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diff --git a/old/65910-0.txt b/old/65910-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b132b06..0000000 --- a/old/65910-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,17220 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Norse mythology; or The religion of our -forefathers, containing all the myths of the Eddas, systematized and -interpreted, by Rasmus Björn Anderson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Norse mythology; or The religion of our forefathers, containing - all the myths of the Eddas, systematized and interpreted - -Author: Rasmus Björn Anderson - -Release Date: July 24, 2021 [eBook #65910] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Brian Ness, David King, and the Online - Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net. (This - file was produced from scans of public domain works at the - University of Michigan's Making of America collection.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NORSE MYTHOLOGY; OR THE RELIGION -OF OUR FOREFATHERS, CONTAINING ALL THE MYTHS OF THE EDDAS, SYSTEMATIZED AND -INTERPRETED *** - - NORSE MYTHOLOGY - - - - -[Illustration: Thor Fighting The Giants.] - - - - - NORSE MYTHOLOGY; - - OR, - - THE RELIGION OF OUR FOREFATHERS, - - CONTAINING ALL THE - - MYTHS OF THE EDDAS, - - SYSTEMATIZED AND INTERPRETED. - - WITH - - AN INTRODUCTION, VOCABULARY AND INDEX. - - BY - - R. B. ANDERSON, A.M., - - PROFESSOR OF THE SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES IN THE UNIVERSITY OF - WISCONSIN, AUTHOR OF “AMERICA NOT DISCOVERED BY - COLUMBUS,” “DEN NORSKE MAALSAG,” ETC. - - SECOND EDITION. - - CHICAGO: - S. C. GRIGGS AND COMPANY. - LONDON TRÜBNER & CO. - 1876. - - - - -COPYRIGHT 1875. - -BY S. C. GRIGGS AND COMPANY. - -ELECTROTYPED BY ZEESE & CO. - - - - - TO - - HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW, - - THE AMERICAN POET, - - WHO HAS NOT ONLY REFRESHED HIMSELF AT THE CASTALIAN FOUNTAIN, BUT - ALSO COMMUNED WITH BRAGE, AND TAKEN DEEP DRAUGHTS - FROM THE WELLS OF URD AND MIMER, - - THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED, - - WITH THE GRATEFUL REVERENCE OF - - THE AUTHOR. - - - - -I think Scandinavian Paganism, to us here, is more interesting than any -other. It is, for one thing, the latest; it continued in these regions -of Europe till the eleventh century: eight hundred years ago the -Norwegians were still worshipers of Odin. It is interesting also as the -creed of our fathers; the men whose blood still runs in our veins, whom -doubtless we still resemble in so many ways. Strange: they did believe -that, while we believe so differently. Let us look a little at this poor -Norse creed, for many reasons. We have tolerable means to do it; for -there is another point of interest in these Scandinavian mythologies: -that they have been preserved so well. - -Neither is there no use in _knowing_ something about this old Paganism -of our fathers. Unconsciously, and combined with higher things, it is in -_us_ yet, that old faith withal. To know it consciously brings us into -closer and clearer relations with the past,—with our own possessions in -the past. For the whole past, as I keep repeating, is the possession of -the present. The past had always something _true_, and is a precious -possession. In a different time, in a different place, it is always some -other _side_ of our common human nature that has been developing itself. - -—_Thomas Carlyle._ - - - - - PREFACE. - - -AMERICA NOT DISCOVERED BY COLUMBUS having been so favorably received by -the press generally, as well as by many distinguished scholars, who have -expressed themselves in very flattering terms of our recent _début_ in -English, we venture to appear again; and, although the subject is -somewhat different, it still (as did the first) has its fountain head in -the literature of the North. - -We come, this time, encouraged by all your kind words, with higher -aspirations, and perhaps, too, with less timidity and modesty. We come -to ask your opinion of Norse mythology. We come to ask whether Norse -mythology is not equally as worthy of your attention as the Greek. Nay, -we come to ask whether you will not give the Norse the _preference_. We -propose to call your attention earnestly, in this volume, to the merits -of our common Gothic or Teutonic inheritance, and to chat a few hours -with you about the imaginative, poetic and prophetic period of our -Gothic history. - -We are well aware that we are here giving you a book full of -imperfections so far as style, originality, arrangement and external -adornment of the subject is concerned, and we shall not take it much to -heart, even if we are severely criticised in these respects; we shall -rather take it as an earnest admonition to study and improve in language -and composition for the future. - -But, if the spirit of the book, that is, the cause which we have -undertaken to plead therein,—if that be frowned down, or rejected, or -laughed at, we shall be the recipient of a most bitter disappointment, -and yet we shall not wholly despair. The time must come, when our common -Gothic inheritance will be loved and respected. There will come men—ay, -there are already men in our midst who will advocate and defend its -rights on American soil with sharper steel than ours. And, though we may -find but few roses and many thorns on our pathway, we shall not suffer -our ardor in our chosen field of labor to be diminished. We are -determined not to be discouraged. - -What we claim for this work is, that it is the _first complete and -systematic presentation of the Norse mythology in the English language_; -and this we think is a sufficient reason for our asking a humble place -upon your book-shelves. And, while we make this claim, we fully -appreciate the value of the many excellent treatises and translations -that have appeared on this subject in England. We do not undervalue the -labors of Dasent, Thorpe, Pigott, Carlyle, etc., but none of these give -a comprehensive account of all the deities and the myths in full. There -is, indeed, no work outside of Scandinavia that covers the whole ground. -So far as America is concerned, the only work on Norse mythology that -has hitherto been published in this country is BARCLAY PENNOCK’S -translation of the Norse Professor Rudolph Keyser’s _Religion of the -Northmen_. This is indeed an excellent and scholarly work, and a -valuable contribution to knowledge; but, instead of _presenting_ the -mythology of the Norsemen, it _interprets_ it; and Professor Keyser is -yet one of the most eminent authorities in the exposition of the Asa -doctrine. Pennock’s translation of Keyser is a book of three hundred and -forty-six pages, and of these only _sixteen_ are devoted to a synopsis -of the mythology; and it is, as the reader may judge, nothing but a very -brief synopsis. The remaining three hundred and thirty pages contain a -history of Old Norse literature, an interpretation of the Odinic -religion, and an exhibition of the manner of _worship_ among the heathen -Norsemen. In a word, Pennock’s book _presupposes_ a knowledge of the -subject; and for one who has this, we would recommend _Pennock’s_ KEYSER -as the best work _extant_ in English. We are indebted to it for many -valuable paragraphs in this volume. - -This subject has, then, been investigated by many able writers; and, in -preparing this volume, we have borrowed from their works all the light -they could shed upon our pathway. The authors we have chiefly consulted -are named in the accompanying list. While we have used their very phrase -whenever it was convenient, we have not followed them in a slavish -manner. We have made such changes as in our judgment seemed necessary to -give our work harmony and symmetry throughout. We at first felt disposed -to give the reader a mere translation either of N. M. Petersen, or of -Grundtvig, or of P. A. Munch; but upon further reflection we came to the -conclusion that we could treat the subject more satisfactorily to -ourselves, and fully as acceptably to our readers, by sketching out a -plan of our own, and making free use of all the best writers upon this -subject. And as we now review our pages, we find that N. M. Petersen has -served us the most. Much of his work has been appropriated in an almost -unchanged form. - -Although many of the ideas set forth in this work may seem new to -American readers, yet they are by no means wholly original. Many of them -have for many years been successfully advocated in Scandinavian -countries, and to some extent, also, in Germany and England. Our aim has -not at present been so much to make original investigations, as—that -which is far more needed and to the purpose—to give the fruits of the -labors performed in the North, and call the attention of the American -public earnestly to the wealth stored up in the Eddas and Sagas of -Iceland. No one can doubt the correctness of our position in this -matter, when he reflects that we now drawing near the close of the -_nineteenth_ century, and have not yet had a complete Norse mythology in -the English language, while the number of Greek and Roman mythologies is -legion. Bayard Taylor said to us, recently, that the Scandinavian -languages, in view of their rich literature, in view of the light which -this literature throws upon early English history, and in view of the -importance of Icelandic in a successful study of English and -Anglo-Saxon, ought to be taught in every college in Vinland; and that is -the very pith of what we have to say in this preface. - -We have had excellent aid from Dr. S. H. Carpenter, who combines broad -general culture with a thorough knowledge of Old English and -Anglo-Saxon. He has read every page of this work, and we hereby thank -him for the generous sympathy and advice which he has invariably given -us. To President John Bascom we are under obligations for kind words and -valuable suggestions. We hereby extend heartfelt thanks to Professor -Willard Fiske, of Cornell University, for aid and encouragement; to Mrs. -Ole Bull, for free use of her excellent library; and to the poet, H. W. -Longfellow, for permitting us to make extracts from his works, and to -inscribe this volume to him as the Nestor among American writers on -Scandinavian themes. May the persons here named find that this our work, -in spite of its faults, advances, somewhat, the interest in the studies -of Northern literature in this country. - -While Mallet’s _Northern Antiquities_ is a very valuable work, we cannot -but make known our regrets that Blackwell’s edition of it ever was -published. Mr. Blackwell has in many ways injured the cause which he -evidently intended to promote. While we, therefore, urge caution in the -use of Mallet’s _Northern Antiquities_ by Blackwell, we can with all our -heart recommend such writers upon the North as Dasent, Laing, Thorpe, -Gosse, Pennock, Boyesen, Marsh, Fiske, the Howitts, Pigott, Lord -Dufferin, Maurer, Möbius, Morris, Magnússon, Vigfusson, Hjaltalin, and -several others. - -It is sincerely hoped that by this our effort we may, at least for the -present, fill a gap in English literature, and accomplish something in -awakening among students some interest in Norse mythology, history, -literature and institutions. Let it be remembered, that Carlyle, and -many others of our best scholars, claim that it is from the Norsemen we -have derived our vital energy, our freedom of thought, and, in a measure -that we do not yet suspect, our strength of speech. - -We are conscious that our work contains many imperfections, and that -others might have performed the task better; and thus we commend this -volume to the kind indulgence of the critic and the reader. - -R. B. ANDERSON. - -_University of Wisconsin, May 15, 1875._ - - - - - LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED. - - -The following authors have been consulted in preparing this work, and to -them the reader is referred, if he wishes to make special study of the -subject of Norse mythology. - -Of the Elder Edda we have used Benjamin Thorpe’s translation and Sophus -Bugge’s edition of the original. It has been found necessary to make a -few alterations in Thorpe’s translation. Of the Younger Edda we have -used Dasent’s translation and Sveinbjorn Egilsson’s edition of the -original. Of modern Scandinavian writers we have confined ourselves -mainly to N. M. Petersen, N. F. S. Grundtvig, P. A. Munch, Rudolph -Keyser, Finn Magnússon, and Christian Winther. Other authors borrowed -from more or less are: H. W. Longfellow, H. G. Möller, R. Nyerup, E. G. -Geier, M. Hammerich, F. J. Mone, Jacob Grimm, Thomas Keightly, Thomas -Carlyle, Max Müller, and Geo. W. Cox. - -The recent excellent work of Alexander Murray has been referred to on -the subject of Greek mythology. It claims on its title-page to give an -account of Norse mythology; but we were surprised to find that the -author dismisses the subject with fifteen pages and a few wood-cuts of -questionable value. - -The philological notes are chiefly based upon the Icelandic Dictionary -recently published by Macmillan & Co., and edited by Gudbrand Vigfusson, -of Oxford University, England. We object to the price of it, which is -thirty-two dollars, but it is indeed a scholarly work, and marks a new -epoch in the study of the Icelandic language. - -For the engraving opposite the title-page we are indebted to Mr. James -R. Stuart, who has devoted many years in America and Europe to the study -of his art. The painting, from which the engraving is made, is wholly -original, and was made expressly for this work. We hereby extend our -thanks to Mr. Stuart, and hope some day to see more of Norse mythology -treated by his brush. - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - -INTRODUCTION. - -CHAPTER I. - -WHAT IS MYTHOLOGY, AND WHAT IS NORSE MYTHOLOGY? - -The myth the oldest form of truth—The Unknown God—Ingemund the -Old—Thorkel Maane—Harald Fairfax—Every cause in nature a divinity—Thor -the thunder-storm—Prominent faculties impersonated—These gods worthy of -reverence—Church ceremonies—Different religions—Hints to preachers—The -mythology of _our_ ancestors—In its oldest form it is Teutonic—What -Dasent says—Thomas Carlyle, 23 - - -CHAPTER II. - -WHY CALL THIS MYTHOLOGY NORSE? OUGHT IT NOT RATHER TO BE CALLED GOTHIC -OR TEUTONIC? - -Introduction of Christianity—The Catholic priests—The Eddas—Mythology in -its Germanic form—Thor not the same in Norway and Denmark—Norse -mythology—Max Müller, 41 - - -CHAPTER III. - -NORSE MYTHOLOGY COMPARED WITH GREEK. - -Norse and Greek mythology differ—Balder and Adonis—Greek gods free from -decay—The Deluge—Not the same but a similar tradition—The hand stone -weeps tears—The separate groups exquisite—Greek mythology an epic -poem—Theoktony—The Norse yields the prize to the Greek—Depth of Norse -and Christian thought—Naastrand—Outward nature influences the -mythology—Visit Norseland—Norse scenery—Simple and martial -religion—Sincerity and grace—Norse and Greek mythology, 51 - - -CHAPTER IV. - -ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. - -Oxford and Cambridge—The Romans were robbers—We must not throw Latin -wholly overboard—We must study English and Anglo-Saxon—English more -terse than Latin—Greek preferable to Hebrew or Latin—Shakespeare—He who -is not a son of Thor, 71 - - -CHAPTER V. - -INTERPRETATION OF NORSE MYTHOLOGY. - -Aberration from the true religion—Historical interpretation—Ethical -interpretation—Physical interpretation—Odin, Thor, Argos, Io—Our -ancestors not prosaic—The Romans again—Physical interpretation -insufficient—Natural science—Historical prophecy—A complete mythology, -80 - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE NORSE MYTHOLOGY FURNISHES ABUNDANT AND EXCELLENT MATERIAL FOR THE -USE OF POETS, SCULPTORS AND PAINTERS. - -How to educate the child—Ole Bull—Men frequently act like -ants—Oelenschlæger—Thor’s fishing—The dwarfs—Ten stanzas in Danish—The -brush and the chisel—Nude art—The germ of the faith—We Goths are a -chaste race—Dr. John Bascom—We are growing too prosaic and ungodly, 94 - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE SOURCES OF NORSE MYTHOLOGY AND INFLUENCE OF THE ASA-FAITH. - -The Elder Edda—Icelandic poetry—Beowulf’s Drapa and -Niebelungen-Lied—Influence of the Norse mythology—Influence of the -Asa-faith—Samuel Laing—Odinic rules of life—Hávamál—The lay of -Sigdrifa—Rudolph Keyser—The days of the week, 116 - - -PART I. - -THE CREATION AND PRESERVATION OF THE WORLD. - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE CREATION. - -Section i. The original condition of the world—Ginungagap. Section ii. -The origin of the giants—Ymer. Section iii. The origin of the crow -Audhumbla and the birth of the gods—Odin, Vile and Ve. Section iv. The -Norse deluge and the origin of heaven and earth. Section v. The heavenly -bodies, time, the wind, the rainbow—The sun and moon—Hrimfaxe and -Skinfaxe—The seasons—The Elder Edda—Bil and Hjuke. Section vi. The -Golden Age—The origin of the dwarfs—The creation of the first man and -woman—The Elder Edda. Section vii. The gods and their abodes. Section -viii. The divisions of the world, 171 - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE PRESERVATION. - -The ash Ygdrasil—Mimer’s fountain—Urd’s fountain—The norns or -fates—Mimer and the Urdar-fountain—The norns, 188 - - -CHAPTER III. - -EXEGETICAL REMARKS UPON THE CREATION AND PRESERVATION OF THE WORLD. - -Pondus iners—The supreme god—The cow Audhumbla—Trinity—The Golden -Age—Creation of man—The giants—The gods kill or marry the giants—Elves -and hulders—Trolls—Nisses and necks—Merman and mermaid—Ygdrasil—Mimer’s -fountain—The norns, 192 - - -PART II. - -THE LIFE AND EXPLOITS OF THE GODS. - - -CHAPTER I. - -ODIN. - -Section i. Odin. Section ii. Odin’s names. Section iii. Odin’s outward -appearance. Section iv. Odin’s attributes. Section v. Odin’s journeys. -Section vi. Odin and Mimer. Section vii. Hlidskjalf. Section viii. The -historical Odin. Section ix. Odin’s wives. Section x. Frigg’s -maid-servants. Section xi. Gefjun—Eir. Section xii. Rind. Section xiii. -Gunlad—The origin of poetry. Section xiv. Saga. Section xv. Odin as the -inventor of runes. Section xvi. Valhal. Section xvii. The valkyries, 215 - - -CHAPTER II. - -HERMOD, TYR, HEIMDAL, BRAGE AND IDUN. - -Section i. Hermod. Section ii. Tyr. Section iii. Heimdal. Section iv. -Brage and Idun. Section v. Idun and her apples, 270 - - -CHAPTER III. - -BALDER AND NANNA, HODER, VALE AND FORSETE. - -Section i. Balder. Section ii. The death of Balder the Good. Section -iii. Forsete, 279 - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THOR, HIS WIFE SIF AND SON ULLER. - -Section i. General synopsis—Thor, Sit and Uller. Section ii. Thor and -Hrungner. Section iii. Thor and Geirrod. Section iv. Thor and Skrymer. -Section v. Thor and the Midgard-serpent (Thor and Hymer). Section vi. -Thor and Thrym, 298 - - -CHAPTER V. - -VIDAR, 337 - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE VANS. - -Section i. Njord and Skade. Section ii. Æger and Ran. Section iii. Frey. -Section iv. Frey and Gerd. Section v. Worship of Frey. Section vi. -Freyja. Section vii. A brief review, 341 - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE DEVELOPMENT OF EVIL, LOKE AND HIS OFFSPRING. - -Section i. Loke. Section ii. Loke’s children—The Fenriswolf. Section -iii. Jormungander or the Midgard-serpent. Section iv. Hel. Section v. -The Norsemen’s idea of death. Section vi. Loke’s punishment. Section -vii. The iron post. Section viii. A brief review, 371 - - -PART III. - -RAGNAROK AND REGENERATION. - - -CHAPTER I. - -RAGNAROK, 413 - - -CHAPTER II. - -REGENERATION, 428 - -Vocabulary, 439 - -Index, 462 - - INTRODUCTION. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - WHAT IS MYTHOLOGY AND WHAT IS NORSE MYTHOLOGY? - - -The word mythology (μυθολογόα, from μῦθος, word, tale, fable, and λόγοc, -speech, discourse,) is of Greek origin, and our vernacular tongue has -become so adulterated with Latin and Greek words; we have studied Latin -and Greek in place of English, Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Gothic so long -that we are always in a quandary (_qu’en dirai-je?_), always tongue-tied -when we attempt to speak of something outside or above the daily -returning cares of life. Our own good old English words have been -crowded out by foreign ones; this is our besetting sin. But, as the -venerable Professor George Stephens remarks in his elaborate work on -Runic Monuments, we have watered our mother tongue long enough with -bastard Latin; let us now brace and steel it with the life-water of our -own sweet and soft and rich and shining and clear-ringing and manly and -world-ranging, ever-dearest ENGLISH. - -Mythology is a system of myths; a collection of popular legends, fables, -tales, or stories, relating to the gods, heroes, demons or other beings -whose names have been preserved in popular belief. Such tales are not -found in the traditions of the ancient Greeks, Hindoos and Egyptians, -only, but every nation has had its system of mythology; and that of the -ancient Norsemen is more simple, earnest, miraculous, stupendous and -divine than any other mythological system of which we have record. - -The myth is the oldest form of truth; and mythology is the knowledge -which the ancients had of the Divine. The object of mythology is to find -God and come to him. Without a written revelation this may be done in -two ways: either by studying the intellectual, moral and physical nature -of man, for evidence of the existence of God may be found in the proper -study of man; or by studying nature in the outward world in its general -structure, adaptations and dependencies; and truthfully it may be said -that God manifests himself in nature. - -Our Norse forefathers (for it is their religion we are to present in -this volume) had no clearly-defined knowledge of any god outside of -themselves and nature. Like the ancient Greeks, they had only a somewhat -vague idea about a supreme God, whom the rhapsodist or skald in the -Elder Edda (Hyndluljóð 43, 44) dare not name, and whom few, it is said, -ever look far enough to see. In the language of the Elder Edda: - - Then one is born - Greater than all; - He becomes strong - With the strengths of earth; - The mightiest king - Men call him, - Fast knit in peace - With all powers. - - Then comes another - Yet more mighty; - _But him dare I not - Venture to name._ - Few further may look - Than to where Odin - To meet the wolf goes. - -Odin goes to meet the Fenriswolf in Ragnarok (the twilight of the gods; -that is, the final conflict between all good and evil powers); but now -let the reader compare the above passage from the Elder Edda with the -following passage from the seventeenth chapter of the Acts of the -Apostles: - - Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars’ Hill and said: Ye men of - Athens, I perceive that in all things ye are too superstitious; for - as I passed by and beheld your devotions, I found an altar with this - inscription: TO THE UNKNOWN GOD. Whom therefore ye ignorantly - worship, him declare I unto you. - -It was of this same _unknown God_ that one of the ancient Greek poets -had said, that in him we live and move and have our being. Thus did the -Greeks find Jehovah in the labyrinth of their heathen deities; and when -we claim that the Norse mythology is more _divine_ than any other system -of mythology known, we mean by this assertion, that the supreme God is -mentioned and referred to oftener, and stands out in bolder relief in -the Norseman’s heathen belief, than in any other. - -It is a noticeable fact that long before Christianity was introduced or -had even been heard of in Iceland, it is recorded that Ingemund the Old, -a heathen Norseman, bleeding and dying, prayed God to forgive Rolleif, -his murderer. - -Another man of the heathen times, Thorkel Maane, a supreme judge of -Iceland, a man of unblemished life and distinguished among the wisest -magistrates of that island during the time of the republic, avowed that -he would worship no other God but him who had created the sun; and in -his dying hour he prayed the Father of Light to illuminate his soul in -the darkness of death. Arngrim Jonsson tells us that when Thorkel Maane -had arrived at the age of maturity and reflection, he disdained a blind -obedience to traditionary custom, and employed much of his time in -weighing the established tenets of his countrymen by the standard of -reason. He divested his mind of all prejudice; he pondered on the -sublimity of nature, and guided himself by maxims founded on truth and -reason. By these means he soon discovered not only the fallacy of that -faith which governed his countrymen, but became a convert to the -existence of a supreme power more mighty than Thor or Odin. In his maker -he acknowledged his God, and to him alone directed his homage from a -conviction that none other was worthy to be honored and worshiped. On -perceiving the approach of death, this pious and sensible man requested -to be conveyed into the open air, in order that, as he said, he might in -his last moments contemplate the glories of Almighty God, who has -created the heavens and the earth and all that in them is. - -Harald Fairfax (Haarfager), the first sovereign of Norway, the king that -united Norway under his scepter in the year 872, is another remarkable -example in this respect. He was accustomed to assist at the public -offerings made by his people in honor of their gods. As no better or -more pure religion was known in those days, he acted with prudence in -not betraying either contempt or disregard for the prevailing worship of -the country, lest his subjects, stimulated by such example, might become -indifferent, not only to their sacred, but also to their political, -duties. Yet he rejected from his heart these profane ceremonies, and -believed in the existence of a more powerful god, whom he secretly -adored. I swear, he once said, never to make my offerings to an idol, -but to that God alone whose omnipotence has formed the world and stamped -man with his own image. It would be an act of folly in me to expect help -from him whose power and empire arises from the accidental hollow of a -tree or the peculiar form of a stone. - -Such examples illustrate how near the educated and reflecting Norse -heathen was in sympathy with Christianity, and also go far toward -proving that the object of mythology is to find God and come to him. - -Still we must admit that of this supreme God our forefathers had only a -somewhat vague conception; and to many of them he was almost wholly -unknown. Their god was a natural human god, a person. There can be no -genuine poetry without impersonation, and a perfect system of mythology -is a finished poem. Mythology is, in fact, religious truth expressed in -poetical language. It ascribes all events and phenomena in the outward -world to a personal cause. Each cause is some divinity or other—some god -or demon. In this manner, when the ancients heard the echo from the -woods or mountains, they did not think, as we now do, that the waves of -sound were reflected, but that there stood a dwarf, a personal being, -who repeated the words spoken by themselves. This dwarf had to have a -history, a biography, and this gave rise to a myth. To our poetic -ancestors the forces of nature were not veiled under scientific names. -As Carlyle truthfully remarks, they had not yet learned to reduce to -their fundamental elements and lecture learnedly about this beautiful, -green, rock-built, flowery earth, with its trees, mountains and -many-sounding waters; about the great deep sea of azure that swims over -our heads, and about the various winds that sweep through it. When they -saw the black clouds gathering and shutting out the king of day, and -witnessed them pouring out rain and ice and fire, and heard the thunder -roll, they did not think, as we now do, of accumulated electricity -discharged from the clouds to the earth, and show in the lecture room -how something like these powerful shafts of lightning could be ground -out of glass or silk, but they ascribed the phenomenon to a mighty -divinity—Thor—who in his thunder-chariot rides through the clouds and -strikes with his huge hammer, Mjolner. The theory of our forefathers -furnishes food for the imagination, for our poetical nature, while the -reflection of the waves of sound and the discharge of electricity is -merely dry reasoning—mathematics and physics. To our ancestors Nature -presented herself in her naked, beautiful and awful majesty; while to us -in this age of Newtons, Millers, Oersteds, Berzeliuses and Tyndalls, she -is enwrapped in a multitude of profound scientific phrases. These -phrases make us flatter ourselves that we have fathomed her mysteries -and revealed her secret workings, while in point of fact we are as far -from the real bottom as our ancestors were. But we have robbed ourselves -to a sad extent of the poetry of nature. Well might Barry Cornwall -complain: - - O ye delicious fables! where the wave - And the woods were peopled, and the air, with things - So lovely! Why, ah! why has science grave - Scattered afar your sweet imaginings? - -The old Norsemen said: The mischief-maker Loke cuts for mere sport the -hair of the goddess Sif, but the gods compel him to furnish her new -hair, Loke gets dwarfs to forge for her golden hair, which grows almost -spontaneously. We, their prosaic descendants, say: The heat (Loke) -scorches the grass (Sif’s hair), but the same physical agent (heat) sets -the forces of nature to work again, and new grass with golden (that is -to say bright) color springs up again. - -Thus our ancestors spoke of all the workings of nature as though they -were caused by personal agents; and instead of saying, as we now do, -that winter follows summer, and explaining how the annual revolutions of -the earth produce the changes that are called seasons of the year, they -took a more poetical view of the phenomenon, and said that the blind god -Hoder (winter) was instigated by Loke (heat) to slay Balder (the summer -god). - -This idea of personifying the visible workings of nature was so -completely developed that prominent faculties or attributes of the gods -also were subject to impersonation. Odin, it was said, had two ravens, -Hugin and Munin; that is, reflection and memory. They sit upon his -shoulders, and whisper into his ears. Thor’s strength was redoubled -whenever he girded himself with Megingjarder, his belt of strength; his -steel gloves, with which he wielded his hammer, produced the same -effect. Nay, strength was so eminent a characteristic with Thor that it -even stands out apart from him as an independent person, and is -represented by his son Magne (strength), who accompanies him on his -journeys against the frost-giants. - -In this manner a series of myths were formed and combined into a system -which we now call mythology; a system which gave to our fathers gods -whom they worshiped, and in whom they trusted, and which gives to us a -mirror in which is reflected the popular life, the intellectual and -moral characteristics of our ancestors. And these gods were indeed -worthy of reverence; they were the embodiments of the noblest thoughts -and purest feelings, but these thoughts and feelings could not be -awakened without a personified image. As soon as the divine idea was -born, it assumed a bodily form, and, in order to give the mind a more -definite comprehension of it, it was frequently drawn down from heaven -and sculptured in wood or stone. The object was by images to make -manifest unto the senses the attributes of the gods, and thus the more -easily secure the devotion of the people. The heathen had to see the -image of God, the image of the infinite thought embodied in the god, or -he would not kneel down and worship. This idea of wanting something -concrete, something within the reach of the senses, we find deeply -rooted in human nature. Man does not want an abstract god, but a -_personal_, visible god, at least a visible sign of his presence. And we -who live in the broad daylight of revealed religion and science ought -not to be so prone to blame our forefathers for paying divine honors to -images, statues and other representations or symbols of their gods, for -the images were, as the words imply, not the gods themselves to whom the -heathen addressed his prayers and supplications, but merely the symbols -of these gods; and every religion, Christianity included, is mythical in -its development. The tendency is to draw the divine down to earth, in -order to rise with it again to heaven. When God suffers with us, it -becomes easier for us to suffer; when he redeems us, our salvation -becomes certain. God is in all systems of religion seen, as it were, -through a glass—never face to face. No one can see Jehovah and live. - -Even as in our present condition our immortal soul cannot do without the -visible body, and cannot without this reveal itself to its -fellow-beings, so our faith requires a visible church, our religion must -assume some form in which it can be apprehended by the senses. Our faith -is made stronger by the visible church in the same manner as the mind -gains knowledge of the things about us by means of the bodily organs. -The outward rite or external form and ceremonial ornament, which are so -conspicuous in the Roman and Greek Catholic churches, for instance, -serve to awaken, edify and strengthen the soul and assist the memory in -recalling the religious truths and the events in the life of Christ and -of the saints more vividly and forcibly to the mind; besides, pictures -and images are to the unlettered what books are to those educated in the -art of reading. Did not Christ himself combine things supersensual with -things within the reach of the senses? The purification and -sanctification of the soul he combined with the idea of cleansing the -body in the sacrament of baptism. The remembrance of him and of his -love, how he gave his body and blood for the redemption of fallen man, -he combined with the eating of bread and drinking of wine in the -sacrament of the Lord’s Supper. He gave his religion an outward, visible -form; and, just as the soul is mirrored in the eyes, in the expression -of the countenance, in the gestures and manners of the body, so our -faith is reflected in the church. This is what is meant by mythical -development; and when we discover this tendency to cling to visible -signs and ceremonies manifesting itself so extensively even in the -Christian church of our own time, it should teach us to be less severe -in judging and blaming the heathen for their idol-worship. - -As long as the nations have inhabited the earth, there have been -different religions among men; and how could this be otherwise? The -countries which they have inhabited; the skies which they have looked -upon; their laws, customs and social institutions; their habits, -language and knowledge; have differed so widely that it would be absurd -to look for uniformity in the manner in which they have found, -comprehended and worshiped God. Nay, this is not all. Even among -Christians, and, if we give the subject a careful examination, even -among those who confess one and the same faith and are members of one -and the same church, we find that the religion of one man is never -perfectly like that of another. They may use the same prayers, learn and -subscribe to the same confession, hear the same preacher and take part -in the same ceremonies, but still the prayer, faith and worship of the -one will differ from the prayer, faith and worship of the other. Two -persons are never precisely alike, and every one will interpret the -words which he hears and the ceremonies in which he takes part according -to the depth and breadth of his mind and heart—according to the extent -and kind of his knowledge and experience, and according to other -personal peculiarities and characteristics. Even this is not all. Every -person changes his religious views as he grows older, as his knowledge -and experience increase, so that the faith of the youth is not that of -the child, nor does the man with silvery locks approach the altar with -precisely the same faith as when he knelt there a youth. For it is not -the words and ceremonies, but the thoughts and feelings, that we combine -with these symbols, that constitute our religion; it is not the -confession which we learned at school, but the ideas that are suggested -by it in our minds, and the emotions awakened by it in our hearts, that -constitute our faith. - -If the preachers of the Christian religion realized these truths more -than they generally seem to do, they would perhaps speak with more -charity and less scorn and contempt of people who differ from them in -their religious views. They would recognize in the faith of others the -same connecting link between God and man for them, as their own faith is -for themselves. They would not hate the Jew because he, in accordance -with the Mosaic commandment, offers his prayers in the synagogue to the -God of his fathers; nor despise the heathen because _he_, in want of -better knowledge, in childlike simplicity lifts his hands in prayer to -an image of wood or stone; for, although this be perishable dust, he -still addresses the prayer of his inmost soul to the supreme God, even -as the child, that kisses the picture of his absent mother, actually -thinks of her. - -The old mythological stories of the Norsemen abound in poetry of the -truest and most touching character. These stories tell us in sublime and -wonderful speech of the workings of external nature, and may make us -cheerful or sad, happy or mournful, gay or grave, just as we night feel, -if from the pinnacle of Gausta Fjeld we were to watch the passing -glories of morning and evening tide. There is nothing in these stories -that can tend to make us less upright and simple, while they contain -many thoughts and suggestions that we may be the better and happier for -knowing. All the so-called disagreeable features of mythology are -nothing but distortions, brought out either by ill-will or by a -superficial knowledge of the subject; and, when these distortions are -removed, we shall find only things beautiful, lovely and of good report. -We shall find the simple thoughts of our childlike, imaginative, poetic -and prophetic forefathers upon the wonderful works of their maker, and -nothing that we may laugh at, or despise, or _pity_. These words of our -fathers, if read in the right spirit, will make us feel as we ought to -feel when we contemplate the glory and beauty of the heavens and the -earth, and observe how wonderfully all things are adapted to each other -and to the wants of man, that the thoughts of him who stands at the helm -of this ship of the universe (Skidbladner) must be very deep, and that -we are sensible to the same joys and sufferings, are actuated by the -same fears and hopes and passions, that were felt by the men and women -who lived in the dawn of our Gothic history. We will begin to realize -how the great and wise Creator has led our race on—slowly, perhaps, but -nevertheless surely—to the consciousness that he is a loving and -righteous Father, and that he has made the sun and moon and stars, the -earth, and all that in them is, in their season. - -The Norse mythology reflects, then, the religious, moral, intellectual -and social development of our ancestors in the earliest period of their -existence. We say _our_ ancestors, for we must bear in mind that in its -most original form this mythology was common to all the Teutonic -nations, to the ancestors of the Americans and the English, as well as -to those of the Norsemen, Swedes and Danes. Geographically it extended -not only over the whole of Scandinavia, including Iceland, but also over -England and a considerable portion of France and Germany. But it is only -in Iceland, that weird island of the icy sea, with the snow-clad volcano -Mt. Hecla for its hearth, encircled by a wall of glaciers, and with the -roaring North Sea for its grave,—it is only in Iceland that anything -like a complete record of this ancient Teutonic mythology was put in -writing and preserved; and this fact alone ought to be quite sufficient -to lead us to cultivate a better acquaintance with the literature of -Scandinavia. To use the words of that excellent Icelandic scholar, the -Englishman George Webbe Dasent: It is well known, says he, that the -Icelandic