases this reaction may not be perceptible, it is invariably
+the result. It may be set down as the unchangeable rule of physiology,
+that stimulating drinks deduct from the powers of the constitution in
+exactly the proportion in which they operate to produce temporary
+invigoration.
+
+The second evil is the temptation which always attends the use of
+stimulants. Their effect on the system is so agreeable, and the evils
+resulting are so imperceptible and distant, that there is a constant
+tendency to increase such excitement both in frequency and power. And
+the more the system is thus reduced in strength, the more craving is
+the desire for that which imparts a temporary invigoration. This process
+of increasing debility and increasing craving for the stimulus that
+removes it, often goes to such an extreme that the passion is perfectly
+uncontrollable, and mind and body perish under this baleful habit.
+
+In this country there are three forms in which the use of such
+stimulants is common; namely, _alcoholic drinks, opium mixtures_, and
+_tobacco_. These are all alike in the main peculiarity of imparting that
+extra stimulus to the system which tends to exhaust its powers.
+
+Multitudes in this nation are in the habitual use of some one of these
+stimulants; and each person defends the indulgence by certain arguments:
+
+First, that the desire for stimulants is a natural propensity implanted
+in man's nature, as is manifest from the universal tendency to such
+indulgences in every nation. From this, it is inferred that it is an
+innocent desire, which ought to be gratified to some extent, and that
+the aim should be to keep it within the limits of temperance, instead
+of attempting to exterminate a natural propensity.
+
+This is an argument which, if true, makes it equally proper for not
+only men, but women and children, to use opium, brandy, or tobacco as
+stimulating principles, provided they are used temperately. But if it
+be granted that perfect health and strength can be gained and secured
+without these stimulants, and that their peculiar effect is to diminish
+the power of the system in exactly the same proportion as they stimulate
+it, then there is no such thing as a temperate use, unless they are
+so diluted as to destroy any stimulating power; and in this form they
+are seldom desired.
+
+The other argument for their use is, that they are among the good
+things provided by the Creator for our gratification; that, like all
+other blessings, they are exposed to abuse and excess; and that we
+should rather seek to regulate their use than to banish them entirely.
+
+This argument is based on the assumption that they are, like healthful
+foods and drinks, necessary to life and health, and injurious only by
+excess. But this is not true; for whenever they are used in any such
+strength as to be a gratification, they operate to a greater or less
+extent as stimulants; and to just such extent they wear out the powers
+of the constitution; and it is abundantly proved that they are not,
+like food and drink, necessary to health. Such articles are designed
+for medicine and not for common use. There can be no argument framed
+to defend the use of one of them which will not justify women and
+children in most dangerous indulgences.
+
+There are some facts recently revealed by the microscope in regard to
+alcoholic drinks, which every woman should understand and regard. It
+has been shown in a previous chapter that every act of mind, either
+by thought, feeling, or choice, causes the destruction of certain cells
+in the brain and nerves. It now is proved by microscopic science
+[Footnote: For those statements the writer is indebted to Maudsley,
+a recent writer on Microscopic Physiology.] that the kind of nutrition
+furnished to the brain by the blood to a certain extent decides future
+feelings, thoughts, and volitions. The cells of the brain not only
+abstract from the blood the healthful nutrition, but also are affected
+in shape, size, color, and action by unsuitable elements in the blood.
+This is especially the case when alcohol is taken into the stomach,
+from whence it is always carried to the brain. The consequence is,
+that it affects the nature and action of the brain-cells, until a habit
+is formed which is _automatic_; that is, the mind loses the power of
+controlling the brain, in its development of thoughts, feelings, and
+choices as it would in the natural state, and is itself controlled
+by the brain. In this condition a real disease of the brain is created,
+called _oino-mania_, (see _Glossary_,) and the only remedy is total
+abstinence, and that for a long period, from the alcoholic poison. And
+what makes the danger more fearful is, that the brain-cells never are so
+renewed but that this pernicious stimulus will bring back the disease in
+full force, so that a man once subject to it is never safe except by
+maintaining perpetual and total abstinence from every kind of alcoholic
+drink. Dr. Day, who for many years has had charge of an inebriate
+asylum, states that he witnessed the dissection of the brain of a man
+once an inebriate, but for many years in practice of total abstinence,
+and found its cells still in the weak and unnatural state produced by
+earlier indulgences.
+
+There has unfortunately been a difference of opinion among medical men
+as to the use of alcohol. Liebig, the celebrated writer on animal
+chemistry, having found that both sugar and alcohol were heat-producing
+articles of food, framed a theory that alcohol is burnt in the lungs,
+giving off carbonic acid and water, and thus serving to warm the body.
+But modern science has proved that it is in the capillaries that animal
+heat is generated, and it is believed that alcohol lessens instead of
+increasing the power of the body to bear the cold. Sir John Koss, in
+his Arctic voyage, proved by his own experience and that of his men
+that cold-water drinkers could bear cold longer and were stronger than
+any who used alcohol.
+
+Carpenter, a standard writer on physiology, says the objection to a
+habitual use of even small quantities of alcoholic drinks is, that
+"they are universally admitted to possess a poisonous character," and
+"tend to produce a morbid condition of body;" while "the capacity for
+enduring extremes of heat and cold, or of mental or bodily labor, is
+diminished rather than increased by their habitual employment."
+
+Prof. J. Bigelow, of Harvard University, says, "Alcohol is highly
+stimulating, heating, and intoxicating, and its effects are so
+fascinating that when once experienced there is danger that the desire
+for them may be perpetuated."
+
+Dr. Bell and Dr. Churchill, both high medical authorities, especially
+in lung disease, for which whisky is often recommended, come to the
+conclusion that "the opinion that alcoholic liquors have influence in
+preventing the deposition of tubercle is destitute of any foundation;
+on the contrary, their use predisposes to tubercular deposition." And
+"where tubercle exists, alcohol has no effect in modifying the usual
+course, neither does it modify the morbid effects on the system."
+
+Prof. Youmans, of New-York, says: "It has been demonstrated that
+alcoholic drinks prevent the natural changes in the blood, and obstruct
+the nutritive and reparative functions." He adds, "Chemical experiments
+have demonstrated that the action of alcohol on the digestive fluid
+is to destroy its active principle, the _pepsin, thus confirming the
+observations of physiologists, that its use gives rise to serious
+disorders of the stomach and malignant aberration of the whole economy."
+
+We are now prepared to consider the great principles of science, common
+sense, and religion, which should guide every woman who has any kind
+of influence or responsibility on this subject. It is allowed by all
+medical men that pure water is perfectly healthful and supplies all
+the liquid needed by the body; and also that by proper means, which
+ordinarily are in the reach of all, water can be made sufficiently
+pure.
+
+It is allowed by all that milk, and the juices of fruits, when taken
+into the stomach, furnish water that is always pure, and that our bread
+and vegetable food also supply it in large quantities. There are besides
+a great variety of agreeable and healthful beverages, made from the
+juices of fruit, containing no alcohol, and agreeable drinks, such as
+milk, cocoa, and chocolate, that contain no stimulating principles,
+and which are nourishing and healthful.
+
+As one course, then, is perfectly safe and another involves great
+danger, it is wrong and sinful to choose the path of danger. There is
+no peril in drinking pure water, milk, the juices of fruits, and
+infusions that are nourishing and harmless. But there is great danger
+to the young, and to the commonwealth, in patronizing the sale and use
+of alcoholic drinks. The religion of Christ, in its distinctive feature,
+involves generous self-denial for the good of others, especially for
+the weaker members of society. It is on this principle that St. Paul
+sets forth his own example, "If meat make my brother to offend, I will
+eat no flesh while the world standeth, lest I make my brother to
+offend." And again he teaches, "We, then, that are strong ought to
+bear the infirmities of the weak, and not to please ourselves."
+
+This Christian principle also applies to the common drinks of the
+family, tea and coffee.
+
+It has been shown that the great end for which Jesus Christ came, and
+for which he instituted the family state, is the training of our whole
+race to virtue and happiness, with chief reference to an immortal
+existence. In this mission, of which woman is chief minister, as before
+stated, the distinctive feature is self-sacrifice of the wiser and
+stronger members to save and to elevate the weaker ones. The children
+and the servants are these weaker members, who by ignorance and want
+of habits of self-control are in most danger. It is in this aspect
+that we are to consider the expediency of using tea and coffee in a
+family.
+
+These drinks are a most extensive cause of much of the nervous debility
+and suffering endured by American women; and relinquishing them, would
+save an immense amount of such suffering. Moreover, all housekeepers
+will allow that they can not regulate these drinks in their kitchens,
+where the ignorant use them to excess. There is little probability
+that the present generation will make so decided a change in their
+habits as to give up these beverages; but the subject is presented
+rather in reference to forming the habits of children.
+
+It is a fact that tea and coffee are at first seldom or never agreeable
+to children. It is the mixture of milk, sugar, and water, that
+reconciles them to a taste, which in this manner gradually becomes
+agreeable. Now suppose that those who provide for a family conclude
+that it is not _their_ duty to give up entirely the use of stimulating
+drinks, may not the case appear different in regard to teaching their
+children to love such drinks? Let the matter be regarded thus: The
+experiments of physiologists all prove that stimulants are not needful
+to health, and that, as the general rule, they tend to debilitate the
+constitution. Is it right, then, for a parent to tempt a child to drink
+what is not needful, when there is a probability that it will prove, to
+some extent, an undermining drain on the constitution? Some
+constitutions can bear much less excitement than others; and in every
+family of children, there is usually one or more of delicate
+organization, and consequently peculiarly exposed to dangers from this
+source. It is this child who ordinarily becomes the victim to
+stimulating drinks. The tea and coffee which the parents and the
+healthier children can use without immediate injury, gradually sap the
+energies of the feebler child, who proves either an early victim or
+a living martyr to all the sufferings that debilitated nerves inflict.
+Can it be right to lead children where all allow that there is some
+danger, and where in many cases disease and death are met, when, another
+path is known to be perfectly safe?
+
+The impression common in this country, that _warm drinks_, especially in
+winter, are more healthful than cold, is not warranted by any
+experience, nor by the laws of the physical system. At dinner, cold
+drinks are universal, and no one deems them injurious. It is only
+at the other two meals that they are supposed to be hurtful.
+
+There is no doubt that _warm_ drinks are healthful, and more agreeable
+than cold, at certain times and seasons; but it is equally true that
+drinks above blood-heat are not healthful. If a person should bathe in
+warm water every day, debility would inevitably follow; for the frequent
+application of the stimulus of heat, like all other stimulants,
+eventually causes relaxation and weakness. If, therefore, a person is in
+the habit of drinking hot drinks twice a day, the teeth, throat, and
+stomach are gradually debilitated. This, most probably, is one of the
+causes of an early decay of the teeth, which is observed to be much more
+common among American ladies, than among those in European countries.
+
+It has been stated to the writer, by an intelligent traveler who had
+visited Mexico, that it was rare to meet an individual with even a
+tolerable set of teeth, and that almost every grown person he met in
+the street had merely remnants of teeth. On inquiry into the customs
+of the country, it was found that it was the universal practice to
+take their usual beverage at almost the boiling-point; and this
+doubtless was the chief cause of the almost entire want of teeth in
+that country. In the United States, it can not be doubted that much
+evil is done in this way by hot drinks. Most tea-drinkers consider tea
+as ruined if it stands until it reaches the healthful temperature for
+drink.
+
+The following extract, from Dr. Andrew Combe, presents the opinion of
+most intelligent medical men on this subject. [Footnote: The writer
+would here remark, in reference to extracts made from various authors,
+that, for the sake of abridging, she has often left out parts of a
+paragraph, but never so as to modify the meaning of the author. Some
+ideas, not connected with the subject in hand, are omitted, but none
+are altered.]
+
+"_Water_ is a safe drink for all constitutions, provided it be resorted
+to in obedience to the dictates of natural thirst only, and not of
+habit. Unless the desire for it is felt, there is no occasion for its
+use during a meal."
+
+"The primary effect of all distilled and fermented liquors is to
+_stimulate the nervous system and quicken the circulation_. In
+infancy and childhood, the circulation is rapid and easily excited; and
+the nervous system is strongly acted upon even by the slightest
+external impressions. Hence, slight causes of irritation readily excite
+febrile and convulsive disorders. In youth, the natural tendency of
+the constitution is still to excitement, and consequently, as a general
+rule, the stimulus of fermented liquors is injurious."
+
+These remarks show that parents, who find that stimulating drinks are
+not injurious to themselves, may mistake in inferring from this that
+they will not be injurious to their children.
+
+Dr. Combe continues thus: "In mature age, when digestion is good, and
+the system in full vigor, if the mode of life be not too exhausting,
+the nervous functions and general circulation are in their best
+condition, and require no stimulus for their support. The bodily energy
+is then easily sustained by nutritious food and a regular regimen, and
+consequently artificial excitement only increases the wasting of the
+natural strength."
+
+It may be asked, in this connection, why the stimulus of animal food
+is not to be regarded in the same light as that of stimulating drinks.
+In reply, a very essential difference may he pointed out. Animal food
+furnishes nutriment to the organs which it stimulates, but stimulating
+drinks excite the organs to quickened action without affording any
+nourishment.
+
+It has been supposed by some that tea and coffee have, at least, a
+degree of nourishing power. But it is proved that it is the milk and
+sugar, and not the main portion of the drink, which imparts the
+nourishment. Tea has not one particle of nourishing properties; and
+what little exists in the coffee-berry is lost by roasting it in the
+usual mode. All that these articles do, is simply _to stimulate without
+nourishing_.
+
+Although there is little hope of banishing these drinks, there is still
+a chance that something may be gained in attempts to regulate their
+use by the rules of temperance. If, then, a housekeeper can not banish
+tea and coffee entirely, she may use her influence to prevent excess,
+both by her instructions, and by the power of control committed more
+or less to her hands.
+
+It is important for every housekeeper to know that the health of a
+family very much depends on the _purity_ of water used for cooking
+and drinking. There are three causes of impure and unhealthful water.
+One is, the existence in it of vegetable or animal matter, which can
+be remedied by filtering through sand and charcoal. Another cause is,
+the existence of mineral matter, especially in limestone countries,
+producing diseases of the bladder. This is remedied in a measure by
+boiling, which secures a deposit of the lime on the vessel used. The
+third cause is, the corroding of zinc and lead used in pipes and
+reservoirs, producing oxides that are slow poisons. The only remedy
+is prevention, by having supply-pipes made of iron, like gas-pipe,
+instead of zinc and lead; or the lately invented lead pipe lined with
+tin, which metal is not corrosive. The obstacle to this is, that the
+trade of the plumbers would be greatly diminished by the use of reliable
+pipes. When water must be used from supply-pipes of lead or zinc, it
+is well to let the water run some time before drinking it and to use
+as little as possible, taking milk instead; and being further satisfied
+for inner necessities by the water supplied by fruits and vegetables.
+The water in these is always pure. But in using milk as a drink, it
+must be remembered that it is also rich food, and that less of other
+food must be taken when milk is thus used, or bilious troubles will
+result from excess of food.
+
+The use of opium, especially by women, is usually caused at first by
+medical prescriptions containing it. All that has been stated as to
+the effect of alcohol in the brain is true of opium; while, to break
+a habit thus induced is almost hopeless, Every woman who takes or who
+administers this drug, is dealing as with poisoned arrows, whose wounds
+are without cure.
+
+The use of tobacco in this country, and especially among young boys,
+is increasing at a fearful rate. On this subject, we have the unanimous
+opinion of all medical men; the following being specimens.
+
+A distinguished medical writer thus states the case: "Every physician
+knows that the agreeable sensations that tempt to the use of tobacco
+are caused by _nicotine_, which is a rank poison, as much so as
+prussic acid or arsenic. When smoked, the poison is absorbed by the
+blood of the mouth, and carried to the brain. When chewed, the nicotine
+passes to the blood through the mouth and stomach. In both cases, the
+whole nervous system is thrown, into abnormal excitement to expel the
+poison, and it is this excitement that causes agreeable sensations.
+The excitement thus caused is invariably followed by a diminution of
+nervous power, in exact proportion to the preceding excitement to expel
+the evil from the system."
+
+Few will dispute the general truth and effect of the above statement,
+so that the question is one to be settled on the same principle as
+applies to the use of alcoholic drinks. Is it, then, according to the
+generous principles of Christ's religion, for those who are strong and
+able to bear this poison, to tempt the young, the ignorant, and the
+weak to a practice not needful to any healthful enjoyment, and which
+leads multitudes to disease, and often to vice? For the use of tobacco
+tends always to lessen nerve-power, and probably every one out of five
+that indulges in its use awakens a morbid craving for increased
+stimulus, lessens the power of self-control, diminishes the strength
+of the constitution, and sets an example that influences the weak to
+the path of danger and of frequent ruin.
+
+The great danger of this age is an increasing, intense worldliness,
+and disbelief in the foundation principle of the religion of Christ,
+that we are to reap through everlasting ages the consequences of habits
+formed in this life. In the light of his word, they only who are truly
+wise "shall shine as the firmament, and they that turn many to
+righteousness, as the stars, forever and ever."
+
+It is increased _faith_ or _belief_ in the teachings of Christ's
+religion, as to the influence of this life upon the _life to come_,
+which alone can save our country and the world from that inrushing tide
+of sensualism and worldliness, now seeming to threaten the best hopes
+and prospects of our race.
+
+And woman, as the chief educator of our race, and the prime minister
+of the family state, is bound in the use of meats and drinks to employ
+the powerful and distinctive motives of the religion of Christ in
+forming habits of temperance and benevolent self-sacrifice for the
+good of others.
+
+
+
+
+XI.
+
+CLEANLINESS.
+
+
+Both the health and comfort of a family depend, to a great extent, on
+cleanliness of the person and the family surroundings. True cleanliness
+of person involves the scientific treatment of the skin. This is the
+most complicated organ of the body, and one through which the health
+is affected more than through any other; and no persons can or will
+he be so likely to take proper care of it as those by whom its
+construction and functions are understood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57.]
+
+Fig. 57 is a very highly magnified portion of the skin. The layer
+marked 1 is the outside, very thin skin, called the _cuticle_ or _scarf
+skin_. This consists of transparent layers of minute cells, which are
+constantly decaying and being renewed, and the white scurf that passes
+from the skin to the clothing is a decayed portion of these cells. This
+part of the skin has neither nerves nor blood-vessels.
+
+The dark layer, marked 2, 7, 8, is that portion of the true skin which
+gives the external color marking diverse races. In the portion of the
+dark layer marked 3, 4, is seen a network of nerves which run from two
+branches of the nervous trunks coming from the spinal marrow. These
+arc nerves of sensation, by which the sense of touch or feeling is
+performed. Fig. 58 represents the blood-vessels, (intermingled with
+the nerves of the skin,) which divide into minute capillaries that
+act like the capillaries of the lungs, taking oxygen from the air, and
+giving out carbonic acid. At _a_, and _b_ are seen the roots of two
+hairs, which abound in certain parts of the skin, and are nourished by
+the blood of the capillaries.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58.]
+[Illustration: Fig. 59.]
+
+At Fig. 59 is a magnified view of another set of vessels, called the
+lymphatics or absorbents. These are extremely minute vessels that
+interlace with the nerves and blood-vessels of the skin. Their office
+is to aid in collecting the useless, injurious, or decayed matter, and
+carry it to certain reservoirs, from which it passes into some of the
+large veins, to be thrown out through the lungs, bowels, kidneys, or
+skin. These _absorbent_ or _lymphatic_; vessels have mouths opening on
+the surface of the true skin, and, though covered by the cuticle, they
+can absorb both liquids and solids that are placed in close contact with
+the skin. In proof of this, one of the main trunks of the lymphatics in
+the hand can be cut off from all communication with other portions, and
+tied up: and if the hand is immersed in milk a given time, it will be
+found that the milk has been, absorbed through the cuticle and fills the
+lymphatics. In this way, long-continued blisters on the skin will
+introduce the blistering matter into the blood through the absorbents,
+and then the kidneys will take it up from the blood passing through them
+to carry it out of the body, and thus become irritated and inflamed by
+it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60]
+
+There are also oil-tubes, imbedded in the skin, that draw off oil from
+the blood. This issues on the surface and spreads over the cuticle to
+keep it soft and moist. But the most curious part of the skin is the
+system of innumerable minute perspiration-tubes. Fig. 60 is a drawing
+of one very greatly magnified. These tubes open on the cuticle, and
+the openings are called pores of the skin. They descend into the true
+skin, and there form a coil, as is seen in the drawing. These tubes
+are hollow, like a pipe-stem, and their inner surface consists of
+wonderfully minute capillaries filled with the impure venous blood.
+And in these small tubes the same process is going on as takes places
+when the carbonic acid and water of the blood are exhaled from the
+lungs. The capillaries of these tubes through the whole skin of the
+body are thus constantly exhaling the noxious and decayed particles
+of the body, just as the lungs pour them out through the mouth and
+nose.
+
+It has been shown that the perspiration-tubes are coiled up into a
+ball at their base. The number and extent of these tubes are
+astonishing. In a square inch on the palm of the hand have been counted,
+through a microscope, thirty-five hundred of these tubes. Each one of
+them is about a quarter of an inch in length, including its coils.
+This makes the united lengths of these little tubes to be seventy-three
+feet to a square inch. Their united length, over the whole body is
+thus calculated to be equal to _twenty-eight miles_. What a wonderful
+apparatus this! And what mischiefs must ensue when the drainage from the
+body of such an extent as this becomes obstructed!
+
+But the inside of the body also has a skin, as have all its organs.
+The interior of the head, the throat, the gullet, the lungs, the
+stomach, and all the intestines, are lined with a skin. This is called
+the _mucous membrane_, because it is constantly secreting from the blood
+a slimy substance called _mucus_. When it accumulates in the lungs, it
+is called _phlegm_. This inner skin also has nerves, blood-vessels, and
+lymphatics. The outer skin joins to the inner at the month, the nose,
+and other openings of the body, and there is a constant sympathy between
+the two skins, and thus between the inner organs and the surface of the
+body.
+
+
+SECRETING ORGANS.
+
+Those vessels of the body which draw off certain portions of the blood
+and change it into a new form, to be employed for service or to be
+thrown out of the body, are called _secreting organs_. The skin in this
+sense is a secreting organ, as its perspiration-tubes secrete or
+separate the bad portions of the blood, and send them off.
+
+Of the internal secreting organs, the _liver_ is the largest. Its chief
+office is to secrete from the blood all matter not properly supplied
+with oxygen. For this purpose, a set of veins carries the blood of all
+the lower intestines to the liver, where the imperfectly oxidized matter
+is drawn off in the form of _bile_, and accumulated in a reservoir
+called the _gall-bladder_. Thence it passes to the place where the
+smaller intestines receive the food from the stomach, and there it mixes
+with this food. Then it passes through the long intestines, and is
+thrown out of the body through the rectum. This shows how it is, that
+want of pure and cool air and exercise causes excess of bile, from lack
+of oxygen. The liver also has arterial blood sent to nourish it, and
+corresponding veins to return this blood to the heart. So there are two
+sets of blood-vessels for the liver--one to secrete the bile, and the
+other to nourish the organ itself.
+
+The kidneys secrete from the arteries that pass, through them all
+excess of water in the blood, and certain injurious substances. These
+are carried through small tubes to the bladder, and thence thrown out
+of the body.
+
+The _pancreas_, a whitish gland, situated in the abdomen below
+the stomach, secretes from the arteries that pass through it the
+pancreatic juice, which unites with the bile from the liver, in
+preparing the food for nourishing the body.
+
+There are certain little glands near the eyes that secrete the tears,
+and others near the mouth that secrete the saliva, or spittle.
+
+These organs all have arteries sent to them to nourish them, and also
+veins to carry away the impure blood. At the same time, they secrete
+from the arterial blood the peculiar fluid which it is their office
+to supply.
+
+All the food that passes through the lower intestines which is not
+drawn off by the lacteals or by some of these secreting organs, passes
+from the body through a passage called the rectum.
+
+Learned men have made very curious experiments; to ascertain how much
+the several organs throw out of the body, It is found that the skin
+throws off five out of eight pounds of the food and drink, or probably
+about three or four pounds a day. The lungs throw off one quarter as
+much as the skin, or about a pound a day. The remainder is carried off
+by the kidneys and lower intestines.
+
+There is such a sympathy and connection between all the organs of the
+body, that when one of them is unable to work, the others perform the
+office of the feeble one. Thus, if the skin has its perspiration-tubes
+closed up by a chill, then all the poisonous matter that would have
+been thrown out through them must be emptied out either by the lungs,
+kidneys, or bowels.
+
+When all these organs are strong and healthy, they can bear this
+increased labor without injury. But if the lungs are weak, the blood
+sent from the skin by the chill engorges the weak blood-vessels, and
+produces an inflammation of the lungs. Or it increases the discharge
+of a slimy mucous substance, that exudes from the skin of the lungs.
+This fills up the air-vessels, and would very soon end life, were it
+not for the spasms of the lungs, called _coughing_, which throw off this
+substance.
+
+If, on the other hand, the bowels are weak, a chill of the skin sends
+the blood into all the blood-vessels of the intestines, and produces
+inflammation there, or else an excessive secretion of the mucous
+substance, which is called a _diarrhea._ Or if the kidneys are
+weak, there is an increased secretion and discharge from them, to an
+unhealthy and injurious extent.
+
+This connection between the skin and internal organs is shown, not
+only by the internal effects of a chill on the skin; but by the
+sympathetic effect on the skin when these internal organs suffer. For
+example, there are some kinds of food that will irritate and influence
+the stomach or the bowels; and this, by sympathy, will produce an
+immediate eruption on the skin. Some persons, on eating strawberries,
+will immediately be affected with a nettle-rash. Others can not eat
+certain shell-fish without being affected in this way. Many humors on
+the face are caused by a diseased state of the internal organs with
+which the skin sympathizes.
+
+This short account of the construction of the skin, and of its intimate
+connection with the internal organs, shows the philosophy of those
+modes of medical treatment that are addressed to this portion of the
+body.
+
+It is on this powerful agency that the steam-doctors rely, when, by
+moisture and heat, they stimulate all the innumerable perspiration-tubes
+and lymphatics to force out from the body a flood of unnaturally excited
+secretions; while it is "kill or cure," just as the chance may meet
+or oppose the demands of the case. It is the skin also that is the
+chief basis of medical treatment in the Water Cure, whose slow processes
+are as much safer as they are slower.
+
+At the same time it is the ill-treatment or neglect of the skin which,
+probably, is the cause of disease and decay to an incredible extent.
+The various particulars in which this may be seen will now be pointed
+out. In the management and care of this wonderful and complex part of
+the body, many mistakes have been made.
+
+The most common one is the misuse of the bath, especially since cold
+water cures have come into use. This mode of medical treatment
+originated with an ignorant peasant, amid a population where outdoor
+labor had strengthened nerves and muscles and imparted rugged powers
+to every part of the body. It was then introduced into England and
+America without due consideration or knowledge of the diseases habits,
+or real condition of patients, especially of women. The consequence
+was a mode of treatment too severe and exhausting; and many practices
+were spread abroad not warranted by true medical science.
+
+But in spite of these mistakes and abuses, the treatment of the skin
+for disease by the use of cold water has become an accepted doctrine
+of the most learned medical practitioners. It is now held by all such
+that fevers can be detected in their distinctive features by the
+thermometer, and that all fevers can be reduced by cold baths and
+packing in the wet sheet, in the mode employed in all water-cures.
+Directions for using this method will be given in another place.
+
+It has been supposed that large bath-tubs for immersing the whole
+person are indispensable to the proper cleaning of the skin. This is
+not so. A wet towel, applied every morning to the skin, followed by
+friction in pure air, is all that is absolutely needed; although a
+full bath is a great luxury. Access of air to every part of the skin
+when its perspiratory tubes are cleared and its blood-vessels are
+filled by friction is the best ordinary bath.
+
+In early life, children should be washed all over, every night or
+morning, to remove impurities from the skin. But in this process,
+careful regard should be paid to the peculiar constitution of a child.
+Very nervous children sometimes revolt from cold water, and like a
+tepid bath. Others prefer a cold bath; and nature should be the guide.
+It must be remembered that the skin is the great organ of sensation,
+and in close connection with brain, spine, and nerve-centres: so that
+what a strong nervous system can bear with advantage is too powerful
+and exhausting for another. As age advances, or as disease debilitates
+the body, great care should be taken not to overtax the nervous system
+by sudden shocks, or to diminish its powers by withdrawing animal heat
+to excess. Persons lacking robustness should bathe or use friction in
+a warm room; and if very delicate, should expose only a portion of the
+body at once to cold air.
+
+Johnson, a celebrated writer on agricultural chemistry, tells of an
+experiment by friction on the skin of pigs, whose skins are like that
+of the human race. He treated six of these animals with a curry-comb
+seven weeks, and left three other pigs untouched. The result was a
+gain of thirty-three pounds more of weight, with the use of five bushels
+less of food for those curried, than for the neglected ones. This
+result was owing to the fact that all the functions of the body were
+more perfectly performed when, by friction, the skin was kept free
+from filth and the blood in it exposed to the air. The same will be
+true of the human skin. A calculation has been made on this fact, by
+which it is estimated that a man, by proper care of his skin, would
+save over thirty-one dollars in food yearly, which is the interest on
+over five hundred dollars. If men will give as much care to their own
+skin, as they give to currying a horse, they will gain both health and
+wealth.
+
+
+
+
+XII.
+
+CLOTHING.
+
+There is no duty of those persons having control of a family where
+principle and practice are more at variance than in regulating the
+dress of young girls, especially at the most important and critical
+period of life. It is a difficult duty for parents and teachers to
+contend with the power of fashion, which at this time of a young girl's
+life is frequently the ruling thought, and when to be out of the
+fashion, to be odd and not dress as all her companions do, is a
+mortification and grief that no argument or instructions can relieve.
+The mother is often so overborne that, in spite of her better wishes,
+the daughter adopts modes of dress alike ruinous to health and to
+beauty.
+
+The greatest protection against such an emergency is to train a child
+to understand the construction of her own body and to impress upon
+her, in early days, her obligations to the invisible Friend and Guardian
+of her life, the "Former of her body and the Father of her spirit,"
+who has committed to her care so precious and beautiful a casket. And
+the more she can be made to realize the skill and beauty of construction
+shown in her earthly frame, the more will she feel the obligation to
+protect it from injury and abuse.
+
+It is a singular fact that the war of fashion has attacked most fatally
+what seems to be the strongest foundation, and defense of the body,
+the bones. For this reason, the construction and functions of this
+part of the body will now receive attention.
+
+The bones are composed of two substances, one animal, and the other
+mineral. The animal part is a very fine network, called _cellular
+membrane._ In this are deposited the harder mineral substances,
+which are composed principally of carbonate and phosphate of lime. In
+very early life, the bones consist chiefly of the animal part, and are
+then soft and pliant. As the child advances in age, the bones grow
+harder, by the gradual deposition of the phosphate of lime, which is
+supplied by the food, and carried to the bones by the blood. In old
+age, the hardest material preponderates; malting the bones more brittle
+than in earlier life.
+
+The bones are covered with a thin skin or membrane, filled with small
+blood-vessels which convey nourishment to them,
+
+Where the hones unite with others to form joints, they are covered
+with _cartilage,_ which is a smooth, white, elastic substance. This
+enables the joints to move smoothly, while its elasticity prevents
+injuries from sudden jars.
+
+The joints are bound together by strong, elastic bands called
+_ligaments,_ which hold them firmly and prevent dislocation.
+
+Between the ends of the bones that unite to form joints are small sacks
+or bags, that contain a soft lubricating fluid. This answers the same
+purpose fur the joints as oil in making machinery work smoothly, while
+the supply is constant and always in exact proportion to the demand.
+
+If you will examine the leg of some fowl, you can see the cartilage
+that covers the ends of the bones at the joints, and the strong white
+ligaments that bind the joints together.
+
+The health, of the bones depends on the proper nourishment and exercise
+of the body as much as that of any other part. When a child is feeble
+and unhealthy, or when it grows up without exercise, the bones do not
+become firm and hard as they are when the body is healthfully developed
+by exercise. The size as well as the strength of the bones, to a certain
+extent, also depend upon exercise and good health.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61]
+
+The chief supporter of the body is the spine, which consists of
+twenty-four small bones, interlocked or hooked into each other, while
+between them are elastic cushions of cartilage which aid in preserving
+the upright, natural position. Fig. 61 shows three of the spinal bones,
+hooked into each other, the dark spaces showing the disks or flat
+circular plates of cartilage between them.
+
+The spine is held in its proper position, partly by the ribs, partly
+by muscles, partly by aid of the elastic disks, and partly by the close
+packing of the intestines in front of it.
+
+The upper part of the spine is often thrown out of its proper position
+by constant stooping of the head over books or work. This affects the
+elastic disks so that they grow thick at the back side and thinner at
+the front side by such constant pressure. The result is the awkward
+projection of the head forward which is often seen in schools and
+colleges.
+
+Another distortion of the spine is produced by tight dress around the
+waist. The liver occupies the right side of the body and is a solid
+mass, while on the other side is the larger part of the stomach, which
+is often empty. The consequence of tight dress around the waist is a
+constant pressure of the spine toward the unsupported part where the
+stomach lies. Thus the elastic dials again are compressed; till they
+become thinner on one side than the other, and harden into that
+condition. This produces what is called the _lateral curvature of the
+spine,_ making one shoulder higher than the other.
+
+The compression of the lower part of the waist is especially dangerous
+at the time young girls first enter society and are tempted to dress
+according to the fashion. Many a school-girl, whose waist was originally
+of a proper and healthful size, has gradually pressed the soft bones
+of youth until the lower ribs that should rise and fall with every
+breath, become entirely unused. Then the abdominal breathing, performed
+by the lower part of the lungs, ceases; the whole system becomes reduced
+in strength; the abdominal muscles that hold up the interior organs
+become weak, and the upper ones gradually sink upon the lower. This
+pressure of the upper interior organs upon the lower ones, by tight
+dress, is increased by the weight of clothing resting on the hips and
+abdomen. Corsets, as usually worn, have no support from the shoulders,
+and consequently all the weight of dress resting upon or above them
+presses upon the hips and abdomen, and this in such a way as to throw
+out of use and thus weaken the most important supporting muscles of
+the abdomen, and impede abdominal breathing.
+
+The diaphragm is a kind of muscular floor, extending across the centre
+of the body, on which the heart and lungs rest. Beneath it are the
+liver, stomach, and the abdominal viscera, or intestines, which are
+supported by the abdominal muscles, running upward, downward, and
+crosswise. When these muscles are thrown out of use, they lose their
+power, the whole system of organs mainly resting on them for support
+can not continue in their naturally snug, compact, and rounded form,
+but become separated, elongated, and unsupported. The stomach begins
+to draw from above instead of resting on the viscera beneath. This in
+some cases causes dull and wandering pains, a sense of pulling at the
+centre of the chest, and a drawing downward at the pit of the stomach.
+Then as the support beneath is really _gone,_ there is what is often
+called "a feeling of _goneness."_ This is sometimes relieved by food,
+which, so long as it remains in a solid form, helps to hold up the
+falling superstructure. This displacement of the stomach, liver, and
+spleen interrupts their healthful functions, and dyspepsia and biliary
+difficulties not unfrequently are the result.
+
+As the stomach and its appendages fall downward, the _diaphragm_,
+which holds up the heart and lungs, must descend also. In this state
+of things, the inflation of the lungs is less and less aided by the
+abdominal muscles, and is confined chiefly to their upper portion.
+Breathing sometimes thus becomes quicker and shorter on account of the
+elongated or debilitated condition of the assisting organs. Consumption
+not unfrequently results from this cause.
+
+The _heart_ also feels the evil. "Palpitations," "flutterings,"
+"sinking feelings," all show that, in the language of Scripture, "the
+heart trembleth, and is moved out of its place."
+
+But the _lower intestines_ are the greatest sufferers from this
+dreadful abuse of nature. Having the weight of all the unsupported
+organs above pressing them into unnatural and distorted positions, the
+passage of the food is interrupted, and inflammations, indurations,
+and constipation, are the frequent result. Dreadful ulcers and cancers
+may be traced in some instances to this cause.
+
+Although these internal displacements are most common among women,
+some foolish members of the other sex are adopting customs of dress,
+in girding the central portion of the body, that tend to similar
+results.
+
+But this distortion brings upon woman peculiar distresses. The pressure
+of the whole superincumbent mass on the pelvic or lower organs induces
+sufferings proportioned in acuteness to the extreme delicacy and
+sensitiveness of the parts thus crushed. And the intimate connection
+of these organs with the brain and whole nervous system renders injuries
+thus inflicted the causes of the most extreme anguish, both of body
+and mind. This evil is becoming so common, not only among married
+women, but among young girls, as to be a just cause for universal
+alarm.
+
+How very common these sufferings are, few but the medical profession
+can realize, because they are troubles that must be concealed. Many
+a woman is moving about in uncomplaining agony who, with any other
+trouble involving equal suffering, would be on her bed surrounded by
+sympathizing friends.
+
+The terrible sufferings that are sometimes thus induced can never be
+conceived of, or at all appreciated from, any use of language. Nothing
+that the public can be made to believe on this subject will ever equal
+the reality. Not only mature persons and mothers, but fair young girls
+sometimes, are shut up for months and years as helpless and suffering
+invalids from this cause. This may be found all over the land. And
+there frequently is a horrible extremity of suffering in certain forms
+of this evil, which no woman of feeble constitution can ever be certain
+may not be her doom. Not that in all cases this extremity is involved,
+but none can say who will escape it.
+
+In regard to this, if one must choose for a friend or a child, on the
+one hand, the horrible torments inflicted by savage Indians or cruel
+inquisitors on their victims, or, on the other, the protracted agonies
+that result from such deformities and displacements, sometimes the
+former would be a merciful exchange.
+
+And yet this is the fate that is coming to meet the young as well as
+the mature in every direction. And tender parents are unconsciously
+leading their lovely and hapless daughters to this awful doom.
+
+There is no excitement of the imagination in what is here indicated.
+If the facts and details could be presented, they would send a groan
+of terror all over the land. For it is not one class, or one section,
+that is endangered. In every part of our country the evil is
+progressing.
+
+And, as if these dreadful ills were not enough, there have been added
+methods of medical treatment at once useless, torturing to the mind,
+and involving great liability to immoralities.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62.]
+
+In hope of abating these evils, drawings are given (Fig. 62 and Fig.
+63) of the front and back of a jacket that will preserve the advantages
+of the corset without its evils. This jacket may at first be fitted
+to the figure with corsets underneath it, just like the waist of a
+dress. Then, delicate whalebones can be used to stiffen the jacket,
+so that it will take the proper shape, when the corset may be dispensed
+with. The buttons below are to hold all articles of dress below the
+waist by button-holes. By this method, the bust is supported as well
+as by corsets, while the shoulders support from above, as they should
+do, the weight of the dress below. No stiff bone should be allowed to
+press in front, and the jacket should be so loose that a full breath
+can be inspired with ease, while in a sitting position.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63.]
+
+The proper way to dress a young girl is to have a cotton or flannel
+close-fitting jacket next the body, to which the drawers should be
+buttoned. Over this, place the chemise; and over that, such a jacket
+as the one here drawn, to which should be buttoned the hoops and other
+skirts. Thus every article of dress will be supported by the shoulders.
+The sleeves of the jacket can be omitted, and in that ease a strong
+lining, and also a tape binding, must surround the arm-hole, which
+should be loose.
+
+It is hoped that increase of intelligence and moral power among mothers,
+and a combination among them to regulate fashions, may banish the
+pernicious practices that have prevailed. If a school-girl dress
+without corsets and without tight belts could be established as a
+fashion, it would be one step gained in the right direction. Then if
+mothers could secure daily domestic exercise in chambers, eating-rooms
+and parlors in loose dresses, a still farther advance would be secured.
+
+A friend of the writer informs her that her daughter had her wedding
+outfit made up by a fashionable milliner in Paris, and every dress was
+beautifully fitted to the form, and yet was not compressing to any
+part. This was done too without the use of corsets, the stiffening
+being delicate and yielding whalebones.
+
+Not only parents but all having the care of young girls, especially
+those at boarding-schools, have a fearful responsibility resting upon
+them in regard to this important duty.
+
+In regard to the dressing of young children, much discretion is needed
+to adapt dress to circumstances and peculiar constitutions. The leading
+fact must be borne in mind that the skin is made strong and healthful
+by exposure to light and pure air, while cold air, if not excessive,
+has a tonic influence. If the skin of infants is rubbed with the hand
+till red with blood, and then exposed naked to sun and air in a
+well-ventilated room, it will be favorable to health.
+
+There is a constitutional difference in the skin of different children
+in regard to retaining the animal heat manufactured within, so that
+some need more clothing than others for comfort. Nature is a safe guide
+to a careful nurse and mother, and will indicate by the looks and
+actions of a child when more clothing is needful. As a general rule,
+it is safe for a healthful child to wear as little clothing as suffices
+to keep it from complaining of cold. Fifty years ago, it was not common
+for children to wear as much under-clothing as they now do. The writer
+well remembers how even girls, though not of strong constitutions,
+used to play for hours in the snow-drifts without the protection of
+drawers, kept warm by exercise and occasional runs to an open fire.
+And multitudes of children grew to vigorous maturity through similar
+exposures to cold air-baths, and without the frequent, colds and
+sicknesses so common among children of the present day, who are more
+carefully housed and warmly dressed. But care was taken that the feet
+should be kept dry and warmly clad, because, circulation being feebler
+in the extremities, this precaution was important.
+
+It must also be considered that age brings with it decrease in vigor
+of circulation, and the consequent generation of heat, so that more
+warmth of air and clothing is needed at an advanced period of life
+than is suitable for the young.
+
+These are the general principles which must be applied with modification
+to each individual case. A child of delicate constitution must have
+more careful protection from cold air than is desirable for one more
+vigorous, while the leading general principle is retained that cold
+air is a healthful tonic for the skin whenever it does not produce an
+uncomfortable chilliness.
+
+
+
+
+XIII.
+
+GOOD COOKING.
+
+
+There are but a few things on which health, and happiness depend more
+than on the manner in which food is cooked. You may make houses
+enchantingly beautiful, hang them with pictures, have them clean and
+airy and convenient; but if the stomach is fed with sour bread and
+burnt meats, it will raise such rebellions that the eyes will see no
+beauty anywhere. The abundance of splendid material we have in America
+is in great contrast with the style of cooking most prevalent in our
+country. How often, in journeys, do we sit down to tables loaded with
+material, originally of the very best kind, winch has been so spoiled
+in the treatment that there is really nothing to eat! Green biscuits
+with acrid spots of alkali; sour yeast-bread; meat slowly simmered in
+fat till it seemed like grease itself, and slowly congealing in cold
+grease; and above all, that unpardonable enormity, strong butter! How
+one longs to show people what might have been done with the raw material
+out of which all these monstrosities were concocted!
+
+There is no country where an ample, well-furnished table is more easily
+spread, and for that reason, perhaps, none where the bounties of
+Providence are more generally neglected. Considering that our resources
+are greater than those of any other civilized people, our results are
+comparatively poorer.
+
+It is said that a list of the summer vegetables which are exhibited
+on New-York hotel-tables being shown to a French _artiste_, he
+declared that to serve such a dinner properly would take till midnight.
+A traveler can not but be struck with our national plenteousness, on
+returning from a Continental tour, and going directly from the ship
+to a New-York hotel, in the bounteous season of autumn. For months
+habituated to neat little bits of chop or poultry, garnished with the
+inevitable cauliflower or potato, which seemed to be the sole
+possibility after the reign of green peas was over; to sit down all
+at once to such a carnival! to such ripe, juicy tomatoes, raw or cooked;
+cucumbers in brittle slices; rich, yellow sweet-potatoes; broad
+lima-beans, and beans of other and various names; tempting ears of
+Indian-corn steaming in enormous piles; great smoking tureens of the
+savory succotash, an Indian gift to the table for which civilization
+need not blush; sliced egg-plant in delicate fritters; and marrow-
+squashes, of creamy pulp and sweetness; a rich variety, embarrassing
+to the appetite, and perplexing to the choice.
+
+Verily, the thought must often occur that the vegetarian doctrine
+preached in America leaves a man quite as much as he has capacity to
+eat or enjoy, and that in the midst of such tantalizing abundance he
+has really lost the apology, which elsewhere bears him out in preying
+upon his less gifted and accomplished animal neighbors.
+
+But with all this, the American table, taken as a whole, is inferior
+to that of England or France. It presents a fine abundance of material,
+carelessly and poorly treated. The management of food is nowhere in
+the world, perhaps, more slovenly and wasteful. Every thing betokens
+that want of care that waits on abundance; there are great capabilities
+and poor execution. A tourist through England can seldom fail, at the
+quietest country-inn, of finding himself served with the essentials
+of English table-comfort--his mutton-chop done to a turn, his steaming
+little private apparatus for concocting his own tea, his choice pot
+of marmalade or slice of cold ham, and his delicate rolls and creamy
+butter, all served with care and neatness. In France, one never asks
+in vain for delicious _cafe-au-lait_, good bread and butter, a
+nice omelet, or some savory little portion of meat with a French name.
+But to a tourist taking like chance in American country-fare, what is
+the prospect? What is the coffee? what the tea? and the meat? and above
+all, the butter?
+
+In writing on cooking, the main topics should be first, bread; second,
+butter; third, meat; fourth, vegetables; and fifth, tea--by which
+last is meant, generally, all sorts of warm, comfortable drinks served
+out in tea-cups, whether they be called tea, coffee, chocolate, broma,
+or what not.
+
+If these five departments are all perfect, the great ends of domestic
+cookery are answered, so far as the comfort and well-being of life
+are concerned. There exists another department, which is often regarded
+by culinary amateurs and young aspirants as the higher branch and very
+collegiate course of practical cookery; to wit, confectionery, by which
+is designated all pleasing and complicated compounds of sweets and
+spices, devised not for health and nourishment, and strongly suspected
+of interfering with both--mere tolerated gratifications of the palate,
+which we eat, not with the expectation of being benefited, but only
+with the hope of not being injured by them. In this large department
+rank all sorts of cakes, pies, preserves, etc., whose excellence is
+often attained by treading under foot and disregarding the five grand
+essentials.
+
+There is many a table garnished with three or four kinds of well-made
+cake, compounded with citron and spices and all imaginable good things,
+where the meat was tough and greasy, the bread some hot preparation
+of flour, lard, saleratus, and acid, and the butter unutterably
+detestable, where, if the mistress of the feast had given the care,
+time, and labor to preparing the simple items of bread, butter, and
+meat, that she evidently had given to the preparation of these extras,
+the lot of her guests and family might be much more comfortable. But
+she does not think of these common articles as constituting a good
+table. So long as she has puff pastry, rich black cake, clear jelly
+and preserves, she considers that such unimportant matters as bread,
+butter, and meat may take care of themselves. It is the same inattention
+to common things as that which leads people to build houses with stone
+fronts, and window-caps and expensive front-door trimmings, without
+bathing-rooms or fireplaces, or ventilators.
+
+Those who go into the country looking for summer board in farm-houses
+know perfectly well that a table where the butter is always fresh, the
+tea and coffee of the best kinds and well made, and the meats properly
+kept, dressed, and served, is the one table of a hundred, the fabulous
+enchanted island. It seems impossible to get the idea into the minds
+of many people that what is called common food, carefully prepared,
+becomes, in virtue of that very care and attention, a delicacy,
+superseding the necessity of artificially compounded dainties. To
+begin, then, with the very foundation of a good table:
+
+--_Bread:_ What ought it to be?
+
+It should be light, sweet, and tender. This matter of lightness is the
+distinctive line between savage and civilized bread. The savage mixes
+simple flour and water into balls of paste, which he throws into boiling
+water, and which come out solid, glutinous masses, of which his common
+saying is, "Man eat dis, he no die," which a facetious traveler who
+was obliged to subsist on it interpreted to mean, "Dis no kill you,
+nothing will." In short, it requires the stomach of a wild animal or
+of a savage to digest this primitive form of bread, and of course more
+or less attention in all civilized modes of bread-making is given to
+producing lightness. By lightness is meant simply that in order to
+facilitate digestion the particles are to be separated from each other
+by little holes or air-cells; and all the different methods of making
+light bread are neither more nor less than the formation of bread with
+these air-cells.
+
+So far as we know, there are four practicable methods of aerating
+bread; namely, by fermentation; by effervescence of an acid and an
+alkali; by aerated egg, or egg which has been filled with air by the
+process of beating; and lastly, by pressure of some gaseous substance
+into the paste, by a process much resembling the impregnation of water
+in a soda-fountain. All those have one and the same object--to give
+us the cooked particles of our flour separated by such permanent
+air-cells as will enable the stomach more readily to digest them.
+
+A very common mode of aerating bread in America is by the effervescence
+of an acid and an alkali in the flour. The carbonic acid gas time
+formed products minute air-cells in the bread, or, as the cook says,
+makes it light. When this process is performed with exact attention
+to chemical laws, so that the acid and alkali completely neutralize
+each other, leaving no overplus of either, the result is often very
+palatable. The difficulty is, that this is a happy conjunction of
+circumstances which seldom occurs. The acid most commonly employed is
+that of sour milk, and, as milk has many degrees of sourness, the rule
+of a certain quantity of alkali to the pint must necessarily produce
+very different results at different times. As an actual fact where
+this mode of making bread prevails, as we lament to say it does to a
+great extent in this country, one finds five cases of failure to one
+of success.
+
+It is a woeful thing that the daughters of our land have abandoned the
+old respectable mode of yeast-brewing and bread-raising for this
+specious substitute, so easily made, and so seldom well made. The
+green, clammy, acrid substance, called biscuit, which many of our
+worthy republicans are obliged to eat in these days, is wholly unworthy
+of the men and women of the republic. Good patriots ought not to
+be put off in that way--they deserve better fare.
+
+As an occasional variety, as a household convenience for obtaining
+bread or biscuit at a moment's notice, the process of effervescence
+may be retained; but, we earnestly entreat American housekeepers, in
+scriptural language, to stand in the way and ask for the old paths,
+and return to the good yeast-bread of their sainted grandmothers.
+
+If acid and alkali must be used, by all means let them be mixed in due
+proportions. No cook should be left to guess and judge for herself
+about this matter. There are articles made by chemical rule which
+produce very perfect results, and the use of them obviates the worst
+dangers in making bread by effervescence.
+
+Of all processes of aeration in bread-making, the oldest and most
+time-honored mode is by fermentation. That this was known in the days
+of our Saviour is evident from the forcible simile in which he compares
+the silent permeating force of truth in human, society to the very
+familiar household process of raising bread by a little yeast.
+
+There is, however, one species of yeast, much used in some parts of
+the country, against which protest should be made. It is called
+salt-risings, or milk-risings, and is made by mixing flour, milk, and
+a little salt together, and leaving them to ferment. The bread thus
+produced is often, very attractive, when new and made with great care.
+It is white and delicate, with fine, even air-cells. It has, however,
+when kept, some characteristics which remind us of the terms in which
+our old English Bible describes the effect of keeping the manna of the
+ancient Israelites, which we are informed, in words more explicit than
+agreeable, "stank, and bred worms." If salt-rising bread does not
+fulfill the whole of this unpleasant description, it certainly does
+emphatically a part of it. The smell which it has in baking, and when
+more than a day old, suggests the inquiry, whether it is the saccharine
+or the putrid fermentation with which it is raised. Whoever breaks a
+piece of it after a day or two, will often see minute filaments or
+clammy strings drawing out from the fragments, which, with the
+unmistakable smell, will cause him to pause before consummating a
+nearer acquaintance.
+
+The fermentation of flour by means of brewer's or distiller's yeast
+produces, if rightly managed, results far more palatable and wholesome.
+The only requisites for success in it are, first, good materials, and,
+second, great care in small things. There are certain low-priced or
+damaged kinds of flour which can never by any kind of domestic chemistry
+be made into good broad; and to those persons whose stomachs forbid
+them to eat gummy, glutinous paste, under the name of bread, there is
+no economy in buying these poor brands, even at half the price of good
+flour.
+
+But good flour and good yeast being supposed, with a temperature
+favorable to the development of fermentation, the whole success of the
+process depends on the thorough diffusion of the proper proportion of
+yeast through the whole mass, and on stopping the subsequent
+fermentation at the precise and fortunate point. The true housewife
+makes her bread the sovereign of her kitchen--its behests must be
+attended to in all critical points and moments, no matter what else
+be postponed.
+
+She who attends to her bread only when she has done this, and arranged
+that, and performed the other, very often finds that the forces of
+nature will not wait for her. The snowy mass, perfectly mixed, kneaded
+with care and strength, rises in its beautiful perfection till the
+moment comes for filling the air-cells by baking. A few minutes now,
+and the acetous fermentation will begin, and the whole result be
+spoiled. Many bread-makers pass in utter carelessness over this sacred
+and mysterious boundary. Their oven has cake in it, or they are skimming
+jelly, or attending to some other of the so-called higher branches of
+cookery, while the bread is quickly passing into the acetous stage.
+At last, when they are ready to attend to it, they find that it has
+been going its own way,--it is so sour that the pungent smell is plainly
+perceptible. Now the saleratus-bottle is handed down, and a quantity
+of the dissolved alkali mixed with the paste--an expedient sometimes
+making itself too manifest by greenish streaks or small acrid spots
+in the bread. As the result, we have a beautiful article spoiled--bread
+without sweetness, if not absolutely sour.
+
+In the view of many, lightness is the only property required in this
+article. The delicate refined sweetness which exists in carefully
+kneaded bread, baked just before it passes to the extreme point of
+fermentation, is something, of which they have no conception; and thus
+they will even regard this process of spoiling the paste by the acetous
+fermentation, and then rectifying that acid by effervescence with an
+alkali, as something positively meritorious. How else can they value
+and relish bakers' loaves, such as some are, drugged with ammonia and
+other disagreeable things; light indeed, so light that they seem to
+have neither weight nor substance, but with no more sweetness or taste
+than so much cotton wool?
+
+Some persons prepare bread for the oven by simply mixing it in the
+mass, without kneading, pouring it into pans, and suffering it to rise
+there. The air-cells in bread thus prepared are coarse and uneven; the
+bread is as inferior in delicacy and nicety to that which is well
+kneaded as a raw servant to a perfectly educated and refined lady. The
+process of kneading seems to impart an evenness to the minute air-cells,
+a fineness of texture, and a tenderness and pliability to the whole
+substance, that can be gained in no other way.
+
+The divine principle of beauty has its reign over bread as well as
+over all other things; it has its laws of aesthetics; and that bread
+which is so prepared that it can be formed into separate and
+well-proportioned loaves, each one carefully worked and moulded, will
+develop the most beautiful results. After being moulded, the loaves
+should stand usually not over ten minutes, just long enough to allow
+the fermentation going on in them to expand each little air-cell to
+the point at which it stood before it was worked down, and then they
+should be immediately put into the oven.
+
+Many a good thing, however, is spoiled in the oven. We can not but
+regret, for the sake of bread, that our old steady brick ovens have
+been almost universally superseded by those of ranges and
+cooking-stoves, which are infinite in their caprices, and forbid all
+general rules. One thing, however, may be borne in mind as
+a principle--that the excellence of bread in all its varieties, plain
+or sweetened, depends on the perfection of its air-cells, whether
+produced by yeast, egg, or effervescence; that one of the objects of
+baking is to fix these air-cells, and that the quicker this can be
+done through the whole mass, the better will the result be. When cake
+or bread is made heavy by baking too quickly, it is because the
+immediate formation of the top crust hinders the exhaling of the
+moisture in the centre, and prevents the air-cells from cooking. The
+weight also of the crust pressing down on the doughy air-cells below
+destroys them, producing that horror of good cooks, a heavy streak.
+The problem in baking, then, is the quick application of heat rather
+below than above the loaf, and its steady continuance till all the
+air-cells are thoroughly dried into permanent consistency. Every
+housewife must watch her own oven to know how this can be best
+accomplished.
+
+Bread-making can be cultivated to any extent as a fine art--and the
+various kinds of biscuit, tea-rusks, twists, rolls, into which bread
+may be made, are much better worth a housekeeper's ambition than the
+getting-up of rich and expensive cake or confections. There are also
+varieties of material which are rich in good effects. Unbolted flour,
+altogether more wholesome than the fine wheat, and when properly
+prepared more palatable--rye-flour and corn-meal, each affording a
+thousand attractive possibilities--all of these come under the general
+laws of bread-stuffs, and are worth a careful attention.
+
+A peculiarity of our American table, particularly in the Southern and
+Western States, is the constant exhibition of various preparations of
+hot bread. In many families of the South and West, bread in loaves to
+be eaten cold is an article quite unknown. The effect of this kind of
+diet upon the health has formed a frequent subject of remark among
+travelers; but only those know the full mischiefs of it who have been
+compelled to sojourn for a length of time in families where it is
+maintained. The unknown horrors of dyspepsia from bad bread are a topic
+over which we willingly draw a veil.
+
+Next to Bread comes _Butter_--on which we have to say, that, when
+we remember what butter is in civilized Europe, and compare it with
+what it is in America, we wonder at the forbearance and lenity of
+travelers in their strictures on our national commissariat.
+
+Butter, in England, France, and Italy, is simply solidified cream,
+with all the sweetness of the cream in its taste, freshly churned each
+day, and unadulterated by salt. At the present moment, when salt is
+five cents a pound and butter fifty, we Americans are paying, at high
+prices, for about one pound of salt to every ten of butter, and those
+of us who have eaten the butter of France and England do this with
+rueful recollections.
+
+There is, it is true, an article of butter made in the American style
+with salt, which, in its own kind and way, has a merit not inferior
+to that of England and France. Many prefer it, and it certainly takes
+a rank equally respectable with the other. It is yellow, hard, and
+worked so perfectly free from every particle of buttermilk that it
+might make the voyage of the world without spoiling. It is salted, but
+salted with care and delicacy, so that it may be a question whether
+even a fastidious Englishman might not prefer its golden solidity to
+the white, creamy freshness of his own. But it is to be regretted that
+this article is the exception, and not the rule, on our tables.
+
+America must have the credit of manufacturing and putting into market
+more bad butter than all that is made in all the rest of the world
+together. The varieties of bad tastes and smells which prevail in it
+are quite a study. This has a cheesy taste, that a mouldy, this is
+flavored with cabbage, and that again with turnip, and another has the
+strong, sharp savor of rancid animal fat. These varieties probably
+come from the practice of churning only at long intervals, and keeping
+the cream meanwhile in unventilated cellars or dairies, the air of
+which is loaded with the effluvia of vegetable substances. No domestic
+articles are so sympathetic as those of the milk tribe: they readily
+take on the smell and taste of any neighboring substance, and hence
+the infinite variety of flavors on which one mournfully muses who has
+late in autumn to taste twenty firkins of butter in hopes of finding
+one which will simply not be intolerable on his winter table.
+
+A matter for despair as regards bad butter is, that at the tables where
+it is used it stands sentinel at the door to bar your way to every
+other kind of food. You turn from your dreadful half-slice of bread,
+which fills your mouth with bitterness, to-your beef-steak, which
+proves virulent with the same poison; you think to take refuge in
+vegetable diet, and find the butter in the string-beans, and polluting
+the innocence of early peas; it is in the corn, hi the succotash, in
+the squash; the beets swim in it, the onions have it poured over them.
+Hungry and miserable, you think to solace yourself at the dessert; but
+the pastry is cursed, the cake is acrid with the same plague. You are
+ready to howl with despair, and your misery is great upon
+you--especially if this is a table where you have taken board for three
+months with your delicate wife and four small children. Your case is
+dreadful, and it is hopeless, because long usage and habit have rendered
+your host perfectly incapable of discovering what is the matter. "Don't
+like the butter, sir? I assure you I paid an extra price for it, and
+it's the very best in the market. I looked over as many as a hundred
+tubs, and picked out this one." You are dumb, but not less despairing.
+
+Yet the process of making good butter is a very simple one. To keep
+the cream in a perfectly pure, cool atmosphere, to churn while it is
+yet sweet, to work out the buttermilk thoroughly, and to add salt with
+such discretion as not to ruin the fine, delicate flavor of the fresh
+cream--all this is quite simple, so simple that one wonders at thousands
+and millions of pounds of butter yearly manufactured which are merely
+a hobgoblin bewitchment of cream into foul and loathsome poisons.
+
+The third head of my discourse is that of _Meat_, of which America
+furnishes, in the gross material, enough to spread our tables royally,
+were it well cared for and served.
+
+The faults in the meat generally furnished to us are, first, that it
+is too new. A beef steak, which three or four days of keeping might
+render palatable, is served up to us palpitating with freshness, with
+all the toughness of animal muscle yet warm.
+
+In the next place, there is a woeful lack of nicety in the butcher's
+work of cutting and preparing meat. Who that remembers the neatly
+trimmed mutton-chop of an English inn, or the artistic little circle
+of lamb-chop fried in bread-crumbs coiled around a tempting centre of
+spinach which may always be found in France, can recognize any family
+resemblance to those dapper, civilized preparations, in these coarse,
+roughly-hacked strips of bone, gristle, and meat which are commonly
+called mutton-chop in America? There seems to be a large dish of
+something resembling meat, in which each fragment has about two or
+three edible morsels, the rest being composed of dry and burnt skin,
+fat, and ragged bone.
+
+Is it not time that civilization should learn to demand somewhat more
+care and nicety in the modes of preparing what is to be cooked and
+eaten? Might not some of the refinement and trimness which characterize
+the preparations of the European market be with advantage introduced
+into our own? The housekeeper who wishes to garnish her table with
+some of those nice things is stopped in the outset by the butcher.
+Except in our large cities, where some foreign travel may have created
+the demand, it seems impossible to get much in this line that is
+properly prepared.
+
+If this is urged on the score of aesthetics, the ready reply will be,
+"Oh! we can't give time here in America to go into niceties and French
+whim-whams!" But the French mode of doing almost all practical things
+is based on that true philosophy and utilitarian good sense which
+characterize that seemingly thoughtless people. Nowhere is economy a
+more careful study, and their market is artistically arranged to this
+end. The rule is so to cut their meats that no portion designed to be
+cooked in a certain manner shall have wasteful appendages which that
+mode of cooking will spoil. The French soup-kettle stands ever ready
+to receive the bones, the thin fibrous flaps, the sinewy and gristly
+portions, which are so often included in our roasts or broilings, which
+fill our plates with unsightly _debris_, and finally make an amount of
+blank waste for which we pay our butcher the same price that we pay for
+what we have eaten.
+
+The dead waste of our clumsy, coarse way of cutting meats is immense.
+For example, at the beginning of the season, the part of a lamb
+denominated leg and loin, or hind-quarter, may sell for thirty cents
+a pound. Now this includes, besides the thick, fleshy portions, a
+quantity of bone, sinew, and thin fibrous substance, constituting full
+one third of the whole weight. If we put it into the oven entire, in
+the usual manner, we have the thin parts over-done, and the skinny
+and fibrous parts utterly dried up, by the application of the amount
+of heat necessary to cook the thick portion. Supposing the joint to
+weigh six pounds, at thirty cents, and that one third of the weight
+is so treated as to become perfectly useless, we throw away sixty
+cents. Of a piece of beef at twenty-five cents a pound, fifty cents'
+worth is often lost in bone, fat, and burnt skin.
+
+The fact is, this way of selling and cooking meat in large,
+gross portions is of English origin, and belongs to a country where all
+the customs of society spring from a class who have no particular
+occasion for economy. The practice of minute and delicate division
+comes from a nation which acknowledges the need of economy, and has
+made it a study. A quarter of lamb in this mode of division would be
+sold in three nicely prepared portions. The thick part would be sold
+by itself, for a neat, compact little roast; the rib-bones would be
+artistically separated, and all the edible matter would form those
+delicate dishes of lamb-chop, which, fried in bread-crumbs to a golden
+brown, are so ornamental and palatable a side-dish; the trimmings which
+remain after this division would be destined to the soup-kettle or
+stew-pan.
+
+In a French market is a little portion for every purse, and the
+far-famed and delicately flavored soups and stews which have arisen
+out of French economy are a study worth a housekeeper's attention. Not
+one atom of food is wasted in the French modes of preparation; even
+tough animal cartilages and sinews, instead of appearing burned and
+blackened in company with the roast meat to which they happen to be
+related, are treated according to their own laws, and come out either
+in savory soups, or those fine, clear meat-jellies which form a garnish
+no less agreeable to the eye than palatable to the taste.
+
+Whether this careful, economical, practical style of meat-cooking can
+ever to any great extent be introduced into our kitchens now is a
+question. Our butchers are against it; our servants are wedded to the
+old wholesale wasteful ways, which seem to them easier because they
+are accustomed to them. A cook who will keep and properly tend a
+soup-kettle which shall receive and utilize all that the coarse
+preparations of the butcher would require her to trim away, who
+understands the art of making the most of all these remains, is a
+treasure scarcely to be hoped for. If such things are to be done, it
+must be primarily through the educated brain of cultivated women who
+do not scorn to turn their culture and refinement upon domestic
+problems.
+
+When meats have been properly divided, so that each portion can receive
+its own appropriate style of treatment, next comes the consideration
+of the modes of cooking. These may be divided into two great general
+classes: those where it is desired to keep the juices within the meat,
+as in baking, broiling, and frying--and those whose object is to extract
+the juice and dissolve the fibre, as in the making of soups and stews.
+In the first class of operations, the process must be as rapid as may
+consist with the thorough cooking of all the particles. In this branch
+of cookery, doing quickly is doing well. The fire must be brisk, the
+attention alert. The introduction of cooking-stoves offers to careless
+domestics facilities for gradually drying-up meats, and despoiling
+them of all flavor and nutriment--facilities which appear to be very
+generally accepted. They have almost banished the genuine, old-fashioned
+roast-meat from our tables, and left in its stead dried meats with
+their most precious and nutritive juices evaporated. How few cooks,
+unassisted, are competent to the simple process of broiling a beefsteak
+or mutton-chop! how very generally one has to choose between these
+meats gradually dried away, or burned on the outside and raw within!
+Yet in England these articles _never_ come on the table done amiss;
+their perfect cooking is as absolute a certainty as the rising of the
+sun.
+
+No one of these rapid processes of cooking, however, is so generally
+abused as frying. The frying-pan has awful sins to answer for. What
+untold horrors of dyspepsia have arisen from its smoky depths, like
+the ghost from witches' caldrons! The fizzle of frying meat is a warning
+knell on many an ear, saying, "Touch not, taste not, if you would not
+burn and writhe!"
+
+Yet those who have traveled abroad remember that some of the lightest,
+most palatable, and most digestible preparations of meat have come
+from this dangerous source. But we fancy quite other rites and
+ceremonies inaugurated the process, and quite other hands performed
+its offices, than those known to our kitchens. Probably the delicate
+_cotelettes_ of France are not flopped down into half-melted
+grease, there gradually to warm and soak and fizzle, while Biddy goes
+in and out on her other ministrations, till finally, when they are
+thoroughly saturated, and dinner-hour impends, she bethinks herself,
+and crowds the fire below to a roaring heat, and finishes the process
+by a smart burn, involving the kitchen and surrounding precincts in
+volumes of Stygian gloom. From such preparations has arisen the very
+current medical opinion that fried meats are indigestible. They are
+indigestible, if they are greasy; but French cooks have taught us that
+a thing has no more need to be greasy because emerging from grease
+than Venus had to be salt because she rose from the sea.