language, which has been preserved almost incorrupt in that -remarkable island, has remained for many centuries the depository of -literary treasures, the common property of all the Scandinavian and -Teutonic races, which would otherwise have perished, as they have -perished in Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Germany and England. There was a -time when all these countries had a common mythology, when the royal -race each of them traced its descent in varying genealogies up to Odin -and the gods of Asgard. Of that mythology, _which may hold its own -against any other that the world has seen_, all memory, as a systematic -whole, has vanished from the mediæval literature of Teutonic Europe. -With the introduction of Christianity, the ancient gods had been deposed -and their places assigned to devils and witches. Here and there a -tradition, a popular tale or a superstition bore testimony to what had -been lost; and, though in this century the skill and wisdom of the -Grimms and their school have shown the world what power of restoration -and reconstruction abides in intelligent scholarship and laborious -research, _even the genius of the great master of that school of -criticism would have lost nine-tenths of its power had not faithful -Iceland preserved through the dark ages the two Eddas, which present to -us, in features that cannot be mistaken, and in words which cannot die, -the very form and fashion of that wondrous edifice of mythology which -our forefathers in the dawn of time imagined to themselves as the temple -at once of their gods and of the worship due to them from all mankind on -this middle earth_. For man, according to their system of belief, could -have no existence but for those gods and stalwart divinities, who, from -their abode in Asgard, were ever watchful to protect him and crush the -common foes of both, the earthly race of giants, or, in other words, the -chaotic natural powers. Any one, therefore, that desires to see what -manner of men his forefathers were in their relation to the gods, how -they conceived their theogony, how they imagined and constructed their -cosmogony, must betake himself to the Eddas, as illustrated by the -Sagas, and he will there find ample details on all these points; while -the Anglo-Saxon and Teutonic literatures only throw out vague hints and -allusions. As we read Beowulf and the Traveler’s Song, for instance, we -meet at every step references to mythological stories and mythical -events, which would be utterly unintelligible were it not for the full -light thrown upon them by the Icelandic literature. Thus far Dasent’s -opinion. - -The Norse mythology, we say, then, shows what the religion of our -ancestors was; and their religion is the main fact that we care to know -about them. Knowing this well, we can easily account for the rest. Their -religion is the soul of their history. Their religion tells us what they -felt; their feelings produced their thoughts, and their thoughts were -the parents of their acts. When we study their religion, we discover the -unseen and spiritual fountain from which all their outward acts welled -forth, and by which the character of these was determined. - -The mythology is neither the history nor the poetry nor the natural -philosophy of our ancestors; but it is the germ and nucleus of them all. -It _is_ history, for it treats of events; but it is _not_ history in the -ordinary acceptance of that word, for the persons figuring therein have -never existed. It _is_ natural philosophy, for it investigates the -origin of nature; but it is _not_ natural philosophy according to modern -ideas, for it personifies and deifies nature. It _is_ metaphysics, for -it studies the science and the laws of being; but it is _not_ -metaphysics in our sense of the word, for it rapidly overleaps all -categories. It is poetry in its very essence; but its pictures are -streams that flow together. Thus the Norse mythology is history, but -limited to neither time nor place; poetry, but independent of arses or -theses; philosophy, but without abstractions or syllogisms. - -We close this chapter with the following extract from Thomas Carlyle’s -essays on Heroes and Hero-worship; an extract that undoubtedly will be -read with interest and pleasure: - - In that strange island—Iceland—burst up, the geologists say, by - fire, from the bottom of the sea; a wild land of barrenness and - lava; swallowed, many months of the year, in black tempests, yet - with a wild, gleaming beauty in summer-time; towering up there, - stern and grim, in the North Ocean; with its snow-jökuls, roaring - geysers, sulphur pools and horrid volcanic chasms, like the waste, - chaotic battle-field of frost and fire—where of all places we least - looked for literature or written memorials; the record of these - things was written down. On the seaboard of this wild land is a rim - of grassy country, where cattle can subsist, and men, by means of - them and of what the sea yields; and it seems they were poetic men, - these—men who had deep thoughts in them, and uttered musically their - thoughts. Much would be lost had Iceland not been burst up from the - sea—not been discovered by the Northmen! The old Norse poets were - many of them natives of Iceland. - - Sæmund, one of the early Christian priests there, who perhaps had a - lingering fondness for paganism, collected certain of their old - pagan song, just about becoming obsolete then—poems or chants, of a - mythic, prophetic, mostly all of a religious, character: this is - what Norse critics call the _Elder_ or Poetic _Edda_. _Edda_, a word - of uncertain etymology, is thought to signify _Ancestress_. Snorre - Sturleson, an Iceland gentleman, an extremely notable personage, - educated by this Sæmund’s grandson, took in hand next, near a - century afterwards, to put together, among several other books he - wrote, a kind of prose synopsis of the whole mythology, elucidated - by new fragments of traditionary verse; a work constructed really - with great ingenuity, native talent, what one might call unconscious - art; altogether a perspicuous, clear work—pleasant reading still. - This is the _Younger_ or Prose _Edda_. By these and the numerous - other _Sagas_, mostly Icelandic, with the commentaries, Icelandic or - not, which go on zealously in the North to this day, it is possible - to gain some direct insight even yet, and see that old system of - belief, as it were, face to face. Let as forget that it is erroneous - religion: let us look at it as old thought, and try if we cannot - sympathize with it somewhat. - - The primary characteristic of this old Northland mythology I find to - be impersonation of the visible workings of nature—earnest, simple - recognition of the workings of physical nature, as a thing wholly - miraculous, stupendous and divine. What we now lecture of as - science, they wondered at, and fell down in awe before, as religion. - The dark, hostile powers of nature they figured to themselves as - _Jötuns_ (giants), huge, shaggy beings, of a demoniac character. - Frost, Fire, Sea, Tempest, these are _Jötuns_. The friendly powers, - again, as Summer-heat, the Sun, are gods. The Empire of this - Universe is divided between these two; they dwell apart in perennial - internecine feud. The gods dwell above in _Asgard_, the Garden of - the _Asas_, or Divinities; _Jötunheim_, a distant, dark, chaotic - land, is the home of the Jötuns. - - Curious, all this; and not idle or inane if we will look at the - foundation of it. The power of _Fire_ or _Flame_, for instance, - which we designate by some trivial chemical name, thereby hiding - from ourselves the essential character of wonder that dwells in it, - as in all things, is, with these old Northmen, _Loge_, a most swift, - subtle demon, of the brood of the Jötuns. The savages of the - Ladrones Islands, too (say some Spanish voyagers), thought Fire, - which they had never seen before, was a devil, or god, that bit you - sharply when you touched it, and lived there upon dry wood. From us, - too, no chemistry, if it had not stupidity to help it, would hide - that flame is a wonder. What is flame? Frost the old Norse seer - discerns to be a monstrous, hoary Jötun, the giant _Thrym_, _Hrym_, - or _Rime_, the old word, now nearly obsolete here, but still used is - Scotland to signify hoar-frost. _Rime_ was not then, as now, a dead - chemical thing, but a living Jötun, or Devil; the monstrous Jötun - _Rime_ drove home his horses at night, sat combing their - manes;—which horses were _Hail-clouds_, or fleet _Frost-winds_. His - cows—no, not his, but a kinsman’s, the giant Hymer’s cows—are - _Icebergs_. This Hymer looks at the rocks with his devil-eye, and - they _split_ in the glance of it. - - Thunder was then not mere electricity, vitreous or resinous; it was - the god Donner (Thunder), or Thor,—god, also, of the beneficent - Summer-heat. The thunder was his wrath; the gathering of the black - clouds is the drawing down of Thor’s angry brows; the fire-bolt - bursting out of heaven is the all-rending hammer flung from the hand - of Thor. He urges his loud chariot over the mountain tops—that is - the peal; wrathful he blows in his red beard—that is the rustling - storm-blast before the thunder begins. Balder, again, the White God, - the beautiful, the just and benignant, (whom the early Christian - missionaries found to resemble Christ,) is the sun—beautifulest of - visible things: wondrous, too, and divine still, after all our - astronomies and almanacs! But perhaps the notablest god we hear tell - of is one of whom Grimm, the German etymologist, finds trace: the - god Wünsch, or Wish. The god _Wish_, who could give us all that we - _wished_! Is not this the sincerest and yet the rudest voice of the - spirit of man? The _rudest_ ideal that man ever formed, which still - shows itself in the latest forms of our spiritual culture. Higher - considerations have to teach us that the god _Wish_ is not the true - God. - - Of the other gods or Jötuns, I will mention, only for etymology’s - sake, that Sea-tempest is the Jötun _Ægir_, a very dangerous Jötun; - and now to this day, on our river Trent, as I learn, the Nottingham - bargemen, when the river is in a certain flooded state (a kind of - back-water or eddying swirl it has, very dangerous to them), call it - _Eager_. They cry out, Have a care! there is the _Eager_ coming! - Curious, that word surviving, like the peak of a submerged world! - The _oldest_ Nottingham barge-men had believed in the god Ægir. - Indeed, our English blood, too, in good part, is Danish, Norse,—or - rather, at the bottom, Danish and Norse and Saxon have no - distinction except a superficial one—as of Heathen and Christian, or - the like. But all over our island we are mingled largely with Danes - proper—from the incessant invasions there were; and this, of course, - in a greater proportion along the east coast; and greatest of all, - as I find, in the north country. From the Humber upward, all over - Scotland, the speech of the common people is still in singular - degree Icelandic; its Germanism has still a peculiar Norse tinge. - They, too, are Normans, Northmen—if that be any great beauty! - - Of the chief god, Odin, we shall speak by-and-by. Mark, at present, - so much: what the essence of Scandinavian, and, indeed, of all - paganism, is: a recognition of the forces of nature as godlike, - stupendous, personal agencies—as gods and demons. Not inconceivable - to us. It is the infant thought of man opening itself with awe and - wonder on this ever stupendous universe. It is strange, after our - beautiful Apollo statues and clear smiling mythuses, to come down - upon the Norse gods brewing ale to hold their feast with Aegir, the - Sea-Jötun; sending out Thor to get the caldron for them in the Jötun - country; Thor, after many adventures, clapping the pot on his head, - like a huge hat, and walking off with it—quite lost in it, the ear - of the pot reaching down to his heels! A kind of vacant hugeness, - large, awkward gianthood, characterizes that Norse system; enormous - force, as yet altogether untutored, stalking helpless, with large, - uncertain strides. Consider only their primary mythus of the - Creation. The gods having got the giant Ymer slain—a giant made by - warm winds and much confused work out of the conflict of Frost and - Fire—determined on constructing a world with him. His blood made the - sea; his flesh was the Land; the Rocks, his bones; of his eyebrows - they formed Asgard, their gods’ dwelling; his skull was the great - blue vault of Immensity, and the brains of it became the Clouds. - What a Hyper-Brobdignagian business! Untamed thought; great, - giantlike, enormous; to be tamed, in due time, into the compact - greatness, not giantlike, but godlike, and stronger than gianthood - of the Shakespeares, the Goethes! Spiritually, as well as bodily, - these men are our progenitors. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - WHY CALL THIS MYTHOLOGY NORSE? OUGHT IT NOT RATHER TO BE CALLED GOTHIC - OR TEUTONIC? - - -In its original form, the mythology, which is to be presented in this -volume, was common to all the Teutonic nations; and it spread itself -geographically over England, the most of France and Germany, as well as -over Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Iceland. But when the Teutonic nations -parted, took possession of their respective countries, and began to -differ one nation from the other, in language, customs and social and -political institutions, and were influenced by the peculiar features of -the countries which they respectively inhabited, then the germ of -mythology which each nation brought with it into its changed conditions -of life, would also be subject to changes and developments in harmony -and keeping with the various conditions of climate, language, customs, -social and political institutions, and other influences that nourished -it, while the fundamental myths remained common to all the Teutonic -nations. Hence we might in one sense speak of a Teutonic mythology. That -would then be the mythology of the Teutonic peoples, as it was known to -them while they all lived together, some four or five hundred years -before the birth of Christ, in the south-eastern part of Russia, without -any of the peculiar features that have been added later by any of the -several branches of that race. But from this time we have no Teutonic -literature. In another sense, we must recognize a distinct German -mythology, a distinct English mythology, and even make distinction -between the mythologies of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. - -That it is only of the Norse mythology we have anything like a complete -record, was alluded to in the first chapter; but we will now make a more -thorough examination of this fact. - -The different branches of the Teutonic mythology died out and -disappeared as Christianity gradually became introduced, first in -France, about five hundred years after the birth of Christ; then in -England, one or two hundred years later; still later, in Germany, where -the Saxons, Christianized by Charlemagne about A.D. 800, were the last -heathen people. - -But in Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Iceland, the original Gothic -heathenism lived longer and more independently than elsewhere, and had -more favorable opportunities to grow and mature. The ancient -mythological or pagan religion flourished here until about the middle of -the eleventh century; or, to speak more accurately, Christianity was not -completely introduced in Iceland before the beginning of the eleventh -century; in Denmark and Norway, some twenty to thirty years later; while -in Sweden, paganism was not wholly eradicated before 1150. - -Yet neither Norway, Sweden nor Denmark give us any mythological -literature. This is furnished us only by the Norsemen, who had settled -in Iceland. Shortly after the introduction of Christianity, which gave -the Norsemen the so-called Roman alphabetical system instead of their -famous Runic _futhorc_, there was put in writing in Iceland a colossal -mythological and historical literature, which is the full-blown flower -of Gothic paganism. In the other countries inhabited by Gothic -(Scandinavian, Low Dutch and English) and Germanic (High German) races, -scarcely any mythological literature was produced. The German -_Niebelungen-Lied_ and the Anglo-Saxon _Beowulf’s Drapa_ are at best -only semi-mythological. The overthrow of heathendom was too abrupt and -violent. Its eradication was so complete that the heathen religion was -almost wholly obliterated from the memory of the people. Occasionally -there are found authors who refer to it, but their allusions are very -vague and defective, besides giving unmistakable evidence of being -written with prejudice and contempt. Nor do we find among the early -Germans that spirit of veneration for the memories of the past, and -desire to perpetuate them in a vernacular literature; or if they did -exist, they were smothered by the Catholic priesthood. When the Catholic -priests gained the ascendancy, they adopted the Latin language and used -that exclusively for recording events, and they pronounced it a sin even -to mention by name the old pagan gods oftener than necessity compelled -them to do so. - -Among the Norsemen, on the other hand, and to a considerable extent -among the English, too, the old religion flourished longer; the people -cherished their traditions; they loved to recite the songs and Sagas, in -which were recorded the religious faith and brave deeds of their -ancestors, and cultivated their native speech in spite of the priests. -In Iceland at least, the priests did not succeed in rooting out -paganism, if you please, before it had developed sufficiently to produce -those beautiful blossoms, the Elder and Younger Eddas. The chief reason -of this was, that the people continued to use their mother-tongue, in -writing as well as in speaking, so that Latin, the language of the -church, never got a foothold. It was useless for the monks to try to -tell Sagas in Latin, for they found but few readers in that tongue. An -important result of this was, that the Saga became the property of the -people, and not of the favored few. In the next place, our Norse -Icelandic ancestors took a profound delight in poetry and song. The -skald sung in the mother-speech, and taking the most of the material for -his songs and poems from the old mythological tales, it was necessary to -study and become familiar with these, in order that he might be able, on -the one hand, to understand the productions of others, and, on the -other, to compose songs himself. Among the numerous examples which -illustrate how tenaciously the Norsemen clung to their ancient -divinities, we may mention the skald Hallfred, who, when he was baptized -by the king Olaf Tryggvesson, declared bravely to the king, that he -would neither speak ill of the old gods, nor refrain from mentioning -them in his songs. - -The reason, then, why we cannot present a complete and thoroughly -systematic Teutonic or German or English or Danish or Swedish Mythology, -is not that these did not at some time exist, but because their records -are so defective. Outside of Norway and Iceland, Christianity, together -with disregard of past memories, has swept most of the resources, with -which to construct them, away from the surface, and there remain only -deeply buried ruins, which it is difficult to dig up and still more -difficult to polish and adjust into their original symmetrical and -comprehensive form after they have been brought to the surface. It is -difficult to gather all the scattered and partially decayed bones of the -mythological system, and with the breath of human intellect reproduce a -living vocal organism. Few have attempted to do this with greater -success than the brothers Grimm. - -For the elucidation of our mythology in its Germanic form, for instance, -the materials, although they are not wholly wanting, are yet difficult -to make use of, since they are widely scattered, and must be sought -partly in quite corrupted popular legends, partly in writings of the -middle ages, where they are sometimes found interpolated, and where we -often least should expect to find them. But in its Norse form we have -ample material for studying the Asa-mythology. Here we have as our guide -not only a large number of skaldic lays, composed while the mythology -still flourished, but even a complete religious system, written down, it -is true, after Christianity had been introduced in Iceland, still, -according to all evidence, without the Christian ideas having had any -special influence upon its delineation, or having materially corrupted -it. These lays, manuscripts, etc., which form the source of Norse -mythology, will be more fully discussed in another chapter of this -Introduction. - -We may add further, that if we had, in a complete system, the mythology -of the Germans, the English, etc., we should find, in comparing them -with the Norse, the same correspondence and identity as see find -existing between the different branches of the Teutonic family of -languages. We should find in its essence the same mythology in all the -Teutonic countries, we should find this again dividing itself into two -groups, the Germanic and the Gothic, and the latter group, that is, the -Gothic, would include the ancient religion of the Scandinavians, -English, and Low Dutch. If we had sufficient means for making a -comparison, we should find that any single myth may have become more -prominent, may have become more perfectly developed by one branch of the -race than by another; one branch of the great Teutonic family may have -become more attached to a certain myth than another, while the myth -itself would remain identical everywhere. Local myths, that is, myths -produced by the contemplation of the visible workings of external -nature, are colored by the atmosphere of the people and country where -they are fostered. The god Frey received especial attention by the -Asa-worshipers in Sweden, but the Norse and Danish Frey are still in -reality the same god. Thunder produces not the same effect upon the -people among the towering and precipitous mountains of Norway and the -level plains of Denmark, but the Thor of Norway and of Denmark are still -the same god; although in Norway he is tall a mountain, his beard is -briers, and he rushes upon his heroic deeds with the strength and frenzy -of a berserk, while in Denmark he wanders along the sea-shore, a youth, -with golden looks and downy beard. - -It is the Asa-mythology, as it was conceived and cherished by the -Norsemen of Norway and Iceland, which the Old Norse literature properly -presents to us, and hence the myths will in this volume be presented in -their Norse dress, and hence its name, _Norse Mythology_. From what has -already been said, there is no reason to doubt that the Swedes and Danes -professed in the main the same faith, followed the same religious -customs, and had the same religious institutions; and upon this -supposition other English writers upon this subject, as for instance -Benjamin Thorpe, have entitled their books _Scandinavian Mythology_. But -we do not know the details of the religious faith, customs and -institutions of Sweden and Denmark, for all reliable inland sources of -information are wanting, and all the highest authorities on this subject -of investigation, such as Rudolph Keyser, P. A. Munch, Ernst Sars, N. M. -Petersen and others, unanimously declare, that although the ancient -Norse-Icelandic writings not unfrequently treat of heathen religious -affairs in Sweden and Denmark, yet, when they do, it is always in such a -manner that the conception is clearly _Norse_, and the delineation is -throughout adapted to institutions as they existed in Norway. We are -aware that there are those who will feel inclined to criticise us for -not calling this mythology Scandinavian or Northern (a more elastic -term), but we would earnestly recommend them to examine carefully the -writings of the above named writers before waxing too zealous on the -subject. - -As we closed the previous chapter, with an extract from Thomas Carlyle, -so we will close this chapter with a brief quotation frown an equally -eminent scholar, the author of _Chips from a German Workshop_. In the -second volume of that work Max Müller says:[1] - - There is, after Anglo-Saxon, no language, no literature, no - mythology so full of interest for the elucidation of the earliest - history of the race which now inhabits these British isles as the - Icelandic. Nay, in one respect Icelandic beats every other dialect - of the great Teutonic family of speech, not excepting Anglo-Saxon - and Old High German and Gothic. It is in Icelandic alone that we - find complete remains of genuine Teutonic heathendom. Gothic as _a - language_, is more ancient than Icelandic; but the only literary - work which we we possess in Gothic is a translation of the Bible. - The Anglo-Saxon literature, with the exception of the Beowulf, is - Christian. The old heroes of the Niebelunge, such as we find them - represented in the Suabian epic, have been converted into - church-going knights; whereas, in the ballads of the Elder Edda, - Sigurd and Brynhild appear before us in their full pagan grandeur, - holding nothing sacred but their love, and defying all laws, human - and divine, in the name of that one almighty passion. The Icelandic - contains the key to many a riddle in the English language and to - many a mystery in the English character. Though the Old Norse is but - a dialect of the same language which the Angles and Saxons brought - to Britain, though the Norman blood is the same blood that floods - and ebbs in every German heart, yet there is an accent of defiance - in that rugged northern speech, and a spring of daring madness in - that throbbing northern heart, which marks the Northman wherever he - appears, whether in Iceland or in Sicily, whether on the Seine or on - the Thames. At the beginning of the ninth century, when the great - northern exodus began, Europe, as Dr. Dasent remarks, was in danger - of becoming too comfortable. The two nations destined to run - neck-and-neck in the great race of civilization, Frank and - Anglo-Saxon, had a tendency to become dull and lazy, and neither - could arrive at perfection till it had been chastised by the - Norsemen, and finally forced to admit an infusion of northern blood - into its sluggish veins. The vigor of the various branches of the - Teutonic stock may be measured by the proportion of Norman blood - which they received; and the national character of England owes more - to the descendants of Hrolf Ganger[2] than to the followers of - Hengist and Horsa. - - But what is known of the early history of the Norsemen? Theirs was - the life of reckless freebooters, and they had no time to dream and - ponder on the past, which they had left behind in Norway. Where they - settled as colonists or as rulers, their own traditions, their very - language, were soon forgotten. Their language has nowhere struck - root on foreign ground, even where, as in Normandy, they became - earls of Rouen, or, as in these isles, kings of England. There is - but one exception—Iceland. Iceland was discovered, peopled and - civilized by Norsemen in the ninth century; and in the nineteenth - century the language spoken there is still the dialect of Harald - Fairhair, and the stories told there are still the stories of the - Edda, or the Venerable Grandmother. Dr. Dasent gives us a rapid - sketch of the first landings of the Norse refugees on the fells and - forths of Iceland. He describes how love of freedom drove the - subjects of Harald Fairhair forth from their home; how the Teutonic - tribes, though they loved their kings, the sons of Odin, and - sovereigns by the grace of God, detested the dictatorship of Harald. - He was a mighty warrior, so says the ancient Saga, and laid Norway - under him, and put out of the way some of those who held districts, - and some of them he drove out of the land; and besides, many men - escaped out of Norway because of the overbearing of Harald Fairhair, - for they would not stay to be subjects to him. These early emigrants - were pagans, and it was not till the end of the tenth century that - Christianity reached the Ultima Thule of Europe. The missionaries, - however, who converted the freemen of Iceland, were freemen - themselves. They did not come with the pomp and the pretensions of - the church of Rome. They preached Christ rather than the Pope; they - taught religion rather than theology. Nor were they afraid of the - old heathen gods, or angry with every custom that was not of - Christian growth. Sometimes this tolerance may have been carried too - far, for we read of kings, like Helge, who mixed in their faith, who - trusted in Christ, but at the same time invoked Thor’s aid whenever - they went to sea or got into any difficulty. But on the whole, the - kindly feeling of the Icelandic priesthood toward the national - traditions and customs and prejudices of their converts must have - been beneficial. Sons and daughters were not forced to call the gods - whom their fathers and mothers had worshiped, devils; and they were - allowed to use the name of Allfadir, whom they had invoked in the - prayers of their childhood, when praying to Him who is our Father in - Heaven. - - The Icelandic missionaries had peculiar advantages in their relation - to the system of paganism which they came to combat. Nowhere else, - perhaps, in the whole history of Christianity, has the missionary - been brought face to face with a race of gods who were believed by - their own worshipers to be doomed to death. The missionaries had - only to proclaim that Balder was dead, that the mighty Odin and Thor - were dead. The people knew that these gods were to die, and the - message of the One Everliving God must have touched their ears and - their hearts with comfort and joy. Thus, while in Germany the - priests were occupied for a long time in destroying every trace of - heathenism, in condemning every ancient lay as the work of the - devil, in felling sacred trees and abolishing national customs, the - missionaries of Iceland were able to take a more charitable view of - the past, and they became the keepers of those very poems and laws - and proverbs and Runic inscriptions which on the continent had to be - put down with inquisitorial cruelty. The men to whom the collection - of the ancient pagan poetry of Iceland is commonly ascribed were men - of Christian learning: the one,[3] the founder of a public school; - the other,[4] famous as the author of a history of the North, the - Heimskringla (the Home-Circle—the World). It is owing to their - labors that we know anything of the ancient religion, the - traditions, the maxims, the habits of the Norsemen. Dr. Dasent - dwells most fully on the religious system of Iceland, which is the - same, at least in its general outline, as that believed in by all - the members of the Teutonic family, and may truly be called one of - the various dialects of the primitive religious and mythological - language of the Aryan race. There is nothing more interesting than - religion in the whole history of man. By its side, poetry and art, - science and law, sink into comparative insignificance. - -Footnote 1: - - Max Müller’s Review of Dr. Dasent’s _The Norseman in Iceland_. - -Footnote 2: - - The founder of Normandy in France. - -Footnote 3: - - Sæmund the Wise. - -Footnote 4: - - Snorre Sturleson. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - NORSE MYTHOLOGY COMPARED WITH THE GREEK. - - -Dr. Dasent says the Norse mythology may hold its own against any other -in the world. The fact that it is the religion of our forefathers ought -to be enough to commend it to our attention; but it may be pardonable in -us to harbor even a sense of pride, if we find, for instance, that the -mythology of our Gothic ancestors suffers nothing, but rather is the -gainer in many respects by a comparison with that world-famed paganism -of the ancient Greeks. We would therefore invite the attention of the -reader to a brief comparison between the Norse and Greek systems of -mythology. - -A comparison between the two systems is both interesting and important. -They are the two grandest systems of cosmogony and theogony of which we -have record, but the reader will generously pardon the writer if he -ventures the statement already at the outset, that of the two the Norse -system is the grander. These two, the Greek and the Norse, have, to a -greater extent than all other systems of mythology combined, influenced -the civilization, determined the destinies, socially and politically, of -the European nations, and shaped their polite literature. In literature -it might indeed seem that the Greek mythology has played a more -important part. We admit that it has acted a more _conspicuous_ part, -but we imagine that there exists a wonderful blindness, among many -writers, to the transcendent influence of the blood and spirit of -ancient Norseland on North European, including English and American, -character, which character has in turn stamped itself upon our -literature (as, for instance, in the case of Shakespeare, the Thor among -all Teutonic writers); and, furthermore, we rejoice in the absolute -certainty to which we have arrived by studying the signs of the times, -that the comparative ignorance, which has prevailed in this country and -in England, of the history, literature, ancient religion and -institutions of a people so closely allied to us by race, national -characteristics, and tone of mind as the Norsemen, will sooner or later -be removed; that a school of Norse philology and antiquities will ere -long flourish on the soil of the Vinland of our ancestors, and that -there is a grand future, not far hence, when Norse mythology will be -copiously reflected in our elegant literature, and in our fine arts, -painting, sculpturing and music. - -The Norse mythology differs widely from the Greek. They are the same in -essence; that is to say, both are a recognition of the forces and -phenomena of nature as gods and demons; but all mythologies are the same -in this respect, and the differences, between the various mythological -systems, consist in the different ways in which nature has impressed -different peoples, and in the different manner in which they have -comprehended the universe, and personified or deified the various forces -and phenomena of nature. In other words, it is in the ethical clothing -and elaboration of the myths, that the different systems of mythology -differ one from the other. In the Vedic and Homeric poets the germs of -mythology are the same as in the Eddas of Norseland, but this common -stock of materials, that is, the forces and phenomena of nature, has -been moulded into an infinite variety of shapes by the story-tellers of -the Hindoos, Greeks and Norsemen. - -Memory among the Greeks is _Mnemosyne_, the mother of the muses, while -among the Norsemen it is represented by Munin, one of the ravens perched -upon Odin’s shoulders. The masculine Heimdal, god of the rainbow among -the Norsemen, we find in Greece as the feminine Iris, who charged the -clouds with water from the lakes and rivers, in order that it might fall -again upon the earth in gentle fertilizing showers. She was daughter of -Thaumas and Elektra, granddaughter of Okeanos, and the swift-footed -gold-winged messenger of the gods. The Norse Balder is the Greek Adonis. -Frigg, the mother of Balder, mourns the death of her son, while -Aphrodite sorrows for her special favorite, the young rosy shepherd, -Adonis. Her grief at his death, which was caused by a wild boar, was so -great that she would not allow the lifeless body to be taken from her -arms until the gods consoled her by decreeing that her lover might -continue to live half the year, during the spring and summer, on the -earth, while she might spend the other half with him in the lower world. -Thus Balder and Adonis are both summer gods, and Frigg and Aphrodite are -goddesses of gardens and flowers. The Norse god of Thunder, Thor -(Thursday), who, among the Norsemen, is only the protector of heaven and -earth, is the Greek Zeus, the father of gods and men. The gods of the -Greeks are essentially free from decay and death. They live forever on -Olympos, eating ambrosial food and drinking the nectar of immortality, -while in their veins flows not immortal blood, but the imperishable -ichor. In the Norse mythology, on the other hand, Odin himself dies, and -is swallowed by the Fenriswolf; Thor conquers the Midgard-serpent, but -retreats only nine paces and falls poisoned by the serpent’s breath; and -the body of the good and beautiful Balder is consumed in the flames of -his funeral pile. The Greek dwelt in bright and sunny lands, where the -change from summer to winter brought with it no feelings of overpowering -gloom. The outward nature exercised a cheering influence upon him, -making him happy, and this happiness he exhibited in his mythology. The -Greek cared less to commune with the silent mountains, moaning winds, -and heaving sea; he spent his life to a great extent in the cities, -where his mind would become more interested in human affairs, and where -he could share his joys and sorrows with his kinsmen. While the Greek -thus was brought up to the artificial society of the town, the hardy -Norseman was inured to the rugged independence of the country. While the -life and the nature surrounding it, in the South, would naturally have a -tendency to make the Greek more human, or rather to deify that which is -human, the popular life and nature in the North would have a tendency to -form in the minds of the Norsemen a sublimer and profounder conception -of the universe. The Greek clings with tenacity to the beautiful earth; -the earth is his mother. Zeus, surrounded by his gods and goddesses, -sits on his golden throne, on Olympos, on the top of the mountain, in -the cloud. But that is not lofty enough for the spirit of the Norsemen. -Odin’s Valhal is in heaven; nay, Odin himself is not the highest god; -Muspelheim is situated above Asaheim, and in Muspelheim is Gimle, where -reigns a god, who is mightier than Odin, the god whom Hyndla ventures -not to name. - -In _Heroes and Hero Worship_, Thomas Carlyle makes the following -striking comparison between Norse and Greek mythology: To me, he says, -there is in the Norse system something very genuine, very great and -manlike. A broad simplicity, rusticity, so very different from the light -gracefulness of the old Greek paganism, distinguishes this Norse system. -It is _thought_, the genuine thought of deep, rude, earnest minds, -fairly opened to the things about them, a face-to-face and -heart-to-heart inspection of things—the first characteristic of all good -thought in all times. Not graceful lightness, half sport, as in the -Greek paganism; a certain homely truthfulness and rustic strength, a -great rude sincerity, discloses itself here. Thus Carlyle. - -As the visible workings of nature are in the great and main features the -same everywhere; in all climes we find the vaulted sky with its sun, -moon, myriad stars and flitting clouds; the sea with its surging -billows; the land with its manifold species of plants and animals, its -elevations and depressions; we find cold, heat, rain, winds, etc., -although all these may vary widely in color, brilliancy, depth, height, -degree, and other qualities; and as the minds and hearts of men cherish -hope, fear, anxiety, passion, etc., although they may be influenced and -actuated by them in various ways and to various extents; and as -mythology is the impersonation of nature’s forces and phenomena as -contemplated by the human mind and _heart_, so all mythologies, no -matter in what clime they originated and were fostered, must of -necessity have their stock of materials, their ground-work or foundation -and frame in common, while they may differ widely from each other in -respect to peculiar characteristics, both in the ethical elaboration of -the myth and in the architectural effect of the _tout ensemble_. Thus we -have a tradition about a deluge, for instance, in nearly every country -on the globe, but no two nations tell it alike. In Genesis we read of -Noah and his ark, and how the waters increased greatly upon the earth, -destroying all flesh that moved upon