+
+There are two ways of frying employed by the French cook. One is, to
+immerse the article to be cooked in _boiling_ fat, with an emphasis
+on the present participle--and the philosophical principle is, so
+immediately to crisp every pore, at the first moment or two of
+immersion, as effectually to seal the interior against the intrusion
+of greasy particles; it can then remain as long as may be necessary
+thoroughly to cook it, without imbibing any more of the boiling fluid
+than if it were inclosed in an egg-shell. The other method is to rub
+a perfectly smooth iron surface with just enough of some oily substance
+to prevent the meat from adhering, and cook it with a quick heat, as
+cakes are baked, on a griddle. In both these cases there must be the
+most rapid application of heat that can be made without burning, and
+by the adroitness shown in working out this problem the skill of the
+cook is tested. Any one whose cook attains this important secret will
+find fried things quite as digestible, and often more palatable, than
+any other.
+
+In the second department of meat-cookery, to wit, the slow and gradual
+application of heat for the softening and dissolution of its fibre and
+the extraction of its juices, common cooks are equally untrained. Where
+is the so-called cook who understands how to prepare soups and stews?
+These are precisely the articles in which a French kitchen excels. The
+soup-kettle, made with a double bottom, to prevent burning, is a
+permanent, ever-present institution, and the coarsest and most
+impracticable meats distilled through that alembic come out again in
+soups, jellies, or savory stews. The toughest cartilage, even the
+bones, being first cracked, are here made to give forth their hidden
+virtues, and to rise in delicate and appetizing forms.
+
+One great law governs all these preparations: the application of heat
+must be gradual, steady, long protracted, never reaching the point of
+active boiling. Hours of quiet simmering dissolve all dissoluble parts,
+soften the sternest fibre, and unlock every minute cell in which Nature
+has stored away her treasures of nourishment. This careful and
+protracted application of heat and the skillful use of flavors
+constitute the two main points in all those nice preparations of meat
+for which the French have so many names--processes by which a delicacy
+can be imparted to the coarsest and cheapest food superior to that of
+the finest articles under less philosophic treatment.
+
+French soups and stews are a study, and they would not be an
+unprofitable one to any person who wishes to live with comfort and
+even elegance on small means.
+
+There is no animal fibre that will not yield itself up to long-
+continued, steady heat. But the difficulty with almost any of the
+common servants who call themselves cooks is, that they have not the
+smallest notion of the philosophy of the application of heat. Such a
+one will complacently tell you concerning certain meats, that the
+harder you boil them the harder they grow--an obvious fact which, under
+her mode of treatment by an indiscriminate galloping boil, has
+frequently come under her personal observation. If you tell her that
+such meat must stand for six hours in a heat just below the boiling
+point, she will probably answer, "Yes, ma'am," and go on her own way.
+Or she will let it stand till it burns to the bottom of the kettle--a
+most common termination of the experiment.
+
+The only way to make sure of the matter is, either to obtain a French
+kettle, or to fit into an ordinary kettle a false bottom, such as any
+tinman may make, that shall leave a space of an inch or two between
+the meat and the fire. This kettle may be maintained in a constant
+position on the range, and into it the cook maybe instructed to throw
+all the fibrous trimmings of meat, all the gristle, tendons, and bones,
+having previously broken up these last with a mallet. Such a kettle,
+the regular occupant of a French cooking-stove, which they call the
+_pot au feu_, will furnish the basis for clear, rich soups, or other
+palatable dishes. This is ordinarily called "stock."
+
+Clear soup consists of the dissolved juices of the meat and gelatine
+of the bones, cleared from the fat and fibrous portions by straining.
+The grease, which rises to the top of the fluid, may be easily removed
+when cold.
+
+English and American soups are often heavy and hot with spices. There
+are appreciable tastes in them. They burn your mouth with cayenne, or
+clove, or allspice. You can tell at once what is in them, oftentimes
+to your sorrow. But a French soup has a flavor which one recognizes
+at once as delicious, yet not to be characterized as due to any single
+condiment; it is the just blending of many things. The same remark
+applies to all their stews; ragouts, and other delicate preparations.
+No cook will ever study these flavors; but perhaps many cooks'
+mistresses may, and thus, be able to impart delicacy and comfort to
+economy.
+
+As to those things called hashes, commonly manufactured by unwatched,
+untaught cooks out of the remains of yesterday's meal, let us not dwell
+too closely on their memory--compounds of meat, gristle, skin, fat,
+and burnt fibre, with a handful of pepper and salt flung at them,
+dredged with lumpy flour, watered from the spout of the tea-kettle,
+and left to simmer at the cook's convenience while she is otherwise
+occupied. Such are the best performances a housekeeper can hope for
+from an untrained cook.
+
+But the cunningly devised minces, the artful preparations choicely
+flavored, which may be made of yesterday's repast--by these is the
+true domestic artist known. No cook untaught by an educated brain ever
+makes these, and yet economy is a great gainer by them.
+
+As regards the department of _Vegetables_, their number and variety
+in America are so great that a table might almost be furnished by these
+alone. Generally speaking, their cooking is a more simple art, and
+therefore more likely to be found satisfactorily performed, than that
+of meats. If only they are not drenched with rancid butter, their own
+native excellence makes itself known in most of the ordinary modes of
+preparation.
+
+There is, however, one exception. Our staunch old friend, the potato,
+is to other vegetables what bread is on the table. Like bread, it is
+held as a sort of _sine-qua-non_; like that, it may be made invariably
+palatable by a little care in a few plain particulars, through neglect
+of which it often becomes intolerable. The soggy, waxy, indigestible
+viand that often appears in the potato-dish is a downright sacrifice of
+the better nature of this vegetable.
+
+The potato, nutritive and harmless as it appears, belongs to a family
+suspected of very dangerous traits. It is a family connection of the
+deadly-nightshade and other ill-reputed gentry, and sometimes shows
+strange proclivities to evil--now breaking out uproariously, as in the
+noted potato-rot, and now more covertly, in various evil affections.
+For this reason scientific directors bid us beware of the water in
+which potatoes are boiled-into which, it appears, the evil principle
+is drawn off; and they caution us not to shred them into stews without
+previously suffering the slices to lie for an hour or so in salt and
+water. These cautions are worth attention.
+
+The most usual modes of preparing the potato for the table are by
+roasting or boiling. These processes are so simple that it is commonly
+supposed every cook understands them without special directions; and
+yet there is scarcely an uninstructed cook who can boil or roast a
+potato.
+
+A good roasted potato is a delicacy worth a dozen compositions of the
+cook-book; yet when we ask for it, what burnt, shriveled abortions are
+presented to us! Biddy rushes to her potato-basket and pours out two
+dozen of different sizes, some having in them three times the amount
+of matter of others. These being washed, she tumbles them into her
+oven at a leisure interval, and there lets them lie till it is time
+to serve breakfast, whenever that may be. As a result, if the largest
+are cooked, the smallest are presented in cinders, and the intermediate
+sizes are withered and watery. Nothing is so utterly ruined by a few
+moments of overdoing. That which at the right moment was plump with
+mealy richness, a quarter of an hour later shrivels and becomes watery--
+and it is in this state that roast potatoes are most frequently served.
+
+In the same manner we have seen boiled potatoes from an untaught cook
+coming upon the table like lumps of yellow wax--and the same article,
+under the directions of a skillful mistress, appearing in snowy balls
+of powdery whiteness. In the one case, they were thrown in their skins
+into water, and suffered to soak or boil, as the case might be, at the
+cook's leisure, and after they were boiled to stand in the water till
+she was ready to peel them. In the other case, the potatoes being first
+peeled were boiled as quickly as possible in salted water, which the
+moment they were done was drained off, and then they were gently shaken
+for a moment or two over the fire to dry them still more thoroughly.
+We have never yet seen the potato so depraved and given over to evil
+that it could not be reclaimed by this mode of treatment.
+
+As to fried potatoes, who that remembers the crisp, golden slices of
+the French restaurant, thin as wafers and light as snow-flakes, does
+not speak respectfully of them? What cousinship with these have those
+coarse, greasy masses of sliced potato, wholly soggy and partly burnt,
+to which we are treated under the name of fried potatoes in America?
+In our cities the restaurants are introducing the French article to
+great acceptance, and to the vindication of the fair fame of this queen
+of vegetables.
+
+Finally, we arrive at the last great head of our subject, to wit--
+_Tea_--meaning thereby, as before observed, what our Hibernian
+friend did in the inquiry, "Will y'r honor take 'tay tay' or coffee
+tay?"
+
+We are not about to enter into the merits of the great tea-and-coffee
+controversy, further than in our general caution concerning them in
+the chapter on Healthful Drinks; but we now proceed to treat of them
+as actual existences, and speak only of the modes of making the best
+of them. The French coffee is reputed the best in the world; and a
+thousand voices have asked, What is it about the French coffee?
+
+In the first place, then, the French coffee is coffee, and not chickory,
+or rye, or beans, or peas. In the second place, it is freshly roasted,
+whenever made--roasted with great care and evenness in a little
+revolving cylinder which makes part of the furniture of every kitchen,
+and which keeps in the aroma of the berry. It is never overdone, so
+as to destroy the coffee-flavor, which is in nine cases out of tent
+the fault of the coffee we meet with. Then it is ground, and placed
+in a coffee-pot with a filter through which, when it has yielded up
+its life to the boiling water poured upon it, the delicious extract
+percolates in clear drops, the coffee-pot standing on a heated stove
+to maintain the temperature. The nose of the coffee-pot is stopped up
+to prevent the escape of the aroma during this process. The extract
+thus obtained is a perfectly clear, dark fluid, known as _caf
+noir_, or black coffee. It is black only because of its strength,
+being in fact almost the very essential oil of coffee. A table-spoonful
+of this in boiled milk would make what is ordinarily called a strong
+cup of coffee. The boiled milk is prepared with no less care. It must
+be fresh and new, not merely warmed or even brought to the
+boiling-point, but slowly simmered till it attains a thick, creamy
+richness. The coffee mixed with this, and sweetened with that sparkling
+beet-root sugar which ornaments a French table, is the celebrated
+_cafe-au-lait_, the name of which has gone round the world.
+
+As we look to France for the best coffee, so we must look to England
+for the perfection of tea. The tea-kettle is as much an English
+institution as aristocracy or the Prayer-Book; and when one wants to
+know exactly how tea should he made, one has only to ask how a fine
+old English house-keeper makes it.
+
+The first article of her faith is, that the water must not merely be
+hot, not merely _have boiled_ a few moments since, but be actually
+_boiling_ at the moment it touches the tea. Hence, though servants
+in England are vastly better trained than with us, this delicate mystery
+is seldom left to their hands. Tea-making belongs to the drawing-room,
+and high-born ladies preside at "the bubbling and loud hissing urn,"
+and see that all due rites and solemnities are properly performed--that
+the cups are hot, and that the infused tea waits the exact time before
+the libations commence.
+
+Of late, the introduction of English breakfast-tea has raised a new
+sect among the tea-drinkers, reversing some of the old canons.
+Breakfast-tea must be boiled! Unlike the delicate article of olden
+time, which required only a momentary infusion to develop its richness,
+this requires a longer and severer treatment to bring out its
+strength--thus confusing all the established usages, and throwing the
+work into the hands of the cook in the kitchen. The faults of tea, as
+too commonly found at our hotels and boarding-houses, are, that it
+is made in every way the reverse of what it should be. The water is
+hot, perhaps, but not boiling; the tea has a general flat, stale, smoky
+taste, devoid of life or spirit; and it is served usually with thin
+milk, instead of cream. Cream is an essential to the richness of tea
+as of coffee. Lacking cream, boiled milk is better than cold.
+
+Chocolate is a French and Spanish article, and one seldom served on
+American tables. We in America, however, make an article every way
+equal to any which can be imported from Paris, and he who buys the
+best vanilla-chocolate may rest assured that no foreign land can furnish
+any thing better. A very rich and delicious beverage may be made by
+dissolving this in milk, slowly boiled down after the French fashion.
+
+A word now under the head of _Confectionery_, meaning by this the
+whole range of ornamental cookery--or pastry, ices, jellies, preserves,
+etc. The art of making all these very perfectly is far better understood
+in America than the art of common cooking. There are more women who
+know how to make good cake than good bread--more who can furnish you
+with a good ice-cream than a well-cooked mutton-chop; a fair
+charlotte-russe is easier to gain than a perfect cup of coffee; and
+you shall find a sparkling jelly to your dessert where you sighed in
+vain for so simple a luxury as a well-cooked potato.
+
+Our fair countrywomen might rest upon their laurels in these higher
+fields, and turn their great energy and ingenuity to the study of
+essentials. To do common things perfectly is far better worth our
+endeavor than to do uncommon things respectably. We Americans in many
+things as yet have been a little inclined to begin making our shirt
+at the ruffle; but, nevertheless, when we set about it, we can make
+the shirt as nicely as any body; it needs only that we turn our
+attention to it, resolved that, ruffle or no ruffle, the shirt we will
+have.
+
+A few words as to the prevalent ideas in respect to French cookery.
+Having heard much of it, with no very distinct idea of what it is, our
+people have somehow fallen into the notion that its _forte_ lies in high
+spicing--and so when our cooks put a great abundance of clove, mace,
+nutmeg, and cinnamon into their preparations, they fancy that they are
+growing up to be French cooks. But the fact is, that the Americans and
+English are far more given to spicing than the French. Spices in our
+made dishes are abundant, and their taste is strongly pronounced. Living
+a year in France one forgets the taste of nutmeg, clove, and allspice,
+which abounds in so many dishes in America. The English and Americans
+deal in _spices_, the French in _flavors_--flavors many and flue,
+imitating often in their delicacy those subtle blendings which nature
+produces in high-flavored fruits. The recipes of our cookery-books are
+most of them of English origin, coming down from the times of our
+phlegmatic ancestors, when the solid, burly, beefy growth of the foggy
+island required the heat of fiery condiments, and could digest heavy
+sweets. Witness the national recipe for plum-pudding: which may be
+rendered: Take a pound of every indigestible substance you can think of,
+boil into a cannon-ball, and serve in flaming brandy. So of the
+Christmas mince-pie, and many other national dishes. But in America,
+owing to our brighter skies and more fervid climate, we have developed
+an acute, nervous delicacy of temperament far more akin to that of
+France than of England.
+
+Half of the recipes in our cook-books are mere murder to such
+constitutions and stomachs as we grow here. We require to ponder these
+things, and think how we, in our climate and under our circumstances,
+ought to live; and in doing so, we may, without accusation of foreign
+foppery, take some leaves from many foreign books.
+
+
+
+
+XIV.
+
+EARLY RISING
+
+
+There is no practice which has been more extensively eulogized in all
+ages than early rising; and this universal impression is an indication
+that it is founded on true philosophy. For it is rarely the case that
+the common sense of mankind fastens on a practice as really beneficial,
+especially one that demands self-denial, without some substantial
+reason.
+
+This practice, which may justly be called a domestic virtue, is one
+which has a peculiar claim to be styled American and democratic. The
+distinctive mark of aristocratic nations is a disregard of the great
+mass, and a disproportionate regard for the interests of certain
+privileged orders. All the customs and habits of such a nation are,
+to a greater or less extent, regulated by this principle. Now the mass
+of any nation must always consist of persons who labor at occupations
+which demand the light of day. But in aristocratic countries, especially
+in England, labor is regarded as the mark of the lower classes, and
+indolence is considered as one mark of a gentleman. This impression
+has gradually and imperceptibly, to a great extent, regulated their
+customs, so that, even in their hours of meals and repose, the higher
+orders aim at being different and distinct from those who, by laborious
+pursuits, are placed below them. From this circumstance, while the
+lower orders labor by day and sleep at night, the rich, the noble, and
+the honored sleep by day, and follow their pursuits and pleasures by
+night.
+
+It will be found that the aristocracy of London breakfast near midday,
+dine after dark, visit and go to Parliament between ten and twelve at
+night, and retire to sleep toward morning. In consequence of this, the
+subordinate classes who aim at gentility gradually fall into the same
+practice. The influence of this custom extends across the ocean, and
+here, in this democratic land, we find many who measure their grade
+of gentility by the late hour at which they arrive at a party. And
+this aristocratic folly is growing upon us, so that, throughout the
+nation, the hours for visiting and retiring are constantly becoming
+later, while the hours for rising correspond in lateness.
+
+The question, then, is one which appeals to American women, as a matter
+of patriotism and as having a bearing on those great principles of
+democracy which we conceive to be equally the principles of
+Christianity. Shall we form our customs on the assumption that labor
+is degrading and indolence genteel? Shall we assume, by our practice,
+that the interests of the great mass are to be sacrificed for the
+pleasures and honors of a privileged few? Shall we ape the customs of
+aristocratic lands, in those very practices which result from principles
+and institutions that we condemn? Shall we not rather take the place
+to which we are entitled, as the leaders, rather than the followers,
+in the customs of society, turn back the tide of aristocratic inroads,
+and carry through the whole, not only of civil and political but of
+social and domestic life, the true principles of democratic freedom
+and equality? The following considerations may serve to strengthen an
+affirmative decision.
+
+The first relates to the health of a family. It is a universal law of
+physiology, that all living things flourish best in the light.
+Vegetables, in a dark cellar, grow pale and spindling. Children brought
+up in mines are always wan and stunted, while men become pale and
+cadaverous who live under ground. This indicates the folly of losing
+the genial influence which the light of day produces on all animated
+creation.
+
+Sir James Wylie, of the Russian imperial service, states that in the
+soldiers' barracks, three times as many were taken sick on the shaded
+side as on the sunny side; though both sides communicated, and
+discipline, diet, and treatment were the same. The eminent French
+surgeon, Dupuytren, cured a lady whose complicated diseases baffled
+for years his own and all other medical skill, by taking her from a
+dark room to an abundance of daylight.
+
+Florence Nightingale writes: "Second only to fresh air in importance
+for the sick is light. Not only daylight but direct sunlight is
+necessary to speedy recovery, except in a small number of cases.
+Instances, almost endless, could be given where, in dark wards, or
+wards with only northern exposure, or wards with borrowed light, even
+when properly ventilated, the sick could not be, by any means, made
+speedily to recover."
+
+In the prevalence of cholera, it was invariably the case that deaths
+were more numerous in shaded streets or in houses having only northern
+exposures than in those having sunlight. Several physicians have stated
+to the writer that, in sunny exposures, women after childbirth gained
+strength much faster than those excluded from sunlight. In the writer's
+experience, great nervous debility has been always immediately lessened
+by sitting in the sun, and still more by lying on the earth and in
+open air, a blanket beneath, and head and eyes protected, under the
+direct rays of the sun.
+
+Some facts in physiology and natural philosophy have a bearing on this
+subject. It seems to be settled that the red color of blood is owing
+to iron contained in the red blood-cells, while it is established as
+a fact that the sun's rays are metallic, having "vapor of iron" as one
+element. It is also true that want of light causes a diminution of the
+red and an increase of the imperfect white blood-cells, and that this
+sometimes results in a disease called _leucoemia_, while all who
+live in the dark have pale and waxy skins, and flabby, weak muscles.
+Thus it would seem that it is the sun that imparts the iron and color
+to the blood. These things being so, the customs of society that bring
+sleeping hours into daylight, and working and study hours into the
+night, are direct violations of the laws of health. The laws of health
+are the laws of God, and "sin is the transgression of law."
+
+To this we must add the great neglect of economy as well as health in
+substituting unhealthful gaslight, poisonous, anthracite warmth, for
+the life-giving light and warmth of the sun. Millions and millions
+would be saved to this nation in fuel and light, as well as in health,
+by returning to the good old ways of our forefathers, to rise with the
+sun, and retire to rest "when the bell rings for nine o'clock."
+
+The observations of medical men, whose inquiries have been directed
+to this point, have decided that from six to eight hours is the amount
+of sleep demanded by persons in health. Some constitutions require as
+much as eight, and others no more than six hours of repose. But eight
+hours is the maximum for all persons in ordinary health, with ordinary
+occupations. In cases of extra physical exertions, or the debility of
+disease, or a decayed constitution, more than this is required. Let
+eight hours, then, be regarded as the ordinary period required for
+sleep by an industrious people like the Americans.
+
+It thus appears that the laws of our political condition, the laws ofthe
+natural world, and the constitution of our bodies, alike demand
+that we rise with the light of day to prosecute our employments, and
+that we retire in time for the requisite amount of sleep.
+
+In regard to the effects of protracting the time spent in repose, many
+extensive and satisfactory investigations have been made. It has been
+shown that, during sleep, the body perspires most freely, while yet
+neither food nor exercise are ministering to its wants. Of course, if
+we continue our slumbers beyond the time required to restore the body
+to its usual vigor, there is an unperceived undermining of the
+constitution, by this protracted and debilitating exhalation. This
+process, in a course of years, readers the body delicate and less able
+to withstand disease, and in the result shortens life. Sir John
+Sinclair, who has written a large work on the Causes of Longevity,
+states, as one result of his extensive investigations, that he has
+never yet heard or read of a single case of great longevity where the
+individual was not an early riser. He says that he has found cases in
+which the individual has violated some one of all the other laws of
+health, and yet lived to great age; but never a single instance in
+which any constitution has withstood that undermining consequent on
+protracting the hours of repose beyond the demands of the system.
+
+Another reason for early rising is, that it is indispensable to a
+systematic and well-regulated family. At whatever hour the parents
+retire, children and domestics, wearied by play or labor, must retire
+early. Children usually awake with the dawn of light, and commence
+their play, while domestics usually prefer the freshness of morning
+for their labors. If, then, the parents rise at a late hour, they
+either induce a habit of protracting sleep in their children and
+domestics, or else the family are up, and at their pursuits, while
+their supervisors are in bed.
+
+Any woman who asserts that her children and domestics, in the first
+hours of day, when their spirits are freshest, will be as well regulated
+without her presence as with it, confesses that which surely is little
+for her credit. It is believed that any candid woman, whatever may be
+her excuse for late rising, will concede that if she could rise early
+it would be for the advantage of her family. A late breakfast puts
+back the work, through the whole day, for every member of a family;
+and if the parents thus occasion the loss of an hour or two to each
+individual who, but for their delay in the morning, would be usefully
+employed, they alone are responsible for all this waste of time.
+
+But the practice of early rising has a relation to the general interests
+of the social community, as well as to that of each distinct family.
+All that great portion of the community who are employed in business
+and labor find it needful to rise early; and all their hours of meals,
+and their appointments for business or pleasure, must be accommodated
+to these arrangements. Now, if a small portion of the community
+establish very different hours, it makes a kind of jostling in all the
+concerns and interests of society. The various appointments for the
+public, such as meetings, schools, and business hours, must be
+accommodated to the mass, and not to individuals. The few, then, who
+establish domestic habits at variance with the majority, are either
+constantly interrupted in their own arrangements, or else are
+interfering with the rights and interests of others. This is exemplified
+in the case of schools. In families where late rising is practiced,
+either hurry, irregularity, and neglect are engendered in the family,
+or else the interests of the school, and thus of the community, are
+sacrificed. In this, and many other matters, it can be shown that the
+well-being of the bulk of the people is, to a greater or less extent,
+impaired by this self-indulgent practice. Let any teacher select the
+unpunctual scholars--a class who most seriously interfere with the
+interests of the school--and let men of business select those who cause
+them most waste of time and vexation, by unpunctuality; and it will
+be found that they are generally among the late risers, and rarely
+among those who rise early. Thus, late rising not only injures the
+person and family which indulge in it, but interferes with the rights
+and convenience of the community; while early rising imparts
+corresponding benefits of health, promptitude, vigor of action, economy
+of time, and general effectiveness both to the individuals who practice
+it and to the families and community of which they are a part.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+DOMESTIC MANNERS.
+
+Good manners are the expressions of benevolence in personal intercourse,
+by which we endeavor to promote the comfort and enjoyment of others,
+and to avoid all that gives needless uneasiness. It is the exterior
+exhibition of the divine precept, which requires us to do to others
+as we would that they should do to us. It is saying, by our deportment,
+to all around, that we consider their feelings, tastes, and
+conveniences, as equal in value to our own.
+
+Good manners lead us to avoid all practices which offend the taste of
+others; all unnecessary violations of the conventional rules of
+propriety; all rude and disrespectful language and deportment; and all
+remarks which would tend to wound the feelings of others.
+
+There is a serious defect in the manners of the American people,
+especially among the descendants of the Puritan settlers of New England,
+which can never be efficiently remedied, except in the domestic circle,
+and during early life. It is a deficiency in the free expression of
+kindly feelings and sympathetic emotions, and a want of courtesy in
+deportment. The causes which have led to this result may easily be
+traced.
+
+The forefathers of this nation, to a wide extent, were men who were
+driven from their native land by laws and customs which they believed
+to be opposed both to civil and religious freedom. The sufferings they
+were called to endure, the subduing of those gentler feelings which
+bind us to country, kindred, and home; and the constant subordination
+of the passions to stern principle, induced characters of great firmness
+and self-control. They gave up the comforts and refinements of a
+civilized country, and came as pilgrims to a hard soil, a cold clime,
+and a heathen shore. They were continually forced to encounter danger,
+privations, sickness, loneliness, and death; and all these their
+religion taught them to meet with calmness, fortitude, and submission.
+And thus it became the custom and habit of the whole mass, to repress
+rather than to encourage the expression of feeling.
+
+Persons who are called to constant and protracted suffering and
+privation are forced to subdue and conceal emotion; for the free
+expression of it would double their own suffering, and increase the
+sufferings of others. Those, only, who are free from care and anxiety,
+and whose minds are mainly occupied by cheerful emotions, are at full
+liberty to unveil their feelings.
+
+It was under such stern and rigorous discipline that the first children
+in New England were reared; and the manners and habits of parents are
+usually, to a great extent, transmitted to children. Thus it comes to
+pass, that the descendants of the Puritans, now scattered over every
+part of the nation, are predisposed to conceal the gentler emotions,
+while their manners are calm, decided, and cold, rather than free and
+impulsive. Of course, there are very many exceptions to these
+predominating characteristics.
+
+Other causes to which we may attribute a general want of courtesy in
+manners are certain incidental results of our domestic institutions.
+Our ancestors and their descendants have constantly been combating the
+aristocratic principle which would exalt one class of men at the expense
+of another. They have had to contend with this principle, not only in
+civil but in social life. Almost every American, in his own person as
+well as in behalf of his class, has had to assume and defend the main
+principle of democracy--that every man's feelings and interests are
+equal in value to those of every other man. But, in doing this, there
+has been some want of clear discrimination. Because claims based on
+distinctions of mere birth, fortune, or position, were found to be
+injurious, many have gone to the extreme of inferring that all
+distinctions, involving subordinations, are useless. Such would
+wrongfully regard children as equals to parents, pupils to teachers,
+domestics to their employers, and subjects to magistrates--and that,
+too, in all respects.
+
+The fact that certain grades of superiority and subordination are
+needful, both for individual and public benefit, has not been clearly
+discerned; and there has been a gradual tendency to an extreme of the
+opposite view which has sensibly affected our manners. All the
+proprieties and courtesies which depend on the recognition of the
+relative duties of superior and subordinate have been warred upon; and
+thus we see, to an increasing extent, disrespectful treatment of
+parents, by children; of teachers, by pupils; of employers, by
+domestics; and of the aged, by the young. In all classes and circles,
+there is a gradual decay in courtesy of address.
+
+In cases, too, where kindness is rendered, it is often accompanied
+with a cold, unsympathizing manner, which greatly lessens its value;
+while kindness or politeness is received in a similar style of coolness,
+as if it were but the payment of a just due.
+
+It is owing to these causes that the American people, especially the
+descendants of the Puritans, do not do themselves justice. For, while
+those who are near enough to learn their real character and feelings
+can discern the most generous impulses, and the most kindly sympathies,
+they are often so veiled behind a composed and indifferent demeanor,
+as to be almost entirely concealed from strangers.
+
+These defects in our national manners it especially falls to the care
+of mothers, and all who have charge of the young, to rectify; and if
+they seriously undertake the matter, and wisely adapt means to ends,
+these defects will be remedied. With reference to this object, the
+following ideas are suggested.
+
+The law of Christianity and of democracy, which teaches that all men
+are born equal in rights, and that their interests and feelings should
+be regarded as of equal value, seems to be adopted in aristocratic
+circles, with exclusive reference to the class in which the individual
+moves. The courtly gentleman addresses all of his own class with
+politeness and respect; and in all his actions, seems to allow that
+the feelings and convenience of these others are to be regarded the
+same as his own. But his demeanor to those of inferior station is not
+based on the same rule.
+
+Among those who make up aristocratic circles, such as are above them
+are deemed of superior, and such as are below of inferior, value. Thus,
+if a young, ignorant, and vicious coxcomb happens to have been born
+a lord, the aged, the virtuous, the learned, and the well-bred of
+another class must give his convenience the precedence, and must address
+him in terms of respect. So sometimes, when a man of "noble birth" is
+thrown among the lower classes, he demeans himself in a style which,
+to persons of his own class, would be deemed the height of assumption
+and rudeness.
+
+Now, the principles of democracy require that the same courtesy which
+we accord to our own circle shall be extended to every class and
+condition; and that distinctions of superiority and subordination shall
+depend, not on accidents of birth, fortune, or occupation, but solely
+on those mutual relations which the good of all classes equally require.
+The distinctions demanded in a democratic state are simply those which
+result from relations that are common to every class, and are for the
+benefit of all.
+
+It is for the benefit of every class that children be subordinate to
+parents, pupils to teachers, the employed to their employers, and
+subjects to magistrates. In addition to this, it is for the general
+well-being that the comfort or convenience of the delicate and feeble
+should be preferred to that of the strong and healthy, who would suffer
+less by any deprivation; that precedence should be given to their
+elders by the young; and that reverence should be given to the hoary
+head.
+
+The rules of good-breeding, in a democratic state, must be founded on
+these principles. It is indeed assumed that the value of the happiness
+of each individual is the same as that of every other; but as there
+must be occasions where there are advantages which all can not enjoy,
+there must be general rules for regulating a selection. Otherwise,
+there would be constant scrambling among those of equal claims, and
+brute force must be the final resort; in which case, the strongest
+would have the best of every thing. The democratic rule, then, is,
+that superiors in age, station, or office have precedence of
+subordinates; age and feebleness, of youth and strength; and the feebler
+sex, of more vigorous man. [Footnote: The universal practice of this
+nation, in thus giving precedence to woman has been severely commented
+on by foreigners, and by some who would transfer all the business of
+the other sex to women, and then have them treated like men. But we
+hope this evidence of our superior civilization and Christianity may
+increase rather than diminish.]
+
+There is, also, a style of deportment and address which is appropriate
+to these different relations. It is suitable for a superior to secure
+compliance with his wishes from those subordinate to him by commands;
+but a subordinate must secure compliance with his wishes from a superior
+by requests. (Although the kind and considerate manner to subordinates
+will always be found the most effective as well as the pleasantest,
+by those in superior station.) It is suitable for a parent, teacher,
+or employer to admonish for neglect of duty; but not for an inferior
+to adopt such a course toward a superior. It is suitable for a superior
+to take precedence of a subordinate, without any remark; but not for
+an inferior, without previously asking leave, or offering an apology.
+It is proper for a superior to use language and manners of freedom and
+familiarity, which would be improper from a subordinate to a superior.
+
+The want of due regard to these proprieties occasions a great defect
+in American manners. It is very common to hear children talk to their
+parents in a style proper only between companions and equals; so, also,
+the young address their elders; those employed, their employers; and
+domestics, the members of the family and their visitors, in a style
+which is inappropriate to their relative positions. But courteous
+address is required not merely toward superiors; every person desires
+to be thus treated, and therefore the law of benevolence demands such
+demeanor toward all whom we meet in the social intercourse of life.
+"Be ye courteous," is the direction of the apostle in reference to our
+treatment of _all_.
+
+Good manners can be successfully cultivated only in early life and in
+the domestic circle. There is nothing which depends so much upon
+_habit_ as the constantly recurring proprieties of good breeding;
+and if a child grows up without forming such habits, it is very rarely
+the case that they can be formed at a later period. The feeling that
+it is of little consequence how we behave at home if we conduct
+ourselves properly abroad, is a very fallacious one. Persons who are
+careless and ill-bred at home may imagine that they can assume good
+manners abroad; but they mistake. Fixed habits of tone, manner,
+language, and movements can not be suddenly altered; and those who are
+ill-bred at home, even when they try to hide their bad habits, are
+sure to violate many of the obvious rules of propriety, and yet be
+unconscious of it.
+
+And there is nothing which would so effectually remove prejudice against
+our democratic institutions as the general cultivation of good-breeding
+in the domestic circle. Good manners are the exterior of benevolence,
+the minute and constant exhibitions of "peace and good-will;" and the
+nation, as well as the individual, which most excels in the external
+demonstration, as well as the internal principle, will be most respected
+and beloved.
+
+It is only the training of the family state according to its true end
+and aim that is to secure to woman her true position and rights. When
+the family is instituted by marriage, it is man who is the head and
+chief magistrate by the force of his physical power and requirement
+of the chief responsibility; not less is he so according to the
+Christian law, by which, when differences arise, the husband has the
+deciding control, and the wife is to obey. "Where love is, there is
+no law;" but where love is not, the only dignified and peaceful course
+is for the wife, however much his superior, to "submit, as to God and
+not to man."
+
+But this power of nature and of religion, given to man as the
+controlling head, involves the distinctive duty of the family state,
+_self-sacrificing love_. The husband is to "honor" the wife, to
+love her as himself, and thus account her wishes and happiness as of
+equal value with his own. But more than this, he is to love her "as
+Christ loved the Church;" that is, he is to "suffer" for her, if need
+be, in order to support and elevate and ennoble her. The father then
+is to set the example of self-sacrificing love and devotion; and the
+mother, of Christian obedience when it is required. Every boy is to
+be trained for his future domestic position by labor and sacrifices
+for his mother and sisters. It is the brother who is to do the hardest
+and most disagreeable work, to face the storms and perform the most
+laborious drudgeries. In the family circle, too, he is to give his
+mother and sister precedence in all the conveniences and comforts of
+home life.
+
+It is only those nations where the teachings and example of Christ
+have had most influence that man has ever assumed his obligations of
+self-sacrificing benevolence in the family. And even in Christian
+communities, the duty of wives to obey their husbands has been more
+strenuously urged than the obligations of the husband to love his wife
+"as Christ loved the Church."
+
+Here it is needful to notice that the distinctive duty of obedience
+to man does not rest on women who do not enter the relations of married
+life. A woman who inherits property, or who earns her own livelihood,
+can institute the family state, adopt orphan children and employ
+suitable helpers in training them; and then to her will appertain the
+authority and rights that belong to man as the head of a family. And
+when every woman is trained to some self-supporting business, she will
+not be tempted to enter the family state as a subordinate, except by
+that love for which there is no need of law.
+
+These general principles being stated, some details in regard to
+domestic manners will be enumerated. In the first place, there should
+be required in the family a strict attention to the rules of precedence,
+and those modes of address appropriate to the various relations to be
+sustained. Children should always be required to offer their superiors,
+in age or station, the precedence in all comforts and conveniences,
+and always address them in a respectful tone and manner. The custom
+of adding, "Sir," or "Ma'am," to "Yes," or "No," is valuable, as a
+perpetual indication of a respectful recognition of superiority. It
+is now going out of fashion, even among the most well bred people;
+probably from a want of consideration of its importance. Every remnant
+of courtesy of address, in our customs, should be carefully cherished,
+by all who feel a value for the proprieties of good breeding.
+
+If parents allow their children to talk to them, and to the grown
+persons in the family, in the same style in which they address each
+other, it will be in vain to hope for the courtesy of manner and tone
+which good breeding demands in the general intercourse of society. In
+a large family, where the elder children are grown up, and the younger
+are small, it is important to require the latter to treat the elder
+in some sense as superiors. There are none so ready as young children
+to assume airs of equality; and if they are allowed to treat one class
+of superiors in age and character disrespectfully, they will soon use
+the privilege universally. This is the reason, why the youngest children
+of a family are most apt to be pert, forward, and unmannerly.
+
+Another point to be aimed at is, to require children always to
+acknowledge every act of kindness and attention, either by words or
+manner. If they are so trained as always to make grateful
+acknowledgments, when receiving favors, one of the objectionable
+features in American manners will be avoided.
+
+Again, children should be required to ask leave, whenever they wish
+to gratify curiosity, or use an article which belongs to another. And
+if cases occur, when they can not comply with the rules of
+good-breeding, as, for instance, when they must step between a person
+and the fire, or take the chair of an older person, they should be
+taught either to ask leave, or to offer an apology.
+
+There is another point of good-breeding, which can not, in all cases,
+be understood and applied by children in its widest extent. It is that
+which requires us to avoid all remarks which tend to embarrass, vex,
+mortify, or in any way wound the feelings of another. To notice personal
+defects; to allude to others' faults, or the faults of their friends;
+to speak disparagingly of the sect or party to which a person belongs;
+to be inattentive when addressed in conversation; to contradict flatly;
+to speak in contemptuous tones of opinions expressed by another; all
+these are violations of the rules of good-breeding, which children
+should be taught to regard. Under this head comes the practice of
+whispering and staring about, when a teacher, or lecturer, or clergyman
+is addressing a class or audience. Such inattention is practically
+saying that what the person is uttering is not worth attending to; and
+persons of real good-breeding always avoid it. Loud talking and laughing
+in a large assembly, even when no exercises are going on; yawning and
+gaping in company; and not looking in the face a person who is
+addressing you, are deemed marks of ill-breeding.
+
+Another branch of good manners relates to the duties of hospitality.
+Politeness requires us to welcome visitors with cordiality; to offer
+them the best accommodations; to address conversation to them; and to
+express, by tone and manner, kindness and respect. Offering the hand
+to all visitors at one's own house is a courteous and hospitable custom;
+and a cordial shake of the hand, when friends meet, would abate much
+of the coldness of manner ascribed to Americans.
+
+Another point of good breeding refers to the conventional rules of
+propriety and good taste. Of these, the first class relates to the
+avoidance of all disgusting or offensive personal habits: such as
+fingering the hair; obtrusively using a toothpick, or carrying one in
+the mouth after the needful use of it; cleaning the nails in presence
+of others; picking the nose; spitting on carpets; snuffing instead of
+using a handkerchief, or using the article in an offensive manner;
+lifting up the boots or shoes, as some men do, to tend them on the
+knee, or to finger them: all these tricks, either at home or in society,
+children should be taught to avoid.
+
+Another topic, under this head, may be called _table manners_.
+To persons of good-breeding, nothing is more annoying than violations
+of the conventional proprieties of the table. Reaching over another
+person's plate; standing up, to reach distant articles, instead of
+asking to have them passed; using one's own knife and spoon for butter,
+salt, or sugar, when it is the custom of the family to provide separate
+utensils for the purpose; setting cups with the tea dripping from them,
+on the table-cloth, instead of the mats or small plates furnished;
+using the table-cloth instead of the napkins; eating fast, and in a
+noisy manner; putting large pieces in the mouth; looking and eating
+as if very hungry, or as if anxious to get at certain dishes; sitting
+at too great a distance from the table, and dropping food; laying the
+knife and fork on the table-cloth, instead of on the edge of the plate;
+picking the teeth at table: all these particulars children should be
+taught to avoid.
+
+It is always desirable, too, to train children, when at table with
+grown persons, to be silent, except when addressed by others; or else
+their chattering will interrupt the conversation and comfort of their
+elders. They should always be required, too, to wait in silence, till
+all the older persons are helped.
+
+When children are alone with their parents, it is desirable to lead
+them to converse and to take this as an opportunity to form proper
+conversational habits. But it should be a fixed rule that, when
+strangers are present, the children are to listen in silence and only
+reply when addressed. Unless this is secured, visitors will often be
+condemned to listen to puerile chattering, with small chance of the
+proper attention due to guests and superiors in age and station.
+
+Children should be trained, in preparing themselves for the table or
+for appearance among the family, not only to put their hair, face, and
+hands in neat order, but also their nails, and to habitually attend
+to this latter whenever they wash their hands.
+
+There are some very disagreeable tricks which many children practice
+even in families counted well-bred. Such, for example, are drumming
+with the fingers on some piece of furniture, or humming a tune while
+others are talking, or interrupting conversation by pertinacious
+questions, or whistling in the house instead of out-doors, or speaking
+several at once and in loud voices to gain attention. All these are
+violations of good-breeding, which children should be trained to
+avoid, lest they should not only annoy as children, but practice the
+same kind of ill manners when mature. In all assemblies for public
+debate, a chairman or moderator is appointed whose business it is to
+see that only one person speaks at a time, that no one interrupts a
+person when speaking, that no needless noises are made, and that all
+indecorums are avoided. Such an officer is sometimes greatly needed
+in family circles.
+
+Children should be encouraged freely to use lungs and limbs out-doors,
+or in hours for sport in the house. But at other times, in the domestic
+circle, gentle tones and manners should be cultivated. The words
+_gentleman_ and _gentlewoman_ came originally from the fact that the
+uncultivated and ignorant classes used coarse and loud tones, and rough
+words and movements; while only the refined circles habitually used
+gentle tones and gentle manners. For the same reason, those born in the
+higher circles were called "of gentle blood." Thus it came that a coarse
+and loud voice, and rough, ungentle manners, are regarded as vulgar and
+plebeian.
+
+All these things should be taught to children, gradually, and with
+great patience and gentleness. Some parents, with whom good manners
+are a great object, are in danger of making their children perpetually
+uncomfortable, by suddenly surrounding them with so many rules that
+they must inevitably violate some one or other a great part of the
+time. It is much better to begin with a few rules, and be steady and
+persevering with these, till a habit is formed, and then take a few
+more, thus making the process easy and gradual. Otherwise, the temper
+of children will be injured; or, hopeless of fulfilling so many
+requisitions, they will become reckless and indifferent to all.
+
+If a few brief, well-considered, and sensible rules of good manners
+could be suspended in every school-room, and the children all required
+to commit them to memory, it probably would do more to remedy the
+defects of American manners and to advance universal good-breeding
+than any other mode that could be so easily adopted.
+
+But, in reference to those who have enjoyed advantages for the
+cultivation of good manners, and who duly estimate its importance, one
+caution is necessary. Those who never have had such habits formed in
+youth are under disadvantages which no benevolence of temper can
+altogether remedy. They may often violate the tastes and feelings of
+others, not from a want of proper regard for them, but from ignorance
+of custom, or want of habit, or abstraction of mind, or from other
+causes which demand forbearance and sympathy, rather than displeasure.
+An ability to bear patiently with defects in manners, and to make
+candid and considerate allowance for a want of advantages, or for
+peculiarities in mental habits, is one mark of the benevolence of real
+good-breeding.
+
+The advocates of monarchical and aristocratic institutions have always
+had great plausibility given to their views, by the seeming tendencies
+of our institutions to insubordination and bad manners. And it has
+been too indiscriminately conceded, by the defenders of the latter,
+that such are these tendencies, and that the offensive points in
+American manners are the necessary result of democratic principles.
+
+But it is believed that both facts and reasoning are in opposition to
+this opinion. The following extract from the work of De Tocqueville,
+the great political philosopher of France, exhibits the opinion of an
+impartial observer, when comparing American manners with those of the
+English, who are confessedly the most aristocratic of all people.
+
+He previously remarks on the tendency of aristocracy to make men more
+sympathizing with persons of their own peculiar class, and less so
+toward those of lower degree; and he then contrasts American manners
+with the English, claiming that the Americans are much the more affable,
+mild, and social. "In America, where the privileges of birth never
+existed and where riches confer no peculiar rights on their possessors,
+men acquainted with each other are very ready to frequent the same
+places, and find neither peril nor disadvantage in the free interchange
+of their thoughts. If they meet by accident, they neither seek nor
+avoid intercourse; their manner is therefore natural, frank, and open."
+"If their demeanor is often cold and serious, it is never haughty or
+constrained." But an "aristocratic pride is still extremely great among
+the English; and as the limits of aristocracy are still ill-defined,
+every body lives in constant dread, lest advantage should be taken of
+his familiarity. Unable to judge, at once, of the social position of
+those he meets, an Englishman prudently avoids all contact with him.
+Men are afraid, lest some slight service rendered should draw them
+into an unsuitable acquaintance; they dread civilities, and they avoid
+the obtrusive gratitude of a stranger, as much as his hatred."
+
+Thus, _facts_ seem to show that when the most aristocratic nation
+in the world is compared, as to manners, with the most democratic, the
+judgment of strangers is in favor of the latter. And if good manners
+are the outward exhibition of the democratic principle of impartial
+benevolence and equal rights, surely the nation which adopts this rule,
+both in social and civil life, is the most likely to secure the
+desirable exterior. The aristocrat, by his principles, extends the
+exterior of impartial benevolence to his own class only; the democratic
+principle requires it to be extended _to all_.
+
+There is reason, therefore, to hope and expect more refined and polished
+manners in America than in any other land; while all the developments
+of taste and refinement, such as poetry, music, painting, sculpture,
+and architecture, it may be expected, will come to as high a state of
+perfection here as in any other nation.
+
+If this country increases in virtue and intelligence, as it may, there
+is no end to the wealth which will pour in as the result of our
+resources of climate, soil, and navigation, and the skill, industry,
+energy, and enterprise of our countrymen. This wealth, if used as
+intelligence and virtue dictate, will furnish the means for a superior
+education to all classes, and every facility for the refinement of
+taste, intellect, and feeling.
+
+Moreover, in this country, labor is ceasing to be the badge of a lower
+class; so that already it is disreputable for a man to be "a lazy
+gentleman." And this feeling must increase, till there is such an
+equalization of labor as will afford all the time needful for every
+class to improve the many advantages offered to them. Already through
+the munificence of some of our citizens, there are literary and
+scientific advantages offered to all classes, rarely enjoyed elsewhere.
+In most of our large cities and towns, the advantages of education,
+now offered to the poorest classes, often without charge, surpass what,
+some years ago, most wealthy men could purchase for any price. And it
+is believed that a time will come when the poorest boy in America can
+secure advantages, which will equal what the heir of the proudest
+peerage can now command.
+
+The records of the courts of France and Germany, (as detailed by the
+Duchess of Orleans,) in and succeeding the brilliant reign of Louis
+the Fourteenth--a period which was deemed the acme of elegance and
+refinement--exhibit a grossness, a vulgarity, and a coarseness, not
+to be found among the very lowest of our respectable poor. And the
+biography of the English Beau Nash, who attempted to reform the manners
+of the gentry, in the times of Queen Anne, exhibits violations of the
+rules of decency among the aristocracy, which the commonest yeoman of
+this land would feel disgraced in perpetrating.
+
+This shows that our lowest classes, at this period, are more refined
+than were the highest in aristocratic lands, a hundred years ago; and
+another century may show the lowest classes, in wealth, in this country,
+attaining as high a polish as adorns those who now are leaders of good
+manners in the courts of kings.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+THE PRESERVATION OF GOOD TEMPER IN THE HOUSEKEEPER.
+
+There is nothing which has a more abiding influence on the happiness
+of a family than the preservation of equable and cheerful temper and
+tones in the housekeeper. A woman who is habitually gentle,
+sympathizing, forbearing, and cheerful, carries an atmosphere about
+her which imparts a soothing and sustaining influence, and renders it
+easier for all to do right, under her administration, than in any other
+situation.
+
+The writer has known families where the mother's presence seemed the
+sunshine of the circle around her; imparting a cheering and vivifying
+power, scarcely realized till it was withdrawn. Every one, without
+thinking of it, or knowing why it was so, experienced a peaceful and
+invigorating influence as soon as he entered the sphere illumined by
+her smile, and sustained by her cheering kindness and sympathy. On the
+contrary, many a good housekeeper, (good in every respect but this,)
+by wearing a countenance of anxiety and dissatisfaction, and by
+indulging in the frequent use of sharp and reprehensive tones, more
+than destroys all the comfort which otherwise would result from her
+system, neatness, and economy.
+
+There is a secret, social sympathy which every mind, to a greater or
+less degree, experiences with the feelings of those around, as they
+are manifested by the countenance and voice. A sorrowful, a
+discontented, or an angry countenance produces a silent, sympathetic
+influence, imparting a sombre shade to the mind, while tones of anger
+or complaint still more effectually jar the spirits.
+
+No person can maintain a quiet and cheerful frame of mind while tones
+of discontent and displeasure are sounding on the ear. We may gradually
+accustom ourselves to the evil till it is partially diminished; but
+it always is an evil which greatly interferes with the enjoyment of
+the family state. There are sometimes cases where the entrance of the
+mistress of a family seems to awaken a slight apprehension in every
+mind around, as if each felt in danger of a reproof, for something
+either perpetrated or neglected. A woman who should go around her house
+with a small stinging snapper, which she habitually applied to those
+whom she met, would be encountered with feelings very much like those
+which are experienced by the inmates of a family where the mistress
+often uses her countenance and voice to inflict similar penalties for
+duties neglected.
+
+Yet there are many allowances to be made for housekeepers, who sometimes
+imperceptibly and unconsciously fall into such habits. A woman who
+attempts to carry out any plans of system, order, and economy, and who
+has her feelings and habits conformed to certain rules, is constantly
+liable to have her plans crossed, and her taste violated, by the
+inexperience or inattention of those about her. And no housekeeper,
+whatever may be her habits, can escape the frequent recurrence of
+negligence or mistake, which interferes with her plans.
+
+It is probable that there is no class of persons in the world who have
+such incessant trials of temper, and temptations to be fretful, as
+American housekeepers. For a housekeeper's business is not, like that
+of the other sex, limited to a particular department, for which previous
+preparation is made. It consists of ten thousand little disconnected
+items, which can never be so systematically arranged that there is no
+daily jostling somewhere. And in the best-regulated families, it is
+not unfrequently the case that some act of forgetfulness or
+carelessness, from some member, will disarrange the business of the
+whole day, so that every hour will bring renewed occasion for annoyance.
+And the more strongly a woman realizes the value of time, and the
+importance of system and order, the more will she be tempted to
+irritability and complaint.
+
+The following considerations may aid in preparing a woman to meet such
+daily crosses with even a cheerful temper and tones.
+
+In the first place, a woman who has charge of a large household should
+regard her duties as dignified, important, and difficult. The mind is
+so made as to be elevated and cheered by a sense of far-reaching
+influence and usefulness. A woman who feels that she is a cipher, and
+that it makes little difference how she performs her duties, has far
+less to sustain and invigorate her, than one who truly estimates the
+importance of her station. A man who feels that the destinies of a
+nation are turning on the judgment and skill with which he plans and
+executes, has a pressure of motive and an elevation of feeling which
+are great safeguards against all that is low, trivial, and degrading.
+
+So, an American mother and housekeeper who rightly estimates the long
+train of influence which will pass down to thousands, whose destinies,
+from generation to generation, will be modified by those decisions of
+her will which regulate the temper, principles, and habits of her
+family, must be elevated above petty temptations which would otherwise
+assail her.
+
+Again, a housekeeper should feel that she really has great difficulties
+to meet and overcome. A person who wrongly thinks there is little
+danger, can never maintain so faithful a guard as one who rightly
+estimates the temptations which beset her. Nor can one who thinks that
+they are trifling difficulties which she has to encounter, and trivial
+temptations to which she must yield, so much enjoy the just reward of
+conscious virtue and self-control as one who takes an opposite view
+of the subject.
+
+A third method is, for a woman deliberately to calculate on having her
+best-arranged plans interfered with very often; and to be in such a
+state of preparation that the evil will not come unawares. So
+complicated are the pursuits and so diverse the habits of the various
+members of a family, that it is almost impossible for every one to
+avoid interfering with the plans and taste of a housekeeper, in some
+one point or another. It is, therefore, most wise for a woman to keep
+the loins of her mind ever girt, to meet such collisions with a cheerful
+and quiet spirit.
+
+Another important rule is, to form all plans and arrangements in
+consistency with the means at command, and the character of those
+around. A woman who has a heedless husband, and young children, and
+incompetent domestics, ought not to make such plans as one may properly
+form who will not, in so many directions, meet embarrassment. She must
+aim at just as much as she can probably attain, and no more; and thus
+she will usually escape much temptation, and much of the irritation
+of disappointment.
+
+The fifth, and a very important consideration, is, that system, economy,
+and neatness are valuable, only so far as they tend to promote the
+comfort and well-being of those affected. Some women seem to act
+under the impression that these advantages _must_ be secured, at all
+events, even if the comfort of the family be the sacrifice. True, it
+is very important that children grow up in habits of system, neatness,
+and order; and it is very desirable that the mother give them every
+incentive, both by precept and example; but it is still more important
+that they grow up with amiable tempers, that they learn to meet the
+crosses of life with patience and cheerfulness; and nothing has a
+greater influence to secure this than a mother's example. Whenever,
+therefore, a woman can not accomplish her plans of neatness and order
+without injury to her own temper or to the temper of others, she ought
+to modify and reduce them until she can.
+
+The sixth method relates to the government of the tones of voice. In
+many cases, when a woman's domestic arrangements are suddenly and
+seriously crossed, it is impossible not to feel some irritation. But
+it _is_ always possible to refrain from angry tones. A woman can
+resolve that, whatever happens, she will not speak till she can do it
+in a calm and gentle manner. _Perfect silence_ is a safe resort,
+when such control can not be attained as enables a person to speak
+calmly; and this determination, persevered in, will eventually be
+crowned with success.
+
+Many persons seem to imagine that tones of anger are needful, in order
+to secure prompt obedience. But observation has convinced the writer
+that they are _never_ necessary; that _in all cases_, reproof,
+administered in calm tones, would be better. A case will be given in
+illustration.
+
+A young girl had been repeatedly charged to avoid a certain arrangement
+in cooking. On one day, when company was invited to dine, the direction
+was forgotten, and the consequence was an accident, which disarranged
+every thing, seriously injured the principal dish, and delayed dinner
+for an hour. The mistress of the family entered the kitchen just as
+it occurred, and at a glance, saw the extent of the mischief. For a
+moment, her eyes flashed, and her cheeks glowed; but she held her
+peace. After a minute or so, she gave directions in a calm voice, as
+to the best mode of retrieving the evil, and then left, without a word
+said to the offender.
+
+After the company left, she sent for the girl, alone, and in a calm
+and kind manner pointed out the aggravations of the case, and described
+the trouble which had been caused to her husband, her visitors, and
+herself. She then portrayed the future evils which would result from
+such habits of neglect and inattention, and the modes of attempting
+to overcome them; and then offered a reward for the future, if, in a
+given time, she succeeded in improving in this respect. Not a tone of
+anger was uttered; and yet the severest scolding of a practiced Xantippe
+could not have secured such contrition, and determination to reform,
+as were gained by this method.
+
+But similar negligence is often visited by a continuous stream of
+complaint and reproof, which, in most cases, is met either by sullen
+silence or impertinent retort, while anger prevents any contrition or
+any resolution of future amendment.
+
+It is very certain, that some ladies do carry forward a most efficient
+government, both of children and domestics, without employing tones
+of anger; and therefore they are not indispensable, nor on any account
+desirable.
+
+Though some ladies of intelligence and refinement do fall unconsciously
+into such a practice, it is certainly very unlady-like, and in very
+bad taste, to _scold_; and the further a woman departs from all
+approach to it, the more perfectly she sustains her character as a
+lady.
+
+Another method of securing equanimity, amid the trials of domestic
+life is, to cultivate a habit of making allowances for the difficulties,
+ignorance, or temptations of those who violate rule or neglect duty.
+It is vain, and most unreasonable, to expect the consideration and
+care of a mature mind in childhood and youth; or that persons of such
+limited advantages as most domestics have enjoyed should practice
+proper self-control and possess proper habits and principles.
+
+Every parent and every employer needs daily to cultivate the spirit
+expressed in the divine prayer, "Forgive us our trespasses, as we
+forgive those who trespass against us." The same allowances and
+forbearance which we supplicate from our Heavenly Father, and desire
+from our fellow-men in reference to our own deficiencies, we should
+constantly aim to extend to all who cross our feelings and interfere
+with our plans.
+
+The last and most important mode of securing a placid and cheerful
+temper and tones is, by a constant belief in the influence of a
+superintending Providence. All persons are too much in the habit of
+regarding the more important events of life exclusively as under the
+control of Perfect Wisdom. But the fall of a sparrow, or the loss of
+a hair, they do not feel to be equally the result of his directing
+agency. In consequence of this, Christian persons who aim at perfect
+and cheerful submission to heavy afflictions, and who succeed to the
+edification of all about them, are sometimes sadly deficient under
+petty crosses. If a beloved child be laid in the grave, even if its
+death resulted from the carelessness of a domestic or of a physician,
+the eye is turned from the subordinate agent to the Supreme Guardian
+of all; and to him they bow, without murmur or complaint. But if a
+pudding be burnt, or a room badly swept, or an errand forgotten, then
+vexation and complaint are allowed, just as if these events were not
+appointed by Perfect Wisdom as much as the sorer chastisement.
+
+A woman, therefore, needs to cultivate the _habitual_ feeling
+that all the events of her nursery and kitchen are brought about by
+the permission of our Heavenly Father, and that fretfulness or complaint
+in regard to these is, in fact, complaining at the appointments of
+God, and is really as sinful as unsubmissive murmurs amid the sorer
+chastisements of his hand. And a woman who cultivates this habit of
+referring all the minor trials of life to the wise and benevolent
+agency of a heavenly Parent, and daily seeks his sympathy and aid to
+enable her to meet them with a quiet and cheerful spirit, will soon
+find it the perennial spring of abiding peace and content.
+
+The power of religion to impart dignity and importance to the ordinary
+and seemingly petty details of domestic life, greatly depends upon the
+degree of faith in the reality of a life to come, and of its eternal
+results. A woman who is training a family simply with reference to
+this life may find exalted motives as she looks forward to unborn
+generations whose temporal prosperity and happiness are depending upon
+her fidelity and skill. But one who truly and firmly believes that
+this life is but the beginning of an eternal career to every immortal
+inmate of her home, and that the formation of tastes, habits, and
+character, under her care, will bring forth fruits of good or ill, not
+only through earthly generations, but through everlasting ages; such
+a woman secures a calm and exalted principle of action, which no earthly
+motives can impart.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+HABITS OF SYSTEM AND ORDER.
+
+Any discussion of the equality of the sexes, as to intellectual
+capacity, seems frivolous and useless, both because it can never be
+decided, and because there would be no possible advantage in the
+decision. But one topic, which is often drawn into this discussion,
+is of far more consequence; and that is, the relative importance and
+difficulty of the duties a woman is called to perform.
+
+It is generally assumed, and almost as generally conceded, that a
+housekeeper's business and cares are contracted and trivial; and that
+the proper discharge of her duties demands far less expansion of mind
+and vigor of intellect than the pursuits of the other sex. This idea
+has prevailed because women, as a mass, have never been educated with
+reference to their most important duties; while that portion of their
+employments which is of least value has been regarded as the chief,
+if not the sole, concern of a woman. The covering of the body, the
+convenience of residences, and the gratification of the appetite, have
+been too much regarded as the chief objects on which her intellectual
+powers are to be exercised.
+
+But as society gradually shakes off the remnants of barbarism and the
+intellectual and moral interests of man rise, in estimation, above the
+merely sensual, a truer estimate is formed of woman's duties, and of
+the measure of intellect requisite for the proper discharge of them.
+Let any man of sense and discernment become the member of a large
+household, in which a well-educated and pious woman is endeavoring
+systematically to discharge her multiform duties; let him fully
+comprehend all her cares, difficulties, and perplexities; and it is
+probable he would coincide in the opinion that no statesman, at the
+head of a nation's affairs, had more frequent calls for wisdom,
+firmness, tact, discrimination, prudence, and versatility of talent,
+than such a woman.
+
+She has a husband, to whose peculiar tastes and habits she must
+accommodate herself; she has children whose health she must guard,
+whose physical constitutions she must study and develop, whose temper
+and habits she must regulate, whose principles she must form, whose
+pursuits she must guide. She has constantly changing domestics, with
+all varieties of temper and habits, whom she must govern, instruct,
+and direct; she is required to regulate the finances of the domestic
+state, and constantly to adapt expenditures to the means and to the
+relative claims of each department. She has the direction of the
+kitchen, where ignorance, forgetfulness, and awkwardness are to be so
+regulated that the various operations shall each start at the right
+time, and all be in completeness at the same given hour. She has the
+claims of society to meet, visits to receive and return, and the duties
+of hospitality to sustain. She has the poor to relieve; benevolent
+societies to aid; the schools of her children to inquire and decide
+about; the care of the sick and the aged; the nursing of infancy; and
+the endless miscellany of odd items, constantly recurring in a large
+family.
+
+Surely, it is a pernicious and mistaken idea, that the duties which
+tax a woman's mind are petty, trivial, or unworthy of the highest grade
+of intellect and moral worth. Instead of allowing this feeling, every
+woman should imbibe, from early youth, the impression that she is in
+training for the discharge of the most important, the most difficult,
+and the most sacred and interesting duties that can possibly employ
+the highest intellect. She ought to feel that her station and
+responsibilities in the great drama of life are second to none, either
+as viewed by her Maker, or in the estimation of all minds whose judgment
+is most worthy of respect.
+
+She who is the mother and housekeeper in a large family is the sovereign
+of an empire, demanding more varied cares, and involving more difficult
+duties, than are really exacted of her who wears a crown and professedly
+regulates the interests of the greatest nation on earth.
+
+There is no one thing more necessary to a housekeeper in performing
+her varied duties, than _a habit of system and order_; and yet,
+the peculiarly desultory nature of women's pursuits, and the
+embarrassments resulting from the state of domestic service in this
+country, render it very difficult to form such a habit. But it is
+sometimes the case that women who could and would carry forward a
+systematic plan of domestic economy do not attempt it, simply from a
+want of knowledge of the various modes of introducing it. It is with
+reference to such, that various modes of securing system and order,
+which the writer has seen adopted, will be pointed out.
+
+A wise economy is nowhere more conspicuous, than in a systematic
+_apportionment of time_ to different pursuits. There are duties
+of a religious, intellectual, social, and domestic nature, each having
+different relative claims on attention. Unless a person has some general
+plan of apportioning these claims, some will intrench on others, and
+some, it is probable, will be entirely excluded. Thus, some find
+religious, social, and domestic duties so numerous, that no time is
+given to intellectual improvement. Others find either social, or
+benevolent, or religious interests excluded by the extent and variety
+of other engagements.
+
+It is wise, therefore, for all persons to devise a systematic plan,
+which they will at least keep in view, and aim to accomplish; and by
+which a proper proportion of time shall be secured for all the duties
+of life.
+
+In forming such a plan, every woman must accommodate herself to the
+peculiarities of her situation. If she has a large family and a small
+income, she must devote far more time to the simple duty of providing
+food and raiment than would be right were she in affluence, and with
+a small family. It is impossible, therefore, to draw out any general
+plan, which all can adopt. But there are some _general principles,_
+which ought to be the guiding rules, when a woman arranges her domestic
+employments. These principles are to be based on Christianity, which
+teaches us to "seek first the kingdom of God," and to deem food,
+raiment, and the conveniences of life, as of secondary account. Every
+woman, then, ought to start with the assumption, that the moral and
+religious interests of her family are of more consequence than any
+worldly concern, and that, whatever else may be sacrificed, these shall
+be the leading object, in all her arrangements, in respect to time,
+money, and attention.
+
+It is also one of the plainest requisitions of Christianity, that we
+devote some of our time and efforts to the comfort and improvement of
+others. There is no duty so constantly enforced, both in the Old and
+New Testament, as that of charity, in dispensing to those who are
+destitute of the blessings we enjoy. In selecting objects of charity,
+the same rule applies to others as to ourselves; their moral and
+religions interests are of the highest moment, and for them, as well
+as for ourselves, we are to "seek first the kingdom of God."
+
+Another general principle is, that our intellectual and social interests
+are to be preferred to the mere gratification of taste or appetite.
+A portion of time, therefore, must be devoted to the cultivation of
+the intellect and the social affections.
+
+Another is, that the mere gratification of appetite is to be placed
+last in our estimate; so that, when a question arises as to which shall
+be sacrificed, some intellectual, moral, or social advantage, or some
+gratification of sense, we should invariably sacrifice the last.
+
+As health is indispensable to the discharge of every duty, nothing
+which sacrifices that blessing is to be allowed in order to gain any
+other advantage or enjoyment. There are emergencies, when it is right
+to risk health and life, to save ourselves and others from greater
+evils; but these are exceptions, which do not militate against the
+general rule. Many persons imagine that, if they violate the laws of
+health, in order to attend to religious or domestic duties, they are
+guiltless before God. But such greatly mistake. We directly violate
+the law, "Thou shalt not kill," when we do what tends to risk or shorten
+our own life. The life and happiness of all his creatures are dear to
+our Creator; and he is as much displeased when we injure our own
+interests, as when we injure those of others. The idea, therefore,
+that we are excusable if we harm no one but ourselves, is false and
+pernicious. These, then, are some general principles, to guide a woman
+in systematizing her duties and pursuits.
+
+The Creator of all things is a Being of perfect system and order; and,
+to aid us in our duty in this respect, he has divided our time, by a
+regularly returning day of rest from worldly business. In following
+this example, the intervening six days maybe subdivided to secure
+similar benefits. In doing this, a certain portion of time must be
+given to procure the means of livelihood, and for preparing food,
+raiment, and dwellings. To these objects, some must devote more, and
+others less, attention. The remainder of time not necessarily thus
+employed, might be divided somewhat in this manner: The leisure of two
+afternoons and evenings could be devoted to religious and benevolent
+objects, such as religious meetings, charitable associations, school
+visiting, and attention to the sick and poor. The leisure of two other
+days might be devoted to intellectual improvement, and the pursuits
+of taste. The leisure of another day might be devoted to social
+enjoyments, in making or receiving visits; and that of another, to
+miscellaneous domestic pursuits, not included in the other particulars.
+
+It is probable that few persons could carry out such an arrangement
+very strictly; but every one can make a systematic apportionment of
+time, and at least _aim_ at accomplishing it; and they can also
+compare with such a general outline, the time which they actually
+devote to these different objects, for the purpose of modifying any
+mistaken proportions.
+
+Without attempting any such systematic employment of time, and carrying
+it out, so far as they can control circumstances, most women are rather
+driven along by the daily occurrences of life; so that, instead of
+being the intelligent regulators of their own time, they are the mere
+sport of circumstances. There is nothing which so distinctly marks the
+difference between weak and strong minds as the question, whether they
+control circumstances or circumstances control them.
+
+It is very much to be feared, that the apportionment of time actually
+made by most women exactly inverts the order required by reason and
+Christianity. Thus, the furnishing a needless variety of food, the
+conveniences of dwellings, and the adornments of dress, often take a
+larger portion of time than is given to any other object. Next after
+this, comes intellectual improvement; and, last of all, benevolence
+and religion.
+
+It may be urged, that it is indispensable for most persons to give
+more time to earn a livelihood, and to prepare food, raiment, and
+dwellings, than, to any other object. But it may be asked, how much
+of the time, devoted to these objects, is employed in preparing
+varieties of food not necessary, but rather injurious, and how much
+is spent for those parts of dress and furniture not indispensable, and
+merely ornamental? Let a woman subtract from her domestic employments
+all the time given to pursuits which are of no use, except as they
+gratify a taste for ornament, or minister increased varieties to tempt
+the appetite, and she will find that much which she calls "domestic
+duty," and which prevents her attention to intellectual, benevolent,
+and religious objects, should be called by a very different name.
+
+No woman has a right to give up attention to the higher interests of
+herself and others, for the ornaments of person or the gratification
+of the palate. To a certain extent, these lower objects are lawful and
+desirable; but when they intrude on nobler interests, they become
+selfish and degrading. Every woman, then, when employing her hands in
+ornamenting her person, her children, or her house, ought to calculate
+whether she has devoted as _much_ time to the really more important
+wants of herself and others. If she has not, she may know that she is
+doing wrong, and that her system for apportioning her time and pursuits
+should be altered.
+
+Some persons endeavor to systematize their pursuits by apportioning
+them to particular hours of each day. For example, a certain period
+before breakfast, is given to devotional duties; after breakfast,
+certain hours are devoted to exercise and domestic employments; other
+hours, to sewing, or reading, or visiting; and others, to benevolent
+duties. But in most cases, it is more difficult to systematize the
+hours of each day, than it is to secure some regular division of the
+week.
+
+In regard to the minutia of family work, the writer has known the
+following methods to be adopted. Monday, with some of the best
+housekeepers, is devoted to preparing for the labors of the week. Any
+extra cooking, the purchasing of articles to be used during the week,
+the assorting of clothes for the wash, and mending such as would
+otherwise be injured--these, and similar items, belong to this day.
+Tuesday is devoted to washing, and Wednesday to ironing. On Thursday,
+the ironing is finished off, the clothes are folded and put away, and
+all articles which need mending are put in the mending-basket, and
+attended to. Friday is devoted to sweeping and house-cleaning. On
+Saturday, and especially the last Saturday of every month, every
+department is put in order; the casters and table furniture are
+regulated, the pantry and cellar inspected, the trunks, drawers, and
+closets arranged, and every thing about the house put in order for
+Sunday. By this regular recurrence of a particular time for inspecting
+every thing, nothing is forgotten till ruined by neglect.
+Another mode of systematizing relates to providing proper supplies of
+conveniences, and proper places in which to keep them. Thus, some
+ladies keep a large closet, in which are placed the tubs, pails,
+dippers, soap-dishes, starch, blueing, clothes-lines, clothes-pins,
+and every other article used in washing; and in the same, or another
+place, is kept every convenience for ironing. In the sewing department,
+a trunk, with suitable partitions, is provided, in which are placed,
+each in its proper place, white thread of all sizes, colored thread,
+yarns for mending, colored and black sewing-silks and twist, tapes and
+bobbins of all sizes, white and colored welting-cords, silk braids and
+cords, needles of all sizes, papers of pins, remnants of linen and
+colored cambric, a supply of all kinds of buttons used in the family,
+black and white hooks and eyes, a yard measure, and all the patterns
+used in cutting and fitting. These are done up in separate parcels,
+and labeled. In another trunk, or in a piece-bag, such as has been
+previously described, are kept all pieces used in mending, arranged
+in order. A trunk, like the first mentioned, will save many steps, and
+often much time and perplexity; while by purchasing articles thus by
+the quantity, they come much cheaper than if bought in little portions
+as they are wanted. Such a trunk should be kept locked, and a smaller
+supply for current use retained in a work-basket.
+
+A full supply of all conveniences in the kitchen and cellar, and a
+place appointed for each article, very much facilitate domestic labor.
+For want of this, much vexation and loss of time is occasioned while
+seeking vessels in use, or in cleansing those employed by different
+persons for various purposes. It would be far better for a lady to
+give up some expensive article in the parlor, and apply the money thus
+saved for kitchen conveniences, than to have a stinted supply where
+the most labor is to be performed, If our countrywomen would devote
+more to comfort and convenience, and less to show, it would be a great
+improvement. Expensive mirrors and pier-tables in the parlor, and an
+unpainted, gloomy, ill-furnished kitchen, not unfrequently are found
+under the same roof.
+
+Another important item in systematic economy is, the apportioning of
+_regular_ employment to the various members of a family. If a
+housekeeper can secure the cooperation of _all_ her family, she will
+find that "many hands make light work." There is no greater mistake
+than in bringing up children to feel that they must be taken care of,
+and waited on by others, without any corresponding obligations on their
+part. The extent to which young children can be made useful in a family
+would seem surprising to those who have never seen a _systematic_ and
+_regular_ plan for utilizing their services. The writer has been in a
+family where a little girl, of eight or nine years of age, washed and
+dressed herself and young brother, and made their small beds, before
+breakfast; set and cleared all the tables for meals, with a little help
+from a grown person in moving tables and spreading cloths; while all the
+dusting of parlors and chambers was also neatly performed by her. A
+brother of ten years old brought in and piled all the wood used in the
+kitchen and parlor, brushed the boots and shoes, went on errands, and
+took all the care of the poultry. They were children whose parents could
+afford to hire servants to do this, but who chose to have their children
+grow up healthy and industrious, while proper instruction, system, and
+encouragement made these services rather a pleasure than otherwise, to
+the children.
+
+Some parents pay their children for such services; but this is
+hazardous, as tending to make them feel that they are not bound to be
+helpful without pay, and also as tending to produce a hoarding,
+money-making spirit. But where children have no hoarding propensities,
+and need to acquire a sense of the value of property, it may be well
+to let them earn money for some extra services rather as a favor. When
+this is done, they should be taught to spend it for others, as well
+as for themselves; and in this way, a generous and liberal spirit will
+be cultivated.
+
+There are some mothers who take pains to teach their boys most of
+the domestic arts which their sisters learn. The writer has seen boys
+mending their own garments and aiding their mother or sisters in the
+kitchen, with great skill and adroitness; and, at an early age, they
+usually very much relish joining in such occupations. The sons of such
+mothers, in their college life, or in roaming about the world, or in
+nursing a sick wife or infant, find occasion to bless the forethought
+and kindness which prepared them for such emergencies. Few things are
+in worse taste than for a man needlessly to busy himself in women's
+work; and yet a man never appears in a more interesting attitude than
+when, by skill in such matters, he can save a mother or wife from care
+and suffering. The more a boy is taught to use his hands, in every
+variety of domestic employment, the more his faculties, both of mind
+and body, are developed; for mechanical pursuits exercise the intellect
+as well as the hands. The early training of New-England boys, in which
+they turn their hand to almost every thing, is one great reason of the
+quick perceptions, versatility of mind, and mechanical skill, for which
+that portion of our countrymen is distinguished.
+
+It is equally important that young girls should be taught to do some
+species of handicraft that generally is done by men, and especially
+with reference to the frequent emigration to new territories where
+well-trained mechanics are scarce. To hang wall-paper, repair locks,
+glaze windows, and mend various household articles, requires a skill
+in the use of tools which every young girl should acquire. If she never
+has any occasion to apply this knowledge and skill by her own hands,
+she will often find it needful in directing and superintending
+incompetent workmen.
+
+The writer has known one mode of systematizing the aid of the older
+children in a family, which, in some cases of very large families, it
+may be well to imitate. In the case referred to, when the oldest
+daughter was eight or nine years old, an infant sister was given to
+her, as her special charge. She tended it, made and mended its clothes,
+taught it to read, and was its nurse and guardian, through all its
+childhood. Another infant was given to the next daughter, and thus the
+children were all paired in this interesting relation. In addition to
+the relief thus afforded to the mother, the elder children, were in
+this way qualified for their future domestic relations, and both older
+and younger bound to each other by peculiar ties of tenderness and
+gratitude.
+
+In offering these examples of various modes of systematizing, one
+suggestion may be worthy of attention. It is not unfrequently the case,
+that ladies, who find themselves cumbered with oppressive cares, after
+reading remarks on the benefits of system, immediately commence the
+task of arranging their pursuits, with great vigor and hope. They
+divide the day into regular periods, and give each hour its duty; they
+systematize their work, and endeavor to bring every thing into a regular
+routine. But, in a short time, they find themselves baffled,
+discouraged, and disheartened, and finally relapse into their former
+desultory ways, in a sort of resigned despair.
+
+The difficulty, in such cases, is, that they attempt too much at a
+time. There is nothing which so much depends upon _habit,_ as a
+systematic mode of performing duty; and where no such habit has been
+formed, it is impossible for a novice to start, at once, into a
+universal mode of systematizing, which none but an adept could carry
+through. The only way for such persons is to begin with a little at
+a time. Let them select some three or four things, and resolutely
+attempt to conquer at these points. In time, a habit will be formed,
+of doing a few things at regular periods, and in a systematic way.
+Then it will be easy to add a few more; and thus, by a gradual process,
+the object can be secured, which it would be vain to attempt by a more
+summary course.
+
+Early rising is almost an indispensable condition to success, in such
+an effort; but where a woman lacks either the health or the energy to
+secure a period for devotional duties before breakfast, let her select
+that hour of the day in which she will be least liable to interruption,
+and let her then seek strength and wisdom from the only true Source.
+At this time, let her take a pen, and make a list of all the things
+which she considers as duties. Then, let a calculation be made, whether
+there be time enough, in the day or the week, for all these duties.
+If there be not, let the least important be stricken from the list,
+as not being duties, and therefore to be omitted. In doing this, let
+a woman remember that, though "what we shall eat, and what we shall
+think, and wherewithal we shall be clothed," are matters requiring due
+attention, they are very apt to obtain a wrong relative importance,
+while intellectual, social, and moral interests receive too little
+regard.
+
+In this country, eating, dressing, and household furniture and
+ornaments, take far too large a place in the estimate of relative
+importance; and it is probable that most women could modify their views
+and practice, so as to come nearer to the Saviour's requirements. No
+woman has a right to put a stitch of ornament on any article of dress
+or furniture, or to provide one superfluity in food, until she is sure
+she can secure time for all her social, intellectual benevolent, and
+religions duties. If a woman will take the trouble to make such a
+calculation as this, she will usually find that she has time enough
+to perform all her duties easily and well.
+
+It is impossible for a conscientious woman to secure that peaceful
+mind and cheerful enjoyment of life which all should seek, who is
+constantly finding her duties jarring with each other, and much
+remaining undone, which she feels that she ought to do. In consequence
+of this, there will be a secret uneasiness, which will throw a shade
+over the whole current of life, never to be removed, till she so
+efficiently defines and regulates her duties that she can fulfill them
+all.
+
+And here the writer would urge upon young ladies the importance of
+forming habits of system, while unembarrassed with those multiplied
+cares which will make the task so much, more difficult and hopeless.
+Every young lady can systematize her pursuits, to a certain extent.
+She can have a particular day for mending her wardrobe, and for
+arranging her trunks, closets, and drawers. She can keep her
+work-basket, her desk at school, and all her other conveniences, in
+their proper places, and in regular order. She can have regular periods
+for reading, walking, visiting, study, and domestic pursuits. And by
+following this method in youth, she will form a taste for regularity
+and a habit of system, which will prove a blessing to her through life.
+
+
+
+XVIII.
+
+GIVING IN CHARITY.
+
+
+It is probable that there is no point of duty whereon conscientious
+persons differ more in opinion, or where they find it more difficult
+to form discriminating and decided views, than on the matter of charity.
+That we are bound to give some of our time, money, and efforts, to
+relieve the destitute, all allow. But, as to how much we are to give,
+and on whom our charities shall be bestowed, many a reflecting mind
+has been at a loss. Yet it seems very desirable that, in reference to
+a duty so constantly and so strenuously urged by the Supreme Ruler,
+we should be able so to fix metes and bounds, as to keep a conscience
+void of offense, and to free the mind from disquieting fears of
+deficiency.
+
+The writer has found no other topic of investigation so beset with
+difficulty, and so absolutely without the range of definite rules which
+can apply to all, in all circumstances. But on this, as on previous
+topics, there seem to be _general principles_, by the aid of which
+any candid mind, sincerely desirous of obeying the commands of Christ,
+however much self-denial may be involved, can arrive at definite
+conclusions as to its own individual obligations; so that when these
+are fulfilled, the mind may be at peace.
+
+But for a mind that is worldly, living mainly to seek its own pleasures
+instead of living to please God, no principles can be so fixed as not
+to leave a ready escape from all obligation. Such minds, either by
+indolence (and consequent ignorance) or by sophistry, will convince
+themselves that a life of engrossing self-indulgence, with perhaps the
+gift of a few dollars and a few hours of time, may suffice to fulfill
+the requisitions of the Eternal Judge.
+
+For such minds, no reasonings will avail, till the heart is so changed
+that to learn the will and follow the example of Jesus Christ become
+the leading objects of interest and effort. It is to aid those who
+profess to possess this temper of mind that the following suggestions
+are offered.
+
+The first consideration which gives definiteness to this subject is
+a correct view of the object for which we are placed in this world.
+A great many, even of professed Christians, seem to be acting on the
+supposition that the object of life is to secure as ranch as possible
+of all the various enjoyments placed within reach. Not so teaches
+reason or revelation. From these we learn that, though the happiness
+of his creatures is the end for which God created and sustains them,
+yet this happiness depends not on the various modes of gratification
+put within our reach, but mainly on _character_. A man may possess
+all the resources for enjoyment which this world can afford, and yet
+feel that "all is vanity and vexation of spirit," and that he is
+supremely wretched. Another may be in want of all things, and yet
+possess that living spring of benevolence, faith, and hope, which will
+make an Eden of the darkest prison.
+
+In order to be perfectly happy, man must attain that character which
+Christ exhibited; and the nearer he approaches it, the more will
+happiness reign in his breast.
+
+But what was the grand peculiarity of the character of Christ? It was
+_self-denying benevolence_. He came not to "seek his own;" He
+"went about doing good," and this was his "meat and drink;" that is,
+it was this which sustained the health and life of his mind, as food
+and drink sustain the health and life of the body. Now, the mind of
+man is so made that it can gradually be transformed into the same
+likeness. A selfish being, who, for a whole life, has been nourishing
+habits of indolent self-indulgence, can, by taking Christ as his
+example, by communion with him, and by daily striving to imitate his
+character and conduct, form such a temper of mind that "doing good"
+will become the chief and highest source of enjoyment. And this heavenly
+principle will grow stronger and stronger, until self-denial loses the
+more painful part of its character; and then, _living to make
+happiness_ will be so delightful and absorbing a pursuit, that all
+exertions, regarded as the means to this end, will be like the joyous
+efforts of men when they strive for a prize or a crown, with the full
+hope of success.
+
+In this view of the subject, efforts and self-denial for the good of
+others are to be regarded not merely as duties enjoined for the benefit
+of others, but as the moral training indispensable to the formation
+of that character on which depends our own happiness. This view exhibits
+the full meaning of the Saviour's declaration, "How hardly shall they
+that have riches enter into the kingdom of God!" He had before taught
+that the kingdom of heaven consisted not in such enjoyments as the
+worldly seek, but in the temper of self-denying benevolence, like his
+own; and as the rich have far greater temptations to indolent
+self-indulgence, they are far less likely to acquire this temper than
+those who, by limited means, are inured to some degree of self-denial.
+
+But on this point, one important distinction needs to be made; and
+that is, between the self-denial which has no other aim than mere
+self-mortification, and that which is exercised to secure greater good
+to ourselves and others. The first is the foundation of monasticism,
+penances, and all other forms of asceticism; the latter, only, is that
+which Christianity requires.
+
+A second consideration, which may give definiteness to this subject,
+is, that the formation of a perfect character involves, not the
+extermination of any principles of our nature, but rather the regulating
+of them, according to the rules of reason and religion; so that the
+lower propensities shall always be kept subordinate to nobler
+principles. Thus we are not to aim at destroying our appetites, or at
+needlessly denying them, but rather so to regulate them that they shall
+best secure the objects for which they were implanted. We are not to
+annihilate the love of praise and admiration; but so to control it
+that the favor of God shall be regarded more than the estimation of
+men. We are not to extirpate the principle of curiosity, which leads
+us to acquire knowledge; but so to direct it, that all our acquisitions
+shall be useful and not frivolous or injurious. And thus with all the
+principles of the mind: God has implanted no desires in our constitution
+which are evil and pernicious. On the contrary, all our constitutional
+propensities, either of mind or body, he designed we should gratify,
+whenever no evils would thence result, either to ourselves or others.
+Such passions as envy, selfish ambition, contemptuous pride, revenge,
+and hatred, are to be exterminated; for they are either excesses or
+excrescences, not created by God, but rather the result of our own
+neglect to form habits of benevolence and self-control.
+
+In deciding the rules of our conduct, therefore, we are ever to bear
+in mind that the development of the nobler principles, and the
+subjugation of inferior propensities to them, is to be the main object
+of effort both for ourselves and for others. And in conformity with
+this, in all our plans we are to place religious and moral interests
+as first in estimation, our social and intellectual interests next,
+and our physical gratifications as subordinate to all.
+
+A third consideration is that, though the means for sustaining life
+and health are to be regarded as necessaries, without which no other
+duties can be performed, yet a very large portion of the time spent
+by most persons in easy circumstances for food, raiment, and dwellings,
+is for mere _superfluities;_ which are right when they do not
+involve the sacrifice of higher interests, and wrong when they do.
+Life and health can be sustained in the humblest dwellings, with the
+plainest dress, and the simplest food; and, after taking from our means
+what is necessary for life and health, the remainder is to be so
+divided, that the larger portion shall be given to supply the moral
+and intellectual wants of ourselves and others, together with the
+physical requirements of the destitute, and the smaller share to procure
+those additional gratifications of taste and appetite which are
+desirable but not indispensable. Mankind, thus far, have never made
+this apportionment of their means; although, just as fast as they have
+risen from a savage state, mere physical wants have been made, to an
+increasing extent, subordinate to higher objects.
+
+Another very important consideration is that, in urging the duty of
+charity and the prior claims of moral and religious objects, no rule
+of duty should be maintained which it would not be right and wise for
+_all_ to follow. And we are to test the wisdom of any general rule by
+inquiring what would be the result if all mankind should practice
+according to it. In view of this, we are enabled to judge of the
+correctness of those who maintain that, to be consistent, men believing
+in the perils of all those of our race who are not brought under the
+influence of the Christian system should give up not merely the
+elegancies but all the superfluities of life, and devote the whole of
+their means not indispensable to life and health to the propagation
+of Christianity.
+
+But if this is the duty of any, it is the duty of all; and we are to
+inquire what would be the result, if all conscientious persons gave
+up the use of all superfluities. Suppose that two millions of the
+people of the United States were conscientious persons, and relinquished
+the use of every thing not absolutely necessary to life and health.
+Besides reducing the education of the people in all the higher walks
+of intellectual, social, and even moral development, to very narrow
+limits, it would instantly throw out of employment one half of the
+whole community. The writers, book-makers, manufacturers, mechanics,
+merchants agriculturists, and all the agencies they employ, would be
+beggared, and one half of those not reduced to poverty would be obliged
+to spend all their extra means in-simply supplying necessaries to the
+other half. The use of superfluities, therefore, to a certain extent,
+is as indispensable to promote industry, virtue, and religion, as any
+direct giving of money or time; and it is owing entirely to a want of
+reflection and of comprehensive views, that any men ever make so great
+a mistake as is here exhibited.
+
+Instead, then, of urging a rule of duty which is at once irrational
+and impracticable, there is another course, which commends itself to
+the understandings of all. For whatever may be the practice of
+intelligent men, they universally concede the principle, that our
+physical gratifications should always be made subordinate to social,
+intellectual, and moral advantages. And all that is required for the
+advancement of our whole race to the most perfect state of society is,
+simply, that men should act in agreement with this principle. And if
+only a very small portion of the most intelligent of our race should
+act according to this rule, under the control of Christian benevolence,
+the immense supplies furnished for the general good would be far beyond
+what any would imagine who had never made any calculations on the
+subject. In this nation alone, suppose the one million and more of
+professed followers of Christ should give a larger portion of their
+means for the social, intellectual, and moral wants of mankind, than
+for the superfluities that minister to their own taste, convenience,
+and appetite; it would be enough to furnish all the schools, colleges,
+Bibles, ministers, and missionaries, that the whole world could demand;
+or, at least, it would be far more than properly qualified agents to
+administer it could employ.
+
+But it may be objected that, though this view in the abstract looks
+plausible and rational, not one in a thousand can practically adopt
+it. How few keep any account, at all, of their current expenses! How
+impossible it is to determine, exactly, what are necessaries and what
+are superfluities! And in regard to women, how few have the control
+of an income, so as not to be bound by the wishes of a parent or a
+husband!
+
+In reference to these difficulties, the first remark is, that we are
+never under obligations to do what is entirely out of our power; so
+that those persons who can not regulate their expenses or their
+charities are under no sort of obligation to attempt it. The second
+remark is that, when a rule of duty is discovered, if we can not fully
+attain to it, we are bound to _aim_ at it, and to fulfill it just
+so far as we can. We have no right to throw it aside because we shall
+find some difficult cases when we come to apply it. The third remark
+is, that no person can tell how much can be done, till a faithful trial
+has been made. If a woman has never kept any accounts, nor attempted
+to regulate her expenditures by the right rule, nor used her influence
+with those that control her plans, to secure this object, she has no
+right to say how much she can or can not do, till after a fair trial
+has been made.
+
+In attempting such a trial, the following method can be taken. Let a
+woman, keep an account of all she spends, for herself and her family,
+for a year, arranging the items under three general heads. Under the
+first, put all articles of food, raiment, rent, wages, and all
+conveniences. Under the second, place all sums paid in securing an
+education, and books, and other intellectual advantages. Under the
+third head, place all that is spent for benevolence and religion. At
+the end of the year, the first and largest account will show the mixed
+items of necessaries and superfluities, which can be arranged so as
+to gain some sort of idea how much has been spent for superfluities
+and how much for necessaries. Then, by comparing what is spent for
+superfluities, with what is spent for intellectual and moral advantages,
+data will be gained for judging of the past and regulating the future.
+
+Does a woman say she can not do this? let her think whether the offer
+of a thousand dollars, as a reward-for attempting it one year, would
+not make her undertake to do it; and if so, let her decide, in her own
+mind, which is most valuable, a clear conscience, and the approbation
+of God, in this effort to do his will, or one thousand dollars. And
+let her do it, with this warning of the Saviour before her eyes--"No
+man can serve two masters." "Ye can not serve God and Mammon."
+
+Is it objected, How can we decide between superfluities and necessities,
+in this list? It is replied, that we are not required to judge exactly,
+in all cases. Our duty is, to use the means in our power to assist us
+in forming a correct judgment; to seek the divine aid in freeing our
+minds from indolence and selfishness; and then to judge, as well as
+we can, in our endeavors rightly to apportion and regulate our expenses.
+Many persons seem to feel that they are bound to do better than they
+know how. But God is not so hard a master; and after we have used all
+proper means to learn the right way, if we then follow it according
+to our ability, we do wrong to feel misgivings, or to blame ourselves,
+if results come out differently from what seems desirable.
+
+The results of our actions, alone, can never prove as deserving of
+blame. For men are often so placed that, owing to lack of intellect
+or means, it is impossible for them to decide correctly. To use all
+the means of knowledge within our reach, and then to judge, with a
+candid and conscientious spirit, is all that God requires; and when
+we have done this, and the event seems to come out wrong, we should
+never wish that we had decided otherwise. For this would be the same
+as wishing that we had not followed the dictates of judgment and
+conscience. As this is a world designed for discipline and trial,
+untoward events are never to be construed as indications of the
+obliquity of our past decisions.
+
+But it is probable that a great portion of the women of this nation
+can not secure any such systematic mode of regulating their expenses.
+To such, the writer would propose one inquiry: Can not you calculate
+how much _time_ and _money_ you spend for what is merely ornamental, and
+not necessary, for yourself, your children, and your house? Can not you
+compare this with the time and money you spend for intellectual and
+benevolent purposes? and will not this show the need of some change? In
+making this examination, is not this brief rule, deducible from the
+principles before laid down, the one which should regulate you? Every
+person does right in spending some portion of time and means in securing
+the conveniences and adornments of taste; but the amount should never
+exceed what is spent in securing our own moral and intellectual
+improvement, nor what is spent in benevolent efforts to supply the
+physical and moral wants of our fellow-men.
+
+In making an examination on this subject, it is sometimes the case
+that a woman will count among the _necessaries_ of life all the
+various modes of adorning the person or house, practiced in the circle
+in which she moves; and, after enumerating the many _duties_ which
+demand attention, counting these as a part, she will come to the
+conclusion that she has no time, and but little money, to devote to
+personal improvement or to benevolent enterprises. This surely is not
+in agreement with the requirements of the Saviour, who calls on us to
+seek for others, as well as ourselves, _first of all_, "the kingdom
+of God, and his righteousness."
+
+In order to act in accordance with the rule here presented, it is true
+that many would be obliged to give up the idea of conforming to the
+notions and customs of those with whom they associate, and compelled
+to adopt the maxim, "Be not conformed to this world." In many cases
+it would involve an entire change in the style of living. And the
+writer has the happiness of knowing more cases than one, where persons
+who have come to similar views on this subject, have given up large
+and expensive establishments, disposed of their carriages, dismissed
+a portion of their domestics, and modified all their expenditures,
+that they might keep a pure conscience, and regulate their charities
+more according to the requirements of Christianity. And there are
+persons, well known in the religious world, who save themselves all
+labor of minute calculation, by devoting so large a portion of their
+time and means to benevolent objects, that they find no difficulty in
+knowing that they give more for religious, benevolent, and intellectual
+purposes than for superfluities.
+
+In deciding what particular objects shall receive our benefactions,
+there are also general principles to guide us. The first is that
+presented by our Saviour, when, after urging the great law of
+benevolence, he was asked, "And who is my neighbor?" His reply, in the
+parable of "the Good Samaritan," teaches us that any human being whose
+wants are brought to our knowledge is our neighbor. The wounded man
+in that parable was not only a stranger, but he belonged to a foreign
+nation, peculiarly hated; and he had no claim, except that his wants
+were brought to the knowledge of the wayfaring man. From this we learn
+that the destitute of all nations become our neighbors, as soon as
+their wants are brought to our knowledge.
+
+Another general principle is this, that those who are most in need
+must be relieved in preference to those who are less destitute. On
+this principle it is, that we think the followers of Christ should
+give more to supply those who are suffering for want of the bread of
+eternal life, than for those who are deprived of physical enjoyments.
+And another reason for this preference is the fact that many who give
+in charity have made such imperfect advances in civilization and
+Christianity that the intellectual and moral wants of our race make
+but a feeble impression on the mind. Relate a pitiful tale of a family
+reduced to live for weeks on potatoes only, and many a mind would awake
+to deep sympathy and stretch forth the hand of charity. But describe
+cases where the immortal mind is pining in stupidity and ignorance,
+or racked with the fever of baleful passions, and how small the number
+so elevated in sentiment and so enlarged in their views as to appreciate
+and sympathize in these far greater misfortunes! The intellectual and
+moral wants of our fellow-men, therefore, should claim the first place
+in general Christian attention, both because they are most important,
+and because they are most neglected; while it should not be forgotten,
+in giving personal attention to the wants of the poor, that the relief
+of immediate physical distress, is often the easiest way of touching
+the moral sensibilities of the destitute.
+
+Another consideration to be borne in mind is that, in this country,
+there is much less real need of charity in supplying physical
+necessities than is generally supposed by those who have not learned
+the more excellent way. This land is so abundant in supplies, and labor
+is in such demand, that every healthy person can earn a comfortable
+support. And if all the poor were instantly made virtuous, it is
+probable that there would be few physical wants which could not readily
+be supplied by the immediate friends of each sufferer. The sick, the
+aged, and the orphan would be the only objects of charity. In this
+view of the case, the primary effort in relieving the poor should be
+to furnish them the means of earning their own support, and to supply
+them with those moral influences which are most effectual in securing
+virtue and industry.
+
+Another point to be attended to is the importance of maintaining a
+system of _associated_ charities. There is no point in which the economy
+of charity has more improved than in the present mode of combining many
+small contributions, for sustaining enlarged and systematic plans of
+charity. If all the half-dollars which are now contributed to aid in
+organized systems of charity were returned to the donors, to be applied
+by the agency and discretion of each, thousands and thousands of the
+treasures, now employed to promote the moral and intellectual wants of
+mankind, would become entirely useless in a democracy like ours, where
+few are very rich and the majority are in comfortable circumstances,
+this collecting and dispensing of drops and rills is the mode by which,
+in imitation of nature, the dews and showers are to distill on parched
+and desert lands. And every person, while earning a pittance to unite
+with many more, may be cheered with the consciousness of sustaining a
+grand system of operations which must have the most decided influence in
+raising all mankind to that perfect state of society which Christianity
+is designed to bring about.
+
+Another consideration relates to the indiscriminate bestowal of charity.
+Persons who have taken pains to inform themselves, and who devote their
+whole time to dispensing charities, unite in declaring that this is
+one of the most fruitful sources of indolence, vice, and poverty. From
+several of these the writer has learned that, by their own personal
+investigations, they have ascertained that there are large
+establishments of idle and wicked persons in most of our cities, who
+associate together to support themselves by every species of imposition.
+They hire large houses, and live in constant rioting on the means thus
+obtained. Among them are women who have or who hire the use of infant
+children; others, who are blind, or maimed, or deformed, or who can
+adroitly feign such infirmities; and, by these means of exciting pity,
+and by artful tales of woe, they collect alms, both in city and country,
+to spend in all manner of gross and guilty indulgences. Meantime many
+persons, finding themselves often duped by impostors, refuse to give
+at all; and thus many benefactions are withdrawn, which a wise economy
+in charity would have secured. For this and other reasons, it is wise
+and merciful to adopt the general rule, never to give alms till we
+have had some opportunity of knowing how they will be spent. There are
+exceptions to this, as to every general rule, which a person of
+discretion can determine. But the practice so common among benevolent
+persons, of giving at least a trifle to all who ask, lest perchance
+they may turn away some who are really sufferers, is one which causes
+more sin and misery than it cures.
+
+The writer has never known any system for dispensing charity so
+successful as the one by which a town or city is divided into districts;
+and each district is committed to the care of two ladies, whose duty
+it is, to call on each family and leave a book for a child, or do some
+other deed of neighborly kindness, and make that the occasion for
+entering into conversation, and learning the situation of all residents
+in the district. By this method, the ignorant, the vicious, and the
+poor are discovered, and their physical, intellectual, and moral wants
+are investigated. In some places where the writer has known this mode
+pursued, each person retained the same district, year after year, so
+that every poor family in the place was under the watch and care of
+some intelligent and benevolent lady, who used all her influence to
+secure a proper education for the children, to furnish them with
+suitable reading, to encourage habits of industry and economy, and to
+secure regular attendance on public religious instruction. Thus, the
+rich and the poor were brought in contact, in a way advantageous to
+both parties; and if such a system could be universally adopted, more
+would be done for the prevention of poverty and vice than all the
+wealth of the nation could avail for their relief. But this plan can
+not be successfully carried out, in this manner, unless there is a
+large proportion of intelligent, benevolent, and self-denying persons,
+who unite in a systematic plan.
+
+But there is one species of "charity" which needs especial
+consideration. It is that spirit of kindly love which induces us to
+refrain from judging of the means and the relative charities of other
+persons. There have been such indistinct notions, and so many different
+standards of duty, on this subject, that it is rare for two persons
+to think exactly alike, in regard to the rule of duty. Each person is
+bound to inquire and judge for himself, as to his own duty or
+deficiencies; but as both the resources and the amount of the actual
+charities of others are beyond our ken, it is as indecorous as it is
+uncharitable to sit in judgment on their decisions.
+
+
+
+
+XIX.
+
+ECONOMY OF TIME AND EXPENSES.
+
+The value of time, and our obligation to spend every hour for some
+useful end, are what few minds properly realize. And those who have
+the highest sense of their obligations in this respect, sometimes
+greatly misjudge in their estimate of what are useful and proper modes
+of employing time. This arises from limited views of the importance
+of some pursuits, which they would deem frivolous and useless, but
+which are in reality necessary to preserve the health of body and mind
+and those social affections which it is very important to cherish.
+Christianity teaches that, for all the time afforded us, we must give
+account to God; and that we have no right to waste a single hour. But
+time which is spent in rest or amusement is often as usefully employed
+as if it were devoted to labor or devotion. In employing our time, we
+are to make suitable allowance for sleep, for preparing and taking
+food, for securing the means of a livelihood, for intellectual
+improvement, for exercise and amusement, for social enjoyments, and
+for benevolent and religious duties. And it is the _right apportionment_
+of time, to these various duties, which constitutes its true economy.
+
+In deciding respecting the rectitude of our pursuits, we are bound to
+aim at some practical good, as the ultimate object. With every duty
+of this life, our benevolent Creator has connected some species of
+enjoyment, to draw us to perform it. Thus, the palate is gratified,
+by performing the duty of nourishing our bodies; the principle of
+curiosity is gratified in pursuing useful knowledge; the desire of
+approbation is gratified, when we perform general social duties; and
+every other duty has an alluring enjoyment connected with it. But the
+great mistake of mankind has consisted in seeking the pleasures
+connected with these duties, as the sole aim, without reference to the
+main end that should be held in view, and to which the enjoyment should
+be made subservient. Thus, men gratify the palate, without reference
+to the question whether the body is properly nourished: and follow
+after knowledge, without inquiring whether it ministers to good or
+evil; and seek amusement without reference to results.
+
+In gratifying the implanted desires of our nature, we are bound so to
+restrain ourselves, by reason and conscience, as always to seek the
+main objects of existence--the highest good of ourselves and others;
+and never to sacrifice this for the mere gratification of our desires.
+We are to gratify appetite, just so far as is consistent with health
+and usefulness; and the desire for knowledge, just so far as will
+enable us to do most good by our influence and efforts; and no farther.
+We are to seek social intercourse, to that extent which will best
+promote domestic enjoyment and kindly feelings among neighbors and
+friends; and we are to pursue exercise and amusement, only so far as
+will best sustain the vigor of body and mind.
+
+The laws of the Supreme Ruler, when he became the civil as well as the
+religious Head of the Jewish theocracy, furnish an example which it
+would be well for all attentively to consider, when forming plans for
+the apportionment of time and property. To properly estimate this
+example, it must be borne in mind, that the main object of God was,
+to set an example of the temporal rewards that follow obedience to the
+laws of the Creator, and at the same time to prepare religious teachers
+to extend the true religion to the whole race of man.
+
+Before Christ came, the Jews were not required to go forth to other
+nations as teachers of religion, nor were the Jewish nation led to
+obedience by motives of a life to come. To them God was revealed, both
+as a father and a civil ruler, and obedience to laws relating solely
+to this life was all that was required. So low were they in the scale
+of civilization and mental development, that a system which confined
+them to one spot, as an agricultural people, and prevented their growing
+very rich, or having extensive commerce with other nations, was
+indispensable to prevent their relapsing into the low idolatries and
+vices of the nations around them, while temporal rewards and penalties
+were more effective than those of a life to come.
+
+The proportion of time and property, which every Jew was required to
+devote to intellectual, benevolent, and religious purposes, was as
+follows:
+
+In regard to property, they were required to give one tenth of all
+their yearly income to support the Levites, the priests, and the
+religious service. Next, they were required to give the first-fruits
+of all their corn, wine, oil, and fruits, and the first-born of all
+their cattle, for the Lord's treasury, to be employed for the priests,
+the widow, the fatherless, and the stranger. The first-born, also, of
+their children, were the Lord's, and were to be redeemed by a specified
+sum, paid into the sacred treasury. Besides this, they were required
+to bring a free-will offering to God, every time they went up to the
+three great yearly festivals. In addition to this, regular yearly
+sacrifices of cattle and fowls were required of each family, and
+occasional sacrifices for certain sins or ceremonial Impurities. In
+reaping their fields, they were required to leave unreaped, for the
+poor, the corners; not to glean their fields, oliveyards, or vineyards;
+and, if a sheaf was left by mistake, they were not to return for it
+but leave it for the poor.
+
+One twelfth of the people were set apart, having no landed property,
+to be priests and teachers; and the other tribes were required to
+support them liberally.
+
+In regard to the time taken from secular pursuits, for the support of
+education and religion, an equally liberal amount was demanded. In the
+first place, one seventh part of their time was taken for the weekly
+sabbath, when no kind of work was to be done. Then the whole nation
+were required to meet at the appointed place three times a year, which,
+including their journeys and stay there, occupied eight weeks, or
+another seventh part of their time. Then the sabbatical year, when no
+agricultural labor was to be done, took another seventh of their time
+from their regular pursuits, as they were an agricultural people. This
+was the amount of time and property demanded by God, simply to sustain
+education, religion, and morality within the bounds of one nation. It
+was promised to this nation and fulfilled by constant miraculous
+interpositions, that in this life, obedience to God's laws should
+secure health, peace, prosperity, and long life; while for disobedience
+was threatened war, pestilence, famine, and all temporal evils. These
+promises were constantly verified, and in the day of Solomon, when,
+this nation was most obedient, the whole world was moved with wonder
+at its wealth and prosperity. But up to this time, no attempt was made
+by God to govern the Israelites by the rewards and penalties of the
+world to come.
+
+But "when the fullness of time had come," and the race of man was
+prepared to receive higher responsibilities, Jesus Christ came and
+"brought life and immortality to light" with a clearness never before
+revealed. At the same time was revealed the fatherhood of God, not to
+the Jews alone, but to the whole human race, and the consequent
+brotherhood of man; and these revelations in many respects changed the
+whole standard of duty and obligation.
+
+Christ came as "God manifest in the flesh," to set an example of
+self-sacrificing love, in rescuing the whole family of man from the
+dangers of the unseen world, and also to teach and train his disciples
+through all time to follow his example. And those who conform the most
+consistently to his teachings and example will aim at a standard of
+labor and self-denial far beyond that demanded of the Jews.
+
+It is not always that men understand the economy of Providence, in
+that unequal distribution of property which, even under the most perfect
+form of government, will always exist. Many, looking at the present
+state of things, imagine that the rich, if they acted in strict
+conformity to the law of benevolence, would share all their property
+with their suffering fellow-men. But such do not take into account the
+inspired declaration that "a man's life consisteth not in the abundance
+of the things which he possesseth," or, in other words, life is made
+valuable, not by great possessions, but by such a character as prepares
+a man to enjoy what he holds. God perceives that human character can
+be most improved by that kind of discipline which exists when there
+is something valuable to be gained by industrious efforts. This stimulus
+to industry could never exist in a community where all are just alike,
+as it does in a state of society where every man sees possessed by
+others enjoyments which he desires and may secure by effort and
+industry. So, in a community where all are alike as to property, there
+would be no chance to gain that noblest of all attainments, a habit
+of self-denying benevolence which toils for the good of others, and
+takes from one's own store to increase the enjoyments of another.
+
+Instead, then, of the stagnation, both of industry and of benevolence,
+which would follow the universal and equable distribution, of property,
+some men, by superior advantages of birth, or intellect, or patronage,
+come into possession of a great amount of capital. With these means
+they are enabled, by study, reading, and travel, to secure expansion
+of mind and just views of the relative advantages of moral,
+intellectual, and physical enjoyments. At the same time, Christianity
+imposes obligations corresponding with the increase of advantages and
+means. The rich are not at liberty to spend their treasures chiefly
+for themselves. Their wealth is given, by God, to be employed for the
+best good of mankind; and their intellectual advantages are designed,
+primarily, to enable them to judge correctly in employing their means
+most wisely for the general good.
+
+Now, suppose a man of wealth inherits ten thousand acres of real estate;
+it is not his duty to divide it among his poor neighbors and tenants.
+If he took this course, it is probable that most of them would spend
+all in thriftless waste and indolence, or in mere physical enjoyments.
+Instead, then, of thus putting his capital out of his hands, he is
+bound to retain and so to employ it as to raise his family and his
+neighbors to such a state of virtue and intelligence that they can
+secure far more, by their own efforts and industry, than he, by dividing
+his capital, could bestow upon them.
+
+In this view of the subject, it is manifest that the unequal
+distribution of property is no evil. The great difficulty is, that so
+large a portion of those who hold much capital, instead of using their
+various advantages for the greatest good of those around them, employ
+them for mere selfish indulgences; thus inflicting as much mischief
+on themselves as results to others from their culpable neglect. A great
+portion of the rich seem to be acting on the principle that the more
+God bestows on them the less are they under obligation to practice any
+self-denial in fulfilling his benevolent plan of raising our race to
+intelligence and virtue.
+
+But there are cheering examples of the contrary spirit and prejudice,
+some of which will be here recorded to influence and encourage others.
+
+A lady of great wealth, high position, and elegant culture, in one of
+our large cities, hired and furnished a house adjacent to her own,
+and, securing the aid of another benevolent and cultivated woman, took
+twelve orphan girls, of different ages, and educated them under their
+joint care. Not only time and money were given, but love and labor,
+just as if these were their own children; and as fast as one was
+provided for, another was taken.
+
+In another city, a young lady with property of her own hired a house
+and made it a home for homeless and unprotected women, who paid board
+when they could earn it, and found a refuge when out of employment.
+
+In another city, the wife of one of its richest merchants, living in
+princely style, took two young girls from the certain road to ruin
+among the vicious poor. She boarded them with a respectable farmer,
+and sent them to school, and every week went out, not only to supervise
+them, but to aid in training them to habits of neatness, industry, and
+obedience, just as if they were her own children. Next, she hired a
+large house near the most degraded part of the city, furnished it
+neatly and with all suitable conveniences to work, and then rented to
+those among the most degraded whom she could bring to conform to a few
+simple rules of decency, industry, and benevolence--one of these rules
+being that they should pay her the rent every Saturday night. To this
+motley gathering she became chief counselor and friend, quieted their
+brawls, taught them to aid each other in trouble or sickness, and
+strove to introduce among them that law of patient love and kindness,
+illustrated by her own example. The young girls in this tenement she
+assembled every Saturday at her own house--taught them to sing, heard
+them recite their Sunday-school lessons, to be sure these were properly
+learned; taught them to make and mend their own clothing, trimmed their
+bonnets, and took charge of their Sunday dress, that it might always
+be in order. Of course, such benevolence drew a stream of ignorance
+and misery to her door; and so successful was her labor that she hired
+a second house, and managed it on the same plan. One hot day in August,
+a friend found her combing the head of a poor, ungainly, foreign girl.
+She had persuaded a friend to take her from compassion, and she was
+returned because her head was in such in a state. Finding no one else
+to do it, the lady herself bravely met the difficulty, and persevered
+in this daily ministry till the evil was remedied, and the poor girl
+thus secured a comfortable home and wages.
+
+A young lady of wealth and position, with great musical culture and
+taste, found among the poor two young girls with fine voices and great
+musical talent. Gaining her parents' consent, the young lady took one
+of them home, trained her in music, and saw that her school education
+was secured, so that when expensive masters and instruments were needed
+the girl herself earned the money required, as a governess in a family
+of wealthy friends. Then she aided the sister; and, as the result, one
+of them is married happily to a man of great wealth, and the other is
+receiving a large income as a popular musical artist.
+
+Another young girl, educated as a fine musician by her wealthy parents,
+at the age of sixteen was afflicted with weak eyes and a heart
+complaint. She strove to solace herself by benevolent ministries. By
+teaching music to children of wealthy friends she earned the means to
+relieve and instruct the suffering, ignorant, and poor.
+
+These examples may suffice to show that, even among the most wealthy,
+abundant modes of self-denying benevolence may be found where there
+is a heart to seek them.
+
+There is no direction in which a true Christian economy of time and
+money is more conspicuous than in the style of living adopted in the
+family state.
+
+Those who build stately mansions, and lay out extensive grounds, and
+multiply the elegancies of life, to be enjoyed by themselves and a
+select few, "have their reward" in the enjoyments that end in this
+life. But those who with, equal means adopt a style that enables them
+largely to devote time and wealth to the elevation and improvement of
+their fellow-men, are laying up never-failing treasures in heaven.
+
+
+
+XX.
+
+HEALTH OF MIND.
+
+There is such an intimate connection between the body and mind that
+the health of one can not be preserved without a proper care of the
+other. And it is from a neglect of this principle, that some of the
+most exemplary and conscientious persons in the world suffer a thousand
+mental agonies from a diseased state of body, while others ruin the
+health of the body by neglecting the proper care of the mind.
+
+When the mind is excited by earnest intellectual effort, or by strong
+passions, the blood rushes to the head and the brain is excited. Sir
+Astley Cooper records that, in examining the brain of a young man who
+had lost a portion of his skull, whenever "he was agitated by some
+opposition to his wishes," "the blood was sent with increased force
+to his brain," and the pulsations "became frequent and violent." The
+same effect was produced by any intellectual effort; and the flushed
+countenance which attends earnest study or strong emotions of interest
+of any kind, is an external indication of the suffused state of the
+brain from such causes.
+
+In exhibiting the causes which injure the health of the mind, we shall
+find them to be partly physical, partly intellectual, and partly moral.
+
+The first cause of mental disease and suffering is not unfrequently
+in the want of a proper supply of duly oxygenized blood. It has been
+shown that the blood, in passing through the lungs, is purified by the
+oxygen of the air combining with the superabundant hydrogen and carbon
+of the venous blood, thus forming carbonic acid and water, which are
+expired into the atmosphere. Every pair of lungs is constantly
+withdrawing from the surrounding atmosphere its healthful principle,
+and returning one which is injurious to human life.
+
+When, by confinement and this process, the air is deprived of its
+appropriate supply of oxygen, the purification of the blood is
+interrupted, and it passes without being properly prepared into the
+brain, producing languor, restlessness, and inability to exercise the
+intellect and feelings. Whenever, therefore, persons sleep in a close
+apartment, or remain for a length of time in a crowded or ill-ventilated
+room, a most pernicious influence is exerted on the brain, and, through
+this, on the mind. A person who is often exposed to such influences
+can never enjoy that elasticity and vigor of mind which is one of the
+chief indications of its health. This is the reason why all rooms for
+religious meetings, and all school-rooms and sleeping apartments should
+be so contrived as to secure a constant supply of fresh air from
+without. The minister who preaches in a crowded and ill-ventilated
+apartment loses much of his power to feel and to speak, while the
+audience are equally reduced in their capability of attending. The
+teacher who confines children in a close apartment diminishes their
+ability to study, or to attend to instructions. And the person who
+habitually sleeps in a close room impairs mental energy in a similar
+degree. It is not unfrequently the case that depression of spirits and
+stupor of intellect are occasioned solely by inattention to this
+subject.
+
+Another cause of mental disease is the excessive exercise of the
+intellect or feelings. If the eye is taxed beyond its strength by
+protracted use, its blood-vessels become gorged, and the bloodshot
+appearance warns of the excess and the need of rest. The brain is
+affected in a similar manner by excessive use, though the suffering
+and inflamed organ can not make its appeal to the eye. But there are
+some indications which ought never to be misunderstood or disregarded.
+In cases of pupils at school or at college, a diseased state, from
+over-action, is often manifested by increased clearness of mind, and
+temporary ease and vigor of mental action. In one instance, known to
+the writer, a most exemplary and industrious pupil, anxious to improve
+every hour and ignorant or unmindful of the laws of health, first
+manifested the diseased state of her brain and mind by demands for
+more studies, and a sudden and earnest activity in planning modes of
+improvement for herself and others. When warned of her danger, she
+protested that she never was better in her life; that she took regular
+exercise in the open air, went to bed in season, slept soundly, and
+felt perfectly well; that her mind was never before so bright and
+clear, and study never so easy and delightful. And at this time, she
+was on the verge of derangement, from which she was saved only by an
+entire cessation of all intellectual efforts.
+
+A similar case occurred, under the eye of the writer, from over-excited
+feelings. It was during a time of unusual religious interest in the
+community, and the mental disease was first manifested by the pupil
+bringing her hymn-book or Bible to the class-room, and making it her
+constant resort, in every interval of school duty. It finally became
+impossible to convince her that it was her duty to attend to any thing
+else; her conscience became morbidly sensitive, her perceptions
+indistinct, her deductions unreasonable; and nothing but entire change
+of scene and exercise, and occupation of her mind by amusement, saved
+her. When the health of the brain was restored, she found that she
+could attend to the "one thing needful," not only without interruption
+of duty or injury to health, but rather so as to promote both. Clergymen
+and teachers need most carefully to notice and guard against the dangers
+here alluded to.
+
+Any such attention to religion as prevents the performance of daily
+duties and needful relaxation is dangerous, and tends to produce such
+a state of the brain as makes it impossible to feel or judge correctly.
+And when any morbid and unreasonable pertinacity appears, much exercise
+and engagement in other interesting pursuits should be urged, as the
+only mode of securing the religious benefits aimed at. And whenever
+any mind is oppressed with care, anxiety, or sorrow, the amount of
+active exercise in the fresh air should be greatly increased, that the
+action of the muscles may withdraw the blood which, in such seasons,
+is constantly tending too much to the brain.
+
+There has been a most appalling amount of suffering, derangement,
+disease, and death, occasioned by a want of attention to this subject,
+in teachers and parents. Uncommon precocity in children is usually the
+result of an unhealthy state of the brain; and in such cases medical
+men would now direct that the wonderful child should be deprived of
+all books and study, and turned to play out in the fresh air. Instead
+of this, parents frequently add fuel to the fever of the brain, by
+supplying constant mental stimulus, until the victim finds refuge in
+idiocy or an early grave. Where such fatal results do not occur, the
+brain in many cases is so weakened that the prodigy of infancy sinks
+below the medium of intellectual powers in afterlife.
+
+In our colleges, too, many of the most promising minds sink to an early
+grave, or drag out a miserable existence, from this same cause. And
+it is an evil as yet little alleviated by the increase of physiological
+knowledge. Every college and professional school, and every seminary
+for young ladies, needs a medical man or woman, not only to lecture
+on physiology and the laws of health, but empowered by official capacity
+to investigate the case of every pupil, and, by authority, to enforce
+such a course of study, exercise and repose, as the physical system
+requires. The writer has found by experience that in a large institution
+there is one class of pupils who need to be restrained by penalties
+from late hours and excessive study, as much as another class need
+stimulus to industry.
+
+Under the head of excessive mental action, must be placed the indulgence
+of the imagination in novel-reading and "castle-building." This kind
+of stimulus, unless counterbalanced by physical exercise, not only
+wastes time and energies, but undermines the vigor of the nervous
+system. The imagination was designed by our wise Creator as a charm
+and stimulus to animate to benevolent activity; and its perverted
+exercise seldom fails to bring a penalty.
+
+Another cause of mental disease is the want of the appropriate exercise
+of the various faculties of the mind. On this point, Dr. Combe remarks:
+"We have seen that, by disuse, muscles become emaciated, bone softens,
+blood-vessels are obliterated, and nerves lose their characteristic
+structure. The brain is no exception to this general rule. The tone
+of it is also impaired by permanent inactivity, and it becomes less
+fit to manifest the mental powers with readiness and energy." It is
+"the withdrawal of the stimulus necessary for its healthy exercise
+which renders solitary confinement so severe a punishment, even to the
+most daring minds. It is a lower degree of the same cause which renders
+continuous seclusion from society so injurious to both mental and
+bodily health."
+
+"Inactivity of intellect and of feeling is a very frequent predisposing
+cause of every form of nervous disease. For demonstrative evidence of
+this position, we have only to look at the numerous victims to be found
+among persons who have no call to exertion in gaining the means of
+subsistence, and no objects of interest on which to exercise their
+mental faculties, and who consequently sink into a state of mental
+sloth and nervous weakness." "If we look abroad upon society, we shall
+find innumerable examples of mental and nervous debility from this
+cause. When a person of some mental capacity is confined for a long
+time to an unvarying round of employment which affords neither scope
+nor stimulus for one half of the faculties, and, from want of education
+or society, has no external resources; the mental powers, for want of
+exercise, become blunted, and the perceptions slow and dull." "The
+intellect and feelings, not being provided with interests external to
+themselves, must either become inactive and weak, or work upon
+themselves and become diseased."
+
+"The most frequent victims of this kind of predisposition are females
+of the middle and higher ranks, especially those of a nervous
+constitution and good natural abilities; but who, from an ill-directed
+education, possess nothing more solid than mere accomplishments, and
+have no materials for thought," and no "occupation to excite interest
+or demand attention." "The liability of such persons to melancholy,
+hysteria, hypochondriasis, and other varieties of mental distress,
+really depends on a state of irritability of the brain, induced by
+imperfect exercise."
+
+These remarks of a medical man illustrate the principles before
+indicated; namely, that the demand of Christianity, that we live to
+promote the general happiness, and not merely for selfish indulgence,
+has for its aim not only the general good, but the highest happiness
+of the individual of whom it is required in offering abundant exercise
+for all the noblest faculties.
+
+A person possessed of wealth, who has nothing more noble to engage
+attention than seeking personal enjoyment, subjects the mental powers
+and moral feelings to a degree of inactivity utterly at war with health
+and mind. And the greater the capacities, the greater are the sufferings
+which result from this cause. Any one who has read the misanthropic
+wailings of Lord Byron has seen the necessary result of great and noble
+powers bereft of their appropriate exercise, and, in consequence,
+becoming sources of the keenest suffering.
+
+It is this view of the subject which has often awakened feelings of
+sorrow and anxiety in the mind of the writer, while aiding in the
+development and education of superior feminine minds, in the wealthier
+circles. Not because there are not noble objects for interest and
+effort, abundant, and within reach of such minds; but because
+long-established custom has made it seem so quixotic to the majority,
+even of the professed followers of Christ, for a woman of wealth to
+practice any great self-denial, that few have independence of mind and
+Christian principle sufficient to overcome such an influence. The more
+a mind has its powers developed, the more does it aspire and pine after
+some object worthy of its energies and affections; and they are
+commonplace and phlegmatic characters who are most free from such
+deep-seated wants. Many a young woman, of fine genius and elevated
+sentiment, finds a charm in Lord Byron's writings, because they present
+a glowing picture of what, to a certain extent, must be felt by every
+well-developed mind which has no nobler object in life than the pursuit
+of self-gratification.
+
+If young ladies of wealth could pursue their education under the full
+conviction that the increase of their powers and advantages increased
+their obligations to use all for the good of society, and with some
+plan of benevolent enterprise in view, what new motives of interest
+would be added to their daily pursuits! And what blessed results would
+follow to our beloved country, if all well-educated women, carried out
+the principles of Christianity, in the exercise of their developed
+powers!
+
+The benevolent activities called forth in our late dreadful war
+illustrate the blessed influence on character and happiness in having
+a noble object for which to labor and suffer. In illustration of this,
+may be mentioned the experience of one of the noble women who, in a
+sickly climate and fervid season, devoted herself to the ministries
+of a military hospital. Separated from an adored husband, deprived of
+wonted comforts and luxuries, and toiling in humble and unwonted labors,
+she yet recalls this as one of the happiest periods of her life. And
+it was not the mere exercise of benevolence and piety in ministering,
+comfort and relieving suffering. It was, still more, the elevated
+enjoyment which only an enlarged and cultivated mind can attain, in
+the inspirations of grand and far-reaching results purchased by such
+sacrifice and suffering. It was in aiding to save her well-loved
+country from impending ruin, and to preserve to coming generations the
+blessings of true liberty and self-government, that toils and suffering
+became triumphant joys.
+
+Every Christian woman who "walks by faith and not by sight," who looks
+forward to the results of self-sacrificing labor for the ignorant and
+sinful as they will enlarge and expand through everlasting ages, may
+rise to the same elevated sphere of experience and happiness. On the
+contrary, the more highly cultivated the mind devoted to mere selfish
+enjoyment, the more are the sources of true happiness closed and the
+soul left to helpless emptiness and unrest.
+
+The indications of a diseased mind, owing to the want of the proper
+exercise of its powers, are apathy, discontent, a restless longing for
+excitement, a craving for unattainable good, a diseased and morbid
+action of the imagination, dissatisfaction with the world, and
+factitious interest in trifles which the mind feels to be unworthy of
+its powers. Such minds sometimes seek alleviation in exciting
+amusements; others resort to the grosser enjoyments of sense. Oppressed
+with the extremes of languor, or over-excitement, or apathy, the body
+fails under the wearing process, and adds new causes of suffering to
+the mind. Such, the compassionate Saviour calls to his service, in the
+appropriate terms, "Come unto me, all ye that labor and are heavy
+laden, and I will give you rest. Take my yoke upon you, and learn of
+me," "and ye shall find rest unto your souls."
+
+
+
+
+XXI.
+
+THE CARE OF INFANTS.
+
+
+The topic of this chapter may well be prefaced by an extract from
+Herbert Spencer on the treatment of offspring. He first supposes that
+some future philosophic speculator, examining the course of education
+of the present period, should find nothing relating to the training
+of children, and that his natural inference would be that our schools
+were all for monastic orders, who have no charge of infancy and
+childhood. He then remarks, "Is it not an astonishing fact that, though
+on the treatment of offspring depend their lives or deaths and their
+moral welfare or ruin, yet not one word of instruction on the treatment
+of offspring is ever given, to those who will hereafter be parents?
+Is it not monstrous that the fate of a new generation should be left
+to the chances of unreasoning custom, or impulse, or fancy, joined
+with the suggestions of ignorant nurses and the prejudiced counsel of
+grandmothers?
+
+"If a merchant should commence business without any knowledge of
+arithmetic or book-keeping, we should exclaim at his folly and look
+for disastrous consequences. Or if, without studying anatomy, a man
+set up as a surgeon, we should wonder at his audacity and pity his
+patients. But that parents should commence the difficult work of rearing
+children without giving any attention to the principles, physical,
+moral, or intellectual, which ought to guide them, excites neither
+surprise at the actors nor pity for the victims."
+
+"To tens of thousands that are killed add hundreds of thousands that
+survive with feeble constitutions, and millions not so strong as they
+should be; and you will have some idea of the curse inflicted on their
+offspring, by parents ignorant of the laws of life. Do but consider
+for a moment that the regimen to which children are subject is hourly
+telling upon them to their life-long injury or benefit, and that there
+are twenty ways of going wrong to one way of going right, and you will
+get some idea of the enormous mischief that is almost everywhere
+inflicted by the thoughtless, hap-hazard system in common use."
+
+"When sons and daughters grow up sickly and feeble, parents commonly
+regard the event as a visitation of Providence. They assume that these
+evils come without cause, or that the cause is supernatural. Nothing
+of the kind. In some cases causes are inherited, but in most cases
+foolish management is the cause. Very generally parents themselves are
+responsible for this pain, this debility, this depression, this misery.
+They have undertaken to control the lives of their offspring, and with
+cruel carelessness have neglected to learn those vital processes which
+they are daily affecting by their commands and prohibitions. In utter
+ignorance of the simplest physiological laws, they have been, year by
+year, undermining the constitutions of their children, and so have
+inflicted disease and premature death, not only on them but also on
+their descendants.
+
+"Equally great are the ignorance and consequent injury, when we turn
+from the physical to the moral training. Consider the young, untaught
+mother and her nursery legislation. A short time ago she was at school,
+where her memory was crammed with words and names and dates, and her
+reflective faculties scarcely in the slightest degree exercised--where
+not one idea was given her respecting the methods of dealing with the
+opening mind of childhood, and where her discipline did not in the
+least fit her for thinking out methods of her own. The intervening
+years have been spent in practicing music, fancy work, novel-reading
+and party-going, no thought having been given, to the grave
+responsibilities of maternity, and scarcely any of that solid
+intellectual culture obtained which would fit her for such
+responsibilities; and now see her with an unfolding human character
+committed to her charge, see her profoundly ignorant of the phenomena
+with which she has to deal, undertaking to do that which can be done
+but imperfectly even with the aid of the profoundest knowledge!"
+
+In view of such considerations, every young lady ought to learn how
+to take proper care of an infant; for, even if she is never to become
+the responsible guardian of a nursery, she will often be in situations
+where she can render benevolent aid to others, in this most fatiguing
+and anxious duty.
+
+The writer has known instances in which young ladies, who had been
+trained by their mothers properly to perform this duty, were in some
+cases the means of saving the lives of infants, and in others, of
+relieving sick mothers from intolerable care and anguish by their
+benevolent aid.
+
+On this point, Dr. Combe remarks, "All women are not destined, in the
+course of nature, to become mothers; but how very small is the number
+of those who are unconnected, by family ties, friendship, or sympathy,
+with the children of others! How very few are there, who, at some time
+or other of their lives, would not find their usefulness and happiness
+increased, by the possession of a kind of knowledge intimately allied
+to their best feelings and affections! And how important is it, to the
+mother herself, that her efforts should be seconded by intelligent,
+instead of ignorant assistants!"
+
+In order to be prepared for such benevolent ministries, every young
+lady should improve the opportunity, whenever it is afforded her, for
+learning how to wash, dress, and tend a young infant; and whenever she
+meets with such a work as Dr. Combe's, on the management of infants,
+she ought to read it, and _remember_ its contents.
+
+It was the design of the author to fill this chapter chiefly with
+extracts from various medical writers, giving some of the most important
+directions on this subject; but finding these extracts too prolix for
+a work of this kind, she has condensed them into a shorter compass.
+Some are quoted verbatim, and some are abridged, from the most approved
+writers on this subject.
+
+"Nearly one half of the deaths, Occurring during the first two years
+of existence, are ascribable to mismanagement, and to errors in diet.
+At birth, the stomach is feeble, and as yet unaccustomed to food; its
+cravings are consequently easily satisfied, and frequently renewed."
+"At that early age, there ought to be no fixed time for giving
+nourishment. The stomach can not be thus satisfied." "The active call
+of the infant is a sign, which needs never be mistaken."
+
+"But care must be taken to determine between, the crying of pain or
+uneasiness, and the call for food; and the practice of giving an infant
+food, to stop its cries, is often the means of increasing its
+sufferings. After a child has satisfied its hunger, from two to four
+hours should intervene before another supply is given."
+
+"At birth, the stomach and bowels, never having been used, contain a
+quantity of mucous secretion, which requires to be removed. To effect
+this, Nature has rendered the first portions of the mother's milk
+purposely watery and laxative. Nurses, however, distrusting Nature,
+often hasten to administer some active purgative; and the consequence
+often is, irritation in the stomach and bowels, not easily subdued."
+It is only where the child is deprived of its mother's milk, as the
+first food, that some gentle laxative should be given.
+
+"It is a common mistake, to suppose that because a woman is nursing,
+she ought to live very fully, and to add an allowance of wine, porter,
+or other fermented liquor, to her usual diet. The only result of this
+plan is, to cause an unnatural fullness in the system, which places
+the nurse on the brink of disease, and retards rather than increases
+the food of the infant. More will be gained by the observance of the
+ordinary laws of health, than by any foolish deviation, founded on
+ignorance."
+
+There is no point on which medical men so emphatically lift the voice
+of warning as in reference to administering medicines to infants. It
+is so difficult to discover what is the matter with an infant, its
+frame is so delicate and so susceptible, and slight causes have such
+a powerful influence, that it requires the utmost skill and judgment
+to ascertain what would be proper medicines, and the proper quantity
+to be given.
+
+Says Dr. Combe, "That there are cases in which active means must be
+promptly used to save the child, is perfectly true. But it is not less
+certain that these are cases of which no mother or nurse ought to
+attempt the treatment. As a general rule, where the child is well
+managed, medicine, of any kind, is very rarely required; and if disease
+were more generally regarded in its true light, not as something thrust
+into the system, which requires to be expelled by force, but as an
+aberration from a natural mode of action, produced by some external
+cause, we should be in less haste to attack it by medicine, and more
+watchful in its prevention. Accordingly, where a constant demand for
+medicine exists in a nursery, the mother may rest assured that there
+is something essentially wrong in the treatment of her children."
+
+"Much havoc is made among infants, by the abuse of calomel and other
+medicines, which procure momentary relief but end by producing incurable
+disease; and it has often excited my astonishment, to see how recklessly
+remedies of this kind are had recourse to, on the most trifling
+occasions, by mothers and nurses, who would be horrified if they knew
+the nature of the power they are wielding, and the extent of injury
+they are inflicting."
+
+Instead, then, of depending on medicine for the preservation of the
+health and life of an infant, the following precautions and preventives
+should be adopted.
+
+"Take particular care of the _food_ of an infant. If it is nourished by
+the mother, her own diet should be simple, nourishing, and temperate. If
+the child be brought up 'by hand,' the milk of a new-milch cow, mixed
+with one third water, and sweetened a little with _white_ sugar, should
+be the only food given, until the teeth come. This is more suitable than
+any preparations of flour or arrowroot, the nourishment of which is too
+highly concentrated. Never give a child _bread, cake,_ or _meat_, before
+the teeth appear. If the food appear to distress the child after eating,
+first ascertain if the milk be really from a new-milch cow, as it may
+otherwise be too old. Learn, also, whether the cow lives on proper food.
+Cows that are fed on _still-slops_, as is often the case in cities,
+furnish milk which is very unhealthful."
+
+Be sure and keep a good supply of pure and fresh air in the nursery.
+On this point, Dr. Bell remarks, respecting rooms constructed without
+fireplaces and without doors or windows to let in pure air from without,
+"The sufferings of children of feeble constitutions are increased
+beyond measure, by such lodgings as these. An action, brought by the
+commonwealth, ought to lie against those persons who build houses for
+sale or rent, in which rooms are so constructed as not to allow of
+free ventilation; and a writ of lunacy taken out against those who,
+with the commonsense experience which all have on this head, should
+spend any portion of their time, still more, should sleep, in rooms
+thus nearly air-tight."
+
+After it is a month or two old, take an infant out to walk, or ride,
+in a little wagon, every fair and warm day; but be very careful that
+its feet, and every part of its body, are kept warm; and be sure that
+its eyes are well protected from the light. Weak eyes, and sometimes
+blindness, are caused by neglecting this precaution. Keep the head of
+an infant cool, never allowing too warm bonnets, nor permitting it to
+sink into soft pillows when asleep. Keeping an infant's head too warm
+very much increases nervous irritability; and this is the reason why
+medical men forbid the use of caps for infants. But the head of an
+infant should, especially while sleeping, be protected from draughts
+of air, and from getting cold.
+
+Be very careful of the skin of an infant, as nothing tends so
+effectually to prevent disease. For this end, it should be washed all
+over every morning, and then gentle friction should be applied with
+the hand, to the back, stomach, bowels, and limbs. The head should be
+thoroughly washed every day, and then brushed with a soft hair-brush,
+or combed with a fine comb. If, by neglect, dirt accumulates under the
+hair, apply with the finger the yolk of an egg, and then the fine comb
+will remove it all, without any trouble.
+
+Dress the infant so that it will be always warm, but not so as to cause
+perspiration. Be sure and keep its feet _always_ warm; and for this
+often warm them at a fire, and use long dresses. Keep the neck and arms
+covered. For this purpose, wrappers, open in front, made high in the
+neck, with long sleeves, to put on over the frock, are now very
+fashionable.
+
+It is better for both mother and child, that it should not sleep on
+the mother's arm at night, unless the weather be extremely cold. This
+practice keeps the child too warm, and leads it to seek food too
+frequently. A child should ordinarily take nourishment but twice in
+the night. A crib beside the mother, with plenty of warm and light
+covering, is best for the child; but the mother must be sure that it
+is always kept warm.
+
+Never cover a child's head, so that it will inhale the air of its own
+lungs. In very warm weather, especially in cities, great pains should
+be taken to find fresh and cool air by rides and sailing. Walks in a
+public square in the cool of the morning, and frequent excursions in
+ferry or steamboats, would often save a long bill for medical
+attendance.
+
+In hot nights, the windows should be kept open, and the infant laid
+on a mattress, or on folded blankets. A bit of straw matting, laid
+over a feather bed and covered with the under sheet, makes a very cool
+bed for an infant.
+
+Cool bathing, in hot weather, is very useful; but the water should be
+very little cooler than the skin of the child. When the constitution
+is delicate, the water should be slightly warmed. Simply sponging the
+body freely in a tub, answers the same purpose as a regular bath. In
+very warm weather, this should be done two or three times a day, always
+waiting two or three hours after food has been given.
+
+"When the stomach is peculiarity irritable, (from teething,) it is of
+paramount necessity to withhold all the nostrums which have been so
+falsely lauded as 'sovereign cures for _cholera infantum_.' The
+true restoratives for a child threatened with disease are cool air,
+cool bathing, and cool drinks of simple water, in addition to
+_proper_ food, at stated intervals."
+
+In many cases, change of air from sea to mountain, or the reverse, has
+an immediate healthful influence and is superior to every other
+treatment. Do not take the advice of mothers who tell of this, that,
+and the other thing which have proved excellent remedies in their
+experience. Children have different constitutions, and there are
+multitudes of different causes for their sickness; and what might cure
+one child, might kill another, which appeared to have the same
+complaint. A mother should go on the general rule of giving an infant
+very little medicine, and then only by the direction of a discreet and
+experienced physician. And there are cases, when, according to the
+views of the most distinguished and competent practitioners, physicians
+themselves are much too free in using medicines, instead of adopting
+preventive measures.