the earth excepting those who were -with him in the ark. In Greece, Deukalion and his wife Pyrrha become the -founders of a new race of men. According to the Greek story, a great -flood had swept away the whole human race, except one pair, Deukalion -and Pyrrha, who, as the flood abated, landed on Mt. Parnassos, and -thence descending, picked up stones and cast them round about, as Zeus -had commanded. From these stones sprung a new race—men from those cast -by Deukalion, and women from those cast by his wife. In Norseland, Odin -and his two brothers, Vile and Ve, slew the giant Ymer, and when he -fell, so much blood flowed from his wounds, that the whole race of -frost-giants was drowned, except a single giant, who saved himself with -his household in a skiff (ark), and from him descended a new race of -frost-giants. Now this is not a tradition carried from one place to the -other; it is a natural expression of the same thought; it is a similar -effort to account for the origin of the land and the race of man. A -people develops its mythology in the same manner as it develops its -language. The Norse mythology is related to the Greek mythology to the -same extent that the Norse language is related to the Greek language, -and no more; and comparative mythology, when the scholar wields the pen, -is as interesting as comparative philology. - -The Greeks have their chaos, the all-embracing space, the Norsemen have -Ginungagap, the yawning abyss between Niflheim (the nebulous world) and -Muspelheim (the world of fire). The Greeks have their titans, -corresponding in many respects to the Norse giants. The Greeks tell of -the Melian nymphs; the Norsemen of the elves, etc.; but these -comparisons are chiefly interesting for the purpose of studying the -differences between the Norse and Greek _mind_, which reflects itself in -the expression of the thought. - -The hard stone weeps tears, both in Greece and in Norseland; but let us -notice how differently it is expressed. In Greece, Niobe, robbed of her -children, was transformed into a rugged rock, down which tears trickled -silently. She becomes a stone and still continues her weeping— - - Et lacrymas etiamnum marmora manant, - -as the poet somewhere has it. In Norseland all nature laments the sad -death of Balder, even the stones weep for him (gráta Baldr). - -Let us take another idea, and notice how differently the words symbolize -the same truth or thought in the Bible, in Greece, and in Norseland. In -the Bible: - - And Jesus sat over against the treasury, and beheld how people cast - money into the treasury: and many that were rich cast in much. And - there came a certain poor widow, and she threw in two mites, which - make a farthing. And he called unto him his disciples and said unto - them, Verily I say unto you, that this poor widow hath cast more in, - than all they which have cast into the treasury: for all they did - cast in of their abundance; but she of her want did cast in all that - she had, even all her living. - -In Greece: - - A rich Thessalian offered to the temple at Delphi one hundred oxen - with golden horns. A poor citizen from Hermion took as much meal - from his sack as he could hold between two fingers, and he threw it - into the fire that burned on the altar. Pythia said, that the gift - of the poor man was more pleasing to the gods than that of the rich - Thessalian. - -In Norseland the Elder Edda has it: - - Knowest thou how to pray? - Knowest thou how to offer? - Better not pray at all - Than to offer too much, - Better is nothing sent - Than too much consumed. - -In these few and simple words are couched the same thought as in the -Jewish and Greek accounts just given. It is this identity in thought, -with diversity of depth, breadth, beauty, simplicity, etc., in the -expression or symbol that characterizes the differences between all -mythological systems. Each has its own peculiarities stamped upon it, -and in these peculiarities the spirit of the people, their tendency to -thorough investigation or superficiality, their strength or weakness, -their profoundness or frivolity, are reflected as in a mirror. - -The beauty of the Greek mythology consists not so much in the system, -considered as a whole, as in the separate single groups of myths. Each -group has its own center around which it revolves, each group moves in -its own sphere, and there develops its own charming perfection, without -regard to the effect upon the system of mythology considered as a whole. -Each group is exquisite, and furnishes an inexhaustible fountain of -legendary narrative, but the central thought that should bind all these -beautiful groups into one grand whole is weak. Nay, the complex -multiplicity into which it constantly kept developing, as long as the -Greek mind was in vigorous activity, was the cause that finally -shattered it. Is not this the same spirit, which we find so distinctly -developed in the Greek mythology, this want of a centralizing thought, -most wonderfully and perfectly reflected in the social and political -characteristics of the Greek states, and in all the more recent Romance -nations? Each Greek state developed a peculiar beauty and perfection of -its own; but between the different states (Sparta, Athens, etc.,) there -was no strong bond of union which could keep them together, and hence -all the feuds and civil wars and final dissolution. In the Norse -mythology, on the other hand, the centralizing idea or thought is its -peculiar feature; in it lies its strength and beauty. In the Norse -mythology, the one myth and the one divinity is inextricably in -communion with the other; and thus, also, the idea of unity, -centralization, is a prominent feature, and one of the chief -characteristics of the Teutonic nations. While the Greek mythology -foreshadowed all the petty states of Greece, as well as those of South -Europe and South America, the Norse mythology foreshadowed the political -and social destinies of _united_ Scandinavia, _united_ Great Britain, -_united_ Germany, and the _United_ States of North America. When the -Greeks unite, they _fall_. We Northerners live only to be _united_. - -As we would be led to suppose, from a study of the physical and -climatical peculiarities of Greece and Norseland, we find that the Greek -mythology forms an epic poem, and that the Norse is a tragedy. Not only -the mythology, considered as a whole, but even the character of its -speech, and of its very words and phrases, must necessarily be suggested -and modified by the external features of the country. Thus in Greece, -where the sun’s rays never scorch, and where the northern winds never -pierce, we naturally find in the speech of the people, brilliancy rather -than gloom, life rather than decay, and constant renovation rather than -prolonged lethargy. But in the frozen-bound regions of the North, where -the long arms of the glaciers clutch the valleys in their cold embrace, -and the death-portending avalanches cut their way down the -mountain-sides, the tongue of the people would, with a peculiar -intensity of feeling, dwell upon the tragedy of nature. - -The Danish poet Grundtvig expressed a similar idea more than sixty years -ago, when he said that the Asa-Faith unfolds in five acts the most -glorious drama of victory that ever has been composed, or ever could be -composed, by any mortal poet. And Hauch defines these five acts as -follows: - - Act I. The Creation. - - Act II. The time preceding the death of Balder. - - Act III. The death of Balder. - - Act IV. The time immediately succeeding the death of Balder. - - Act V. Ragnarok, the Twilight of the gods, that is, the decline and - fall immediately followed by the regeneration of the world. - -It is an inestimable peculiarity of the Norse mythology, that it, in -addition to beginning with a theogony (birth of the gods), also ends -with a theoktony (death of the gods). In the Greek mythology, the drama -lacks the fifth or final act, and we have only a prosaic account of how -the people at length grew tired of their gods, and left them when they -became old and feeble. But the Eddas have a theoktonic myth, in which -the heroic death of the gods is sung with the same poetic spirit as -their youthful exploits and victories. As the shades of night flee -before the morning dawn, thus Valhal’s gods had to sink into the earth, -when the idea, that an idol is of no consequence in this world, first -burst upon the minds of the idol-worshipers. This idea spontaneously -created the myth of Ragnarok. All the elements of its mythical form were -foreshadowed in the older group of Norse conceptions. The idea of -Ragnarok was suggested already in the Creation; for the gods are there -represented as proceeding from giants, that is, from an evil, chaotic -source, and, moreover, that which can be born must die. The Greeks did -not release the titans from their prisons in Tartaros and bring them up -to enter the last struggle with the gods. Signs of such a contest -flitted about like clouds in the deep-blue southern sky, but they did -not gather into a deluging thunder-storm. The ideas were too broken and -scattered to be united into one grand picture. The Greek was so much -allured by the pleasures of life, that he could find no time to fathom -its depths or rise above it. And hence, when the glories of this life -had vanished, there remained nothing but a vain shadow, a lower world, -where the pale ghosts of the dead knew no greater happiness than to -receive tidings from this busy world. - -The Norseman willingly yields the prize to the Greek when the question -is of precision in details and external adornment of the figures; but -when we speak of deep significance and intrinsic power, the Norseman -points quietly at Ragnarok, the Twilight of the gods, and the Greek is -silent. - -The Goth, as has before been indicated, concentrated life; the Greek -divided it into parcels. Thus the Greek mythology is frivolous, the -Norse is profound. The frivolous mind lives but to enjoy the passing -moment; the profound mind reflects, considers the past and the future. -The Greek abandoned himself wholly to the pleasures of this life, -regardless of the past or future. The Norseman accepted life as a good -gift, but he knew that he was merely its transient possessor. Over every -moment of life hangs a threatening sword, which may in the next moment -prove fatal. Life possesses no hour of the future. And this is the -peculiar characteristic of the heroic life in the North, that our -ancestors were powerfully impressed with the uncertainty of life. They -constantly witnessed the interchange of life and death, and this -nourished in them the thought that life is not worth keeping, for no one -knows how soon it may end. Life itself has no value, but the object -constantly to be held in view is to die an honorable death. While we are -permitted to live, let us strive to die with honor, it is said in -Bjarkemaal; and in the lay of Hamder of the Elder Edda we read: - - Well have we fought; - On slaughtered Goths we stand, - On those fallen by the sword, - Like eagles on a branch. - Great glory we have gained; - Though now or to-morrow we shall die,— - No one lives till eve - Against the norns’ decree. - -It is this same conception of the problem of life that in the Christian -religion has assumed a diviner form. Though his ideas were clothed in a -ruder form, the Norseman still reached the same depth of thought as when -the Christian says: I am ready to lay down my life, if I may but die -happy, die a child of God; for what is a man profited if he shall gain -the whole world, and lose his own soul? - -The Norseman always concentrated his ideas as much as possible. For this -reason he knew but three sins—perjury, murder, and adultery; that is, -sin against God, sin against the state, and sin against fellow-man; and -all these are in fact but one sin—deceitfulness. In the same manner the -Norseman concentrated his ideas in regard to the punishment of sin. When -the Eddas tell us about the punishment of the wicked, they sum it all up -in Naastrand (the strand of corpses), that place far from the sun, that -large and terrible cave, the doors of which open to the north. This cave -is built of serpents wattled together, and the heads of all the serpents -turn into the cave, filling it with streams of poison, in which -perjurers, murderers and adulterers have to wade. The suffering is -terrible; gory hearts hang outside of their breasts; their faces are -dyed in blood; strong venom-dragons fiercely run through their hearts; -their hands are riveted together with ever-burning stones; their clothes -a wrapped in flames; remorseless ravens tear their eyes from their -heads: - - But all the horrors - You cannot know, - That Hel’s condemned endure; - Sweet sins there - Bitterly are punished, - False pleasures - Reap true pain. - -The point to be observed is, that all the punishment here described is -the same for all the wicked. - -But with this, the versatile Greek is not content. He multiplies the -sins and the punishments. Tartaros is full of despair and tears, and the -wicked there suffer a variety of tortures. Enormous vultures continually -gnaw the liver of Tityos, but it always grows again. Ixion is lashed -with serpents to a wheel, which a strong wind drives continually round -and round. Tantalos suffers from an unceasing dread of being crushed by -a great rock that hangs over his head; he stands in a stream of water -that flows up to his throat, and he almost perishes from thirst; -whenever he bends his head to drink the water recedes; delicious fruits -hang over his head, whenever he stretches out his hand they evade his -grasp. Thus it is to be _tantalized_. The Danaïdes must fill a cistern -that has holes in the bottom; all the water they pour in runs out -equally fast. Sisyphos, sweating and all out of breath, rolls his huge -stone up the mountain side; when he reaches the summit, the stone rolls -down again. - -The fundamental idea is always the same. It is always punishment for -sin; but it is expressed and illustrated in many different ways. The -variety enhances the beauty. The Greek mythology is rich, for -profuseness of illustration is wealth. The Norse mythology is poor, -because it is so strong; it consumes all its strength in the -profoundness of its thought. The Norse mythology excels in the -concentratedness and strength of the whole system; the Greek excels in -the beauty of the separate groups of myths. The one is a religion of -_strength_, the other of _beauty_. - -The influence that the outward features of a country exercise upon the -thoughts and feelings of men, especially during the vigorous, -imaginative, poetic and prophetic childhood of a nation, can hardly be -overestimated. Necessarily, therefore, do we find this influence -affecting and modifying a nation’s mythology, which is a child-like -people’s thoughts and feelings, contemplating nature reflected in a -system of religion. Hence, it is eminently fitting, in comparing the -Norse mythology with the Greek, to take a look at the home of the -Norsemen. We, therefore, cordially invite the traveler from the -smooth-beaten tracks of southern Europe to the mountains, lakes, valleys -and fjords of Norseland. You may come in midsummer, when Balder (the -summer sunlight) rules supreme, when the radiant dawn and glowing sunset -kiss each other and go hand in hand on the mountain tops; but we would -also invite you to tarry until Balder is slain, when the wintry gloom, -with its long nights, sits brooding over the country, and Loke (Thok, -fire) weeps his arid tears (sparks) over the desolation he has wrought. - -Norway is dark, cloudy, severe, grand, and majestic. Greece is light, -variegated, mild, and beautiful. No one can long more deeply for the -light of summer, with its mild and gentle breezes from the south, than -the Norseman. When he has pondered on his own thoughts during the long -winter, when the sun entirely or nearly disappeared from above the -horizon, and nothing but northern lights flickered and painted the -colors of the rainbow over his head, he welcomes the spring sun with -enthusiastic delight. It was this deep longing for Balder that drove -swarms of Norsemen on viking expeditions to France, Spain, and England; -through the pillars of Hercules to Italy, Greece, Constantinople and -Palestine, and over the surging main to Iceland, Greenland and Vinland. -It is this deep longing for Balder that every year brings thousands of -Norsemen to alight upon our shores and scatter themselves to their -numberless settlements in these United States. Still every Norse -emigrant, if he has aught in him worthy of his race, thinks he shall -once more see those weird, gigantic, snow-capped mountains, that -stretched their tall heads far above the clouds and seemed to look half -anxiously, half angrily after him as his bark was floating across the -deep sea. - -There is something in the natural scenery of Norway—a peculiar blending -of the grand, the picturesque, the gigantic, bewildering and majestic. -There is something that leaves you in bewildering amazement, when you -have seen it, and makes you ask yourself, Was it real or was it only a -dream? Norway is in fact one huge imposing rock, and its valleys are but -great clefts in it. Through these clefts the rivers, fed by vast -glaciers upon the mountains, find their way to the sea. They come from -the distance, now musically and chattingly meandering their way beneath -the willows, now tumbling down the slopes, reeking and distorted by the -rocks that oppose them, until they reach some awful precipice and tumble -down some eight hundred to a thousand feet in a single leap into the -depths below, where no human being ever yet set his foot. We are not -overdrawing the picture. You cannot get to the foot of such falls as the -Voring Force or Rjukan Force, but you may look over the precipice from -above and see the waters pouring like fine and fleecy wool into the -seething caldron, where you can discern through the vapory mists shoots -of foam at the bottom, like rockets of water, radiating in every -direction. You hear a low rumbling sound around you, and the very rock -vibrates beneath your feet; and as you hang half giddy over the cliff, -clasping your arms around some young birch-tree that tremblingly leans -over the brink of the steep, and turn your eyes to the huge mountain -mass that breasts you,—its black, melancholy sides seemingly within a -stone’s throw, and its snow-white head far in the clouds above,—your -thoughts involuntarily turn to _him_, the God, whom the skald dare not -name, to _him_ at whose bidding Gausta Fjeld and Reeking Force sprang -from Ginungagap, from the body of the giant Ymer, from chaos. You look -longer upon this wonderful scene, and you begin to think of Ragnarok, of -the Twilight of the gods. Once seen, and the grand picture, which defies -the brush of the painter, will forever afterwards float before your mind -like a dream. - -Make a journey by steamer on some of those noble and magnificent fjords -on the west coast of Norseland. The whole scenery looks like a moving -panorama of the finest description. The dark mountains rise almost -perpendicularly from the water’s edge to an enormous height; their -summits, crowned with ice and snow, stand out sharp and clear against -the bright blue sky; and the ravines on the mountain tops are filled -with huge glaciers, that clasp their frosty arms around the valley, and -send down, like streams of tears along the weather-beaten cheeks of the -mountains, numerous waterfalls and cascades, falling in an endless -variety of graceful shapes from various altitudes into the fjord below. -Sometimes a solitary peak lifts its lordly head a thousand feet clear -above the surrounding mountains, and towering like a monarch over all, -it defiantly refuses to hold communion with any living thing save the -eagle. Here and there a force appears, like a strip of silvery fleecy -cloud, suspended from the brow of the mountain, and dashing down more -than two thousand feet in one leap; and all this marvelously grand -scenery, from base to peak, stands reflected, as deep as it is lofty, in -the calm, clear, sea-green water of the fjord, perfect as in a mirror. - -There is no storm; the deep water of the fjord is silent and at rest. -Not even the flight of a single bird ruffles its glassy surface. As the -steamer glides gently along between the rocky walls, you hear no sound -save the monotonous throbbing of the screw and the consequent splashing -of the water. All else is still as death. The forces hang in silence all -around, occasionally overarched by rainbows suspended in the rising -mist. The naked mountains have a sombre look, that would make you -melancholy were it not for the overpowering grandeur. Sunshine reaches -the water only when the sun’s rays fall nearly vertically, in -consequence of the immense height of the mountains’ sides, whose -enormous shadows almost perpetually overshade the narrow fjord. The -noonday sun paints a streak of delicate palish green on one side, -forming a striking contrast to the other dark overshadowed side of the -profound fjord. It is awe-inspiring. It is stupendous. It is solemnly -grand. You can but fancy yourself in a fairy land, with elves and -sprites and neckens and trolls dancing in sportive glee all around you. - -Words can paint no adequate picture of the stupendousness, majesty and -grandeur of Norse scenery; but can the reader wonder any longer that -this country has given to the world such marvelous productions in -poetry, music and the fine arts? Nay, what is more to our purpose at -present, would you not look for a grand and marvelous mythological -system from the poetic and imaginative childhood of the nation that -inhabits this land? Knock, and it shall be opened unto you! and entering -the solemn halls and palaces of the gods, where all is cordiality and -purity, you will find there perfectly reflected the wild and tumultuous -conflict of the elements, strong rustic pictures, full of earnest and -deep thought, awe-inspiring and wonderful. You will find that simple and -martial religion which inspired the early Norsemen and developed them -like a tree full of vigor extending long branches over all Europe. You -will find that simple and martial religion which gave the Norsemen that -restless unconquerable spirit, apt to take fire at the very mention of -subjection and constraint; that religion which forged the instruments -that broke the fetters manufactured by the Roman emperors, destroyed -tyrants and slaves, and taught men that nature having made all free and -equal, no other reason but their mutual happiness could be assigned for -making them dependent. You will find that simple and martial religion -which was cherished by those vast multitudes which, as Milton says, the -populous North - - ——poured from her frozen loins to pass - Rhene or the Danaw, when her barbarous sons - Came like a deluge on the South and spread - Beneath Gibraltar and the Libyan sands. - -But it may be necessary for the reader to refresh himself with a few -draughts of that excellent beverage kept in Minter’s gushing fountain, -and drink with _his_ glittering horn, before he will be willing to -accept these and many more such statements that we will make in thee -course of this introduction. - -To return to our theme. The gods of Norseland are stern and -awe-inspiring; those of Greece are gentle and lovely. In the Norse -mythology we find deep devotion, but seldom tears. In the Greek, there -are violent emotions and the fears flow copiously. In Norseland, there -is plenty of imagination; but it is not of that light, variegated, -butterfly, soap-bubble nature as in Greece. In the Norse mythology there -is plenty of cordiality and sincerity, and the gods treat you hospitably -to flesh of the boar, Sæhrimner; and the valkyries will give you deep -draughts from bowls flowing with ale. In Greece there is gracefulness, a -perfect etiquette, and you dine on ambrosia and nectar; there Eros and -Psyche, the graces and muses, hover about you like heavenly cherubs. -Graces and muses are wanting in Norseland. The Norse mythology is -characterized throughout by a deep and genuine sincerity; the Greek, on -the other hand, by a sublime gracefulness; but, with Carlyle, we think -that sincerity is better than grace. - -But the comparison between Norse and Greek mythology is too vast a field -for us to attempt to do justice to it in this volume. It would be an -interesting work to show how Norse and Greek mythologies respectively -have colored the religious, social, political and literary character of -Greek and Romance peoples on the one hand, and Norsemen and Teutons on -the other. Somebody will undoubtedly in due time be inspired to -undertake such a task. We must study both, and when they are -harmoniously blended in our nature, we must let them together shape our -political, social and literary destinies, and, tempered by the -Mosaic-Christian religion, they may be entitled to some consideration -even in our religious life. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. - - -In all that has been said up to this time Roman mythology has not once -been mentioned. Why not? Properly speaking, there is no such thing. It -is an historical fact, that nearly the whole Roman literature, -especially that part of it which may be called _belles-lettres_, is -scarcely anything but imitation. It did not, like the Greek and Old -Norse, spring from the popular mind, by which it was cherished through -centuries; but at least a large portion of it was produced for pay and -for ornament, mostly in the time of the tyrant Augustus, to tickle his -ear and gild those chains that were artfully forged to fetter the -peoples of southern Europe. This is a dry but stubborn truth, and it is -wonderful with what tenacity the schools in all civilized lands have -clung to the Roman or Latin language, after it had become nothing but a -corpse; as though it could be expected that any genuine culture could be -derived from this dead monster. - -It is, however, an encouraging fact that the Teutonic races are -indicating a tendency to emancipate themselves from the fetters of Roman -bondage, and happy should we be if our English words were emancipated -therefrom. We should then use neither _emancipate_, nor _tendency_, nor -_indicate_, but would have enough of Gothic words to use in place of -them. Ay, the signs of the times are encouraging. Look at what is being -done at Oxford and Cambridge, in London and in Edinburgh. Behold what -has been done during these later years by Dasent, Samuel Laing, Thorpe, -Carlyle, Max Müller, Cleasby, Vigfusson, Magnússon, Morris, Hjaltalin, -and others. And look at the publications of the Clarendon press, which -is now publishing Icelandic Sagas in the original text. This is right. -Every scrap of Icelandic and Anglo-Saxon literature must be published, -for we must see what those old heroes, who crushed Rome and instituted a -new order of things, thought in every direction. We must find out what -their aspirations were. To the credit of the Scandinavians it must here -be said, that they began to appreciate their old Icelandic literature -much sooner than the rich Englishman realized the value of the -Anglo-Saxon, and that the English are indebted to Rasmus Rask, the -Danish scholar, for the most valuable contribution to Anglo-Saxon -studies; but it must also be admitted, in the first place, that the -Scandinavians have done far too little for Icelandic, and, in the next -place, that without a preparation in Icelandic, but little progress -could be made in the study of Anglo-Saxon. But England, with its usual -liberality in literary matters, is now rapidly making amends for the -past. And well she might. In the publication of the Icelandic and -Anglo-Saxon literature she is the greatest gainer, for it is nothing -less than a bridge, that will unite her present and past history. Maurer -and Möbius are watching with Argos eyes the interests of Teutonic -studies in Germany. - -Greek should be studied, for that is no imitation. It is indigenous. It -is a crystal clear stream flowing unadulterated from the Castalian -fountain of Parnassos. Our warfare, therefore, is not against Greek, but -against Latin. We have suffered long enough with our necks under the -ponderous Roman yoke in all its venous forms; take it as fetters forged -by the Roman emperors, as crosiers in the hands of the Roman popes, or -as rods in the hands of the Roman school-masters. The Goths severed the -fetters of the Roman emperors, Luther and the Germans broke the crosiers -of the Roman popes, but all the Teutons have submissively kissed the rod -of the Roman school-master, although this was the most dangerous of the -three: it was the deadly weapon concealed in the hand of the assassin. - -The Romans were a people of robbers both in political and in a literary -sense. Nay, the Roman writers themselves tell us that the divine founder -of the city, Romulus, was a captain of _robbers_; that _Mars_, the god -of _war_, was his father; and that a _wolf_ (_rapacity_), descending -from the mountains to drink, ran at the cry of the child and fed him -under a fig-tree, caressing and licking him as if he had been her own -son, the infant hanging on to her as if she had been his mother. This -Romulus began his great exploits by _killing his own brother_. When the -new city seemed to want women, to insure its duration, he proclaimed a -magnificent feast throughout all the neighboring villages, at which -feast were presented, among other things, the terrible shows of -_gladiators_. While the strangers were most intent upon the spectacle, a -number of Roman youths rushed in among the Sabines, _seized_ the -youngest and fairest of their wives and daughters, and carried them off -by _violence_. In vain the parents and husbands protested against this -_breach of hospitality_. This same Romulus ended his heroic career by -being _assassinated_ by his friends, or, as others say, _torn in pieces_ -in the senate-house. Certain it is that the Romans _murdered_ him, and -then declared him the guardian spirit of the city; thus worshiping as a -god, by name Quirinus, him whom they could not bear as a king. Such -falsehoods as the one the senate invented, when they said that Romulus, -whom they had murdered, had been taken up into heaven, the Roman writers -tell us were constantly taught to the Romans by Numa Pompilius, and by -other Sabine and Etrurian priests; and such instruction laid the -foundation of their myths. The history of Romulus is, in fact, in -miniature, the history of Rome. - -But in spite of this, and much else that can in justice be said against -Rome and Latin, we cannot afford to throw the language and literature of -the Romans entirely overboard. Their history was too remarkable for -that; besides, many scribbled in Latin down through the middle ages, and -the Latin language has played so conspicuous a part in English -literature, and in the sciences, that no educated man can very well do -without it. What we respectfully object to is making it the foundation -of all education, this _bringing the scholar up_, so to speak, on Latin -language, history and literature; this nourishing and moulding the -tender heart and mind on _Roman thought_,—thus making the man, -intellectually and morally, a slave bound in Roman chains, while we -free-born Goths, the descendants of Odin and Thor, ought to begin our -education and receive our first impressions from our own ancestors. The -tree should draw its nourishment from its own roots; and we Americans -are the youngest and most vigorous branch of that glorious Gothic tree, -the beautiful and noble Ygdrasil in the Norse cosmogony, whose three -grand roots strike down among the Anglo-Saxons, Scandinavians, and -Germans. In order fully to comprehend the man, we must study the life of -the child; and in order to comprehend ourselves as a people, we must -study our own ancient history and literature and make ourselves -thoroughly acquainted with the imaginative and prophetic childhood of -the Teutonic race. We must give far more attention than we do, first, to -English and Anglo-Saxon, and we must, as we have heard Dr. S. H. -Carpenter, of the University of Wisconsin most truthfully remark, begin -with the most modern English, and then follow it step by step, century -by century, back to the most ancient Anglo-Saxon. A _living_ language -can be learned ten times as fast as a dead one, and we would apply Dr. -Carpenter’s[5] principle still further. We would make one of the living -Romantic languages (French, Italian, or Spanish,) a key to the Latin; -and above all, we would make modern Greek a preparation for old classic -Greek. It cannot be controverted that children learn to read and write a -language much sooner and easier if they first learn to speak it, even -though the book-speech may differ considerably from the dialect which -the child learned from his mother; ample evidence of which fact may be -found in the different counties of England and Scotland and throughout -the European countries. - -In the next place, that is, next after English and Anglo-Saxon, we must -study German, Mæso-Gothic and the Scandinavian languages, and especially -Icelandic, which is the only _living_ key to the history of the middle -ages, and to the Old Norse literature. It is the only language now in -use in an almost unchanged form, through a knowledge of which we can -read the literature of the middle ages. We must by no means forget that -we have Teutonic antiquities to which we stand in an entirely different -and far closer relation than we do to Greece or Rome. And the Norsemen -have an old literature, which the scholar must of necessity be familiar -with in order to comprehend the history of the middle ages. - -When we have thus done justice to our own Teutonic race we may turn our -attention to the ancient peoples around the Mediterranean Sea, the most -important of which in literary and historical respects are the Hebrews, -Greeks and Romans. The antiquities of these peoples will always form -important departments in our colleges and universities, and it is our -duty to study them; but they should not, as they still to a great extent -do, constitute the all-absorbing subject of our attention, the _summa -summarum_, the foundation and superstructure of our education and -culture. - -It has been argued by some that the Latin is more terse than English; -but did the reader ever reflect that it takes about _sixty syllables_ in -Latin to express all that we can say in English with _forty syllables_? -The large number of inflectional endings have also been lauded as a -point of superior excellence in the Latin; but as a language _grows_ and -makes _progress_, it gradually emancipates itself from the thraldom of -inflection and contents itself with the abstract, spiritual chain that -links the words together into sentences; and did the reader ever run -across this significant truth, expressed by George P. Marsh, who says -that in Latin you have to be able to analyse and parse a sentence before -you can comprehend it, while in English you must comprehend the sentence -before you can analyse or parse? _Forward_ has been and will forever be -the watchword of languages. They must either progress or die. - -When the question is asked, whether Hebrew, Greek or Latin should be -preferred by the student, we answer that the choice is not a difficult -one to make, and our opinion has in fact already been given. Latin is -the language of a race of robbers; most of it is nothing but imitation, -and besides it is a mere corpse, while Greek is the only one of the -three that is still living, and modern Greek—for that is what we must -begin with—is the key to the old Greek literature with its rich, -beautiful and original store of mythology, poetry, history, oratory, and -philosophy. As Icelandic in the extreme north of Europe is the _living_ -key to the middle ages and to the celebrated Old Norse Eddas and Sagas, -so modern Greek in the far south is the _living_ language, that -introduces us to the spirit of Homer, Herodotus, Demosthenes, and Plato; -and thus the norns or fates, who preside over the destinies of men and -nations, have in a most wonderful manner knit, or rather woven, us -together with the Greeks, and the more we investigate the development -and progress of nations and civilization, the more vividly the truth -will flash upon our minds, that the Greek and the Icelandic are two -silver-haired veterans, who hold in their hands two golden keys,—the one -to unlock the treasures of ancient times, the other those of the middle -ages; the one the treasures of the south and the other those of the -north of Europe. But we must free ourselves from the bondage of Rome! - -When we get away from Rome, where slaves were employed as teachers, and -pay more attention to the antiquities of Greece, where it was the -highest honor that the greatest, noblest and most eloquent men could -attain to, to be listened to by youths eager to learn and to be taught, -then the present slavery both of the teacher and of the student will -cease, but scarcely before then. - -The case of Shakespeare is an eminent example to us of what the Goth is -able to accomplish, when he breaks the Roman chains. His works are not -an imitation of Seneca or Æschylus, nor are they the fruit of a careful -study of the _Ars Poetica_ or _Gradus ad Parnassum_. No, he knew but -little Latin and less Greek, but what made him the undisputed Hercules -in English literature was the heroic spirit of Gothdom which flowed in -his veins, and which drove him away from the Latin school before his -emotional nature had been flogged and tortured out of him. Shakespeare, -and not Roman literature and scholasticism, is the lever that has raised -English literature and given it the first rank among all the Teutons. It -is not, we repeat, the deluge of Latin words that flood it, that has -given this preëminence to English, but it is the genuine Gothic strength -that everywhere has tried to break down the Roman walls. The slaves of -Latin will find it difficult enough to explain how Shakespeare, who was -not for an age, but for all time,—he whose Latin was small and whose -Greek was less,—how he, the star of poets, the sweet swan of Avon, was -_made_ as well as born. Ay, he was made. _He_ was also one of those who, -to cast a living line had to sweat, and strike the second heat upon the -Muses’ anvil. It is true that Shakespeare did not arrive at a full -appreciation of the Gothic spirit, for he did not have an opportunity to -acquaint himself thoroughly with the Gothic myths; but then they ever -haunted him like the ghost of Hamlet, accusing their murderer, without -finding any avenger. We therefore count Shakespeare on our side of this -great question. - -May the time speedily come, nay, the time must come, when Greek and -Anglo-Saxon and Old Norse and Gothic and German will shake hands over -the bloody chasm of Roman vandalism! - -We fancy we see more than one who reads this chapter, and does not -remember that he is a son of Thor, stretch out his hand for Mjolner, -that huge and mighty hammer of Thor, to swing it at us for what we have -said and have not said about Rome, Roman mythology, and the Latin -language and literature; but, alas! for him, and fortunately for us, the -Roman school-master took Thor’s hammer away from him and whipped the -strength wherewith to wield it out of him. We only repeat that we know -nothing of Roman mythology, but the Greek and Norse are twin sisters, -and with the assistance of the Mosaic-Christian religion they have a -grand mission in the Gothic-Greek development of the world. - -Footnote 5: - - Author of _English of the Fourteenth Century_ and of _An Introduction - to the Study of the Anglo-Saxon Language_. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - INTERPRETATION OF NORSE MYTHOLOGY. - - -Considerable has been said on this subject in the preceding pages, and -the interpretation which will be adhered to in this volume has been -clearly indicated. We propose now to give a general synopsis of the more -prominent methods of interpreting Norse mythology. - -In one thing all undoubtedly agree, namely, that all mythologies embody -religious faith. As we, to this day, each in his own way, seek to find -God by philosophical speculation (natural theology), by our emotions, by -good deeds, or by all these at one time; and as we, when we have found -him, rest upon his breast, although we do not fully agree as to our -conception of him, each one of us having his own God as each has his own -rainbow; thus our forefathers sought God everywhere—in the rocks, in the -babbling stream, in the heavy ear of grain, in the star-strewn sky of -night, and in the splendor of the sun. It was revelations of divinity -that they looked for. The fundamental element in their mythology was a -religious one, and this fact must never be lost sight of. To interpret a -myth, then, is not only to give its source, but also its aim and object, -together with the thoughts and feelings that it awakens in the human -breast. - -Some writers (William and Mary Howitt and others) maintain that the -Norse mythology is a degradation of, or aberration from, the _true -religion_, which was revealed to man in the earliest period of the -history of the human race and is found pure and undefiled in the Bible; -that it presents sparkling waters from the original fountain of -tradition. They point with seriousness to it as something that bears us -on toward the primal period of one tongue and one religion. In reference -to the Elder Edda, they say that it descended through vast ages, -growing, like all traditions, continually darker, and accumulating lower -matter and more divergent and more pagan doctrines, as the walls of old -castles become covered with mosses and lichens, till it finally assumed -the form it which it was collected from the mouths of the people, and -put in a permanent written form. These interpreters claim that through -all mythologies there run certain great lines, which converge toward one -common center and point to an original source of a religious faith, -which has grown dimmer and more disfigured, the further it has gone. The -geographical center, they say, from which all these systems of heathen -belief have proceeded is the same—Central Asia; they point to the -eastern origin of the Norseman; they assert, with full confidence, that -the religious creed of the Norseman is the faith of Persia, India, -Greece, and every other country, transferred to the snow-capped -mountains of Norway and jokuls of Iceland, having only been modified -there, so as to give it an air of originality without destroying its -primeval features. They argue that Loke of the Norsemen, Pluto of the -Greeks, Ahriman of the Persians, Siva of the Hindoos, etc., are all -originally the devil of the Bible, who has changed his name and more or -less his personal form and characteristics. The biblical Trinity is -degenerated into the threefold trinity of Odin, Vile, and Ve; Odin, -Hœner, and Loder; and Odin, Thor, and Balder. They find in the Norse -cosmogony, in a somewhat mutilated and interpolated condition, the -Scripture theory of the creation, preservation, destruction and -regeneration of the world. Ygdrasil is the tree of life in the garden of -Eden; Ask and Embla, the first human pair, are Adam and Eve; the blood -of the slain giant Ymer, in which the whole race of frost-giants was -drowned, (excepting one pair, who were saved, and from whom a new giant -race descended,) is the flood of Noah, the deluge; the citadel called -Midgard is the tower of Babel; in the death of Balder, by Hoder, who was -instigated by Loke, they find the crucifixion of Christ by Judas, -instigated by the devil, etc.; displaying a vast amount of erudition, -profoundness and ingenuity, that might have been applied to some good -purpose. We refrain from giving more of the results of their learned and -erudite investigations, from fear of seducing ourselves or our readers -into the adoption of their absurdities. - -Other scholars (Snorre Sturleson, Saxo Grammaticus, Suhm, Rask, and -others,) give us what is called an _historical_ interpretation, -asserting that Odin, Thor, Balder, and the other deities that figure in -the Norse mythology, are veritable ancestors of the Norsemen,—men and -women who have lived in the remote past; and as distance lends -enchantment to the view, so the ordinary kings and priests of -pre-historic times have been magnified into gods. Odin and the other -divinities are in Snorre Sturleson’s Heimskringla represented as having -come to Norseland from the great Svithiod, a country lying between the -Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. According to the historical -interpretation the mythical worlds are real countries that can be -pointed out on the map. This was the prevailing view taken during the -last two centuries, and even that sagacious scholar of the earlier part -of this century, Professor Rasmus Rask, adheres almost exclusively to -the historical interpretation. - -It is curious to read these old authors and observe how sincerely they -have looked upon Odin as an extraordinary and enterprising person who -formerly ruled in the North and inaugurated great changes in the -government, customs and religion of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. They -speak of the great authority which he enjoyed, and how he even had -divine honors paid to him. They ingeniously connect Odin with the Roman -Commonwealth, with Mithridates and Pompey (see p. 232). This historical -sketch of Odin will be given in connection with the Odinic myth; suffice -it here to say that the king of Pontus and all his barbarian allies were -obliged to yield to the genius of Pompey. And here it is said that Odin -was one of the number defeated by Pompey. He was obliged to withdraw -himself by flight from the vengeance of the Romans! Odin came to Norway -by way of Holstein and Jutland. On his way through Denmark he founded -the city Odinse, and placed his son Skjold upon the Danish throne. How -profound! What erudition! How much like the enthusiastic work of the -Swede Rudbeck, who makes out the Atlantis of Plato to be Sweden, and -shows that Japhet, son of Noah, came there and settled with his family! -What profound learning (_gelahrtheit_) these men must have possessed! We -are amazed and confounded at the vast amount of mental force that has -been brought into activity, at the untiring zeal and the marvelous -ingenuity, with which these theories have been set up; but we cannot -witness all this without a feeling of deep regret that so much erudition -and ingenuity, so much mental strength, was so fruitlessly thrown away. -They were generally profound _Latin_ scholars, and wrote the most of -their books in Latin; but those ponderous tomes make their authors fools -in folios in the light of modern historical knowledge. They studied by -that kind of lamp that illuminates a small spot on the table, but leaves -the whole room dark. A more careful and enlightened study of our early -literature has of course given the death-blow to so prosaic an -interpretation of the Norse mythology as the purely historical one is. - -Then we are met by the so-called _ethical_ interpretation of mythology, -seeking its origin in man’s peculiar nature, especially in a moral point -of view. The advocates of this theory claim that mythology is a mere -fiction created to satisfy man’s spiritual, moral, and emotional nature. -The gods according to this interpretation represent man’s virtues and -vices, emotions, faculties of mind and muscle, etc., personified. Odin, -they say, is wisdom; Balder is goodness; Thor is strength; Heimdal is -grace, etc. Again: Thor is the impersonation of strength and courage; -the giants represent impotent sloth and arrogance; the conflicts between -Thor and the giants are a struggle going on in the human breast. And -again: the mischief-maker Loke instigated the blind Hoder to kill the -good Balder; Nanna, Balder’s wife, took her husband’s death so much to -heart, that she died of grief; Hoder is afterwards slain by Odin’s son -Vale; all nature weeps for Balder, but still he is not released from Hel -(hell). That is, physical strength with its blind earthly desires -(Hoder), guided by sin (Loke), unconsciously kills innocence, (Balder). -Love (Nanna) dies broken-hearted; reflection (Vale) is aroused and -subdues physical strength (Hoder); but innocence (Balder) has vanished -from the world to remain in Hel’s regions until the earth is -regenerated, after Ragnarok. The ethical interpretation makes the gods -the faculties of the spirit, and the giants the faculties of the body, -in man; and between the two, soul and body, there is a constant struggle -for supremacy. This interpretation is very good, because it is very -_poetic_, but it has more to do with the application of the myths than -with their primary source. - -Finally, an interpretation, that has frequently been alluded to in the -preceding pages of this introduction, is the _physical_, or -interpretation from nature,—impersonation of the visible workings of -nature. The divinities are the forces and phenomena of nature -personified; and evidence of the correctness of this view can be -abundantly presented by defining etymologically names of the several -divinities, their attributes, dwellings and achievements, and by showing -how faithfully the works of the gods correspond with the events and -scenes of the outward world. There is no doubt that this is the true -interpretation of all mythologies; and that it is, so to speak, the key -to the Norse mythology, it is hoped will be sufficiently demonstrated in -the second part of this book in connection with the myths themselves; -but the ethical, or perhaps better the spiritual, interpretation must by -all means be added. The spiritual or ethical and the physical -interpretation must be combined. In other words, we can scarcely make -the interpretation too _anthropomorphic_. The phenomena and forces of -nature have been personified by our forefathers into deities, but the -myths have been elaborated to suit and correspond with the moral, -intellectual and emotional nature,—the inner life of man. The deities -have been conceived in a human form, with human attributes and -affections. The ancient Norsemen have made their mythology reflect human -nature, and have clothed the gods with their own faculties of mind and -body in respect to good and evil, virtue and vice, right and wrong. As -Rudolf Keyser beautifully expresses himself: - - The gods are the ordaining powers of nature clothed in personality. - They direct the world, which they created; but beside them stand the - mighty goddesses of fate and time, the great norns, who sustain the - world-structure, the all-embraceing tree of the world (Ygdrasil). - The life of the world is a struggle between the good and light gods - on the one side, and the offspring of chaotic matter, the giants, - nature’s disturbing forces, on the other. This struggle extends also - into man’s being: the spirit proceeds from the gods, the body - belongs to the world of the giants; they struggle with each other - for the supremacy. If the spirit conquers by virtue and bravery, man - goes to heaven after death, to fight in concert with the gods - against the evil powers; but if the body conquers and links the - spirit to itself by weakness and low desires, then man sinks after - death to the world of the giants in the lower regions, and joins - himself with the evil powers in the warfare against the gods. - -Nature is the mother at whose breast we all are nourished. In ancient -times she was the object of childlike contemplation, nay, adoration. -Nature and men were in close communion with each other, much closer than -we are now. They had a more delicate perception of, and more sympathy -for, suffering nature; and it were well if some of the purity of this -thought could be breathed down to us, their prosaic descendants, who -have abandoned the offerings to give place to avarice (die Habsucht nahm -zu, als die Opfer aufhörten.—Grimm). - -It was a beautiful custom, which is still preserved in some parts of -Norway, to fasten a bundle of grain to a long pole, which on Christmas -eve was erected somewhere in the yard, or on the top of the house or -barn, for the wild birds to feed upon early on Christmas-day -morning,—(our heathen ancestors also had the Christmas or Yule-tide -festival). In our degenerate times we think of chickens and geese and -turkeys, but who thinks of the innocent and a suffering little birds? -Nay, our ancestors lay nearer to nature’s breast. Have we had our hearts -hardened by the iron yoke of civilized government? We certainly need to -ask ourselves that question. - -The contemplation of the heavens produced the myth about Odin, and the -thunder-storm suggested Thor, as in the Greek mythology Argos with his -hundred eyes represents the starry heavens, and the wandering Io, whom -Hera had set him to watch, is the wandering moon. But stopping here -would be too prosaic; it would be leaving out the better half; it would -be giving the empty shell and throwing away the kernel; it would be -giving the skull of the slain warrior without any ale in it; it would be -doing great injustice to our forefathers and robbing ourselves of more -than half of the intellectual pleasure that a proper study of their -myths afford. The old Frisians contemplated the world as a huge ship, by -name Mannigfual (a counterpart of our ash-tree Ygdrasil); the mountains -were its masts; the captain must go from one place to another of the -ship, giving his orders, on horseback; the sailors go aloft as young men -to make sail, and when they come down again their hair and beard are -white. Ay, we are all sailors on board this great ship, and we all have -enough to do, each in his own way, to climb its rope ladders and make -and reef its sails, and ere we are aware of it our hairs are gray; but -take the anthropomorphic element out of this myth, and what is there -left of it? - -Our ancestors were not prosaic. They were poetic in the truest sense of -that word. Our life is divided between the child, the vigorous man, and -old age,—the imaginative and prophetic child, the emotional and active -man, and the reflecting elder. So a nation, which like the ancient Greek -and Norse, for instance, has had a natural growth and development, has -first its childhood of imagination and prophecy, producing poetry (Homer -and the Eddas); then its manhood of emotion and activity, producing -history (Herodotus and the Sagas); and then its old age of mature -reflection, producing philosophy (Socrates). Dividing the three periods -in Greek history more definitely, we will find that imagination and -poetry predominated during the whole time before Solon; emotion, -activity and history during the time between Solon and Alexander the -Great; and then reflection and philosophy, such as they were, from -Alexander to the collapse of the Greek states. - -Even among the Romans, the most prosaic of all peoples, that nation of -subduers, enslavers and robbers, traces of this growth from poetic -childhood through historic manhood to philosophic old age can be found, -which proves moreover that this is a law of human development that -cannot be eradicated, although it may be perverted. That of the Romans -is a most distorted growth, showing that as the twig is bent the tree is -inclined. _Ut sementem feceris, ita metes_—as you sow, so will you -reap,—to quote the Romans’ own words against them. The Romans had their -poetic and prophetic age during the reign of the seven kings; their -emotional and historical age during the most prosperous and glorious -epoch of the republic; and finally, their age of reflection and -philosophy began with the time of the elder Cato. Rome took a distorted, -misanthropic course from the beginning, so that her profoundest and most -poetic myth is that of the _warlike_ Mars and the _rapacious wolf_, the -father and nurse of the _fratricide_ Romulus. This myth is prophetic, -and in it the whole history of Rome is reflected as in a mirror. The -Romans themselves claim that their Sibylline books (prophecy) belong to -the time of their kings. When, during the transition period from the -emotional to the philosophic age, Rome was to have dramatic writers, she -produced in comedy the clumsy Plautus, whom the Romans employed in -turning a hand-mill; and in tragedy the flat Ennius, whose works were -lost; so that her only really poetical tragedy is the fate of her -dramatic poets. Her other poetical works, of which the world has boasted -so much, came later, after the death of Cicero, their most famous -orator, during the life of the crowned Augustus; they came like an Iliad -after Homer, and the most of them was a poor imitation of Greek -literature, just as this book is a poor imitation of Scandinavian -literature. _Ex ipso fonte dulcius bibuntur aquæ_—go to the fountain -itself if you want to drink the pure and sparkling water. The Roman -literature is eminently worthy of the consideration of the historical -philosopher, but it ought not to be canonized and used to torture the -life out of students with. - -The Hebrews have their imaginative, poetic and prophetic age from -Genesis to Moses; their emotional and historical age from Moses to -Solomon, and then begins their age of reflection and philosophy. - -Taking a grand, colossal, general view of the history of the world, we -would say that the ancients belong chiefly to the poetic age, the middle -ages to the emotional and modern times to the reflecting age, of the -human race. Thus the life of the individual is, in miniature, the life -of a people or of the whole human family. - -This was a digression, and we confess that it is not the first one we -have made; but in the world of thought, as in the world of music, -monotony is tedious; and the reader having perhaps refreshed his mind by -the interlude, we will proceed to discuss further the union of the -ethical with the physical interpretation of mythology. Physical -interpretation alone is the shell without the kernel. Nature gives us -only the source of the myth; but we want its value in the minds and -hearts of a people in their childhood. The touching gracefulness of -Nanna, and of Idun reclining on Brage’s breast, was not suggested by -nature alone, but the pictures of these reflect corresponding natures in -our ancestors. To explain a myth simply by the phenomenon in external -nature (be it remembered, however, that man also constitutes a part of -nature) that suggested it to the ancients, would be reducing mythology -to a natural science and it is sad to witness how the beautiful and -poetical Eddas, in the hands of some, have dwindled down into the dry -chemistry, chronology, electro-magnetism, mathematics, astronomy, or, if -you please, the almanacs, of our forefathers, instead of being presented -as the grand, prophetic drama which foreshadowed the heroic and -enterprising destiny of the Teutonic nations. The twelve dwellings of -the gods, they say, represent the twelve signs of the zodiac; Balder -they make the constellation of the lion; Odin’s twelve names, they say, -are the twelve months of the year; his fifty-two names, which he himself -enumerates in Grimnismaal, are the fifty-two weeks in the year; the -thirteen valkyries are the thirteen new moons in the year. How profound! -How perfectly everything adapts itself to the theory! This invaluable -discovery was made on the seventh of December, 1827. It ought to be a -legal holiday! The one ox, three measures of mead and eight salmon which -Thor, according to the Elder Edda, consumed, when he had come to -Jotunheim to fetch his hammer, they claim also represent the year’s -twelve months, for 1 + 3 + 8 = 12. Furthermore, the three gods, Haar, -Jafnhaar, and Thride, are the three fundamental elements, sulphur, -mercury, and salt; Odin, Vile, and Ve, are the three laws of the -universe, gravity, motion, and affinity. Thor is electricity; his belt -is an electric condenser, his gloves an electric conductor. Hrungner, -with whom he contends, is petrifaction; the Mokkerkalfe, whom Thjalfe -slew, is the magnetic needle. Gunlad is oxygen, Kvaser is sugar, etc. -But this will do. Are not these golden keys, with which to unlock the -secret chambers of the Eddas! - -All the deities do not represent phenomena and forces of nature, and -this fact gives if possible still more importance to the anthropomorphic -interpretation. Some myths are mere creations of the imagination, to -give symmetry and poetical finish to the system, or we might say to the -drama—to complete the delineations of the characters that appear on the -stage of action. Hermod, for instance, is no phenomenon in physical -nature: he is the servant of Odin in the character of the latter as the -god of war. Odin is the god of the heavens, but it is not in this -capacity he sends out the valkyries to pick up the fallen heroes on the -field of battle. - -In rejecting the _historical_ interpretation, we do by no means mean to -deny the influence of the mythology upon the social, religious, -political and literary life of the Norsemen. But this is not an -explanation of the mythology itself, but of its influence upon the minds -of the people. If we mean it in a prophetic sense, the Norse mythology -has also an historical interpretation. In it was mirrored the grand -future of the Norse spirit; by it the Norsemen were taught to make those -daring expeditions to every part of the civilized world, making -conquests and planting colonies; to cross the briny deep and open the -way to Iceland, Greenland and America; to take possession of Normandy in -France, subdue England and make inroads into Spain and Italy; to pass -between the pillars of Hercules, devastate the classic fields of Greece, -and carve their mysterious runes on the marble lion in Athens; to lay -the foundations of the Russian Empire, penetrate the walls of -Constantinople and swing their two-edged battle-axes in its streets; to -sail up the rivers Rhine, the Scheldt, the Seine, and the Loire, -conquering Cologne and Aachen and besieging Paris; to lead the van of -the chivalry of Europe in rescuing the holy sepulchre and rule over -Antioch and Tiberias under Harald; to sever the fetters forged by the -Roman emperors, break the crosiers in the hands of the Roman popes and -infuse a nobler and freer spirit into the nations of the earth; and by -their mythology they were taught to give to the world that germ of -liberty that struck root in the earliest literature of France, budded in -the Magna Charta of England, and developed its full-blown flowers in the -American Declaration of Independence. - -The principal object of the second part of this volume is to give a -faithful, accurate and _complete_ presentation of the myths; but -interpretations and reflections will be freely indulged in. The basis of -the interpretation will be the physical and ethical combined, the two -taken as a unit. The reflections will consist in pointing out -occasionally the fulfilment of the prophecies historically, or rather -the application of the myths to historical philosophy. When only the -physical source of the myth is given, its anthropomorphic element must -be supplied in the mind of the reader. When Thor is given as the -impersonation of thunder, and Heimdal as the rainbow, clothed with -personality, then the reader must consider what sensations would be -awakened in his own breast by these phenomena if he had been taught to -regard them as persons. And when he has given them stature, gait, -clothing, bearing, expression of the eye and countenance, and personal -character corresponding with their lofty positions in the management of -the affairs of the world, then he can form some idea of these deities as -contemplated by the ancient Norsemen. - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - THE NORSE MYTHOLOGY FURNISHES ABUNDANT AND EXCELLENT MATERIAL FOR THE - USE OF POETS, SCULPTORS AND PAINTERS. - - -In a previous chapter it was claimed that the time must come when Norse -mythology will be copiously reflected in our elegant literature and is -our fine arts; and we insist that we who are Goths, and branches of the -noble ash Ygdrasil, ought to develop some fibre, leaves, buds and -flowers with nourishment drawn from the roots of our own tree of -existence, and not be constantly borrowing from our neighbors. If our -poets would but study Norse mythology, they would find in it ample -material for the most sublime poetry. The Norse mythology is itself a -finished poem, and has been most beautifully presented in the Elder -Edda, but it furnishes at the same time a variety of themes that can be -combined and elaborated into new poems with all the advantages of modern -art, modern civilization and enlightenment. With the spirit of -Christianity, a touch of beauty and grandeur can be unconsciously thrown -over the loftiness of stature, the growth of muscle, the bold masses of -intellectual masonry, the tempestuous strength of passions, those gods -and heroes of impetuous natures and gigantic proportions, those -overwhelming tragedies of primitive vigor, which are to be found in the -Eddas. If our American poet would but pay a visit to Urd’s fountain, to -Time’s morning in our Gothic history, and tarry there until the dawn -tinges the horizon with crimson and scarlet and the sun breaks through -the clouds and sends its inspiring rays into his soul,—then his poetry -and compositions would reflect those auroral rays with intensified -effulgence; it would shine upon and enlighten and gladden a whole -nation. We need poets who can tell us, in words that burn, about our -Gothic ancestors, in order that we may be better able to comprehend -ourselves. It has heretofore been explained how the history of nations -divides itself into three periods—the imaginative, the emotional, and -reflective; poetry, history, and philosophy; and how these have their -miniature counterparts in the life of any single person—childhood, -manhood, and old age; and now we are prepared to present this claim, -that the poetic, imaginative and prophetic period of our race should be -compressed into the soul of the child. The poetic period of _his own_ -race should be melted and moulded into poetry, touched by a spark of -Christian refinement and love, and then poured, so to speak, into the -soul of the child. The child’s mind should feed upon the mythological -stories and the primitive folklore of his race. It should be nourished -with milk from its own mother’s breast. Does any one doubt this? Let him -ask the Scandinavian poets: ask what kindled the imaginative fancy of -Welhaven; ask what inspired the force and simplicity of phrase in -Oelenschlæger’s poetry; ask what produced the unadorned loveliness with -which Björnstjerne Björnson expresses himself, and the mountain torrent -that rushes onward with impetuous speed in Wergeland; ask what produced -the refinement of phrase of Tegner, and the wild melodious abandon of -Ibsen;—and they will tell him that in the deep defiles of that sea-girt -and rock-bound land called Norseland, where the snow-crowned mountains -tower like castle-walls, they found in a leafy summer bower a Saga-book -full of magic words and beautiful pictures, and, like Alexander of old, -they made this wonderful book their pillow. They may tell you that the -Scandinavian schools, like the American, are pretty thoroughly -Latinized, but that they stole out of the school-room, studied this -Saga-book, and from it they drew their inspiration. - -The writer once asked the famous Norse violinist, Ole Bull, what had -inspired his musical talent and given his music that weird, original, -inexplicable expression and style. He said, that from childhood he had -taken a profound delight in the picturesque and harmonious combination -of grandeur, majesty, and gracefulness of the flower-clad valleys, the -silver-crested mountains, the singing brooks, babbling streams, -thundering rivers, sylvan shores and smiling lakes of his native land. -He had eagerly devoured all the folk-lore, all the stories about trolls, -elves and sprites that came within his reach; he had especially reveled -in all the mythological tales about Odin, Thor, Balder, Ymer, the -Midgard-serpent, Ragnarok, etc.; and these things, he said, have made my -music. Truthfully has our own poet Longfellow, who has himself taken -more than one draft from Mimer’s fountain, and communed more than once -with Brage—said of Ole Bull: - - He lived in that ideal world - Whose language is not speech, but song; - Around him evermore the throng - Of elves and sprites their dances whirled; - The Strömkarl sang, the cataract hurled - Its headlong waters from the height, - And mingled in the wild delight - The scream of sea-birds in their flight, - The rumor of the forest trees, - The plunge of the implacable seas, - The tumult of the wind at night, - Voices of eld, like trumpets blowing - Old ballads and wild melodies - Through mist and darkness pouring forth - Like Elivagar’s rivers flowing - Out of the glaciers of the North. - -These are the things that make poets, and musicians are poets. Then -continues the same author: - - And when he played, the atmosphere - Was filled with music, and the ear - Caught echo of that harp of gold - Whose music had so weird a sound, - The heeled stag forgot to bound, - The leaping rivulet backward rolled, - The bird came down from bush and tree, - The dead came from beneath the sea, - The maiden to the harper’s knee. - -Only these few lines make it clear that Longfellow has not only communed -with Brage, but has also refreshed himself at the Castalian fountain; -that he has not only penetrated the mysteries of the Greek mythology, -but has also visited the deities of the North. - -If you do not believe that the Norse mythology furnishes suitable themes -for poetry, then do not echo the voice of the multitude and cry the idea -down because it seems new. Men frequently act like ants. When a red ant -appears among the black ones, they all attack it, for they have once for -all made up their minds that all ants must necessarily be black; they -have themselves been black all their lives, and all their ancestors were -black, so far as they know anything about them. Thus it has become a -fixed opinion with many, that mythology necessarily means Greek or -Roman. We said to one of our friends: We are writing a book on Norse -mythology. Says our learned friend: Are not those old stories about -Jupiter and Mars pretty well written up by this time? We said we thought -they were, too much so; but we are writing about Odin and Thor. Then our -learned friend shook his head in surprise and said that he never heard -of those gentlemen before. If our reader’s case is the same as that of -our learned friend, then let him examine the subject for himself. Let -him read the Norse mythology through carefully. Let him then tell us -what themes suggestive of sublime poetry he found in the upper, the -middle and the lower worlds of the Odinic mythology; how he was -impressed with the regions of the gods, of the giants, and of the -dwarfs; what he thought of the various exploits of the gods; how he was -impressed with the great and wise Odin, the good and shining Balder, the -mighty Thor, the subtle and malicious Loke, the queenly Frigg, the -genial Frey, the lovely Idun reclining on the eloquent Brage’s breast, -and the gentle Nanna. Let him read and see whether or not he will be -delighted with all the magnificent scenery of Gladsheim, Valhal, -Midgard, Niflheim, Muspelheim, and Ginungagap; with the norns Urd, -Verdande, and Skuld; with the glorious ash Ygdrasil; with the fountain -of Mimer (let him take a deep drink, while he is there);, with the -heavenly bridge Bifrost (the rainbow), upon which the gods daily descend -to the Urdar-fountain; and with the wild tempest-traversed regions of -Ran (the goddess of the sea, wife of Æger). The celebrated poet -Oelenschlæger found in all these things inexhaustible scope for poetic -embellishments, and he availed himself of it in his work, entitled _Gods -of the North_, with the zeal and power of a genuine poet. He revived the -memories of the past. He bade the gods come forward out of the mists of -the centuries, and he accomplished in less than fifty years what _Latin_ -versions of the Eddas had not been able to accomplish in three -centuries. Two of Oelenschlæger’s poems are given translated in _Poets -and Poetry of Europe_, and Mr. Longfellow has given us permission to -present them here. We will now avail ourselves of his kindness and not -discuss this portion of the subject of this chapter any further, knowing -that the reader will find the poems _Thor’s Fishing_ and _The Dwarfs_ -far more pleasing and convincing than any additional arguments we might -be able to produce. Here they are: - - - THOR’S FISHING. - - - On the dark bottom of the great salt lake - Imprisoned lay the giant snake, - With naught his sullen sleep to break. - - Huge whales disported amorous o’er his neck; - Little their sports the worm did reck, - Nor his dark, vengeful thoughts would check. - - To move his iron fins he has no power, - Nor yet to harm the trembling shore, - With scaly rings he is covered o’er. - - His head he seeks ’mid coral rocks to hide, - Nor e’er hath man his eye espied, - Nor could its deadly glare abide. - - His eye-lids half in drowsy stupor close, - But short and troubled his repose, - As his quick heavy breathing shows. - - Muscles and crabs, and all the shelly race, - In spacious banks still crowd for place - A grisly beard, around his face. - - When Midgard’s worm his fetters strives to break, - Riseth the sea, the mountains quake; - The fiends in Naastrand merry make - - Rejoicing flames from Hecla’s caldron flash, - Huge molten stones with deafening crash - Fly out,—its scathed sides fire-streams wash. - - The affrighted sons of Ask do feel the shock, - As the worm doth lie and rock, - And sullen waiteth Ragnarok. - - To his foul craving maw naught e’er came ill; - It never he doth cease to fill; - Nath’ more his hungry pain can still. - - Upward by chance he turns his sleepy eye, - And, over him suspended nigh, - The gory head he doth espy. - - The serpent taken with his own deceit, - Suspecting naught the daring cheat, - Ravenous gulps down the bait. - - His leathern jaws the barbed steel compress, - His ponderous head must leave the abyss; - Dire was Jormungander’s hiss. - - In giant coils he writhes his length about, - Poisonous streams he speweth out, - But his struggles help him naught. - - The mighty Thor knoweth no peer in fight, - The loathsome worm, his strength despite, - Now o’ermatched must yield the fight. - - His grisly head Thor heaveth o’er the tide, - No mortal eye the sight may hide, - The scared waves haste i’ th’ sands to hide. - - As when accursed Naastrand yawns and burns, - His impious throat ’gainst heaven he turns - And with his tail the ocean spurns. - - The parched sky droops, darkness enwraps the sun; - Now the matchless strength is shown - Of the god whom warriors own. - - Around his loins he draws his girdle tight, - His eye with triumph flashes bright, - The frail boat splits aneath his weight; - - The frail boat splits,—but on the ocean’s ground - Thor again hath footing found; - Within his arms the worm is bound. - - Hymer, who in the strife no part had took, - But like a trembling aspen shook, - Rouseth him to avert the stroke. - - In the last night, the vala hath decreed - Thor, in Odin’s utmost need, - To the worm shall bow the head. - - Thus, in sunk voice, the craven giant spoke, - Whilst from his belt a knife he took, - Forged by dwarfs aneath the rock. - - Upon the magic belt straight ’gan to file; - Thor in bitter scorn to smile; - Mjolner swang in air the while. - - In the worm’s front full two-score leagues it fell; - From Gimle to the realms of hell - Echoed Jormungander’s yell. - - The ocean yawned; Thor’s lightnings rent the sky; - Through the storm, the great sun’s eye - Looked out on the fight from high. - - Bifrost i’ th’ east shone forth in brightest green; - On its top, in snow-white sheen, - Heimdal at his post was seen. - - On the charmed belt the dagger hath no power; - The star of Jotunheim ’gan to lour; - But now, in Asgard’s evil hour, - - When all his efforts foiled tall Hymer saw, - Wading to the serpent’s maw, - On the kedge he ’gan to saw. - - The Sun, dismayed, hastened in clouds to hide, - Heimdal turned his head aside; - Thor was humbled in his pride. - - The knife prevails, far down beneath the main, - The serpent, spent with toil and pain, - To the bottom sank again. - - The giant fled, his head ’mid rocks to save, - Fearfully the god did rave, - With his lightnings tore the wave. - - To madness stung, to think his conquest vain, - His ire no longer could contain, - Dared the worm to rise again. - - His radiant form to its full height he drew, - And Mjolner through the billows blue - Swifter than the fire-bolt flew. - - Hoped, yet, the worm had fallen beneath the stroke; - But the wily child of Loke - Waits her turn at Ragnarok. - - His hammer lost, back wends the giant-bane, - Wasted his strength, his prowess vain; - And Mjolner must with Ran remain. - - - THE DWARFS. - - - Loke sat and thought, till his dark eyes gleam - With joy at the deed he’d done; - When Sif looked into the crystal stream, - Her courage was well-nigh gone - - For never again her soft amber hair - Shall she braid with her hands of snow; - From the hateful image she turned in despair, - And hot tears began to flow. - - In a cavern’s mouth, like a crafty fox, - Loke sat ’neath the tall pine’s shade, - When sudden a thundering was heard in the rocks, - And fearfully trembled the glade. - - Then he knew that the noise good boded him naught, - He knew that ’t was Thor who was coming; - He changed himself straight to a salmon-trout, - And leaped in a fright in the Glommen.