+
+Do not allow a child to form such habits that it will not be quiet
+unless tended and amused. A healthy child should be accustomed to lie
+or sit in its cradle much of the time; but it should occasionally be
+taken up and tossed, or carried about for exercise and amusement. An
+infant should be encouraged to _creep_, as an exercise very
+strengthening and useful. If the mother fears the soiling of its nice
+dresses, she can keep a long slip or apron which will entirely cover
+the dress, and can be removed when the child is taken in the arms. A
+child should not be allowed, when quite young, to bear its weight on
+its feet very long at a time, as this tends to weaken and distort the
+limbs.
+
+Many mothers, with a little painstaking, succeed in putting their
+infants into their cradle while awake, at regular hours for sleep; and
+induce regularity in other habits, which saves much trouble. During
+this training process a child may cry, at first, a great deal; but for
+a healthy child, this use of the lungs does no harm and tends rather
+to strengthen than to injure them, unless it becomes exceedingly
+violent. A child who is trained to lie or sit and amuse itself, is
+happier than one who is carried and tended a great deal, and thus
+rendered restless and uneasy when not so indulged.
+
+The most critical period in the life of an infant is that of dentition
+or teething, especially at the early stages. An adult has thirty-two
+teeth, but young children have only twenty, which gradually loosen and
+are followed by the permanent teeth. When the child has ten teeth on
+each jaw, all that are added are the permanent set, which should be
+carefully preserved; this caution is needful, as sometimes decay in
+the first double teeth of the second set are supposed to be of the
+transient set, and are so neglected, or are removed instead of being
+preserved by plugging. When the first teeth rise so as to press against
+the gums, there is always more or less inflammation, causing nervous
+fretfulness, and the impulse to put everything into the mouth. Usually
+there is disturbed sleep, a slight fever, and greater flow of saliva;
+this is often relieved by letting the child have ice to bite, tied in
+a rag.
+
+Sometimes the disorder of the mouth extends to the whole system. In
+difficult teething, one symptom is the jerking back of the head when
+taking the breath, as if in pain, owing to the extreme soreness of the
+gums. This is, in extreme cases, attended with increased saliva and
+a gummy secretion in the corners of the eyes, itching of the nose,
+redness of cheeks, rash, convulsive twitching of lips and the muscles
+generally, fever, constipation, and sometimes by a diarrhea, which
+last is favorable if slight; difficulty of breathing, dilation of the
+pupils of the eyes, restless motion and moaning; and finally, if not
+relieved, convulsions and death. The most effective relief is gained
+by lancing the gums. Every woman, and especially every mother, should
+know the time and order in which the infant teeth come, and, when any
+of the above symptoms appear, should examine the mouth, and if a gum
+is swollen and inflamed, should either have a physician lance it, or
+if this can not be done, should perform the operation herself. A sharp
+pen-knife and steady hand making incision to touch the rising tooth
+will cause no more pain than a simple scratch of the gum, and usually
+will give speedy relief.
+
+The temporary teeth should not be removed until the new ones appear,
+as it injures the jaw and coming teeth; but as soon as a new tooth is
+seen pressing upward, the temporary tooth should be removed, or the
+new tooth will come out of its proper place. If there is not room where
+the new tooth appears, the next temporary tooth must be taken out.
+Great mischief has been done by removing the first teeth before the
+second appear, thus making a contraction of the jaw.
+
+Most trouble with, the teeth of young children comes from neglect to
+use the brush to remove the tartar that accumulates near the gum,
+causing disease and decay. This disease is sometimes called _scurvy_,
+and is shown by an accumulation around the teeth and by inflamed gums
+that bleed easily. Removal of the tartar by a dentist and cleaning the
+teeth after every meal with a brush will usually cure this evil, which
+causes loosening of the teeth and a bad breath.
+
+Much injury is often done to teeth by using improper tooth-powder.
+Powdered chalk sifted through muslin is approved by all dentists, and
+should be used once every day. The tooth-brush should be used after
+every meal, and floss silk pressed between the teeth to remove food
+lodged there. This method will usually save the teeth from decay till
+old age.
+
+When an infant seems ill during the period of dentition, the following
+directions from an experienced physician may be of service. It is now
+an accepted principle of all the medical world that fevers are to be
+reduced by cold applications; but an infant demands careful and
+judicious treatment in this direction; some have extremely sensitive
+nerves, and cold is painful. For such, tepid sponging should be used
+near a fire, and the coldness increased gradually. The sensations of
+the child should be the guide. Usually, but not always, children that
+are healthy will learn by degrees to prefer cold water, and then it
+may safely be used.
+
+When an infant becomes feverish, wrapping its body in a towel wrung
+out in warm, or tepid water, and then keeping it warm in a woolen
+blanket, is a very safe and soothing remedy.
+
+In case of constipation, this preparation of food is useful:
+
+One table-spoonful of unbolted flour wet with cold water. Add one pint
+of hot water, and boil twenty minutes. Add when taken up, one pint of
+milk. If the stomach seems delicate and irritable, strain out the bran,
+but in most cases, retain it.
+
+In case of diarrhea, walk with the child in arms a great deal in the
+open air, and give it rice-water to drink.
+
+The warmth and vital influences of the nurse are very important, and
+make this mode of exercise both more soothing and more efficacious,
+especially in the open air, the infant being warmly clad.
+
+In case of feverishness from teething or from any other cause, wrap
+the infant in a towel wrung out in tepid water and then wrap it in a
+woolen blanket. The water may be cooler according as the child is older
+and stronger. The evaporation of the water draws off the heat, while
+the moisture soothes the nerves, and usually the child will fall into
+a quiet sleep. As soon as it becomes restless, change the wet towel
+and proceed as before.
+
+The leading physicians of Europe and of this country, in all cases of
+fevers, use water to reduce them, by this and other modes of
+application. This method is more soothing than any other, and is as
+effective for adults as for infants.
+
+Some of the most distinguished physicians of New-York who have examined
+this chapter give their full approval of the advice given. If there
+is still distrust as to this mode of using water to reduce fevers, it
+will be advantageous to read an address on the use of cold applications
+in fevers, delivered by Dr. William Neftel, before the New-York Academy
+of Medicine, published in the _New York Medical Record_ for November,
+1868: this can be obtained by inclosing twenty cents to the editor, with
+the post-office address of the applicant.
+
+
+
+
+XXII.
+
+THE MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN.
+
+
+In regard to the physical education of children, Dr. Clarke, Physician
+in Ordinary to the Queen of England, expresses views on one point, in
+which most physicians would coincide. He says, "There is no greater
+error in the management of children, than that of giving them animal
+diet very early. By persevering in the use of an over-stimulating diet
+the digestive organs become irritated, and the various secretions
+immediately connected with digestion, and necessary to it, are
+diminished, especially the _biliary secretion_. Children so fed
+become very liable to attacks of fever, and inflammation, affecting
+particularly the mucous membranes; and measles and other diseases
+incident to childhood, are generally severe in their attacks."
+
+The result of the treatment of the inmates of the Orphan Asylum, at
+Albany, is one which all who have the care of young children should
+deeply ponder. During the first six years of the existence of this
+institution, its average number of children was eighty. For the first
+three years, their diet was meat once a day, fine bread, rice, Indian
+puddings, vegetables, fruit, and milk. Considerable attention was
+given to clothing, fresh air, and exercise; and they were bathed once
+in three weeks. During these three years, from four to six children,
+and sometimes more, were continually on the sick-list; one or two
+assistant nurses were necessary; a physician was called two or three
+times a week; and, in this time, there were between thirty and forty
+deaths. At the end of this period, the management was changed, in these
+respects; daily ablutions of the whole body were practiced; bread of
+unbolted flour was substituted for that of fine wheat; and all animal
+food was banished. More attention also was paid to clothing, bedding,
+fresh air, and exercise.
+
+The result was, that the nursery was vacated; the nurse and physician
+were no longer needed; and, for two years, not a single case of sickness
+or death occurred. The third year also, there were no deaths, except
+those of two idiots and one other child, all of whom were new inmates,
+who had not been subjected to this treatment. The teachers of the
+children also testified there was a manifest increase of intellectual
+vigor and activity, while there was much less irritability of temper.
+
+Let parents, nurses, and teachers reflect on the above statement, and
+bear in mind that stupidity of intellect, and irritability of temper,
+as well as ill-health, are often caused by the mismanagement of the
+nursery in regard to the physical training of children.
+
+There is probably no practice more deleterious, than that of allowing
+children to eat at short intervals, through, the day. As the stomach
+is thus kept constantly at work, with no time for repose, its functions
+are deranged, and a weak or disordered stomach is the frequent result.
+Children should be required to keep cakes, nuts, and other good things,
+which should be sparingly given, till just before a meal, and then
+they will form a part of their regular supply. This is better than to
+wait till after their hunger is satisfied by food, when they will eat
+the niceties merely to gratify the palate, and thus overload the stomach
+and interrupt digestion.
+
+In regard to the intellectual training of young children, some
+modification in the common practice is necessary, with reference to
+their physical well-being. More care is needful, in providing
+_well-ventilated_ school-rooms, and in securing more time for
+sports in the open air, during school hours. It is very important to
+most mothers that their young children should be removed from their
+care during certain school hours; and it is very useful for quite young
+children, to be subjected to the discipline of a school, and to
+intercourse with other children of their own age. And, with a suitable
+teacher, it is no matter how early children are sent to school, provided
+their health is not endangered by impure air, too much confinement,
+and too great mental stimulus, which is the chief danger of the present
+age.
+
+In regard to the formation of the moral character, it has been too
+much the case that the discipline of the nursery has consisted of
+disconnected efforts to make children either do, or refrain from doing,
+certain particular acts. Do this, and be rewarded; do that, and be
+punished; is the ordinary routine of family government.
+
+But children can be very early taught that their happyness, both now
+and hereafter, depends on the formation of _habits_ of submission,
+self-denial, and benevolence. And all the discipline of the nursery
+can be conducted by parents, not only with this general aim in their
+own minds, but also with the same object daily set before the minds
+of the children. Whenever their wishes are crossed, or their wills
+subdued, they can be taught that all this is done, not merely to please
+the parent, or to secure some good to themselves or to others; but as
+a part of that merciful training which is designed to form such a
+character, and such habits, that they can hereafter find their chief
+happiness in giving up their will to God, and in living to do good to
+others, instead of living merely to please themselves.
+
+It can be pointed out to them, that they must always submit their will
+to the will of God, or else be continually miserable. It can be shown
+how, in the nursery, and in the school, and through all future days,
+a child must practice the giving up of his will and wishes, when they
+interfere with the rights and comfort of others; and how important it
+is, early to learn to do this, so that it will, by habit, become easy
+and agreeable. It can be shown how children who are indulged in all
+their wishes, and who are never accustomed to any self-denial, always
+find it hard to refrain from what injures themselves and others. It
+can be shown, also, how important it is for every person to form such
+habits of benevolence toward others that self-denial in doing good
+will become easy.
+
+Parents have learned, by experience, that children can be constrained
+by authority and penalties to exercise self-denial, for _their own_
+good, till a habit is formed which makes the duty comparatively easy.
+For example, well trained children can be accustomed to deny themselves
+tempting articles of food, which are injurious, until the practice
+ceases to be painful and difficult. Whereas, an indulged child would
+be thrown into fits of anger or discontent, when its wishes were crossed
+by restraints of this kind.
+
+But it has not been so readily discerned, that the same method is
+needful in order to form a habit of self-denial in doing good to others.
+It has been supposed that while children must be forced, by _authority_,
+to be self-denying and prudent in regard to their own happiness, it may
+properly be left to their own discretion, whether they will practice any
+self-denial in doing good to others. But the more difficult a duty is,
+the greater is the need of parental authority in forming a habit which
+will make that duty easy.
+
+In order to secure this, some parents turn their earliest efforts to
+this object. They require the young child always to offer to others
+a part of every thing which it receives; always to comply with all
+reasonable requests of others for service; and often to practice little
+acts of self-denial, in order to secure some enjoyment for others. If
+one child receives a present of some nicety, he is required to share
+it with all his brothers and sisters. If one asks his brother to help
+him in some study or sport, and is met with a denial, the parent
+requires the unwilling child to act benevolently, and give up some of
+his time to increase his brother's enjoyment. Of course, in such an
+effort as this, discretion must be used as to the frequency and extent
+of the exercise of authority, to induce a habit of benevolence. But
+where parents deliberately aim at such an object, and wisely conduct
+their instructions and discipline to secure it, very much will be
+accomplished.
+
+In regard to forming habits of obedience, there have been two extremes,
+both of which need to be shunned. One is, a stern and unsympathizing
+maintenance of parental authority, demanding perfect and constant
+obedience, without any attempt to convince a child of the propriety
+and benevolence of the requisitions, and without any manifestation of
+sympathy and tenderness for the pain and difficulties which are to be
+met. Under such discipline, children grow up to fear their parents,
+rather than to love and trust them; while some of the most valuable
+principles of character are chilled, or forever blasted.
+
+In shunning this danger, other parents pass to the opposite extreme.
+They put themselves too much on the footing of equals with their
+children, as if little were due to superiority of relation, age, and
+experience. Nothing is exacted, without the implied concession that
+the child is to be a judge of the propriety of the requisition; and
+reason and persuasion are employed, where simple command and obedience
+would be far better. This system produces a most pernicious influence.
+Children soon perceive the position thus allowed them, and take every
+advantage of it. They soon learn to dispute parental requirements,
+acquire habits of forwardness and conceit, assume disrespectful manners
+and address, maintain their views with pertinacity, and yield to
+authority with ill-humor and resentment, as if their rights were
+infringed upon.
+
+The medium course is for the parent to take the attitude of a superior
+in age, knowledge, and relation, who has a perfect _right_ to control
+every action of the child, and that, too, without giving any reason for
+the requisitions. "Obey _because your parent commands_," is always a
+proper and sufficient reason: though not always the best to give.
+
+But care should be taken to convince the child that the parent is
+conducting a course of discipline, designed to make him happy; and in
+forming habits of implicit obedience, self-denial, and benevolence,
+the child should have the reasons for most requisitions kindly stated;
+never, however, on the demand of it from the child, as a right, but
+as an act of kindness from the parent.
+
+It is impossible to govern children properly, especially those of
+strong and sensitive feelings, without a constant effort to appreciate
+the value which they attach to their enjoyments and pursuits. A lady
+of great strength of mind and sensibility once told the writer that
+one of the most acute periods of suffering in her whole life was
+occasioned by the burning up of some milkweed-silk, by her mother.
+The child had found, for the first time, some of this shining and
+beautiful substance; was filled with delight at her discovery; was
+arranging it in parcels; planning its future use, and her pleasure in
+showing it to her companions--when her mother, finding it strewed over
+the carpet, hastily swept it into the fire, and that, too, with so
+indifferent an air, that the child fled away, almost distracted with
+grief and disappointment. The mother little realized the pain she had
+inflicted, but the child felt the unkindness so severely that for
+several days her mother was an object, almost of aversion. While,
+therefore, the parent needs to carry on a steady course, which will
+oblige the child always to give up its will, whenever its own good or
+the greater claims of others require it, this should be constantly
+connected with the expression of a tender sympathy for the trials and
+disappointments thus inflicted.
+
+Those, again, who will join with children and help them in their sports,
+will learn by this mode to understand the feelings and interests of
+childhood; while at the same time, they secure a degree of confidence
+and affection which can not be gained so easily in any other way. And
+it is to be regretted that parents so often relinquish this most
+powerful mode of influence to domestics and playmates, who often use
+it in the most pernicious manner. In joining in such sports, older
+persons should never yield entirely the attitude of superiors, or allow
+disrespectful manners or address. And respectful deportment is never
+more cheerfully accorded, than in seasons when young hearts are pleased
+and made grateful by having their tastes and enjoyments so efficiently
+promoted.
+
+Next to the want of all government, the two most fruitful sources of
+evil to children are, _unsteadiness_ in government and _over-
+government_. Most of the cases in which the children of sensible and
+conscientious parents turn out badly, result from one or the other of
+these causes. In cases of unsteady government, either one parent is very
+strict, severe and unbending, and the other excessively indulgent, or
+else the parents are sometimes very strict and decided, and at other
+times allow disobedience to go unpunished. In such cases, children,
+never knowing exactly when they can escape with impunity, are constantly
+tempted to make the trial.
+
+The bad effects of this can be better appreciated by reference to one
+important principle of the mind. It is found to be universally true,
+that, when any object of desire is put entirely beyond the reach of
+hope or expectation, the mind very soon ceases to long for it, and
+turns to other objects of pursuit. But so long as the mind is hoping
+for some good, and making efforts to obtain it, any opposition excites
+irritable feelings. Let the object be put entirely beyond all hope,
+and this irritation soon ceases.
+
+In consequence of this principle, those children who are under the
+care of persons of steady and decided government know that whenever
+a thing is forbidden or denied, it is out of the reach of hope; the
+desire, therefore, soon ceases, and they turn to other objects. But
+the children of undecided, or of over-indulgent parents, never enjoy
+this preserving aid. When a thing is denied, they never know hut either
+coaxing may win it, or disobedience secure it without any penalty, and
+so they are kept in that state of hope and anxiety which produces
+irritation and tempts to insubordination. The children of very indulgent
+parents, and of those who are undecided and unsteady in government,
+are very apt to become fretful, irritable, and fractious.
+
+Another class of persons, in shunning this evil, go to the other
+extreme, and are very strict and pertinacious in regard to every
+requisition. With them, fault-finding and penalties abound, until the
+children are either hardened into indifference of feeling, and
+obtuseness of conscience, or else become excessively irritable or
+misanthropic.
+
+It demands great wisdom, patience, and self-control, to escape these
+two extremes. In aiming at this, there are parents who have found the
+following maxims of very great value:
+
+First: Avoid, as much as possible, the multiplication of rules and
+absolute commands. Instead of this, take the attitude of advisers. "My
+child, this is improper, I wish you would remember not to do it." This
+mode of address answers for all the little acts of heedlessness,
+awkwardness, or ill-manners so frequently occurring with children.
+There are cases, when direct and distinct commands are needful; and
+in such cases, a penalty for disobedience should be as steady and sure
+as the laws of nature. Where such steadiness and certainty of penalty
+attend disobedience, children no more think of disobeying than they
+do of putting their fingers into a burning candle.
+
+The next maxim is, Govern by rewards more than by penalties. Such
+faults as willful disobedience, lying, dishonesty, and indecent or
+profane language, should be punished with severe penalties, after a
+child has been fully instructed in the evil of such practices. But all
+the constantly recurring faults of the nursery, such as ill-humor,
+quarreling, carelessness, and ill-manners, may, in a great many cases,
+be regulated by gentle and kind remonstrances, and by the offer of
+some reward for persevering efforts to form a good habit. It is very
+injurious and degrading to any mind to be kept under the constant fear
+of penalties. _Love_ and _hope_ are the principles that should be mainly
+relied on, in forming the habits of childhood.
+
+Another maxim, and perhaps the most difficult, is, Do not govern by
+the aid of severe and angry tones. A single example will be given to
+illustrate this maxim. A child is disposed to talk and amuse itself
+at table. The mother requests it to be silent, except when needing to
+ask for food, or when spoken to by its older friends. It constantly
+forgets. The mother, instead of rebuking in an impatient tone, says,
+"My child, you must remember not to talk. I will remind you of it four
+times more, and after that, whenever you forget, you must leave the
+table and wait till we are done." If the mother is steady in her
+government, it is not probable that she will have to apply this slight
+penalty more than once or twice. This method is far more effectual
+than the use of sharp and severe tones, to secure attention and
+recollection, and often answers the purpose as well as offering some
+reward.
+
+The writer has been in some families where the most efficient and steady
+government has been sustained without the use of a cross or angry tone;
+and in others, where a far less efficient discipline was kept up, by
+frequent severe rebukes and angry remonstrances. In the first case,
+the children followed the example set them, and seldom used severe
+tones to each other; in the latter, the method employed by the parents
+was imitated by the children, and cross words and angry tones resounded
+from morning till night, in every portion of the household.
+
+Another important maxim is, Try to keep children in a happy state of
+mind. Every one knows, by experience, that it is easier to do right
+and submit to rule when cheerful and happy, than when irritated. This
+is peculiarly true of children; and a wise mother, when she finds her
+child fretful and impatient, and thus constantly doing wrong, will
+often remedy the whole difficulty, by telling some amusing story, or
+by getting the child engaged in some amusing sport. This strongly shows
+the importance of learning to govern children without the employment
+of angry tones, which always produce irritation.
+
+Children of active, heedless temperament, or those who are odd, awkward,
+or unsuitable in their remarks and deportment, are often essentially
+injured by a want of patience and self-control in those who govern
+them. Such children often possess a morbid sensibility which they
+strive to conceal, or a desire of love and approbation, which preys
+like a famine on the soul. And yet, they become objects of ridicule
+and rebuke to almost every member of the family, until their
+sensibilities are tortured into obtuseness or misanthropy. Such
+children, above all others, need tenderness and sympathy. A thousand
+instances of mistake or forgetfulness should be passed over in silence,
+while opportunities for commendation and encouragement should be
+diligently sought.
+
+In regard to the formation of habits of self-denial in childhood, it
+is astonishing to see how parents who are very sensible often seem to
+regard this matter. Instead of inuring their children to this duty in
+early life, so that by habit it may be made easy in after-days, they
+seem to be studiously seeking to cut them off from every chance to
+secure such a preparation. Every wish of the child is studiously
+gratified; and, where a necessity exists of crossing its wishes, some
+compensating pleasure is offered, in return. Such parents often maintain
+that nothing shall be put on their table, which their children may not
+join them in eating. But where, so easily and surely as at the daily
+meal, can that habit of self-denial be formed, which is so needful in
+governing the appetites, and which children must acquire, or be ruined?
+The food which is proper for grown persons, is often unsuitable for
+children; and this is a sufficient reason for accustoming them to see
+others partake of delicacies, which they must not share. Requiring
+children, to wait till others are helped, and to refrain from,
+conversation at table, except when addressed by their elders, is another
+mode of forming habits of self-denial and self-control. Requiring them
+to help others first, and to offer the best to others, has a similar
+influence.
+
+In forming the moral habits of children, it is wise to take into account
+the peculiar temptations to which they are to be exposed. The people
+of this nation are eminently a trafficking people; and the present
+standard of honesty, as to trade and debts, is very low, and every
+year seems sinking still lower. It is, therefore, preeminently
+important, that children should be trained to strict _honesty_,
+both in word and deed. It is not merely teaching children to avoid
+absolute lying, which is needed: _all kinds of deceit_ should be
+guarded against; and all kinds of little dishonest practices be
+strenuously opposed. A child should be brought up with the determined
+principle, never to _run in debt_, but to be content to live in
+a humbler way, in order to secure that true independence, which should
+be the noblest distinction of an American citizen.
+
+There is no more important duty devolving upon a mother, than the
+cultivation of habits of modesty and propriety in young children. All
+indecorous words or deportment should be carefully restrained; and
+delicacy and reserve studiously cherished. It is a common notion, that
+it is important to secure these virtues to one sex, more than to the
+other; and, by a strange inconsistency, the sex most exposed to danger
+is the one selected as least needing care. Yet a wise mother will be
+especially careful that her sons are trained to modesty and purity of
+mind.
+
+Yet few mothers are sufficiently aware of the dreadful penalties which
+often result from indulged impurity of thought. If children, in _future_
+life, can be preserved from licentious associates, it is supposed that
+their safety is secured. But the records of our insane retreats, and the
+pages of medical writers, teach that even in solitude, and without being
+aware of the sin or the danger, children may inflict evils on
+themselves, which not unfrequently terminate in disease, delirium, and
+death.
+
+There is no necessity for explanations on this point any farther than
+this; that certain parts of the body are not to be touched except for
+purposes of cleanliness, and that the most dreadful suffering comes
+from disobeying these commands. So in regard to practices and sins of
+which a young child will sometimes inquire, the wise parent will say,
+that this is what children can not understand, and about which they
+must not talk or ask questions. And they should be told that it is
+always a bad sign, when children talk on matters which parents call
+vulgar and indecent, and that the company of such children should be
+avoided. Disclosing details of wrong-doing to young and curious
+children, often leads to the very evils feared. But parents and
+teachers, in this age of danger, should be well informed and watchful;
+for it is not unfrequently the case, that servants and school-mates
+will teach young children practices, which exhaust the nervous system
+and bring on paralysis, mania, and death.
+
+And finally, in regard to the early religious training of children,
+the examples of the Creator in the early training of our race may
+safely be imitated. That "He is, and is a rewarder"--that he is
+everywhere present--that he is a tender Father in heaven, who is grieved
+when any of his children do wrong, yet ever ready to forgive those who
+are striving to please him by well-doing, these are the most effective
+motives to save the young from the paths of danger and sin. The rewards
+and penalties of the life to come are better adapted to maturer age,
+than to the imperfect and often false and fearful conceptions of the
+childish mind.
+
+
+
+
+XXIII.
+
+DOMESTIC AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL DUTIES.
+
+Whenever the laws of body and mind are properly understood, it will
+be allowed that every person needs some kind of recreation; and that,
+by seeking it, the body is strengthened, the mind is invigorated, and
+all our duties are more cheerfully and successfully performed.
+
+Children, whose bodies are rapidly growing and whose nervous system
+is tender and excitable, need much more amusement than persons of
+mature age. Persons, also, who are oppressed with great responsibilities
+and duties, or who are taxed by great intellectual or moral excitement,
+need recreations which physically exercise and draw off the mind from
+absorbing interests. Unfortunately, such persons are those who least
+resort to amusements, while the idle, gay, and thoughtless seek those
+which are not needed, and for which useful occupation would be a most
+beneficial substitute.
+
+As the only legitimate object of amusement is to prepare mind and body
+for the proper discharge of duty, the protracting of such as interfere
+with regular employments, or induce excessive fatigue, or weary the
+mind, or invade the proper hours for repose, must be sinful.
+
+In deciding what should be selected, and what avoided, the following
+are guiding principles. In the first place, no amusements which inflict
+needless pain should ever be allowed. All tricks which cause fright
+or vexation, and all sports which involve suffering to animals, should
+be utterly forbidden. Hunting and fishing, for mere sport, can never
+be justified. If a man can convince his children that he follows these
+pursuits to gain food or health, and not for amusement, his example
+may not be very injurious. But when children see grown persons kill
+and frighten animals, for sport, habits of cruelty, rather than feelings
+of tenderness and benevolence, are cultivated.
+
+In the next place, we should seek no recreations which endanger life,
+or interfere with important duties. As the legitimate object of
+amusements is to promote health and prepare for some serious duties,
+selecting those which have a directly opposite tendency, can not be
+justified. Of course, if a person feels that the previous day's
+diversion has shortened the hours of needful repose, or induced a
+lassitude of mind or body, instead of invigorating them, it is certain
+that an evil has been done which should never be repeated.
+
+Another rule which has been extensively adopted in the religious world
+is, to avoid those amusements which experience has shown to be so
+exciting, and connected with so many temptations, as to be pernicious
+in tendency, both to the individual and to the community. It is on
+this ground, that horse-racing and circus-riding have been excluded.
+Not because there is any thing positively wrong in having men and
+horses run and perform feats of agility, or in persons looking on for
+the diversion: but because experience has shown so many evils connected
+with these recreations, that they should be relinquished. So with
+theatres. The enacting of characters and the amusement thus afforded
+in themselves may be harmless; and possibly, in certain cases, might
+be useful: but experience has shown so many evils to result from this
+source, that it has been deemed wrong to patronize it. So, also, with
+those exciting games of chance which are employed in gambling.
+
+Under the same head comes dancing, in the estimation of the great
+majority of the religious world. Still, there are many intelligent,
+excellent, and conscientious persons who hold a contrary opinion. Such
+maintain that it is an innocent and healthful amusement, tending to
+promote ease of manners, cheerfulness, social affection, and health
+of mind and body; that evils are involved only in its excess; that
+like food, study, or religions excitement, it is only wrong when not
+properly regulated; and that, if serious and intelligent people would
+strive to regulate, rather than banish, this amusement, much more good
+would be secured.
+
+On the other side, it is objected, not that dancing is a sin, in itself
+considered, for it was once a part of sacred worship; not that it would
+be objectionable, if it were properly regulated; not that it does not
+tend, when used in a proper manner, to health of body and mind, to
+grace of manners; and to social enjoyment: all these things are
+conceded. But it is objected to, on the same ground as horse-racing
+and theatrical entertainments; that we are to look at amusements as
+they are, and not as they might be. Horse-races might be so managed
+as not to involve cruelty, gambling, drunkenness, and other vices. And
+so might theatres. And if serious and intelligent persons undertook
+to patronize these, in order to regulate them, perhaps they would be
+somewhat raised from the depths to which they have sunk. But such
+persons believe that, with the weak sense of moral obligation existing
+in the mass of society, and the imperfect ideas mankind have of the
+proper use of amusements, and the little self-control which men or
+women or children practice, these will not, in fact, be thus regulated.
+
+And they believe dancing to be liable to the same objections. As this
+recreation is actually conducted, it does not tend to produce health
+of body or mind, but directly the contrary. If young and old went out
+to dance together in open air, as the French peasants do, it would be
+a very different sort of amusement from that which often is witnessed
+in a room furnished with many lights and filled with guests, both
+expending the healthful part of the atmosphere, where the young collect,
+in their tightest dresses, to protract for several hours a kind of
+physical exertion which is not habitual to them. During this process,
+the blood is made to circulate more swiftly than usual, in circumstances
+where it is less perfectly oxygenized than health requires; the pores
+of the skin are excited by heat and exercise; the stomach is loaded
+with indigestible articles, and the quiet, needful to digestion,
+withheld; the diversion is protracted beyond the usual hour for repose;
+and then, when the skin is made the most highly susceptible to damps
+and miasms, the company pass from a warm room to the cold night-air.
+It is probable that no single amusement can be pointed out combining
+so many injurious particulars as this, which is so often defended as
+a healthful one. Even if parents, who train their children to dance,
+can keep them from public balls, (which is seldom the case,) dancing,
+as ordinarily conducted in private parlors, in most cases is subject
+to nearly all the same mischievous influences.
+
+The spirit of Christ is that of self-denying benevolence; and his great
+aim, by his teachings and example, was to train his followers to avoid
+all that should lead to sin, especially in regard to the weaker ones
+of his family. Yet he made wine at a wedding, attended a social feast
+on the Sabbath, [Footnote: Luke xiv. In reading this passage, please
+notice what kind of guests are to be invited to the feast that Jesus
+Christ recommends.] reproved excess of strictness in Sabbath-keeping
+generally, and forbade no safe and innocent enjoyment. In following
+his example, the rulers of the family, then, will introduce the most
+highly exciting amusements only in circumstances where there are such
+strong principles and habits of self-control that the enjoyment will
+not involve sin in the actor or needless temptation to the weak.
+
+The course pursued by our Puritan ancestors, in the period succeeding
+their first perils amid sickness and savages, is an example that may
+safely be practiced at the present day. The young of both sexes were
+educated in the higher branches, in country academies, and very often
+the closing exercises were theatricals, in which the pupils were
+performers and their pastors, elders, and parents, the audience. So,
+at social gatherings, the dance was introduced before minister and
+wife, with smiling approval. The roaring fires and broad chimneys
+provided pure air, and the nine o'clock bell ended the festivities
+that gave new vigor and zest to life, while the dawn of the next day's
+light saw all at their posts of duty, with heartier strength and blither
+spirits.
+
+No indecent or unhealthful costumes offended the eye, no half-naked
+dancers of dubious morality were sustained in a life of dangerous
+excitement, by the money of Christian people, for the mere amusement
+of their night hours. No shivering drivers were deprived of comfort
+and sleep, to carry home the midnight followers of fashion; nor was
+the quiet and comfort of servants in hundreds of dwellings invaded for
+the mere amusement of their superiors in education and advantages. The
+command "we that are strong, ought to bear the infirmities of the weak,
+and not to please ourselves," was in those days not reversed. Had the
+drama and the dance continued to be regulated by the rules of
+temperance, health, and Christian benevolence, as in the days of our
+forefathers, they would not have been so generally banished from the
+religious world. And the question is now being discussed, whether they
+can be so regulated at the present time as not to violate the laws,
+either of health or benevolence. [Footnote: Fanny Kemble Butler remarked
+to the present writer that she regarded theatres wrong, chiefly because
+of the injury involved to the actors. Can a Christian mother contribute
+money to support young women in a profession from which she would
+protect her own daughter, as from degradation, and that, too, simply
+for the amusement of herself and family? Would this be following the
+self-sacrificing benevolence of Christ and his apostles?]
+
+In regard to home amusements, card-playing is now indulged in, in many
+conscientious families from which it formerly was excluded, and for
+these reasons: it is claimed that this is a quiet home amusement, which
+unites pleasantly the aged with the young; that it is not now employed
+in respectable society for gambling, as it formerly was; that to some
+young minds it is a peculiarly fascinating game, and should be first
+practiced under the parental care, till the excitement of novelty is
+past, thus rendering the danger to children less, when going into the
+world; and, finally, that habits of self-control in exciting
+circumstances may and should be thus cultivated in the safety of home.
+Many parents who have taken this course with their sons in early life,
+believe that it has proved rather a course of safety than of danger.
+Still, as there is great diversity of opinion, among persons of equal
+worth and intelligence, a mutual spirit of candor and courtesy should
+be practiced. The sneer at bigotry and narrowness of views, on one
+side, and the uncharitable implication of want of piety, or sense, on
+the other, are equally ill-bred and unchristian. Truth on this subject
+is best promoted, not by ill-natured crimination and rebuke, but by
+calm reason, generous candor, forbearance, and kindness.
+
+There is another species of amusement, which a large portion of the
+religious world formerly put under the same condemnation as the
+preceding. This is novel-reading. The confusion and difference of
+opinion on this subject have arisen from a want of clear and definite
+distinctions. Now, as it is impossible to define what are novels and
+what are not, so as to include one class of fictitious writings and
+exclude every other, it is impossible to lay down any rule respecting
+them. The discussion, in fact, turns on the use of those works of
+imagination which belong to the class of fictitious narratives. That
+this species of reading is not only lawful but necessary and useful,
+is settled by divine examples, in the parables and allegories of
+Scripture. Of course, the question must be, what kind of fabulous
+writings must be avoided, and what allowed.
+
+In deciding this, no specific rules can be given; but it must be a
+matter to be regulated by the nature and circumstances of each case.
+No works of fiction which tend to throw the allurements of taste and
+genius around vice and crime should ever be tolerated; and all that
+tend to give false views of life and duty should also be banished. Of
+those which are written for mere amusement, presenting scenes and
+events that are interesting and exciting and having no bad moral
+influence, much must depend on the character and circumstances of the
+reader. Some minds are torpid and phlegmatic, and need to have the
+imagination stimulated: such would be benefited by this kind of reading.
+Others have quick and active imaginations, and would be as much injured
+by excess. Some persons are often so engaged in absorbing interests,
+that any thing innocent, which will for a short time draw off the mind,
+is of the nature of a medicine; and, in such cases, this kind of reading
+is useful.
+
+There is need, also, that some men should keep a supervision of the
+current literature of the day, as guardians, to warn others of danger.
+For this purpose, it is more suitable for editors, clergymen, and
+teachers to read indiscriminately, than for any other class of persons;
+for they are the guardians of the public weal in matters of literature,
+and should be prepared to advise parents and young persons of the evils
+in one direction and the good in another. In doing this, however, they
+are bound to go on the same principles which regulate physicians, when
+they visit infected districts--using every precaution to prevent injury
+to themselves; having as little to do with pernicious exposures, as
+a benevolent regard to others will allow; and faithfully employing all
+the knowledge and opportunities thus gained for warning and preserving
+others. There is much danger, in taking this course, that men will
+seek the excitement of the imagination for the mere pleasure it affords,
+under the plea of preparing to serve the public, when this is neither
+the aim nor the result.
+
+In regard to the use of such works by the young, as a general rule,
+they ought not to be allowed, to any except those of a dull and
+phlegmatic temperament, until the solid parts of education are secured
+and a taste for more elevated reading is acquired. If these stimulating
+condiments in literature be freely used in youth, all relish for more
+solid reading will in a majority of cases be destroyed. If parents
+succeed in securing habits of cheerful and implicit obedience, it will
+be very easy to regulate this matter, by prohibiting the reading of
+any story-book, until the consent of the parent is obtained.
+
+The most successful mode of forming a taste for suitable reading, is
+for parents to select interesting works of history and travels, with
+maps and pictures suited to the age and attainments of the young, and
+spend an hour or two each day or evening, in aiming to make truth as
+interesting as fiction. Whoever has once tried this method will find
+that the uninjured mind of childhood is better satisfied with what
+they know is true, when wisely presented, than with the most exciting
+novels, which they know are false.
+
+Perhaps there has been some just ground of objection to the course
+often pursued by parents in neglecting to provide suitable and agreeable
+substitutes for the amusements denied. But there is a great abundance
+of safe, healthful, and delightful recreations, which all parents may
+secure for their children. Some of these will here be pointed out.
+
+One of the most useful and important, is the cultivation of flowers
+and fruits. This, especially for the daughters of a family, is greatly
+promotive of health and amusement. It is with the hope that many young
+ladies, whose habits are now so formed that they can never be induced
+to a course of active domestic exercise so long as their parents are
+able to hire domestic service, may yet be led to an employment which
+will tend to secure health and vigor of constitution, that much space
+will be given in the second volume of this work, to directions for the
+cultivation of fruits and flowers.
+
+It would be a most desirable improvement, if all schools for young
+women could be furnished with suitable grounds and instruments for the
+cultivation of fruits and flowers, and every inducement offered to
+engage the pupils in this pursuit. No father, who wishes to have his
+daughters grow up to be healthful women, can take a surer method to
+secure this end. Let him set apart a portion of his ground for fruits
+and flowers, and see that the soil is well prepared and dug over, and
+all the rest may be committed to the care of the children. These would
+need to be provided with a light hoe and rake, a dibble or garden
+trowel, a watering-pot, and means and opportunities for securing seeds,
+roots, bulbs, buds, and grafts, all which might be done at a trifling
+expense. Then, with proper encouragement and by the aid of a few
+intelligible and practical directions, every man who has even half an
+acre could secure a small Eden around his premises.
+
+In pursuing this amusement children can also be led to acquire many
+useful habits. Early rising would, in many cases, be thus secured; and
+if they were required to keep their walks and borders free from weeds
+and rubbish, habits of order and neatness would be induced. Benevolent
+and social feelings could also be cultivated, by influencing children
+to share their fruits and flowers with friends and neighbors, as well
+as to distribute roots and seeds to those who have not the means of
+procuring them. A woman or a child, by giving seeds or slips or roots
+to a washerwoman, or a farmer's boy, thus inciting them to love and
+cultivate fruits and flowers, awakens a new and refining source of
+enjoyment in minds which have few resources more elevated than mere
+physical enjoyments. Our Saviour directs us in making feasts, to call,
+not the rich who can recompense again, but the poor who can make no
+returns. So children should be taught to dispense their little treasures
+not alone to companions and friends, who will probably return similar
+favors; but to those who have no means of making any return. If the
+rich, who acquire a love for the enjoyments of taste and have the means
+to gratify it, would aim to extend among the poor the cheap and simple
+enjoyment of fruits and flowers, our country would soon literally
+"blossom as the rose."
+
+If the ladies of a neighborhood would unite small contributions, and
+send a list of flower-seeds and roots to some respectable and honest
+florist, who would not be likely to turn them off with trash, they
+could divide these among themselves and their poor neighbors, so as
+to secure an abundant variety at a very small expense. A bag of
+flower-seeds, which can be obtained at wholesale for four cents, would
+abundantly supply a whole neighborhood; and by the gathering of seeds
+in the autumn, could be perpetuated.
+
+Another very elevating and delightful recreation for the young is found
+in _music_. Here the writer would protest against the practice common in
+many families, of having the daughters learn to play on the piano
+whether they have a taste and an ear for music, or not. A young lady who
+does not sing well, and has no great fondness for music, does nothing
+but waste time, money, and patience in learning to play on the piano.
+But all children can be taught to sing in early childhood, if the
+scientific mode of teaching music in schools could be more widely
+introduced, as it is in Prussia, Germany, and Switzerland. Then young
+children could read and sing music as easily as they can read language;
+and might take any tune, dividing themselves into bands, and sing off
+at sight the endless variety of music which is prepared. And if parents
+of wealth would take pains to have teachers qualified for the purpose,
+who should teach all the young children in the community, much would
+be done for the happiness and elevation of the rising generation. This
+is an element of education which we are glad to know is, year by year,
+more extensively and carefully cultivated; and it is not only a means
+of culture, but also an amusement, which children relish in the highest
+degree; and which they can enjoy at home, in the fields, and in visits
+abroad.
+
+Another domestic amusement is the collecting of shells, plants, and
+specimens in geology and mineralogy, for the formation of cabinets.
+If intelligent parents would procure the simpler works which have been
+prepared for the young, and study them with their children, a taste
+for such recreations would soon be developed. The writer has seen young
+boys, of eight and ten years of age, gathering and cleaning shells
+from rivers, and collecting plants and mineralogical specimens, with
+a delight bordering on ecstasy; and there are few, if any, who by
+proper influences would not find this a source of ceaseless delight
+and improvement.
+
+Another resource for family diversion is to be found in the various
+games played by children, and in which the joining of older members
+of the family is always a great advantage to both parties, especially
+those in the open air.
+
+All medical men unite in declaring that nothing is more beneficial to
+health than hearty laughter; and surely our benevolent Creator would
+not have provided risibles, and made it a source of health and enjoyment
+to use them, if it were a sin so to do. There has been a tendency to
+asceticism, on this subject, which needs to be removed. Such commands
+as forbid _foolish_ laughing and jesting, "_which are not convenient_"
+and which forbid all idle words and vain conversation, can not apply to
+any thing except what is foolish, vain, and useless. But jokes,
+laughter, and sports, when used in such a degree as tends only to
+promote health and happiness, are neither vain, foolish, nor "not
+convenient." It is the excess of these things, and not the moderate
+use of them, which Scripture forbids. The prevailing temper of the
+mind should be serious, yet cheerful; and there are times when
+relaxation and laughter are not only proper but necessary and right
+for all. There is nothing better for this end than that parents and
+older persons should join in the sports of childhood. Mature minds can
+always make such diversions more entertaining to children, and can
+exert a healthful moral influence over their minds; and at the same
+time can gain exercise and amusement for themselves. How lamentable
+that so many fathers, who could be thus useful and happy with their
+children, throw away such opportunities, and wear out soul and body
+in the pursuit of gain or fame!
+
+Another resource for children is the exercise of mechanical skill.
+Fathers, by providing tools for their boys, and showing them how to
+make wheelbarrows, carts, sleds, and various other articles, contribute
+both to the physical, moral, and social improvement of their children.
+And in regard to little daughters, much more can be done in this way
+than many would imagine. The writer, blessed with the example of a
+most ingenious and industrious mother, had not only learned before the
+age of twelve to make dolls, of various sorts and sizes, but to cut
+and fit and sew every article that belongs to a doll's wardrobe. This,
+which was done by the child for mere amusement, secured such a facility
+in mechanical pursuits, that, ever afterward, the cutting and fitting
+of any article of dress, for either sex, was accomplished with entire
+ease.
+
+When a little girl begins to sew, her mother can promise her a small
+bed and pillow, as soon as she has sewed a patch quilt for them; and
+then a bedstead, as soon as she has sewed the sheets and cases for
+pillows; and then a large doll to dress, as soon as she has made the
+undergarments; and thus go on till the whole contents of the baby-house
+are earned by the needle and skill of its little owner. Thus the task
+of learning to sew will become a pleasure; and every new toy will be
+earned by useful exertion. A little girl can be taught, by the aid of
+patterns prepared for the purpose, to cut and fit all articles necessary
+for her doll. She can also be provided with a little wash-tub and irons
+and thus keep in proper order a complete miniature domestic
+establishment.
+
+Besides these recreations, there are the enjoyments secured in walking,
+riding, visiting, and many other employments which need not be
+recounted. Children, if trained to be healthful and industrious, will
+never fail to discover resources of amusement; while their guardians
+should lend their aid to guide and restrain them from excess.
+
+There is need of a very great change of opinion and practice in this
+nation in regard to the subject of social and domestic duties. Many
+sensible and conscientious men spend all their time abroad in business;
+except perhaps an hour or so at night, when they are so fatigued as
+to be unfitted for any social or intellectual enjoyment. And some of
+the most conscientious men in the country will add to their professional
+business public or benevolent enterprises, which demand time, effort,
+and money; and then excuse themselves for neglecting all care of their
+children, and efforts for their own intellectual improvement, or for
+the improvement of their families, by the plea that they have no time
+for it.
+
+All this arises from the want of correct notions of the binding
+obligation of our social and domestic duties. The main object of life
+is not to secure the various gratifications of appetite or taste, but
+to form such a character, for ourselves and others, as will secure the
+greatest amount of present and future happiness. It is of far more
+consequence, then, that parents should be intelligent, social,
+affectionate, and agreeable at home and to their friends, than that
+they should earn money enough to live in a large house and have handsome
+furniture. It is far more needful for children that a father should
+attend to the formation of their character and habits, and aid in
+developing their social, intellectual, and moral nature, than it is
+that he should earn money to furnish them with handsome clothes and
+a variety of tempting food.
+
+It will be wise for those parents who find little time to attend to
+their children, or to seek amusement and enjoyment in the domestic and
+social circle, because their time is so much occupied with public cares
+or benevolent objects, to inquire whether their first duty is not to
+train up their own families to be useful members of society. A man who
+neglects the mind and morals of his children, to take care of the
+public, is in great danger of coming under a similar condemnation to
+that of him who, neglecting to provide for his own household, has
+"denied the faith, and is worse than an infidel."
+
+There are husbands and fathers who conscientiously subtract time from
+their business to spend at home, in reading with their wives and
+children, and in domestic amusements which at once refresh and improve.
+The children of such parents will grow up with a love of home and
+kindred which will be the greatest safeguard against future temptations,
+as well as the purest source of earthly enjoyment.
+
+There are families, also, who make it a definite object to keep up
+family attachments, after the children are scattered abroad; and, in
+some cases, secure the means for doing this by saving money which would
+otherwise have been spent for superfluities of food or dress. Some
+families have adopted, for this end, a practice which, if widely
+imitated, would be productive of much enjoyment. The method is this:
+On the first day of each month, some member of the family, at each
+extreme point of dispersion, takes a folio sheet, and fills a part of
+a page. This is sealed and mailed to the next family, who read it, add
+another contribution, and then mail it to the next. Thus the family
+circular, once a month, goes from each extreme to all the members of
+a widely-dispersed family, and each member becomes a sharer in the
+joys, sorrows, plans, and pursuits of all the rest. At the same time,
+frequent family meetings are sought; and the expense thus incurred is
+cheerfully met by retrenchments in other directions. The sacrifice of
+some unnecessary physical indulgence will often purchase many social
+and domestic enjoyments, a thousand times more elevating and delightful
+than the retrenched luxury.
+
+There is no social duty which the Supreme Law-giver more strenuously
+urges than hospitality and kindness to strangers, who are classed with
+the widow and the fatherless as the special objects of Divine
+tenderness. There are some reasons why this duty peculiarly demands
+attention from the American people.
+
+Reverses of fortune, in this land, are so frequent and unexpected, and
+the habits of the people are so migratory, that there are very many
+in every part of the country who, having seen all their temporal plans
+and hopes crushed, are now pining among strangers, bereft of wonted
+comforts, without friends, and without the sympathy and society so
+needful to wounded spirits. Such, too frequently, sojourn long and
+lonely, with no comforter but Him who "knoweth the heart of a stranger."
+
+Whenever, therefore, new-comers enter a community, inquiry should
+immediately be made as to whether they have friends or associates, to
+render sympathy and kind attentions; and, when there is any need for
+it, the ministries of kind neighborliness should immediately be offered.
+And it should be remembered that the first days of a stranger's sojourn
+are the most dreary, and that civility and kindness are doubled in
+value by being offered at an early period.
+
+In social gatherings the claims of the stranger are too apt to be
+forgotten; especially in cases where there are no peculiar attractions
+of personal appearance, or talents, or high standing. Such a one should
+be treated with attention, _because_ he is a stranger; and when
+communities learn to act more from principle, and less from selfish
+impulse, on this subject, the sacred claims of the stranger will be
+less frequently forgotten.
+
+The most agreeable hospitality to visitors who become inmates of a
+family, is that which puts them entirely at ease. This can never be
+the case where the guest perceives that the order of family arrangement
+is essentially altered, and that time, comfort, and convenience are
+sacrificed for his accommodation.
+
+Offering the best to visitors, showing a polite regard to every wish
+expressed, and giving precedence to them, in all matters of comfort
+and convenience, can be easily combined with the easy freedom which
+makes the stranger feel at home; and this is the perfection of
+hospitable entertainment.
+
+
+
+
+XXIV.
+
+CARE OF THE AGED.
+
+One of the most interesting and instructive illustrations of the design
+of our Creator, in the institution of the family state, is the
+preservation of the aged after their faculties decay and usefulness
+in ordinary modes seems to be ended. By most persons this period of
+infirmities and uselessness is anticipated with apprehension, especially
+in the case of those who have lived an active, useful life, giving
+largely of service to others, and dependent for most resources of
+enjoyment on their own energies.
+
+To lose the resources of sight or hearing, to become feeble in body,
+so as to depend on the ministries of others, and finally to gradually
+decay in mental force and intelligence, to many seems far worse than
+death. Multitudes have prayed to be taken, from this life when their
+usefulness is thus ended.
+
+But a true view of the design of the family state, and of the ministry
+of the aged and helpless in carrying out this design, would greatly
+lessen such apprehensions, and might be made a source of pure and
+elevated enjoyment.
+
+The Christian virtues of patience with the unreasonable, of self-
+denying labor for the weak, and of sympathy with the afflicted, are
+dependent, to a great degree, on cultivation and habit, and these can
+be gained only in circumstances demanding the daily exercise of these
+graces. In this aspect, continued life in the aged and infirm should
+be regarded as a blessing and privilege to a family, especially to the
+young, and the cultivation of the graces that are demanded by that
+relation should be made a definite and interesting part of their
+education. A few of the methods to be attempted for this end will be
+suggested.
+
+In the first place, the object for which the aged are preserved in
+life, when in many cases they would rejoice to depart, should be
+definitely kept in recollection, and a sense of gratitude and obligation
+be cultivated. They should be looked up to and treated as ministers
+sustained by our Heavenly Father in a painful experience, expressly
+for the good of those around them. This appreciation of their ministry
+and usefulness will greatly lessen their trials and impart consolation.
+If in hours of weariness and infirmity they wonder why they are kept
+in a useless and helpless state to burden others around, they should
+be assured that they are not useless; and this is not only by word,
+but, better still, by the manifestation of those virtues which such
+opportunities alone can secure.
+
+Another mode of cheering the aged is to engage them in the domestic
+games and sports which unite the old and the young in amusement. Many
+a weary hour may thus be enlivened for the benefit of all concerned.
+And here will often occur opportunities of self-denying benevolence
+in relinquishing personal pursuits and gratification thus to promote
+the enjoyment of the infirm and dependent. Reading aloud is often a
+great source of enjoyment to those who by age are deprived of reading
+for themselves. So the effort to gather news of the neighborhood and
+impart it, is another mode of relieving those deprived of social
+gatherings.
+
+There is no period in life when those courtesies of good breeding which
+recognize the relations of superior and inferior should be more
+carefully cherished than when there is need of showing them toward
+those of advancing age. To those who have controlled a household, and
+still more to those who in public life have been honored and admired,
+the decay of mental powers is peculiarly trying, and every effort
+should be made to lessen the trial by courteous attention to their
+opinions, and by avoiding all attempts to controvert them, or to make
+evident any weakness or fallacy in their conversation.
+
+In regard to the decay of bodily or mental faculties, much more can
+be done to prevent or retard them than is generally supposed, and some
+methods for this end which have been gained by observation or experience
+will be presented.
+
+As the exercise of all our faculties tends to increase their power,
+unless it be carried to excess, it is very important that the aged
+should be provided with useful employment, suited to their strength
+and capacity. Nothing hastens decay so fast as to remove the
+_stimulus_ of useful activity. It should become a study with those
+who have the care of the aged to interest them in some useful pursuit,
+and to convince them that they are in some measure actively contributing
+to the general welfare. In the country and in families where the larger
+part of the domestic labor is done without servants, it is very easy
+to keep up an interest in domestic industrial employments. The tending
+of a small garden in summer--the preparation of fuel and food, the
+mending of household utensils--these and many other occupations of the
+hands will keep alive activity and interest, in a man; while for women
+there are still more varied resources. There is nothing that so soon
+hastens decay and lends acerbity to age as giving up all business and
+responsibility, and every mode possible should be devised to prevent
+this result.
+
+As age advances, all the bodily functions move more slowly, and
+consequently the generation of animal heat, by the union of oxygen and
+carbon in the capillaries, is in smaller proportion than in the midday
+of life. For this reason some practices, safe for the vigorous, must
+be relinquished by the aged; and one of these is the use of the cold
+bath. It has often been the case that rheumatism has been caused by
+neglect of this caution. More than ordinary care should be taken to
+preserve animal heat in the aged, especially in the hands and the feet.
+
+In many families will be found an aged brother, or sister, or other
+relative who has no home, and no claim to a refuge in the family circle
+but that of kindred. Sometimes they are poor and homeless, for want
+of a faculty for self-supporting business; and sometimes they have
+peculiarities of person or disposition which render their society
+undesirable. These are cases where the pitying tenderness of the Saviour
+should be remembered, and for his sake patient kindness and tender
+care be given, and he will graciously accept it as an offering of love
+and duty to himself. "Inasmuch as ye have done it to the least of these
+my brethren, ye have done it to me."
+
+It is sometimes the case that even parents in old age have had occasion
+to say with the forsaken King Lear, "How sharper than a serpent's tooth
+it is to have a thankless child!" It is right training in early life
+alone that will save from this.
+
+In the opening of China and the probable influx of its people, there
+is one cause for congratulation to a nation that is failing in the
+virtue of reverence. The Chinese are distinguished above all other
+nations for their respect for the aged, and especially for their
+reverence for aged parents and conformity to their authority, even to
+the last. This virtue is cultivated to a degree that is remarkable,
+and has produced singular and favorable results on the national
+character, which it is hoped may be imparted to the land to which they
+are flocking in such multitudes. For with all their peculiarities of
+pagan philosophy and their oriental eccentricities of custom and
+practical life, they are everywhere renowned for their uniform and
+elegant courtesy--a most commendable virtue, and one arising from
+habitual deference to the aged more than from any other source.
+
+
+
+
+XXV.
+
+THE CASE OF SERVANTS.
+
+Although in earlier ages the highest born, wealthiest, and proudest
+ladies were skilled in the simple labors of the household, the advance
+of society toward luxury has changed all that in lands of aristocracy
+and classes, and at the present time America is the only country where
+there is a class of women who may be described as _ladies_ who do their
+own work. By a lady we mean a woman of education, cultivation, and
+refinement, of liberal tastes and ideas, who, without any very material
+additions or changes, would be recognized as a lady in any
+circle of the Old World or the New.
+
+The existence of such a class is a fact peculiar to American society,
+a plain result of the new principles involved in the doctrine of
+universal equality.
+
+When the colonists first came to this country, of however mixed
+ingredients their ranks might have been composed, and however imbued
+with the spirit of feudal and aristocratic ideas, the discipline of
+the wilderness soon brought them to a democratic level; the gentleman
+felled the wood for his log-cabin side by side with the plowman, and
+thews and sinews rose in the market. "A man was deemed honorable in
+proportion as he lifted his hand upon the high trees of the forest."
+So in the interior domestic circle. Mistress and maid, living in a
+log-cabin together, became companions, and sometimes the maid, as the
+one well-trained in domestic labor, took precedence of the mistress.
+It also became natural and unavoidable that children should begin to
+work as early as they were capable of it.
+
+The result was a generation of intelligent people brought up to labor
+from necessity, but devoting to the problem of labor the acuteness of
+a disciplined brain. The mistress, outdone in sinews and muscles by
+her maid, kept her superiority by skill and contrivance. If she could
+not lift a pail of water, she could invent methods which made lifting
+the pail unnecessary,--if she could not take a hundred steps without
+weariness, she could make twenty answer the purpose of a hundred.
+
+Slavery, it is true, was to some extent introduced into New England,
+but it never suited the genius of the people, never struck deep root
+or spread so as to choke the good seed of self-helpfulness. Many were
+opposed to it from conscientious principle--many from far-sighted
+thrift, and from a love of thoroughness and well-doing which despised
+the rude, unskilled work of barbarians. People, having once felt the
+thorough neatness and beauty of execution which came of free, educated,
+and thoughtful labor, could not tolerate the clumsiness of slavery.
+
+Thus it came to pass that for many years the rural population of
+New-England, as a general rule, did their own work, both out-doors and
+in. If there were a black man or black woman or bound girl, they were
+emphatically only the _helps_, following humbly the steps of master and
+mistress, and used by them as instruments of lightening certain portions
+of their toil. The master and mistress, with their children, were the
+head workers.
+
+Great merriment has been excited in the old country because, years
+ago, the first English travelers found that the class of persons by
+them denominated servants, were in America denominated _help_,
+or helpers. But the term was the very best exponent of the state of
+society. There were few servants, in the European sense of the word;
+there was a society of educated workers, where all were practically
+equal, and where, if there was a deficiency in one family and an excess
+in another, a _helper_, not a servant in the European sense, was
+hired. Mrs. Brown, who has several sons and no daughters, enters into
+agreement with Mrs. Jones, who has several daughters and no sons. She
+borrows a daughter, and pays her good wages to help in her domestic
+toil, and sends a son to help the labors of Mr. Jones. These two young
+people go into the families in which they are to be employed in all
+respects as equals and companions, and so the work of the community
+is equalized. Hence arose, and for many years continued, a state of
+society more nearly solving than any other ever did the problem of
+combining the highest culture of the mind with the highest culture ofthe
+muscles and the physical faculties.
+
+Then were to be seen families of daughters, handsome, strong women,
+rising each day to their in-door work with cheerful alertness--one to
+sweep the room, another to make the fire, while a third prepared the
+breakfast for the father and brothers who were going out to manly
+labor: and they chatted meanwhile of books, studies, embroidery;
+discussed the last new poem, or some historical topic started by graver
+reading, or perhaps a rural ball that was to come off next week. They
+spun with the book tied to the distaff; they wove; they did all manner
+of fine needle-work; they made lace, painted flowers, and, in short,
+in the boundless consciousness of activity, invention, and perfect
+health, set themselves to any work they had ever read or thought of.
+A bride in those days was married with sheets and tablecloths of her
+own weaving, with counterpanes and toilet-covers wrought in divers
+embroidery by her own and her sisters' hands. The amount of fancy-work
+done in our days by girls who have nothing else to do, will not equal
+what was done by these who performed, besides, among them, the whole
+work of the family.
+
+In those former days most women were in good health, debility and
+disease being the exception. Then, too, was seen the economy of daylight
+and its pleasures. They were used to early rising, and would not lie
+in bed, if they could. Long years of practice made them familiar with
+the shortest, neatest, most expeditious method of doing every household
+office, so that really for the greater part of the time in the house
+there seemed, to a looker-on, to be nothing to do. They rose in the
+morning and dispatched husband, father, and brothers to the farm or
+woodlot; went sociably about, chatting with each other, skimmed the
+milk, made the butter, and turned the cheeses. The forenoon was long;
+ten to one, all the so-called morning work over, they had leisure for
+an hour's sewing or reading before it was time to start the dinner
+preparations. By two o'clock the house-work was done, and they had the
+long afternoon for books, needle-work, or drawing--for perhaps there
+was one with a gift at her pencil. Perhaps one read aloud while others
+sewed, and managed in that way to keep up a great deal of reading.
+
+It is said that women who have been accustomed to doing their own work
+become hard mistresses. They are certainly more sure of the ground
+they stand on--they are less open to imposition--they can speak and
+act in their own houses more as those "having authority," and therefore
+are less afraid to exact what is justly their due, and less willing
+to endure impertinence and unfaithfulness. Their general error lies
+in expecting that any servant ever will do as well for them as they
+will do for themselves, and that an untrained, undisciplined human
+being ever _can_ do house-work, or any other work, with the neatness and
+perfection, that a person of trained intelligence can.
+
+It has been remarked in our armies that the men of cultivation, though
+bred in delicate and refined spheres, can bear up under the hardships
+of camp-life better and longer than rough laborers. The reason is,
+that an educated mind knows how to use and save its body, to work it
+and spare it, as an uneducated mind can not; and so the college-bred
+youth brings himself safely through fatigues which kill the unreflective
+laborer.
+
+Cultivated, intelligent women, who are brought up to do the work of
+their own families, are labor-saving institutions. They make the head
+save the wear of the muscles. By forethought, contrivance, system, and
+arrangement they lessen the amount to be done, and do it with less
+expense of time and strength than others. The old New-England motto,
+_Get your work done up in the forenoon_, applied to an amount of
+work which would keep a common Irish servant toiling from daylight to
+sunset.
+
+A lady living in one of our obscure New-England towns, where there
+were no servants to be hired, at last, by sending to a distant city,
+succeeded in procuring a raw Irish maid-of-all-work, a creature of
+immense bone and muscle, but of heavy, unawakened brain. In one
+fortnight she established such a reign of Chaos and old Night in the
+kitchen and through the house that her mistress, a delicate woman,
+encumbered with the care of young children, began seriously to think
+that she made more work each day than she performed, and dismissed
+her. What was now to be done? Fortunately, the daughter of a neighboring
+farmer was going to be married in six months, and wanted a little ready
+money for her _trousseau_. The lady was informed that Miss So-and-so
+would come to her, not as a servant, but as hired "help." She was fain
+to accept any help with gladness.
+
+Forthwith came into the family-circle a tall, well-dressed young person,
+grave, unobtrusive, self-respecting, yet not in the least presuming,
+who sat at the family table and observed all its decorums with the
+modest self-possession of a lady. The new-comer took a survey of the
+labors of a family of ten members, including four or five young
+children, and, looking, seemed at once to throw them into system;
+matured her plans, arranged her hours of washing, ironing, baking, and
+cleaning; rose early, moved deftly; and in a single day the slatternly
+and littered kitchen assumed that neat, orderly appearance that so
+often strikes one in New England farm-houses. The work seemed to be
+all gone. Every thing was nicely washed, brightened, put in place, and
+staid in place; the floors, when cleaned; remained clean; the work was
+always done, and not doing; and every afternoon the young lady sat
+neatly dressed in her own apartment, either quietly writing letters
+to her betrothed, or sewing on her bridal outfit. Such is the result
+of employing those who have been brought up to do their own work. That
+tall, fine-looking girl, for aught we know, may yet be mistress of a
+fine house on Fifth Avenue; and if she is, she will, we fear, prove
+rather an exacting mistress to Irish Bridget; but she will never be
+threatened by her cook and chambermaid, after the first one or two
+have tried the experiment.
+
+Those remarkable women of old were made by circumstances. There were,
+comparatively speaking, no servants to be had, and so children were
+trained to habits of industry and mechanical adroitness from the cradle,
+and every household process was reduced to the very minimum of labor.
+Every step required in a process was counted, every movement calculated;
+and she who took ten steps, when one would do, lost her reputation for
+"faculty." Certainly such an early drill was of use in developing the
+health and the bodily powers, as well as in giving precision to the
+practical mental faculties. All household economies were arranged with
+equal niceness in those thoughtful minds. A trained housekeeper knew
+just how many sticks of hickory of a certain size were required to
+heat her oven, and how many of each different kind of wood. She knew
+by a sort of intuition just what kinds of food would yield the most
+palatable nutriment with the least outlay of accessories in cooking.
+She knew to a minute the time when each article must go into and be
+withdrawn from her oven; and if she could only lie in her chamber and
+direct, she could guide an intelligent child through the processes
+with mathematical certainty.
+
+It is impossible, however, that any thing but early training and long
+experience can produce these results, and it is earnestly to be wished
+that the grandmothers of New-England had written down their experiences
+for our children; they would have been a mine of maxims and traditions
+better than any other "traditions of the elders" which we know of.
+
+In this country, our democratic institutions have removed the
+superincumbent pressure which in the Old World confines the servants
+to a regular orbit. They come here feeling that this is somehow a land
+of liberty, and with very dim and confused notions of what liberty is.
+They are very extensively the raw, untrained Irish peasantry, and the
+wonder is, that, with all the unreasoning heats and prejudices of the
+Celtic blood, all the necessary ignorance and rawness, there should
+be the measure of comfort and success there is in our domestic
+arrangements.
+
+But, as long as things are so, there will be constant changes and
+interruptions in every domestic establishment, and constantly recurring
+interregnums when the mistress must put her own hand to the work,
+whether the hand be a trained or an untrained one. As matters now are,
+the young housekeeper takes life at the hardest. She has very little
+strength,--no experience to teach her how to save her strength. She
+knows nothing experimentally of the simplest processes necessary to
+keep her family comfortably fed and clothed; and she has a way of
+looking at all these things which makes them particularly hard and
+distasteful to her. She does not escape being obliged to do house-work
+at intervals, but she does it in a weak, blundering, confused way,
+that makes it twice as hard and disagreeable as it need be.
+
+Now, if every young woman learned to do house-work, and cultivated her
+practical faculties in early life, she would, in the first place, be
+much more likely to keep her servants, and, in the second place, if
+she lost them temporarily, would avoid all that wear and tear of the
+nervous system which comes from constant ill-success in those
+departments on which family health and temper mainly depend. This is
+one of the peculiarities of our American life, which require a peculiar
+training. Why not face it sensibly?
+
+Our land is now full of motorpathic institutions to which women are
+sent at a great expense to have hired operators stretch and exercise
+their inactive muscles. They lie for hours to have their feet twigged,
+their arms flexed, and all the different muscles of the body worked
+for them, because they are so flaccid and torpid that the powers of
+life do not go on. Would it not be quite as cheerful, and a less
+expensive process, if young girls from early life developed the muscles
+in sweeping, dusting, starching, ironing, and all the multiplied
+domestic processes which our grandmothers knew of? A woman who did all
+these, and diversified the intervals with spinning on the great and
+little wheel, did not need the gymnastics of Dio Lewis or of the Swedish
+Movement Cure, which really are a necessity now. Does it not seem poor
+economy to pay servants for letting our muscles grow feeble, and then
+to pay operators to exercise them for us? I will venture to say that
+our grandmothers in a week went over every movement that any gymnast
+has invented, and went over them to some productive purpose too.
+
+The first business of a housekeeper in America is that of a teacher.
+She can have a good table only by having practical knowledge, and tact
+in imparting it. If she understands her business practically and
+experimentally, her eye detects at once the weak spot; it requires
+only a little tact, some patience, some clearness in giving directions,
+and all comes right.
+
+If we carry a watch to a watchmaker, and undertake to show him how to
+regulate the machinery, he laughs and goes on his own way; but if a
+brother-machinist makes suggestions, he listens respectfully. So, when
+a woman who knows nothing of woman's work undertakes to instruct one
+who knows more than she does, she makes no impression; but a woman who
+has been trained experimentally, and shows she understands the matter
+thoroughly, is listened to with respect.
+
+Let a woman make her own bread for one month, and, simple as the process
+seems, it will take as long as that to get a thorough knowledge of all
+the possibilities in the case; but after that, she will be able to
+command good bread by the aid of all sorts of servants; in other words,
+will be a thoroughly prepared teacher.
+
+Although bread-making seems a simple process, it yet requires delicate
+care and watchfulness. There are fifty ways to spoil good bread; There
+are a hundred little things to be considered and allowed for, that
+require accurate observation and experience. The same process that
+will raise good bread in cold weather will make sour bread in the heat
+of summer; different qualities of flour require variations in treatment
+as also different sorts and conditions of yeast; and when all is done,
+the baking presents another series of possibilities which require exact
+attention.
+
+A well-trained mind, accustomed to reflect, analyze, and generalize,
+has an advantage over uncultured minds even of double experience. Poor
+as your cook is, she now knows more of her business than you do. After
+a very brief period of attention and experiment, you will not only
+know more than she does, but you will convince her that you do, which
+is quite as much to the purpose.
+
+In the same manner, lessons must be given on the washing of silver and
+the making of beds. Good servants do not often come to us; they must
+be _made_ by patience and training; and if a girl has a good disposition
+and a reasonable degree of handiness, and the housekeeper understands
+her profession, a good servant may be made out of an indifferent one.
+Some of the best girls have been those who came directly from the ship,
+with no preparation but docility and some natural quickness. The hardest
+cases to be managed are not of those who have been taught nothing, but
+of those who have been taught wrongly--who come self-opinionated, with
+ways which are distasteful, and contrary to the genius of one's
+housekeeping. Such require that their mistress shall understand at least
+so much of the actual conduct of affairs as to prove to the servant that
+there are better ways than those in which she has been trained.
+
+So much has been said of the higher sphere of woman, and so much has
+been done to find some better work for her that, insensibly, almost
+every body begins to feel that it is rather degrading for a woman in
+good society to be much tied down to family affairs; especially since
+in these Woman's Rights Conventions there is so much dissatisfaction
+expressed at those who would confine her ideas to the kitchen and
+nursery.
+
+Yet these Woman's Rights Conventions are a protest against many former
+absurd, unreasonable ideas--the mere physical and culinary idea of
+womanhood as connected only with puddings and shirt-buttons, the
+unjust and unequal burdens which the laws of harsher ages had cast
+upon the sex. Many of the women connected with these movements are as
+superior in every thing properly womanly as they are in exceptional
+talent and culture. There is no manner of doubt that the sphere of
+woman is properly to be enlarged. Every woman has rights as a human
+being which belong to no sex, and ought to be as freely conceded to
+her as if she were a man,--and first and foremost, the great right of
+doing any thing which God and nature evidently have fitted her to excel
+in. If she be made a natural orator, like Miss Dickinson, or an
+astronomer, like Mrs. Somerville, or a singer, like Grisi, let not the
+technical rules of womanhood be thrown in the way of her free use of
+her powers.
+
+Still, _per contra_, there has been a great deal of crude, disagreeable
+talk in these conventions, and too great tendency of the age to make the
+education of woman anti-domestic. It seems as if the world never could
+advance, except like ships under a head-wind, tacking and going too far,
+now in this direction, and now in the opposite. Our common-school system
+now rejects sewing from the education of girls, which very properly used
+to occupy many hours daily in school a generation ago. The daughters of
+laborers and artisans are put through algebra, geometry, trigonometry,
+and the higher mathematics, to the entire neglect of that learning which
+belongs distinctively to woman. A girl of ten can not keep pace with her
+class, if she gives any time to domestic matters; and accordingly she is
+excused from them all during the whole term of her education. The boy of
+a family, at an early age, is put to a trade, or the labors of a farm;
+the father becomes impatient of his support, and requires of him to take
+care for himself. Hence an interrupted education--learning coming by
+snatches in the winter months or in the intervals of work.
+
+As the result, the young women in some of our country towns are, in
+mental culture, much in advance of the males of the same household;
+but with this comes a physical delicacy, the result of an exclusive
+use of the brain and a neglect of the muscular system, with great
+inefficiency in practical domestic duties. The race of strong, hardy,
+cheerful girls, that used to grow up in country places, and made the
+bright, neat, New-England kitchens of old times--the girls that could
+wash, iron, brew, bake, harness a horse and drive him, no less than
+braid straw, embroider, draw, paint, and read innumerable books--this
+race of women, pride of olden time, is daily lessening; and in their
+stead come the fragile, easily-fatigued, languid girls of a modern
+age, drilled in book-learning, ignorant of common things. The great
+danger of all this, and of the evils that come from it, is, that
+society, by and by, will turn as blindly against female intellectual
+culture as it now advocates it, and having worked disproportionately
+one way, will work disproportionately in the opposite direction.
+
+Domestic service is the great problem of life herein America; the
+happiness of families, their thrift, well-being, and comfort, are more
+affected by this than by any one thing else. The modern girls, as they
+have been brought up, can not perform the labor of their own families
+as in those simpler, old-fashioned days; and what is worse, they have
+no practical skill with which to instruct servants, who come to us,
+as a class, raw and untrained. In the present state of prices, the
+board of a domestic costs double her wages, and the waste she makes
+is a more serious matter still.
+
+Many of the domestic evils in America originate, in the fact that,
+while society here is professedly based on new principles which ought
+to make social life in every respect different from the life of the
+Old World, yet these principles have never been so thought out and
+applied as to give consistency and harmony to our daily relations.
+America starts with a political organization based oh a declaration
+of the primitive freedom and equality of all men. Every human being,
+according to this principle, stands on the same natural level with
+every other, and has the same chance to rise according to the degree
+of power or capacity given by the Creator. All our civil institutions
+are designed to preserve this equality, as far as possible, from
+generation to generation: there is no entailed property, there are no
+hereditary titles, no monopolies, no privileged classes--all are to
+be as free to rise and fall as the waves of the sea.
+
+The condition of domestic service, however, still retains about it
+something of the influences from feudal times, and from the near
+presence of slavery in neighboring States. All English literature of
+the world describes domestic service in the old feudal spirit and with
+the old feudal language, which regarded the master as belonging to a
+privileged class and the servant to an inferior one. There is not a
+play, not a poem, not a novel, not a history, that does not present
+this view. The master's rights, like the rights of kings, were supposed
+to rest in his being born in a superior rank. The good servant was one
+who, from childhood, had learned "to order himself lowly and reverently
+to all his betters." When New-England brought to these shores the
+theory of democracy, she brought, in the persons of the first pilgrims,
+the habits of thought and of action formed in aristocratic communities.
+Winthrop's Journal, and all the old records of the earlier colonists,
+show households where masters and mistresses stood on the "right divine"
+of the privileged classes, howsoever they might have risen up against
+authorities themselves.
+
+The first consequence of this state of things was a universal rejection
+of domestic service in all classes of American-born society. For a
+generation or two there was, indeed, a sort of interchange of family
+strength,--sons and daughters engaging in the service of neighboring
+families, in default of a sufficient working-force of their own, but
+always on conditions of strict equality. The assistant was to share
+the table, the family sitting-room, and every honor and attention that
+might be claimed by son or daughter. When families increased in
+refinement and education so as to make these conditions of close
+intimacy with more uncultured neighbors disagreeable, they had to
+choose between such intimacies and the performance of their own domestic
+toil. No wages could induce a son or daughter of New-England to take
+the condition of a servant on terms which they thought applicable to
+that of a slave. The slightest hint of a separate table was resented
+as an insult; not to enter the front door, and not to sit in the front
+parlor on state occasions, was bitterly commented on as a personal
+indignity.
+
+The well-taught, self-respecting daughters of farmers, the class most
+valuable in domestic service, gradually retired from it. They preferred
+any other employment, however laborious. Beyond all doubt, the labors
+of a well-regulated family are more healthy, more cheerful, more,
+interesting, because less monotonous, than the mechanical toils of a
+factory; yet the girls of New-England, with one consent, preferred the
+factory, and left the whole business of domestic service to a foreign
+population; and they did it mainly because they would not take positions
+in families as an inferior laboring-class by the side of others of
+their own age who assumed as their prerogative to live without labor.
+
+"I can't let you have one of my daughters," said an energetic matron
+to her neighbor from the city, who was seeking for a servant in her
+summer vacation; "if you hadn't daughters of your own, may be I would;
+but my girls are not going to work so that your girls may live in
+idleness."
+
+It was vain to offer money. "We don't need your money, ma'am; we can
+support ourselves in other ways; my girls can braid straw, and bind
+shoes, but they are not going to be slaves to any body."
+
+In the Irish and German servants who took the place of Americans in
+families, there was, to begin with, the tradition of education in favor
+of a higher class; but even the foreign population became more or less
+infected with the spirit of democracy. They came to this country with
+vague notions of freedom and equality, and in ignorant and uncultivated
+people such ideas are often more unreasonable for being vague. They
+did not, indeed, claim a seat at the table and in the parlor, but they
+repudiated many of those habits of respect and courtesy which belonged
+to their former condition, and asserted their own will and way in the
+round, unvarnished phrase which they supposed to be their right as
+republican citizens. Life became a sort of domestic wrangle and struggle
+between the employers, who secretly confessed their weakness, but
+endeavored openly to assume the air and bearing of authority, and the
+employed, who knew their power and insisted on their privileges.
+
+From this cause domestic service in America has had less of mutual
+kindliness titan in old countries. Its terms have been so ill-
+understood and defined that both parties have assumed the defensive;
+and a common topic of conversation in American female society has often
+been the general servile war which in one form or another was going
+on in their different families--a war as interminable as would be a
+struggle between aristocracy and common people, undefined by any bill
+of rights or constitution, and therefore opening fields for endless
+disputes.
+
+In England, the class who go to service _are_ a class, and service
+is a profession; the distance between them and their employers is so
+marked and defined, and all the customs and requirements of the position
+are so perfectly understood, that the master or mistress has no fear
+of being compromised by condescension, and no need of the external
+voice or air of authority. The higher up in the social scale one goes,
+the more courteous seems to become the intercourse of master and
+servant; the more perfect and real the power, the more is it veiled
+in outward expression--commands are phrased as requests, and gentleness
+of voice and manner covers an authority which no one would think of
+offending without trembling.
+
+But in America all is undefined. In the first place, there is no class
+who mean to make domestic service a profession to live and die in. It
+is universally an expedient, a stepping-stone to something higher;
+your best servants always have some thing else in view as soon as they
+have laid by a little money; some form of independence which shall
+give them a home of their own is constantly in mind. Families look
+forward to the buying of landed homesteads, and the scattered brothers
+and sisters work awhile in domestic service to gain, the common fund
+for the purpose; your seamstress intends to become a dressmaker, and
+take in work at her own house; your cook is pondering a marriage with
+the baker, which shall transfer her toils from your cooking-stove to
+her own.
+
+Young women are eagerly rushing into every other employment, till
+feminine trades and callings are all over-stocked. We are continually
+harrowed with tales of the sufferings of distressed needle-women, of
+the exactions, and extortions practiced on the frail sex in the many
+branches of labor and trade at which they try their hands; and yet
+women will encounter all these chances of ruin and starvation rather
+than make up their minds to permanent domestic service.
+
+Now, what is the matter with domestic service? One would think, on the
+face of it, that a calling which gives a settled home, a comfortable
+room, rent-free, with fire and lights, good board and lodging, and
+steady, well-paid wages, would certainly offer more attractions than
+the making of shirts for tenpence, with all the risks of providing
+one's own sustenance and shelter.
+
+Is it not mainly from the want of a definite idea of the true position
+of a servant under our democratic institutions that domestic service
+is so shunned and avoided in America, and that it is the very last
+thing which an intelligent young woman will look to for a living? It
+is more the want of personal respect toward, those in that position
+than the labor incident to it which repels our people from it. Many
+would be willing to perform these labors, but they are not willing to
+place themselves in a situation where their self-respect is hourly
+wounded by the implication of a degree of inferiority, _which does
+not follow any kind of labor or service in this country but that of
+the family_.
+
+There exists in the minds of employers an unsuspected spirit of
+superiority, which is stimulated into an active form by the resistance
+which democracy inspires in the working-class. Many families think of
+servants only as a necessary evil, their wages as exactions, and all
+that is allowed them as so much taken from the family; and they seek
+in every way to get from them as much and to give them as little as
+possible. Their rooms are the neglected, ill-furnished, incommodious
+ones--and the kitchen is the most cheerless and comfortless place in
+the house.
+
+Other families, more good-natured and liberal, provide their domestics
+with more suitable accommodations, and are more indulgent; but there
+is still a latent spirit of something like contempt for the position.
+That they treat their servants with so much consideration seems to
+them a merit entitling them to the most prostrate gratitude; and they
+are constantly disappointed and shocked at that want of sense of
+inferiority on the part of these people which leads them to appropriate
+pleasant rooms, good furniture, and good living as mere matters of
+common justice.
+
+It seems to be a constant surprise to some employers that servants
+should insist on having the same human wants as themselves. Ladles who
+yawn in their elegantly furnished parlors, among books and pictures,
+if they have not company, parties, or opera to diversify the evening,
+seem astonished and half indignant that cook and chambermaid are more
+disposed to go out for an evening gossip than to sit on hard chairs
+in the kitchen where they have been toiling all day. The pretty
+chambermaid's anxieties about her dress, the minutes she spends at her
+small and not very clear mirror, are sneeringly noticed by those whose
+toilet-cares take up serious hours; and the question has never
+apparently occurred to them why a serving-maid should not want to look
+pretty as well as her mistress. She is a woman as well as they, with,
+all a woman's wants and weaknesses; and her dress is as much to her
+as theirs to them.
+
+A vast deal of trouble among servants arises; from impertinent
+interferences and petty tyrannical enactions on the part of employers.
+Now, the authority of the master and mistress of a house in regard to
+their domestics extends simply to the things they have contracted to
+do and the hours during which they have contracted to serve; otherwise
+than this, they have no more right to interfere with them in the
+disposal of their time than with any mechanic whom they employ. They
+have, indeed, a right to regulate the hours of their own household,
+and servants can choose between conformity to these hours and the loss
+of their situation; but, within reasonable limits, their right to come
+and go at their own discretion, in their own time, should be
+unquestioned.
+
+If employers are troubled by the fondness of their servants for dancing,
+evening company, and late hours, the proper mode of proceeding is to
+make these matters a subject of distinct contract in hiring. The more
+strictly and perfectly the business matters of the first engagement
+of domestics are conducted, the more likelihood there is of mutual
+quiet and satisfaction in the relation. It is quite competent to every
+housekeeper to say what practices are or are not consistent with the
+rules of her family, and what will be inconsistent with the service
+for which she agrees to pay. It is much better to regulate such affairs
+by cool contract in the outset than by warm altercations and protracted
+domestic battles.
+
+As to the terms of social intercourse, it seems somehow to be settled
+in the minds of many employers that their servants owe them and their
+family more respect than they and the family owe to the servants. But
+do they? What is the relation of servant to employer in a democratic
+country? Precisely that of a person who for money performs any kind
+of service for you. The carpenter comes into your house to put up a
+set of shelves--the cook comes into your kitchen to cook your dinner.
+You never think that the carpenter owes you any more respect than you
+owe to him because he is in your house doing your behests; he is your
+fellow-citizen, you treat him with respect, you expect to be treated
+with respect by him. You have a claim on him that he shall do your
+work according to your directions--no more.
+
+Now, I apprehend that there is a very common notion as to the position
+and rights of servants which is quite different from this. Is it not
+a common feeling that a servant is one who may he treated with a degree
+of freedom by every member of the family which he or she may not return?
+Do not people feel at liberty to question servants about their private
+affairs, to comment on their dress and appearance, in a manner which
+they would feel to be an impertinence, if reciprocated? Do they not
+feel at liberty to express dissatisfaction with their performances in
+rude and unceremonious terms, to reprove them in the presence of
+company, while yet they require that the dissatisfaction of servants
+shall be expressed only in terms of respect? A woman would not feel
+herself at liberty to talk to her milliner or her dress-maker in
+language as devoid of consideration as she will employ toward her cook
+or chambermaid. And yet both are rendering her a service which she
+pays for in money, and one is no more made her inferior thereby than
+the other. Both have an equal right to be treated with courtesy. The
+master and mistress of a house have a right to require courteous
+treatment from all whom their roof shelters; but they have no more
+right to exact it of servants than of every guest and every child, and
+they themselves owe it as much to servants as to guests.
+
+In order that servants may be treated with respect and courtesy, it
+is not necessary, as in simpler patriarchal days, that they sit at the
+family-table. Your carpenter or plumber does not feel hurt that you
+do not ask him to dine with you, nor your milliner and mantua-maker
+that you do not exchange ceremonious calls and invite them to your
+parties. It is well understood that your relations with them are of
+a mere business character. They never take it as an assumption of
+superiority on your part that you do not admit them to relations of
+private intimacy. There may be the most perfect respect and esteem and
+even friendship between then and you, notwithstanding. So it may be
+in the case of servants. It is easy to make any person understand that
+there are quite other reasons than the assumption of personal
+superiority for not wishing to admit servants to the family privacy.
+It was not, in fact, to sit in the parlor or at the table in themselves
+considered, that was the thing aimed at by New--England girls; these
+were valued only as signs that they were deemed worthy of respect and
+consideration, and, where freely conceded, were often in point of fact
+declined.
+
+Let servants feel, in their treatment by their employers and in the
+atmosphere of the family, that their position is held to be a
+respectable one; let them feel, in the mistress of the family, the
+charm of unvarying consideration and good manners; let their work-
+rooms be made convenient and comfortable, and their private apartments
+bear some reasonable comparison in point of agreeableness to those of
+other members of the family, and domestic service will be more
+frequently sought by a superior and self-respecting class. There are
+families in which such a state of things prevails; and such families,
+amid the many causes which unite to make the tenure of service
+uncertain, have generally been able to keep good permanent servants.
+There is an extreme into which kindly disposed people often run with
+regard to servants which may be mentioned here. They make pets of them.
+They give extravagant wages and indiscreet indulgences, and, through
+indolence and easiness of temper, tolerate neglect of duty. Many of
+the complaints of the ingratitude of servants come from those who have
+spoiled them in this way; while many of the longest and most harmonious
+domestic unions have sprung from a simple, quiet course of Christian
+justice and benevolence, a recognition of servants as fellow-beings
+and fellow-Christians, and a doing to them as we would in like
+circumstances that they should do to us.
+
+The mistresses of American families, whether they like it or not, have
+the duties of missionaries imposed upon them by that class from which
+our supply of domestic servants is drawn. They may as well accept the
+position cheerfully, and, as one raw, untrained hand after another
+passes through their family, and is instructed by them in the mysteries
+of good house-keeping, comfort themselves with the reflection that
+they are doing something to form good wives and mothers for the
+republic.
+
+The complaints made of Irish girls are numerous and loud; the failings
+of green Erin, alas! are but too open and manifest; yet, in arrest of
+judgment, let us move this consideration: let us imagine our own
+daughters between the ages of sixteen and twenty-four, untaught and
+inexperienced in domestic affairs as they commonly are, shipped to a
+foreign shore to seek service in families. It may be questioned whether,
+as a whole, they would do much better. The girls that fill our families
+and do our house-work are often of the age of our own daughters,
+standing for themselves, without mothers to guide them, in a foreign
+country, not only bravely supporting themselves, but sending home in
+every ship remittances to impoverished friends left behind. If our
+daughters did as much for us, should we not be proud of their energy
+and heroism?
+
+When we go into the houses of our country, we find a majority of
+well-kept, well-ordered, and even elegant establishments, where the
+only hands employed are those of the daughters of Erin. True, American
+women have been their instructors, and many a weary hour of care have
+they had in the discharge of this office; but the result on the whole
+is beautiful and good, and the end of it, doubtless, will be peace.
+
+Instead, then, of complaining that we can not have our own peculiar
+advantages and those of other nations too, or imagining how much better
+off we should be if things were different from what they are, it is
+much wiser and more Christian-like to strive cheerfully to conform to
+actual circumstances; and, after remedying all that we can control,
+patiently to submit to what is beyond our power. If domestics are found
+to be incompetent, unstable, and unconfirmed to their station, it is
+Perfect Wisdom which appoints these trials to teach us patience,
+fortitude, and self-control; and if the discipline is met in a proper
+spirit, it will prove a blessing rather than an evil.
+
+But to judge correctly in regard to some of the evils involved in the
+state of domestic service in this country, we should endeavor to
+conceive ourselves placed in the situation of those of whom complaint
+is made, that we may not expect from them any more than it would seem
+right should be exacted from us in similar circumstances.
+
+It is sometimes urged against domestics that they exact exorbitant
+wages. But what is the rule of rectitude on this subject? Is it not
+the universal law of labor and of trade that an article is to be valued
+according to its scarcity and the demand? When wheat is scarce, the
+farmer raises his price; and when a mechanic offers services difficult
+to be obtained, he makes a corresponding increase of price. And why
+is it not right for domestics to act according to a rule allowed to
+be correct in reference to all other trades and professions? It is a
+fact, that really good domestic service must continue to increase in
+value just in proportion as this country waxes rich and prosperous;
+thus making the proportion of those who wish to hire labor relatively
+greater, and the number of those willing to go to service less.
+
+Money enables the rich to gain many advantages which those of more
+limited circumstances can not secure. One of these is, securing good
+servants by offering high wages; and this, as the scarcity of this
+class increases, will serve constantly to raise the price of service.
+It is right for domestics to charge the market value, and this value
+is always decided by the scarcity of the article and the amount of
+demand. Right views of this subject will sometimes serve to diminish
+hard feelings toward those who would otherwise be wrongfully regarded
+as unreasonable and exacting.
+
+Another complaint against servants is that of instability and
+discontent, leading to perpetual change. But in reference to this, let
+a mother or daughter conceive of their own circumstances as so changed
+that the daughter must go out to service. Suppose a place is engaged,
+and it is then found that she must sleep in a comfortless garret; and
+that, when a new domestic comes, perhaps a coarse and dirty foreigner,
+she must share her bed with her. Another place is offered, where she
+can have a comfortable room and an agreeable room-mate; in such a case,
+would not both mother and daughter think it right to change?
+
+Or suppose, on trial, it was found that the lady of the house was
+fretful or exacting and hard to please, or that her children were so
+ungoverned as to be perpetual vexations; or that the work was so heavy
+that no time was allowed for relaxation and the care of a wardrobe;
+and another place offers where those evils can be escaped; would not
+mother and daughter here think it right to change? And is it not right
+for domestics, as well as their employers, to seek places where they
+can be most comfortable?
+
+In some cases, this instability and love of change would be remedied,
+if employers would take more pains to make a residence with them
+agreeable, and to attach servants to the family by feelings of gratitude
+and affection. There are ladies, even where well-qualified domestics
+are most rare, who seldom find any trouble in keeping good and steady
+ones. And the reason is, that their servants know they can not better
+their condition by any change within reach. It is not merely by giving
+them comfortable rooms, and good food, and presents, and privileges,
+that the attachment of domestic servants is secured; it is by the
+manifestation of a friendly and benevolent interest in their comfort
+and improvement. This is exhibited in bearing patiently with their
+faults; in kindly teaching them how to improve; in showing them how
+to make and take proper care of their clothes; in guarding their health;
+in teaching them to read if necessary, and supplying them with proper
+books; and in short, by endeavoring, so far as may be, to supply the
+place of parents. It is seldom that such a course would fail to secure
+steady service, and such affection and gratitude that even higher wages
+would be ineffectual to tempt them away. There would probably be some
+leases of ungrateful returns; but there is no doubt that the course
+indicated, if generally pursued, would very much lessen the evil in
+question.
+
+When servants are forward and bold in manners and disrespectful in
+address, they may be considerately taught that those who are among the
+best-bred and genteel have courteous and respectful manners and language
+to all they meet: while many who have wealth, are regarded as vulgar,
+because they exhibit rude and disrespectful manners. The very term
+_gentle man_ indicates the refinement and delicacy of address which
+distinguishes the high-bred from the coarse and vulgar.
+
+In regard to appropriate dress, in most cases it is difficult for an
+employer to interfere, _directly_, with comments or advice. The
+most successful mode is to offer some, service in mending or making
+a wardrobe, and when a confidence in the kindness of feeling is thus
+gained, remarks and suggestions will generally be properly received,
+and new views of propriety and economy can be imparted. In some cases
+it may be well for an employer who, from appearances, anticipates
+difficulty of this kind, in making the preliminary contract or agreement
+to state that she wishes to have the room, person, and dress of her
+servants kept neat and in order, and that she expects to remind them
+of their duty, in this particular, if it is neglected. Domestic servants
+are very apt to neglect the care of their own chambers and clothing;
+and such habits have a most pernicious influence on their well-being
+and on that of their children in future domestic life. An employer,
+then, is bound to exercise a parental care over them, in these respects.
+
+There is one great mistake, not unfrequently made, in the management
+both of domestics and of children, and that is, in supposing that the
+way to cure defects is by finding fault as each failing occurs. But
+instead of this being true, in many cases the directly opposite course
+is the best; while, in all instances, much good judgment is required
+in order to decide when to notice faults and when to let them pass
+unnoticed. There are some minds very sensitive, easily discouraged,
+and infirm of purpose. Such persons, when they have formed habits of
+negligence, haste, and awkwardness, often need expressions of sympathy
+and encouragement rather than reproof. They have usually been found
+fault with so much that they have become either hardened or desponding;
+and it is often the case, that a few words of commendation will awaken
+fresh efforts and renewed hope. In almost every case, words of kindness,
+confidence, and encouragement should be mingled with the needful
+admonitions or reproof.
+
+It is a good rule, in reference to this point, to _forewarn_ instead of
+finding fault. Thus, when a thing has been done wrong, let it pass
+unnoticed, till it is to be done again; and then, a simple request to
+have it done in the right way will secure quite as much, and probably
+more, willing effort, than a reproof administered for neglect. Some
+persons seem to take it for granted that young and inexperienced minds
+are bound to have all the forethought and discretion of mature persons;
+and freely express wonder and disgust when mishaps occur for want of
+these traits. But it would be far better to save from mistake or
+forgetfulness by previous caution and care on the part of those who have
+gained experience and forethought; and thus many occasions of complaint
+and ill-humor will be avoided.
+
+Those who fill the places of heads of families are not very apt to
+think how painful it is to be chided for neglect of duty or for faults
+of character. If they would sometimes imagine themselves in the place
+of those whom they control, with some person daily administering reproof
+to them, in the same _tone and style_ as they employ to those who
+are under them, it might serve as a useful cheek to their chidings.
+It is often the ease, that persons who are most strict and exacting
+and least able to make allowances and receive palliations, are
+themselves peculiarly sensitive to any tiling which implies that they
+are in fault. By such, the spirit implied in the Divine petition,
+"Forgive us our trespasses as we forgive those who trespass against
+us," needs especially to be cherished.
+
+One other consideration is very important. There is no duty more binding
+on Christians than that of patience and meekness under provocations
+and disappointment. Now, the tendency of every sensitive mind, when
+thwarted in its wishes, is to complain and find fault, and that often
+in tones of fretfulness or anger. But there are few servants who have
+not heard enough of the Bible to know that angry or fretful
+fault-finding from the mistress of a family, when her work is not done
+to suit her, is not in agreement with the precepts of Christ. They
+notice and feel the inconsistency; and every woman, when she gives way
+to feelings of anger and impatience at the faults of those around her,
+lowers herself in their respect, while her own conscience, unless very
+much blinded, can not but suffer a wound.
+
+In speaking of the office of the American mistress as being a missionary
+one, we are far from, recommending any controversial interference with
+the religious faith of our servants. It is far better to incite them
+to be good Christians in their own way than to run the risk of shaking
+their faith in all religion by pointing out to them what seem to us
+the errors of that in which they have been educated. The general purity
+of life and propriety of demeanor of so many thousands of undefended
+young girls cast yearly upon our shores, with no home but their church,
+and no shield but their religion, are a sufficient proof that this
+religion exerts an influence over them not to be lightly trifled with.
+But there is a real unity even in opposite Christian forms; and the
+Roman Catholic servant and the Protestant mistress, if alike possessed
+by the spirit of Christ, and striving to conform to the Golden Rule,
+can not help being one in heart, though one go to mass and the other
+to meeting.
+
+Finally, the bitter baptism through which we have passed, the life-blood
+dearer than our own which has drenched distant fields, should remind
+us of the preciousness of distinctive American ideas. They who would
+seek in their foolish pride to establish the pomp of liveried servants
+in America are doing that which is simply absurd. A servant can never
+in our country be the mere appendage to another man, to be marked like
+a sheep with the color of his owner; he must be a fellow-citizen, with
+an established position of his own, free to make contracts, free to
+come and go, and having in his sphere titles to consideration and
+respect just as definite as those of any trade or profession whatever.
+
+Moreover, we can not in this country maintain to any great extent large
+retinues of servants. Even with ample fortunes, they are forbidden by
+the general character of society here, which makes them cumbrous and
+difficult to manage. Every mistress of a family knows that her cares
+increase with every additional servant. Two keep the peace with each
+other and their employer; three begin a possible discord, which
+possibility increases with four, and becomes certain with five or six.
+Trained housekeepers, such as regulate the complicated establishments
+of the old world, form a class that are not, and from the nature of
+the case never will be, found in any great numbers in this country.
+All such women, as a general thing, are keeping, and prefer to keep,
+houses of their own.
+
+A moderate style of housekeeping, small, compact, and simple domestic
+establishments, must necessarily be the general order of life in
+America. So many openings of profit are to be found in this country,
+that domestic service necessarily wants the permanence which forms so
+agreeable a feature of it in the old world.
+
+This being the case, it should be an object in American to exclude
+from the labors of the family all that can, with greater advantage,
+be executed out of it by combined labor.
+
+Formerly, in New England, soap and candles were to be made in each
+separate family; now, comparatively few take this toil upon them. We
+buy soap of the soap-maker, and candles of the candle-factor. This
+principle might be extended much further. In France, no family makes
+its own bread, and better bread can not be eaten than can be bought
+at the appropriate shops. No family does its own washing; the family's
+linen is all sent to women who, making this their sole profession, get
+it up with a care and nicety which can seldom be equaled in any family.
+
+How would it simplify the burdens of the American housekeeper to have
+washing and ironing day expunged from her calendar! How much more
+neatly and compactly could the whole domestic system be arranged! If
+all the money that each separate family spends on the outfit and
+accommodations for washing and ironing, on fuel, soap, starch, and the
+other requirements, were united in a fund to create a laundry for every
+dozen families, one or two good women could do in first rate style
+what now is very indifferently done by the disturbance and
+disarrangement of all other domestic processes in these families.
+Whoever sets neighborhood laundries on foot will do much to solve the
+American housekeeper's hardest problem.
+
+Again, American women must not try with three servants to carry on
+life in the style which in the old world requires sixteen; they must
+thoroughly understand, and be prepared _to teach_, every branch
+of housekeeping; they must study to make domestic service desirable,
+by treating their servants in a way to lead them to respect themselves
+and to feel themselves respected; and there will gradually be evolved
+from the present confusion, a solution of the domestic problem which
+shall be adapted to the life of a new and growing world.
+
+
+
+
+XXVI.
+
+CARE OF THE SICK.
+
+
+It is interesting to notice in the histories of our Lord the prominent
+place given to the care of the sick. When he first sent out the
+apostles, it was to heal the sick as well as to preach. Again, when,
+he sent out the seventy, their first command was to "heal the sick,"
+and next to say, "the kingdom of God has come nigh unto you." The body
+was to be healed first, in order to attend to the kingdom of God, even
+when it was "brought nigh."
+
+Jesus Christ spent more time and labor in the cure of men's bodies
+than in preaching, even, if we subtract those labors with his earthly
+father by which family homes were provided. When he ascended to the
+heavens, his last recorded, words to his followers, as given by Mark,
+were, that his disciples should "lay hands on the sick," that they
+might recover. Still more directly is the duty of care for the sick
+exhibited in the solemn allegorical description of the last day. It
+was those who visited the sick that were the blessed; it was those who
+did not visit the sick who were told to "depart." Thus are we abundantly
+taught that one of the most sacred duties of the Christian family is
+the training of its inmates to care and land attention to the sick.
+
+Every woman who has the care of young children, or of a large family,
+is frequently called upon to advise what shall be done for some one
+who is indisposed; and often, in circumstances where she must trust
+solely to her own judgment. In such cases, some err by neglecting to
+do any thing at all, till the patient is quite sick; but a still greater
+number err from excessive and injurious dosing.
+
+The two great causes of the ordinary slight attacks of illness in a
+family, are, sudden chills, which close the pores of the skin, and
+thus affect the throat, lungs, or bowels; and the excessive or improper
+use of food. In most cases of illness from the first cause, bathing
+the feet, and some aperient drink to induce perspiration, are suitable
+remedies.
+
+In case of illness from improper food, or excess in eating, fasting
+for one or two meals, to give the system time and chance to relieve
+itself, is the safest remedy. Some-times, a gentle cathartic of
+castor-oil may be needful; but it is best first to try fasting. A safe
+relief from injurious articles in the stomach is an emetic of warm
+water; but to be effective, several tumblerfuls must be given in quick
+succession, and till the stomach can receive no more.
+
+The following extract from a discourse of Dr. Burne, before the London
+Medical Society, contains important, information: "In civilized life,
+the causes which are most generally and continually operating in the
+production of diseases are, affections of the mind, improper diet, and
+retention of the intestinal excretions. The undue retention of
+excrementitious matter allows of the absorption of its more liquid
+parts, which is a cause of great impurity to the blood, and the
+excretions, thus rendered hard and knotty, act more or less as
+extraneous substances, and, by their irritation, produce a determination
+of blood to the intestines and to the neighboring viscera, which
+ultimately ends in inflammation. It also has a great effect on the
+whole system; causes a determination of blood to the head, which
+oppresses the brain, and dejects the mind; deranges the functions of
+the stomach; causes flatulency; and produces a general state of
+discomfort."
+
+Dr. Combe remarks on this subject: "In the natural and healthy state,
+under a proper system of diet, and with sufficient exercise, the bowels
+are relieved regularly, once every day." _Habit_ "is powerful in
+modifying the result, and in sustaining healthy action when once fairly
+established. Hence the obvious advantage of observing as much regularity
+in relieving the system, as in taking our meals." It is often the ease
+that soliciting nature at a regular period, once a day, will remedy
+constipation without medicine, and induce a regular and healthy state
+of the bowels. "When, however, as most frequently happens, the
+constipation arises from the absence of all assistance from the
+abdominal and respiratory muscles, the first step to be taken is, again
+to solicit their aid; first, by removing all impediments to free
+respiration, such as stays, waistbands, and belts; secondly, by
+resorting to such active exercise as shall call the muscles into full
+and regular action; [Footnote: The most effective mode of exercising
+the abdominal and respiratory muscles, in order to remedy constipation,
+is by a continuous alternate contraction of the muscles of the abdomen,
+and diaphragm. By contracting the muscles of the abdomen, the intestines
+axe pressed inward and upward, and then the muscles of the diaphragm
+above contract and press them downward and outward. Thus the blood is
+drawn to the torpid parts to stimulate to the healthful action, while
+the agitation moves their contents downward. An invalid can thus
+exercise the abdominal muscles in bed. The proper time is just after
+a meal. This exercise, continued ten minutes a day, including short
+intervals of rest, and persevered in for a week or two, will cure most
+ordinary cases of constipation, provided proper food is taken. Coarse
+bread and fruit are needed for this purpose in most cases.] and lastly,
+by proportioning the quantity of food to the wants of the system, and
+the condition of the digestive organs.
+
+"If we employ these means, systematically and perseveringly, we shall
+rarely fail in at last restoring the healthy action of the bowels,
+with little aid from medicine. But if we neglect these modes, we may
+go on for years, adding pill to pill, and dose to dose, without ever
+attaining the end at which we aim."
+
+"There is no point in which a woman needs more knowledge and discretion
+than in administering remedies for what seem slight attacks, which are
+not supposed to require the attention of a physician. It is little
+realized that purgative drugs are unnatural modes of stimulating the
+internal organs, tending to exhaust them of their secretions, and to
+debilitate and disturb the animal economy. For this reason, they should
+be used as little as possible; and fasting, and perspiration, and the
+other methods pointed out, should always be first resorted to."
+
+When medicine must be given, it should be borne in mind that there are
+various classes of purgatives, which produce very diverse effects.
+Some, like salts, operate to thin the blood, and reduce the system;
+others are stimulating; and others have a peculiar operation on certain
+organs. Of course, great discrimination and knowledge are needed, in
+order to select the kind which is suitable to the particular disease,
+or to the particular constitution of the invalid. This shows the folly
+of using the many kinds of pills, and other quack medicines, where no
+knowledge can be had of their composition. Pills which are good for
+one kind of disease, might operate as poison in another state of the
+system.
+
+It is very common in cases of colds, which affect the lungs or throat,
+to continue to try one dose after another for relief. It will be well
+to hear in mind at such times, that all which goes into the stomach
+must be first absorbed into the blood before it can reach the diseased
+part; and that there is some danger of injuring the stomach, or other
+parts of the system, by such a variety of doses, many of which, it is
+probable, will be directly contradictory in their nature, and thus
+neutralize any supposed benefit they might separately impart.
+
+When a cold affects the head and eyes, and also impedes breathing
+through the nose, great relief is gained by a wet napkin spread over
+the upper part of the face, covering the nose except an opening for
+breath. This is to be covered by folds of flannel fastened over the
+napkin with a handkerchief. So also a wet towel over the throat and
+whole chest, covered with folds of flannel, often relieves oppressed
+lungs.
+
+Ordinarily, a cold can be arrested on its first symptoms by coverings
+in bed and a bottle of hot water, securing free perspiration. Often,
+at its first appearance, it can be stopped by a spoonful or two of
+whisky, or any alcoholic liquor, in hot water, taken on going to bed.
+Warm covering to induce perspiration will assist the process. These
+simple remedies are safest. Perspiration should always be followed by
+a towel-bath.
+
+It is very unwise to tempt the appetite of a person who is indisposed.
+The cessation of appetite is the warning of nature that the system is
+in such a state that food can not be digested. When food is to be given
+to one who has no desire for it, beef-tea is the best in most cases.
+
+The following suggestions may be found useful in regard to nursing the
+sick. As nothing contributes more to the restoration of health than
+pure air, it should be a primary object to keep a sick-room well
+ventilated. At least twice in the twenty-four hours, the patient should
+be well covered, and fresh air freely admitted from out of doors. After
+this, if need be, the room should be restored to a proper temperature,
+by the aid of an open fire. Bedding and clothing should also be well
+aired, and frequently changed; as the exhalations from the body, in
+sickness, are peculiarly deleterious. Frequent ablutions of the whole
+body, if possible, are very useful; and for these, warm water may be
+employed, when cold water is disagreeable.
+
+A sick-room should always be kept very neat and in perfect order; and
+all haste, noise, and bustle should be avoided. In order to secure
+neatness, order, and quiet, in case of long illness, the following
+arrangement should be made. Keep a large box for fuel, which will need
+to be filled only twice in twenty-four hours. Provide also and keep
+in the room or an adjacent closet, a small, tea-kettle, a saucepan,
+a pail of water for drinks and ablutions, a pitcher, a covered
+porringer, two pint bowls, two tumblers, two cups and saucers, two
+wine-glasses, two large and two small spoons; also a dish in which to
+wash these articles; a good supply of towels and a broom. Keep a
+slop-bucket near by to receive the wash of the room. Procuring all
+these articles at once, will save much noise and confusion.
+
+Whenever medicine or food is given, spread a clean towel over the
+person or bed-clothing, and get a clean handkerchief, as nothing is
+more annoying to a weak stomach than the stickiness and soiling
+produced by medicine and food.
+
+Keep the fire-place neat, and always wash all articles and put them
+in order as soon as they are out of use. A sick person has nothing to
+do but look about the room; and when every thing is neat and in order,
+a feeling of comfort is induced, while disorder, filth, and neglect
+are constant objects of annoyance which, if not complained of, are yet
+felt.
+
+One very important particular in the case of those who are delicate
+in constitution, as well as in the case of the sick, is the preservation
+of warmth, especially in the hands and the feet. The _equal_
+circulation of the blood is an important element for good health, and
+this is impossible when the extremities are habitually or frequently
+cold. It is owing to this fact that the coldness caused by wetting the
+feet is so injurious. In cases where disease or a weak constitution
+causes a feeble or imperfect circulation, great pains should be taken
+to dress the feet and hands warmly, especially around the wrists and
+ankles, where the blood-vessels are nearest to the surface and thus
+most exposed to cold. Warm elastic wristlets and anklets would save
+many a feeble person from increasing decay or disease.
+
+When the circulation is feeble from debility or disease, the union of
+carbon and oxygen in the capillaries is slower than in health, and
+therefore care should be taken to preserve the heat thus generated by
+warm clothing and protection from cold draughts. In nervous debility,
+it is peculiarly important to preserve the animal heat, for its
+excessive loss especially affects weak nerves. Many an invalid is
+carelessly and habitually suffering cold feet, who would recover health
+by proper care to preserve animal heat, especially in the extremities.
+
+The following are useful directions for dressing a blister. Spread
+thinly, on a linen cloth, an ointment composed of one third of beeswax
+to two thirds of tallow; lay this upon a linen cloth folded many times.
+With a sharp pair of scissors make an aperture in the lower part of
+the blister-bag, with a little hole above to give it vent. Break the
+raised skin as little as possible. Lay on the cloth spread as directed.
+The blister at first should be dressed as often as three times in a
+day, and the dressing renewed each time. Hot fomentations in most cases
+will be as good as a blister, less painful, and safer.
+
+Always prepare food for the sick in the neatest and most careful manner.
+It is in sickness that the senses of smell and taste are most
+susceptible of annoyance; and often, little mistakes or negligences
+in preparing food will take away all appetite.
+
+Food for the sick should be cooked on coals, that no smoke may have
+access to it; and great care must be taken to prevent, by stirring,
+any adherence to the bottom of the cooking vessel, as this always gives
+a disagreeable taste.
+
+Keeping clean handkerchiefs and towels at hand, cooling the pillows,
+sponging the hands with water, (with care to dry them thoroughly,)
+swabbing the mouth with a clean linen rag on the end of a stick, are
+modes of increasing the comfort of the sick. Always throw a shawl over
+a sick person when raised up.
+
+Be careful to understand a physician's directions, and _to obey them
+implicitly_. If it be supposed that any other person knows better
+about the case than the physician, dismiss the physician, and employ
+that person in his stead.
+
+It is always best to consult the physician as to where medicines shall
+be purchased, and to show the articles to him before using them, as
+great impositions are practiced in selling old, useless, and adulterated
+drugs. Always put labels on vials of medicine, and keep them out of
+the reach of children.
+
+Be careful to label all powders, and particularly all _white powders_,
+as many poisonous medicines in this form are easily mistaken for others
+which are harmless.
+
+In nursing the sick, always speak gently and cheeringly; and, while
+you express sympathy for their pain and trials, stimulate them to bear
+sill with fortitude, and with resignation to the Heavenly Father who
+"doth not willingly afflict," and "who causeth all things to work
+together for good to them that love him." Offer to read the Bible or
+other devotional books, whenever it is suitable, and will not be deemed
+obtrusive.
+
+Miss Ann Preston, one of the most refined as well as talented and
+learned female physicians, in a published article, gives valuable
+instruction as to the training, of nurses. She claims that every woman
+should be trained for this office, and that some who have special
+traits that fit them for it should make it their daily professional
+business. She remarks that the indispensable qualities in a good nurse
+are common sense, conscientiousness, and sympathetic benevolence: and
+thus continues:
+
+"God himself made and commissioned one set of nurses; and in doing
+this and adapting them to utter helplessness and weakness, what did
+he do? He made them to love the dependence and to see something to
+admire in the very perversities of their charge. He made them to humor
+the caprices and regard both reasonable and unreasonable complainings.
+He made them to bend tenderly over the disturbed and irritated, and
+fold them to quiet assurance in arms made soft with love; in a word,
+he made _mothers!_ And, other things being equal, whoever has most
+maternal tenderness and warm sympathy with the sufferer is the best
+nurse." And it is those most nearly endowed by nature with these
+traits who should be selected to be trained for the sacred office of
+nurse to the sick, while, in all the moral training of womanhood, this
+ideal should be the aim.
+
+Again, Miss Preston wisely suggests that "persons may be conscientious
+and benevolent and possess good judgment in many respects, and yet be
+miserable nurses of the sick for want of training and right knowledge.
+
+"_Knowledge_, the assurance that one knows what to do, always gives
+_presence of mind_--and presence of mind is important not only in a
+sick-room but in every home. Who has not known consternation in a family
+when some one has fainted, or been burned, or cut, while none were
+present who knew how to stop the flowing blood, or revive the fainting,
+or apply the saving application to the burn? And yet knowledge and
+efficiency in such cases would save many a life, and be a most fitting
+and desirable accomplishment in every woman."
+
+"We are slow to learn the mighty influence of common agencies, and the
+greatness of little things, in their bearing upon life and health. The
+woman who believes it takes no strength to bear a little noise or some
+disagreeable announcements, and loses patience with the weak, nervous
+invalid who is agonized with creaking doors or shoes, or loud, shrill
+voices, or rustling papers, or sharp, fidgety motions, or the whispering
+so common in sick-rooms and often so acutely distressing to the
+sufferer, will soon correct such misapprehensions by herself
+experiencing a nervous fever."
+
+Here the writer would put in a plea for the increasing multitudes of
+nervous sufferers not confined to a sick-room, and yet exposed to all
+the varied sources of pain incident to an exhausted nervous system,
+which often cause more intolerable and also more wearing pain than
+other kinds of suffering.
+
+"An exceeding acuteness of the senses is the result of many forms of
+nervous disease. A heavy breath, an unwashed hand, a noise that would
+not have been noticed in health, a crooked table-cover or bed-spread
+may disturb or oppress; and more than one invalid has spoken in my
+hearing of the sickening effect produced by the nurse tasting her food,
+or blowing in her drinks to make them cool. One woman, and a sensible
+woman too, told me her nurse had turned a large cushion upon her bureau
+with the back part in front. She determined not to be disturbed nor
+to speak of such a trifle, but after struggling _three hours_ in
+vain to banish the annoyance, she was forced to ask to have the cushion
+placed right."
+
+In this place should be mentioned the suffering caused to persons of
+reduced nervous power not only by the smoke of tobacco, but by the
+fetid effluvium of it from the breath and clothing of persons who
+smoke. Many such are sickened in society and in car-traveling, and to
+a degree little imagined by those who gain a dangerous pleasure at the
+frequent expense of the feeble and suffering.
+
+Miss Preston again remarks, "It is often exceedingly important to the
+very weak, who can take but very little nutriment, to have that little
+whenever they want it. I have known invalids sustain great injury and
+suffering; when exhausted for want of food, they have had to wait and
+wait, feeling as if every minute was an hour, while some well-fed nurse
+delayed its coming. Said a lady, 'It makes me hungry now to think of
+the meals she brought me upon that little waiter when I was sick, such
+brown thin toast, such good broiled beef, such fragrant tea, and every
+thing looking so exquisitely nice! If at any time I did not think of
+any thing I wanted, nor ask for food, she did not annoy me with
+questions, but brought some little delicacy at the proper time, and
+when it came, I could take it.'
+
+"If there is one purpose of a personal kind for which it is especially
+desirable to lay up means, it is for being well nursed in sickness;
+yet in the present state of society, this is absolutely impossible,
+even to the wealthy, because of the scarcity of competent nurses.
+Families worn down with the long and extreme illness of a member require
+relief from one whose feelings will be less taxed, and who can better
+endure the labor.
+
+"But alas! how often is it impossible, for love or money, to obtain
+one capable of taking the burden from the exhausted sister or mother
+or daughter, and how often in consequence they have died prematurely
+or struggled through weary years with a broken constitution. Appeal
+to those who have made the trial, and you will find that very seldom
+have they been able to have those who by nature or by training were
+competent for their duties. Ignorant, unscrupulous, inattentive--how
+often they disturb and injure the patient! A physician told me that
+one of his patients had died because the nurse, contrary to orders,
+had at a critical period washed her with cold water. I have known one
+who, by stealth, quieted a fretful child with laudanum, and of others
+who exhausted the sick by incessant talking. One lady said that when,
+to escape this distressing garrulity, she closed her eyes, the nurse
+exclaimed aloud, 'Why, she is going to sleep while I am talking to
+her.'
+
+"A few only of the sensible, quiet, and loving women, whose presence
+everywhere is a blessing, have qualified themselves and followed nursing
+as a business. Heaven bless that few! What a sense of relief have I
+seen pervade a family when such a one has been procured; and what a
+treasure seemed found!
+
+"There is very commonly an extreme susceptibility in the sick to the
+_moral atmosphere_ about them. They feel the healthful influence
+of the presence of a true-hearted attendant and repose in it, though
+they may not be able to define the cause; while dissimulation,
+falsehood, recklessness, coarseness, jar terribly and injuriously on
+their heightened sensibilities. 'Are the Sisters of Charity really
+better nurses than most other women?' I asked an intelligent lady who
+had seen much of our military hospitals. 'Yes, they are,' was her
+reply. 'Why should it be so?' 'I think it is because with them it is
+a work of self-abnegation, and of duty to God, and they are so quiet
+and self-forgetful in its exercise that they do it better, while many
+other women show such self-consciousness and are so fussy!"
+
+Is there any reason why every Protestant woman should not be trained
+for this self-denying office as _a duty owed to God?_ We can not better
+close this chapter than by one more quotation from the same intelligent
+and attractive writer: "The good nurse is an artist. O the pillowy,
+soothing softness of her touch, the neatness of her simple, unrustling
+dress, the music of her assured yet gentle voice and tread, the sense of
+security and rest inspired by her kind and hopeful face, the promptness
+and attention to every want, the repose that like an atmosphere
+encircles her, the evidence of heavenly goodness, and love that she
+diffuses!" Is not such an art as this worth much to attain?
+
+In training children to the Christian life, one very important
+opportunity occurs whenever sickness appears, in the family or
+neighborhood. The repression of disturbing noises, the speaking in
+tones of gentleness and sympathy, the small offices of service or
+nursing in which children can aid, should be inculcated as ministering
+to the Lord and Elder Brother of man, who has said, "Inasmuch as ye
+have done it unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye have done
+it to me."
+
+One of the blessed opportunities for such ministries is given to
+children in the cultivation of flowers. The entrance into a sick-room
+of a smiling, healthful child, bringing an offering of flowers raised
+by its own labor, is like an angel of comfort and love, "and alike it
+blesseth him who gives and him who takes."
+
+A time is coming when the visitation of the sick, as a part of the
+Christian life, will hold a higher consideration than is now generally
+accorded, especially in the cases of uninteresting sufferers who have
+nothing to attract kind attentions, except that they are suffering
+children of our Father in heaven, and "one of the least" of the brethren
+of Jesus Christ.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII.
+
+ACCIDENTS AND ANTIDOTES.
+
+
+Children should be taught the following modes of saving life, health
+and limbs in cases of sudden emergency, before a medical adviser can
+be summoned.
+
+In case of a common cut, bind the lips of the wound together with a
+rag, and put on nothing else. If it is large, lay narrow strips of
+sticking-plaster obliquely across the wound. In some cases it is needful
+to draw a needle and thread through the lips of the wound, and tie the
+two sides together.
+
+If an artery be cut, it must be tied as quickly as possible, or the
+person will soon bleed to death. The blood from an artery is a brighter
+red than that from the veins, and spirts out in jets at each beat of
+the heart. Take hold of the end of the artery and tie it or hold it
+tight till a surgeon comes. In this case, and in all cases of bad
+wounds that bleed much, tie a tight bandage near and above the wound,
+inserting a stick into the bandage and twisting as tight as can be
+borne, to stop the immediate effusion of blood.
+
+Bathe bad bruises in hot water. Arnica water hastens a cure, but is
+injurious and weakening to the parts when used too long and too freely.
+
+A sprain is relieved from the first pains by hot fomentations, or the
+application of very hot bandages, but entire rest is the chief permanent
+remedy. The more the limb is used, especially at first, the longer the
+time required for the small broken fibres to knit together. The sprained
+leg should be kept in a horizontal position. When a leg is broken, tie
+it to the other leg, to keep it still till a surgeon comes. Tie a
+broken arm to a piece of thin wood, to keep it still till set.
+
+In the case of bad burns that take off the skin, creosote water is the
+best remedy. If this is not at hand, wood-soot (not coal) pounded,
+sifted, and mixed with lard is nearly as good, as such soot contains
+creosote. When a dressing is put on, do not remove it till a skin is
+formed under it. If nothing else is at hand for a bad burn, sprinkle
+flour over the place where the skin is off and then let it remain,
+protected by a bandage. The chief aim is to keep the part without skin
+from the air.
+
+In case of drowning, the aim should be to clear the throat, mouth and
+nostrils, and then produce the natural action of the lungs in breathing
+as soon as possible, at the same time removing wet clothes and applying
+warmth and friction to the skin, especially the hands and feet, to
+start the circulation. The best mode of cleansing the throat and month
+of choking water is to lay the person on the face, and raise the head
+a little, clearing the mouth and nostrils with the finger, and then
+apply hartshorn or camphor to the nose. This is safer and surer than
+a common mode of lifting the body by the feet, or rolling on a barrel
+to empty out the water.
+
+To start the action of the lungs, first lay the person on the face and
+press the back along the spine to expel all air from the lungs. Then
+turn the body nearly, but not quite over on to the back, thus opening
+the chest so that the air will rush in if the mouth is kept open. Then
+turn the body to the face again and expel the air, and then again
+nearly over on to the back; and so continue for a long time. Friction,
+dry and warm clothing, and warm applications should be used in
+connection with this process. This is a much better mode than using
+bellows, which sometimes will close the opening to the windpipe. The
+above is the mode recommended by Dr. Marshall Hall, and is approved
+by the best medical authorities.
+
+Certain articles are often kept in the house for cooking or medical
+purposes, and sometimes by mistake are taken in quantities that are
+poisonous.
+
+_Soda, saleratus, potash,_ or any other alkali can be rendered
+harmless in the stomach by vinegar, tomato-juice, or any other acid.
+If sulphuric or oxalic acid are taken, pounded chalk in water is the
+best antidote. If those are not at hand, strong soapsuds have been
+found effective. Large quantities of tepid water should be drank after
+these antidotes are taken, so as to produce vomiting.
+
+_Lime_ or _baryta_ and its compounds demand a solution of glauber salts
+or of sulphuric acid.
+
+_Iodine_ or _Iodide of Potassium_ demands large draughts of wheat flour
+or starch in water, and then vinegar and water. The stomach should then
+be emptied by vomiting with as much tepid water as the stomach can hold.
+
+_Prussic acid_, a violent poison, is sometimes taken by children in
+eating the pits of stone fruits or bitter almonds which contain it.
+The antidote is to empty the stomach by an emetic, and give water of
+ammonia or chloric water. Affusions of cold water all over the body,
+followed by warm hand friction, is often a remedy alone, but the above
+should be added if at command. _Antimony_ and its compounds demand
+drinks of oak bark, or gall nuts, or very strong green tea.
+
+_Arsenic_ demands oil or melted fat, with magnesia or lime water in
+large quantities, till vomiting occurs.
+
+_Corrosive Sublimate_, (often used to kill vermin,) and any other form
+of mercury, requires milk or whites of eggs in large quantities. The
+whites of twelve eggs in two quarts of water, given in the largest
+possible draughts every three minutes till free vomiting occurs, is
+a good remedy. Flour and water will answer, though not so surely as
+the above. Warm water will help, if nothing else is in reach. The same
+remedy answers when any form of copper, or tin, or zinc poison is
+taken, and also for creosote.
+
+_Lead_ and its compounds require a dilution of Epsom or Glauber salts,
+or some strong, acid drink, as lemon or tomatoes.
+
+_Nitrate of Silver_ demands salt water drank till vomiting occurs.
+
+_Phosphorus_ (sometimes taken by children from matches) needs magnesia
+and copious drinks of gum Arabic, or gum water of any sort.
+
+_Alcohol_, in dangerous quantities, demands vomiting with warm water.
+
+When one is violently sick from excessive use of _tobacco_, vomiting is
+a relief, if it arise spontaneously. After that, or in case it does not
+occur, the juice of a lemon and perfect rest, in a horizontal position
+on the back, will relieve the nausea and faintness, generally soothing
+the foolish and over-wrought patient into a sleep.
+
+_Opium_ demands a quick emetic. The best is a heaping table-spoonful of
+powdered mustard, in a tumblerful of warm water; or powdered alum in
+half-ounce doses and strong coffee alternately in warm water. Give acid
+drinks after vomiting. If vomiting is not elicited thus, a stomach pump
+is demanded. Dash cold water on the head, apply friction, and use all
+means to keep the person awake and in motion.
+
+_Strychnia_ demands also quick emetics.
+
+The stomach should be emptied always after taking any of these
+antidotes, by a warm water emetic.
+
+In case of bleeding at the lungs, or stomach, or throat, give a
+tea-spoonful of dry salt, and repeat it often. For bleeding at the
+nose, put ice, or pour cold water on the back of the neck, keeping the
+head elevated.
+
+If a person be struck with lightning, throw pailfuls of cold water on
+the head and body, and apply mustard poultices on the stomach, with
+friction of the whole body and inflation of the lungs, as in the case
+of drowning. The same mode is to be used when persons are stupefied
+by fumes of coal, or bad air.
+
+In thunderstorms, shut the doors and windows. The safest part of a
+room is its centre; and where there is a feather-bed in the apartment,
+that will be found the most secure resting-place.
+
+A lightning-rod if it be well pointed, and run deep into the earth,
+is a certain protection to a circle, around it, whose diameter equals
+the height of the rod above the highest chimney. But it protects _no
+farther_ than this extent.
+
+In case of fire, wrap about you a blanket, a shawl, a piece of carpet,
+or any other woolen cloth, to serve as protection. Never read in bed,
+lest you fall asleep, and the bed be set on fire. If your clothes get
+on fire, never run, but lie down, and roll about till you can reach
+a bed or carpet to wrap yourself in, and thus put out the fire. Keep
+young children in woolen dresses, to save them from the risk of fire.
+
+
+
+
+XXVIII.
+
+SEWING, CUTTING, AND MENDING.
+
+
+Every young girl should be taught to do the following kinds of stitch
+with propriety: Over-stitch, hemming, running, felling, stitching,
+back-stitch and run, buttonhole-stitch, chain-stitch, whipping, darning,
+gathering, and cross-stitch.
+
+In doing over-stitch, the edges should always be first fitted, either
+with pins or basting, to prevent puckering. In turning wide hems, a
+paper measure should be used, to make them even. Tucks, also, should
+be regulated by a paper measure. A fell should be turned, before the
+edges are put together, and the seam should be over-sewed before
+felling. All biased or goring seams should be felled, for stitching,
+draw a thread, and take up two or three threads at a stitch.
+
+In cutting buttonholes, it is best to have a pair of scissors, made
+for the purpose, which cut very neatly. For broadcloth, a chisel and
+board are better. The best stitch is made by putting in the needle,
+and then turning the thread round it near the eye. This is better than
+to draw the needle through, and then take up a loop. A stay thread
+should first be put across each side of the buttonhole, and also a bar
+at each end before working it. In working the buttonhole, keep the
+stay thread as far from the edge as possible. A small bar should be
+worked at each end.
+
+Whipping is done better by sewing _over_, and not under. The roll
+should be as fine as possible, the stitches short, the thread strong,
+and in sewing, every gather should be taken up.
+
+The rule for _gathering_ in shirts is, to draw a thread, and then take
+up two threads and skip four. In _darning_, after the perpendicular
+threads are run, the crossing threads should interlace exactly, taking
+one thread and leaving one, like woven threads. It is better to run a
+fine thread around a hole and draw it together, and then darn across it.
+
+The neatest sewers always fit and baste their work before sewing; and
+they say they always save time in the end by so doing, as they never
+have to pick out work on account of mistakes.
+
+It is wise to sew closely and tightly all new garments which will never
+be altered in shape; but some are more nice than wise, in sewing frocks
+and old garments in the same style. However, this is the least common
+extreme. It is much more frequently the case that articles which ought
+to be strongly and neatly made are sewed so that a nice sewer would
+rather pick out the threads and sew over again than to be annoyed with
+the sight of grinning stitches, and vexed with constant rips.
+
+If the thread kinks in sewing, break it off and begin at the other
+end. In using spool-cotton, thread the needle with the end which comes
+off first, and not the end where you break it off. This often prevents
+kinks.
+
+_Work-baskets_.--It is very important to neatness, comfort, and
+success in sewing, that a lady's work-basket should be properly fitted
+up. The following articles are needful to the mistress of a family:
+a large basket to hold work; having in it fastened a smaller basket
+or box, containing a needle-book in which are needles of every size,
+both blunts and sharps, with a larger number of those sizes most used;
+also small and large darning-needles, for woolen, cotton, and silk;
+two tape needles, large and small; nice scissors for fine work,
+button-hole scissors; an emery bag; two balls of white and yellow wax;
+and two thimbles, in case one should be mislaid. When a person is
+troubled with damp fingers, a lump of soft chalk in a paper is useful
+to rub on the ends of the fingers.
+
+Besides this box, keep in the basket common scissors; small shears;
+a bag containing tapes of all colors and sizes, done up in rolls; bags,
+one containing spools of white and another of colored cotton thread,
+and another for silks wound on spools or papers; a box or bag for nice
+buttons, and another for more common ones; a hag containing silk braid,
+welting cords, and galloon binding. Small rolls of pieces of white and
+brown linen and cotton are also often needed. A brick pin-cushion is
+a great convenience in sewing, and better than screw cushions. It is
+made by covering half a brick with cloth, putting a cushion on the
+top, and covering it tastefully. It is very useful to hold pins and
+needles while sewing, and to fasten long seams when basting and sewing.
+
+_To make a Frock_.--The best way for a novice is to get a dress fitted
+(not sewed) at the best mantua-maker's. Then take out a sleeve, rip it
+to pieces, and cut out a paper pattern. Then take out half of the waist,
+(it must have a seam in front,) and cut out a pattern of the back and
+fore-body, both lining and outer part. In cutting the patterns, iron the
+pieces smooth, let the paper be stiff, and with a pin; prick holes in
+the paper, to show the gore in front and the depths of the seams. With a
+pen and ink, draw lines from each pin-hole to preserve this mark. Then
+baste the parts together again, in doing which the unbasted half will
+serve as a pattern. When this is done, a lady of common ingenuity can
+cut and fit a dress by these patterns. If the waist of a dress be too
+tight, the seam under the arm must be let out; and in cutting a dress an
+allowance should be made for letting it out if needful, at this seam.
+
+The linings for the waists of dresses should be stiffened with cotton
+or linen. In cutting bias-pieces for trimming, they will not set well
+unless they are exact. In cutting them use a long rule, and a lead
+pencil or piece of chalk. Welting-cords should be covered with
+bias-pieces; and it saves time, in many cases, to baste on the
+welting-cord at the same time that you cover it. The best way, to put
+on hooks and eyes is to sew thorn on double broad tape, and sew this
+on the frock lining. They can be moved easily, and do not show where
+they are sewed on.
+
+In putting on linings of skirts at the bottom, be careful to have it
+a very little fuller than the dress, or it will shrink and look badly.
+All thin silks look much better with lining, and last much longer, as
+do aprons also. In putting a lining to a dress, baste it on each
+separate breadth, and sew it at the seams, and it looks much better
+than to have it fastened only at the bottom. Hake notches in selvedge,
+to prevent it from drawing up the breadth. Dresses which are to be
+washed should not be lined.
+
+Figured silks do not generally wear well if the figure be large and
+satin-like. Black and plain-colored silks can be tested by procuring
+samples, and making creases in them; fold the creases in a bunch, and
+rub them against a rough surface of moreen or carpeting. Those which
+are poor will soon wear off at the creases.
+
+Plaids look becoming for tall women, as they shorten the appearance
+of the figure. Stripes look becoming on a large person, as they reduce
+the apparent size. Pale, persons should not wear blue or green, and
+brunettes should not wear light delicate colors, except shades of buff,
+fawn, or straw color. Pearl white is not good for any complexion. Dead
+white and black look becoming on almost all persons. It is best to try
+colors by candle-light for evening dresses, as some colors which look
+very handsome in the daylight are very homely when seen by candle-light.
+Never be in haste to be first in a fashion, and never go to the
+extremes.
+
+_Linen and Cotton_.--In buying linen, seek for that which has a
+round close thread and is perfectly white; for if it be not white at
+first, it will never afterward become so. Much that is called linen
+at the shops is half cotton, and does not wear so well as cotton alone.
+Cheap linens are usually of this kind. It is difficult to discover
+which are all linen; but the best way is to find a lot presumed to be
+good, take a sample, wash it, and ravel it. If this be good, the rest
+of the same lot will probably be so. If you can not do this, draw a
+thread each way, and if both appear equally strong it is probably all
+linen. Linen and cotton must be put in clean water, and boiled, to get
+out the starch, and then ironed.
+
+A "long piece" of linen, a yard wide, will, with care and calculation,
+make eight shirts. In cutting it, take a shirt of the right size as
+a guide in fitting and basting. Bosom-pieces and false collars must
+be cut and fitted by patterns which suit the person for whom, the
+articles are designed. Gentlemen's night-shirts are made like other
+shirts, except that they are longer, and do not have bosoms and cuffs
+for starching.
+
+In cutting chemises, if the cotton or linen is a yard wide, cut off
+small half-gores at the top of the breadths and set them on the bottom.
+Use a long rule and a pencil in cutting gores. In cutting cotton winch
+is quite wide, a seam can be saved by cutting out two at once, in this
+manner: cut off three breadths, and with a long rule and a pencil,
+mark and cut off the gores; thus from one breadth cut off two gores
+the whole length, each gore one fourth of the breadth at the bottom,
+and tapering off to a point at the top. The other two breadths are to
+have a gore cut off from each, which is one fourth wide at the top and
+two fourths at bottom. Arrange these pieces right and they will make
+two chemises, one having four seams and the other three. This is a
+much easier way of cutting than sewing the three breadths together in
+bag fashion, as is often done. The biased or goring seams must always
+be felled. The sleeves and neck can be cut according to the taste of
+the wearer, by another, chemise for a pattern. There should be a lining
+around the armholes and stays at all corners. Six yards of yard width
+will make two chemises.
+
+Long night-gowns are best cut a little goring. It requires five yards
+for a long night-gown, and two and a half for a short one. Linen night
+caps wear longer than cotton ones, and do not like them turn yellow.
+They should be ruffled with linen, as cotton borders will not last so
+long as the cap. A double-quilted wrapper is a great comfort, in case
+of sickness. It may be made of two old dresses. It should not be cut
+full, but rather like a gentleman's study-gown, having no gathers or
+plaits, but large enough to slip off and on with ease. A double-gown
+of calico is also very useful. Most articles of dress, for grown persons
+or children, require patterns.
+
+Old silk dresses quilted for skirts are very serviceable, White flannel
+is soiled so easily and shrinks so much in washing that it is a good
+plan to color it. Cotton flannel is also good for common skirts. In
+making up flannel, back-stitch and run the seams and then cross-stitch
+them open. Nice flannel for infants can be ornamented with very little
+expense of time, by turning up the hem on the right side and making
+a little vine at the edge with saddler's silk The stitch of the vine
+is a modification of button-hole stitch.
+
+_Mending_. Silk dresses will last much longer, by ripping out the
+sleeves when thin, and changing the arms and also the breadths of the
+skirt. Tumbled black silk, which is old and rusty, should be dipped
+in water, then be drained for a few minutes, without squeezing or
+pressing, and then ironed. Coffee or cold tea is better than water.
+Sheets when worn thin in the middle should be ripped, and the other
+edges sewed together. Window-curtains last much longer if lined, as
+the sun fades and rots them.
+
+Broadcloth should be cut with reference to the way the nap runs. When
+pantaloons are thin, it is best to newly seat them, cutting the piece
+inserted in a curve, as corners are difficult to fit. Hose can be cut
+down when the feet are worn. Take an old stocking and cut it up for
+a pattern. Make the heel short. In sewing, turn each edge and run it
+down, and then sew over the edges. This is better than to stitch and
+then cross-stitch. "Run" thin places in stockings, and it will save
+darning a hole. If shoes are worn through on the sides, in the
+upper-leather, slip pieces of broadcloth under, and sew them around
+the holes.