[6] - - But Thor changed, too, to a huge sea-gull, - And the salmon-trout seized in his beak; - He cried: Thor, traitor, I know thee well, - And dear shalt thou pay thy freak! - - Thy caitiff’s bones to a meal I’ll pound, - As a mill-stone crusheth the grain. - When Loke that naught booted his magic found, - He took straight his own form again. - - And what if thou scatter’st my limbs in air? - He spake, will it mend thy case? - Will it gain back for Sif a single hair? - Thou’lt still a bald spouse embrace. - - But if now thou’lt pardon my heedless joke,— - For malice sure meant I none,— - I swear to thee here, by root, billow and rock, - By the moss on the Bauta-stone,[7] - - By Mimer’s well, and by Odin’s eye, - And by Mjolner, greatest of all, - That straight to the secret caves I’ll hie, - To the dwarfs, my kinsmen small; - - And thence for Sif new tresses I’ll bring - Of gold ere the daylight’s gone, - So that she will liken a field in spring, - With its yellow-flowered garment on. - - Him answered Thor: Why, thou brazen knave, - To my face to mock me dost dare? - Thou know’st well that Mjolner is now ’neath the wave - With Ran, and wilt still by it swear? - - O a better hammer for thee I’ll obtain; - And he shook like an aspen-tree, - For whose stroke shield, buckler and greave shall be vain, - And the giants with terror shall flee! - - Not so! cried Thor, and his eyes flashed fire; - Thy base treason calls loud for blood, - And hither I’m come with my sworn brother Frey, - To make thee of ravens the food. - - I’ll take hold of thy arms and thy coal-black hair, - And Frey of thy heels behind, - And thy lustful body to atoms we’ll tear, - And scatter thy limbs to the wind. - - O spare me, Frey, thou great-souled king! - And, weeping, he kissed his feet; - O mercy, and thee I’ll a courser bring, - No match in the wide world shall meet. - - Without whip or spur round the earth you shall ride; - He’ll ne’er weary by day nor by night; - He shall carry you safe o’er the raging tide, - And his golden hair furnish you light. - - Loke promised as well with his glozing tongue - That the asas at length let him go, - And he sank in the earth, the dark rocks among, - Near the cold-fountain, far below. - - He crept on his belly, as supple as eel, - The cracks in the hard granite through, - Till he came where the dwarfs stood hammering steel, - By the light of a furnace blue. - - I trow ’t was a goodly sight to see - The dwarfs, with their aprons on, - A-hammering and smelting so busily - Pure gold from the rough brown stone. - - Rock crystals from sand and hard flint they made, - Which, tinged with the rosebud’s dye, - They cast into rubies and carbuncles red, - And hid them in cracks hard by. - - They took them fresh violets all dripping with dew, - Dwarf-women had plucked them, the morn,— - And stained with their juice the clear sapphires blue, - King Dan in his crown since hath worn. - - Then for emeralds they searched out the brightest green - Which the young spring meadow wears. - And dropped round pearls, without flaw or stain, - From widows’ and maidens’ tears. - - And all around the cavern might plainly be shown - Where giants had once been at play; - For the ground was with heaps of huge muscle-shells strewn, - And strange fish were marked in the clay. - - Here an ichthyosaurus stood out from the wall, - There monsters ne’er told of in story, - Whilst hard by the Nix in the waterfall - Sang wildly the days of their glory. - - Here bones of the mammoth and mastodon, - And serpents with wings and with claws; - The elephant’s tusks from the burning zone - Are small to the teeth in their jaws. - - When Loke to the dwarfs had his errand made known, - In a trice for the work they were ready; - Quoth Dvalin: O Lopter, it now shall be shown - That dwarfs in their friendship are steady. - - We both trace our line from the selfsame stock; - What you ask shall be furnished with speed, - For it ne’er shall be said that the sons of the rock - Turned their backs on a kinsman in need. - - They took them the akin of a large wild-boar, - The largest that they could find, - And the bellows they blew till the furnace ’gan roar, - And the fire flamed on high for the wind. - - And they struck with their sledge-hammers stroke on stroke, - That the sparks from the skin flew on high, - But never a word good or bad spake Loke, - Though foul malice lurked in his eye. - - The thunderer far distant, with sorrow he thought - On all he’d engaged to obtain, - And, as summer-breeze fickle, now anxiously sought - To render the dwarfs’ labor vain. - - Whilst the bellows plied Brok, and Sindre the hammer, - And Thor, that the sparks flew on high, - And the sides of the vaulted cave rang with the clamor, - Loke changed to a huge forest-fly. - - And he sat him all swelling with venom and spite, - On Brok, the wrist just below; - But the dwarf’s skin was thick, and he recked not the bite, - Nor once ceased the bellows to blow. - - And now, strange to say, from the roaring fire - Came the golden-haired Gullinburste, - To serve as a charger the sun-god Frey, - Sure, of all wild-boars this the first. - - They took them pure gold from their secret store, - The piece ’t was but small in size, - But ere ’t had been long in the furnace roar, - ’T was a jewel beyond all prize. - - A broad red ring all of wroughten gold, - As a snake with its tail in its head, - And a garland of gems did the rim enfold, - Together with rare art laid. - - ’T was solid and heavy, and wrought with care, - Thrice it passed through the white flames’ glow; - A ring to produce, fit for Odin to wear, - No labor they spared, I trow. - - They worked it and turned it with wondrous skill, - Till they gave it the virtue rare, - That each thrice third night from its rim there fell - Eight rings, as their parent fair. - - ’T was the same with which Odin sanctified - God Balder’s and Nanna’s faith; - On his gentle bosom was Draupner laid, - When their eyes were closed in death. - - Next they laid on the anvil a steel-bar cold, - They needed nor fire nor file; - But their sledge-hammers, following, like thunder rolled, - And Sindre sang runes the while. - - When Loke now marked how the steel gat power, - And how warily out ’t was beat - (’T was to make a new hammer for Ake-Thor), - He’d recourse once more to deceit. - - In a trice, of a hornet the semblance he took, - Whilst in cadence fell blow on blow, - In the leading dwarf’s forehead his barbed sting he stuck, - That the blood in a stream down did flow. - - Then the dwarf raised his hand to his brow for the smart, - Ere the iron well out was beat, - And they found that the haft by an inch was too short, - But to alter it then ’t was too late. - - Now a small elf came running with gold on his head, - Which he gave a dwarf woman to spin, - Who the metal like flax on her spinning wheel laid, - Nor tarried her task to begin. - - So she span and span, and the gold thread ran - Into hair, though Loke thought it a pity; - She span and sang to the sledge-hammer’s clang - This strange, wild spinning-wheel ditty; - - Henceforward her hair shall the tall Sif wear, - Hanging loose down her white neck behind; - By no envious braid shall it captive be made, - But in native grace float in the wind. - - No swain shall it view in the clear heaven’s blue, - But his heart in its toils shall be lost; - No goddess, not e’en beauty’s faultless queen, - Such long glossy ringlets shall boast. - - Though they now seem dead, let them touch but her head, - Each hair shall the life-moisture fill; - Nor shall malice nor spell henceforward prevail - Sif’s tresses to work aught of ill. - - His object attained, Loke no longer remained - ’Neath the earth, but straight hied him to Thor, - Who owned than the hair ne’er, sure, aught more fair - His eyes had e’er looked on before. - - The boar Frey bestrode, and away proudly rode, - And Thor took the ringlets and hammer; - To Valhal they hied, where the asas reside, - ’Mid of tilting and wassal the clamor. - - At a full solemn ting, Thor gave Odin the ring, - And Loke his foul treachery pardoned; - But the pardon was vain, for his crimes soon again - Must do penance the arch-sinner hardened. - -For the benefit of those who can read Danish, we will give in the -original the last ten stanzas of the latter poem of Oehlenschlæger, -beginning with the spinning of Sif’s hair: - - Nu kom med Guldet en Dværgeflok - Og gave det til Dværginden; - Hun satte, som Hör, det paa sin Rok, - Hvis Hjul hensused for Vinden. - - Og spandt og spandt, mens Guldtraaden randt - Til Haar for den deilige Dise; - Hun snurred og sang, ved Kildernes Klang, - En underlig Spindevise: - - Gudinden i Vaar skal bære sit Haar - Hel frit for Vinden herefter, - Ei flette det mer, at yndig sig ter - Dets Glands med straalende Kræfter. - - Hver Svend, som det saa, fra Himmelens Blaa, - Hans Hjerte skal Haarene fange. - Selv Lokker vist ei paa veneste Frey - Nedbölge saa blöde, saa lange. - - Skjönt Guldet er dödt, saasnart det har mödt - Gudindens Tinding, den höie, - Det levende blier og efter sig gier, - Og lader, som Hörren, sig böie. - - Beholder sin Glands, i Vindenes Dands, - Og lader sig aldrig udrykke; - Som Middagens Skin, det svöber sig ind - Bag Hjelmens ludende Skygge!— - - Saa sang hun og gik med ydmyge Blik - For Thor, og rakte ham Haaret; - Paa Lokken han saa og maatte tilstaa: - Saa fager var ingen baaret. - - Fra Bjerget valt nu Frey paa sin Galt - Og Thor med Haaret og Hammer, - Til Valhal de for, hvor Hærfader bor - I Lysets salige Flammer. - - Da satte paa Sif lig Tang paa et Rif, - Sig fast Guldhaaret paa stande, - Og monne sig slaa i Lokker saa smaa, - Trindt om den hvælvede Pande. - - Paa straalende Thing fik Odin sin Ring, - Man tilgav Loke sin Bröde, - Men snart dog igjen Bjergtroldenes Ven - Maa for sin Trolöshed böde. - -There remains now to discuss briefly whether the Norse mythology -furnishes subjects for painting and sculpturing. If the reader has -become convinced that there is material in it worthy of the greatest -poet, then it is not necessary to say much about painting and -sculpturing; for we know that most things that can be said in verse can -be made visible on the canvas, or be chiseled in marble. We shall -therefore be brief on this particular point, but after the presentation -of a few subjects for the painter or sculptor, we shall have something -to say about nude art. - -Can the brush or the chisel ask for more suggestive subjects than Odin, -Balder, Thor, Frey, Idun, Nanna, Loke, etc.? or groups like the norns at -the Urdar-fountain? or Urd (the past) and Verdande (the present), who -stretch from east to west a web, which is torn to pieces by Skuld (the -future); the valkyries in the heat of the battle picking up the slain; -or when they carry the fallen Hakon Adelsten to Valhal? Cannot a -beautiful picture be made of Æger and Ran and their daughters, the -waves? of the gods holding their feast with Æger and sending out Thor to -fetch a caldron for them from Jotunheim? or of Thor clapping the pot on -his head like a huge hat and walking off with it? What more touching -scene can be perceived than the death of Balder? Only in that short poem -Hamarsheimt (fetching the hammer) there are no less than three beautiful -subjects: (1) Thor wakes up and misses his hammer; he feels around him -for it; he is surprised and hesitates; he wrinkles his brows and his -head trembles. Loke looks down upon him from above; the rogue is in his -eye; he would like to break out in a roar of laughter, but dare not. (2) -All the gods are engaged in dressing Thor in Freyja’s clothes; he is a -tall straight youth with golden hair and a fine brown beard; lightning -flashes from his eyes; while Fulla puts on him Freyja’s jewels there is -a terrible conflict going on in his breast with this humiliation of his -dignity, which he cannot overcome. Loke stands half-ready near by as -maid-servant; he dresses Thor’s hair and is himself half-covered by the -bridal-veil which Thor is to wear. All take an intense interest in the -work, for they are so anxious to have the stratagem succeed. (3) The -giants have laid the hammer in the lap of the bride; Thor seizes it, and -as he pushes aside the veil he literally grows into his majestic -divinity, for whenever he wields his mighty Mjolner his strength is -redoubled. The disappointed desire of Thrym, the astounded giants, the -amused Loke; all furnish an endless variety of excellent material for -the brush of the painter. The plastic art can find no more exquisite -group than Loke bound upon three stones, and his loving wife, Sigyn, -leaning over him with a dish, wherein she catches the drops of venom -that would otherwise fall into his face and intensify his agonies. A -volume of themes might be presented, but it is not necessary. Suffice it -then to say that for poetry, painting and the plastic arts, there is in -the Norse mythology a fountain of delight whose waters but few have -tasted, but which no man can drain dry. - -We promised to say something about nude art. It is this: We Goths are, -and have forever been, a _chaste_ race. We abhor the loathsome nudity of -Greek art. We do not want nude figures, at least not unless they embody -some very sublime thought. The people of southern Europe differ widely -from us Northerners in this respect; and this difference reaches far -back into our respective mythologies, adding additional proof to the -fact that the myths foreshadow the social life of a nation or race of -people. The Greek gods were generally conceived as nude, and hence Greek -art would naturally be nude also. Whether the licentiousness and -lasciviousness of the Greek communities were the primary causes of the -unæsthetical features of their mythology or their Bacchanalian revels -sprang from the mythology, it is difficult to determine. We undoubtedly -come nearest the truth when we say that the same primeval causes -produced both the social life and mythology of the Greeks; that there -thenceforward was an active reciprocating influence between the religion -on the one side and the popular life on the other, an influence that we -may liken unto that which operates between the soul and the body; and -thus it may be said that the mythology and the popular life combined -produced their nude art. To say that the popular character of the -Greeks, taken individually or collectively, was stimulated into life by -their mythology; that the virtues and the vices of the people originated -in it _alone_; would certainly be an incorrect and one-sided view of the -subject. The Greeks brought with them, from their original home into -Greece, the germs of that faith which afterwards became developed in a -certain direction under the influence of the popular life and the action -of external circumstances upon that life, but which in turn reacted upon -the popular life with a power which increased in proportion as the -system of mythology acquired by development a more decided character. -The same is true of the Norsemen and of the Goths in general. When it is -found, for instance, that the mythological representation of Odin as -father of the slain (Val-father), and that Valhal (the hall of the -slain), the valkyries and einherjes, contain a strong incentive to -warlike deeds, then it must not be imagined that this martial spirit, -that displayed itself so powerfully among the Goths generally, and among -the Norsemen particularly, was the offspring of the mythology of our -ancestors; but we may rather conceive that the Norsemen were from the -beginning a race of remarkable physical power, that accidental external -causes, such as severe climate, mountainous country, conflicts with -neighboring peoples, etc., brought this inherent physical force into -activity and thus awakened the warlike spirit; and then it may be said -that this martial spirit stamped itself upon their religious ideas, upon -their mythology, and finally that the mythology, when it had received -this characteristic impress from the people, again reacted to preserve -and even further inflame that martial spirit. And there is no -inconsistency between this view of the subject and that which was -presented in the third chapter. - -It was said at the outset that we Goths are a chaste race, and abhor the -loathsome nudity of Greek art. We were a chaste people before our -fathers came under the influence of Christianity. The Elder Edda, which -is the grand depository of the Norse mythology, may be searched through -and through, and there will not be found a single nude myth, not an -impersonation of any kind that can be considered an outrage upon virtue -or a violation of the laws of propriety; and this feature of the Odinic -religion deserves to be urged as an important reason why our painters -and sculptors should look at home for something wherewith to employ -their talent, before they go abroad; look in our own ancient Gothic -history, before going to ancient Greece. - -But the artist who is going to chisel out an Odin, a Thor, a Balder, a -Nanna, or a Loke, must not be a mere imitator. He must possess a -creative mind. He must not go to work at a piece of Norse art with his -imagination full of Greek myths, much less must he attempt to apply -Greek principles to a piece of Gothic art. He will find the Norse chisel -a somewhat more ponderous weapon to swing; and you cannot turn as -rapidly with a railroad car as you can with a French _fiacre_ or -American gig. To try to chisel out the gods of _our_ forefathers after -South European patterns would be like attempting to write English with -the mind full of Latin syntax. Hence we repeat, that we do not want an -imitator, but an original genius. Greek mythology has been presented so -many times, and so well, that the imitation, the repetition, is -comparatively easy. He who would bring out Gothic art (and but little of -it has hitherto been brought out) must himself be a poet, and what a -mine of wealth there is open to him! Would that genuine art fever would -attack our artists and that some of the treasures that lie hid in the -granite quarries of the Norse mythology might speedily be exhumed! - -In his work, entitled _Science of Beauty_, Dr. John Bascom has taken -decided grounds against nude figures in art. We would recommend the -eighth chapter of that work to the careful consideration of the reader. -We are not able for want of space to give his opinion in full, but make -the following brief extract: - - There is one direction in which art has indulged itself in a most - marked violation of propriety, and that too on the side of vice. I - refer to the frequent nudity of its figures. This is a point upon - which artists have been pretty unanimous, and disposed to treat the - opinions of others with _hauteur_ and disdain, as arising at best - from a virtue more itching and sensitive than wise, from instincts - more physical than æsthetical. This practice has been more abused in - painting than in sculpture, both as less needed, and hence less - justifiable, and as ever tending to become more loose and lustful in - the double symbols of color and form, than when confined to the - pure, stern use of the latter in stone or metal. Despite alleged - necessities,—despite the high-toned claims and undisguised contempt - of artists,—our convictions are strongly against the practice, as - alike injurious to taste and morals. Indeed, if injurious to morals, - it cannot be otherwise than injurious to taste, since art has no - more dangerous enemy than a lascivious perverted fancy. - -Nay, in the radiant dawn of our Gothic history our poets and artists -may, if they would but look for them, find chaste themes to which they -may consecrate the whole ardor of their souls for the æsthetical -elevation and ennoblement of our race. As a people we are growing too -prosaic and, therefore, too ungodly; we nourish the tender minds of our -children too early and too extensively on dry reasoning, mathematics and -philosophy, instead of strengthening, stimulating and beautifying their -souls with some of the poetic thoughts, some of the mythology and -folk-lore of our forefathers. These mythological stories, these fairy -tales and all this folk-lore, illuminated by the genial rays of the -Christian religion shining upon them, should be made available in our -families and schools, by our poets, painters and sculptors, and then our -children would in turn get their æsthetical natures developed so as to -be able to beautify their own life and that of their posterity with -still finer productions in poetry, painting, and sculpture. - -Footnote 6: - - A river in Norway. - -Footnote 7: - - A stone raised over a grave. - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - THE SOURCES OF NORSE MYTHOLOGY AND INFLUENCE OF THE ASA-FAITH. - - -In order to thoroughly comprehend the Odinic mythology it is necessary -to make a careful study of the history, literature, languages and -dialects of the Teutonic races and of their popular life in all its -various manifestations. - -The chief depositories of the Norse mythology are the Elder or Sæmund’s -Edda (poetry) and the Younger or Snorre’s Edda (prose). In Icelandic -_Edda_ means _great-grandmother_, and some think this appellation refers -to the ancient origin of the myths it contains. Others connect it with -the Indian _Veda_ and the Norse _vide_ (Swedish _veta_, to know). - - - I. The Elder Edda. - - -This work was evidently collected from the mouths of the people in the -same manner as Homer’s _Iliad_, and there is a similar uncertainty in -regard to who put it in writing. It has generally been supposed that the -songs of the Elder Edda were collected by Sæmund the Wise (born 1056, -died 1133), but Sophus Bugge and N. M. Petersen, both eminent Icelandic -scholars, have made it seem quite probable that it was not put in -writing before the year 1240. This is not the place for a discussion of -this difficult question, and the reader is referred to Sophus Bugge’s -Introduction to _Sæmundar Edda_ and to Petersen’s _History of Northern -Literature_, if he wishes to investigate this subject. There are -thirty-nine poems in the Elder Edda, and we have here to look at their -contents. Like the most of the Icelandic poetry, these poems do not -distinguish themselves, as does the poetry of Greece and Rome, by a -metrical system based on quantity, but have an arrangement of their own -in common with the poetry of the other old Gothic nations, the -Anglo-Saxons, etc. This system consists chiefly in the number of _long -syllables_ and in _alliteration_. The songs are divided into strophes -commonly containing eight verses or lines. These strophes are usually -divided into two halves, and each of these halves again into two parts, -which form a fourth part of the whole strophe, and contain two verses -belonging together and united by alliteration. - -The alliteration (letter rhyme) is the most essential element in -Icelandic versification. It is found in all kinds of verse and in every -age, the Icelanders still using it; and its nature is this, that in the -two lines belonging together, three words occur beginning with the same -letter, two of which must be in the first line and the third in the -beginning of the second. The third and last of these is called the chief -letter (_höfuðstafr_, head-stave), because it is regarded as ruling over -the two others which depend on it and have the name sub-letters -(_studlar_, supporters). All rhyme-letters must be found in accented -syllables, and no more words in the two lines should begin with the same -letter—at least no chief word, which takes the accent on the first -syllable. This principle is illustrated by the following first half of -the seventh strophe of Völuspá, the oldest song in the Elder Edda: - - _T_efldu í _t_úni, - _T_eitir váru; - _V_ar þeim _v_ettugis - _V_ant ór gulli. - -Free version in English: - - With _g_olden tablets in the _g_arden - _G_lad they played, - Nor _w_as there to the _v_aliant gods - _W_ant of gold. - -The rhyme-letters here are those in _italics_. - -The poems of the Elder Edda are in no special connection one with the -other, and they may be divided into three classes: purely mythological, -mythological-didactic, and mythological-historical poems. - -The Elder Edda presents the Norse cosmogony, the doctrines of the Odinic -mythology, and the lives and doings of the gods. It contains also a -cycle of poems on the demi-gods and mythic heroes and heroines of the -same period. It gives us as complete a view of the mythological world of -the North as Homer and Hesiod do of that of Greece. But (to use in part -the language of the Howitts) it presents this to us not as Homer does, -worked up into one great poem, but as the rhapsodists of Greece -presented to Homer’s hands the materials for that great poem in the -various hymns and ballads of the fall of Troy, which they sung all over -Greece. No Homer ever arose in Norseland to mould all these sublime -lyrics of the Elder Edda into one lordly epic. The story of Siegfried -and Brynhild, which occupies the latter portion of the Elder Edda, was, -in later times in Germany moulded into the great and beautiful -_Niebelungen-Lied_; although it was much altered by the German poet or -by German tradition. The poems of the Elder Edda show us what the myths -of Greece would have been without a Homer. They remain huge, wild and -fragmentary; full of strange gaps rent into their very vitals by the -strokes of rude centuries; yet like the ruin of the Colosseum or the -temples of Pæstum, standing aloft amid the daylight of the present time, -magnificent testimonials of the stupendous genius of the race which -reared them. There is nothing besides the Bible, which sits in a divine -tranquillity of unapproachable nobility like a king of kings amongst all -other books, and the poem of Homer itself, which can compare in all the -elements of greatness with the Edda. There is a loftiness of stature, -and a firmness of muscle about it which no poets of the same race have -ever since reached. The only production since, that can be compared with -the Elder Edda in profoundness of thought, is that of Shakespeare, the -Hercules or Thor in English literature, that heroic mind of divine -lineage which passed through the hell-gates of the Roman school-system -unscathed. The obscurity which still hangs over some parts of the Elder -Edda, like the deep shadows crouching amid the ruins of the past, is the -result of neglect, and will in due time be removed; but amid this stand -forth the boldest masses of intellectual masonry. We are astonished at -the wisdom which is shaped into maxims, and at the tempestuous strength -of passions to which all modern emotions seem puny and constrained. Amid -the bright sun-light of a far-off time, surrounded by the densest -shadows of forgotten ages, we come at once into the midst of gods and -heroes, goddesses and fair women, giants and dwarfs, moving about in a -world of wonderful construction, unlike any other world or creation -which God has founded or man has imagined, but still beautiful beyond -conception. - -The Elder Edda opens with Völuspá (the vala’s prophecy), and this song -may be regarded as one of the oldest, if not the oldest, poetic monument -of the North. In it the mysterious vala, or prophetess, seated somewhere -unseen in the marvelous heaven, sings an awful song of the birth of gods -and men; of the great Ygdrasil, or Tree of Existence, whose roots and -branches extend through all regions of space, and concludes her -thrilling hymn with the terrible Ragnarok, or Twilight of the gods, when -Odin and the other gods perish in the flames that devour all creation, -and the new heavens and new earth rise beautifully green to receive the -reign of Balder and of milder natures. - -The second song in the Elder Edda is Hávamál (the high-song of Odin). -Odin himself is represented as its author. It contains a pretty complete -code of Odinic morality and precepts of wisdom. The moral and social -axioms that are brought together in Hávamál will surprise the reader, -who has been accustomed to regard the Norsemen as a rude and half wild -race, hunting in the savage forests of the North, or scouring the coasts -of Europe in quest of plunder. They contain a profound knowledge, not -merely of human nature, but of human nature in its various social and -domestic relations. They are more like the proverbs of Solomon than -anything in human literature. - -The third poem in the Elder Edda is Vafthrudnismál (that is, -Vafthrudner’s speech or song). Vafthrudner is derived from _vaf_, a web -or weaving, and _thrúð_, strong; hence Vafthrudner is the _powerful -weaver_, the one powerful in riddles, and it is the name of a giant, who -in the first part of the poem propounds a series of intricate questions -or riddles. Odin tells his wife Frigg that he desires to visit the -all-wise giant Vafthrudner, to find out from him the secrets of the past -and measure strength with him. Frigg advises him not to undertake this -journey, saying that she considers Vafthrudner the strongest of all -giants. Odin reminds her of his many perilous adventures and -experiences, arguing that these are sufficient to secure him in his -curiosity to see Vafthrudner’s halls. Frigg wishes him a prosperous -journey and safe return, and also the necessary presence of mind at his -meeting with the giant. Odin then proceeds on his journey and enters the -halls of Vafthrudner in the guise of a mortal wayfarer, by name -Gangraad. He greets the lord of the house, and says he is come to learn -whether he was a wise or omniscient giant. Such an address vexes -Vafthrudner, coming as it did from a stranger, and he soon informs -Gangraad that if he is not wiser than himself he shall not leave the -hall alive. But the giant, finding, after he had asked the stranger a -few questions, that he really had a worthy antagonist in his presence, -invites him to take a seat, and challenges him to enter into a -disputation, that they might measure their intellectual strength, on the -condition that the vanquished party—the one unable to answer a question -put to him by the other—should forfeit his head. Odin accepts this -dangerous challenge. They accordingly discuss, by question and answer, -the principal topics of Norse mythology. The pretended Gangraad asks the -giant many questions, which the latter answers correctly; but when the -former at length asks his adversary what Odin whispered in the ear of -his son Balder before he had been placed on the funeral pile—a question -by which the astonished giant becomes aware that his antagonist is Odin -himself, who was alone capable of answering it,—the giant acknowledges -himself vanquished, and sees with terror that he cannot avoid the death -which he in his cruel pride had intended to inflict upon an innocent -wanderer. - -The fourth song is Grimnismál (the song of Grimner). It begins with a -preface in prose, in which it is related that Odin, under the name of -Grimner, visited his foster-son Geirrod, and the latter, deceived by a -false representation by Frigg, takes him for a sorcerer, makes him sit -between two fires and pine there without nourishment for eight days, -until Agnar, the king’s son, reaches him a drinking-horn. Hereupon -Grimner sings the song which bears his name. Lamenting his confinement -and blessing Agnar, he goes on to picture the twelve abodes of the gods -and the splendors of Valhal, which he describes at length, and then -speaks of the mythological world-tree Ygdrasil, of the valkyries, of the -giant Ymer, of the ship Skidbladner, and adds various other cosmological -explanations. - -The fifth song is Skirnismál, or För Skirnis (the journey of Skirner). -This gives in the form of a dialogue the story of Frey and Gerd, of his -love to her, and his wooing her through the agency of his faithful -servant Skirner, after whom the song is named. - -The sixth is the Lay of Harbard. It is a dialogue between Thor and the -ferryman Harbard, who refuses to carry him over the stream. This -furnishes an occasion for each of them to recount his exploits. They -contrast their deeds and exploits. The contest is continued without -interruption until near the end of the poem, where Thor finally offers a -compromise, again requesting to be taken over the river. Harbard, who is -in fact Odin, again refuses in decided terms. Then Thor asks him to show -him another way. This request Harbard seems in a manner to comply with, -but refers Thor to Fjorgyn, his mother. Thor asks how far it is, but -Harbard makes enigmatical answers. Thor ends the conversation with -threats and Harbard with evil wishes. - -The seventh poem is the Song of Hymer. The gods of Asgard are invited to -a banquet with the sea-god Æger. Thor goes to the giant Hymer for a -large kettle, in which to brew ale for the occasion. When Thor has -arrived at the home of Hymer he persuades the giant to take him along on -a fishing expedition, in which Thor fishes up the Midgard-serpent, which -he would have killed had it not been for Hymer, who cut off the -fish-line. Thor succeeds in carrying off the kettle, but has to slay -Hymer and other giants who pursue him. - -The eighth is Lokasenna (or Loke’s quarrel.) This poem has a preface in -prose. This is also a banquet at Æger’s. It takes place immediately -after Balder’s death. Loke was present. He slew one of Æger’s servants -and had to flee to the woods, but soon returns, enters Æger’s hall, and -immediately begins to abuse the gods in the most shameful manner: first -Brage, then Idun, Gefjun, Odin, Frigg, Freyja, Njord, and the others, -until Thor finally appears and drives him away. There is a prose -conclusion to this poem, describing Loke’s punishment A profound tragedy -characterizes this poem. Although Loke is abusive, he still speaks the -truth, and he exposes all the faults of the gods, which foreshadow their -final fall. Peace disappeared with the death of Balder, and the gods, -conscious that Ragnarok is inevitable, are overpowered by distraction -and sorrow. - -The ninth poem is the Song of Thrym. This gives an account of the loss -of Thor’s hammer, and tells how Loke helped him to get it back from the -giant Thrym. - -The tenth is the Song of Alvis (the all-wise). Alvis comes for Thor’s -daughter as his bride. Thor cunningly detains him all night by asking -him questions concerning the various worlds he has visited. Alvis -answers and teaches him the names by which the most important things in -nature are called in the respective languages of different worlds: of -men, of the gods, of the vans, of the giants, of the elves, of the -dwarfs, and finally of the realms of the dead and of the supreme god. -The dwarf, being one of those mythical objects which cannot endure the -light of day, was detained till dawn without accomplishing his object. - -The eleventh poem is Vegtam’s Lay. Odin assumes the name Vegtam. In -order to arrive at certainty concerning the portentous future of the -gods, he descends to Niflheim, goes into the abodes of Hel, and calls -the vala up from her grave-mound, asking her about the fate of Balder. -She listens to him indignantly, answers his questions unwillingly, but -at last discovers that Vegtam is the king of the gods, and angrily tells -him to ride home. - -We will omit a synopsis of the remainder, and merely give their titles, -as they do not enter so completely into the system of mythology as the -first eleven: (12) Rigsmaal (Song of Rig), (13) The Lay of Hyndla, (14) -The Song of Volund, (15) The Song of Helge Hjorvardson, (16) Song of -Helge Hundingsbane I, (17) Song of Helge Hundingsbane II, (18) Song of -Sigurd Fafnisbane I, (19) Song of Sigurd Fafnisbane II, (20) Song of -Fafner, (21) Song of Sigdrifa, (22) Song of Sigurd, (23) Song of Gudrun -I, (24) Song of Gudrun III, (25) Brynhild’s Ride to Hel, (26) Song of -Gudrun II, (27) Song of Gudrun III, (28) The Weeping of Odrun, (29) The -Song of Atle, (30) The Speech of Atle, (31) The Challenge of Gudrun, -(32) The Song of Hamder, (33) The Song of Grotte, (34) Extracts from the -Younger Edda, (35) Extracts from the Volsunga Saga, (36) Song of Svipdag -I, (37) Song of Svipdag II, (38) The Lay of the Sun, (39) Odin’s -Raven-Cry. - -The antiquity of these poems cannot be fixed, but they certainly carry -us back to the remotest period of the settlement of Norway by the Goths. - -It may be added here that many of the poems of the Elder Edda, as well -as much of the Old Norse poetry generally, are very difficult to -understand, on account of the bold metaphorical language in which they -are written. The poet did not call an object by its usual name, but -borrowed a figure by which to present it, either from the mythology or -from some other source. Thus he would call the sky _the skull of the -giant Ymer_; the rainbow he called _the bridge of the gods_; gold was -_the tears of Freyja_; poetry, _the present_ or _drink of Odin_. The -earth was called indifferently _the wife of Odin_, _the flesh of Ymer_, -_the daughter of night_, _the vessel that floats on the ages_, or _the -foundation of the air_; herbs and plants were called _the hair_ or _the -fleece of the earth_. A battle was called _a bath of blood_, _the hail -of Odin_, _the shock of bucklers_; the sea was termed _the field of -pirates_, _the girdle of the earth_; ice, _the greatest of all bridges_; -a ship, _the horse of the waves_; the tongue, _the sword of words_, etc. - - - II. The Younger Edda, - - -written by Snorre Sturleson, the author of the famous _Heimskringla_ -(born 1178, died 1241) is mostly prose, and may be regarded as a sort of -commentary upon the Elder Edda. The prose Edda consists of two parts: -Gylfaginning (the deluding of Gylfe), and the Bragaræður or -Skáldskaparmál (the conversations of Brage, the god of poetry, or the -treatise on poetry). Gylfaginning tells how the Swedish king Gylfe makes -a journey to Asgard, the abode of the gods, where Odin instructs him in -the old faith, and gradually relates to him the myths of the Norsemen. -The manner in which the whole is told reminds us of _A Thousand and One -Nights_, or of poems from a later time, as for instance Boccaccio’s -_Decameron_. It is a prose synopsis of the whole Asa faith, with here -and there a quotation from the Elder Edda by way of elucidation. It -shows a great deal of ingenuity and talent on the part of its author, -and is the most perspicuous and clear presentation of the mythology that -we possess. - -But all the material for the correct presentation of the Norse mythology -is not found in the Eddas; or rather we do not perfectly understand the -Eddas, if we confine our studies to them alone. For a full comprehension -of the myths, it is necessary to study carefully all the -semi-mythological Icelandic Sagas, which constitute a respectable -library by themselves; and in connection with these we must read the -Anglo-Saxon _Beowulf’s Drapa_, and the German _Niebelungen-Lied_. In the -next place, we must examine carefully all the folk-lore of the Gothic -race, and we must, in short, study the manifestations of the Gothic mind -and spirit everywhere: in the development of the State and of the -Church, in their poetry and history, in their various languages and -numerous dialects, in their literature, in their customs and manners, -and in their popular belief. If we neglect all these we shall never -understand the Eddas; if we neglect the Eddas we shall never understand -the other sources of mythology. They mutually explain each other, and -the Gothic race must sooner or later begin to study its own history. - -That the Odinic mythology exercised a mighty influence in forming the -national character of the Norsemen, becomes evident when we compare the -doctrines of their faith with the popular life as portrayed in the -Sagas. Still we must bear in mind that this national spirit was not -created by this faith. The harsh climate of the North modified not only -the Norse mythology, but also moulded indefinitely the national -character, and then the two, the mythology and the national character, -acted and reacted upon each other. Thus bred up to fight with nature in -a constant battle for existence, and witnessing the same struggle in the -life of his gods, the Norseman became fearless, honest and truthful, -ready to smite and ready to forgive, shrinking not from pain himself and -careless about inflicting it on others. Beholding in external nature and -in his mythology the struggle of conflicting forces, he naturally looked -on life as a field for warfare. The ice-bound fjords and desolate fells, -the mournful wail of the waving pine-branches, the stern strife of frost -and fire, the annual death of the short-lived summer, made the Norseman -sombre, if not gloomy, in his thoughts, and inured him to the rugged -independence of the country. The sternness of the land in which he lived -was reflected in his character; the latter was in turn reflected in the -tales which he told of his gods and heroes, and thus the Norseman and -his mythology mutually influenced each other. - -The influence of the Asa faith, says Prof. Keyser, upon the popular -spirit of the Norsemen, must be regarded from quite another point of -view than that of Christianity at a later period. The Asa faith was, so -to speak, inborn with the Norsemen, as it had developed itself from -certain germs and assumed form with the popular life almost -unconsciously to the latter. Christianity, on the other hand, was given -to the people as a religious system complete in itself, intended for all -the nations of the earth; one which by its own divine power opened for -itself a way to conviction, and through that conviction operated on the -popular spirit in a direction previously pointed out by the fundamental -principles of the religion itself. As the system of the Asa faith arose -without any conscious object of affecting the morals, therefore it did -not embrace any actual code of morals in the higher sense of this term. -The Asa doctrine does not pronounce by positive expression what is -virtue and what is vice; it presupposes a consciousness thereof in its -votaries. It only represents virtue as reaping its own rewards and vice -its own punishment, if not here upon the earth, then with certainty -beyond the grave. Thus Keyser. - -The Norse system of mythology embodied the doctrine of an imperishable -soul in man; it had Valhal and Gimle set apart for and awaiting the -brave and virtuous, and Helheim and Naastrand for the wicked. - -The moral and social maxims of the Norsemen are represented as being -uttered by Odin himself in the Hávamál (high song of Odin), the second -song of the Elder Edda, and by the valkyrie Sigdrifa in the Sigrdrífumál -(the lay of Sigdrifa), the twenty-first poem of the same work. Read -these poems and maxims, and judge whether they will warrant the position -repeatedly taken in this work, that the electric spark that has made -England and America great and free came not from the aboriginal Britons, -not from the Roman enslavers, but must be sought in the prophetic, -imaginative and poetic childhood of the Gothic race. Read these poems -and judge whether the eminent English writer, Samuel Laing, is right -when he says: - - All that men hope for of good government and future improvement in - their physical and moral condition,—all that civilized men enjoy at - this day of civil, religious and political liberty,—the British - constitution, representative legislation, the trial by jury, - security of property, freedom of mind and person, the influence of - public opinion over the conduct of public affairs, the Reformation, - the liberty of the press, the spirit of the age,—all that is or has - been of value to man in modern times as a member of society, either - in Europe or in the New World, may be traced to the spark left - burning upon our shores by these northern barbarians. - -Read these poems and find truth in the words of Baron Montesquieu, the -admirable author of _The Spirit of Laws_ (L’Esprit des Lois), when he -says: The great prerogative of Scandinavia, and what ought to recommend -its inhabitants beyond every people upon earth, is, that they afforded -the great resource to the liberty of Europe, that is, to almost all the -liberty that is among men; and when he calls the North the forge of -those instruments which broke the fetters manufactured in the South. - -In the old Gothic religion were embodied principles and elements which -had a tendency to make its votaries brave, independent, honest, earnest, -just, charitable, prudent, temperate, liberty-loving, etc.; principles -and morals that in due course of time and under favorable circumstances -evolved the Republic of Iceland, the Magna Charta of England, and the -Declaration of Independence. - -The rules of life as indicated by the High Song of Odin and in -Sigrdrífumál, in which the valkyrie gives counsel to Sigurd Fafnisbane, -are briefly summed up by Professor Keyser as follows: - - 1. The recognition of the depravity of human nature, which calls for - a struggle against our natural desires and forbearance toward the - weakness of others. - - 2. Courage and faith both to bear the hard decrees of the norns and - to fight against enemies. - - 3. The struggle for independence in life with regard to knowledge as - well as to fortune; an independence which should, therefore, be - earned by a love of learning and industry. - - 4. A strict adherence to oaths and promises. - - 5. Candor and fidelity as well as foresight in love, devotion to the - tried friend, but dissimulation toward the false and war to the - death against the implacable enemy. - - 6. Respect for old age. - - 7. Hospitality, liberality, and charity to the poor. - - 8. A prudent foresight in word and deed. - - 9. Temperance, not only in the gratification of the senses, but also - in the exercise of power. - - 10. Contentment and cheerfulness. - - 11. Modesty and politeness in intercourse. - - 12. A desire to win the good will of our fellow men, especially to - surround ourselves with a steadfast circle of devoted kinsmen and - faithful friends. - - 13. A careful treatment of the bodies of the dead. - -Listen now to Odin himself, as he gives precepts of wisdom to mankind in - - - HÁVAMÁL: - - 1. All door-ways - Before going forward, - Should be looked to; - For difficult it is to know - Where foes may sit - Within a dwelling - - 2. Givers, hail! - A guest is come in: - Where shall he sit? - In much haste is he, - Who on his ways has - To try his luck. - - 3. Fire is needful - To him who is come in, - And whose knees are frozen; - Food and raiment - A man requires - Who o’er the fell has traveled. - - 4. Water to him is needful, - Who for refection comes, - A towel and hospitable invitation, - A good reception; - If he can get it, - Discourse and answer. - - 5. Wit is needful - To him who travels far: - At home all is easy. - A laughingstock is he - Who nothing knows, - And with the instructed sits.