+
+_Bedding_. The best beds are thick hair mattresses, which for persons in
+health are good for winter as well as summer use. Mattresses may also be
+made of husks, dried and drawn into shreds; also of alternate layers of
+cotton and moss. The most profitable sheeting is the Russian, which will
+last three times as long as any other. It is never perfectly white.
+Unbleached cotton is good for winter. It is poor economy to make narrow
+and short sheets, as children and domestics will always slip them off,
+and soil the bed-tick and bolster. They should be three yards long, and
+two and a half wide, so that they can be tucked in all around. All bed-
+linen should be marked and numbered, so that a bed can always be made
+properly, and all missing articles be known.
+
+
+
+XXIX.
+
+FIRES AND LIGHTS.
+
+
+A shallow fireplace saves wood and gives out more heat than a deeper
+one. A false back of brick may be put up in a deep fireplace. Hooks
+for holding up the shovel and tongs, a hearth-brush and bellows, and
+brass knobs to hang them on, should be furnished to every fireplace.
+An iron bar across the andirons aids in keeping the fire safe and in
+good order. Steel furniture is neater, handsomer, and more easily kept
+in order than that made of brass.
+
+Use green wood for logs, and mix green and dry wood for the fire; and
+then the wood-pile will last much longer. Walnut, maple, hickory, and
+oak wood are best; chestnut or hemlock is bad, because it snaps. Do
+not buy a load in which there are many crooked sticks. Learn how to
+measure and calculate the solid contents of a load, so as not to be
+cheated. A cord of wood should be equivalent to a pile eight feet long,
+four feet wide and four feet high; that is, it contains (8 X 4 X 4 =
+128) one hundred and twenty-eight cubic or solid feet. A city "load"
+is usually one third of a cord. Have all your wood split and piled
+under cover for winter. Have the green wood logs in one pile, dry wood
+in another, oven wood in another, kindlings and chips in another, and
+a supply of charcoal to use for broiling and ironing in another place.
+Have a brick bin for ashes, and never allow them to be put in wood.
+When quitting fires at night, never leave a burning stick across the
+andirons, nor on its end, without quenching it. See that no fire adheres
+to the broom or brush, remove all articles from the fire, and have two
+pails filled with water in the kitchen where they will not freeze.
+
+
+STOVES AND GRATES.
+
+Rooms heated by stoves should always have some opening for the admission
+of fresh air, or they will be injurious to health. The dryness of the
+air, which they occasion, should be remedied by placing a vessel filled
+with water on the stove, otherwise, the lungs or eyes will be injured.
+A large number of plants in a room prevents this dryness of the air.
+Where stove-pipes pass through fire-boards, the hole in the wood should
+be much larger than the pipe, so that there may be no danger of the
+wood taking fire. The unsightly opening thus occasioned should be
+covered with tin. When pipes are carried through floors or partitions,
+they should always pass either through earthen crocks, or what are
+known as tin stove-pipe thimbles, which may be found in any stove store
+or tinsmith's. Lengthening a pipe will increase its draught.
+
+For those who use _anthracite_ coal, that which is broken or screened is
+best for grates, and the nut-coal for small stoves. Three tons are
+sufficient in the Middle States, and four tons in the Northern, to keep
+one fire through the winter. That which is bright, hard, and clean is
+best; and that which is soft, porous, and covered with damp dust is
+poor. It will be well to provide two barrels of charcoal for kindling to
+every ton of anthracite coal. Grates for _bituminous coal_ should have a
+flue nearly as deep as the grate; and the bars should be round and not
+close together. The better draught there is, the less coal-dust is made.
+Every grate should be furnished with a poker, shovel, tongs, blower,
+coal-scuttle, and holder for the blower. The latter may be made of
+woolen, covered with old silk; and hung near the fire.
+
+Coal-stoves should be carefully put up, as cracks in the pipe,
+especially in sleeping rooms, are dangerous.
+
+
+LIGHTS
+
+Professor Phin, of the _Manufacturer and Builder_, has kindly given us
+some late information on this important topic, which will be found
+valuable.
+
+In choosing the source of our light, the great points to be considered
+are, first, the influence on the eyes, and secondly, economy. It is
+poor economy to use a bad light. Modern houses in cities, and even in
+large villages, are furnished with gas; where gas is not used,
+sperm-oil, kerosene or coal-oil, and candles are employed. Gas is the
+cheapest, (or ought to be;) and if properly used, is as good as any.
+Good sperm-oil burned in an Argand lamp--that is, a lamp with a
+circular wick, like the astral lamp and others--is perhaps the best;
+but it is expensive and attended with many inconveniences. Good kerosene
+oil gives a light which leaves little to be desired. Candles are used
+only on rare occasions, though many families prefer to manufacture
+into candles the waste grease that accumulates in the household. The
+economy of any source of light will depend so much upon local
+circumstances that no absolute directions can be given.
+
+The effect produced by light on the eyes depends upon the following
+points: First, _Steadiness_. Nothing is more injurious to the
+eyes than a flickering, unsteady flame. Hence, all flames used for
+light-giving purposes ought to be surrounded with glass chimneys or
+small shades. No naked flame can ever be steady. Second, _Color_.
+This depends greatly upon the temperature of the flame. A hot flame
+gives a bright, white light; a flame which has not a high temperature
+gives a dull, yellow light, which is very injurious to the eyes. In
+the naked gas-jet a large portion of the flame burns at a low
+temperature, and the same is the case with the flame of the kerosene
+lamp when the height of the chimney is not properly proportioned to
+the amount of oil consumed; a high wick needs a high chimney. In the
+case of a well-trimmed Argand oil-lamp, or an Argand burner for gas,
+the flame is in general most intensely hot, and the light is of a clear
+white character.
+
+The third point which demands attention is the _amount of heat_
+transmitted from the flame to the eyes. It often happens that people,
+in order to economize light, bring the lamp quite close to the face.
+This is a very bad habit. The heat is more injurious than the light.
+Better burn a larger flame, and keep it at a greater distance. It is
+also well that various sized lamps should be provided to serve the
+varying necessities of the household in regard to quantity of light.
+One of the very best forms of lamp is that known as the "student's
+reading-lamp," which is, in the burner, an Argand. Provide small lamps
+with handles for carrying about, and broad-bottomed lamps for the
+kitchen, as these are not easily upset. Hand and kitchen lamps are
+best made of metal, unless they are to be used by very careful persons.
+
+Sperm-oil, lard, tallow, etc., have been superseded to such an extent
+by kerosene that it is scarcely worth while to give any special
+directions in regard to them. In the choice of kerosene, attention
+should be paid to two points: its _safety_ and its _light-giving
+qualities_. Kerosene is not a simple fluid, like water; but is a
+mixture of several liquids, all of which boil at different temperatures.
+Good kerosene oil should be purified from all that portion which boils
+or evaporates at a low temperature; for it is the production of this
+vapor, and its mixture with atmospheric air, that gives rise to those
+terrible explosions which sometimes occur when a light is brought near
+a can of poor oil. To test the oil in this respect, pour a little into
+an iron spoon, and heat it over a lamp until it is moderately warm to
+the touch. If the oil produces vapor which can be set on fire by means
+of a flame held a short distance above the surface of the liquid, it
+is bad. Good oil poured into a teacup or on the floor does not easily
+take fire when a light is brought in contact with it. Poor oil will
+instantly ignite under the same circumstances, and hence, the breaking
+of a lamp filled with poor oil is always attended by great peril of
+a conflagration. Not only the safety but also the light-giving qualities
+of kerosene are greatly enhanced by the removal of these volatile and
+dangerous oils. Hence, while good kerosene should be clear in color
+and free from all matters which can gum up the wick and thus interfere
+with free circulation and combustion, it should also be perfectly safe.
+It ought to be kept in a cool, dark place, and carefully excluded from
+the air.
+
+The care of lamps requires so much attention and discretion, that many
+ladies choose to do this work themselves, rather than trust it with
+domestics. To do it properly, provide the following things: an old
+waiter to hold all the articles used; a lamp-filler, with a spout,
+small at the end, and turned up to prevent oil from dripping; proper
+wicks, and a basket or box to hold them; a lamp-trimmer made for the
+purpose, or a pair of _sharp_ scissors; a small soap-cup and soap;
+some washing soda in a broad-mouthed bottle; and several soft cloths
+to wash the articles and towels to wipe them. If every thing, after
+being used, is cleansed from oil and then kept neatly, it will not be
+so unpleasant a task as it usually is, to take care of lamps.
+
+The inside of lamps and oil-cans should be cleansed with soda dissolved
+in water. Be careful to drain them well, and not to let any gilding
+or bronze be injured by the soda coming in contact with it. Put one
+table-spoonful of soda to one quart of water. Take the lamp to pieces
+and clean it as often as necessary. Wipe the chimney at least once a
+day, and wash it whenever mere wiping fails to cleanse it. Some persons,
+owing to the dirty state of their chimneys, lose half the light which
+is produced. Keep dry fingers in trimming lamps. Renew the wicks before
+they get too short. They should never be allowed to burn shorter than
+an inch and a half.
+
+In regard to _shades_, which are always well to use, on lamps or
+gas, those made of glass or porcelain are now so cheap that we can
+recommend them as the best without any reservation. Plain shades,
+making the light soft and even, do not injure the eyes. Lamps should
+be lighted with a strip of folded or rolled paper, of which a quantity
+should be kept on the mantelpiece. Weak eyes should always be especially
+shaded from the lights. Small screens, made for the purpose, should
+be kept at hand. A person with weak eyes can use them safely much
+longer when they are protected from the glare of the light. Fill the
+entry-lamp every day, and cleanse and fill night-lanterns twice a week,
+if used often. A good night-lamp is made with a small one-wicked lamp
+and a roll of tin to set over it. Have some holes made in the bottom
+of this cover, and it can then be used to heat articles. Very cheap
+floating tapers can he bought to burn in a teacup of oil through the
+night.
+
+
+TO MAKE CANDLES.
+
+The nicest candles are those run in moulds. For this purpose, melt
+together one quarter of a pound of white wax, one quarter of an ounce
+of camphor, two ounces of alum, and ten ounces of suet or mutton-tallow.
+Soak the wicks in lime-water and saltpetre, and when dry, fix them in
+the moulds and pour in the melted tallow. Let them remain one night
+to cool; then warm them a little to loosen them, draw them out, and
+when they are hard, put them in a box in a dry and cool place.
+
+To make dipped candles, cut the wicks of the right length, double them
+over rods, and twist them. They should first be dipped in lime-water
+or vinegar, and dried. Melt the tallow in a large kettle, filling it
+to the top with hot water, when the tallow is melted. Put in wax and
+powdered alum, to harden them. Keep the tallow hot over a portable
+furnace, and fill the kettle with hot water as fast as the tallow is
+used up. Lay two long strips of narrow board on which to hang the rods;
+and set flat pans under, on the floor, to catch the grease. Take several
+rods at once, and wet the wicks in the tallow; straighten and smooth
+them when cool. Then dip them as fast as they cool, until they become
+of the proper size. Plunge them obliquely and not perpendicularly; and
+when the bottoms are too large, hold them in the hot grease till a
+part melts off. Let them remain one night to cool; then cut off the
+bottoms, and keep them in a dry, cool place. Cheap lights are made,
+by dipping rushes in tallow; the rushes being first stripped of nearly
+the whole of the hard outer covering and the pith alone being retained
+with just enough of the tough bark to keep it stiff.
+
+
+
+
+XXX.
+
+THE CARE OF ROOMS.
+
+
+It would be impossible in a work dealing, as this does, with general
+principles of house-keeping, to elaborate in full the multitudinous
+details which arise for attention and intelligent care. These will be
+more largely treated of in the book soon to be published for the present
+writer, (the senior authoress of this volume.) Yet, in the different
+departments of family labor, there are certain leading matters
+concerning which a few hints may be found useful in aiding the reader
+to carry into operation the instructions and ideas of the earlier
+chapters of this book, and in promoting the general comfort and
+convenience of families.
+
+And first, asking the reader to bear in mind that these suggestions
+are chiefly applicable to country homes, not within easy reach of all
+the conveniences which go under the name of "modern improvements," we
+will say a few words on the care of _Parlors_.
+
+In hanging pictures, put them so that the lower part shall be opposite
+the eye. Cleanse the glass of pictures with whiting, as water endangers
+the pictures. Gilt frames can be much better preserved by putting on
+a coat of copal varnish, which with proper brushes, can be bought of
+carriage or cabinet-makers. When dry, it can be washed with fair water.
+Wash the brush in spirits of turpentine.
+
+Curtains, ottomans, and sofas covered with worsted, can be cleansed
+with wheat bran, rubbed on with flannel. Shades of linen or cotton,
+on rollers and pulleys, are always useful to shut out the sun from
+curtains and carpets. Paper curtains, pasted on old cotton, are good
+for chambers. Put them on rollers, having cords nailed to them, so
+that when the curtain falls, the cord will be wound up. Then, by pulling
+the cord, the curtain will be rolled up.
+
+Varnished furniture should be rubbed only with silk, except
+occasionally, when a little sweet-oil should be rubbed over, and wiped
+off carefully. For unvarnished furniture, use bees-wax, a little
+softened with sweet-oil; rub it in with a hard brush, and polish with
+woolen and silk rags. Some persons rub in linseed-oil; others mix
+bees-wax with a little spirits of turpentine and rosin, making it so
+that it can be put on with a sponge, and wiped off with a soft rag.
+Others keep in a bottle the following mixture: two ounces of spirits
+of turpentine, four table-spoonfuls of sweet-oil, and one quart of
+milk. This is applied with a sponge, and wiped off with a linen rag.
+
+Hearths and jambs, of brick, look best painted over with black lead,
+mixed with soft-soap. Wash the bricks which are nearest the fire with
+redding and milk, using a painter's brush. A sheet of zinc, covering
+the whole hearth, is cheap, saves work, and looks very well. A tinman
+can fit it properly.
+
+Stone hearths should be rubbed with a paste of powdered stone, (to be
+procured of the stone-cutters,) and then brushed with a stiff brush.
+Kitchen hearths, of stone, are improved by rubbing in lamp-oil.
+
+Stains can be removed from marble, by oxalic acid and water, or oil
+of vitriol and water, left on a few minutes, and then rubbed dry. Gray
+marble is improved by linseed-oil. Grease can be taken from marble,
+by ox-gall and potter's clay wet with soapsuds, (a gill of each.) It
+is better to add, also, a gill of spirits of turpentine. It improves
+the looks of marble, to cover it with this mixture, leaving it two
+days, and then rubbing it off.
+
+Unless a parlor is in constant use, it is best to sweep it only once
+a week, and at other times use a whisk-broom and dust-pan. When a
+parlor with handsome furniture is to be swept, cover the sofas, centre
+table, piano, books, and mantelpiece with old cottons kept for the
+purpose. Remove the rugs and shake them, and clean the jambs, hearth,
+and fire-furniture. Then sweep the room, moving every article. Dust
+the furniture with a dust-brush and a piece of old silk. A painter's
+brush should be kept, to remove dust from ledges and crevices. The
+dust-cloths should be often shaken and washed, or else they will soil
+the walls and furniture when they are used. Dust ornaments and fine
+books with feather brushes, used for no other purpose.
+
+_Chambers and Bedrooms_ are of course a portion of the house to
+be sedulously and scrupulously attended to, if either health or comfort
+are aimed at in the family. And first, every mistress of a family
+should see, not only that all sleeping-rooms in her house _can be_
+well ventilated at night, but that they actually are so. Where there
+is no provision made for the introduction of pure air, in the
+construction of the house, and in the bedroom itself no open fire-place
+to allow the easy exit of foul air, a door should be left open into
+an entry or room where fresh air is admitted; or else a small opening
+should be made in a window, taking care not to allow a draught of air
+to cross the bed. The debility of childhood, the lassitude of domestics,
+and the ill-health of families, are often caused by neglecting to
+provide a supply of pure air.
+
+It is not deemed necessary to add much to the earlier chapters treating
+of bedroom conveniences; but one subject is of marked importance, as
+being characteristic of good or poor housekeeping--that is, the _making
+of beds_.
+
+Few servants will make a bed properly, without much attention from the
+mistress of the family; and every young woman who expects to have a
+household of her own to manage should be able to do it well herself,
+and to instruct others in doing it. The following directions should
+be given to those who do this work:
+
+Open the windows, and lay off the bed-covering on two chairs, at the
+foot of the bed. If it be a feather-bed, after it is well aired, shake
+the feathers from each corner to the middle; then take up the middle,
+shake it well, and turn the bed over. Then push the feathers in place,
+making the head higher than the foot, and the sides even, and as high
+as the middle part. A mattress, whether used on top of a feather-bed
+or by itself, should in like manner be well aired and turned. Then put
+on the bolster and the under sheet, so that the wrong side of the sheet
+shall go next the bed, and the _marking_ always come at the head,
+tucking in all around. Then put on the pillows, evenly, so that the
+open ends shall come to the sides of the bed, and spread on the upper
+sheet so that the wrong side shall be next the blankets, and the marked
+end always at the head. This arrangement of sheets is to prevent the
+part where the feet lie from being reversed, so as to come to the face;
+and also to prevent the parts soiled by the body from coming to the
+bedtick and blankets. Put on the other covering, except the outer one,
+tucking in all around, and then turn over the upper sheet at the head,
+so as to show a part of the pillows. When the pillow-cases are clean
+and smooth, they look best outside of the cover, but not otherwise.
+Then draw the hand along the side of the pillows, to make an even
+indentation, and then smooth and shape the whole outside. A nice
+housekeeper always notices the manner in which a bed is made; and in
+some parts of the country, it is rare to see this work properly
+performed.
+
+The writer would here urge every mistress of a family, who keeps more
+than one domestic servant, to provide them with single beds, that they
+might not be obliged to sleep with all the changing domestics, who
+come and go so often. Where the room is too small for two beds, a
+narrow truckle-bed kept under another during the day will answer.
+Domestics should be furnished with washing conveniences in their
+chambers, and be encouraged to keep their persons and rooms neat and
+in order.
+
+_The care of the Kitchen, Cellar, and Store-room is necessarily the
+foundation of all proper housekeeping._
+
+If parents wish their daughters to grow up with good domestic habits,
+they should have, as one means of securing this result, a neat and
+cheerful kitchen. A kitchen should always, if possible, be entirely
+above-ground, and well lighted. It should have a large sink, with a
+drain running under-ground, so that all the premises may be kept sweet
+and clean. If flowers and shrubs be cultivated around the doors and
+windows, and the yard near them be kept well turfed, it will add very
+much to their agreeable appearance. The walls should often be cleaned
+and white-washed, to promote a neat look and pure air. The floor of
+a kitchen should be painted, or, what is better, covered with an
+oilcloth. To procure a kitchen oilcloth as cheaply as possible, buy
+cheap tow cloth, and fit it to the size and shape of the kitchen. Then
+have it stretched, and nailed to the south side of the barn, and, with
+a brush, cover it with a coat of thin rye paste. When this is dry, put
+on a coat of yellow paint, and let it dry for a fortnight. It is safest
+to first try the paint, and see if it dries well, as some paint never
+will dry. Then put on a second coat, and at the end of another
+fortnight, a third coat. Then let it hang two months, and it will last,
+uninjured, for many years. The longer the paint is left to dry, the
+better. If varnished, it will last much longer.
+
+A sink should be scalded out every day, and occasionally with hot lye.
+On nails, over the sink, should be hung three good dish-cloths, hemmed,
+and furnished with loops; one for dishes not greasy, one for greasy
+dishes, and one for washing greasy pots and kettles. These should be
+put in the wash every week. The lady who insists upon this will not
+be annoyed by having her dishes washed with dark, musty and greasy
+rags, as is too frequently the case.
+
+Under the sink should be kept a slop-pail; and, on a shelf by it, a
+soap-dish and two water-pails. A large boiler of warm soft water should
+always be kept over the fire, well covered, and a hearth-broom and
+bellows be hung near the fire. A clock is a very important article in
+the kitchen, in order to secure regularity at meals.
+
+
+WASHING DISHES.
+
+No item of domestic labor is so frequently done in a negligent manner,
+by domestics, as this. A full supply of conveniences will do much
+toward the remedy of this evil. A swab, made of strips of linen tied
+to a stick, is useful to wash nice dishes, especially small, deep
+articles. Two or three towels, and three dish-cloths should be used.
+Two large tin tubs, painted on the outside, should be provided; one
+for washing, and one for rinsing; also, a large old waiter, on which
+to drain the dishes. A soap-dish, with hard soap, and a fork, with
+which to use it, a slop-pail, and two pails for water, should also be
+furnished. The following rules for washing dishes will aid in promoting
+the desired care and neatness:
+
+1. Scrape the dishes, putting away any food which may remain on them,
+and which it may be proper to save for future use. Put grease into the
+grease-pot, and whatever else may be on the plates into the slop-pail.
+Save tea-leaves for sweeping. Set all the dishes, when scraped, in
+regular piles, the smallest at the top.
+
+2. Put the nicest articles in the wash-dish, and wash them in hot suds
+with the swab or nicest dish-cloth. Wipe all metal articles as soon
+as they are washed. Put all the rest into the rinsing-dish, which
+should be filled with hot water. When they are taken out, lay them to
+drain on the waiter. Then rinse the dish-cloth, and hang it up, wipe
+the articles washed, and put them in their places.
+
+3. Pour in more hot water, wash the greasy dishes with the dish-cloth
+made for them, rinse them, and set them to drain. Wipe them, and set
+them away. Wash the knives and forks, _being careful that the handles
+are never put in water_; wipe them, and then lay them in a
+knife-dish, to be scoured.
+
+4. Take a fresh supply of clean suds, in which wash the milk-pans,
+buckets, and tins. Then rinse and hang up this dish-cloth, and take
+the other, with which, wash the roaster, gridiron, pots, and kettles.
+Then wash and rinse the dish-cloth, and hang it up. Empty the
+slop-bucket, and scald it. Dry metal teapots and tins before the fire.
+Then put the fire-place in order, and sweep and dust the kitchen.
+
+Some persons keep a deep and narrow vessel, in which to wash knives
+with a swab, so that a careless servant _can not_ lay them in the
+water while washing them. This article can be carried into the
+eating-room, to receive the knives and forks when they are taken from
+the table.
+
+
+KITCHEN FURNITURE.
+
+_Crockery_.--Brown earthen pans are said to be best for milk and
+for cooking. Tin pans are lighter, and more convenient, but are too
+cold for many purposes. Tall earthen jars, with covers, are good to
+hold butter, salt, lard, etc. Acids should never be put into the red
+earthen ware, as there is a poisonous ingredient in the glazing which
+the acid takes off. Stone ware is better and stronger, and safer every
+way than any other kind.
+
+_Iron Ware_.--Many kitchens are very imperfectly supplied with
+the requisite conveniences for cooking. When a person has sufficient
+means, the following articles are all desirable: A nest of iron pots,
+of different sizes, (they should be slowly heated when new,) a long
+iron fork, to take out articles from boiling water; an iron hook, with
+a handle, to lift pots from the crane; a large and small gridiron,
+with grooved bars, and a trench to catch the grease; a Dutch oven,
+called also a bake-pan; two skillets, of different sizes, and a spider,
+or flat skillet, for frying; a griddle, a waffle-iron, tin and iron
+bake and bread pans; two ladles, of different sizes; a skimmer; iron
+skewers; a toasting-iron; two teakettles, one small and one large
+one; two brass kettles, of different sizes, for soap-boiling, etc.
+Iron kettles, lined with porcelain, are better for preserves. The
+German are the best. Too hot a fire will crack them, but with care in
+this respect, they will last for many years.
+
+Portable charcoal furnaces, of iron or clay, are very useful in summer,
+in washing, ironing, and stewing, or making preserves. If used in the
+house, a strong draught must be made, to prevent the deleterious effects
+of the charcoal. A box and mill, for spice, pepper, and coffee, are
+needful to those who use these articles. Strong knives and forks, a
+sharp carving-knife, an iron cleaver and board, a fine saw, steelyards,
+chopping-tray and knife, an apple-parer, steel for sharpening knives,
+sugar-nippers, a dozen iron spoons, also a large iron one with a long
+handle, six or eight flat-irons, one of them very small, two
+iron-stands, a ruffle-iron, a crimping-iron, are also desirable.
+
+_Tin Ware_.--Bread-pans; large and small patty-pans; cake-pans,
+with a centre tube to insure their baking well; pie-dishes, (of
+block-tin;) a covered butter-kettle; covered kettles to hold berries;
+two sauce-pans; a large oil-can; (with a cock;) a lamp-filler; a
+lantern; broad bottomed candlesticks for the kitchen; a candle-box;
+a funnel; a reflector for baking warm cakes; an oven or tin-kitchen;
+an apple-corer; an apple-roaster; an egg-boiler; two sugar-scoops, and
+flour and meal-scoop; a set of mugs; three dippers; a pint, quart, and
+gallon measure; a set of scales and weights; three or four pails,
+painted on the outside; a slop-bucket with a tight cover, painted on
+the outside; a milk-strainer; a gravy-strainer; a colander; a
+dredging-box; a pepper-box; a large and small grater; a cheese-box;
+also a large box for cake, and a still larger one for bread, with tight
+covers. Bread, cake, and cheese, shut up in this way, will not grow
+dry as in the open air.
+
+_Wooden Ware_.--A nest of tubs; a set of pails and bowls; a large
+and small sieve; a beetle for mashing potatoes; a spade or stick for
+stirring butter and sugar; a bread-board, for moulding bread and making
+pie-crust; a coffee-stick; a clothes-stick; a mush-stick; a meat-beetle,
+to pound tough meat; an egg-beater; a ladle, for working butter; a
+bread-trough, (for a large family;) flour-buckets, with lids, to hold
+sifted flour and Indian meal; salt-boxes; sugar-boxes; starch and
+indigo-boxes; spice-boxes; a bosom-board; a skirt-board; a large
+ironing-board; two or three clothes-frames; and six dozen clothes-pins.
+
+_Basket Ware_.--Baskets of all sizes, for eggs, fruit, marketing,
+clothes, etc.; also chip-baskets. When often used, they should be
+washed in hot suds.
+
+_Other Articles_.--Every kitchen needs a box containing balls of
+brown thread and twine, a large and small darning needle, rolls of
+waste paper and old linen and cotton, and a supply of common holders.
+There should also be another box, containing a hammer, carpet-tacks,
+and nails of all sizes, a carpet-claw, screws and a screw-driver,
+pincers, gimlets of several sizes, a bed-screw, a small saw, two
+chisels, (one to use for button-holes in broadcloth,) two awls and two
+files.
+
+In a drawer or cupboard should be placed cotton table-cloths for kitchen
+use; nice crash towels for tumblers, marked T T; coarser towels for
+dishes marked T; six large roller-towels; a dozen hand-towels, marked
+H T; and a dozen hemmed dish-cloths with loops. Also two thick linen
+pudding or dumpling-cloths, a jelly-bag made of white flannel, to
+strain jelly, a starch-strainer, and a bag for boiling clothes.
+
+In a closet should be kept, arranged in order, the following articles:
+the dust-pan, dust-brush, and dusting-cloths, old flannel and cotton
+for scouring and rubbing, large sponges for washing windows and
+looking-glasses, a long brush for cobwebs, and another for washing the
+outside of windows, whisk-brooms, common brooms, a coat-broom or brush,
+a whitewash-brush, a stove-brush, shoe-brushes and blacking, articles
+for cleaning tin and silver, leather for cleaning metals, bottles
+containing stain-mixtures and other articles used in cleansing.
+
+
+CARE OF THE CELLAR.
+
+A cellar should often be whitewashed, to keep it sweet. It should have
+a drain to keep it perfectly dry, as standing water in a cellar is a
+sure cause of disease in a family. It is very dangerous to leave decayed
+vegetables in a cellar. Many a fever has been caused by the poisonous
+miasm thus generated. The following articles are desirable in a cellar:
+a safe, or movable closet, with sides of wire or perforated tin, in
+which cold meats, cream, and other articles should be kept; (if ants
+be troublesome, set the legs in tin cups of water;) a refrigerator,
+or a large wooden-box, on feet, with a lining of tin or zinc, and a
+space between the tin and wood filled with powdered charcoal, having
+at the bottom a place for ice, a drain to carry off the water, and
+also movable shelves and partitions. In this, articles are kept cool.
+It should be cleaned once a week. Filtering jars to purify water should
+also be kept in the cellar. Fish and cabbages in a cellar are apt to
+scent a house, and give a bad taste to other articles.
+
+
+STOREROOM.
+
+Every house needs a storeroom, in which to keep tea, coffee, sugar,
+rice, candles, etc. It should be furnished with jars, having labels,
+a large spoon, a fork, sugar and flour-scoops, a towel, and a
+dish-cloth.
+
+
+MODES OF DESTROYING INSECTS AND VERMIN.
+
+_Bed-bugs_ should be kept away, by filling every chink in the bedstead
+with putty, and if it be old, painting it over. Of all the mixtures for
+killing them, _corrosive sublimate and alcohol_ is the surest. This is a
+strong poison.
+
+_Cockroaches_ may be destroyed by pouring boiling water into their
+haunts, or setting a mixture of arsenic mixed with Indian meal and
+molasses where they are found. Chloride of lime and sweetened water
+will also poison them.
+
+_Fleas_.--If a dog be infected with these insects, put him in a
+tub of warm soapsuds, and they will rise to the surface. Take them
+off, and burn them. Strong perfumes about the person diminish their
+attacks. When caught between the fingers, plunge them in water, or
+they will escape.
+
+_Crickets_.--Scalding, and sprinkling Scotch snuff about the haunts of
+these insects, are remedies for the annoyance caused by them.
+
+_Flies_ can be killed in great quantities, by placing about the house
+vessels filled with sweetened water and _cobalt_. Six cents' worth of
+cobalt is enough for a pint of water. It is very poisonous.
+
+_Mosquitoes_.--Close nets around a bed are the only sure protection
+at night against these insects. Spirits of hartshorn is the best
+antidote for their bite. Salt and water is good.
+
+_Red or Black Ants_ may be driven away by scalding their haunts,
+and putting Scotch snuff wherever they go for food. Set the legs of
+closets and safes in pans of water, and they can not get at them.
+
+_Moths_.--Airing clothes does not destroy moths, but laying them
+in a hot sun does. If articles be tightly sewed up in linen when laid
+away, and fine tobacco put about them, it is a sure protection. This
+should be done in April.
+
+_Rats and Mice_.--A good cat is the best remedy for these annoyances.
+Equal quantities of hemlock (or _cicuta_) and old cheese will poison
+them; but this renders the house liable to the inconvenience of a bad
+smell. This evil, however, may be lessened, by placing a dish containing
+oil of vitriol poured on saltpetre where the smell is most annoying.
+Chloride of lime and water is also good.
+
+In using any of the above-mentioned poisons, great care should be taken
+to guard against their getting into any article of food or any utensil
+or vessel used for cooking or keeping food, or where children can get
+at them.
+
+
+
+
+XXXI.
+
+THE CARE OF YARDS AND GARDENS.
+
+
+First, let us say a few words on the _Preparation of Soil_. If
+the garden soil be clayey and adhesive, put on a covering of sand,
+three inches thick, and the same depth of well-rotted manure. Spade
+it in as deep as possible, and mix it well. If the soil be sandy and
+loose, spade in clay and ashes. Ashes are good for all kinds of soil,
+as they loosen those which are close, hold moisture in those which are
+sandy, and destroy insects. The best kind of soil is that which will
+hold water the longest without becoming hard when dry.
+
+_To prepare Soil for Pot-plants_, take one fourth part of common
+soil, one fourth part of well-decayed manure, and one half of vegetable
+mould, from the woods or from a chip-yard. Break up the manure fine,
+and sift it through a lime-screen, (or coarse wire sieve.) These
+materials must be thoroughly mixed. When the common soil which is used
+is adhesive, and indeed in most other cases, it is necessary to add
+sand, the proportion of which must depend on the nature of the soil.
+
+_To Prepare a Hot-Bed_, dig a pit six feet long, five feet wide,
+and thirty inches deep. Make a frame of the same size, with the back
+two feet high, the front fifteen inches, and the sides sloped from the
+back to the front. Make two sashes, each three feet by five, with the
+panes of glass lapping like shingles instead of having cross-bars. Set
+the frame over the pit, which should then be filled with fresh
+horse-dung, which has not lain long nor been sodden by water. Tread
+it down hard; then put into the frame light and very rich soil, six
+or eight inches deep, and cover it with the sashes for two or three
+days. Then stir the soil, and sow the seeds in shallow drills, placing
+sticks by them, to mark the different kinds. Keep the frame covered
+with the glass whenever it is cold enough to chill the plants; but at
+all other times admit fresh air, which is indispensable to their health.
+When the sun is quite warm, raise the glasses enough to admit air, and
+cover them with matting or blankets, or else the sun may kill the young
+plants. Water the bed at evening with water which has stood all day,
+or, if it be fresh drawn, add a little warm water. If there be too
+much heat in the bed, so as to scorch or wither the plants, lift the
+sashes, water freely, shade by day; make deep holes with stakes, and
+fill them up when the heat is reduced. In very cold nights, cover the
+sashes and frame with straw-mats.
+
+_For Planting Flower Seeds_.--Break up the soil, till it is very
+soft, and free from lumps. Rub that nearest the surface between the
+hands, to make it fine. Make a circular drill a foot in diameter. Seeds
+are to be planted either deeper or nearer the surface, according to
+their size. For seeds as large as sweet peas, the drill should be half
+an inch deep. The smallest seeds must be planted very near the surface,
+and a very little fine earth be sifted over them. After covering them
+with soil, beat them down with a trowel, so as to make the earth as
+compact as it is after a heavy shower. Set up a stick in the middle
+of the circle, with the name of the plant heavily written upon it with
+a dark lead pencil. This remains more permanent if white-lead be first
+rubbed over the surface. Never plant when the soil is very wet. In
+very dry times, water the seeds at night. Never use very cold water.
+When the seeds are small, many should be planted together, that they
+may assist each other in breaking the soil. When the plants are an
+inch high, thin them out, leaving only one or two, if the plant be a
+large one, like the balsam; five or six, when it is of a medium size;
+and eighteen or twenty of the smaller size. Transplanting, unless the
+plant be lifted with a ball of earth, retards the growth about a
+fortnight. It is best to plant at two different times, lest the first
+planting should fail, owing to wet or cold weather.
+
+_To plant Garden-Seeds_, make the beds from one to three yards
+wide; lay across them a board a foot wide, and with a stick, make a
+furrow on each side of it, one inch deep. Scatter the seeds in this
+furrow, and cover them. Then lay the board over them, and step on it,
+to press down the earth. When the plants are an inch high, thin them
+out, leaving spaces proportioned to their sizes. Seeds of similar
+species, such as melons and squashes, should not be planted very near
+to each other, as this causes them to degenerate. The same kinds of
+vegetables should not be planted in the same place for two years in
+succession. The longer the rows are, the easier is the after culture.
+
+_Transplanting_ should be done at evening, or which is better,
+just before a shower. Take a round stick sharpened at the point, and
+make openings to receive the plants. Set them a very little deeper
+than they were before, and press the soil firmly round them. Then water
+them, and cover them for three or four days, taking care that sufficient
+air be admitted. If the plant can be removed without disturbing the
+soil around the root, it will not be at all retarded by transplanting.
+Never remove leaves and branches, unless a part of the roots be lost.
+
+_To Re-pot House-Plants, renew the soil every year, soon after the
+time of blossoming. Prepare soil as previously directed. Loosen the
+earth from the pot by passing a knife around the skies. Turn the plant
+upside down, and remove the pot. Then remove all the matted fibres at
+the bottom, and all the earth, except that which adheres to the roots.
+From woody plants, like roses, shake off all the earth. Take the new
+pot, and put a piece of broken earthen-ware over the hole at the bottom,
+and then, holding the plant in the proper position, shake in the earth
+around it. Then pour in water to settle the earth, and heap on fresh
+soil, till the pot is even full. Small pots are considered better than
+large ones, as the roots are not so likely to rot, from excess of
+moisture.
+
+_In the Laying out of Yards and Gardens_, there is room for much
+judgment and taste. In planting trees in a yard, they should be arranged
+in groups, and never planted in straight lines, nor sprinkled about
+as solitary trees. The object of this arrangement is to imitate Nature,
+and secure some spots of dense shade and some of clear turf. In yards
+which are covered with turf, beds can be cut out of it, and raised for
+flowers. A trench should be made around, to prevent the grass from
+running on them. These beds can be made in the shape of crescents,
+ovals, or other fanciful forms.
+
+In laying out beds in gardens and yards, a very pretty bordering can
+be made, by planting them with common flax-seed, in a line about three
+inches from the edge. This can be trimmed with shears, when it grows
+too high.
+
+_For Transplanting Trees_, the autumn is the best time. Take as much of
+the root as possible, especially the little fibres, which should never
+become dry. If kept long before they are set out, put wet moss around
+them and water them. Dig holes larger than the extent of the roots; let
+one person hold the tree in its former position, and another place the
+roots carefully as they were before, cutting off any broken or wounded
+root. _Be careful not to let the tree be more than an inch deeper them
+it was before_. Let the soil be soft and well manured; shake the tree as
+the soil is shaken in, that it may mix well among the small fibres. Do
+not tread the earth down, while filling the hole; but, when it is full,
+raise a slight mound of say four inches deep around the stem to hold
+water, and fill it. Never cut off leaves nor branches, unless some of
+the roots are lost. Tie the trees to a stake, and they will be more
+likely to live. Water them often.
+
+_The Care of House-Plants_ is a matter of daily attention, and well
+repays all labor expended upon it. The soil of house-plants should be
+renewed every year as previously directed. In winter, they should be
+kept as dry as they can be without wilting. Many house-plants are
+injured by giving them too much water, when they have little light
+and fresh air. This makes them grow spindling. The more fresh air,
+warmth and light they have, the more water is needed. They ought not
+to be kept very warm in winter, nor exposed to great changes of
+atmosphere. Forty degrees is a proper temperature for plants in winter,
+when they have little sun and air. When plants have become spindling,
+cut off their heads entirely, and cover the pot in the earth, where
+it has the morning sun only. A new and flourishing head will spring
+out. Few houseplants can bear the sun at noon. When insects infest
+plants, set them in a closet or under a barrel, and burn tobacco under
+them. The smoke kills any insect enveloped in it. When plants are
+frozen, cold water and a gradual restoration of warmth are the best
+remedies. Never use very cold water for plants at any season.
+
+
+
+
+XXXII.
+
+THE PROPAGATION OF PLANTS.
+
+This is an occupation requiring much attention and constant care.
+Bulbous roots are propagated by offsets; some growing on the top,
+others around the sides. Many plants are propagated by cutting off
+twigs, and setting them in earth, so that two or three eyes are covered.
+To do this, select a side shoot, ten inches long, two inches of it
+being of the preceding year's growth, and the rest the growth of the
+season when it is set. Do this when the sap is running, and put a piece
+of crockery at the bottom of the shoot, when it is buried. One eye,
+at least, must be under the soil. Water it and shade it in hot weather.
+
+Plants are also propagated by layers. To do this, take a shoot which
+comes up near the root, bend it down so as to bring several eyes under
+the soil, leaving the top above-ground. If the shoot be cut half
+through, in a slanting direction, at one of these eyes, before burying
+it, the result is more certain. Roses, honeysuckles, and many other
+shrubs are readily propagated thus. They will generally take root by
+being simply buried; but cutting them as here directed is the best
+method. Layers are more certain than cuttings.
+
+_Budding and Grafting_, for all woody plants, are favorite methods
+of propagation. In all such plants, there is an outer and inner bark,
+the latter containing the sap vessels, in which the nourishment of the
+tree ascends. The success of grafting or inoculating consists in so
+placing the bud or graft that the sap vessels of the inner bark shall
+exactly join those of the plant into which they are grafted; so that
+the sap may pass from one into the other.
+
+The following are directions for _budding_, which may be performed
+at any time from July to September:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64]
+
+Select a smooth place on the stock into which you are to insert the
+bud. Make a horizontal cut across the rind through to the firm wood;
+and from the middle of this, make a slit downward perpendicularly, an
+inch or more long, through to the wood. Raise the bark of the stock
+on each side of the perpendicular cut, for the admission of the bud,
+as is shown in the annexed engraving, (Fig. 64.) Then take a shoot of
+this year's growth, and slice from it a bud, taking an inch below and
+an inch above it, and some portion of the wood under it. Then, carefully
+slip off the woody part under the bud. Examine whether the eye or germ
+of the bud be perfect. If a little hole appear in that part, the bud
+has lost its root, and another must be selected. Insert the bud, so
+that _a_, of the bud, shall pass to a, of the stock; then _b_,
+of the bud, must be cut off, to match the cut b, in the stock, and
+fitted exactly to it, as it is this alone which insures success. Bind
+the parts with fresh bass or woolen yarn, beginning a little below the
+bottom, of the perpendicular slit, and winding it closely around every
+part, except just over the eye of the bud, until you arrive above the
+horizontal cut. Do not bind it too tightly, but just sufficient to
+exclude air, sun, and wet. This is to be removed after the bud is
+firmly fixed, and begins to grow.
+
+Seed-fruit can be budded into any other seed-fruit, and stone-fruit
+into any other stone-fruit; but stone and seed-fruits can not be thus
+mingled.
+
+Rose-bushes can have a variety of kinds budded into the same stock.
+Hardy roots are the best stocks. The branch above the bud must be cut
+off the next March or April after the bud is put in. Apples and pears
+are more easily propagated by ingrafting than by budding.
+
+_Ingrafting_ is a similar process to budding, with this advantage,
+that it can be performed on large trees, whereas budding can be applied
+only on small ones. The two common kinds of ingrafting are whip-grafting
+and split-grafting. The first kind is for young trees, and the other
+for large ones.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65.]
+
+The time for ingrafting is from May to October. The cuttings must be
+taken from horizontal shoots, between Christmas and March, and kept
+in a damp cellar. In performing the operation, cut off in a sloping
+direction (as seen in Fig. 65) the tree or limb to be grafted. Then
+cut off in a corresponding slant the slip to be grafted on. Then put
+them together, so that the inner bark of each shall match exactly on
+one side, and tie them firmly together with yellow yarn. It is not
+essential that both be of equal size; if the bark of each meet together
+exactly on _one_ side, it answers the purpose. But the two must
+not differ much in size. The slope should be an inch and a half, or
+more, in length. After they are tied together, the place should be
+covered with a salve or composition of bees-wax and rosin. A mixture
+of clay and cow-dung will answer the same purpose. This last must be
+tied on with a cloth. Grafting is more convenient than budding, as
+grafts can be sent from a great distance; whereas buds must be taken,
+in July or August, from a shoot of the present year's growth, and can
+not be sent to any great distance.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66]
+
+This engraving (Fig. 66) exhibits the mode called stock-grafting;
+_a_ being the limb of a large tree, which is sawed off and split,
+and is to be held open by a small wedge till the grafts are put in.
+A graft inserted in the limb is shown at _b_, and at _c_ is one not
+inserted, but designed to be put in at _d_, as two grafts can be put
+into a large stock. In inserting the graft, be careful to make the edge
+of the inner bark of the graft meet exactly the edge of the inner bark
+of the stock; for on this success depends. After the grafts are put in,
+the wedge must be withdrawn, and the whole of the stock be covered with
+the thick salve or composition before mentioned, reaching from where the
+grafts are inserted to the bottom of the slit. Be careful not to knock
+or move the grafts after they are put in.
+
+_Pruning_ is an operation of constant exercise, for keeping plants
+and trees in good condition. The following rules are from a
+distinguished horticulturist: Prune off all dead wood, and all the
+little twigs on the main limbs. Retrench branches, so as to give light
+and ventilation to the interior of the tree. Cut out the straight and
+perpendicular shoots, which give little or no fruit; while those which
+are most nearly horizontal, and somewhat curving, give fruit abundantly
+and of good quality, and should be sustained. Superfluous and ill-placed
+buds may be rubbed off at any time; and no buds pushing out after
+midsummer should be spared. In choosing between shoots to be retained,
+preserve the lowest placed, and on lateral shoots, those which are
+nearest the origin. When branches cross each other so as to rub, remove
+one or the other. Remove all suckers from the roots of trees or shrubs.
+Prune after the sap is in full circulation, (except in the case of
+grapes,) as the wounds then heal best. Some think it best to prune
+before the sap begins to run. Pruning-shears, and a pruning-pole, with
+a chisel at the end, can be procured of those who deal in agricultural
+utensils.
+
+_Thinning_ is also an important but very delicate operation. As
+it is the office of the leaves to absorb nourishment from the
+atmosphere, they should never be removed, except to mature the wood
+or fruit. In doing this, remove such leaves as shade the fruit, as
+soon as it is ready to ripen. To do it earlier impairs the growth. Do
+it gradually at two different times. Thinning the fruit is important,
+as tending to increase its size and flavor, and also to promote the
+longevity of the tree. If the fruit be thickly set, take off one half
+at the time of setting. Revise in June, and then in July, taking off
+all that may be spared. One _very large_ apple to every square
+foot is a rule that may be a sort of guide in other cases. According
+to this, two hundred large apples would be allowed to a tree whose
+extent is fifteen feet by twelve. If any person think this thinning
+excessive, let him try two similar trees, and thin one as directed and
+leave the other unthinned. It will be found that the thinned tree will
+produce an equal weight, and fruit of much finer flavor.
+
+
+
+
+XXXIII.
+
+THE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT.
+
+
+By a little attention to this matter, a lady with the help of her
+children can obtain a rich abundance of all kinds of fruit. The writer
+has resided in families where little boys of eight, ten, and twelve
+years old amused themselves, under the direction of their mother, in
+planting walnuts, chestnuts, and hazelnuts, for future time; as well
+as in planting and inoculating young fruit-trees of all descriptions.
+A mother who will take pains to inspire a love for such pursuits in
+her children, and who will aid and superintend them, will save them
+from many temptations, and at a trifling expense secure to them and
+herself a rich reward in the choicest fruits. The information given
+in this work on this subject may be relied on as sanctioned by the
+most experienced nursery-men.
+
+The soil for a nursery should be rich, well dug, dressed with
+well-decayed manure, free from weeds, and protected from cold winds.
+Fruit-seeds should be planted in the autumn, an inch and a half or two
+inches deep, in ridges four or five feet apart, pressing the earth
+firmly over the seeds. While growing, they should be thinned out,
+leaving the best ones a foot and a half apart. The soil should be kept
+loose, soft, and free from weeds. They should be inoculated or ingrafted
+when of the size of a pipe stem; and in a year after this may be
+transplanted to their permanent stand. Peach-trees sometimes bear in
+two years from budding, and in four years from planting if well kept.
+
+In a year after transplanting, take pains to train the head aright.
+Straight upright branches produce _gourmands_, or twigs bearing
+only leaves. The side branches which are angular or curved yield the
+most fruit. For this reason, the limbs should be trained in curves,
+and perpendicular twigs should be cut off if there be need of pruning.
+The last of June is the time for this. Grass should never be allowed
+to grow within four feet of a large tree, and the soil should be kept
+loose to admit air to the roots. Trees in orchards should be twenty-five
+feet apart. The soil _under_ the top soil has much to do with the
+health of the trees. If it be what is called _hard-pan_, the trees
+will deteriorate. Trees need to be manured and to have the soil kept
+open and free from weeds.
+
+_Filberts_ can be raised in any part of this country.
+
+_Figs_ can be raised in the Middle, Western, and Southern States.
+For this purpose, in the autumn loosen the roots on one side, and bend
+the tree down to the earth on the other; then cover it with a mound
+of straw, earth, and boards, and early in the spring raise it up and
+cover the roots.
+
+_Currants_ grow well in any but a wet soil. They are propagated
+by cuttings. The old wood should be thinned in the fall and manure be
+put on. They can be trained into small trees.
+
+_Gooseberries_ are propagated by layers and cuttings. They are
+best when kept from suckers and trained like trees. One third of the
+old wood should be removed every autumn.
+
+_Raspberries_ do best when shaded during a part of the day. They
+are propagated by layers, slips, and suckers. There is one kind which
+bears monthly; but the varieties of this and all other fruits are now
+so numerous that we can easily find those which are adapted to the
+special circumstances of the case.
+
+_Strawberries_ require a light soil and vegetable manure. They should be
+transplanted in April or September, and be set eight inches apart, in
+rows nine inches asunder, and in beds which are two feet wide, with
+narrow alleys between them. A part of these plants are _non-bearers_.
+These have large flowers with showy stamens and high black anthers. The
+_bearers_ have short stamens, a great number of pistils, and the flowers
+are every way less showy. In blossom-time, pull out all the non-bearers.
+Some think it best to leave one non-bearer to every twelve bearers, and
+others pull them all out. Many beds never produce any fruit, because all
+the plants in them are non-bearers. Weeds should be kept from the vines.
+When the vines are matted with young plants, the best way is to dig over
+the beds in cross lines, so as to leave some of the plants standing in
+little squares, while the rest are turned under the soil. This should be
+done over a second time in the same year.
+
+_To Raise Grapes_, manure the soil, and keep it soft and free
+from weeds. A gravelly or sandy soil, and a south exposure are best.
+Transplant the vines in the early spring, or better in the fall. Prune
+them the first year so as to have only two main branches, taking off
+all other shoots as fast as they come. In November, cut off all of
+these two branches except four eyes. The second year, in the spring,
+loosen the earth around the roots, and allow only two branches to grow,
+and every month take off all side shoots. When they are very strong,
+preserve only a part, and cut off the rest in the fall. In November,
+cut off all the two main stems except eight eyes. After the second
+year, no more pruning is needed, except to reduce the side shoots, for
+the purpose of increasing the fruit. All the pruning of grapes (except
+nipping side shoots) must be done when the sap is not running, or they
+will bleed to death. Train, them on poles, or lattices, to expose them
+to the air and sun. Cover tender vines in the autumn. Grapes are
+propagated by cuttings, layers, and seeds. For cuttings, select in the
+autumn well-ripened wood of the former year, and take fire joints for
+each. Bury them till April; then soak them for some hours, and set
+them out _aslant_, so that all the eyes but one shall be covered.
+
+Apples, grapes, and such like fruit can be preserved in their natural
+state by packing them when dry and solid in dry sand or saw-dust,
+putting alternate layers of fruit and cotton, saw-dust or sand. Some
+saw-dust gives a bad flavor to the fruit.
+
+_Modes of Preserving Fruit-Trees_.--Heaps of ashes or tanner's bark
+around peach-trees prevent the attack of the worm. The _yellows_ is a
+disease of peach-trees, which is spread by the pollen of the blossom.
+When a tree begins to turn yellow, take it away with all its roots,
+before it blossoms again, or it will infect other trees. Planting tansy
+around the roots of fruit-trees is a sure protection against worms, as
+it prevents the moth from depositing her egg. Equal quantities of salt
+and saltpetre, put around the trunk of a peach-tree, half a pound to a
+tree, improve the size and flavor of the fruit. Apply this about the
+first of April; and if any trees have worms already in them, put on half
+the quantity in addition in June. To young trees just set out, apply one
+ounce in April, and another in June, close to the stem. Sandy soil is
+best for peaches.
+
+Apple-trees are preserved from insects by a wash of strong lye to the
+body and limbs, which, if old, should be first scraped. Caterpillars
+should be removed by cutting down their nests in a damp day. Boring
+a hole in a tree infested with worms, and filling it with sulphur,
+will often drive them off immediately.
+
+The _fire-blight_, or _brulure_ in pear-trees can be stopped by cutting
+off all the blighted branches. It is supposed by some to be owing to an
+excess of sap, which is remedied by diminishing the roots.
+
+The _curculio_, which destroys plums and other stone-fruit, can be
+checked only by gathering up all the fruit that falls, (which contains
+their eggs,) and destroying it. The _canker-worm_ can be checked by
+applying a bandage around the body of the tree, and every evening
+smearing it with fresh tar.
+
+
+
+
+XXXIV.
+
+THE CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
+
+
+One of the most interesting illustrations of the design of our
+benevolent Creator in establishing the family state is the nature of
+the domestic animals connected with it. At the very dawn of life, the
+infant watches with delight the graceful gambols of the kitten, and
+soon makes it a playmate. Meantime, its out-cries when hurt appeal to
+kindly sympathy, and its sharp claws to fear; while the child's mother
+has a constant opportunity to inculcate kindness and care for weak and
+ignorant creatures. Then the dog becomes the out-door playmate and
+guardian of early childhood, and he also guards himself by cries of
+pain, and protects himself by his teeth. At the same time, his faithful
+loving nature and caresses awaken corresponding tenderness and care;
+while the parent again has a daily opportunity to inculcate these
+virtues toward the helpless and dependent. As the child increases in
+knowledge and reason, the horse, cows, poultry, and other domestic
+animals come under his notice. These do not ordinarily express their
+hunger or other sufferings by cries of distress, but depend more on
+the developed reason and humanity of man. And here the parent is called
+upon to instruct a child in the nature and wants of each, that he may
+intelligently provide for their sustenance and for their protection
+from injury and disease.
+
+To assist in this important duty of home life, which so often falls
+to the supervision of woman, the following information is prepared
+through the kindness of one of the editors of a prominent, widely
+known, agricultural paper.
+
+Domestic animals are very apt to catch the spirit and temper of their
+masters. A surly man will be very likely to have a cross dog and a
+biting horse. A passionate man will keep all his animals in moral fear
+of him, making them, snappish, and liable to hurt those of whom they
+are not afraid.
+
+It is, therefore, most important that all animals should be treated
+uniformly with kindness. They are all capable of returning affection,
+and will show it very pleasantly if we manifest affection for them.
+They also have intuitive perceptions of our emotions which we can not
+conceal. A sharp, ugly dog will rarely bite a person who has no fear
+of him. A horse knows the moment a man mounts or takes the reins whether
+he is afraid or not; and so it is with other animals.
+
+If live stock can not be well fed, they ought not to be kept. One well
+wintered horse is worth as much, as two that drag through on straw,
+and by browsing the hedgerows. The same is true of oxen, and
+emphatically so of cows. The owner of a half-starved dog loses the use
+of him almost altogether; for, at the very time--the night--when lie
+is most needed as a guard, he must be off scouring the country for
+food.
+
+_Shelter_ in winter is most important for cows. They should have
+good tight stables or byres, well ventilated, and so warm that water
+in a pail will only freeze a little on the top the severest nights.
+Oxen should have the same stabling, though they bear cold better.
+Horses in stables will bear almost any degree of cold, if they have
+all they can eat. Sheep, except young lambs, are well enough sheltered
+in dry sheds, with one end open. Cattle, sheep, and dogs do not sweat
+as horses do, they "loll;" that is, water or slobber runs from their
+tongues; hence, they are not liable to take cold as the horse is. Hogs
+bear cold pretty well; but they eat enough to convince any one that
+true economy lies in giving them warm sties in winter, for the colder
+they are the more they eat. Fowls will not lay in cold weather unless
+they have light and warm quarters.
+
+_Cleanliness_ is indispensable, if one would keep his animals healthy.
+In their wild state all our domestic animals are very clean, and, at the
+same time, very healthy. The hog is not naturally a dirty animal, but
+quite the reverse. He enjoys currying as much as a horse or a cow, and
+would be as careful of his litter as a cat if he had a fair chance.
+Horses ought to be groomed daily; cows and oxen as often as twice a
+week; dogs should be washed with soapsuds frequently. Stables should be
+cleaned out daily. Absorbents of liquid in stables should be removed as
+often as they become wet. Dry earth is one of the best absorbents, and
+is especially useful in the fowl-house. Hogs in pens should have straw
+for their rests or lairs, and it should be often renewed.
+
+_Parasitic Vermin_.--These are lice, fleas, ticks, the scale insects,
+and other pests which afflict our live stock. There are many ways of
+destroying them; the best and safest is a free use of _carbolic acid
+soap_. The larger animals, as well as hogs, dogs, and sheep may be
+washed in strong suds of this soap, without fear, and the application
+repeated after a week. This generally destroys both the creatures and
+their eggs. Hen lice are best destroyed by greasing the fowls, and
+dusting them with flowers of sulphur. Sitting hens must never be
+greased, but the sulphur may be dusted freely in their nests,
+and it is well to put it in all hens' nests.
+
+_Salt and Water_.--All animals except poultry require salt, and all,
+free supplies of fresh water.
+
+_Light_.--Stables, or places where any kind of animals are confined,
+should have plenty of light. Windows are not more important in a house
+than in a barn. The _sun_ should come in freely; and if it shines
+directly upon the stock, all the better. When beeves and sheep are
+fattening very rapidly, the exclusion of the light makes them more
+quiet, and fatten faster; but their state is an unnatural and hardly a
+healthy one.
+
+_Exercise_ in the open air is important for breeding animals. It
+is especially necessary for horses of all kinds. Cows need very little
+and swine none, unless kept for breeding.
+
+_Breeding_,--Always use thorough-bred males, and improvement is certain.
+
+_Horses_.--The care which horses require varies with the circumstances
+in which the owner is placed, and the uses to which they are put. In
+general, if kept stabled, they should be fed with good upland hay,
+almost as much as they will eat; and if absent from the stable, and at
+work most of the day, they should have all they will eat of hay,
+together with four to eight quarts of oats or an equal weight of other
+grain or meal. Barley is good for horses, and so is dry corn. Corn-meal
+put upon cut hay, wet and well-mixed, is good, steady feed, if not in
+too large quantities. Four quarts a day may be fed unmixed with other
+grain; but if the horse be hard worked and needs more, mix the meal with
+wheat bran, or linseed oil-cake meal, or use corn and oats ground
+together; carrots are especially wholesome. A quart of linseed oil-cake
+meal, daily, is an excellent occasional addition to a horse's food, when
+carrots can not be had. It gives a lustre to his coat, and brings the
+new coat of hair out in the spring. A stabled horse needs daily
+exercise, as much as to trot three miles. Where a horse is traveling, it
+is well to give him six quarts of oats in the morning, four at noon, and
+six at night.
+
+Thorough grooming is indispensable to the health of horses. Especial
+care should be taken of the legs and fetlocks, that no dirt remain to
+cause that distressing disease, _grease_ or _scratches_, which results
+from filthy fetlocks and standing in dirty stables. When a horse comes
+in from work on muddy roads with dirty legs, they should be immediately
+cleaned, the dirt brushed off, then rubbed with straw; then, if very
+dirty, washed clean and rubbed dry with a piece of sacking. A horse
+should never stand in a draught of cold air, if he can not turn and put
+his back to it. If sweaty or warm from work, he should be blanketed, if
+he is to stand a minute in the winter air. If put at once into the
+stable, he should be stripped and rubbed down with straw actively for
+five minutes or more, and then blanketed. The blanket must be removed in
+an hour, and the horse given water and feed, if it is the usual time. It
+will not hurt him to eat hay when hot, unless he be thoroughly
+exhausted, when all food should be withheld for a while.
+
+It is very comforting to a tired horse, when he is too hot to drink,
+to sponge out his mouth with cool water. A horse should never drink
+when very hot, nor be turned into a yard to "cool off," even in summer,
+neither should he be turned out to pasture before he is quite cool.
+
+_Cows_.--Gentle but firm treatment will make a cow easy to milk
+and to handle in every way. If stabled or yarded, cows should have
+access to water at all times, or have it frequently offered to them.
+Clover hay is probably the best steady food for milk cows. Cornstalks
+cut up, thoroughly soaked with water for half a day, and then sprinkled
+with corn or oil-cake meal is perhaps unsurpassed as good winter food
+for milk cows. The amount of meal may vary. With plenty of oil-meal,
+there is little danger of feeding too much, as that is loosening to
+the bowels and a safe nutritious article. Corn-meal alone, in large
+quantities, is too heating. Roots should, if possible, form part of
+the diet of a milch cow, especially before and soon after calving;
+feed well before this period, yet not to make the cow very fat; but
+it is better to err in that way than to have her "come in" thin. Take
+the calf away from the mother as soon as it stands tip, and the
+separation will worry neither dam nor young. This is always best,
+unless the calf is to be kept with the cow. The calf will soon learn
+to drink its food, if two fingers be held in its mouth. Let it have
+all the first drawn milk for three days as soon as milked; after this,
+skimmed milk warmed to blood heat. Soon a little fine scalded meal may
+be mixed with the milk; and it will, at three to five weeks old, nibble
+hay and grass. It is well also to keep a box containing some dry
+wheat-bran and fine corn-meal mixed in the calf-pen, so that calves
+may take as much as they like.
+
+In milking, put the fingers around the teat close to the bag; then
+firmly close the forefingers of each hand alternately, immediately
+squeezing with the other fingers. The forefingers prevent the milk
+flowing back into the bag, while the others press it out. Sit with the
+left knee close to the right hind leg of the cow, the head pressed
+against her flank, the left hand always ready to ward off a blow from
+her feet, which the gentlest cow may give almost without knowing it,
+if her tender teats be cut by long nails, or if a wart be hurt, or her
+bag be tender. She must be stripped dry every time she is milked, or
+she will dry up; and if she gives much milk, it pays to milk three
+times a day, as nearly eight hours apart as possible. Never stop while
+milking till done, as this will cause the cow to stop giving milk.
+
+To tether a cow, tie her by one hind leg, making the rope fast above
+the fetlock joint, and protecting the limb with a piece of an old
+bootleg or similar thing. The knot must be one that will not slip;
+regular fetters of iron bound with leather are much better.
+
+A cow should go unmilked two months before calving, and her milk should
+not be used by the family till four days after that time.
+
+_Swine_.--The filthy state of hog-pens is allowed on account of
+the amount of manure they will make by working over all sorts of
+vegetable matter, spoiled hay, weeds, etc., etc. This is unhealthy for
+the family near and also for the animal. The hog is, naturally, a
+cleanly animal, and if given a chance he will keep himself very neat
+and clean. Breeding sows should have the range of a small pasture, and
+be regularly fed. They need fresh water constantly, and often suffer
+for lack of it when they have liquid swill, which they do not like to
+drink. All hogs should have a warm, dry, well-littered pen to lie in,
+away from flies and disturbance of any kind. They are fond of charcoal,
+and it is worth while frequently to throw a few handfuls where they
+can get at it. It has a very beneficial effect on the appetite,
+regulates the tone of the stomach and digestive organs, and can not
+do any harm. Pigs ought always to be well fed and kept growing fast;
+and when being fattened, they should be penned always, the herd being
+sorted so that all may have an equal chance. It is well to feed soft
+corn in the ear; but hard corn should always be ground and cooked for
+pigs.
+
+_Sheep_.--In the winter, sheep need deep, well-littered, dry
+sheds, dry yards, and hay, wheat, or oat straw, as much as they will
+eat. They should be kept gaining by grain regularly fed to them, and
+so distributed that each gets its share. Corn, either whole or ground,
+or oil-cake meal, or both, are used for fattening sheep. They will
+easily surfeit themselves on any grain except oil-meal, which is very
+safe feed for them, and usually economical. Strong sheep will often
+drive the weaker ones away, and so get more than their share of food
+and make themselves sick. This must be guarded against, and the flock
+sorted, keeping the weaker and stronger apart.
+
+Sheep are very useful in clearing land of brush and certain weeds,
+which they gnaw down, and kill. To accomplish this, the land must be
+overstocked, and it is best not to keep sheep on short pasturage more
+than a few weeks at a time; but if they are returned after a few days,
+it will serve as good a purpose as if they were to be kept on all the
+time. Sheep at pasture must be restrained by good fences, or they will
+be a great nuisance. Dog-proof hedge fences of Osage orange are to
+be highly recommended, wherever this plant will grow. Mutton sheep
+will generally pay better to raise than merinos, but they need more
+care.
+
+_Poultry_.--Few objects of labor are more remunerative than poultry,
+raised on a moderate scale. _Turkeys_, when young, need great care; some
+animal food, dry, warm quarters, and must be kept out of the wet grass,
+and kept in when it rains. As soon as fledged, they become very hardy,
+and, with free range, will almost take care of themselves. _Geese_ need
+water and good grass pasture. _Ducks_ do very well without water to swim
+in, if they have all they need to drink. They will lay a great many eggs
+if kept shut in a pen until say eight o'clock in the morning. If let out
+earlier, they wander away, and will hide their nests, and lay only about
+as many eggs as they can cover. It is best to set duck's eggs under
+hens, and to keep young ducks shut up in a dry roomy pen for four weeks,
+at least. _Fowls_ need light, warm, dry quarters in winter, plenty of
+feed, but not too much. They relish animal food, and ought to have some
+frequently to make them lay. Pork or beef scrap-cake can be bought for
+two to three cents a pound, and is very good for them. Any kind of grain
+is good for poultry. Nothing is better than wheat screenings. Early
+hatched chickens must be kept in a warm, dry, sunny room, with plenty of
+gravel, and the hen should have no more than eight or nine chickens to
+brood; though in summer, one hen will take good care of fifteen. Little,
+chickens, turkeys, and ducks need frequent feeding, and must have their
+water changed often. It is well to grease the body of the hen and the
+heads of the chicks with lard, in order to prevent their becoming
+lousy.
+
+Hens set about twenty days, and should be well fed and watered. Cold
+or damp weather is bad for young fowls, and when they have been chilled,
+pepper-corns are a good remedy, in addition to the warmth of an
+inclosed dry place.
+
+The most absorbing part of the "Woman's question" of the present time
+is the remedy for the varied sufferings of women who are widows or
+unmarried, and without means of support. As yet, few are aware how
+many sources of lucrative enterprise and industry lie open to woman
+in the employments directly connected with the family state. A woman
+can invest capital in the dairy and qualify herself to superintend a
+dairy farm as well as a man. And if she has no capital of her own, if
+well trained for this business, she can find those who have capital
+ready to furnish--an investment that well managed will become
+profitable. And, too, the raising of poultry, of dogs, and of sheep
+are all within the reach of a woman with proper abilities and training
+for this business. So that if a woman chooses, she can find employment
+both interesting and profitable in studying the care of domestic
+animals.
+
+_Bees_.--But one of the most profitable as well as interesting
+kinds of business for a woman is the care of bees. In a recent
+agricultural report, it is stated that one lady bought four hives for
+ten dollars, and in five years she was offered one thousand five hundred
+dollars for her stock, and refused it as not enough. In addition to
+this increase of her capital, in one of these five years she sold
+twenty-two hives and four hundred and twenty pounds of honey. It is
+also stated that in five years one man, from six colonies of bees to
+start with, cleared eight thousand pounds of honey and one hundred and
+fifty-four colonies of bees.
+
+The raising of bees and their management is so curious and as yet
+unknown an art in most parts of our country, that any directions or
+advice will be omitted in this volume, as requiring too much space,
+and largely set forth and illustrated in the second part. When properly
+instructed, almost any woman in the city, as easily as in the country,
+can manage bees, and make more profit than in any other method demanding
+so little time and labor. But in the modes ordinarily practiced, few
+can make any great profit in this employment.
+
+It is hoped a time is at hand when every woman will be trained to some
+employment by which she can secure to herself an independent home and
+means to support a family, in case she does not marry, or is left a
+widow, with herself and a family to support.
+
+
+
+
+XXXV.
+
+EARTH-CLOSETS.
+
+
+In some particulars, the Chinese are in advance of our own nation in
+neatness, economy, and healthful domestic arrangements. In China, nota
+particle of manure is wasted, and all that with us is sent off in
+drains and sewers from water-closets and privies, is collected in a
+neat manner and used for manure. This is one reason that the compact
+and close packing of inhabitants in their cities is practicable, and
+it also accounts for the enormous yields of some of their crops.
+
+The earth-closet is an invention which relieves the most disagreeable
+item in domestic labor, and prevents the disagreeable and unhealthful
+effluvium which is almost inevitable in all family residences, The
+general principle of construction is somewhat like that of a
+water-closet, except that in place of water is used dried earth. The
+resulting compost is without disagreeable odor, and is the richest
+species of manure. The expense of its construction and use is no greater
+than that of the common water-closet; indeed, when the outlays for
+plumber's work, the almost inevitable troubles and disorders of
+water-pipes in a house, and the constant stream of petty repairs
+consequent upon careless construction or use of water-works are
+considered, the earth-closet is in itself much cheaper, besides being
+an accumulator of valuable matter.