[8] - - 6. Of his understanding - No one should be proud, - But rather in conduct cautious. - When the prudent and taciturn - Come to a dwelling, - Harm seldom befalls the cautious; - For a firmer friend - No man ever gets - Than great sagacity. - - 7. A wary guest - Who to refection comes - Keeps a cautious silence; - With his ears listens, - And with his eyes observes: - So explores every prudent man. - - 8. He is happy - Who for himself obtains - Fame and kind words: - Less sure is that - Which a man must have - In another’s breast. - - 9. He is happy - Who in himself possesses - Fame and wit while living; - For bad counsels - Have oft been received - From another’s breast. - - 10. A better burthen - No man bears on the way - Than much good sense: - That is thought better than riches - In a strange place; - Such is the recourse of the indigent. - - 11. A worse provision - On the way he cannot carry - Than too much beer-bibbing; - So good is not, - As it is said, - Beer for the sons of men. - - 12. A worse provision - No man can take from table - Than too much beer-bibbing, - For the more he drinks - The less control he has - Of his own mind. - - 13. Oblivion’s heron ’tis called - That over potations hovers; - He steals the minds of men. - With this bird’s pinions - I was fettered - In Gunlad’s dwelling. - - 14. Drunk I was, - I was over-drunk, - At that cunning Fjalar’s. - It’s the best drunkenness - When every one after it - Regains his reason. - - 15. Taciturn and prudent, - And in war daring - Should a king’s children be; - Joyous and liberal - Everyone should be - Until his hour of death. - - 16. A cowardly man - Thinks he will ever live - If warfare he avoids; - But old age will - Give him no peace. - Though spears may spare him. - - 17. A fool gapes - When to a house he comes, - To himself mutters or is silent; - But all at once, - If he gets drink, - Then is the man’s mind displayed. - - 18. He alone knows, - Who wanders wide - And has much experienced, - By what disposition - Each man is ruled, - Who common sense possesses. - - 19. Let a man hold the cup, - Yet of the mead drink moderately, - Speak sensibly or be silent. - As of a fault - No man will admonish thee, - If thou goest betimes to sleep. - - 20. A greedy man, - If he be not moderate, - Eats to his mortal sorrow. - Oftentimes his belly - Draws laughter on a silly man - Who among the prudent comes. - - 21. Cattle know - When to go home - And then from grazing cease; - But a foolish man - Never knows - His stomach’s measure. - - 22. A miserable man, - And ill-conditioned, - Sneers at everything: - One thing he knows not, - Which he ought to know, - That he is not free from faults. - - 23. A foolish man - Is all night awake, - Pondering over everything; - He then grows tired, - And when morning comes - All is lament as before. - - 24. A foolish man - Thinks all who on him smile - To be his friends; - He feels it not, - Although they speak ill of him, - When he sits among the clever. - - 25. A foolish man - Thinks all who speak him fair - To be his friends; - But he will find, - If into court he comes, - That he has few advocates. - - 26. A foolish man - Thinks he knows everything - If placed in unexpected difficulty; - But he knows not - What to answer - If to the test he is put. - - 27. A foolish man, - Who among people comes, - Had best be silent; - For no one knows - That he knows nothing - Unless he talks too much. - He who previously knew nothing - Will still know nothing, - Talk he ever so much. - - 28. He thinks himself wise - Who can ask questions - And converse also; - Conceal his ignorance - No one can, - Because it circulates among men. - - 29. He utters too many - Futile words - Who is never silent; - A garrulous tongue, - If it be not checked, - Sings often to its own harm. - - 30. For a gazing-stock - No man shall have another, - Although he come a stranger to his house. - Many a one thinks himself wise, - If he is not questioned, - And can sit in a dry habit. - - 31. Clever thinks himself - The guest who jeers a guest, - If he takes to flight. - Knows it not certainly - He who prates at meat, - Whether he babbles among foes. - - 32. Many men are mutually - Well-disposed, - Yet at table will torment each other. - That strife will ever be; - Guest will guest irritate. - - 33. Early meals - A man should often take, - Unless to a friend’s house he goes; - Else he will sit and mope, - Will seem half famished, - And can of few things inquire. - - 34. Long is and indirect the way - To a bad friend’s, - Though by the road he dwell; - But to a good friend’s - The paths lie direct, - Though he be far away. - - 35. A guest should depart, - Not always stay - In one place: - The welcome becomes unwelcome - If he too long continues - In another’s house. - - 36. One’s own house is best, - Small though it be; - At home is every one his own master. - Though he but two goats possess, - And a straw-thatched cot, - Even that is better than begging. - - 37. One’s own house is best, - Small though it be; - At home is every one his own master. - Bleeding at heart is he - Who has to ask - For food at every meal-tide. - - 38. Leaving in the field his arms, - Let no man go - A foot’s length forward; - For it is hard to know - When on his way - A man may need his weapon. - - 39. I have never found a man so bountiful - Or so hospitable - That he refused a present; - Or of his property - So liberal - That he scorned a recompense. - - 40. Of the property - Which he has gained, - No man should suffer need; - For the hated oft is spared - What for the dear was destined: - Much goes worse than is expected. - - 41. With arms and vestments - Friends should each other gladden, - Those which are in themselves most sightly. - Givers and requiters - Are longest friends, - If all else goes well. - - 42. To his friend - A man should be a friend, - And gifts with gifts requite; - Laughter with laughter - Men should receive, - But leasing with lying. - - 43. To his friend - A man should be a friend, - To him and to his friend; - But of his foe - No man shall - His friend’s friend be. - - 44. Know if thou hast a friend - Whom thou fully trustest, - And from whom thou would’st good derive; - Thou should’st blend thy mind with his, - And gifts exchange, - And often go to see him. - - 45. If thou hast another - Whom thou little trustest, - Yet would’st good from him derive, - Thou should’st speak him fair, - But think craftily, - And leasing pay with lying. - - 46. But of him yet further - Whom thou little trustest, - And thou suspectest his affection, - Before him thou should’st laugh, - And contrary to thy thoughts speak; - Requital should the gift resemble. - - 47. I once was young, - I was journeying alone - And lost my way; - Rich I thought myself - When I met another: - Man is the joy of man. - - 48. Liberal and brave - Men live best, - They seldom cherish sorrow; - But a bare-minded man - Dreads everything; - The niggardly is uneasy even at gifts. - - 49. My garments in a field - I gave away - To two wooden men: - Heroes they seemed to be - When they got cloaks:[9] - Exposed to insult is a naked man. - - 50. A tree withers - That on a hill-top stands; - Protects it neither bark nor leaves: - Such is the man - Whom no one favors: - Why should he live long? - - 51. Hotter than fire - Love for five days burns - Between false friends; - But is quenched - When the sixth day comes, - And friendship is all impaired. - - 52. Something great - Is not always to be given, - Praise is often for a trifle bought - With half a loaf - And a tilted vessel - I got myself a comrade. - - 53. Little are the sand grains, - Little the wits, - Little the minds of men; - For all men - Are not wise alike: - Men are everywhere by halves. - - 54. Moderately wise - Should each one be, - But never over-wise; - For a wise man’s heart - Is seldom glad, - If he is all-wise who owns it. - - 55. Moderately wise - Should each one be, - But never over-wise: - Of those men - The lives are fairest - Who know much well. - - 56. Moderately wise - Should each one be, - But never over-wise; - His destiny let know - No man beforehand; - His mind will be freest from care. - - 57. Brand burns from brand - Until it is burnt out, - Fire is from fire quickened: - Man to man - Becomes known by speech, - But a fool by his bashful silence. - - 58. He should rise early - Who another’s property or life - Desires to have: - Seldom a sluggish wolf - Gets prey, - Or a sleeping man victory. - - 59. Early should rise - He who has few workers. - And go his work to see to; - Greatly is he retarded - Who sleeps the morn away. - Wealth half depends on energy. - - 60. Of dry planks - And roof shingles - A man knows the measure; - Of the firewood - That may suffice - Both measure and time. - - 61. Washed and refected - Let a man ride to _Thing_,[10] - Although his garments be not too good; - Of his shoes and breeches - Let no one be ashamed, - Nor of his horse, - Although he have not a good one. - - 62. Inquire and impart - Should every man of sense, - Who will be accounted sage. - Let one only know, - A second may not; - If three, all the world knows. - - 63. Gasps and gapes, - When to the sea he comes, - The eagle over old ocean; - So is a man - Who among many comes, - And has few advocates. - - 64. His power should - Every sagacious man - Use with discretion, - For he will find, - When among the bold he comes, - That no one alone is doughtiest. - - 65. Circumspect and reserved - Every man should be, - And wary in trusting friends; - Of the words - That a man says to another - He often pays the penalty. - - 66. Much too early - I came to many places, - But too late to others; - The beer was drunk, - Or not ready: - The disliked seldom hits the moment. - - 67. Here and there I should - Have been invited - If I a meal had needed; - Or two hams had hung - At that true friend’s - Where of one I had eaten. - - 68. Fire is best - Among the sons of men, - And the sight of the sun, - If his health - A man can have, - With a life free from vice. - - 69. No man lacks everything, - Although his health be bad. - One in his sons is happy, - One in his kin, - One in abundant wealth, - One in his good works. - - 70. It is better to live, - Even to live miserably; - A living man can always get a cow. - I saw fire consume - The rich man’s property, - And death stood without his door. - - 71. The halt can ride on horseback. - The one-handed drive cattle; - The deaf, fight and be useful: - To be blind is better - Than to be burnt:[11] - No one gets good from a corpse. - - 72. A son is better - Even if born late, - After his father’s departure. - Gravestones seldom - Stand by the way-side - Unless raised by a kinsman to a kinsman. - - 73. Two are adversaries: - The tongue is the bane of the head: - Under every cloak - I expect a hand. - - 74. At night is joyful - He who is sure of traveling entertainment; - A ship’s yards are short; - Variable is an autumn night, - Many are the weather’s changes - In five days, - But more in a month. - - 75. He knows not, - Who knows nothing, - That many a one apes another, - One man is rich, - Another poor: - Let him not be thought blameworthy. - - 76. Cattle die, - Kindred die, - We ourselves also die; - But the fair fame - Never dies - Of him who has earned it. - - 77. Cattle die, - Kindred die, - We ourselves also die; - But I know one thing - That never dies,— - Judgment on each one dead. - - 78. Full storehouses I saw - At Dives’ sons’: - Now bear they the beggar’s staff. - Such are riches, - As is the twinkling of an eye: - Of friends they are most fickle. - - 79. A foolish man, - If he acquires - Wealth or woman’s love, - Pride grows within him, - But wisdom never: - He goes on more and more arrogant. - - 80. Thus ’t is made manifest, - If of runes thou questionest him, - Those to the high ones known, - Which the great powers invented, - And the great talker[12] painted, - That he had best hold silence. - - 81. At eve the day is to be praised, - A woman after she is burnt,[13] - A sword after it is proved, - A maid after she is married, - Ice after it has been crossed, - Beer after it is drunk. - - 82. In the wind one should hew wood, - In a breeze row out to sea, - In the dark talk with a lass, - Many are the eyes of day. - In a ship voyages are to be made, - But a shield is for protection, - A sword for striking, - But a damsel for a kiss. - - 83. By the fire one should drink beer, - On the ice slide; - Buy a horse that is lean, - A sword that is rusty; - Feed a horse at home, - But a dog at the farm. - - 84. In a maiden’s words - No one should place faith, - Nor in what a woman says; - For on a turning wheel - Have their hearts been formed, - And guile in their breasts been laid. - - 85. In a creaking bow, - A burning flame, - A yawning wolf, - A chattering crow, - A grunting swine, - A rootless tree, - A waxing wave, - A boiling kettle, - - 86. A flying dart, - A falling billow, - A one night’s ice, - A coiled serpent, - A woman’s bed-talk - Or a broken sword, - A bear’s play - Or a royal child, - - 87. A sick calf, - A self-willed thrall, - A flattering prophetess, - A corpse newly slain, - A serene sky, - A laughing lord, - A barking dog - And a harlot’s grief, - - 88. An early-sown field, - Let no one trust, - Nor prematurely in a son: - Weather rules the field, - And wit the son, - Each of which is doubtful. - - 89. A brother’s murderer, - Though on the high-road met, - A half-burnt house, - An over-swift horse - (A horse is useless - If a leg be broken): - No man is so confiding - As to trust any of these. - - 90. Such is the love of women, - Who falsehood meditate, - As if one drove not rough-shod - On slippery ice, - A spirited two-year-old - And unbroken horse; - Or as in a raging storm - A helmless ship is beaten; - Or as if the halt were set to catch - A reindeer in the thawing fell.[14] - - 91. Openly I now speak, - Because I both sexes know; - Unstable are men’s minds toward women; - ’Tis then we speak most fair, - When we most falsely think: - That deceives even the cautious. - - 92. Fair shall speak, - And money offer, - Who would obtain a woman’s love - Praise the form - Of a fair damsel; - He gets, who courts her. - - 93. At love should no one - Ever wonder - In another: - A beauteous countenance - Oft captivates the wise, - Which captivates not the foolish. - - 94. Let no one wonder at - Another’s folly, - It is the lot of many. - All-powerful desire - Makes of the sons of men - Fools even of the wise. - - 95. The mind only knows - What lies near the heart; - That alone is conscious of our affections - No disease is worse - To a sensible man - Than not to be content with himself. - - 96. That I experienced - When in the reeds I sat - Awaiting my delight. - Body and soul to me - Was that discreet maiden; - Nevertheless I possess her not. - - 97. Billing’s lass - On her couch I found, - Sun-bright, sleeping. - A prince’s joy - To me seemed naught, - If not with that form to live. - - 98. Yet nearer eve - Must thou, Odin, come, she said, - If thou wilt talk the maiden over; - All will be disastrous - Unless we alone - Are privy to such misdeed. - - 99. I returned, - Thinking to love - At her wise desire; - I thought - I should obtain - Her whole heart and love. - - 100. When next I came, - The bold warriors were - All awake, - With lights burning, - And bearing torches: - - 101. But at the approach of morn, - When again I came, - The household all was sleeping; - The good damsel’s dog - Alone I found - Tied to the bed. - - 102. Many a fair maiden, - When rightly known, - Toward men is fickle: - That I experienced - When that discreet maiden - I decoyed into danger: - Contumely of every kind - That wily girl - Heaped upon me; - Nor of that damsel gained I aught. - - 103. At home let a man be cheerful, - And toward a guest liberal; - Of wise conduct he should be, - Of good memory and ready speech; - If much knowledge he desires, - He must often talk on what is good. - Fimbulfambi he is called - Who little has to say: - Such is the nature of the simple. - - 104. The old giant I sought; - Now I am come back: - Little got I there by silence; - In many words - I spoke to my advantage - In Suttung’s halls.[15] - - 105. Gunlad gave me, - On her golden seat, - A draught of the precious mead; - A bad recompense I afterwards made her - For her whole soul, - Her fervent love. - - 106. Rate’s mouth I caused - To make a space, - And to gnaw the rock; - Over and under me - Were the giant’s ways: - Thus I my head did peril. - - 107. Of a well assumed form - I made good use: - Few things fail the wise, - For Odrærer is now come up - To men’s earthly dwellings. - - 108. ’Tis to me doubtful, - That I could have come - From the giant’s courts, - Had not Gunlad aided me,— - That good damsel - Over whom I laid my arm. - - 109. On the day following - Came the frost-giants - To learn something of the High One - In the High One’s hall; - After Bolverk they inquired, - Whether he with the gods were come, - Or Suttung had destroyed him. - - 110. Odin I believe - A ring-oath[16] gave. - Who in his faith will trust? - defrauded, - Of his drink bereft, - And Gunlad made to weep! - - 111. Time ’t is to discourse - From the speaker’s chair. - By the well of Urd - I silent sat, - I saw and meditated, - I listened to men’s words. - - 112. Of runes I heard discourse, - And of things divine, - Nor of risting[17] them were they silent, - Nor of sage counsels, - At the High One’s hall. - In the High One’s hall - I thus heard say: - - 113. I counsel thee, Lodfafner, - To take advice; - Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it. - Rise not at night, - Unless to explore, - Or art compelled to go out. - - 114. I counsel thee, Lodfafner, - To take advice; - Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it. - In an enchantress’ embrace - Thou mayest not sleep, - So that in her arms she clasp thee. - - 115. She will be the cause - That thou carest not - For _Thing_ or prince’s words; - Food thou wilt shun - And human joys; - Sorrowful wilt thou go to sleep. - - 116. I counsel thee, Lodfafner, - To take advice; - Thou wilt profit, it thou takest it. - Another’s wife - Entice thou never - To secret converse. - - 117. I counsel thee, Lodfafner, - To take advice; - Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it. - By fell or firth - If thou have to travel, - Provide thee well with food. - - - 118. I counsel thee, Lodfafner, - To take advice; - Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it. - A bad man - Let thou never - Know thy misfortunes; - For from a bad man - Thou never wilt obtain - A return for thy good will. - - 119. I saw mortally - Wound a man - A wicked woman’s words; - A false tongue - Caused his death, - And most unrighteously. - - 120. I counsel thee, Lodfafner, - To take advice; - Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it. - If thou knowest thou hast a friend, - Whom thou well canst trust, - Go oft to visit him; - For with brushwood overgrown - And with high grass - Is the way that no one treads. - - 121. I counsel thee, Lodfafner, - To take advice; - Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it. - A good man attract to thee - In pleasant converse, - And salutary speech learn, while thou livest. - - 122. I counsel thee, Lodfafner, - To take advice; - Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it. - With thy friend - Be thou never - First to quarrel. - Care gnaws the heart, - If thou to no one canst - Thy whole mind disclose. - - 128. I counsel thee, Lodfafner, - To take advice; - Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it. - Words thou never - Shouldst exchange - With a witless fool. - - 124. For from an ill-conditioned man - Thou wilt never get - A return for good; - But a good man will - Bring thee favor - By his praise. - - 125. There is a mingling of affection, - Where one can tell - Another all his mind. - Everything is better - Than being with the deceitful. - He is not another’s friend - Who ever says as he says. - - 126. I counsel thee, Lodfafner, - To take advice; - Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it. - Even in three words - Quarrel not with a worse man: - Often the better yields, - When the worse strikes. - - 127. I counsel thee, Lodfafner, - To take advice; - Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it. - Be not a shoemaker - Nor a shaftmaker, - Unless for thyself it be: - For a shoe, if ill made, - Or a shaft if crooked, - Will call down evil on thee. - - 128. I counsel thee, Lodfafner, - To take advice; - Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it. - Wherever of injury thou knowest, - Regard that injury as thy own; - And give to thy foes no peace. - - 129. I counsel thee, Lodfafner, - To take advice; - Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it. - Rejoiced at evil - Be thou never, - But let good give thee pleasure. - - 130. I counsel thee, Lodfafner, - To take advice; - Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it. - In a battle - Look not up,[18] - (Like swine[19] - The sons of men then become), - That men may not fascinate thee. - - 131. If thou wilt induce a good woman - To pleasant converse, - Thou must promise fair, - And hold to it: - No one turns from good, if it can be got. - - 132. I enjoin thee to be wary, - But not over-wary; - At drinking be thou most wary, - And with another’s wife; - And thirdly, - That thieves delude thee not. - - 133. With insult or derision - Treat thou never - A guest or wayfarer; - They often little know, - Who sit within, - Of what race they are who come. - - 134. Vices and virtues - The sons of mortals bear - In their breasts mingled; - No one is so good - That no failing attends him, - Nor so bad as to be good for nothing. - - 135. At a hoary speaker - Laugh thou never, - Often is good that which the aged utter; - Oft from a shriveled hide - Discreet words issue, - From those whose skin is pendent - And decked with scars, - And who go loitering among the vile. - - 136. I counsel thee, Lodfafner, - To take advice; - Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it. - Rail not at a guest, - Nor from thy gate thrust him; - Treat well the indigent, - They will speak well of thee. - - 137. Strong is the bar - That must be raised - To admit all.[20] - Do thou give a penny, - Or they will call down on thee - Every ill on thy limbs. - - 138. I counsel thee, Lodfafner, - To take advice; - Thou will profit, if thou takest it. - Wherever thou beer drinkest, - Invoke to thee the power of earth; - For earth is good against drink, - Fire for distempers, - The oak for constipation, - A corn-ear for sorcery, - A hall for domestic strife. - In bitter hates invoke the moon; - The bitter for bite-injuries is good, - But runes against calamity; - Fluid let earth absorb. - -This is all of the famous Hávamál of the Elder Edda except the so-called -Runic Chapter, which will be given in the second part in connection with -the myth of Odin. Hear now what the valkyrie has to say to Sigurd -Fafnisbane in - - - SIGRDRÍFUMÁL (_the Lay of Sigdrifa_). - - -Sigurd rode up the Hindarfiall, and directed his course southward toward -Frankland. In the fell he saw a great light, as if a fire were burning, -which blazed up to the sky. On approaching it, there stood a -_skialdborg_, and over it a banner. Sigurd went into the skialdborg, and -saw a warrior lying within it asleep, completely armed. He first took -the helmet off the warrior’s head, and saw that it was a woman. Her -corselet was as fast as if it had grown to her body. With his sword, -Gram, he ripped the corselet from the upper opening downwards, and then -through both sleeves. He then took the corselet off from her, when she -awoke, sat up, and, on seeing Sigurd, said: - - 1. What has my corselet cut? - Why from my sleep have I started? - Who has cast from me - The fallow bands? - - - SIGURD: - - 1. Sigmund’s son - (Recently did the raven - Feed on carrion)[21] - And Sigurd’s sword. - - - SHE: - - 2. Long have I slept, - Long been with sleep oppressed, - Long are mortals’ sufferings! - Odin is the cause - That I have been unable - To cast off torpor. - -Sigurd sat down and asked her name. She then took a horn filled with -mead, and gave him the _minnis-cup_ (cup of memory). - - - SHE: - - 3. Hail to Day! - Hail to the sons of Day! - To Night and her daughter, hail! - With placid eyes - Behold us here, - And here sitting give us victory. - - 4. Hail to the gods! - Hail to the goddesses! - Hail to the bounteous earth! - Words and wisdom - Give to us noble twain, - And healing hands while we live. - -She was named Sigdrifa, and was a valkyrie. She said that two kings had -made war on each other, one of whom was named Hialmgunnar; he was old -and a great warrior, and Odin had promised him victory. The other was -Agnar, a brother of Aud, whom no divinity would patronize. Sigdrifa -overcame Hialmgunnar in battle; in revenge for which Odin pricked her -with a sleep-thorn, and declared that thenceforth she should never have -victory in battle, and should be given in marriage. But, said she, I -said to him that I had bound myself by a vow not to espouse any man who -could be made to fear. Sigurd answers, and implores her to teach him -wisdom, as she had intelligence from all worlds: - - - SIGDRIFA: - - 5. Beer I bear to thee, - Column of battle! - With might mingled, - And with bright glory: - ’Tis full of song, - And salutary saws, - Of potent incantations, - And joyous discourses. - - 6. Sig-runes thou must know, - If victory (_sigr_) thou wilt have, - And on thy sword’s hilt rist them; - Some on the chapes, - Some on the guard, - And twice name the name of Tyr. - - 7. Öl-(ale-)runes thou must know, - If thou wilt not that another’s wife - Thy trust betray, if thou - In her confide. - On the horn must they be risted, - And on the hand’s back, - And Naud[22] on the nail be scored. - - 8. A cup must be blessed, - And against peril guarded, - And garlick in the liquor cast; - Then I know - Thou wilt never have - Mead with treachery mingled. - - 9. Biarg-(help-)runes thou must know, - If thou wilt help - And loose the child from women; - In the palm they must be graven, - And round the joints be clasped, - And the dises prayed for aid. - - 10. Brim-(sea-)runes thou must know, - If thou wilt have secure - Afloat thy sailing steeds. - On the prow they must be risted, - And on the helm-blade, - And with fire to the oar applied. - No surge shall be so towering, - Nor waves so dark, - But from the ocean thou safe shalt come, - - 11. Lim-(branch-)runes thou must know. - If thou a leech would be, - And wounds know how to heal. - On the bark they must be risted, - And on the leaves of trees, - Of those whose boughs bend eastward. - - 12. Mál-(speech-)runes thou must know, - If thou wilt that no one - For injury with hate requite thee. - Those thou must wind, - Those thou must wrap round, - Those thou must altogether place - In the assembly, - Where people have - Into full court to go. - - 13. Hug-(thought-)runes thou must know, - If thou a wiser man wilt be - Than every other. - Those interpreted, - Those risted, - Those devised Hropt,[23] - From the fluid - Which had leaked - From Heiddraupner’s[24] head, - And from Hoddropner’s horn. - - 14. On a rock he stood, - With edged sword, - A helm on his head he bore. - Then spake Mimer’s head - Its first wise word, - And true sayings uttered. - - 15. They are, it is said, - On the shield risted - Which stands before the shining god, - On Aarvak’s[25] ear, - And on Alsvinn’s hoof, - On the wheel which rolls - Under Rogner’s[26] car, - On Sleipner’s teeth, - And on the sledge’s bands. - - 16. On the bear’s paw, - And on Brage’s tongue, - On the wolf’s claws, - And the eagle’s beak, - On bloody wings, - And on the bridge’s end, - On the releasing hand. - And on healing’s track. - - 17. On glass and on gold, - On amulets of men, - In wine and in ale, - And in the welcome seat, - On Gungner’s point, - And on Grane’s breast, - On the norn’s nail, - And the owl’s neb. - - 18. All were erased - That were inscribed, - And mingled with the sacred mead, - And sent on distant ways; - They are with the gods, - They are with the elves; - Some with the wise vans, - Some human beings have. - - 19. Those are bôk-runes - Those are biarg-runes, - And all öl-(ale-)runes, - And precious megin-(power-)runes - For those who can, - Without confusion or corruption, - Turn them to his welfare. - Use, if thou hast understood them, - Until the powers perish. - - 20. Now thou shalt choose, - Since a choice is offered thee, - Keen armed warrior! - My speech or silence: - Think over it in thy mind. - All evils have their measure. - - - SIGURD: - - 21. I will not flee, - Though thou shouldst know me doomed: - I am not born a craven. - Thy friendly councils all - I will receive, - As long as life is in me. - - - SIGDRIFA: - - 22. This I thee counsel first: - That toward thy kin - Thou bear thee blameless. - Take not hasty vengeance, - Although they raise up strife: - That, it is said, benefits the dead. - - 23. This I thee counsel secondly: - That no oath thou swear, - If it not be true. - Cruel bonds - Follow broken faith: - Accursed is the faith-breaker. - - 24. This I thee counsel thirdly: - That in the assembly thou - Contend not with a fool; - For an unwise man - Oft utters words - Worse than he knows of. - - 25. All is vain, - If thou holdest silence; - Then wilt thou seem a craven born, - Or else truly accused. - Doubtful is a servant’s testimony, - Unless a good one thou gettest. - On the next day - Let his life go forth, - And so men’s lies reward. - - 26. This I counsel thee fourthly: - If a wicked sorceress - Dwell by the way, - To go on is better - Than there to lodge, - Though night may overtake thee. - - 27. Of searching eyes - The sons of men have need, - When fiercely they have to fight: - Oft pernicious women - By the wayside sit, - Who swords and valor deaden. - - 28. This I thee counsel fifthly: - Although thou see fair women - On the benches sitting, - Let not their kindred’s silver[27] - Over thy sleep have power. - To kiss thee entice no woman. - - 29. This I thee counsel sixthly: - Although among men pass - Offensive tipsy talk, - Never, while drunken, quarrel - With men of war: - Wine steals the wits of many. - - 30. Brawls and drink - To many men have been - A heart-felt sorrow; - To some their death, - To some calamity: - Many are the griefs of men! - - 31. This I thee counsel seventhly: - If thou hast disputes - With a daring man, - Better it is for men - To fight than to be burnt - Within their dwelling. - - 32. This I thee counsel eighthly: - That thou guard thee against evil, - And eschew deceit. - Entice no maiden, - Nor wife of man, - Nor to wantonness incite. - - 33. This I thee counsel ninthly: - That thou corpses bury, - Wherever on the earth thou findest them; - Whether from sickness they have died, - Or from the sea, - Or are from weapons dead. - - 34. Let a mound be raised - For those departed; - Let their hands and head be washed, - Combed, and wiped dry, - Ere in the coffin they are laid; - And pray for their happy sleep. - - 35. This I thee counsel tenthly: - That thou never trust - A foe’s kinsman’s promises, - Whose brother thou hast slain, - Or sire laid low: - There is a wolf - In a young son, - Though he with gold be gladdened. - - 36. Strifes and fierce enmities - Think not to be lulled, - No more than deadly injury. - Wisdom and fame in arms - A prince not easily acquires, - Who shall of men be foremost. - - 37. This I counsel thee eleventhly: - That thou at evil look, - What course it may take. - A long life, it seems to me, - The prince may [not] enjoy; - Fierce disputes will arise. - -Sigurd said: A wiser mortal exists not, and I swear that I will possess -thee, for thou art after my heart. She answered: Thee I will have before -all others, though I have to choose among all men. And this they -confirmed with oaths to each other. - -Here ends the lay of Sigdrifa. - -The reader may find some of these rules of _Hávamál_ and _Sigrdrífumál_ -somewhat inconsistent with our ideas of a supreme deity; but are not -many of these principles laid down in the Odinic morality worthy of a -Christian age and of a Christian people, and do they not all reveal a -profound knowledge of human nature in all its various phases? - -These rules of life, says Professor Keyser, were variously understood, -and as variously carried out into practice. But on the whole we find -them reflected in the popular character of the Norsemen, such as history -teaches it to us during heathendom. Bravery, prudence, and a love of -independence are its brightest features, although bravery often -degenerated into warrior fierceness, prudence into dissimulation, and -the love of independence into self-will. If on the one hand we find a -noble self-command, devoted faithfulness in friendship and love, -noble-hearted hospitality and generosity, a love of right and of legal -order, we also see on the other hand, unyielding stubbornness, a fierce -spirit of revenge, a repulsive arrogance, a far-reaching self-interest, -and an excessive dependence upon the formalities of the law. A cold and -unmoved exterior often concealed a soul torn by the bitterest grief, or -stirred up by the wildest passions. A passionate outburst of joy or of -grief was considered undignified. Few words, but energetic action, was -esteemed in conduct, and complaint was silenced in order that vengeance -could strike the more surely and heavily. Under a tranquil, indifferent -mien were concealed the boldest and most deep-laid plans, and the real -intention first came to light in the decisive moment. On the whole, -there was certainly an impress of rigidity, insensibility and -self-goodness stamped upon the popular character, but this stamp was -more upon the outside than in its innermost character, more the result -of inordinate prudence than of an evil disposition; and through all its -failings there shines forth a dignity of soul which ennobled power and -held up glory in this life and in after ages as the highest object of -human undertakings.[28] - -The part assigned to the Norsemen in the grand drama of European history -was to free the human mind from the Cæsarian thraldom of Rome, in which -it had so long been chained; to show what marvels self-government and -free institutions can accomplish, and thus hand down to us, their -descendants, a glorious heritage of imperishable principles, which we -must study and in a great measure be guided by. - -We retain in the days of the week the remembrance of this religion, -which was brought to England more than fourteen hundred years ago by the -Goths, who came to give that country a new name and a new fate in the -world. The Goths taught the people of Britain to divide tho week into -their _Sun_-day, _Moon_-day, _Tys_-day, _Odin’s_-day, _Thor’s_-day, and -_Frey’s_ or _Freyja’s_-day. The name of Saturday the English owe to the -Roman god Saturnus; but the last day of the week was known among the -early Norsemen, and is still known among them, as _Laugar_-dag, -_Lör_-dag, that is _Washing_-day. It is possible, as E. C. Otté quaintly -remarks, that our Anglo-Saxon forefathers may have wished to change this -name when, in later times, they had ceased to have only _one_ -washing-day out of the seven, like their northers ancestors. - -We are now prepared to present the Norse mythology, and we shall divide -it into three divisions: THE CREATION AND PRESERVATION, THE LIFE AND -EXPLOITS OF THE GODS, and RAGNAROK AND REGENERATION. These three -divisions we dedicate respectively to URD, VERDANDE, and SKULD, the -three norns, WAS, IS, and SHALL BE, which uphold the world’s structure -and preside over the destinies of gods and men. - -Footnote 8: - - Beowulf, 1839. - -Footnote 9: - - The tailor makes the man. - -Footnote 10: - - The public assembly. - -Footnote 11: - - That is, _dead_ on the funeral pile. - -Footnote 12: - - Odin. - -Footnote 13: - - Dead. - -Footnote 14: - - Such lines as this show the _Norse_ origin of the Edda. - -Footnote 15: - - For the story of Suttung and Gunlad, see second part, pp. 246-253. - -Footnote 16: - - In the North a holy oath was taken on a ring kept in the temple for - that purpose. - -Footnote 17: - - Carving: runes are risted = runes are carved. - -Footnote 18: - - In a battle we must not look up, but forward. - -Footnote 19: - - To become panic-stricken, which the Norsemen called to become swine. - -Footnote 20: - - The meaning is, it is difficult to show hospitality to everybody. A - door would have to be strong to stand so much opening and shutting. - -Footnote 21: - - The parenthesis refers to Fafner’s death. - -Footnote 22: - - The name of a rune; our _N_. - -Footnote 23: - - Odin. - -Footnote 24: - - Mimer. - -Footnote 25: - - The horses of the sun. - -Footnote 26: - - Odin. - -Footnote 27: - - Which thou mightest get by marriage. - -Footnote 28: - - _Religion of the Northmen_, chap. xvii. - - - - - NORSE MYTHOLOGY. - - - Urðar orði - kveðr engi maðr. - Vafin er Verðandi reyk. - Lítið sjáum aptr, - en ekki fram; - skyggir Skuld fyrir sjón. - - MATTHIAS JOCHUMSON. - - - - - PART I. - THE CREATION AND PRESERVATION OF THE WORLD. - - - URD. - - Urðar orði - kveðr engi maðr. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - THE CREATION. - - - SECTION I. THE ORIGINAL CONDITION OF THE WORLD. - - -The condition of things before the creation of the world is expressed -negatively. There was nothing of that which sprang into existence. This -transition from empty space into being demands the attention of the -whole human race. Therefore the vala, or wandering prophetess, begins -her mysterious song, the grand and ancient Völuspá, the first lay in the -Elder Edda, as follows: - - Give ear - All ye divine races, - Great and small, - Sons of Heimdal! - I am about to relate - The wonderful works of Valfather, - The oldest sayings of men, - The first I remember. - - It was Time’s morning - When Ymer lived: - There was no sand, no sea, - No cooling billows; - Earth there was none, - No lofty heaven, - Only Ginungagap, - But no grass. - -The beginning was this: Many ages, ere the earth was made, there existed -two worlds. Far to the north was Niflheim (the nebulous world), and far -to the south was Muspelheim (the fire world). Between them was -Ginungagap (the yawning gap). In the middle of Niflheim lay the spring -called Hvergelmer, and from it flowed twelve ice-cold streams, the -rivers Elivagar, of which Gjol was situated nearest Hel-gate. Muspelheim -was so bright and hot that it burned and blazed and could not be trodden -by those who did not have their home and heritage there. In the midst of -this intense light and burning heat sat Surt, guarding its borders with -a flaming sword in his hand. - - - SECTION II. THE ORIGIN OF THE GIANTS (RHIMTHURSAR). - - -The first beings came into existence in the following manner: When those -rivers that are called Elivagar, and which flowed from the spring -Hvergelmer, had flowed far from their spring-head the venom which flowed -with them hardened, as does dross that runs from a furnace, and became -ice. And when the ice stood still, and ran not, the vapor arising from -the venom gathered over it and froze to rime, and in this manner were -formed in the yawning gap many layers of congealed vapor piled one over -the other. That part of Ginungagap that lay toward the north was thus -filled with thick and heavy ice and rime, and everywhere within were -fogs and gusts; but the south side of Ginungagap was lightened by the -sparks and flakes that flew out of Muspelheim. Thus while freezing cold -and gathering gloom proceeded from Niflheim, that part of Ginungagap -which looked toward Muspelheim was hot and bright; but Ginungagap was as -light as windless air; and when the heated blast met the frozen vapor it -melted into drops, _and by the might of him who sent the heat_,[29] -these drops quickened into life and were shaped into the likeness of a -man. His name was Ymer, but the frost-giants called him Aurgelmer. Ymer -was not a god; he was bad (evil, _illr_), as were all his kind. When he -slept, he fell into a sweat, and from the pit of his left arm waxed a -man and a woman, and one of his feet begat with the other a son, from -whom descend the frost-giants, and therefore Ymer is called the old -frost-giant (Rhimthurs). Thus the Elder Edda, in the lay of Vafthrudner: - - Countless winters - Ere earth was formed, - Was born Bergelmer; - Thrudgelmer - Was his sire, - His grandsire Aurgelmer. - - From Elivagar - Sprang venom drops, - Which grew till they became a giant; - But sparks flew - From the south-world: - To the ice the fire gave way. - - Under the armpit grew, - ’Tis said, of Rhimthurs, - A girl and boy together; - Foot with foot begat, - Of that wise giant, - A six-headed son. - - -SECTION III. THE ORIGIN OF THE COW AUDHUMBLA AND THE BIRTH OF THE GODS. - - -On what did the giant Ymer live, is a pertinent question. Here is the -answer: The next thing, when the rime had been resolved into drops, was -that the cow, which is called Audhumbla, was made of it. Four -milk-rivers ran out of her teats, and thus she fed Ymer. On what did the -cow feed? She licked rime-stones, which were salt; and the first day -that she licked the stones there came at evening out of the stones a -man’s hair, the second day a man’s head, and the third day all the man -was there. His name was Bure. He was fair of face, great and mighty. He -begat a son by name Bor. Bor took for his wife a woman whose name was -Bestla, a daughter of the giant Bolthorn, and they had three sons, Odin, -Vile and Ve, the rulers of heaven and earth; and Odin, adds the Younger -Edda, is the greatest and lordliest of all the gods. - -The frost-giants were, then, the first race or the first dynasty of -gods. The Elder Edda makes this dynasty embrace three beings, for -Aurgelmer in the passage quoted is the same as Ymer. - -Odin descended from the frost-giants, which is also proved by a passage -in the Younger Edda, where Ganglere asks where Odin kept himself ere -heaven and earth were yet made. Then he was, answered Haar, with the -frost-giants (Rhimthursar). - - - SECTION IV. THE NORSE DELUGE AND THE ORIGIN OF HEAVEN AND EARTH. - - -Bor’s sons, Odin, Vile and Ve, slew the giant Ymer, but when he fell -there ran so much blood out of his wounds, that with that they drowned -all the race of the frost-giants, save one, who got away with his -household; him the giants call Bergelmer. He went on board his boat, and -with him went his wife, and from them came a new race of frost-giants. -Thus the Elder Edda: - - Winters past counting, - Ere earth was yet made, - Was born Bergelmer: - Full well I remember - How this crafty giant - Was stowed safe in his skiff. - -Odin, Vile and Ve dragged the body of Ymer into the middle of -Ginungagap, and of it they formed the earth. From Ymer’s blood they made -the seas and waters; from his flesh the land; from his bones the -mountains; from his hair the forests, and from his teeth and jaws, -together with some bits of broken bones, they made the stones and -pebbles. From the blood that ran from his wounds they made the vast -ocean, in the midst of which they fixed the earth, the ocean encircling -it as a ring; and hardy, says the Younger Edda, will he be who attempts -to cross those waters. Then they took his skull and formed thereof the -vaulted heavens, which they placed over the earth, and set a dwarf at -the corner of each of the four quarters. These dwarfs are called East, -West, North, and South. The wandering sparks and red-hot flakes that had -been cast out from Muspelheim they placed in the heavens, both above and -below Ginungagap, to give light unto the world. The earth was round -without and encircled by the deep ocean, the outward shores of which -were assigned as a dwelling for the race of giants. But within, round -about the earth, the sons of Bor raised a bulwark against turbulent -giants, employing for this structure Ymer’s eye-brows. To this bulwark -they gave the name Midgard.[30] They afterwards threw and scattered the -brains of Ymer in the air, and made of them the melancholy clouds. Thus -the Elder Edda, in the lay of Vafthrudner: - - From Ymer’s flesh - The earth was formed, - And from his bones the hills, - The heaven from the skull - Of that ice-cold giant, - And from his blood the sea. - -And in Grimner’s lay: - - Of Ymer’s flesh - Was earth created, - Of his blood the sea, - Of his bones the hills, - Of his hair trees and plants, - Of his skull the heavens, - And of his brows - The gentle powers - Formed Midgard for the sons of men; - But of his brain - The heavy clouds are - All created. - - - SECTION V. THE HEAVENLY BODIES, TIME, THE WIND, THE RAINBOW. - - -The heavenly bodies were formed of the sparks from Muspelheim. The gods -did not create them, but only placed them in the heavens to give light -unto the world, and assigned them a prescribed locality and motion. By -them days and nights and seasons were marked. Thus the Elder Edda, in -Völuspá: - - The sun knew not - His proper sphere; - The stars knew not - Their proper place; - The moon knew not - Where her position was. - - There was nowhere grass - Until Bor’s sons - The expanse did raise, - By whom the great - Midgard was made. - From the south the sun - Shone on the walls; - Then did the earth - Green herbs produce. - The moon went ahead - The sun followed, - His right hand held - The steeds of heaven. - -Mundilfare was the father of the sun and moon. It is stated in the -Younger Edda that Mundilfare had two children, a son and a daughter, so -lovely and graceful that he called the boy Maane[31] (moon) and the girl -Sol (sun), and the latter he gave in marriage to Glener (the shining -one). - -But the gods, being incensed at Mundilfare’s presumption, took his -children and placed them in the heavens, and let Sol drive the horses -that draw the car of the sun. These horses are called Aarvak (the -ever-wakeful) and Alsvinn (the rapid one); they are gentle and -beautiful, and under their withers the gods placed two skins filled with -air to cool and refresh them, or, according to another ancient -tradition, an iron refrigerant substance called _ísarnkol_. A shield, by -name Svalin (cool), stands before the Sun, the shining god. The -mountains and the ocean would burn up if this shield should fall away. -Maane was set to guide the moon in her course, and regulate her -increasing and waning aspect. - -A giant, by name Norve, who dwelt in Jotunheim, had a daughter called -Night (_nótt_), who, like all her race, was of a dark and swarthy -complexion. She was first wedded to a man called Naglfare, and had by -him a son named Aud, and afterward to another man called Annar, by whom -she had a daughter called Earth (_jörd_). She finally espoused Delling -(day-break), of asa-race, and their son was Day (_dagr_), a child light -and fair like his father. Allfather gave Night and Day two horses and -two cars, and set them up in the heavens that they might drive -successively one after the other, each in twenty-four hours’ time, round -the world. Night rides first with her steed Hrimfaxe (rime-fax),[32] -that every morn, as he ends his course, bedews the earth with the foam -from his bit. The steed driven by Day is called Skinfaxe (shining-fax), -and all the sky and earth glistens from his mane. Thus the Elder Edda, -in the lay of Vafthrudner: - - Mundilfare hight he - Who the moon’s father is, - And also the sun’s: - Round heaven journey - Each day they must, - To count years for men. - -In the lay of Grimner: - - Aarvak and Alsvinn, - Theirs it is up hence - Tired the sun to draw - Under their shoulder - These gentle powers, the gods, - Have concealed an iron-coolness. - - Svalin the shield is called - Which stands before the sun, - The refulgent deity; - Rocks and ocean must, I ween, - Be burnt, - Fell it from its place. - -In the lay of Vafthrudner: - - Delling called is he - Who the Day’s father is, - But Night was of Norve born; - The new and waning moons - The beneficent powers created - To count years for men. - - Skinfaxe he is named - That the bright day draws - Forth over human kind; - Of coursers he is best accounted - Among faring men; - Ever sheds light that horse’s mane. - - Hrimfaxe he is called - That each night draws forth - Over the beneficent powers; - He from his bit lets fall - Drops every morn - Whence in the dells comes dew. - -The sun speeds at such a rate as if she feared that some one was -pursuing her for her destruction. And well she may; for he that seeks -her is not far behind, and she has no other way to escape than to run -before him. But who is he that causes her this anxiety? There are two -wolves; the one, whose name is Skol, pursues the sun, and it is he that -she fears, for he shall one day overtake and devour her. The other, -whose name is Hate Hrodvitneson, runs before her and as eagerly pursues -the moon, that will one day be caught by him. Whence come these wolves? -Answer: A giantess dwells in a wood called Jarnved (ironwood). It is -situated east of Midgard, and is the abode of a race of witches. This -old hag is the mother of many gigantic sons, who are all of them shaped -like wolves, two of whom are Skol and Hate. There is one of that race -who is the most formidable of all. His name is Maanagarm -(moon-swallower): he is filled with the life-blood of men who draw near -their end, and he will swallow up the moon, and stain the heavens and -the earth with blood. As it is said in the Völuspá, of the Elder Edda: - - Eastward in the Ironwood - The old one sitteth, - And there bringeth forth - Fenrer’s fell kindred. - Of these, one, the mightiest, - The moon’s devourer, - In form most fiend-like, - And filled with the life-blood - Of the dead and the dying, - Reddens with ruddy gore - The seats of the high gods. - Then shall the sunshine - Of summer be darkened, - And fickle the weather. - Conceive ye this or not? - -The gods set Evening and Midnight, Morning and Noon, Forenoon and -Afternoon, to count out the year. There were only two seasons, summer -and winter; hence spring and fall must be included in these two. The -father of summer is called Svasud (the mild), who is such a gentle and -delicate being, that what is mild is from him called sweet (_sváslegt_). -The father of winter has two names, Vindlone and Vindsval (the -wind-cool); he is the son of Vasud (sleet-bringing), and, like all his -race, has an icy breath and is of grim and gloomy aspect. - -Whence come the winds, that are so strong that they move the ocean and -fan fire to flame, and still are so airy that no mortal eye can discern -them? Answer: In the northern extremity of the heavens sits a giant -called Hræsvelger (corpse-swallower), clad with eagles’ plumes. When he -spreads out his wings for flight, the winds arise from under them. - -Which is the path leading from earth to heaven? The gods made a bridge -from earth to heaven and called it Bifrost (the vibrating way). We have -all seen it and call it the rainbow. It is of three hues and constructed -with more art than any other work. But though strong it be, it will be -broken to pieces when the sons of Muspel, after having traversed great -rivers, shall ride over it. There is nothing in nature that can hope to -make resistance when the sons of Muspel sally forth to the great combat. -Now listen to the Elder Edda on some of these subject. - -In the lay of Grimner: - - Skol the wolf is named - That the fair-faced goddess - To the ocean chases; - Another Hate is called, - He is Hrodvitner’s son: - He the bright maid of heaven shall precede. - -In the Völuspá: - - Then went the powers all - To their judgment seats, - The all-holy gods, - And thereon held council: - To night and to the waning moon - Gave names; - Morn they named - And mid-day, - Afternoon and eve, - Whereby to reckon years. - -In the lay of Vafthrudner: - - Vindsval is his name - Who winter’s father is, - And Svasud summer’s father is: - Yearly they both - Shall ever journey, - Until the powers perish. - - Hræsvelger is his name - Who at the end of heaven sits, - A giant in an eagle’s plumage: - From his wings comes, - It is said, the wind - That over all men passes. - -In reference to Maane, it should be added, that the Younger Edda tells -us, that he once took children from earth. Their names were Bil and -Hjuke. They went from the spring called Byrger, and bore on their -shoulders the bucket called Sæger with the pole called Simul. Their -father’s name was Vidfin. These children follow Maane, as may be seen, -from the earth. - - - SECTION VI. THE GOLDEN AGE. THE ORIGIN OF THE DWARFS. THE CREATION OF - THE FIRST MAN AND WOMAN. - - -In the beginning Allfather (Odin) appointed rulers and bade them judge -with him the fate of men and regulate the government of the celestial -city. They met for this purpose in a place called Idavold (the plains of -Ida), which is the center of the divine abode (Asgard, the abode of the -asas). Their first work was to erect a court or hall, where there are -twelve seats for themselves, besides the throne which is occupied by -Allfather. This hall is the largest and most magnificent in the -universe, being resplendent on all sides both within and without with -the finest gold. Its name is Gladsheim (home of gladness). They also -erected another hall for the sanctuary of the goddesses. It is a fair -structure and is called Vingolf (friends’-floor). Thereupon they built a -smithy and furnished it with hammers, tongs and anvils, and with these -made all other requisite instruments with which they worked in metals, -stone and wood, and composed so large a quantity of the metal called -gold, that they made all their house-furniture of it. Hence that age was -called the Golden Age. This was the age that lasted until the arrival of -the women out of Jotunheim, who corrupted it. - -Then the gods seating themselves upon their thrones distributed justice, -and remembered how the dwarfs had been bred in the mould of the earth, -just as worms in a dead body. The dwarfs were quickened as maggots in -the flesh of the old giant Ymer, but by the command of the gods they -received the form and understanding of men; their abode was, however, in -the earth and rocks. Four dwarfs, Austre (east), Vestre (west), Nordre -(north), and Sudre (south), were appointed by the gods to bear up the -sky. Of the race of dwarfs Modsogner and Durin are the principal ones. - -There were not yet any human beings upon the earth, when one day, as the -sons of Bor (Odin, Hœner and Loder) were walking along the sea-beach, -they found two trees and created from them the first human pair, man and -woman. Odin gave them life and spirit, Hœner endowed them with reason -and the power of motion, and Loder gave them blood, hearing, vision and -a fair complexion. The man they called Ask, and the woman Embla. The -newly created pair received from the gods Midgard as their abode; and -from Ask and Embla is descended the whole human family. Thus the Elder -Edda, in Völuspá. - - The asas met - On Ida’s plains; - They altars raised - And temples built; - Furnaces they established, - Precious things forged, - Their strength they tried - In many ways - When making tongs - And forming tools. - - On the green they played - In joyful mood, - Nor knew at all - The want of gold, - Until there came - Three giant maids - Exceeding strong - From Jotunheim. - - Then all the powers - Went to the throne, - The holy gods, - And held consult - Who should of dwarfs - The race then fashion - From the livid bones - And blood of the giant. - - Modsogner, chief - Of the dwarfish race, - And Durin, too, - Were then created; - And like to men - Dwarfs in the earth - Were formed in numbers - As Durin ordered. - - And then there came - Out of the ranks, - Powerful and fair, - Three asas home, - And found on shore, - In helpless plight, - Ask and Embla,[33] - Without their fate. - - They had not yet - Spirit or mind, - Blood or beauty - Or lovely hue. - Odin gave spirit, - Hœner gave mind, - Loder gave blood - And lovely hue. - - - SECTION VII. THE GODS AND THEIR ABODES. - - -In the Old Norse language a god is called _áss_ (pl. _æsir_) and a -goddess _ásynja_. The gods dwell in Asgard. In its midst are the plains -of Ida (_Idavöllr_, the assembling-place of the gods), and Odin’s -high-seat Hlidskjalf, from where he looks out upon all the worlds. But -above the heaven of the asas are higher heavens, and in the highest -stands the imperishable gold-roofed hall Gimle, which is brighter than -the sun. - -The gods, to whom divine honors must be rendered, are twelve in number, -and their names are Odin, Thor, Balder, Tyr, Brage, Heimdal, Hoder, -Vidar, Vale, Uller, Forsete, Loke. In this list Njord and Frey are not -mentioned, for they originally belonged to the vans or sea-gods, and -were received among the asas by virtue of a treaty in which Njord was -given as a hostage, and Frey is his son. - -Of goddesses we find the number twenty-six, and Vingolf is their hall. -Odin’s hall is the great Valhal. Spears support its ceiling; it is -roofed with shields, and coats of mail adorn its benches. Thither and to -Vingolf Odin invites all men wounded by arms or fallen in battle. -Therefore he is called Valfather (father of the slain), and his invited -guests are called einherjes. They are waited upon by valkyries. - -The dwelling of Thor is Thrudvang or Thrudheim. His hall, the immense -Bilskirner. Uller, Thor’s son, lives in Ydaler. Balder lives in -Breidablik, where nothing impure is found. Njord, one of the vans, -dwells in Noatun by the sea. Heimdal inhabits Himinbjorg, which stands -where Bifrost’s bridge approaches heaven. Forsete has Glitner for his -dwelling, whose roof of silver rests on golden columns. The chief -goddess Frigg, wife of Odin, has her dwelling-place in Fensal, and -Freyja, the goddess of love, dwells in Folkvang; her hall is Sessrymner. -Saga dwells in the great Sokvabek under the cool waves; there she drinks -with Odin every day from golden vessels. - -We have so far mentioned the following classes of deities: giants, gods, -goddesses, vans (sea-deities), and dwarfs. In addition to these the -Younger Edda mentions two kinds of elves: elves of light and elves of -darkness. The elves of light dwell in Alfheim (home of the elves), but -the elves of darkness live under the earth, and differ from the others -still more in their actions than in their appearance. The elves of light -are fairer than the sun, but the elves of darkness blacker than pitch. - -Then we have a lot of inferior spirits, such as trolls, hulder, witches -(_vœttr_), nisses, necks, etc., all of which figure extensively in the -Norse folk-lore, but an extensive description of them will not be -attempted in this work. - - - SECTION VIII. THE DIVISIONS OF THE WORLD. - - -Nine worlds are mentioned: Muspelheim, Asaheim, Ljosalfaheim, Vanaheim, -Mannaheim, Jotunheim, Svartalfaheim, Helheim, Niflheim. The highest is -Muspelheim (the fire-world), the realm of Surt, and in its highest -regions it appears that Gimle (heaven) was thought to be situated. The -lowest is Niflheim (the mist-world), the realm of cold and darkness, and -in its midst is the fountain Hvergelmer, where the dragon Nidhug dwells. -Between the two is Mannaheim (the world of man) or Midgard, the round -disk of the earth, surrounded by the great ocean. The gods gave Ask and -Embla, the first human pair, and their descendants, this world to dwell -in. Far above Mannaheim is Asaheim (the world of the gods), forming a -vault above the earth. In the midst of this world is Idavold, the -assembling-place of the gods, and here is also Odin’s lofty throne -Hlidskjalf. Beyond the ocean is Jotunheim (the world of the giants). -This world is separated from Asaheim by the river Ifing, which never -freezes over. Nearest above the earth is Ljosalfaheim (the world of the -light elves), and between it and Asaheim is Vanaheim (the world of the -vans). Proceeding downward, we come first to Svartalfaheim (world of the -dark elves), below Mannaheim, and between Svartalfaheim and Niflheim we -have Helheim (the world of the dead, hell). Thither the way from the -upper worlds led down by the north through Jotunheim over the stream -Gjol, the bridge over which, called Gjallar-bridge, was roofed over with -shining gold. - -Footnote 29: - - The supreme god. - -Footnote 30: - - The Tower of Babel. - -Footnote 31: - - In the Norse language, as also in the Anglo-Saxon, the sun is of the - feminine and the moon of the masculine gender. - -Footnote 32: - - Fax = mane. - -Footnote 33: - - Ash and Elm. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - THE PRESERVATION. -THE ASH YGDRASIL. MIMER’S FOUNTAIN. URD’S FOUNTAIN. THE NORNS OR FATES. - - -Ygdrasil is one of the noblest conceptions that ever entered into any -scheme of cosmogony or human existence. It is in fact the great tree of -life, wonderfully elaborated and extended through the whole system of -the universe. It furnishes bodies for mankind from its branches; it -strikes its roots through all worlds, and spreads its life-giving arms -through the heavens. All life is cherished by it, even that of serpents, -which devour its roots and seek to destroy it. It has three grand roots -far apart. One of them extends to the asas, another to the giants in -that very place where was formerly Ginungagap, and the third stands over -Niflheim, and under this root, which is constantly gnawed by the serpent -Nidhug and all his reptile brood, is the fountain Hvergelmer. Under the -root that stretches out toward the giants is Mimer’s fountain, in which -wisdom and wit lie hid. The owner of this fountain is called Mimer. He -is full of wisdom, because he drinks the waters of the fountain every -morning with the Gjallarhorn. Once Odin came and begged a draught of -this water, which he received, but he had to leave one of his eyes in -pawn for it. Thus it is recorded in the Elder Edda: - - Full well I know, - Great Odin, where - Thine eye thou lost; - In Mimer’s well, - The fountain pure, - Mead Mimer drinks - Each morning new, - With Odin’s pledge. - Conceive ye this? - -Under the root of Ygdrasil, which extends to the asas in heaven, is the -holy Urdar-fountain. Here the gods sit in judgment. Every day they ride -up hither on horseback over Bifrost (the rainbow), which is called the -bridge of the gods (_ásbrú_). Odin rides his gray eight-footed Sleipner, -Heimdal on Goldtop. The other horses are Glad (bright), Gyller (gilder), -Gler (the shining one), Skeidbrimer (fleet-foot), Silfrintop (silver -top), Siner (sinews), Gisl (the sunbeam), Falhofner (pale hoof), Letfet -(light-foot). It has been stated before that the gods worthy of divine -honors were twelve, and here we have ten horses named. Balder’s and -Thor’s are wanting. Balder’s horse was burnt with his master’s body, and -as for Thor, he has to go on foot. He cannot pass the Asabridge, for the -thunder, which he is, would destroy it; therefore he daily wades through -the rivers Kormt, Ormt, and two others called Kerlaug, to get to the -council of the gods. - -The giants cannot pass the Asabridge, for the red in it is burning fire -and the waters of heaven roar around it. If it were easy for every one -to walk over it, the giants would go up to heaven by that bridge, and -perhaps succeed in bringing ruin upon the gods. - -At the Urdar-fountain dwell also three maidens, named Urd, Verdande and -Skuld (Present, Past and Future). These maidens fix the lifetime of all -men, and are called norns. They guard the fountain, which takes its name -from the first and highest of the three, Urd (Urdar-fount). Besides -these there are other norns, some of which are of heavenly origin, but -others belong to the races of elves and dwarfs. The norns who are of -good origin are good themselves, and dispense good destinies. Those men -to whom misfortunes happen ought to ascribe them to the evil norns. Thus -it is that some men are fortunate and wealthy, while others acquire -neither riches nor honors; some live to a good old age, while others are -cut off in their prime. - -Furthermore it must be stated of the ash Ygdrasil, that on its topmost -bough sits an eagle who knows many things, and between the eagle’s eyes -sits a hawk by name Vedfolner. A squirrel, whose name is Ratatosk, runs -up and down the tree, and seeks to cause strife between the eagle and -the serpent Nidhug. Four stags leap about beneath its branches and feed -on its buds. They are called Daain, Dvalin, Duneyr, and Durathror. But -there are so many snakes with Nidhug in the fountain Hvergelmer, that no -tongue can count them. Thus the Elder Edda: - - The tree Ygdrasil - Bears a sorer burden - Than men imagine. - Above the stags bite it, - On its sides age rots it, - Nidhug gnaws below. - - More serpents lie - Under Ygdrasil’s ash - Than simpletons think of; - Goin and Moin, - The sons of Grafvitner, - - Graabak and Grafvollud, - Ofner and Svafner, - Must for aye, methinks, - Gnaw the roots of that tree. - -The norns, who dwell by the Urdar-fount, every day draw water from this -spring, and with it, and the clay that lies around the fount, they -sprinkle the ash, in order that the boughs may continue green, and not -rot and wither away. This water is so holy that everything placed in the -spring becomes as white as the film within an egg-shell. Thus the Elder -Edda: - - An ash know I standing - Named Ygdrasil, - A stately tree sprinkled - With water, the purest; - Thence come the dewdrops - That fall in the dales; - Ever blooming it stands - O’er the Urdar-fountain. - -The dew that falls from the tree on the earth men call honey-dew, and it -is the food of the bees. Finally, two swans swim in the Urdar-fountain, -and they are the parents of the race of swans. Thus all the tribes of -nature partake of the universal tree. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - EXEGETICAL REMARKS UPON THE CREATION AND PRESERVATION OF THE WORLD. - - -In the Norse as in all mythologies, the beginning of creation is a -cosmogony presenting many questions difficult of solution. The natural -desire of knowledge asks for the origin of all things; and as the -beginning always remains inexplicable, the mind tries to satisfy itself -by penetrating as far into the primeval forms of matter and means of -sustaining life as possible. We follow the development of the tree back -to the seed and then to the embryo of the seed, but still we are unable -to explain how a miniature oak can exist in scarcely more than a mere -point in the acorn. We even inspect the first development of the plant -with the microscope, but we acquire knowledge not of the force, but only -of its manifestations or phenomena. Such was also the experience of our -ancestors, when they inquired into the origin of this world. They had -the same desire to know, but were not so well provided with means of -finding out, as we are with our microscopic, telescopic, and spectrum -analysis instruments. - -The first effort of the speculative man is to solve the mystery of -existence. The first question is: How has this world begun to be? What -was in the beginning, or what was there before there yet was anything? -In the Greek mythology many forms seem to arise out of night, which -seems to shroud them all. Thus in the Norse mythology the _negative_ is -the first, a _conditio sine qua non_, space we might say, which we must -conceive of as existing, before anything can be conceived as existing in -it. Our ancestors imagined in the beginning only a yawning gap in which -there was absolutely nothing. Wonderfully enough they said that the one -side of this immense gulf extended to the north and the other to the -south, as though there could be such things as _north_ and _south_ -before the creation of the world. The north side was cold, the south -warm; and thus we find by closer inspection that this nothing still was -something, that contained in itself opposite forces, cold and heat, -force of contraction and force of expansion, but these forces were in a -state of absolute inertia. Thus also the Greek chaos: - - ... rudis indigestaque moles, - Nec quidquam nisi pondus iners, congestaque eodem - Non bone junctarum discordia semina rerum. - -We cannot conceive how a body containing two forces can be a _pondus -iners_, for every force is infinite and cannot rest unless it is -prisoned by its opposite force, and this is then strife. The Norse view -is, philosophically speaking, more correct. Here the opposite forces are -separated by a gulf, and as they cannot penetrate the empty space, they -remain inert. - -It has before been stated that the Norsemen believed in a great and -almighty god, who was greater than Odin. This god appears in the -creation of the world, where he sends the heated blasts from Muspelheim -and imparts life to the melted drops of rime. He will appear again as -the just and mighty one, who is to reign with Balder in the regenerated -earth. He is the true Allfather. - -When the thought was directed to inquire into the origin of the world, -one question would naturally suggest another, thus: - -Question: What produced the world? Answer: The giant Ymer. - -Question: But on what did the giant Ymer live? Answer: On the milk of a -cow. - -Question: What did the cow live on? Answer: On salt. - -Question: Where did the salt come from? Answer: From the rime. - -Question: Whence came the rime? Answer: From ice-cold streams. - -Question: Whence came the cold? Answer: From Niflheim. - -Question: But what gave life to the rime? Answer: The heat. - -Question: Whence came the heat? Answer: From him who sent it. - -Here inquiry could go no further. This process brought the inquirer to -the god whom he dared not name, the author and ruler of all things. This -unknown god thus appears only before the creation and after the fall of -the world. He is not a god of time but of eternity. He is from -everlasting to everlasting. - -The Elder Edda calls Ymer, Aurgelmer, father of Thrudgelmer and -grandfather of Bergelmer (Berggel-mer.) The first syllables of these -words express the gradual hardening of matter from _aur_ (loose clay) to -_thrud_ (packed, compressed, strong clay), and finally to _berg_ (rock). -Ymer, that is, the first chaotic world-mass, is produced by the union of -frost and fire. The dead cold matter is quickened by the heat into a -huge shapeless giant, which has to be slain; that is, the crude matter -had to be broken to pieces before it could be remodeled into the various -forms which nature since has assumed. This living mass, Ymer, produces -many beings like himself, frost-cold, stone-like, shapeless frost-giants -and mountain giants (icebergs and mountains). In these forms evil is -still predominant. All are allied to the world of cold and darkness. It -is only the lower, the physical, world-life which moves in them. - -But a better being, although of animal nature,—the cow Audhumbla—came -into existence from the frozen vapor, as the nurse of Ymer. This power -nourishes the chaotic world, and at the sane time calls forth by its -refining agency—by licking the rime-clumps—a higher spiritual life, -which unfolds itself through several links—through Bure, the bearing -(father), and Bor, the born (son)—until it has gained power sufficient -to overcome chaotic matter—to kill Ymer and his offspring. This -conquering power is divinity itself, which now in the form of a trinity -goes forth as a creative power—as spirit, will and holiness, in the -brothers Odin, Vile and Ve. The spirit quickens, the will arranges, and -holiness banishes the impure and evil. It is however only in the -creation of the world that these three brothers are represented as -coöperating. Vile and Ve are not mentioned again in the whole mythology. -They are blended together in the all-embracing, all-pervading -world-spirit Odin, who is the essence of the world, the almighty god. - -This idea of a trinity appears twice more in the Norse mythology. In the -gylfaginning of the Younger Edda, Ganglere sees three thrones, raised -one above the other, and a man sitting on each of them. Upon his asking -what the names of these lords might be, his guide answered: He who -sitteth on the lowest throne is a king, and his name is Haar (the high -or lofty one); the second is Jafnhaar (equally high); but he who sitteth -on the highest throne is called Thride (the third). Then in the creation -of man the divinity appears in the form of a trinity. The three gods, -Odin, Hœner, and Loder, create the first human pair, each one imparting -to them a gift corresponding to his own nature. Odin (_önd_, spirit) -gives them spirit, the spiritual life; he is himself the spirit of the -world, of which man’s is a reflection. Hœner (light) illuminates the -soul with understanding (_ódr_). Loder (fire, Germ. _lodern_, to flame) -gives the warm blood and the blushing color, together with the burning -keenness of the senses. It is evident that Odin’s brothers on these -occasions are mere emanations of his being; they proceed from him, and -only represent different phases of the same divine power. Loder is -probably the same person as afterwards steps forward as an independent -divinity by name Loke. When he was united with Odin in the trinity he -sends a quiet, gentle and invisible flame of light through the veins of -Ask and Embla, that is of mankind. Afterwards, assuming the name of -Loke, he becomes the consuming fire of the earth. Loder produces and -develops life; Loke corrupts and destroys life. - -By the creation the elements are separated. Ymer’s body is parceled out; -organic life begins. But the chaotic powers, though conquered, are not -destroyed; a giant escapes in his ark with his family, and from them -comes a new race of giants. Disturbing and deadly influences are -perceptible everywhere in nature, and these influences are represented -by the hostile dispositions of the giants toward the asas and of their -struggles to destroy the work of the latter. The giants have been forced -to fly to Jotunheim, to Utgard, to the outermost deserts beyond the sea; -but still they manage to get within Midgard, the abode of man, and here -they dwell in the rugged mountains, in the ice-clad jokuls and in the -barren deserts, in short, everywhere where any barrenness prevails. -Their agency is perceptible in the devastating storms caused by the -wind-strokes of Hræsvelger, the giant eagle in the North; it is felt in -winter’s cold, snow and ice, and in all the powers of nature which are -unfriendly to fruitfulness and life. - - The golden age of the gods, when - On the green they played - In joyful mood, - Nor knew at all - The want of gold, - Until there came - Three giant maids - From Jotunheim, - -represents the golden age of the child and the childhood of the human -race. The life of the gods in its different stages of development -resembles the life of men. Childhood innocent and happy, manhood brings -with it cares and troubles. The gods were happy and played on the green -so long as their development had not yet taken any decided outward -direction; but this freedom from care ended when they had to make dwarfs -and men, and through them got a whole world full of troubles and -anxieties to provide for and protect,—just as the golden age ends for -the child when it enters upon the activities of life, and for the race, -when it enters into the many complications and cares of organized -society. The gods played with pieces of gold. The pure gold symbolizes -innocence. These pieces of gold (_gullnar töflur_) were lost, but were -found again in the green grass of the regenerated earth. From the above -it must be clear that the three giant maids, who came from Jotunheim and -put an end to the golden age, must be the norns, the all-pervading -necessity that develops the child into manhood. It does not follow, -therefore, that these maids were giantesses, for the gods themselves -_descended_ from the giants. Nor did the norns introduce evil into the -world, but they marked out for the gods a career which could not be -changed; and immediately after the appearance of the maids from -Jotunheim the gods must create man, whose fate those same norns would -afterwards determine. - -The gods did not create the dwarfs, but only determined that they were -to have the form and understanding of men. - -Man was made of trees—of the ash and the elm. There is something -graceful in this idea. The Norse conception certainly is of a higher -order than those which produce man from earth or stones. It is more -natural and more noble to regard man as having been made of trees, which -as they grow from the earth heavenward show an unconscious attraction to -that which is divine, than, as the Greeks do, to make men stand forth -out of cold clay and hard stones. We confess that the Norse myth looks -Greek and the Greek looks Norse; yet there may be a good reason for it. -The plastic Greek regarded man as a statue, which generally was formed -of clay or stone, but to which a divine spark of art gave life. The -Norsemen knew not the plastic art and therefore had to go to nature, and -not to art, for their symbols. The manner in which Odin breathes spirit -and life into the trees reminds us very forcibly of the Mosaic -narrative. It is interesting to study the various mythological theories -in regard to the origin of man. The inhabitants of Thibet have a theory -that undoubtedly is of interest to the followers of Darwin. In Thibet -the three gods held counsel as to how Thibet might be peopled. The first -one showed in a speech that the propagation of the human race could not -be secured unless one of them changed himself into an ape. The last one -of the three gods did this, and the goddess Kadroma was persuaded to -change herself into a female ape. The plan succeeded, and they have left -a numerous offspring.