+
+To give a clear idea of its principles, mode of fabrication, and use,
+we can not do better than to take advantage of the permission given
+by Mr. George E. Waring, Jr., of Newport, R. I., author of an admirable
+pamphlet on the subject, published in 1868 by "The Tribune Association"
+of New-York. Mr. Waring was formerly Agricultural Engineer of the
+New-York Central Park, and has given much attention to sanitary and
+agricultural engineering, having published several valuable works
+bearing in the same general direction. He is now consulting director
+of "The Earth-Closet Company," Hartford, Ct., which manufactures the
+apparatus and all things appertaining to it--any part which might be
+needed to complete a home-built structure. But with generous and no
+less judicious freedom, they are endeavoring to extend the knowledge
+of this wholesome and economical process of domestic sanitary
+engineering as widely as possible, and so allow us to present the
+following instructions for those who may desire to construct their own
+apparatus.
+
+In the brief introduction to his pamphlet, Mr. Waring says:
+
+"It is sufficiently understood, by all who have given the least thought
+to the subject, that the waste of the most vital elements of the soil's
+fertility, through our present practice of treating human excrement
+as a thing that is to be hurried into the sea, or buried in underground
+vaults, or in some other way put out of sight and out of reach, is
+full of danger to our future prosperity.
+
+"Our bodies have come out of our fertile fields; our prosperity is
+based on the production and the exchange of the earth's fruits; and
+all our industry has its foundation in arts and interests connected
+with, or dependent on, a successful agriculture.
+
+"Liebig asserts that the greatness of the Roman empire was sapped by
+the _Cloaca Maxima_, through which the entire sewage of Rome was
+washed into the Tiber. The yearly decrease of productive power in the
+older grain regions of the West, and the increasing demand for manures
+in the Atlantic States, sufficiently prove that our own country is no
+exception to the rule that has established its sway over Europe.
+
+"The large class who will fail to feel the force of the agricultural
+reasons in favor of the reform which this pamphlet is written to uphold,
+will realize, more clearly than farmers will, the importance of
+protecting dwellings against the gravest annoyance, the most fertile
+source of disease, and the most certain vehicle of contagion."
+
+Nevertheless, Mr. Waring thinks that the agricultural argument is no
+mean or unimportant one, and says:
+
+"The importance of any plan by which the excrement of our bodies may
+be returned to our fields is in a measure shown in the following extract
+from an article that I furnished for the _American Agricultural Annual_
+for 1868.
+
+"The average population of New York City--including its temporary
+visitors--is probably not less than 1,000,000. This population consumes
+food equivalent to at least 30,000,000 bushels of corn in a year.
+Excepting the small proportion that is stored up in the bodies of the
+growing young, which is fully offset by that contained in the bodies
+of the dead, the constituents of the food are returned to the air by
+the lungs and skin, or are voided as excrement. That which goes to the
+air was originally taken from the air by vegetation, and will be so
+taken again: here is no waste. The excrement contains all that was
+furnished by the mineral elements of the soil oil which the food was
+produced. This all passes into the sewers, and is washed into the sea.
+Its loss to the present generation is complete."
+
+... "30,000,000 bushels of corn contain, among other minerals, nearly
+7000 tons of phosphoric acid, and this amount is annually lost in the
+wasted night-soil of New-York City. [Footnote: Other mineral
+constituents of food--important ones, too--are washed away in even
+greater quantities through the same channels; but this element is the
+best for illustration, because its effect in manure is the most
+striking, even so small a dressing as twenty pounds per acre, producing
+a marked effect on all cereal crops. Ammonia, too, which is so important
+that it is usual in England to estimate the value of manure in exact
+proportion to its supply of this element, is largely yielded by human
+excrement.]
+
+"Practically the human excrement of the whole country is nearly all
+so disposed of as to be lost to the soil. The present population of
+the United States is not far from 35,000,000. On the basis of the above
+calculation, their annual food contains 200,000 tons of phosphoric
+acid, being the amount contained in about 900,000 tons of bones, which,
+at the price of the best flour of bone, (for manure,) would be worth
+over $50,000,000. It would be a moderate estimate to say that the other
+constituents of food are of at least equal value with the other
+constituents of the bone, and to assume $50,000,000 as the money value
+of the wasted night-soil of the United States every year.
+
+"In another view, the importance of this waste can not be estimated
+in money. Money values apply, rather, to the products of labor and to
+the exchange of these products. The waste of fertilizing matter reaches
+farther than the destruction or exchange of products: it lessens the
+ability to produce.
+
+"If mill-streams were failing year by year, and steam were yearly
+losing force, and the ability of men to labor were yearly growing less,
+the doom of our prosperity would not be more plainly written, than if
+this slow but certain impoverishment of our soil were sure to continue.
+
+.... "But the good time is coming, when (as now in China and Japan)
+men must accept the fact that the soil is not a warehouse to be
+plundered--only a factory to be worked. Then they will save their raw
+material, instead of wasting it, and, aided by nature's wonderful laws,
+will weave over and over again the fabric by which we live and prosper.
+Men will build up as fast as men destroy; old matters will be reproduced
+in new forms, and, as the decaying forests feed the growing wood, so
+will all consumed food yield food again."
+
+With the above brief extract, we shall cease using marks of quotation,
+as the following information and statements are appropriated bodily,
+either directly or with mere modifications for brevity, from the little
+pamphlet of Mr. Waring.
+
+The earth-closet is the invention of the Rev. Henry Moule, of Fordington
+Vicarage, Dorsetshire, England.
+
+It is based on the power of clay, and the decomposed organic matter
+found in the soil, to absorb and retain all offensive odors and all
+fertilizing matters; and it consists, essentially, of a mechanical
+contrivance (attached to the ordinary seat) for measuring out and
+discharging into the vault or pan below a sufficient quantity of sifted
+dry earth to entirely cover the solid ordure and to absorb the urine.
+
+The discharge of earth is effected by an ordinary pull-up similar to
+that used in the water-closet, or (in the self-acting apparatus) by
+the rising of the seat when the weight of the person is removed.
+
+The vault or pan under the seat is so arranged that the accumulation
+may be removed at pleasure.
+
+From the moment when the earth is discharged, and the evacuation is
+covered, all offensive exhalation entirely ceases. Under certain
+circumstances, there may be, at times, a slight odor as of guano mixed
+with earth; but this is so trifling and so local, that a commode
+arranged on this plan may, without the least annoyance, be kept in use
+in any room.
+
+This statement is made as the result of personal experience. Mr. Waring
+says:
+
+"I have in constant use in a room in my house an earth-closet commode;
+and even when the pan is entirely full, with the accumulation of a
+week's use, visitors examining it invariably say, with some surprise,
+'You don't mean that this particular one has been used!'"
+
+
+HOW TO MAKE AN EARTH-CLOSET.
+
+The principle on which the earth-closet is based is as free to all as
+is the earth itself, and any person may adopt his own method of applying
+it. All that is necessary is to have a supply of coarsely sifted
+sun-dried earth with which to cover the bottom of the vessel to be
+used, and after use to cover the deposit. A small box of earth, and
+a tin scoop are sufficient to prevent the gravest annoyance of the
+sickroom. But, of course, for constant use, it is desirable to have
+a more convenient apparatus--something which requires less care, and
+is less troublesome in many ways.
+
+To this end, the patent invention of Mr. Moule is applicable. This
+comprises a tight receptacle under the seat, a reservoir for storing
+dry earth, and an apparatus to measure out the requisite quantity, and
+throw it upon the deposit.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67.]
+
+The arrangement at the mechanism is shown in Fig. 67. A hopper-shaded
+reservoir, made of galvanized iron, is supported by a framework at the
+back of the seat, which rests on the framework _a_, _a_. Connected with
+the handle at the right-hand side, there is an iron lever, which
+operates a movable box at the bottom of the reservoir, and causes it to
+discharge its contents directly under the seat. When the handle is
+dropped, the box returns to its position, and is immediately filled
+preparatory to another use.
+
+The hopper-shaped reservoir is supported by two pivots, and has a
+slight rocking or vibrating motion imparted to it by each lifting of
+the lever. This prevents the earth from becoming clogged, and insures
+its regular delivery.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68 THE "PULL-UP" APPARATUS.]
+
+The construction is more clearly shown in Fig. 68.
+
+In this figure, A is the vibrating hopper for holding the earth. Its
+capacity may be increased to any desired extent by building above it
+a straight-sized box of any height. It is not unusual, in fixed privies,
+to make this reservoir large enough to hold a supply for several months.
+As the earth is dry, there is no occasion for the use of any thing
+better than common pine boards in making this addition to the reservoir.
+
+B is one side of the wooden, frame by which the hopper is supported
+and it may be made of one inch pine or spruce.
+
+C is a box of lacquered or galvanized iron, without either top or
+bottom. It moves on two pivots, one of winch is shown on its exposed
+side. In its present position, its upper end opens into the hopper,
+and its lower end is dosed by the stationary board over which it stands.
+When the handle is pulled up, the lever, which is connected with the
+box, jerks it rapidly up, so that its back side closes the opening of
+the reservoir, and its bottom opens to the front. In its movement it
+discharges its contents of earth forward under the seat. When the
+handle is dropped, the box returns to its natural position, and is
+charged again.
+
+D is one of the pivots--a corresponding one being on the other side--by
+which the hopper is supported, and on which it vibrates.
+
+_a_, _a_, _a_, _a_, _a_, _a_, are the parts of the framework, the
+dimensions of which in feet and inches are given.
+
+The only essential part not shown is an earthen-ware pan without a
+bottom, similar to the pan of a water-closet, only not so deep and
+with a larger opening, which is attached to the under side of the seat,
+and which in a measure prevents the rising of dust, and conducts the
+urine to the point at which the most earth falls. This is the least
+important part of the invention, but it has a certain advantage.
+
+The self-acting apparatus is more complicated, and persons wishing it
+would do best to apply directly to the Company.
+
+
+THE ORDINARY PRIVY.
+
+In the circular published by the Earth-Closet Company, the following
+directions are given:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69.--Commode, 3 ft. 3 in. high, 1 ft. 11 in. wide,
+2 ft. 2 in. deep.]
+
+"An ordinary fixed closet requires the apparatus to be placed at the
+back of, and in connection with, the usual seat; the reservoir for
+containing the earth being placed above it. Under it there should be
+a chamber or vault about four feet by three wide, and of any convenient
+depth, with a paved or asphalted bottom, and the sides lined with
+cement. Should there be an existing cesspool, it may be altered to the
+above dimensions. Into this the deposit and earth fall, and may remain
+there three, six, or twelve months, and continue perfectly inodorous
+and innoxious, merely requiring to be occasionally leveled by a rake
+or hoe. If, however, it should be found impossible or inconvenient to
+have a vault underneath, a movable trough, of iron or tarred wood, on
+wheels, may be substituted. In this case, it will be advisable to raise
+the seat somewhat above the floor, to allow the trough to be of
+sufficient size.
+
+"By one form of construction, (the 'pull-up,') the pulling up of a
+handle releases a sufficient quantity of the dry earth, which is thrown
+into the pit or vault, covering the deposit and completely preventing
+all smell. By another, (the 'self-acting,') the same effect is produced
+by the action of the seat. The apparatus may be placed in, and adapted
+to, almost any existing closet or privy, and so arranged that the
+supply and removal of earth may be carried on inside or outside as
+desired."
+
+The following is taken from the company's circular:
+
+"In the commode, the apparatus and earth-reservoir are self-contained,
+and a movable pail takes the place of the chamber or vault above
+described. This must be emptied as often as necessary, and the contents
+may be applied to the garden or field, or be allowed to accumulate in
+a heap under cover until wanted for use. This accumulation is inodorous,
+and rapidly becomes dry. The commode can stand in any convenient place
+in or out of doors. For use in bedrooms, hospital wards, infirmaries,
+etc., the commode is invaluable. It is entirely free from those faint,
+depressing odors common to portable water-closets and night-stools,
+and through its admission one of the greatest miseries of human life,
+the foul smells of the sick-room, and one of the most frequent means
+of communicating infection, may be entirely prevented. It is invariably
+found that, if any failure takes place, it arises from the earth _not
+being properly dry_. Too much importance can not be attached to
+this requirement. The earth-commode will no more act properly without
+dry earth, than will a water-closet without water.
+
+"These commodes are made in a variety of patterns, from the cottage
+commode to the more expensive ones in mahogany or oak, and vary in
+price accordingly. They are made to act either by a handle, as in the
+ordinary water-closet, or self-acting on rising from the seat. The
+earth-reservoir is calculated to hold enough for about twenty-five
+times; and where earth is scarce, or the manure required of
+extraordinary strength, the product may be dried as many as seven
+times, and without losing any of its deodorizing properties.
+
+"If care be taken to cast one service of earth into the pail when first
+placed in the commode, and to have the commonest regard to cleanliness,
+not the least offensive smell will be perceptible, though the receptacle
+remain unemptied for weeks. Care must also be taken, that no liquid,
+but that which they are intended to receive, be thrown into the pails."
+
+The pail used in the commode is made of galvanized iron, and is shaped
+very much like an ordinary coal-hod. It has a cover of the same
+material, and it may be carried from an upper floor with no more
+offensiveness than a hodful of common earth.
+
+Fig. 70 represents a cross-section of the commode, and will enable the
+reader more clearly to understand the construction and operation of
+the apparatus.
+
+_a_ is the opening in the seat; _b_, the "pan;" _c_, the pail for
+receiving the deposit; _d_, the hopper for containing the earth supply;
+_e_, the box by which the earth is measured, and by which it is thrown
+into the pail when moved to the position _e'_ by the operation of the
+"pull-up;" _f_, a door by which the pail is shut in; _g_, the cover of
+the seat; _h_, the cover of the hopper; _i_ a platform which prevents
+the escape of earth from _e_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70 HOW TO USE THE EARTH-CLOSET.]
+
+Under this head, the circular issued by the original London company
+contains the following:
+
+"The first requirement for the proper working of the earth-closet is
+earth perfectly dry and sifted. Earth alone is proved to be the best
+deodorizer, and far superior to any disinfectants; but where it is
+difficult to obtain earth abundantly, sifted ashes, as before stated,
+may be mixed with, it in proportion of two of earth to one of ashes.
+
+"As the first requirement is _dry earth sifted_, and as this is
+usually thought to be a great difficulty in the way of the adoption
+of the dry earth system, the following remarks will at once remove
+such an impression.
+
+"The earth-commode and closet, if used by six persons daily, will
+require, on an average, about one hundred weight of earth per week.
+This may be dried for family use in a drawer made to fit under the
+kitchen range, and which may be filled with earth one morning and left
+until the next. The drawer should reach to within two inches of the
+bottom bar of the grate. A frame with a handle, covered with fine
+wire-netting, forming a kind of shovel, should be placed on this drawer;
+the finer ashes will fall through, mixing with the earth, whilst the
+cinders will remain on the top, to be, from time to time, thrown on
+the fire.
+
+"Of course, the most economical method is to provide in the summer-time
+a winter store of dry earth, which may be kept in an out-house, shed,
+or other convenient place, just as we lay in a winter store of coals.
+
+"THINGS TO BE OBSERVED
+
+ "Let one fall of earth be in the pail before using.
+ "The earth must be dry and sifted.
+ "Sand must not be used.
+ "No 'slops' must be thrown down.
+ "The handle must be pulled up with a jerk, and let fall sharply."
+
+
+REPEATED USE OF EARTH
+
+Concerning the value and use of the product of the earth-closet, the
+following is copied from the London company's circular. (It will be
+noticed that reference is made, to _the repeated use of the same
+earth._ When the ordure is completely dried and decomposed, it has
+not only lost its odor, but it has become, like all decomposed organic
+matter, an excellent disinfectant, and the fifth or sixth time that
+the same earth is passed through the closet it is fully as effective
+in destroying odors as it was when used for the first time, and of
+course each use adds to its value as manure, until it becomes as strong
+as Peruvian guano, which is now worth seventy-five dollars per ton.
+In fact, it may be made so rich that _one hundred pounds will be a
+good dressing for an acre of land_.)
+
+"If the closet is over a water-tight cesspool or pit, it will require
+emptying at the end of three or six months. The produce, which will
+be quite inodorous, should be thrown, together in a heap, sheltered
+from wet, and occasionally turned over. At the end of a few weeks, it
+will be dry and fit for use.
+
+"If the receptacle be an iron trough or pail, the contents should be
+thrown together, re-dried, and used over again, four or five times.
+In a few weeks they will be dry and fit for use; the value being
+increased by repeated action. The condition of the manure should be
+much the same as that of guano, and fit for drilling."
+
+The inventor of the earth-closet, Rev. Mr. Moule, says:
+
+"It was to this point (the power of earth or clay to absorb the products
+of the decomposition of manure) but particularly to the _repeated
+action_, and consequently the repeated use of the same earth, that
+I first directed the attention of the public. I then pointed out:
+First. That a very small portion of dry and sifted earth (one and a
+half pints) is sufficient by covering the deposit, to prevent
+fermentation, (which so soon sets in whenever water is used,) and the
+consequent generation and emission of noxious gases. Second. That if
+within a few hours, or even a few days, the mass that would be formed
+by the repeated layers of deposit, be intimately mixed by a coarse
+rake or spade, or by a mixer made for the purpose, then, in five or
+ten minutes, neither to the eye or sense of smell is any thing
+perceptible but so much earth.... When about three cart-loads of sifted
+earth had thus been used for my family, (which averaged fifteen
+persons,) and left under a shed, I found that the material first
+employed was sufficiently dried to be used again. This process of
+alternate mixing and drying was renewed five times, the earth still
+retaining its absorbent powers apparently unimpaired. Of the visitors
+taken to the spot, none could guess the nature of the compost, though
+in some cases the heap which they visited in the afternoon had been
+turned over that same morning ...
+
+"It is only in towns, where the delivery, stowage, and removal of earth
+is attended with cost and difficulty, that any artificial aid for
+drying the compost would be desirable. On premises not cramped for
+space, the atmosphere, especially with a glass roof to the shed, will
+act sufficiently fast.
+
+"You may by means of it (the earth system) have a privy close to the
+house and a closet up-stairs, from neither of which shall proceed any
+offensive smell or any noxious gas. A projection from the back of the
+cottage, eight feet long and six feet wide, would be amply sufficient
+for this purpose. The nearer three or four feet down-stairs, would be
+occupied by the privy, in which, by the seat, would be a receptacle
+for dry earth. The 'soil' and earth would fall into the further five
+or four feet, which would form the covered and closed shed for mixing
+and drying. Up-stairs, the arrangement would be much the same, the
+deposit being made to fall clear of every wall. Through, this closet
+the removal of noxious and offensive matters in time of sickness, and
+of slop-buckets, would be immediate and easy; and if the shed below
+be kept well supplied with earth, all effluvium would be almost
+immediately checked. As to the trouble which this will cause, a very
+little experience will convince the cottager that it is less instead
+of greater, than the women generally go through at present, while the
+value of the manure will afford an inducement to exertion.
+
+     .     .     .     .     .     .     .     .     .
+
+"The truth is, that the machinery is more simple, much less expensive,
+and far less liable to injury than that of the water-closet. The
+supply of earth to the house is as easy as that of coals. To the closet
+it may be supplied more easily than water is supplied by a forcing-pump,
+and to the commode it can be conveyed just as coal is carried to the
+chamber. After use, it can be removed in either case by the bucket or
+box placed under the seat, or from the fixed reservoir, with less
+offense than that of the ordinary slop-bucket--indeed, (I speak after
+four years' experience,) with as little offense as is found in the
+removal of coal-ashes. So that, while servants and others will shrink
+from novelty and at first imagine difficulties, yet many, to my
+knowledge, would now vastly prefer the daily removal of the bucket or
+the soil to either the daily working of a forcing-pump or to being
+called upon once a year, or once in three years, to assist in emptying
+a vault or cesspool."
+
+To the above complete and convincingly apt arguments and statements
+of fact, we do not care to add any thing. All that we desire is to
+direct public attention to the admirable qualities of this Earth System,
+and to suggest that, at least for those living in the country away
+from the many conveniences of city life, great water power, and
+mechanical assistance, the use of it will conduce largely to the economy
+of families, the health of neighborhoods, and the increasing fertility
+and prosperity of the country round about.
+
+
+
+
+XXXVI.
+
+WARMING AND VENTILATION
+
+
+There is no department of science, as applied to practical matters,
+which has so often baffled experimenters as the healthful mode of
+warming and ventilating houses. The British nation spent over a million
+on the House of Parliament for this end, and failed. Our own government
+has spent half a million on the Capitol, with worse failure; and now
+it is proposed to spend a million more. The reason is, that the old
+open fireplace has been supplanted by less expensive modes of heating,
+destructive to health; and science has but just begun experiments to
+secure a remedy for the evil.
+
+The open fire warms the person, the walls, the floors and the furniture
+by radiation, and these, together with the fire, warm the air by
+convection. For the air resting on the heated surfaces is warmed by
+convection, rises and gives place to cooler particles, causing a
+constant heating of its particles by movement. Thus in a room with an
+open fire, the person is warmed in part by radiation from the fire and
+the surrounding walls and furniture, and in part by the warm air
+surrounding the body.
+
+In regard to the warmth of air, the thermometer is not an exact index
+of its temperature. For all bodies are constantly radiating their heat
+to cooler adjacent surfaces until all come to the same temperature.
+This being so, the thermometer is radiating its heat to walls and
+surrounding objects, in addition to what is subtracted by the air that
+surrounds it, and thus the air is really several degrees warmer than
+the thermometer indicates. A room at 70 degrees by the thermometer is
+usually filled with air five or more degrees warmer than this.
+
+Now, the cold air is denser than warm, and therefore contains more
+oxygen. Consequently, the cooler the air inspired, the larger the
+supply of oxygen and of the vitality and vigor which it imparts. Thus,
+the great problem for economy of health is to warm the person as much
+as possible by radiated heat, and supply the lungs with cool air. For
+when we breathe air at from 16 to 20 degrees, we take double the amount
+of oxygen that we do when we inhale it at 80 to 90 degrees, and
+consequently can do double the amount of muscle and brain work.
+
+Warming by an open fire is nearest to the natural mode of the Creator,
+who heats the earth and its furniture by the great central fire of
+heaven, and sends cool breezes for our lungs. But open fires involve
+great destruction of fuel and expenditure of money, and in consequence
+economic methods have been introduced to the great destruction of
+health and life.
+
+Of these methods, the most popular is that by which radiated heat is
+banished, and all warmth is gained by introducing heated air. This is
+the method employed in our national Capitol, where both warming and
+ventilation are attempted by means of _fans_ worked by steam, which
+force in the heated air. This is an expensive mode, used only for large
+establishments, and its entire failure at our capitol will probably
+prevent in future any very extensive use of it.
+
+But the most common mode of warming is by heated air introduced from
+a furnace. The chief objection to this is the loss of all radiated
+heat, and the consequent necessity of breathing air which is
+debilitating both from its heat and also from being usually deprived
+of the requisite moisture provided by the Creator in all out-door air.
+Another objection is the fact that it is important to health to preserve
+an equal circulation of the blood, and the greatest impediment to this
+is a mode of heating which keeps the head in warmer air than the feet.
+This is especially deleterious in an age and country where active
+brains are constantly drawing blood from the extremities to the head.
+All furnace-heated rooms have coldest air at the feet, and warmest
+around the head. It is also rarely the case that furnace-heated houses
+have proper arrangements for carrying off the vitiated air.
+
+There are some recent scientific discoveries that relate to impure air
+which may properly be introduced here. It is shown by the microscope
+that _fermentation_ is a process which generates extremely minute
+plants, that gradually increase till the whole mass is pervaded by
+this vegetation. The microscope also has revealed the fact that, in
+certain diseases, these microscopic plants are generated in the blood
+and other fluids of the body, in a mode similar to the ordinary process
+of fermentation.
+
+And, what is very curious, each of these peculiar diseases generates
+diverse kinds of plants. Thus in the typhoid fever, the microscope
+reveals in the fluids of the patient a plant that resembles in form
+some kinds of seaweed. In chills and fever, the microscopic plant has
+another form, and in small-pox still another. A work has recently been
+published in Europe, in which representations of these various
+microscopic plants generated in the fluids of the diseased persons are
+exhibited, enlarged several hundred times by the microscope. All
+diseases that exhibit these microscopic plants are classed together,
+and are called _Zymotic_, from a Greek word signifying _to ferment_.
+
+These zymotic diseases sometimes have a _local_ origin, as in the case
+of ague caused by miasma of swamps; and then they are named _endemic_.
+In other cases, they are caused by personal contact with the diseased
+body or its clothing, as the itch or small-pox; or else by effluvia from
+the sick, as in measles. Such are called _contagious_ or _infectious_.
+In other cases, diseases result from some unknown cause in the
+atmosphere, and affect numbers of people at the same time, as in
+influenza or scarlet fever, and these are called _epidemics_.
+
+It is now regarded as probable that most of these diseases are generated
+by the microscopic plants which float in an impure or miasmatic
+atmosphere, and are taken into the blood by breathing.
+
+Recent scientific investigations in Great Britain and other countries
+prove that the _power of resisting_ these diseases depends upon the
+purity of the air which has been _habitually_ inspired. The human body
+gradually accommodates itself to unhealthful circumstances, so that
+people can live a long time in bad air. But the "reserve power" of the
+body, that is, the power of resisting disease, is under such
+circumstances gradually destroyed, and then an epidemic easily sweeps
+away those thus enfeebled. The plague of London, that destroyed
+thousands every day, came immediately after a long period of damp,
+warm days, when there was no wind to carry off the miasma thus
+generated; while the people, by long breathing of bad air, were all
+prepared, from having sunk into a low vitality, to fall before the
+pestilence.
+
+Multitudes of public documents show that the fatality of epidemics is
+always proportioned to the degree in which impure air has previously
+been respired. Sickness and death are therefore regulated by the degree
+in which air is kept pure, especially in case of diseases in which
+medical treatment is most uncertain, as in cholera and malignant fevers.
+
+Investigations made by governmental authority, and by boards of health
+in this country and in Great Britain, prove that zymotic diseases
+ordinarily result from impure air generated by vegetable or animal
+decay, and that in almost all cases they can be prevented by keeping
+the air pure. The decayed animal matter sent off from the skin and
+lungs in a close, unventilated bedroom is one thing that generates
+these zymotic diseases. The decay of animal and vegetable matter in
+cellars, sinks, drains, and marshy districts is another cause; and the
+decayed vegetable matter thrown up by plowing up of decayed vegetable
+matter in the rich soil in new countries is another.
+
+In the investigations made in certain parts of Great Britain, it
+appeared that in districts where the air is pure the deaths average
+11 in 1000 each year; while in localities most exposed to impure miasma,
+the mortality was 45 in every thousand. At this rate, thirty-four
+persons in every thousand died from poisoned air, who would have
+preserved health and life by well-ventilated homes in a pure atmosphere.
+And, out of all who died, the proportion who owed their deaths to foul
+air was more than three fourths. Similar facts have been obtained by
+boards of health in our own country.
+
+Mr. Leeds gives statistics showing, that in Philadelphia, by improved
+modes of ventilation and other sanitary methods, there was a saving
+of 3237 lives in two years; and a saving of three fourths of a million
+of dollars, which would pay the whole expense of the public schools.
+Philadelphia being previously an unusually cleanly and well-ventilated
+city, what would be the saving of life, health, and wealth were such
+a city as New-York perfectly cleansed and ventilated?
+
+Here it is proper to state again that conflicting opinions are found
+in many writers on ventilation, in regard to the position of ventilating
+registers to carry off vitiated air. Most writers state that the impure
+air is heavier, and falls to the bottom of a room. After consulting
+scientific men extensively on this point, the writer finds the true
+result to be as follows: Carbonic acid is heavier than common air,
+and, unmixed, falls to the floor. But by the principle of _diffusion
+of gases_, the air thrown from the lungs, though at first it sinks
+a little, is gradually diffused, and in a heated room, in the majority
+of cases, it is found more abundantly at the top than at the bottom
+of the room, though in certain circumstances it is more at the bottom.
+For this reason, registers to carry off impure air should be placed
+at both the top and bottom of a room.
+
+In arranging for pure air in dwellings, it is needful to proportion
+the air admitted and discharged to the number of persons. As a guide
+to this, we have the following calculation: On an average, every adult
+vitiates about half a pint of air at each inspiration, and inspires
+twenty times a minute. This would amount to one hogshead of air vitiated
+every hour by every grown person. To keep the air pure, this amount
+should enter and be carried out every hour for each person. If, then,
+ten persons assemble in a dining-room, ten hogsheads of air should
+enter and ten be discharged each hour. By the same rule, a gathering
+of five hundred persons demands the entrance and discharge of five
+hundred hogsheads of air every hour, and a thousand persons require
+a thousand hogsheads of air every hour.
+
+In calculating the size of registers and conductors, then, we must
+have reference to the number of persons who are to abide in a dwelling;
+while for rooms or halls intended for large gatherings, a far greater
+allowance must be made.
+
+The most successful mode before the public, both for warming and
+ventilation, is that of Lewis Leeds, who was employed by government
+to ventilate the military hospitals and also the treasury building at
+Washington. This method has been adopted in various school-houses, and
+also by A. T. Stewart in his hotel for women in New-York City. The
+Leeds plan embraces the mode of heating both by radiation and
+convection, very much resembling the open fireplace in operation, and
+yet securing great economy. It is modeled strictly after the mode
+adopted by the Creator in warming and ventilating the earth, the home
+of his great earthly family. It aims to have a passage of pure air
+through, every room, as the breezes pass over the hills, and to have
+a method of warming chiefly by radiation, as the earth is warmed by
+the sun. In addition to this, the air is to be provided with moisture,
+as it is supplied out-doors by exhalations from the earth, and its
+trees and plants.
+
+The mode of accomplishing this is by placing coils of steam, or hot
+water pipes, under windows, which warm the parlor walls and furniture,
+partly by radiation, and partly by the air warmed on the heated surfaces
+of the coils. At the same time, by regulating registers, or by simply
+opening the lower part of the window, the pure air, guarded from
+immediate entrance into the room, is admitted directly upon the coils,
+so that it is partially warmed before it reaches the person: and thus
+cold drafts are prevented. Then the vitiated air is drawn off through
+registers both at the top and bottom of the room, opening into a heated
+exhausting flue, through which the constantly ascending current of
+warm air carries it off. These heated coils are often used for warming
+houses without any arrangement for carrying off the vitiated air, when,
+of course, their peculiar usefulness is gone.
+
+The moisture may be supplied by a broad vessel placed on or close to
+the heated coils, giving a large surface for evaporation. When rooms
+are warmed chiefly by radiated heat, the air can be borne much cooler
+than in rooms warmed by hot-air furnaces, just as a person in the
+radiating sun can bear much cooler air than in the shade. A time will
+come when walls and floors will be contrived to radiate heat instead
+of absorbing it from the occupants of houses, as is generally the case
+at the present time, and then all can breathe pure and cool air.
+
+We are now prepared to examine more in detail the modes of warming and
+ventilation employed in the dwellings planned for this work.
+
+In doing this, it should be remembered that the aim is not to give
+plans of houses to suit the architectural taste or the domestic
+convenience of persons who intend to keep several servants, and care
+little whether they breathe pure or bad air, nor of persons who do not
+wish to educate their children to manual industry or to habits of close
+economy.
+
+On the contrary, the aim is, first, to secure a house in which every
+room shall be perfectly ventilated both day and night, and that too
+without the watchful care and constant attention and intelligence
+needful in houses not provided with a proper and successful mode of
+ventilation.
+
+The next aim is, to arrange the conveniences of domestic labor so as
+to save time, and also to render such work less repulsive than it is
+made by common methods, so that children can be trained to love
+house-work. And lastly, economy of expense in house-building is sought.
+These things should be borne in mind in examining the plans of this
+work.
+
+In the Cottage plan, (Chap II. Fig. 1,) the pure air for rooms on the
+ground floor is to be introduced by a wooden conductor one foot square,
+running under the floor from the front door to the stove-room; with
+cross branches to the two large rooms. The pure air passes through
+this, protected outside by wire netting, and delivered inside through
+registers in each room, as indicated in Fig. 1.
+
+In case open Franklin stoves are used in the large rooms, the pure air
+from the conductor should enter behind them, and thus be partially
+warmed. The vitiated air is carried off at the bottom of the room
+through the open stoves, and also at the top by a register opening
+into a conductor to the exhausting warm-air shaft, which, it will be
+remembered, is the square chimney, containing the iron pipe which
+receives the kitchen stove-pipe. The stove-room receives pure air from
+the conductor, and sends off impure air and the smells of cooking by
+a register opening directly into the exhausting shaft; while its hot
+air and smoke, passing through the iron pipe, heat the air of the
+shaft, and produce the exhausting current. The construction of the
+exhausting or warm-air shaft is described on page 63.
+
+The large chambers on the second floor (Fig. 12) have pure air conducted
+from the stove-room through registers that can be closed if the heat
+or smells of cooking are unpleasant. The air in the stove-room will
+always be moist from the water of the stove boiler,
+
+The small chambers have pure air admitted from windows sunk at top
+half an inch; and the warm, vitiated air is conducted by a register
+in the ceiling which opens into a conductor to the exhausting warm-air
+shaft at the centre of the house, as shown in Fig. 17.
+
+The basement or cellar is ventilated by an opening into the exhausting
+air shaft, to remove impure air, and a small opening over each glazed
+door to admit pure air. The doors open out into a "well," or recess,
+excavated in the earth before the cellar, for the admission of light
+and air, neatly bricked up and whitewashed. The doors are to be made
+entirely of strong, thick glass sashes, and this will give light enough
+for laundry work; the tubs and ironing-table being placed close to the
+glazed door. The floor must be plastered with water-lime, and the walls
+and ceiling be whitewashed, which will add reflected light to the room.
+There will thus be no need of other windows, and the house need not
+be raised above the ground. Several cottages have been built thus, so
+that the ground floors and conservatories are nearly on the same level;
+and all agree that they are pleasanter than when raised higher.
+
+When a window in any room is sunk at the top, it should have a narrow
+shelf in front inclined to the opening, so as to keep out the rain.
+In small chambers for one person, an inch opening is sufficient, and
+in larger rooms for two persons, a two-inch opening is needed. The
+openings into the exhausting air flue should vary from eight inches
+to twelve inches square, or more, according to the number of persons
+who are to sleep in the room.
+
+The time when ventilation is most difficult is the medium weather in
+spring and fall, when the air, though damp, is similar in temperature
+outside and in. Then the warm-air flue is indispensable to proper
+ventilation. This is especially needed in a room used for school or
+church purposes.
+
+Every room used for large numbers should have its air regulated not
+only as to its warmth and purity, but also as to its supply of moisture;
+and for this purpose will be found very convenient the instrument
+called the Hygrodeik, [Footnote: It is manufactured by N. M. Lowe,
+Boston, and sold by him: and J. Queen & Co., Philadelphia.] which shows
+at once the temperature and the moisture. A work by Dr. Derby on
+Anthracite Coal, scientific men say has done much mischief by an
+_unproved_ theory that the discomfort of furnace heat is caused by the
+passage of carbonic _oxide_ through the iron of the furnace heaters, and
+_not_ by want of moisture. God made the air right, and taking out its
+moisture _must_ be wrong.
+
+The preceding remarks illustrate the advantages of the cottage plan
+in respect to ventilation. The economy of the mode of warming next
+demands attention. In the first place, it should be noted that the
+chimney being at the centre of the house, no heat is lost by its
+radiation through outside walls into open air, as is the case with all
+fireplaces and grates that have their backs and flues joined to an
+outside wall.
+
+In this plan, all the radiated heat from the stove serves to warm the
+walls of adjacent rooms in cold weather; while in the warm season, the
+non-conducting summer casings of the stove send all the heat not used
+in cooking either into the exhausting warm-air shaft or into the central
+cast-iron pipe. In addition to this, the sliding doors of the stove-room
+(which should be only six feet high, meeting the partition coming from
+the ceiling) can be opened in cool days, and then the heat from the
+stove would temper the rooms each side of the kitchen. In hot weather,
+they could be kept closed except when the stove is used, and then
+opened only for a short time. The Franklin stoves in the large room
+would give the radiating warmth and cheerful blaze of an open fire,
+while radiating heat also from all their surfaces. In cold weather,
+the air of the larger chambers could be tempered by registers admitting
+warm air from the stove-room, which would always be sufficiently
+moistened by evaporation from the stationary boiler. The conservatories
+in winter, protected from frost by double sashes, would contribute
+agreeable moisture to the larger rooms. In case the size of a family
+required more rooms, another story could be ventilated and warmed by
+the same mode, with little additional expense.
+
+We will next notice the economy of time, labor, and expense secured
+by this cottage plan. The laundry work being done in the basement, all
+the cooking, dish-washing, etc., can be done in the kitchen and
+stove-room on the ground floor. But in case a larger kitchen is needed,
+the lounges can be put in the front part of the large room, and the
+movable screen placed so as to give a work-room adjacent to the
+kitchen, and the front side of the same be used for the eating-room.
+Where the movable screen is used, the floor should be oiled wood. A
+square piece of carpet can be put in the centre of the front part of
+the room, to keep the feet warm when sitting around the table, and
+small rugs can be placed before the lounges or other sitting-places,
+for the same purpose.
+
+Most cottages are so divided by entries, stairs, closets, etc., that
+there can be no large rooms. But in this plan, by the use of the movable
+screen, two fine large rooms can be secured whenever the family work
+is over, while the conveniences for work will very much lessen the
+time required.
+
+In certain cases, where the closest economy is needful, two small
+families can occupy the cottage, by having a movable screen in both
+rooms, and using the kitchen in common, or divide it and have two
+smaller stoves. Each kitchen will then have a window and as much room
+as is given to the kitchen in great steamers that provide for several
+hundred.
+
+Whoever plans a house with a view to economy must arrange rooms around
+a central chimney, and avoid all projecting appendages. Dormer windows
+are far more expensive than common ones, and are less pleasant. Every
+addition projecting from a main building greatly increases expense of
+building, and still more of warming and ventilating.
+
+It should be introduced, as one school exercise in every female
+seminary, to plan houses with reference to economy of time, labor, and
+expense, and also with reference to good architectural taste; and the
+teacher should be qualified to point out faults and give the instruction
+needed to prevent such mistakes in practical life. Every girl should
+be trained to be "a wise woman" that "buildeth her house" aright.
+
+There is but one mode of ventilation yet tried, that will, at all
+seasons of the year and all hours of the day and night, secure pure
+air without dangerous draughts, and that is by an exhausting warm-air
+flue. This is always secured by an open fireplace, so long as its
+chimney is kept warm by any fire. And in many cases, a fireplace with
+a flue of a certain dimension and height will secure good ventilation
+except when the air without and within are at the same temperature.
+
+When no exhausting warm-air flue can be used, the opening of doors and
+windows is the only resort. Every sleeping-room _without a fireplace
+that draws smoke well_ should have a window raised at the bottom
+or sunk at the top at least an inch, with an inclined shelf outside
+or in, to keep out rain, and then it is properly ventilated. Or a door
+should be kept opened into a hall with an open window. Let the
+bed-clothing be increased, so as to keep warm in bed, and protect the
+head also, and then the more air comes into a sleeping-room the better
+for health.
+
+In reference to the warming of rooms and houses already built, there
+is no doubt that stoves are the most economical mode, as they radiate
+heat and also warm by convection. The grand objection to their use is
+the difficulty of securing proper ventilation. If a room is well warmed
+by a stove and then a suitable opening made for the entrance of a good
+supply of out-door air, and by a mode that will prevent dangerous
+draughts, all is right as to pure air. But in this case, the feet are
+always on cold floors, surrounded by the coldest air, while the head
+is in air of much higher temperature.
+
+There is a great difference as to healthfulness and economy in the
+great variety of stoves with which the market is filled. The competition
+in this manufacture is so stringent, and so many devices are employed
+by agents, that there is constant and enormous imposition on the public
+and an incredible outlay on poor stoves, that soon burn out or break,
+while they devour fuel beyond calculation. If some benevolent and
+scientific organization could be formed that would, from disinterested
+motives, afford some reliable guidance to the public, it probably would
+save both millions of money and much domestic discomfort.
+
+The stove described in Chapter V. is protected by patents in its chief
+advantages, but this has not restrained many of the trade from
+incorporating some of its leading excellencies and claiming to have
+added superior elements. Others will inform any who inquire for it,
+that it is out of market, because later stoves have proved superior.
+Should any who read this work wish to be sure of securing this stove,
+and also of gaining minute directions for its use, they may apply to
+the writer, Miss C. E. Beecher, 69 West 38th Street, New-York, inclosing
+25 cents.
+
+She will then forward the manufacturers' printed descriptive circulars,
+and her own advice as to the best selection from the different sizes,
+and directions for its use, based on her own personal experience and
+that of many friends. Should any purchases be made through this medium,
+the manufacturers have agreed to pay a certain percentage into the
+treasury of the Benevolent Association mentioned at the close of this
+volume.
+
+There is no more dangerous mode of heating a room than by a gas-stove.
+There is inevitably more or less leakage of the gas which it is
+unhealthful to breathe. And proper ventilation is scarcely ever secured
+by those who use such stoves. The same fatal elements of imperfect
+ventilation with its attendant horrors of disease, extravagant
+wastefulness of material, of fuel, of labor, of time, and of destruction
+to the apparatus itself, seem concomitants of all ordinary stoves and
+cooking arrangements of the present day, unless those who use them are
+constant and unremitting in the exercise of intelligent watchfulness,
+guarding against these evils. And in view of the almost inevitable
+stupidity and carelessness of servants, who generally have charge of
+such things, and the frequent thoughtlessness even of intelligent women
+who manage their own kitchens, the writer believes she is doing a
+public service by offering her own experience as a guide to simpler,
+cheaper, and more wholesome means of living and preparing the family
+food.
+
+
+
+
+XXXVII.
+
+CARE OF THE HOMELESS, THE HELPLESS, AND THE VICIOUS.
+
+
+In considering the duties of the Christian family in regard to the
+helpless and vicious classes, some recently developed facts need to
+be considered. We have stated that the great end for which, the family
+was instituted is the training to virtue and happiness of our whole
+race, as the children of our Heavenly Father, and this with chief
+reference to their eternal existence after death. In the teachings of
+our Lord we find that it is for sinners--for the lost and wandering
+sheep, that he is most tenderly concerned. It is not those who by
+careful training and happy temperaments have escaped the dangers of
+life that God and good angels most anxiously watch. "For there is more
+joy in heaven over one sinner that repenteth than over ninety and nine
+that went not astray."
+
+The hardest work of all is to restore a guilty, selfish, hardened
+spirit to honor, truth, and purity; and this is the divine labor to
+which the pitying Saviour calls all his true followers; to lift up the
+fallen, to sustain the weak, to protect the tempted, to bind up the
+broken-hearted, and especially to rescue the sinful. This is the
+peculiar privilege of woman in the sacred retreat of a "Christian
+home." And it is for such self-denying ministries that she is to train
+all who are under her care and influence, both by her teaching and by
+her example.
+
+In connection with these distinctive principles of Christ for which
+the family state was instituted, let the following facts be considered.
+The Massachusetts Board of State Charities, consisting of some of the
+most benevolent and intelligent gentlemen of that State, in pursuance
+of their official duty visited all the State institutions, and held
+twenty-five meetings during the year 1867-8. By these visits and
+consequent discussions they arrived at certain conclusions, which may
+be briefly condensed as follows.
+
+No state or nation excels Massachusetts in a wise and generous care
+of the helpless, poor, and vicious. The agents employed for this end
+are frugal, industrious, intelligent, and benevolent men and women,
+with high moral principles. The pauper and criminal classes requiring
+to be cared for by Massachusetts are less in proportion to the whole
+number of inhabitants than in any other state or nation. Yet, admirable
+as are these comparative results, there is room for improvement in a
+most important particular. The report of the Board urges that the
+present mode of collecting special classes in great establishments,
+though it may be the best in a choice of evils, is not the best method
+for the physical, social, and moral improvement of those classes; as
+it involves many unfortunate influences (which are stated at large:)
+and the report suggests that a better way would be to scatter these
+unfortunates from temporary receiving asylums into families of Christian
+people all over the State.
+
+It is suggested in view of the above, that collecting fallen women
+into one large community is not the best way to create a pure moral
+atmosphere; and that gathering one or two hundred children in one
+establishment is not so good for them as to give each child a home in
+some loving Christian family. So of the aged and the sick, the blessings
+of a quiet home, and the tender, patient nursing of true Christian
+love, must be sought in a Christian family; not in a great asylum.
+
+In view of these important facts and suggestions, it may be inquired,
+if the great end and aim of the family state is to train the inmates
+to self-denying love and labor for the weak, the suffering, and the
+sinful, how can it be done where there are no young children, no aged
+persons, no invalids, and no sinful ones for whom such sacrifices are
+to be made?
+
+Why are orphan children thrown upon the world, why are the aged held
+in a useless, suffering life, except that they may aid in cultivating
+tender love and labor for the helpless, and reverence for the hoary
+head? And yet, how few children are trained thus to regard the orphan,
+the aged, the helpless, and the vicious around them!
+
+Great houses are built for these destitute ones, and all the labor and
+self-denial in taking care of them is transferred to paid agents, while
+thousands of families are thus deprived of all opportunity to cultivate
+the distinctive virtues of the Christian household.
+
+In this connection, let us look at some facts recently published in
+the city of New-York.
+
+The writer, Rev. W. O. Van Meter, says in his report:
+
+"The following astounding statistics are carefully selected from the
+Reports of the Police, Board of Health, Citizens' Association, and
+more than twelve years' personal experience."
+
+He then gives the following description of a section of the city only
+a few rods from the stores and residences of those who count their
+wealth by hundreds of thousands and millions, many of them professing
+to be followers of Christ:
+
+"First, we see old sheds, stable lofts, dilapidated buildings, too
+worthless to be repaired, lofts over warehouses and shops; cellars,
+too worthless for business purposes, and too unhealthy for horses or
+pigs, and therefore occupied by human beings at high rent.--Second,
+houses erected for tenant purposes. Take one near our Mission, as a
+fair specimen of the better class of '_model_' tenant houses. It
+contains one hundred and twenty-six families--is entered at the sides
+from alleys eight feet wide; and by reason of another barrack of equal
+height, the rooms are so darkened, that on a cloudy day it is impossible
+to sew in them without artificial light. It has not one room that can
+be thoroughly ventilated.
+
+"The vaults and sewers which are to carry off the filth of one hundred
+and twenty-six families have grated openings in the alleys, and doorways
+in the cellars, through which the deadly miasma penetrates and poisons
+the air of the house and courts. The water-closets for the whole vast
+establishment are a range of stalls, without doors, and accessible not
+only from the building, but even from the street. Comfort here is out
+of the question; common decency impossible, and the horrid brutalities
+of the passenger-ship are day after day repeated, but on a larger
+scale.
+
+"In similar dwellings are living five hundred and ten thousand persons,
+(nearly one half of the inhabitants of the city,) chiefly from the
+laboring classes, of very moderate means, and also the uncounted
+thousands of those who do not know to-day what they shall have to live
+on to-morrow. This immense population is found chiefly in an area of
+less than four square miles. The vagrant and neglected children among
+them would form a procession in double file eight miles long from the
+Battery to Harlem.
+
+"In the Fourth ward, the tenant-house population is crowded at the
+rate of two hundred and ninety thousand inhabitants to the square mile.
+Such packing was probably never equaled in any other city. Were the
+buildings occupied by these miserable creatures removed, and the people
+placed by each other, there would be but one and two ninths of a square
+yard for each, and this unparalleled packing is _increasing_. Two
+hundred and twenty-four families in the ward live below the sidewalk,
+many of them _below high-water mark_. Often in very high tide they are
+driven from their cellars or lie in bed until the tide ebbs. Not one
+half of the houses have any drain or connection with the sewer. The
+liquid refuse is emptied on the sidewalk or into the street, giving
+forth sickening exhalations, and uniting its fetid streams with others
+from similar sources. There are more than four hundred families in
+this ward whose homes can only be reached by wading through a disgusting
+deposit of filthy refuse. 'In one tenant-house one hundred and forty-six
+were sick with small-pox, typhus fever, scarlatina, measles, marasmus,
+phthisis pulmonalis, dysentery, and chronic diarrhea. In another,
+containing three hundred and forty-nine persons, _one in nineteen died_
+during the year, and on the day of inspection, which was during the most
+healthy season of the year, there were one hundred and fifteen persons
+sick! In another (in the Sixth Ward, but near us,) are sixty-five
+families; seventy-seven persons were sick or diseased at the time of
+inspection, and one in four _always_ sick. In fifteen of these families
+twenty-five children were living, thirty-seven had died.'
+
+"Here are found the lowest class of sailor boarding-houses, dance-
+houses, and dens of infamy. There are _less than two dwelling-houses
+for each rum-hole_. Here are the poorest, vilest, most degraded,
+and desperate representatives of all nations. In the homes of thousands
+here, a ray of sunlight never shines, a flower never blooms, a bird
+song is never heard, a breath of pure air never breathed." A procession
+of vagrant and neglected children that in double file would reach eight
+miles, living in such filth, vice, and unhealthful pollution; all of
+them God's children, all Christ's younger brethren, to save whom he
+humbled himself, even to the shameful death of the cross!
+
+Meantime, the city of New York has millions of wealth placed in the
+hands of men and women who profess to be followers of Jesus Christ,
+and to have consecrated themselves, their time, and their wealth to
+his service. And they daily are passing and repassing within a stone's
+throw of the streets where all this misery and sin are accumulated!
+
+So in all our large cities and towns all over the land are found
+similar, if not so extensive, collections of vice and misery. And even
+where there are not such extremes of degradation, there are contrasts
+of condition that should "give us pause." For example, in the vicinity
+of our large towns and cities will be seen spacious mansions inhabited
+by professed followers of Jesus Christ, each surrounded by ornamented
+grounds. Not far from them will be seen small tenement-houses, abounding
+with children, each house having about as many square yards of land
+as the large houses have square acres. In the small tenements, the
+boys rise early and go forth with the father to work from eight to ten
+hours, with little opportunity for amusement or for reading or study.
+In the large houses, the boys sleep till a late breakfast, then lounge
+about till school-time, then spend three hours in school, stimulating
+brain and nerves. Then home to a hearty dinner, and then again to
+school.
+
+So with the girls: in the tenement-houses, they, go to kitchens and
+shops to work most of the day, with little chance for mental culture
+or the refinements of taste. In the large mansions, the daughters sleep
+late, do little or no labor for the family, and spend their time in
+school, or in light reading, ornamental accomplishments, or amusement.
+
+Thus one class are trained to feel that they are a privileged few for
+whom others are to work, while they do little or nothing to promote
+the improvement or enjoyment of their poorer neighbors.
+
+Then, again, labor being confined chiefly to the unrefined and
+uncultivated, is disgraced and rendered unattractive to the young. One
+class is overworked, and the body deteriorates from excess. The other
+class overwork the brain and nerves, and the neglected muscles grow
+thin, flabby, and weak.
+
+Notice also the style in which they accumulate the elegances of
+civilization without even an attempt to elevate their destitute
+neighbors to such culture and enjoyment. Their expensive pictures
+multiply on their frescoed walls, their elegant books increase in their
+closed bookcases, their fine pictures and prints remain shut in
+portfolios, to be only occasionally opened by a privileged few. Their
+handsome equipages are for the comfortable and prosperous--not for
+the feeble and poor who have none of their own. All their social
+amusements are exclusive, and their expensive entertainments are for
+those only who can return the same to them.
+
+Our Divine Master thus teaches, "When thou makest a feast, call not
+thy kinsmen or thy rich neighbors, lest they also bid thee again, and
+a recompense he made thee. But when thou makest a feast, call the poor,
+for they can not recompense thee; for thou shalt be recompensed at the
+resurrection of the just." Again, our Lord, after performing the most
+servile office, taught thus: "If I, your Lord and Master, have washed
+your feet, ye ought to wash one another's feet."
+
+In all these large towns and cities are women of wealth and leisure,
+who profess to be followers of Jesus Christ. Some of them, having
+property in their own right, live in large mansions, with equipage and
+servants demanding a large outlay. They travel abroad, and gather
+around themselves the elegant refinements of foreign lands. They give,
+perhaps, a tenth of their time and income (which is far less than was
+required of the Jews), for benevolent purposes, and then think and say
+that they have consecrated themselves and _all_ they have to the
+service of Christ.
+
+If there is any thing plainly taught in the New Testament it is, that
+the followers of Christ are to be different and distinct from the world
+around them; "a peculiar people," and subject to opposition and ill-will
+for their distinctive peculiarities.
+
+Of these peculiarities demanded, _humility_ and _meekness_ are
+conspicuous: "Come and learn of me, for I am meek and lowly, and
+ye shall find rest." Now, the grand aim of the rich, worldly, and
+ambitious is to be at least equal, or else to rise higher than others,
+in wealth, honor, and position. This is the great struggle of humanity
+in all ages, especially in this country, and among all classes, to
+_rise higher_--to be as rich or richer than others--to be as well
+dressed--to be more learned, or in more honored positions than others.
+This was the very thing that made contention among the apostles, even
+in the company of their Lord, as they walked and "disputed who should
+be the greatest." "And Jesus sat down and called the twelve, and said
+unto them, If any man desire to be first, the same _shall be last
+and servant of all;_" and "he that is least among you shall be
+great."
+
+At another time, the ambitious mother of two disciples came and asked
+that her sons might have the _highest_ place in his kingdom, and the
+other disciples were "moved with indignation." Then the Lord taught
+them that the honor and glory of his kingdom was to be exactly the
+reverse of this world; and that whoever would be great must be a
+_minister_, and who would be chief must be a _servant_; even as the Son
+of Man came not to be ministered to, but to minister.
+
+Again, he rebuked the love of high position and the desire of being
+counted wise as teachers of others: "Be not ye called Rabbi, neither
+be ye called Master; but he that is greatest among you shall be your
+servant, and whosoever exalteth himself shall be abased."
+
+Then, as to the strife after wealth, into which all are now rushing
+so earnestly, the Lord teaches: "Lay not up for yourselves treasures
+on earth. Whosoever of you forsaketh not all that he hath can not be
+my disciple. Sell that ye have, and give alms; provide yourselves with
+bags that wax not old--a treasure in heaven that faileth not." To the
+rich young man, asking how to gain eternal life, the reply was, "Sell
+all thou hast, and give to the poor, and come and follow me." When the
+poor widow cast in _all her living_ she was approved. When the
+first Christians were "filled with the Holy Ghost," they sold all their
+possessions, to be distributed to those that had need, and were
+approved.
+
+And nowhere do we find any direction or approval of laying up money
+for self or for children. A man is admonished to provide sustenance
+and education for his family, but never to lay up money for them; and
+the history of the children of the rich is a warning that, even in a
+temporal view, the chances are all against the results of such use of
+property. We are to spend all to _save the world_; For this we
+are to labor and sacrifice ease and wealth, and we are to train children
+to the same self-sacrificing labors; All that is spent for earthly
+pleasure ends here. Nothing goes into the future world as a good secured
+but training our own and other immortal minds. Thus only can we lay
+up treasures in heaven.
+
+There is a crisis at hand in the history of individuals, of the church,
+and of our nation, which must inaugurate a new enterprise to save "the
+whole world." There must be something coming in the Christian churches
+more consistent, more comprehensive, more in keeping with the command
+of our ascending Lord--"Go ye (_all_ my followers) into _all the world_,
+and preach the gospel to every creature; he that believeth shall be
+saved, and he that believeth not shall be damned!"
+
+It is in hope and anticipation of such a "revival" of the true,
+self-denying spirit of Christ and of his earnest followers, that plans
+have been drawn for simple modes of living, in which both labor and
+economy may be practiced for benevolent ends, and yet without
+sacrificing the refinements of high civilization. One method is
+exhibited in the first chapters, adapted to country residence. In what
+follows will be presented a plan for a city home, having the same aim.
+
+The chief points are to secure economy of labor and time by the
+_selection and close packing of conveniences_, and also economy
+of health by a proper mode of _warming and ventilation_. In this
+connection will be indicated opportunities and modes that thus may be
+attained for aiding to save the vicious, comfort the suffering, and
+instruct the ignorant. Fig. 71 is the ground plan, of a city tenement
+occupying two lots of twenty-two feet front, in which there can be no
+side windows; as is the case with most city houses. There are two front
+and two back-parlors, each twenty feet square, with a bedroom and
+kitchen appended to each: making four complete sets of living-rooms.
+A central hall runs from basement to roof, and is lighted by skylights.
+There is also a ventilating recess running from basement to roof with
+whitened walls, and windows opening into it secure both light and air
+to the bedrooms. On one end of this recess is a trash-flue closed with
+a door in the basement, and opening into each story, which must be
+kept closed to prevent an upward draught, causing dust and light
+articles to rise. At the other end is a dumb-waiter, running from
+cellar to roof, and opening into the hall of each story. Four chimneys
+are constructed near the centre of the house, one for each suite of
+rooms, to receive a smoke-pipe of cast-iron or terra cotta, as described
+previously, with a space around it for warm air; and this serves as
+the exhausting-shaft to carry off the vitiated air from parlors,
+kitchens, bedrooms, and water-closets. In each kitchen is a stove such
+as is described in Chapter IV., its pipe connecting with the central
+cast-iron or terra cotta pipe. The stove can be inclosed by sliding
+doors shutting off the heat in warm weather. These kitchen stoves, and
+a large stove in the basement to warm the central hall, would suffice
+for all the rooms, except in the coldest months, when a small terra
+cotta stove, made for this purpose, or even an ordinary iron stove,
+placed by one window in each of the parlors, would give the additional
+heat needed; while fresh air could be admitted from the windows behind
+the stove, and thus be partially warmed.
+
+This exhibits the essential feature and peculiarity of Mr. Leeds's
+system of ventilation, before described. Fresh air, admitted at the
+bottom of a slightly raised window, is to enter below a window-seat
+which projects over the stove; the air being thus warmed before entering
+the room. The flue of the stove is seen (in the finished corner of
+Fig. 71, which is a model for the four other suites of rooms on each
+floor) running along the wall to the _front_ chimney, which also
+receives the corresponding stove-flue from the nearest window in the
+adjoining parlor: the same arrangement being repeated at the back of
+the house. This, the two front and back chimneys are for the heating
+and ventilating parlor stoves; the four central chimneys for cooking,
+heating, and ventilation.
+
+When possible, in a large building, steam generated in the basement
+heater will be found better than the parlor stove. In this case, the
+room will be heated by the coil of steam-pipe mentioned before; the
+slab covering it being the window-seat, or guard, under which the cool
+fresh air is conducted to be warmed before passing into the room.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71 Diagram of living quarters.]
+Fig. 72 shows one side of the parlor, giving a series of sliding-
+doors, behind which are hooks, shelves, and "shelf-boxes," as described
+earlier in the book.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72.]
+
+The recess occupied by the sofa stands between these two closets. In
+case the room is used for sleeping, the double couch on page 30 might
+be substituted for the sofa, serving as a lounge by day, and two single
+beds by night. The curtain hanging above can be so fastened by rings
+on a strong semi-circular wire as to be let down while dressing and
+undressing, as is done in some of our steamboats. Pockets and hooks
+on the inside of the curtains may be made very useful.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73.]
+
+Fig. 73 represents another side of the same room where are two large
+windows, each having a cushioned seat in its recess, (although one may
+be occupied by a stove, as described above.) A study-table with drawers
+or both the front and back sides furnishes large accommodations for
+many small articles.
+
+Fig. 74 represents a third side of the same room, with sliding doors
+glazed from top to bottom to give light to the bedroom and kitchen.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74.]
+
+The fourth side appears on the ground plan (Fig. 71.) The ottomans and
+a few chairs will complete the needful furniture.
+
+By means of forms, shelves, and shelf-boxes, the kitchen, could hold
+all stores and implements for cooking and setting tables, on the method
+shown page 34. The eating table is close to the kitchen and sink, so
+that few steps are required to bring and remove every article. Thus
+stove, sink, cooking materials, the table and its furniture, are all
+in close proximity, and yet, when the inmates are seated at table, the
+sliding-doors will shut out the kitchen, while the bad air and smells
+of cooking are earned off by the ventilating exhaust-shaft.
+
+The bedroom has a bath-tub and water-closet. The tub need not be more
+than four feet long, and a half-cover raised by a hinge will, when
+down, hold wash-bowl and pitcher, when the tub is not in use. Around
+the bedroom high and wide shelves and shelf-boxes near the ceiling
+serve to store large articles; and narrower shelves with pegs under
+them for clothing, protected by a curtain, furnish other conveniences
+for storage. The trash-flue serves to send off rubbish, with but few
+steps, and the dumb waiter brings up fuel, stores, etc. Each bedroom
+must be provided with a ventilating register at the top, connecting
+with the warm foul-air flue in the chimney.
+
+For a family of four persons, one parlor, with its kitchen and bedroom,
+couches and side closets, would supply all needful accommodations. For
+a larger family, sliding-doors into the adjacent parlor, its appended
+kitchen being arranged for another bedroom, would accommodate a family
+of ten persons.
+
+A front and a back entrance may be in the basement, which, can be used
+for family stores, each family having one room. A general laundry with
+drying closets could be provided in the attic, and lighted from the
+roof.
+
+Such a building, four stories high, would accommodate sixteen families
+of four members, or eight larger families, and provide light, warmth,
+ventilation, and more comforts and conveniences than are usually found
+in most city houses built for only one family. Here young married
+persons with frugal and benevolent tastes could commence housekeeping
+in a style of comfort and good taste rarely excelled in mansions of
+the rich. The spaces usually occupied by stairs, entries, closets,
+etc., would on this plan be thrown into fine large airy rooms, with
+every convenience close at hand.
+
+In one of our large cities is to be found a Christian lady who inherited
+a handsome establishment with means to support it in the style common
+to the rich. In the spirit of Christ she "sold all that she had, and
+gave to the poor," by establishing a _Home for Incurables_, and
+making her home with them, giving her time and wealth to promoting
+their temporal comfort and spiritual welfare. Was this doing _more_
+than her duty--_more_ than the example and teachings of Christ require?
+
+Suppose several ladies of similar views and character in one city,
+having only moderate wealth, and leisure, unite to erect such a building
+as the one described, in a light and healthful part of the city of New
+York, and then should take up their residence in it, and from the vast
+accumulation of misery and sin at hand on every side, should select
+the orphans, the aged, the sick, and the sinful, and spend time and
+money for their temporal and spiritual elevation; would they do
+_more_ than the example and teachings of Christ enjoin? Or would
+their enjoyment, even in this life, be diminished by exchanging a
+routine chiefly of personal gratification for such self-denying
+ministries? It was "for _the joy_ that was set before Him" through
+the everlasting ages that our Lord "endured the cross," and it is to
+the same supernal glories that he invites his followers, and by the
+same path he trod.
+
+Here it probably will be said that all rich women can not do what is
+here suggested, owing to multitudinous claims, or to incapacity of
+mind or body for carrying out such an attempt. It will also be said
+that there are many other ways for practicing self-denial besides
+selling our homes and taking a humbler style of living. This is all
+true. But we are told that there are "greatest" and "least" in that
+kingdom of heaven where the chief happiness is in living to serve
+others, and not for self. Those who can not change their expensive
+style of living, and are obliged to spend most of their thoughts and
+wealth on self and those who are a part of self, will be among the
+least and lowest in happiness and honor, while those who take the low
+places on earth to raise others will be the happiest and most honored
+in the kingdom of heaven.
+
+There are many residences in our large cities where women claiming to
+be Christ's followers live in almost solitary grandeur till the warm
+season, and then shut them up to spend their time at watering-places
+or country resorts. The property invested in such city establishments,
+and the income required to keep them up, would secure "Christian homes"
+to many suffering, neglected, homeless children of Christ, who are
+living in impure air, with all the debasing influences found in city
+tenement-houses. Meantime, the owners of this wealth are suffering in
+mind and body for want of some grand and noble object in life. If such
+could not personally live in such an establishment as is here described,
+by self-denying arrangements and combination with others they could
+provide and superintend one.
+
+Our minds are created in the image of our Father in heaven, and capable
+of being made happy, as his is, by the outpouring of blessings on
+others. And when we are invited by our divine Lord to take his yoke
+and bear his burden, it is for our own highest happiness as well as
+for the good of others. And whoever truly obeys finds the yoke easy
+and the burden light, and that they bring rest to the soul. But those
+who shrink from the true good, to live a life of self-indulgent ease,
+will surely find that mere earthly enjoyments pall on the taste, that
+they perish in the using, that they never satisfy the cravings of a
+soul created for a higher sphere and nobler mission.
+
+The Bible represents that there is an emergency-a great conflict in
+the world unseen-and that we on earth, who are Christ's people, are
+to take a part in this conflict and in the "fellowship of his
+sufferings," to redeem his children from the slavery of sin and eternal
+death; and there is the same call to labor and sacrifice now as there
+was when he commanded, "Go into all the world and preach the Gospel
+to _every_ creature."
+
+But is not the larger part of the church--especially those who have
+wealth--practically living on no higher principles than the pious Jews
+and virtuous heathen? Are they not living just as if there were no
+great emergency, no terrible risks and danger to their fellow-men in
+the life to, come? Are they not living just as if all men were safe
+after they leave this world, and all we need to aim at is to make
+ourselves and others virtuous and happy in this life, without disturbing
+anxiety about the life to come? And is the _training_ of most
+Christian families diverse from that of pious Jews, in reference to
+the dangers of our fellow-men in the future state, and the consequent
+duty of labor and sacrifice in order to extend the true religion all
+over the earth?
+
+One mode of avoiding self-denial in style of living is by the plea
+that, if all rich Christiana gave up the expensive establishments
+common to this class and adopted such economies as are here suggested,
+it would tend to lower civilization and take away support from those
+living by the fine arts. But while the world is rushing on to such
+profuse expenditure, will not all these elegancies and refinements be
+abundantly supported, and is there as much danger in this direction
+as there is of avoiding the self-denying example of Christ and his
+early followers? They gave up all they had, and "were scattered abroad,
+preaching the word;" and was there any reason existing then for
+self-denying labor that does not exist now? There are more idolaters
+and more sinful men now, in actual numbers, than there were then; while
+teaching them the way of eternal life does not now, as it did then,
+involve the "loss of all things" and "deaths often."
+
+Moreover, would not the fine arts, in the end, he better supported by
+imparting culture and refined tastes to the neglected ones? Teaching
+industry, thrift, and benevolence is far better than scattering alms,
+which often do more harm than good; and would not enabling the masses
+to enjoy the fine arts and purchase in a moderate style subserve the
+interests of civilization as truly as for the rich to accumulate
+treasures for themselves in the common exclusive style?
+
+Suppose some Protestant lady of culture and fortune should unite with
+an associate of congenial taste and benevolence to erect such a building
+as here described, and then devote her time and wealth to the elevation
+and salvation of the sinful and neglected, would she sacrifice as much
+as does a Lady of the Sacred Heart or a Sister of Charity, many of
+whom have been the daughters of princes and nobles? They resign to
+their clergy and superiors not only the control of their wealth but
+their time, labor, and conscience. In doing this, the Roman Catholic
+lady is honored and admired as a saint, while taught that she is doing
+more than her duty, and is thus laying up a store of good works to
+repay for her own past deficiencies, and also to purchase grace and
+pardon for humbler sinners. If this is really believed, how soothing
+to a wounded conscience! And what a strong appeal to generous and
+Christian feeling! And the more terrific the pictures of purgatory and
+hell, the stronger the appeal to these humane and benevolent principles.
+
+But how would it be with the Protestant woman practicing such
+self-denial? For example, the lady of wealth and culture, who gave up
+her property and time to provide a home for incurables--would her
+pastor say she was doing _more_ than her duty? and if not, would
+he preach to other rich women who, in other ways, could humble
+themselves to raise up the poor, the ignorant, and the sinful, that
+they are doing _less_ than their duty?
+
+Is it not sometimes the case, that both minister and people, by example,
+at least, seem to teach that, the more riches increase, the less demand
+there is for economy, labor, and self-denial for the benefit of the
+destitute and the sinful?
+
+Protestants are little aware of the strong attractions which, are
+drawing pious and benevolent women toward the Roman Catholic Church,
+To the poor and neglected: in humble life are offered a quiet home,
+with sympathy, and honored work. To the refined and ambitious are
+offered the best society and high positions of honor and trust. To the
+sinful are offered pardon for past offenses and a fresh supply of
+"grace" for all acts of penitence or of benevolence. To the anxiously
+conscientious, perplexed with contentions as to doctrines and duties,
+are offered an infallible pope and clergy to decide what is truth and.
+duty, and what is the true interpretation of the Bible, while they are
+taught that the "faith" which saves the soul is implicit belief in the
+teachings of the Roman Catholic Church. All this enables many, even
+of the intelligent, to receive the other parts of a system that
+contradicts both common sense and the Bible.
+
+Meantime, a highly educated priesthood, with no family ties to distract
+attention, are organizing and employing devoted, self-denying women,
+all over the land, to perform the distinctive work that Protestant
+women, if wisely trained and organized by their clergy, could carry
+out in thousands of scattered Christian homes and villages.
+
+In the Protestant churches, women are educated only to be married; and
+when not married, there is no position provided which is deemed as
+honorable as that of a wife. But in the Roman Catholic Church, the
+unmarried woman who devotes herself to works of Christian benevolence
+is the most highly honored, and has a place of comfort and
+respectability provided which is suited to her education and capacity.
+Thus come great nunneries, with lady superiors to control conscience
+and labor and wealth.
+
+But a time is coming when the family state is to be honored and ennobled
+by single women, qualified to sustain it by their own industries; women
+who will both support and train the children of their Lord and Master
+in the true style of Protestant independence, controlled by no superior
+but Jesus Christ. And in the Bible they will find the Father of the
+faithful, to both Jews and Gentiles, their great exemplar. For nearly
+one hundred years Abraham had no child of his own; but his household,
+whom he trained to the number of three hundred and eighteen, were
+children of others. And he was the friend of God, chosen to be father
+of many nations, because he would "command his household to do justice
+and judgment and keep the way of the Lord."
+
+The woman who from true love consents to resign her independence and
+be supported by another, while she bears children and trains them for
+heaven, has a noble mission; but the woman who earns her own
+independence that she may train the neglected children of her Lord and
+Saviour has a still higher one. And a day is coming when Protestant
+women will be _trained_ for this their highest ministry and profession
+as they never yet have been.
+
+
+
+
+XXXVII.
+
+THE CHRISTIAN NEIGHBORHOOD.
+
+
+The spirit of Christian missions to heathen lands and the organizations
+to carry them forward commenced, in most Protestant lands, within the
+last century. The writer can remember the time when an annual collection
+for domestic missions was all the call for such benefactions in a
+wealthy New-England parish; while such small pittances were customary
+that the sight of a dollar-bill in the collection, even from the richest
+men of the church-members, produced a sensation.
+
+In the intervening period since that time, the usual mode of extending
+the Gospel among the heathen has been for a few of the most
+self-sacrificing men and women to give up country and home and all the
+comforts and benefits of a Christian community, and then commence the
+family state amid such vice and debasement that it was ruinous to
+children to be trained in its midst. And so the result has been, in
+multitudes of cases, that children were born only to be sent from
+parents to be trained by strangers, and the true "Christian family"
+could not be exhibited in heathen lands. And as a Christian
+neighborhood, in its strictest sense, consists of a collection of
+Christian families, such a community has been impossible in most cases
+among the heathen.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75]
+
+When our Lord ascended, his last command was "Go ye into all the world,
+and preach the Gospel to _every_ creature." For ages, most Christian
+people have supposed this command was limited to the apostles.
+In the present day, it has been extended to Include a few men and
+women, who should practice the chief labor and self-sacrifice, while
+most of the church lived at ease, and supposed they were obeying this
+command, by giving a small portion of their abundance to support those
+who performed the chief labor and self-sacrifice.
+
+But a time is coming when Christian churches will under stand this
+command in a much more comprehensive sense; and the "Christian family"
+and "Christian neighborhood" will be the grand ministry of salvation.
+In order to assist in making this a practicable anticipation, some
+additional drawings are given in this chapter. The aim is to illustrate
+one mode of commencing a Christian neighborhood that is so economical
+and practical that two or three ladies, with very moderate means, could
+carry it out.
+
+A small church, a school-house, and a comfortable family dwelling may
+all be united in one building, and for a very moderate sum, as will
+be illustrated by the following example.
+
+At the head of the first chapter is a sketch which represents a
+perspective view of the kind of edifice indicated. On the opposite
+page (Fig. 75) is an enlarged and more exact view of the front elevation
+of the same, which is now building in one of the most Southern States,
+where tropical plants flourish. The three magnificent trees on the
+drawing heading the first chapter are live-oaks adorned with moss,
+rising over one hundred feet high and being some thirty or more feet
+in circumference. Nearly under their shadow is the building to be
+described.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76.]
+
+Fig. 76 is the ground plan, which includes one large room twenty-five
+feet wide and thirty-five feet long, having a bow window at one end,
+and a kitchen at the other end. The bow-window has folding-doors,
+closed during the week, and within is the pulpit for Sunday service.
+The large room may be divided either by a movable screen or by sliding
+doors with a large closet on either side. The doors make a more perfect
+separation; but the screen affords more room for storing family
+conveniences, and also secured more perfect ventilation for the whole
+large room by the exhaust-flue.
+
+Thus, through the week, the school can be in one division, and the
+other still a sizable room, and the kitchen be used for teaching
+domestic economy and also for the eating-room. Oil Sunday, if there
+is a movable screen, it can be moved back to the fireplace; or
+otherwise, the sliding--doors may be opened, giving the whole space
+to the congregation. The chimney is finished off outside as a steeple.
+It incloses a cast-iron or terra cotta pipe, which receives the
+stove-pipe of the kitchen and also pipes connecting the two fireplaces
+with the large pipe, and finds exit above the slats of the steeple at
+the projections. Thus the chimney is made an exhaust shaft for carrying
+off vitiated air from all the rooms both above and below, which have
+openings into it made for the purpose.
+
+Two good-sized chambers are over the large lower story, as shown in
+Fig. 77. Large closets are each side of these chambers, where are
+slatted openings to admit pure air; and under these openings are
+registers placed to enable pure air to pass through the floor into the
+large room below. Thus a perfect mode of ventilation is secured for
+a large number.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77.]
+
+On Sunday, the folding-doors of the bow-window are to be opened for
+the pulpit, the sliding-doors opened, or the screen moved back, and
+camp-chairs brought from the adjacent closet to seat a congregation
+of worshipers.
+
+During the week, the family work is to be done in the kitchen, and the
+room adjacent be used for both a school and an eating-room. Here the
+aim will be, during the week, to collect the children of the
+neighborhood, to be taught not only to read, write, and cipher, but
+to perform in the best manner all the practical duties of the family
+state. Two ladies residing in this building can make an illustration
+of the highest kind of "Christian family," by adopting two orphans,
+keeping in training one or two servants to send out for the benefit
+of other families, and also providing for an invalid or aged member
+of Christ's neglected ones. Here also they could employ boys and girls
+in various kinds of floriculture, horticulture, bee-raising, and other
+out-door employments, by which an income could be received and young
+men and women trained to industry and thrift, so as to earn an
+independent livelihood.
+
+The above attempt has been made where, in a circuit of fifty miles,
+with a thriving population, not a single church is open for Sunday
+worship, and not a school to be found except what is provided by
+faithful Roman Catholic nuns, who, indeed, are found engaged in similar
+labors all over our country. The cost of such a building, where lumber
+is $50 a hundred and labor $3 a day, would not much exceed $1200.
+
+Such destitute settlements abound all over the West and South, while,
+along the Pacific coast, China and Japan are sending their pagan
+millions to share our favored soil, climate, and government.
+
+Meantime, throughout our older States are multitudes of benevolent,
+well-educated, Christian women in unhealthful factories, offices, and
+shops; and many, also, living in refined leisure, who yet are pining
+for an opportunity to aid in carrying the Gospel to the destitute.
+Nothing is needed but _funds_ that are in the keeping of thousands of
+Christ's professed disciples, and _organisations_ for this end, which
+are at the command of the Protestant clergy.
+
+Let such a truly "Christian family" be instituted in any destitute
+settlement, and soon its gardens and fields would cause "the desert
+to blossom as the rose," and around would soon gather a "Christian
+neighborhood." The school-house would no longer hold the multiplying
+worshipers. A central church would soon appear, with its appended
+accommodations for literary and social gatherings and its appliances
+for safe and healthful amusements.
+
+The cheering example would soon spread, and ere long colonies from
+these prosperous and Christian communities would go forth to shine as
+"lights of the world" in all the now darkened nations. Thus the
+"Christian family," and "Christian neighborhood" would become the grand
+ministry, as they were designed to be, in training our whole race for
+heaven.
+
+This final chapter should not close without a few encouraging words
+to those who, in view of the many difficult duties urged in these
+pages, sorrowfully review their past mistakes and deficiencies. None
+can do this more sincerely than the writer. How many things have been
+done unwisely even with good motives! How many have been left undone
+that the light of present knowledge would have secured!
+
+In this painful review, the good old Bible comes as the abundant
+comforter. The Epistle to the Romans was written especially to meet
+such regrets and fears. It teaches that all men are sinners, in many
+cases from ignorance of what is right, and in many from stress of
+temptation, so that neither Greek nor Jew can boast of his own
+righteousness. For it is not "by works of righteousness" that we are
+to be considered and treated as righteous persons, but through a "faith
+that _works by love_;" that _faith_ or _belief_ which is not a mere
+intellectual conviction, but a _controlling purpose_ or spiritual
+principle which _habitually controls_ the feelings and conduct. And so
+long as there is this constant aim and purpose to obey Christ in all
+things, mistakes in judgment as to what is right and wrong are pitied,
+"even as a father pitieth his children," when from ignorance they run
+into harm. And even the most guilty transgressors are freely forgiven
+when truly repentant and faithfully striving to forsake the error of
+their ways.
+
+Moreover, this tender and pitiful Saviour is the Almighty One who rules
+both this and the invisible world, and who "from every evil still
+educes good." This life is but the infant period of our race, and much
+that we call evil, in his wise and powerful ruling may be for the
+highest good of all concerned.
+
+The Blessed Word also cheers us with pictures of a dawning day to which
+we are approaching, when a voice shall be heard under the whole heavens,
+saying, "Alleluia"--"the kingdoms of this world are become the kingdoms
+of our Lord and of his Christ, and he shall reign forever and ever."
+And "a great voice out of heaven" will proclaim, "Behold, the tabernacle
+of God is with men, and he shall dwell with them, and they shall be
+his people. And God himself shall be with them, and be their God. And
+God shall wipe away all tears from their eyes; and there shall be no
+more death, neither sorrow, nor crying; neither shall there be any
+more pain; for the former things are passed away."
+
+The author still can hear the echoes of early life, when her father's
+voice read to her listening mother in exulting tones the poet's version
+of this millennial consummation, which was the inspiring vision of his
+long life-labors--a consummation to which all their children were
+consecrated, and which some of them may possibly live to behold.
+
+  "O scenes surpassing fable, and yet true!
+  Scenes of accomplished bliss! which who can see,
+  Though but in distant prospect, and not feel
+  His soul refreshed with foretaste of the joy!
+
+  "Rivers of gladness water all the earth,
+  And clothe all climes with beauty; the reproach
+  Of barrenness is past. The fruitful field
+  Laughs with abundance; and the land once lean,
+  Or fertile only in its own disgrace,
+  Exults to see its thistly curse repealed.
+
+  "Error has no place:
+  That creeping pestilence is driven away;
+  The breath of Heaven has chased it. In the heart
+  No passion touches a discordant string,
+  But all is harmony and love. Disease
+  Is not: the pure and uncontaminate blood
+  Holds its due course, nor fears the frost of age.
+
+   One song employs all nations; and all cry,
+  'Worthy the Lamb, for he was slain for us!'
+  The dwellers in the vales and on the rocks
+  Shout to each other; and the mountain-tops
+  From distant mountains catch the flying joy;
+  Till, nation after nation taught the strain,
+
+  "Behold the measure of the promise filled!
+  See Salem built, the labor of a God!
+  Bright as a sun the sacred city shines;
+  All kingdoms and all princes of the earth
+  Flock to that light; the glory of all lands
+  Flows into her; unbounded is her joy,
+  And endless her increase. Thy rams are there,
+  Nebaioth, and the flocks of Kedar there;
+  The looms of Ormus and the mines of Ind,
+  And Saba's spicy groves pay tribute there.
+
+  "Praise is in all her gates: upon her walls,
+  And in her streets, and in her spacious courts,
+  Is heard salvation. Eastern Java there
+  Kneels with the native of the farthest west;
+  And Athiopia spreads abroad the hand,
+  And worships. Her report has traveled forth
+  Into all lands. From every clime they come
+  To see thy beauty, and to share thy joy,
+  O Zion! an assembly such as earth
+  Saw never, such as Heaven stoops down to see!"
+  [Footnote: Cowper's _Task_.]
+
+
+
+
+AN APPEAL TO AMERICAN WOMEN BY THE SENIOR AUTHOR OF THIS VOLUME.
+
+
+My honored countrywomen:
+
+It is now over forty years that I have been seeking to elevate the
+character and condition of our sex, relying, as to earthly aid, chiefly
+on your counsel and cooperation. I am sorrowful at results that have
+followed these and similar efforts, and ask your sympathy and aid.
+
+Let me commence with a brief outline of the past. I commenced as an
+educator in the city of Hartford, Ct., when only the primary branches
+and one or two imperfect accomplishments were the ordinary school
+education, and was among the first pioneers in seeking to introduce
+some of the higher branches. The staid, conservative citizen's queried
+of what use to women were Latin, Geometry, and Algebra, and wondered
+at a request for six recitation rooms and a study-hall for a school
+of nearly a hundred, who had as yet only one room. The appeal was then
+made to benevolent, intelligent women, and by their influence all that
+was sought was liberally bestowed.
+
+But the course of study then attempted was scarcely half of what is
+now pursued in most of our colleges for young women, while there has
+been added a round and extent of accomplishments then unknown. Yet
+this moderate amount so stimulated brain and nerves, and so excited
+competition, that it became needful to enforce a rule, requiring a
+daily report, that only two hours a day had been devoted to study out
+of school hours. Even this did not avail to save from injured health
+both the teacher who projected these improvements and many of her
+pupils. This example and that of similar institutions spread all over
+the nation, with constantly increasing demand for more studies, and
+decreasing value and respect for domestic pursuits and duties.
+
+Ten years of such intellectual excitement exhausted the nervous
+fountain, and my profession as a school-teacher was ended.
+
+The next attempt was to introduce Domestic Economy as _a science to
+be studied_ in schools for girls. For a while it seemed to succeed;
+but ere long was crowded out by Political Economy and many other
+economies, except those most needed to prepare a woman for her
+difficult and sacred duties.
+
+In the progress of years, it came to pass that the older States teemed
+with educated women, qualified for no other department of woman's
+profession but that of a schoolteacher, while the newer States abounded
+in children without schools.
+
+I again appealed to my countrywomen for help, addressing them through
+the press and also by the assistance of a brother (in assemblies in
+many chief cities) in order to raise funds to support an agent. The
+funds were bestowed, and thus the services of Governor Slade were
+secured, and, mainly by these agencies, nearly one thousand teachers
+were provided with schools, chiefly in the West.
+
+Meantime, the intellectual taxation in both private and public schools,
+the want of proper ventilation in both families and schools, the want
+of domestic exercise which is so valuable to the feminine constitution,
+the pernicious modes of dress, and the prevailing neglect of the laws
+of health, resulted in the general decay of health among women. At the
+same time, the overworking of the brain and nerves, and the "cramming"
+system of study, resulted in a deficiency of mental development which
+is very marked. It is now a subject of general observation that young
+women, at this day, are decidedly inferior in mental power to those
+of an earlier period, notwithstanding their increased advantages. For
+the mind, crowded with undigested matter, is debilitated the same as
+is the body by over-feeding,
+
+Recent scientific investigations give the philosophy of these results.
+For example, Professor Houghton, of Trinity College, Dublin, gives as
+one item of protracted experiments in animal chemistry, that two hours
+of severe study abstracts as much vital strength as is demanded by a
+whole day of manual labor. The reports of the Massachusetts Board of
+Education add other facts that, in this connection, should be deeply
+pondered. For example, in one public school of eighty-five pupils only
+fifty-four had refreshing sleep; fifty-nine had headaches or constant
+weariness, and only fifteen were perfectly well. In this school it was
+found, and similar facts are common in all our public and high schools,
+that, in addition to six school-hours, thirty-one studied three hours
+and a half; thirty-five, four hours; and twelve, from four to seven
+hours. And yet the most learned medical men maintain that the time
+devoted to brain labor, daily, should not exceed six hours for healthy
+men, and three hours for growing children.
+
+Alarmed at the dangerous tendencies of female education, I made another
+appeal to my sex, which resulted in the organization of the American
+Woman's Education Association, the object being to establish
+_endowed_ professional schools, in connection with literary
+institutions, in which woman's profession should be honored and taught
+as are the professions of men, and where woman should be trained for
+some self-supporting business. From this effort several institutions
+of a high literary character have come into existence at the West, but
+the organization and endowment of the professional schools is yet
+incomplete from many combining impediments, the chief being a want of
+appreciation of woman's profession, and of the _science_ and _training_
+which its high and sacred duties require. But the reports of the
+Association will show that never before were such superior intellectual
+advantages secured to a new country by so economical an outlay.
+
+Let us now look at the dangers which are impending. And first, in
+regard to the welfare of the family state, the decay of the female
+constitution and health has involved such terrific sufferings, in
+addition to former cares and pains of maternity, that multitudes of
+both sexes so dread the risks of marriage as either to avoid it, or
+meet them by methods _always_ injurious and often criminal. Not
+only so, multitudes of intelligent and conscientious persons, in private
+and by the press, unaware of the penalties of violating nature, openly
+impugn the inspired declaration, "Children are a heritage of the Lord."
+
+Add to these, other influences that are robbing home of its safe and
+peaceful enjoyments. Of such, the condition of domestic service is not
+the least. We abound in domestic helpers from foreign shores, but they
+are to a large extent thriftless, ignorant, and unscrupulous, while
+as thriftless and inexperienced housekeepers, from boarding-school
+life, have no ability to train or to control. Hence come antagonism
+and ceaseless "worries" in the parlor, nursery, and kitchen, while the
+husband is wearied with endless complaints of breakage, waste of fuel
+and food, neglect, dishonesty, and deception, and home is any thing
+but a harbor of comfort and peace. Thus come clubs to draw men from
+comfortless homes, and, next, clubs for the deserted women.
+
+Meantime, domestic service--disgraced, on one side, by the stigma of
+our late slavery, and, on the other, by the influx into our kitchens
+of the uncleanly and ignorant--is shunned by the self-respecting and
+well educated, many of whom prefer either a miserable pittance or the
+career of vice to this fancied degradation. Thus comes the overcrowding
+in all avenues for woman's work, and the consequent lowering of wages
+to starvation prices for long protracted toils.
+
+From this come diseases to the operatives, bequeathed often to their
+offspring. Factory girls must stand ten hours or more, and consequently
+in a few years debility and disease ensue, so that they never can rear
+healthy children, while the foreigners who supplant them in kitchen
+labor are almost the only strong and healthy women to rear large
+families. The sewing-machine, hailed as a blessing, has proved a curse
+to the poor; for it takes away profits from needlewomen, while employers
+testify that women who use this machine for steady work, in two years
+or less become hopelessly diseased and can rear no children. Thus it
+is that the controlling political majority of New-England is passing
+from the educated to the children of ignorant foreigners.
+
+Add to these disastrous influences, the teachings of "free love;" the
+baneful influence of spiritualism, so called; the fascinations of the
+_demi-monde_; the poverty of thousands of women who, but for
+desperate temptations, would be pure--all these malign influences are
+sapping the foundations of the family state. Meantime, many intelligent
+and benevolent persons imagine that the grand remedy for the heavy
+evils that oppress our sex is to introduce woman to political power
+and office, to make her a party in primary political meetings, in
+political caucuses, and in the scramble and fight for political offices;
+thus bringing into this dangerous _melee_ the distinctive tempting
+power of her sex. Who can look at this new danger without dismay?
+But it is neither generous nor wise to join in the calumny and ridicule
+that are directed toward philanthropic and conscientious laborers for
+the good of our sex, because we fear their methods are not safe. It
+would be far wiser to show by example a better way.
+
+Let us suppose that our friends have gained the ballot and the powers
+of office: are there any real beneficent measures for our sex, which
+they would enforce by law and penalties, that fathers, brothers, and
+husbands would not grant to a united petition of our sex, or even to
+a majority of the wise and good? Would these not confer what the wives,
+mothers, and sisters deemed best for themselves and the children they
+are to train, very much sooner than they would give power and office
+to our sex to enforce these advantages by law? Would it not be a wiser
+thing to _ask_ for what we need, before trying so circuitous and
+dangerous a method? God has given to man the physical power, so that
+all that woman may gain, either by petitions or by ballot, will be the
+gift of love or of duty; and the ballot never will be accorded till
+benevolent and conscientious men are the majority--a millennial point
+far beyond our present ken.
+
+The American Woman's Education Association aims at a plan which its
+members believe, in its full development, will more effectually remedy
+the "wrongs of woman" than any other urged on public notice. Its general
+aim has been stated; its details will appear at another time and place.
+Its managers include ladies of high character and position from six
+religious denominations, and also some of the most reliable business
+men of New York. Any person who is desirous to aid by contributions
+to this object can learn more of the details of the plan by addressing
+me at No. 69 West Thirty-eighth Street. But it is needful to state
+that letters from those who seek aid or employment of any sort can not
+be answered at present, nor for some months to come.
+
+Every woman who wishes to aid in this effort for the safety and
+elevation of our sex can do so by promoting the sale of this work, and
+its introduction as a text-book into schools. An edition for the use
+of schools will be in readiness next fall, which will contain school
+exercises, and questions that will promote thought and discussion in
+classrooms, in reference to various topics included in the science of
+Domestic Economy. And it is hoped that a previous large sale of the
+present volume will prepare the public mind to favor the introduction
+of this branch of study into both public and private schools. Ladies
+who write for the press, and all those who have influence with editors,
+can aid by directing general attention to this effort.
+
+All the profits of the authors derived from the edition of this volume
+prepared for schools, will be paid into the Treasury of the A. W.E.
+Association, and the amount will be stated in the annual reports.
+
+The complementary volume of this work will follow in a few months, and
+will consist, to a great extent, of _receipts and directions_ in
+all branches of domestic economy, especially in the department of
+_healthful and economical cooking_. The most valuable receipts
+in my _Domestic Receipt Book_, heretofore published by the Harpers,
+will be retained, and a very large number added of new ones, which are
+healthful, economical, and in many cases ornamental. One special aim
+will be to point out modes of _economizing labor_ in preparing food.
+
+Many directions will be given that will save from purchasing poisonous
+milk, meats, beers, and other medicated drinks. Directions for detecting
+poisonous ingredients in articles for preserving the hair, and in
+cosmetics for the complexion, which now are ruining health, eyesight,
+and comfort all over the nation, will also be given.
+
+Particular attention will be given to modes of preparing and preserving
+clothing, at once economical, healthful, and in good taste.
+
+A large portion of the book will be devoted to instruction, in the
+various ways in which women may _earn an independent livelihood_,
+especially in employments that can be pursued in sunlight and the open
+air.
+
+Should any who read this work wish for more minute directions in regard
+to ventilation of a house already built, or one projected, they can
+obtain his aid by addressing Lewis Leeds, No. 110 Broadway, New York
+City. His associate, Mr. Herman Kreitler, who prepared the architectural
+plans in this work relating to Mr. Leeds's system, can be addressed
+at the same place.
+
+CATHARINE E. BEECHER.
+
+NEW YORK, June 1, 1869.
+
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+GLOSSARY OF SUCH WORDS AND PHRASES AS MAY NOT EASILY BE UNDERSTOOD BY
+THE YOUNG READER
+
+[Many words not contained in this GLOSSARY will be found explained in
+the body of the work, in the places where they first occur.]
+
+
+_Action brought by the Commonwealth:_ A prosecution conducted in the
+name of the public, or by the authority of the State.
+
+_Albumen:_ Nourishing matter stored up between the undeveloped germ and
+its protecting wrappings in the seed of many plants. It is the flowery
+part of grain, the oily part of poppy seeds, the fleshy part in cocoa-
+nuts, etc.
+
+_Alcoholic:_ Made of or containing alcohol, an inflammable liquid which
+is the basis of ardent spirits.
+
+_Alkali,_ (plural, _alkalies:_) A chemical substance, which has the
+property of combining with and neutralizing the properties of acids,
+producing salts by the combination. Alkalies change most of the
+vegetable blues and purples to green, red to purple, and yellow to
+brown. _Caustic alkali:_ An alkali deprived of all impurities,
+being thereby rendered more caustic and violent in its operation. This
+term is usually applied to pure potash. _Fixed alkali:_ An alkali
+that emits no characteristic smell, and can not be volatilized or
+evaporated without great difficulty. Potash and soda are called the
+fixed alkalies. Soda is also called a _fossil_ or _mineral alkali,_ and
+potash the _vegetable alkali. Volatile alkali:_ An elastic, transparent,
+colorless, and consequently an invisible gas, known by the name of
+ammonia or ammoniacal gas. The odor of spirits of hartshorn is caused by
+this gas.
+
+_Anglo-American:_ English-American, relating to Americans descended
+from English ancestors.
+
+_Anther:_ That part of the stamen of a flower which contains the pollen
+or farina, a sort of mealy powder or dust, which is necessary to the
+production of the flower.
+
+_Anthracite:_ One of the must valuable kinds of mineral coal, containing
+no bitumen. It is very abundant in the United States.
+
+_Aperient:_ Opening.
+
+_Archaology:_ A discourse or treatise on antiquities.
+
+_Arrow-root_: A white powder, obtained from the fecula or starch, of
+several species of tuberous plants in the East and West Indies, Bermuda,
+and other places. That from Bermuda is most highly esteemed. It is used
+as an article for the table, in the form of puddings, and also as a
+highly nutritive, easily digested, and agreeable food for invalids. It
+derives its name from having been originally used by the Indians as a
+remedy for the poison of their arrows, by mashing and applying it to the
+wound.
+
+_Articulating process_: The protuberance or projecting part of a bone,
+by which it is so joined to another bone as to enable the two to move
+upon each other.
+
+_Asceticism_: The state of an ascetic or hermit, who flies from
+society and lives in retirement, or who practices a greater degree of
+mortification and austerity than others do, or who inflicts
+extraordinary severities upon himself.
+
+_Astral lamp_: A lamp, the principle of which was invented by
+Benjamin Thompson, (a native of Massachusetts, and afterward Count
+Rumford,) in which the oil is contained in a large horizontal ring,
+having at the centre a burner which communicates with the ring by
+tubes. The ring is placed a little below the level of the flame, and
+from its large surface affords a supply of oil for many hours.
+
+_Astute_: Shrewd.
+
+_Auricles_: (From a Latin word, signifying the ear,) the name given to
+two appendages of the heart, from their fancied resemblance to the ear.
+
+_Baglivi, (George)_: An eminent physician, who was born at Ragusa,
+in 1668, and was educated at Naples and Paris. Pope Clement XIV., on
+the ground of his great merit, appointed him, while a very young man,
+Professor of Anatomy and Surgery in the College of Sapienza, at Rome.
+He wrote several works, and did much to promote the cause of medical
+science. He died A.D. 1706.
+
+_Bass_, or bass-wood: A large forest-tree of America, sometimes called
+the lime-tree. The wood is white and soft, and the bark is sometimes
+used for bandages.
+
+_Bell, Sir Charles_: A celebrated surgeon, who was born in Edinburgh, in
+the year 1778. He commenced his career in London, in 1806, as a lecturer
+on Anatomy and Surgery. In 1830, he received the honors of knighthood,
+and in 1836 was appointed Professor of Surgery in the College of
+Edinburgh. He died near Worcester, in England, April 29th, 1842. His
+writings are very numerous and have been, much celebrated. Among the
+most important of these, to general readers, are his _Illustrations of
+Paley's Natural Theology_, and his treatise on _The Hand, its Mechanism
+and Vital Endowments, as evincing Design_.
+
+_Bergamot_: A fruit which was originally produced by ingrafting a branch
+of a citron or lemon-tree upon the stock of a peculiar kind of pear,
+called the bergamot pear.
+
+_Biased_: Cut diagonally from one corner to another of a square or
+rectangular piece of cloth.
+
+_Bias pieces_: Triangular pieces cut as above mentioned.
+
+_Bituminous_: Containing _bitumen_, which is an inflammable mineral
+substance, resembling tar or pitch in its properties and uses. Among
+different bituminous substances, the names _naphtha_ and _petrolium_
+have been given to those which are fluid, _maltha_, to that which has
+the consistence of pitch, and _asphaltum_ to that which is solid.
+
+_Blight_: A disease in plants by which they are blasted, or prevented
+from producing fruit.
+
+_Blonde lace_: Lace made of silk.
+
+_Blood heat_: The temperature which the blood is always found to
+maintain, or ninety-eight degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer.
+
+_Blue vitriol_: Sulphate of copper.
+
+_Blunts_: Needles of a short and thick shape, distinguished from
+_Sharps_, which are long and slender.
+
+_Booking_: A kind of thin carpeting or coarse baize.
+
+_Botany_: (From a Greek word signifying an herb,) a knowledge of
+plants; the science which treats of plants.
+
+_Brazil wood_: The central part or heart of a large tree which
+grows in Brazil, called the _Caesalpinia echinata_. It produces
+very lively and beautiful red tints, but they are not permanent.
+
+_Bronze_: A metallic composition, consisting of copper and tin.
+
+_Brulure_: A French term, denoting a burning or scalding; a blasting of
+plants.
+
+_Brussels_, (carpet:) A kind of carpeting, so called from the city of
+Brussels, in Europe. Its basis is composed of a warp and woof of strong
+linen threads, with the warp of which are intermixed about five times
+the quantity of woolen threads of different colors.
+
+_Bulb_: A root with a round body, like the onion, turnip, or hyacinth.
+
+_Bulbous_: Having a bulb.
+
+_Byron, (George Gordon,) Lord_: A celebrated poet, who was born in
+London, January 23d, 1788, and died in Missolonghi, in Greece, April
+18th, 1824.
+
+_Calisthenics_: From two Greek words--_kalos_, beauty, and _sthenos_,
+strength, being the union of both.
+
+_Camwood_: A dyewood, procured from a leguminous (or pod-bearing)
+tree, growing on the western coast of Africa, and called _Baphianitida_.
+
+ _Canker-worm_: A worm which is very destructive to trees and plants.
+It springs from an egg deposited by a miller that issues from the
+ground, and in some years destroys the leaves and fruit of apple and
+other trees.
+
+_Capillary_: A minute, hair-like tube.
+
+_Carbon_: A simple, inflammable body, forming the principal part
+of wood and coal, and the whole of the diamond.
+
+_Carbonic acid:_ A compound gas, consisting of one part of carbon
+and two parts of oxygen; fatal to animal life. It has lately been
+obtained in a solid form.
+
+_Carbonic Oxide:_ A compound, consisting of one part of carbon and one
+part of oxygen; it is fatal to animal life. Burns with a pale, blue
+flame, forming carbonic acid.
+
+_Carmine:_ A crimson color, the most beautiful of all the reds. It is
+prepared from a decoction of the powdered cochineal insect, to which
+alum and other substances are added.
+
+_Caseine:_ One of the great forms of blood-making matter; the
+cheesy or curd-part of milk; found in both animal and vegetable
+kingdoms.
+
+_Caster:_ A small vial or vessel for the table, in which to put
+vinegar, mustard, pepper, etc. Also, a small wheel on a swivel-joint,
+on which furniture may be turned in any direction.
+
+_Chancellor of the Exchequer: In England, the highest judge of the
+law; the principal financial minister of a government, and the one who
+manages its revenue.
+
+_Chateau:_ A castle, a mansion.
+
+_Chemistry:_ The science which treats of the elementary constituents of
+bodies.
+
+_Chinese belle,_ deformities of: In China, it is the fashion to compress
+the feet of female infants, to prevent their growth; in consequence of
+which, the feet of all the females of China are distorted, and so small
+that the individuals can not walk with ease.
+
+_Chloride:_ A compound of chlorine and some other substance.
+
+_Chlorine_ is a simple substance, formerly called oxymuriatic acid. In
+its pure state, it is a gas of green color, (hence its name, from a
+Greek word signifying green.) Like oxygen, it supports the combustion of
+some inflammable substances. _Chloride of lime_ in a compound of
+chlorine and lime.
+
+_Cholera infantum:_ A bowel-complaint to which infants are subject.
+
+_Chyle:_ A white juice formed from the chyme, and consisting of the
+finer and more nutritious parts of the food. It is afterward converted
+into blood.
+
+_Chyme:_ The result of the first process which food undergoes in the
+stomach previously to its being converted into chyle.
+
+_Cicuta:_ The common American hemlock, an annual plant of four or five
+feet in height, and found commonly along walls and fences and about old
+ruins and buildings. It is a virulent poison as well as one of the most
+important and valuable medicinal vegetables. It is a very different
+plant from the hemlock-tree or _Pinus Canadiensis_.
+
+_Clarke, (Sir Charles Mansfield,) Dr.:_ A distinguished English
+physician and surgeon, who was born, in London, May 28th, 1783. Ha was
+appointed physician to Queen Adelaide, wife of King William IV., in
+1830, and in 1831 he was created a baronet. He was the author of several
+valuable medical works.
+
+_Cobalt:_ A brittle metal, of a reddish-gray color and weak
+metallic lustre, used in coloring glass. It is not easily melted nor
+oxidized in the air.
+
+_Cochineal:_ A color procured from the cochineal insect, (or
+_Coccus cacti,_) which feeds upon the leaves of several species
+of the plant called cactus, and which is supposed to derive its coloring
+matter from its food. Its natural color is crimson; but, by the addition
+of a preparation of potash, it yields a rich scarlet dye.
+
+_Cologne-water:_ A fragrant perfume, which derives its name from
+having been originally made in the city of Cologne, which is situated
+on the river Rhine, in Germany. The best kind is still procured from
+that city.
+
+_Comparative anatomy:_ The science which has for its object a comparison
+of the anatomy, structure, and functions of the various organs of
+animals, plants, etc., with those of the human body.
+
+_Confection:_ A sweetmeat; a preparation of fruit with sugar; also a
+preparation of medicine with honey, syrup, or similar saccharine
+substance, for the purpose of disguising the unpleasant taste of the
+medicine.
+
+_Cooper, Sir Astley Paston:_ A celebrated English surgeon, who was born
+at Brooke, in Norfolk county, England, August 23d, 1768, and commenced
+the practice of surgery in London, in 1792. He was appointed surgeon to
+King George IV. in 1827, was created a baronet in 1831, and died
+February 12th, 1841. He was the author of many valuable works.
+
+_Copal:_ A hard, shining, transparent resin, of a light citron color,
+brought originally from Spanish-America, and now almost wholly from the
+East-Indies. It is principally employed in the preparation of _copal
+varnish._
+
+_Copper, Sulphate of:_ See _Sulphate of copper.
+
+_Copperas:_ (Sulphate of iron or green vitriol,) a bright green
+mineral substance, formed by the decomposition of a peculiar ore of
+iron called pyrites, which is a sulphuret of iron. It is first in the
+form of a greenish-white powder or crust, which is dissolved in water,
+and beautiful green crystals of copperas are obtained by evaporation.
+It is principally used in dyeing and in making black ink. Its solution,
+mixed with a decoction of oak bark, produces a black color.
+
+_Coronary:_ Relating to a crown or garland. In anatomy, it is
+applied to arteries which encompass the heart, in the manner, as it
+is fancied, of a garland.
+
+_Corrosive sublimate:_ A poisonous substance composed of chlorine
+and quicksilver.
+
+_Cosmetics:_ Preparations which, some people foolishly think will
+preserve and beautify the skin.
+
+_Cream of tartar_: See _Tartar_.
+
+_Curculio_: A weevil or worm, which affects the fruit of the
+plum-tree and sometimes that of the apple-tree, causing the unripe
+fruit to fall to the ground.
+
+_Cuvier, Baron_: The moat eminent naturalist of the present age;
+was born A. D. 1769, and died A.D. 1832. He was Professor of Natural
+History in the College of France, and held various important posts
+under the French government at different times. His works on Natural
+History are of the greatest value.
+
+_Cynosure_: The constellation of the Lesser Bear, containing the star
+near the North Pole, by which sailors steer. It is used, in a figurative
+sense, as synonymous with _pole-star_ or _guide_, or anything to which
+the eyes of many are directed.
+
+_De Tocqueville_: See _Tocqueville_.
+
+_Diamond cement_: A cement sold in the shops, and used for mending
+broken glass and similar articles.
+
+_Drab_: A thick woolen cloth, of a light brown or dun color. The
+name is sometimes used for the color itself.
+
+_Dredging-box_: A box with holes in the top, used to sift or scatter
+flour on meat when roasting.
+
+_Drill_: (In husbandry,) to sow grain in rows, drills, or channels;
+the row of grain so sowed.
+
+_Duchess of Orleans_: See _Orleans_.
+
+The _East_, and the _Eastern States_: Those of the United States
+situated in the north-east part of the country, including Maine,
+New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Vermont.
+
+_Elevation_, (of a house:) A plan representing the upright view
+of a house, as a ground-plan shows its appearance on the ground.
+
+_Euclid_: A celebrated mathematician, who was born in Alexandria,
+in Egypt, about two hundred and eighty years before Christ. He
+distinguished himself by his writings on music and geometry. The most
+celebrated of his works is his _Elements of Geometry_, which is in use
+at the present day. He established a school at Alexandria, which became
+so famous that, from his time to the conquest of Alexandria by the
+Saracens, (A.D. 646,) no mathematician was found who had not studied
+at Alexandria. Ptolemy, King of Egypt, was one of his pupils; and it
+was to a question of this king, whether there was not a shorter way
+of coming at geometry than by the study of his _Elements_, that Euclid
+made the celebrated answer, "There is no royal path to geometry."
+
+_Equator_ or _equinoctial line_: An imaginary line passing round the
+earth, from east to west and directly under the sun, which always shines
+nearly perpendicularly down upon all countries situated near the
+equator.
+
+_Evolve_: To throw off, to discharge.
+
+_Exchequer:_ A court in England in which the Chancellor presides, and
+where the revenues of and the debts due to the king, are recovered.
+This court was originally established by King William, (called "the
+Conqueror,") who died A.D. 1087; and its name is derived from a
+checkered cloth (French _echiquier_, a chess-hoard, checker-work)
+on the table.
+
+_Excretion:_ Something discharged from the body, a separation of animal
+matters. _Excrementitious:_ Consisting of matter excreted from the body;
+containing excrements.
+
+_Fahrenheit, (Gabriel Daniel:)_ A celebrated natural philosopher,
+who was born at Dantzig, A.D. 1686. He made great improvements in the
+thermometer, and his name is sometimes used for that instrument.
+
+_Farinaceous:_ Mealy, tasting like meal.
+
+_Fell:_ To turn down on the wrong side the raw edges of a seam after it
+has been stitched, run, or sewed, and then to hem or sew it to the
+cloth.
+
+_Festivals_ of the Jews, the three great annual: These were, the
+Feast of the Passover, that of Pentecost, and that of Tabernacles; on
+occasion of which, all the males of the nation were required to visit
+the temple at Jerusalem, in whatever part of the country they might
+reside. See Exodus 28:14, 17; 34:23; Leviticus 33: 4; Deuteronomy
+16:16. The Passover was kept in commemoration of the deliverance of
+the Israelites from Egypt, and was so named because the night before
+their departure the destroying angel, who slew all the first-born of
+the Egyptians, _passed over_ the houses of the Israelites without
+entering them. See Exodus 12. The Feast of Pentecost was so called
+from a word meaning _the fiftieth_, because it was celebrated on
+the fiftieth day after the Passover, and was instituted in commemoration
+of the giving of the Law from Mount Sinai on the fiftieth day from the
+departure out of Egypt. It is also called the Feast of Weeks, because
+it was kept seven weeks after the Passover. See Exodus 34:32; Leviticus
+23: 15-21; Deuteronomy 16: 9, 10. The Feast of Tabernacles, or Feast
+of Tents, was so called because it was celebrated under tents or
+tabernacles of green boughs, and was designed to commemorate their
+dwelling in tents during their passage through the wilderness. At this
+feast they also returned thanks, to God for the fruits of the earth
+after they had been gathered. See Exodus 23: 16; Leviticus 33: 34-44;
+Deuteronomy 16:13; and also St. John 7: 2.
+
+_Fire-blight:_ A disease in the pear and some other fruit-trees,
+in which they appear burnt as if by fire. It is supposed, by some to
+be caused by an insect, others suppose it to be caused by-an
+over-abundance of sap.
+
+_Fluting-iron:_ An instrument for making flutes, channels, furrows,
+or hollows in ruffles, etc.
+
+_Foundation muslin_: A nice kind of buckram, stiff and white, used for
+the foundation or basis of bonnets, etc.
+
+_Free States_: A phrase formerly used to distinguish those States in
+which slavery was not allowed, as distinguished from Slave States, in
+which slavery did exist.
+
+_French chalk_: A variety of the mineral called talc, unctuous to the
+touch, of greenish color, glossy, soft, and easily scratched, and
+leaving a silvery line when drawn on paper. It is used for marking
+on cloth, and extracting grease-spots.
+
+_Fuller's earth_: A species of clay remarkable for its property of
+absorbing oil, for which reason it is valuable for extracting grease
+from cloth, etc. It is used by fullers in scouring and cleansing
+cloth, whence its name.
+
+_Fustic_: The wood of a tree which grows in the West-Indies called
+_Morus tinctoria_. It affords a durable but not very brilliant
+yellow dye, and is also used in producing some greens and drab colors.
+
+_Gastric_: (From the Greek [Transliterated: gasths], _gaster_, the
+belly,) belonging or relating to the belly, or stomach. _Gastric
+juice_: The fluid which dissolves the food in the stomach. It is
+limpid, like water, of a saltish taste, and without odor.
+_Geology_: The science which treats of the formation of the earth.
+
+_Gluten_: The glue-like, sticky, tenacious substance which gives
+adhesiveness to dough. The principle of gelly, (now generally written
+_jelly_.)
+
+_Gore_: A triangular piece of cloth.
+
+_Goring_: Cut in a triangular shape.
+
+_Gothic_: A peculiar and strongly-marked style of architecture,
+sometimes called the ecclesiastical style, because it is most frequently
+used in cathedrals, churches, abbeys, and other religious edifices. Its
+principle seems to have originated in the imitation of groves and
+bowers, under which the ancients performed their sacred rites; its
+clustered pillars and pointed arches very well representing the trunks
+of trees and their in-locking branches.
+
+_Gourmand_ or _Gormand_: A glutton, a greedy eater. In agriculture, it
+is applied to twigs which take up the sap but bear only leaves.
+
+_Green vitriol_: See _Copperas_.
+
+_Griddle_: An iron pan, of a peculiarly broad and shallow construction,
+used for baking cakes.
+
+_Ground-plan_: The map or plan of the floor of any building, in which
+the various apartments, windows, doors, fire-places, and other things
+are represented, like the rivers, towns, mountains, roads, etc., on a
+map.
+
+_Gum Arabic_: A vegetable juice which exudes through the bark of
+the _Acacia, Mimosa nilotica_, and some other similar trees growing
+in Arabia, Egypt, Senegal, and Central Africa. It is the purest of all
+gums.
+
+_Hardpan_: The hard, unbroken layer of earth below the mould or
+cultivated soil.
+
+_Hartshorn_, (spirits of:) A volatile alkali, originally prepared
+from the horns of the stag or hart, but now procured from various other
+substances. It is known by the name of ammonia or spirits of ammonia.
+
+_Hemlock_: see _Cicuta.
+
+_Horticulturist:_ One skilled in horticulture, or the art of cultivating
+gardens: horticulture being to the garden what agriculture is to the
+farm, the application of labor and science to a limited spot, for
+convenience, for profit, or for ornament--though implying a higher
+state of cultivation than is common in agriculture. It includes the
+cultivation of culinary vegetables and of fruits, and forcing or exotic
+gardening as far as respects useful products.
+
+_Hydrogen_: A very light, inflammable gas, of which water is in part
+composed. It is used to inflate balloons.
+
+_Hypochondriasis_: Melancholy, dejection, a disorder of the imagination,
+in which the person supposes he is afflicted with various diseases.
+
+_Hysteria or hysterics_: A spasmodic, convulsive affection of the
+nerves, to which women are subject. It is somewhat similar to
+hypochondriasis in men.
+
+_Ingrain_: A kind of carpeting, in which the threads are dyed in
+the grain or raw material before manufacture.
+
+_Ipecac_: (An abbreviation of _ipecacuanha_) an Indian medicinal plant,
+acting as an emetic.
+
+_Isinglass_: A fine kind of gelatin or glue, prepared from the
+swimming-bladders of fishes, used as a cement, and also as an ingredient
+in food and medicine. The name is sometimes applied to a transparent
+mineral substance called mica.
+
+_Jams_: A side-piece or post.
+
+_Kamtschadales_: Inhabitants of _Kamtschatka_, a large peninsula
+situated on the north-eastern coast of Asia, having the North Pacific
+Ocean on the east. It is remarkable for its extreme cold, which
+is heightened by a range of very lofty mountains extending the whole
+length of the peninsula, several of which are volcanic. It is very
+deficient in vegetable productions, but produces a great variety of
+animals, from which the richest and most valuable furs are procured.
+The inhabitants are in general below the common height, but have broad
+shoulders and large heads. It is under the dominion of Russia.
+
+_Kerosene_: Refined Petroleum, which see.
+
+_Kink_: A knotty twist in a thread or rope.
+
+_Lambrequin_: Originally a kind of pendent scarf or covering attached to
+a helmet to protect and adorn it. Hence, a pendent ornamental curtain
+over a window.
+
+_Lapland_: A country at the extreme north part of Europe, where it is
+very cold. It contains lofty mountains, some of which are covered with
+perpetual snow and ice.
+
+_Latin:_ The language of the Latins or inhabitants of Latium, the
+principal country of ancient Italy. After the building of Rome, that
+city became the capital of the whole country.
+
+_Leguminous:_ Pod-bearing.
+
+_Lent:_ A fast of the Christian Church, (lasting forty days, from
+Ash-Wednesday to Easter,) in commemoration of our Saviour's miraculous
+fast of forty days and forty nights in the wilderness. The word Lent
+means spring, this fast always occurring at that season of the year.
+
+_Levite:_ One of the tribe of Levi, the son of Jacob, which tribe
+was set apart from the others to minister in the services of the
+Tabernacle, and the Temple at Jerusalem. The priests were taken from
+this tribe. See Numbers 1: 47-53.
+
+_Ley:_ Water which has percolated through ashes, earth, or other
+substances, dissolving and imbibing a part of their contents. It is
+generally spelled _lye_.
+
+_Linnaeus, (Charles:)_ A native of Sweden, and the most celebrated
+naturalist of his age. He was born May 13th, 1707, and died January
+11th, 1778. His life was devoted to the study of natural history. The
+science of botany, in particular, is greatly indebted to his labors.
+His _Amaenitates Academicae_ (Academical Recreations) is a collection of
+the dissertations of his pupils, edited by himself, a work rich in
+matters relating to the history and habits of plants. He was the first
+who arranged Natural History into a regular system, which has been
+generally called by his name. His proper name was Linne.
+
+_Lobe:_ A division, a distinct part; generally applied to the two
+divisions of the lungs.
+
+_Loire:_ The largest river of France, being about five hundred and fifty
+miles in. length. It rises in the mountains of Cevennes, and empties
+into the Atlantic Ocean about forty miles below the city of Nantes. It
+divides France into two almost equal parts.
+
+_London Medical Society:_ A distinguished association, formed in 1773.
+It has published some valuable volumes of its transactions. It has a
+library of about 40,000 volumes, which is kept in a house presented to
+the Society, in 1788, by the celebrated Dr. Lettsom, who was one of its
+first members.
+
+_Louis XIV.:_ A celebrated King of France and Navarre, who was born
+September 5th, 1638, and died September 1st, 1715. His mother having
+before had no children, though she had been married twenty-two years,
+his birth was considered as a particular favor from heaven, and he was
+called the "Gift of God." He is sometimes styled "Louis the Great," is
+notorious as a period of licentiousness. He left behind him monuments of
+unprecedented splendor and expense, consisting of palaces, gardens, and
+other like works.
+
+_Lumbar:_(From the Latin lumbus, the loin,) relating or pertaining to
+the loins.
+
+_Lunacy, writ of:_ A judicial proceeding to ascertain whether a person
+be a lunatic.
+
+_Mademoiselle:_ The French word for miss, a young girl.
+
+_Magnesia:_ A light and white alkaline earth, which enters into the
+composition of many rocks, communicating to them a greasy or soapy
+feeling and a striped texture, with sometimes a greenish color.
+
+_Malaria:_ (Italian, _mal/aria, bad air_,) a noxious vapor or
+exhalation; a state of the atmosphere or soil, or both, which, in
+certain regions and in warm weather, produces fever, sometimes of great
+violence.
+
+_Mammon:_ Riches, the Syrian god of riches. See Luke 16:11-13; St.
+Matthew 6:24. _Mexico:_ A country situated south-west of the United
+States and extending to the Pacific Ocean.
+
+_Miasms:_ Such particles or atoms as are supposed to arise from
+distempered, putrefying, or poisonous bodies.
+
+_Michilimackinac_ or _Mackinac:_ (Now frequently corrupted into
+_Mackinaw_, which is the usual pronunciation of the name,) a military
+post in the State of Michigan, situated upon an island, about nine miles
+in circuit, in the strait which connects Lakes Michigan and Huron. It is
+much resorted to by Indians and fur-traders. The highest summit of the
+island is about three hundred feet above the lakes and commands an
+extensive view of them.
+
+_Midsummer:_ With us, the time when the sun arrives at his greatest
+distance from the equator, or about the twenty-first of June, called,
+also the summer solstice, (from the Latin _sol, the sun_ and _sto, to
+stop_ or _stand still_,) because when the sun reaches this point he
+seems to stand still for some time, and then appears to retrace his
+steps. The days are then longer than at any other time.
+
+_Migrate:_ To remove from one place to another; to change residence.
+
+_Mildew:_ A disease of plants; a mould, spot, or stain in paper, cloths,
+etc., caused by moisture.
+
+_Militate:_ To oppose, to operate against.
+
+_Millinet:_ A coarse kind of stiff muslin, formerly used for the
+foundation or basis of bonnets, etc.
+
+_Mineralogy:_ A science which treats of the inorganic natural substances
+found upon or in the earth, such as earths, salts, metals, etc., and
+which are called by the general name of minerals.
+
+_Minutiae:_ The smallest particulars.
+
+_Monasticism:_ Monastic life; religiously recluse life in a monastery or
+house of religious retirement.
+
+_Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley:_ One of the most celebrated among the
+female literary characters of England. She was daughter of Evelyn,
+Duke of Kingston, and was born about 1690, at Thoresby, in England She
+displayed uncommon abilities at a very early age, and was educated by
+the best masters in the English, Latin, Greek, and French languages.
+She accompanied her husband (Edward Wortley Montagu) on an embassy to
+Constantinople, and her correspondence with her friends was published
+and much admired. She introduced the practice of inoculation for the
+small-pox into England, which proved of great benefit to millions. She
+died at the age of seventy-two, A.D. 1762.
+
+_Moral Philosophy:_ The science which treats of the motives and rules of
+human actions, and of the ends to which they ought to be directed.
+
+_Moreen: A kind of woolen stuff used for curtains, covers of cushions,
+bed hangings, etc.
+
+_Mortise: A cavity cut into a piece of timber to receive the end of
+another piece called the _Tenon_.
+
+_Mucous:_ Having the nature of _mucus, a glutinous, sticky, thready,
+transparent fluid, of a salt savor, produced by different membranes of
+the body, and serving to protect the membranes and other internal parts
+against the action of the air, food, etc. The fluid of the mouth and
+nose is mucus.
+
+_Mucous membrane: That membrane which lines the mouth, nose, intestines,
+and other open cavities of the body.
+
+_Muriatic acid: An acid composed of chlorine and hydrogen, called also,
+hydrochloric acid and spirit of salt.
+
+_Mush-stick:_ A stick to use in stirring _mush, which is corn-meal
+boiled in water.
+
+_Nankeen_ or _Nankin:_ A light cotton cloth, originally brought from
+Nankin, in China, whence its name.
+
+_Nash, (Richard:)_ Commonly called _Beau Nash, or King of Bath, a
+celebrated leader of the fashions in England. He was born at Swansea,
+in South-Wales, October 8th, 1674, and died in the city of Bath,
+(England,) February 3d, 1761.
+
+_Natural History:_ The history of animals, plants, and minerals.
+
+_Natural Philosophy:_ The science which treats of the powers of nature,
+the properties of natural bodies, and their action one upon another. It
+is sometimes called _physics_.
+
+_New-milch cow:_ A cow which has recently calved.
+
+_Newton, (Sir Isaac:)_ An eminent English philosopher and mathematician,
+who was born on Christmas day, 1642, and died March. 20th, 1727. He was
+much distinguished for his very important discoveries in Optics and
+other branches of Natural Philosophy. See the first volume of _Pursuit
+of Knowledge under Difficulties_, forming the fourteenth volume of _The
+School Library_, larger series.
+
+_Night-Soil:_ Human excrement, so-called because usually removed from
+privies by night.
+
+_Non-bearers:_ Plants which bear no flowers nor fruit.
+
+_Northern States_: Those of the United States situated in the northern
+and eastern part of the country.
+
+_Ordinary_: See _Physician in ordinary_.
+
+_Oil of Vitriol_: (sulphuric acid, or vitriolic acid,) an acid composed
+of oxygen and sulphur.
+
+_Oino-mania_: A disease of the brain produced by excessive use of
+alcoholic stimulants; derived from two Greek words, _oinos_, wine, and
+_mania_, madness. The same disease sometimes arises from overuse of
+tobacco and other stimulants of the nerves.
+
+_Orleans, (Elizabeth Charlotte de Baviere) Duchess of_: Second wife of
+Philippe, the brother of Louis XIV., was born at Heidelberg, May 26th,
+1652, and died at the palace of St. Cloud, in Paris, December 8th, 1722.
+She was author of several works; among which were _Memoirs and Anecdotes
+of the Court of Louis XIV._
+
+_Ottoman_: A kind of hassock or thick mat for kneeling upon; so-called
+from being used by the Ottomans or Turks.
+
+_Oxalic acid_: a vegetable acid, which exists in sorrel.
+
+_Oxide_: A compound of a substance with oxygen, though not enough
+oxygen to produce an acid; for example, oxide of iron, or rust of
+metals.
+
+_Oxidize_: To combine oxygen with a body without producing acidity.
+
+_Oxygen_: The vital element of air, a simple and very important
+substance which exists in the atmosphere and supports the breathing
+of animals and the burning of combustibles. It was called oxygen from
+two Greek words, signifying to produce acid, from its power of giving
+acidity to many compounds in which it predominates.
+
+_Oxygenized_: Combined with oxygen.
+
+_Pancreas_: A gland within the abdomen just below and behind the
+stomach, and providing a fluid to assist digestion. In animals, it is
+called the sweet-bread.
+
+_Pancreatic_: Belonging to the pancreas.
+
+_Parterre_: A level division of ground, a flower-garden.
+
+_Pearlash_: The common name for impure carbonate of potash, which in a
+purer form is called _Saleratus_.
+
+_Peristaltic_: Contracting in successive circles; worm-like.
+
+_Petroleum_: Rock oil, an inflammable, bituminous liquid exuding from
+rocks or from the earth in the neighborhood of the carboniferous or
+coal-bearing formation.
+
+_Phosphorous_: One of the elementary substances.
+
+_Physician in Ordinary to the Queen_: The physician who attends the
+Queen in ordinary cases of illness.
+
+_Pitt, William_: A celebrated English statesman, son of the Earl
+of Chatham. He was born May 28th, 1759, and at the age of twenty-three
+was made Chancellor of the Exchequer, and soon afterward Prime Minister.
+He died January 23d, 1806.
+
+_Political Economy_: The science which treats of the general
+causes affecting the production, distribution, and consumption of
+articles of exchangeable value, in reference to their effects upon
+national wealth and welfare.
+
+_Pollen_: The fertilizing dust of flowers, produced by the stamens and
+falling upon the pistils in order to render a flower capable of
+producing fruit or seed.
+
+_Potter's clay_: The clay used in making articles of pottery.
+
+_Prairie_: A French word, signifying meadow. In the United States,
+it is applied to the remarkable natural meadows or plains which are
+found in the Western States. In some of these vast and nearly level
+plains, the traveler may wander for days without meeting with wood or
+water, and see no object rising above the plane of the horizon. They
+are very fertile.
+
+_Prime Minister_: The person appointed by the ruler of a nation
+to have the chief direction and management of the public affairs.
+
+_Process_: A protuberance or projecting part of a bone.
+
+_Pulmonary_: Belonging to or affecting the lungs.
+
+_Pulmonary artery_: An artery which passes through the lungs, being
+divided into several branches, which form a beautiful network over the
+air-vessels, and finally empty themselves into the left auricle of the
+heart.
+
+_Puritans_: A sect which professed to follow the pure word of God
+in opposition to traditions, human constitutions, and other authorities.
+In the reign, of Queen Elizabeth, part of the Protestants were desirous
+of introducing a simpler, and, as they considered it, a _purer_ form of
+church government and worship than that established by law, from which
+circumstance they were called _Puritans_. In process of time, this party
+increased in numbers and openly broke off from the church, laying aside
+the English liturgy, and adopting a service-book published at Geneva by
+the disciples of Calvin. They were treated with great rigor by the
+government, and many of them left the kingdom and settled in Holland.
+Finding themselves not so eligibly situated in that country as they had
+expected to be, a portion of them embarked for America, and were the
+first settlers of New England.
+
+_Quixotic_: Absurd, romantic, ridiculous; from _Don Quixote_, the hero
+of a celebrated fictitious work written by Cervantes, a distinguished
+Spanish writer, and intended to reform the tastes and opinions of his
+country-men.
+
+_Reeking_: Smoking, emitting vapor.
+
+_Residue_: The remainder or part which remains.
+
+_Routine_: A round or course of engagements, business, pleasure, etc.
+
+_To Run a seam_: To lay the two edges of a seam together and pass
+the threaded needle out and in, with small stitches, a few threads
+below the edge and on a line with it.
+
+_To Run a stocking_: To pass a thread of yarn, with a needle, straight
+along each row of the stocking, as far as is desired, taking up one loop
+and missing two or three, until tie row is completed, so as to double
+the thickness at the part which is run.
+
+_Sabbatical year_: Every seventh year among the Jews, which was a year
+of rest for the land, when it was to be left without culture. In this
+year, all debts were to be remitted, and slaves set at liberty. See
+Exodus 21:2:23:10; Leviticus 25:2, 3, etc.; Deuteronomy 15:12; and
+other similar passages.
+
+_Saleratus_: See _Pearlash_.
+
+_Sal ammoniac_: A salt, called also muriate of ammonia, which derives
+its name from a district in Libya, Egypt, where there was a temple of
+Jupiter Ammon, and where this salt was found.
+
+_Scotch Highlanders_: Inhabitants of the Highlands of Scotland.
+
+_Selvedge_: The edge of cloth, a border. Improperly written _selvage_.
+
+_Service-book_: A book prescribing the order of public services in a
+church or congregation.
+
+_Sharps_: See _Blunts_.
+
+_Shorts_: The coarser part of wheat bran.
+
+_Shrubbery_: A plantation of shrubs.
+
+_Siberia_: A large country in the extreme northern part of Asia, having
+the Frozen Ocean on the north, and the Pacific Ocean on the east, and
+forming a part of the Russian empire. The northern part is extremely
+cold, almost uncultivated, and contains but few inhabitants. It
+furnishes fine skins, and some of the most valuable furs in the
+world. It also contains rich mines of iron and copper, and several
+kinds of precious stones.
+
+_Sinclair, Sir John_: Of whom it was said, "There is no greater name in
+the annals of agriculture than his," was born in Caithness, Scotland,
+May 10th, 1754, and became a member of the British Parliament in 1780.
+He was strongly opposed to the measures of the British government toward
+America, which produced the American Revolution. He was author of many
+valuable publications on various subjects. He died December 21st, 1835.
+
+_Sirloin_: The loin of beef. The appellation "sir" is the title of a
+knight or baronet, and has been added to the word "loin," when applied
+to beef, because a king of England, in a freak of good humor, once
+conferred the honor of knighthood upon a loin of beef.
+
+_Slack_: To loosen, to relax, to deprive of cohesion.
+
+_Soda_: An alkali, usually obtained from the ashes of marine plants.
+
+To _Spade_: To throw out earth with a spade.
+
+_Spermaceti_: An oily substance found in the head of a species of whale
+called the spermaceti whale.
+
+_Spindling_: Shooting into a long, small stalk.
+
+_Spinous process_: A process or bony protuberance, resembling a spine or
+thorn, whence it derives its name.
+
+_Spool_: A piece of cane or reed or a hollow cylinder of wood, with a
+ridge at each end, used to wind yarn and thread upon.
+
+_Stamen_, (plural, _stamens_ and _stamina_:) In _weaving_, the warp, the
+thread, any thing made of threads. In _botany_, that part of a flower on
+which the artificial classification is founded, consisting of the
+filament or stalk, and the anther, which contains the pollen or
+fructifying powder.
+
+_Stigma_, (plural _stigmas_ and _stigmata_:) The summit or top of the
+pistil of a flower.
+
+_Style_ or Stile: The part of the pistil between the germ and the
+stigma.
+
+_Sub-carbonate_: An imperfect carbonate.
+
+_Sulphate, Sulphates, Sulphites_: Salts formed by the combination
+of some base with sulphuric acid, as _Sulphate of copper_, (blue
+vitriol or blue stone,) a combination of sulphuric acid with copper.
+_Sulphate of iron_: Copperas or green vitriol. _Sulphate of lime_:
+Gypsum or plaster of Paris. _Sulphate of magnesia_: Epsom salts.
+_Sulphate of potash_: A chemical salt, composed of sulphuric acid and
+potash. _Sulphate of soda_: Glauber's salts. _Sulphate of zinc_:
+
+White vitriol. _Sulphuret_: A combination of an alkaline earth
+or metal with sulphur, as _Sulphuret of iron_, a combination of
+iron and sulphur. _Sulphuric acid_: Oil of vitriol, vitriolic
+acid.
+
+_Suture_: A sewing; the uniting of parts by stitching; the seamor
+joint which unites the flat bones of the skull, which are notched
+like the teeth of a saw, and the notches, being united together, present
+the appearance of a seam.
+
+_Tartar_: A substance, deposited on the inside of wine casks, consisting
+chiefly of tartaric acid and potash.
+
+_Cream of tartar_: The crude tartar separated from all its impurities by
+being dissolved in water and then crystallized, when it becomes a
+perfectly white powder.
+
+_Tartaric acid_: A vegetable acid which exists in the grape.
+
+_Technology_: A description of the arts, considered generally in
+their theory and practice as connected with moral, political, and
+physical science.
+
+_Three-ply_ or _triple ingrain_: A kind of carpeting, in which the
+threads are woven in such a manner as to make three thicknesses of the
+cloth.
+
+_Tic douloureux_: A painful affection of the nerves, mostly those
+of the face.
+
+_Tocqueville, (Alexis de:)_ A celebrated statesman and writer of
+France, and author of volumes on the political condition, and the
+penitentiaries of the United States, and other works.
+
+_Trachea_: The windpipe, so named (from a Greek word signifying
+_rough_) from the roughness or inequalities of the cartilages of
+which it is formed.
+
+_Truckle-bed_ or _Trundle-bed_: A bed that runs on wheels.
+
+_Tuber_: A solid, fleshy, roundish root, like the potato.
+
+_Tuberous_: Thick and fleshy; composed of or having tubers.
+
+_Tucks_, (improperly _Tacks_): Folds in garments.
+
+_Turmeric:_ The root of a plant called _Curcuma longa_, a native of the
+East-Indies, used as a yellow dye.
+
+_Twaddle:_ Idle, foolish talk or conversation.
+
+_Unbolted:_ Unsifted. _Unslacked:_ Not loosened or deprived of cohesion.
+Lime, when it has been slacked, crumbles to powder from being deprived
+of cohesion.
+
+_Valance:_ The drapery or fringe hanging round the cover of a bed,
+couch, or other similar article.
+
+_Vascular:_ Relating to or full of vessels.
+
+_Venetian:_ A kind of carpeting, composed of a striped woolen warp on a
+thick woof of linen thread,
+
+_Verisimilitude:_ Probability, resemblance to truth.
+
+_Verbatim:_ Word for word.
+
+_Vice versa:_ The side being changed, or the question reversed, or the
+terms being exchanged.
+
+_Viscera_, (plural of _viscus:_) Organs contained in the great cavities
+of the body, the skull, the abdomen, and the chest. Generally applied to
+the contents of the abdomen.
+
+_Vitriol:_ A compound mineral salt of a very caustic taste. _Blue
+Vitriol_, sulphate of copper. _Green Vitriol_, see _Copperas. _Oil of
+Vitriol_, sulphuric acid.
+
+_White Vitriol_, sulphate of zinc.
+
+_Waffle-iron:_ An iron utensil for the purpose of baking waffles,
+which are thin and soft cakes indented by the iron in which they are
+baked.
+
+_Wash-leather:_ A soft, pliable leather dressed with oil, and in
+such a way that it may be washed without shrinking. It is used for
+various articles of dress, as undershirts, drawers, etc., and also for
+rubbing silver, and other articles having a high polish. The article
+known in commerce as chamois or shammy leather is also called
+wash-leather.
+
+_Welting-cord:_ A cord sewed into the welt or border of a garment.
+
+_The West_ or _Western World_. When used in Europe, or in distinction
+from the Eastern World, it means America. When used in this country, the
+West refers to the Western States of the Union.
+
+_Western Wilds:_ The wild, thinly-settled lands of the Western States.
+
+_White vitriol:_ see _Zinc.
+
+_Wilton carpet:_ A kind of carpets made in England, and so called from
+the place which is the chief seat of their manufacture. They are woolen
+velvets with variegated colors.
+
+_Writ of lunacy_. See _Lunacy.
+
+_Xantippe:_ The wife of Socrates, noted for her violent temper and
+scolding propensities. The name is frequently applied to a shrew,
+or peevish, turbulent, scolding woman.
+
+_Zinc:_ A bluish-white metal, which is used as a constituent of brass
+and some other alloys. _Sulphate of Zinc_ or _White vitriol_; A
+combination of Zinc with sulphuric acid.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Woman's Home
+by Catherine E. Beecher and Harriet Beecher Stowe
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AMERICAN WOMAN'S HOME ***
+
+This file should be named 6598.txt or 6598.zip
+
+Produced by Steve Schulze, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
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