[34] - -Various classes of beings are mentioned in the mythology. Life is a -conflict between these beings, for the spiritual everywhere seeks to -penetrate and govern the physical; but it also everywhere meets -resistance. The asas rule over heaven and earth, and unite themselves -with the vans, the water divinities. The giants war with the asas and -vans. The elves most properly belong to the asas, while the dwarfs are -more closely allied to the giants, but they serve the asas. The most -decided struggle, then, is between the asas and giants. - -The spiritual and physical character of the giants is clearly brought -out in the myths. They constitute a race by themselves, divided into -different groups, but have a common king or ruler. Their bodies are of -superhuman size, having several hands and heads. Sterkodder had six -arms; Hymer had many heads, and they were hard as stones; Hrungner’s -forehead was harder than any kettle. The giantesses are either horribly -ugly or charmingly beautiful. As the offspring of darkness, the giants -prefer to be out at night. The sunlight, and especially lightning, -terrifies them. On land and sea they inhabit large caves, rocks and -mountains. Their very nature is closely allied to stones and mountains. -When Brynhild drove in a chariot on the way to Hel, and passed through a -place in which a giantess dwelt, the giantess said: - - Thou shalt not - Pass through - My stone-supported - Dwelling-place. - -The weapons of the giants, as the following myths will show, were stones -and rocks; they had clubs and shields of stone. Hrungner’s weapons were -flint-stones. The giants also have domesticated animals. The giant Thrym -sat on a mound plaiting gold bands for his greyhounds and smoothing the -manes of his horses. He had gold-horned cows and all-black oxen. They -possess abundance of wealth and treasures. - -The giant is old, strong and powerful, very knowing and wise, but also -severe, proud and boasting. The giantess is violent, passionate and -impertinent. In their lazy rest the giants are good-natured; they may be -as happy as children; but they must not be teased. - -The giants representing the wild, disturbing, chaotic forces in nature, -the beneficent gods can subdue or control them in two ways: The one is -to kill them and use their remains for promoting the fruitfulness of the -earth, the other is to unite with them, in other words, to marry them. -This forms the subject of a large number of myths, which, when we have -formed a correct general conception of the giants, need no further -explanation. Odin kills Sokmimer, the destructive maelstrom of the -ocean. Thor crushes Hrungner, the barren mountain. Odin marries Gunlad, -Njord marries Skade, Frey marries Gerd, etc. - -When the Odinic mythology was superseded by the Christian religion it -left a numerous offspring of elves, trolls (dwarfs), nisses, necks, -mermaids, princes, princesses, etc., all of which still live in the -memory and traditions of Scandinavia. They may be said to belong to the -fairy mythology of these countries. We give a brief sketch of these -objects of popular belief, chiefly from the excellent work of Thomas -Keightley. A general knowledge of them is necessary in order to -appreciate the rich folk-lore literature of Norseland. - -The elves still retain their distinction into _white_ and _black_. The -white or good elves dwell in the air, dance on the grass, or sit in the -leaves of trees; the black or evil elves are regarded as an underground -people, who frequently inflict sickness or injury on mankind, for which -there is a particular kind of doctors and doctresses in most parts of -Scandinavia. The elves are believed to have their kings, and to -celebrate their weddings and banquets, just the same as the dwellers -above ground. There is an interesting intermediate class of them called -in popular tradition hill-people (_haugafolk_), who are believed to -dwell in caves and small hills. When they show themselves they have a -handsome human form. The common people seem to connect with them a deep -feeling of melancholy, as if bewailing a half-quenched hope of -salvation. Their sweet singing may occasionally be heard on summer -nights out of their hills, when one stands still and listens, or, as it -is expressed in the ballads, lays his ear to the elf-hill; but no one -must be so cruel as by the slightest word to destroy their hopes of -salvation, for then the spritely music will be turned into weeping and -lamentation. The Norsemen usually call the elves _hulder_ or -_huldrefolk_, and their music _huldreslaat_. It is in the minor key, and -of a dull and mournful sound. Norse fiddlers sometimes play it, being -thought to have learned it by listening to the underground people among -the hills and rocks. There is also a tune called the elfkings’ tune, -which several of the good fiddlers know right well, but never venture to -play, for as soon as it begins both old and young, and even inanimate -objects, are compelled to dance, and the player cannot stop unless he -can play the air backwards, or that some one comes behind him and cuts -the strings of his fiddle. Ole Bull and Thorgeir Andunson, the people -think, learned to play the fiddle from the hill-people. The little -underground elves, who are thought to dwell under the houses of mankind, -are described as sportive and mischievous, and as imitating all the -actions of men. They are said to love cleanliness about the house and -place, and to reward such servants as are neat and cleanly. - -The dwarfs have become trolls. They are not generally regarded as -malignant. They are thought to live inside of hills, mounds and -mountains; sometimes in single families, sometimes in societies. They -figure extensively in the folk-lore. They are thought to be extremely -rich, for when on great occasion of festivity they have their hills -raised up on red pillars, people that have chanced to be passing by have -seen them shoving large chests full of money to and fro, and opening and -clapping down the lids of them. Their dwellings are very magnificent -inside, being decorated with gold and crystal. They are obliging and -neighborly, freely lending and borrowing and otherwise keeping up a -friendly intercourse with mankind. But they have a sad propensity to -stealing, not only provisions, but also women and children. Trolls have -a great dislike to noise, probably from the recollection of the time -when Thor used to be flinging his hammer after them, while this would -indicate that the giants are their true ancestors. The hanging of bells -in the churches has for this reason driven the most of them out of the -country. - -The nisse is the German kobold and the Scotch brownie. He seems to be of -the dwarf family, as he resembles them in appearance, and like them has -plenty of money and a dislike to noise and tumult. He is of the size of -a year-old child, but has the face of an old man. His usual dress is -gray, with a pointed red cap, but on Michaelmas day he wears a round hat -like those of the peasants. No farm-house goes on well unless there is a -nisse in it, and well it is for the maids and the men when they are in -favor with him. They may go to their beds and give themselves no trouble -about their work, and yet in the morning the maids will find the kitchen -swept and water brought in, and the men will find the horses in the -stable well cleaned and curried, and perhaps a supply of corn cribbed -for them from the neighbor’s barns. But he punishes them for any -irregularity that takes place. - -The neck is the river-spirit. Sometimes he is represented as sitting -during the summer nights on the surface of the water, like a pretty -little boy with golden hair hanging in ringlets, and a red cap on his -head; sometimes as above the water, like a handsome young man, but -beneath like a horse; at other times as an old man with a long beard, -out of which he wrings the water as he sits on the cliffs. The neck is -very severe against any haughty maiden who makes an ill return to the -love of her wooer; but should he himself fall in love with a maid of -human kind, he is the most polite and attentive suitor in the world. The -neck is also a great musician; he sits on the water and plays on his -gold harp, the harmony of which operates on all nature. To learn music -of him, a person must present him with a black lamb and also promise him -resurrection and redemption. - -The stromkarl, called in Norway _grim_ or _fosse-grim_ (force-grim), is -a musical genius like the neck. He who has learned from him can play in -such a masterly manner that the trees dance and waterfalls stop at his -music. - -The merman is described as of a handsome form with green or black hair -and beard. He dwells either in the bottom of the sea or in cliffs near -the sea-shore, and is regarded as rather a good and beneficent kind of -being. - -The mermaid (_haffrue_) is represented in the popular tradition -sometimes as good, at other times as evil and treacherous. Her -appearance is beautiful. Fishermen sometimes see her in the bright -summer’s sun, when a thin mist hangs over the sea, sitting on the -surface of the water, and combing her long golden hair with a golden -comb, or driving up her snow-white cattle to feed on the strands or -small islands. At other times she comes as a beautiful maiden, chilled -and shivering with the cold of the night, to the fires the fishermen -have kindled, hoping by this means to entice them to her love. Her -appearance prognosticates both storm and ill success in their fishing. -People that are drowned, and whose bodies are not found, are believed to -be taken into the dwellings of the mermaids. - -It is the prevalent opinion among the common people of the North that -all these various beings were once worsted in a conflict with superior -powers, and condemned to remain until doomsday in certain assigned -abodes. The rocks were given to the dwarfs; the groves and leafy trees -to the elves; the caves and caverns to the hill-people; the sea, lakes -and rivers to the merman, mermaids and necks; and the small forces -(waterfalls) to the fossegrims. Both the Catholic and Protestant priests -have tried to excite an aversion to these beings, but in vain. They -still live and fill the fairy-tales and folk-lore with their strange -characters, and are capable of furnishing a series of unrivaled subjects -for the painter and sculptor. These weird stories are excellently -adapted to adorn our epic and dramatic poetry as well as our historic -novels. But they must be thoroughly understood first, not only by the -poet, but also by his reader. Thomas Keightley, from whom we have given -a short abstract, has given us an excellent work in English on Gothic -fairy mythology, and we would recommend our readers to read his work in -connection with Dr. Dasent’s _Tales from the Fjeld_. _We_ have to -present the original mythology, not its offspring. - -Ygdrasil is a most sublime and finished myth. It is a symbol uniting all -the elements of mythology into a poetical system. The tree symbolizes, -and extends its roots and branches into, the whole universe. Its roots -are gnawed by serpents, and stags bite its branches, but the immortal -tree still stands firm and flourishes from age to age. The Norsemen’s -whole experience of life is here presented in a picture that either in -regard to beauty or depth of thought finds no equal in all the other -systems of mythology. Thomas Carlyle says: I like too that -representation they (the Norsemen) have of the tree Ygdrasil: all life -is figured by them as a tree. Ygdrasil, the Ash-tree of Existence, has -its roots deep down in the kingdom of _Hela_, or Death; its trunk -reaches up heaven-high, spreads its boughs over the whole universe. It -is the Tree of Existence. At the foot of it, in the Death-kingdom, sit -three _Nornas_ (fates),—the Past, Present, Future,—watering its roots -from the Sacred Well. Its boughs, with their buddings and -disleafings—events, things suffered, things done, catastrophes,—stretch -through all lands and times. Is not every leaf of it a biography, every -fiber there an act or word? Its boughs are histories of nations; the -rustle of it is the noise of human existence, onwards from of old. It -grows there, the breath of human passion rustling through it; or -storm-tost, the storm-wind howling through it like the voice of all the -gods. It is Ygdrasil, the Tree of Existence. It is the past, the -present, and the future; what was done, what is doing, what will be -done; the infinite conjugation of the verb _to do_. Considering how -human things circulate, each inextricably in communion with all,—how the -word I speak to you to-day is borrowed, not from Ulfila, the Mæso-Goth -only, but from all men since the first man began to speak,—I find no -similitude so true as this of a tree. Beautiful altogether, beautiful -and great. The machine of the universe! Alas, do but think of that in -contrast! - -The name Ygdrasil is derived from Odin’s name, _Yggr_ (the deep -thinker), and _drasill_ (carrier, horse). Ygdrasil, therefore, means the -_Bearer of God_, a phrase which finds a literal explanation when Odin -hangs nine nights on this tree before he discovered the runes. Thus the -Elder Edda: - - I know that I hung - Nine whole nights, - And to Odin offered, - On that tree, - From what root it springs. - On a wind-rocked tree, - With a spear wounded, - Myself to myself, - Of which no one knows. - -All the tribes of nature partake of this universal tree, from the eagle -who sits on the topmost bough down through the different stages of -animal life; the hawk in the lower strata of air, the squirrel who -busily leaps about in the branches, the stags by the fountain, to the -serpents beneath the surface of the earth. - -The peculiar feature of this myth is its comprehensiveness. How -beautiful the sight of a large tree! Its far-extending branches, its -moss-covered stem, its high crown and deep roots, remind us of the -infinity of time; it has seen ages roll by before we were born. In the -evening, when our day’s work is done, we lie down in its broad shade and -think of the rest that awaits us when all our troubles are ended. Its -leaves rustle in the breezes and the sunshine; they speak to us of that -which is going on above this sorrow-stricken earth. But the tree is not -the whole symbol. It is connected with the great waters, with the clear -fountain with its egg-white waves, and with the turbulent streams that -flow in the bowels of the earth. While the calm firmness of the tree and -the monotonous rustling of the wind through its leaves invites the soul -to rest, the ceaseless activity of the various tribes of animals that -feed upon its roots and branches remind us of nature never at rest and -never tiring. The tree sighs and groans beneath its burden; the animals -move about in it and around it; every species of animals has its place -and destination; the eagle soars on his broad wings over its top; the -serpent winds his slimy coils in the deep; the swan swims in the -fountain; and while all the tribes of animated life are busily engaged, -the dew-drops fall to refresh and cool the earth and the heart of man. -Nay, this is not all. There is one who has planted the tree, and there -are many who watch and care for it; higher beings protect it. Gods and -men, all that possesses life and consciousness, has its home in this -tree and its work to do. The norns constantly refresh it with water from -the Urdar-fountain; the elves hover about it; Heimdal suspends his -tri-colored arch beneath it; the glory of Balder shines upon it; Mimer -lifts his head in the distance, and the pale Hel watches the shades of -men who have departed this earth and journey through the nine worlds -over Gjallarbro to their final rewards. The picture is so grand that -nothing but an infinite soul can comprehend it; no brush can paint it, -no colors can represent it. Nothing is quiet, nothing at rest; all is -activity. It is the whole world, and it can be comprehended only by the -mind of man, by the soul of the poet, and be symbolized by the ceaseless -flow of language. It is not a theme for the painter or sculptor, but for -the poet. Ygdrasil is the tree of experience of the Gothic race. It is -the symbol of a great race, sprung originally from the same root but -divided into many branches, Norsemen, Englishmen, Americans, etc. It has -three roots, and experience has taught the Goths that there are in -reality but three kinds of people in the world: some that work -energetically for noble and eternal purposes, and their root is in -Asaheim; some that work equally energetically, but for evil and temporal -ends, and their root is in Jotunheim; and many who distinguished -themselves only by sloth and impotence, and their root is in Niflheim -with the goddess Hel or death, in Hvergelmer, where the serpent Nidhug, -with all his reptile brood, gnaws at their lives. Thus the Gothic race -is reflected in Ygdrasil, and if our poets will study it they will find -that this grand myth is itself in fact a root in the Urdar-fountain, and -from it may spring an Ygdrasil of poetry, extending long branches -throughout the poetical world and delighting the nations of the earth. - -Beneath that root of Ygdrasil, which shoots down to Jotunheim, there is -a fountain called after its watcher _Mimer’s Fountain_, in which wisdom -and knowledge are concealed. The name Mimer means the _knowing_. The -giants, being older than the asas, looked deeper than the latter into -the darkness of the past. They had witnessed the birth of the gods and -the beginning of the world, and they foresaw their downfall. Concerning -both these events, the gods had to go to them for knowledge, an idea -which is most forcibly expressed in the Völuspá, the first song in the -Elder Edda, where a vala, or prophetess, from Jotunheim is represented -as rising up from the deep and unveiling the past and future to gods and -men. It is this wisdom that Mimer keeps in his fountain. Odin himself -must have it. In the night, when the sun has set behind the borders of -the earth, he goes to Jotunheim. Odin penetrates the mysteries of the -deep, but he must leave his eye in pawn for the drink which he receives -from the fountain of knowledge. But in the glory of morning dawn, when -the sun rises again from Jotunheim, Mimer drinks from his golden horn -the clear mead which flows over Odin’s pawn. Heaven and this lower world -mutually impart their wisdom to each other. - -The norns watch over man through life. They spin his thread of fate at -his birth and mark out with it the limits of his sphere of action in -life. Their decrees are inviolable destiny, their dispensations -inevitable necessity. The gods themselves must bow before the laws of -the norns; they are limited by time; they are born and must die. Urd and -Verdande, the Past and Present, are represented as stretching a web from -east to west, from the radiant dawn of life to the glowing sunset, and -Skuld, the Future, tears it to pieces. There is a deeply-laid plan in -the universe, a close union between spirit and matter. There is no such -thing as independent life or action. The ends of the threads wherewith -our life is woven lie deeply hid in the abyss of the beginning. -Self-consciousness is merely an abstraction. The self-conscious -individual is merely a leaf, which imagines itself to be something, but -is in fact only a bud that enfolds itself and falls off from the tree of -the universe. The self-contradiction between absolute necessity and free -will was an unsolved riddle with our heathen ancestors, and puzzles the -minds of many of our most profound thinkers still. Thus, says the Elder -Edda, the norns came to decide the destiny of Helge Hundingsbane: - - It was in times of yore, - When the eagles screamed, - Holy waters fell - From the heavenly hills; - Then to Helge, - The great of soul, - Berghild gave birth - In Braalund. - - In the mansion it was night: - The norns came, - Who should the prince’s - Life determine; - They him decreed - A prince most famed to be, - And of leaders - Accounted best. - - With all their might they span - The fatal threads, - When that he burghs should overthrow - In Braalund. - They stretched out - The golden cord, - And beneath the middle - Of the moon’s mansion fixed it. - - East and west - They hid the ends, - Where the prince had - Lands between; - Toward the north - Nere’s sister - Cast a chain, - Which she bade last forever. - -Nay, in the Norseman’s faith, man and all things about him were -sustained by divine power. The norns decreed by rigid fate each man’s -career, which not even the gods could alter. Man was free to act, but -all the consequences of his actions were settled beforehand. - -Footnote 34: - - Wagner, p. 192. - - - - - PART II. - THE LIFE AND EXPLOITS OF THE GODS. - - - VERDANDE. - - Vafin er Verðandi reyk. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - ODIN. - - - SECTION I. ODIN. - - -The first and eldest of the asas is Odin. His name is derived from the -verb _vada_ (imperfect _ód_), to walk, (compare watan, wuot, wuth, -wüthen, wuothan, wodan). He is the all-_pervading_ spirit of the world, -and produces life and spirit (_önd_, _aand_). He does not create the -world, but arranges and governs it. With Vile and Ve he makes heaven and -earth from Ymer’s body; with Hœner and Loder he makes the first man and -woman, and he gives them spirit. All enterprise in peace and in war -proceeds from him. He is the author of war and the inventor of poetry. -All knowledge comes from him and he is the inventor of the runes. As the -spirit of life he permeates all animate and inanimate matter, the whole -universe; he is the infinite wanderer. He governs all things, and -although the other deities are powerful they all serve and obey him as -children do their father. He confers many favors on gods and men. As it -is said in the Elder Edda, in the lay of Hyndla: - - FREYJA. - - Wake maid of maids! - Wake, my friend! - Hyndla! Sister, - Who in the cavern dwellest. - Now there is dark of darks; - We will both to Valhal ride - And to the holy fane. - - Let us Odin pray - Into our minds to enter; - He gives and grants - Gold to the deserving. - He gave Hermod - A helm and corselet, - And from him Sigmund - A sword received. - - Victory to his sons he gives, - But to some riches; - Eloquence to the great - And to men wit; - Fair wind he gives to traders, - But visions to skalds; - Valor he gives - To many a warrior. - -Especially are the heroes constantly the object of his care. He guides -and protects the brave hero through his whole life; he watches over his -birth and over his whole development; gives him wonderful weapons, -teaches him new arts of war; assists him in critical emergencies, -accompanies him in war, and takes the impetus out of the enemy’s -javelins; and when the warrior has at last grown old, he provides that -he may not die upon his bed, but fall in honorable combat. Finally, he -protects the social organization and influences the human mind. He -revenges murder, protects the sanctity of the oath, subdues hatred, and -dispels anxieties and sorrows. - - - SECTION II. ODIN’S NAMES. - - -Odin is called Allfather, because he is the father of all the gods, and -Valfather (father of the slain), because he chooses for his sons all who -fall in combat. For their abode he has prepared Valhal and Vingolf, -where they are called einherjes (heroes). In Asgard, Odin has twelve -names, but in the Younger Edda forty-nine names are enumerated, and if -to these are added all the names by which the poets have called him, the -number will reach nearly two hundred. The reason for his many names, -says the Younger Edda, is the great variety of languages. For the -various nations were obliged to translate his name into their respective -tongues in order that they might supplicate and worship him. Some of his -names, however, are owing to adventures that have happened to him on his -journeys and which are related in old stories. No one can pass for a -wise man who is not able to give an account of these wonderful -adventures. - - - SECTION III. ODIN’S OUTWARD APPEARANCE. - - -In appearance, Odin is an old, tall, one-eyed man with a long beard, a -broad-brimmed hat, a striped cloak of many colors, and a spear in his -hand. On his arm he wears the gold ring Draupner, two ravens sit on his -shoulders, two wolves lie at his feet, and a huge chariot rolls above -his head. He sits upon a high throne and looks out upon the world, or he -rides on the winds upon his horse Sleipner. There is a deep speculative -expression on his countenance. In the Volsung Saga, Odin is revealed as -follows: King Volsung had made preparations for an entertainment. -Blazing fires burned along the hall, and in the middle of the hall stood -a large tree, whose green and fair foliage covered the roof. (This -reminds us of Ygdrasil.) King Volsung had placed it there, and it was -called Odin’s tree. Now as the guests sat around the fire in the -evening, a man entered the hall whose countenance they did not know. He -wore a variegated cloak, was bare-footed, his breeches were of linen, -and a wide-brimmed hat hung down over his face. He was very tall, looked -old, and was one-eyed. He had a sword in his hand. The man went to the -tree, struck his sword into it with so powerful a blow that it sunk into -it even to the hilt. No one dared greet this man. Then said he: He who -draws this sword out of the trunk of the tree shall have it as a gift -from me, and shall find it true that he never wielded a better sword. -Then went the old man out of the hall again, and no one knew who he was -or whither he went. Now all tried to draw the sword out, but it would -not move, before Volsung’s son, Sigmund, came; for him it seemed to be -quite loose. Farther on in the Saga Sigmund had become king, and had -already grown old when he waged war with King Lynge. The norns protected -him so that he could not be wounded. In a battle with Lynge there came a -man to Sigmund, wearing a large hat and blue cloak. He had but one eye, -and had a spear in his hand. The man swung his spear against Sigmund. -Sigmund’s sword broke in two, luck had left him, and he fell. The same -Saga afterwards tells us that Sigmund’s son, Sigurd, sailed against the -sons of Hunding, on a large dragon. A storm arose, but Sigurd commanded -that the sails should not be taken down, even though the wind should -split them, but rather be hoisted higher. As they passed a rocky point, -a man cried to the ship and asked who was the commander of the ships and -men. They answered that it was Sigurd Sigmundson, the bravest of all -young men. The man said, all agree in praising him; take in the sails -and take me on board! They asked him for his name. He answered: Hnikar -they called me, when I gladdened the raven after the battle; call me now -Karl, from the mountain, Fengr or Fjolner, but take me on board! They -laid to and took him on board. The storm ceased and they sailed until -they came to the sons of Hunding; then Fjolner (Odin) disappeared. In -the same Saga he also comes to Sigurd in the garb of an old man with -long flowing beard, and teaches him how to dig ditches by which to -capture Fafner. - - - SECTION IV. ODIN’S ATTRIBUTES. - - -Odin’s hat represents the arched vault of heaven, and his blue or -variegated cloak is the blue sky or atmosphere, and both these symbolize -protection. - -Odin’s ravens, Hugin (reflection) and Munin (memory), have been -mentioned before. They are perched upon his shoulders and whisper into -his ears what they see and hear. He sends them out at daybreak to fly -over the world, and they come back at eve toward meal-time. Hence it is -that Odin knows so much and is called Rafnagud (raven-god). Most -beautifully does Odin express himself about these ravens in Grimner’s -lay, in the Elder Edda: - - Hugin and Munin - Fly each day - Over the spacious earth. - I fear for Hugin - That he come not back, - Yet more anxious am I for Munin. - -And in Odin’s Raven-song, Hug (Hugin) goes forth to explore the heavens. -Odin’s mind, then, is the flying raven; he is the spiritual ruler. - -Odin has two wolves, Gere and Freke (the greedy one and the voracious -one). Odin gives the meat that is set on his table to these two wolves; -for he himself stands in no need of food. Wine is for him both meat and -drink. Thus the Elder Edda, in Grimner’s lay: - - Gere and Freke - Feeds the war-faring, - Triumphant father of hosts; - For ’tis with wine only - That Odin in arms renowned - Is nourished forever. - -To meet a wolf is a good omen. Odin amusing himself with his wolves is -an exquisite theme for the sculptor. - -Odin had a ring called Draupner. We find its history in the -conversations of Brage, the second part of the Younger Edda. Loke had -once out of malice cut all the hair off Sif, the wife of Thor. But when -Thor found this out he seized Loke and would have crushed every bone in -him if he had not sworn to get the elves of darkness to make golden hair -for Sif, that would grow like other hair. Then went Loke to the dwarfs, -that are called Ivald’s sons, and they made the hair, and Skidbladner -(Frey’s ship), and the spear that Odin owned and is called Gungner. Then -Loke wagered his head with the dwarf, whose name is Brok, that his -brother, Sindre, would not be able to make three more treasures as good -as those three just named. The brothers went to the smithy. Sindre put a -pig-skin in the furnace and bade Brok blow the bellows and not stop -before Sindre took that out of the furnace which he had put into it. A -fly set itself on Brok’s hand and stung him, but still he continued -blowing the bellows, and that which Sindre took out was a boar with -golden bristles. Then Sindre put gold into the furnace. This time the -fly set itself on Brok’s neck, and stung him worse, but he continued -blowing the bellows, and that which the smith took out was the gold ring -Draupner (from the verb meaning _to drop_). The third time Sindre put -iron in the furnace, and bade his brother be sure to continue blowing or -all would be spoiled. Now the fly set itself between his eyes and stung -his eye-lids. The blood ran down into his eyes, so that he could not -see; then Brok let go of the bellows just for a moment to drive the fly -away. That which the smith now took out was a hammer. Sindre gave his -brother these treasures and bade him go to Asgard to fetch the wager. As -now Loke and Brok came each with his treasures, the asas seated -themselves upon their thrones and held consult, and Odin, Thor and Frey -were appointed judges who should render a final decision. Then Loke gave -Odin the spear, which never would miss its mark; Thor he gave the hair, -which immediately grew fast upon Sif’s head; and to Frey he gave the -ship, which always got fair wind as soon as the sails were hoisted, no -matter where its captain was going, and it could also be folded as a -napkin and put into the pocket, if this were desirable. Thereupon Brok -came forward and gave Odin the ring, and said that every ninth night a -ring equally heavy would drop from it. To Frey he gave the boar, and -said that it could run in the air and on the sea, night and day, faster -than any horse, and the night never was so dark, nor the other worlds so -gloomy, but that it would be light where this boar was present, so -bright shone its bristles. To Thor he gave the hammer, and said that -with it he might strike as large an object as he pleased; it would never -fail, and when he threw it he should not be afraid of losing it, for no -matter how far it flew it would always return into his hand, and at his -wish it would become so small that he might conceal it in his bosom, but -it had one fault, and that was that the handle was rather short. -According to the decision of the gods, the hammer was the best of all -the treasures, and especially as a protection against the frost-giants; -they accordingly decided that the dwarf had won the wager. The latter -now wanted Loke’s head. Loke offered to redeem it in some way, but the -dwarf would accept no alternatives. Well take me then, said Loke, and in -a moment he was far away, for he had shoes with which he could run -through the air and over the sea. Then the dwarf asked Thor to seize -him, which was done; but when the dwarf wanted to cut his head off, Loke -said: The head is yours, but not the neck.[35] Then took the dwarf -thread and knife and wanted to pierce Loke’s lips, so as to sew his lips -together, but the knife was not sharp enough. Now it were well, if I had -my brother’s awl, said he, and instantaneously the awl was there, and it -was sharp. Then the dwarf sewed Loke’s lips together. (The dwarfs are -here represented as smiths of the gods.) - -The ring Draupner is a symbol of fertility. Odin placed this ring on -Balder’s funeral pile and it was burnt with Balder (the summer), and -when Balder sent this ring back to Odin, his wife, the flower-goddess -Nanna, sent Frigg, the wife of Odin, a carpet (of grass), which -represents the return of vegetation and fruitfulness. Balder sends the -ring back as a memento of the fair time when he and his father (Odin) -worked together, and reminds the father of all, that he must continue to -bless the earth and make it fruitful. But this is not all; this ring -also symbolizes the fertility of the mind, the creative power of the -poet, the evolution of one thought from the other, the wonderful chain -of thought. The rings fell from Draupner as drop falls from drop. Ideas -do not cling fast to their parent, but live an independent life when -they are born; and the idea or thought, when once awakened, does not -slumber, but continues to grow and develop in man after man, in -generation after generation, evolving constantly new ideas until it has -grown into a unique system of thought. If we, as our fathers undoubtedly -did, make this gold ring typify the historical connection between times -and events, a ring constantly multiplying and increasing with ring -interlinked with ring in time’s onward march, what a beautiful golden -chain there has been formed from time’s morning until now! - -Odin had a spear called Gungner. The word means producing a violent -shaking or trembling, and it most thoroughly shook whomsoever was hit by -it. As has been seen above, it was made by the sons of Ivald (the -dwarfs), and was presented to Odin by Loke. Odin speeds forth to the -field of battle with golden helmet, resplendent armor, and his spear -Gungner. Oath was taken on the point of Gungner. This spear is -frequently referred to in the semi-mythological Sagas, where spears are -seen flying over the heads of the enemy; they are panic-stricken and -defeated. Spears are sometimes seen as meteorical phenomena, showing -that war is impending. The spear symbolizes Odin’s strength and power. -When Odin’s spear was thrown over anybody, Odin thereby marked him as -his own. Did not Odin wound himself with a spear, and thereby consecrate -himself to heaven? (See pp. 254-261.) When Odin puts the spear into the -hands of the warrior, it means that he awakens and directs his deeds of -valor. When Odin is the god of poetry and eloquence (Anglo-Saxon _wód_), -then the spear Gungner is the keen, stinging satire that can be -expressed in poetry and oratory. - -Odin’s horse Sleipner (slippery) was the most excellent horse. Runes -were carved on his teeth. The following myth gives us an account of his -birth: When the gods were constructing their abodes, and had already -finished Midgard and Valhal, a certain artificer came and offered to -build them, in the space of three half years, a residence so well -fortified that they should be perfectly safe from the incursions of the -frost-giants and the giants of the mountains, even though they should -have penetrated within Midgard. But he demanded for his reward the -goddess Freyja, together with the sun and moon. After long deliberation -the gods agreed to his terms, provided he would finish the whole work -himself without any one’s assistance, and all within the space of one -winter; but if anything remained unfinished on the first day of summer, -he should forfeit the recompense agreed on. On being told these terms, -the artificer stipulated that he should be allowed the use of his horse, -called Svadilfare (slippery-farer), and this by the advice of Loke was -granted to him. He accordingly set to work on the first day of winter, -and during the night let his horse draw stone for the building. The -enormous size of the stones struck the gods with astonishment, and they -saw clearly that the horse did one half more of the toilsome work than -his master. Their bargain, however, had been concluded in the presence -of witnesses and confirmed by solemn oaths, for without these -precautions a giant would not have thought himself safe among the gods, -especially when Thor returned from an expedition he had then undertaken -toward the east against evil demons. - -As the winter drew to a close, the building was far advanced, and the -bulwarks were sufficiently high and massive to render this residence -impregnable. In short, when it wanted but three days to summer, the only -part that remained to be finished was the gateway. Then sat the gods on -their seats of justice and entered into consultation, inquiring of one -another who among them could have advised to give Freyja away to -Jotunheim or to plunge the heavens in darkness by permitting the giant -to carry away the sun and the moon. They all agreed that none but Loke -Laufeyarson and the author of so many evil deeds could have given such -bad counsel, and that he should be put to a cruel death if he did not -contrive some way or other to prevent the artificer from completing his -task and obtaining the stipulated recompense. They immediately proceeded -to lay hands on Loke, who in his fright promised upon oath, that let it -cost him what it would he would so manage matters that the man should -lose his reward. That very night, when the artificer went with -Svadilfare for building-stone, a mare suddenly ran out of a forest and -began to neigh. The horse being thus excited, broke loose and ran after -the mare into the forest, which obliged the man also to run after his -horse, and thus between one and the other the whole night was lost, so -that at dawn the work had not made the usual progress. The man, seeing -that he had no other means of completing his task, resumed his own -gigantic stature, and the gods now clearly perceived that it was in -reality a mountain giant who had come amongst them. No longer regarding -their oaths, they therefore called on Thor, who immediately ran to their -assistance, and lifting up his mallet Mjolner (the crusher) that the -dwarfs had made, he paid the workman his wages, not with the sun and -moon, and not even by sending him back to Jotunheim, for with the first -blow he shattered the giant’s skull to pieces, and hurled him headlong -into Niflheim. But Loke had run such a race with Svadilfare, that -shortly after the mischief-maker (Loke) bore a gray foal with eight -legs. This is the horse Sleipner, which excels all horses ever possessed -by gods or men. The gods perjured themselves, and in reference to this -says the Elder Edda: - - Then went the rulers there, - All gods most holy, - To their seats aloft, - And counsel together took; - Who all the winsome air - With guile had blended, - Or to the giant’s race - Oder’s maiden given.[36] - - Then Thor, who was there, - Arose in wrathful mood, - For seldom sits he still - When such things he hears. - Annulled were now all oaths, - And words of promise fair, - And faith not long before - In council plighted. - -This riddle is propounded. Who are the two who ride to the Thing? Three -eyes have they together, ten feet and one tail; and thus they travel -through the lands. The answer is Odin, who rides on Sleipner; he has one -eye, the horse two; the horse runs on eight feet, Odin has two; only the -horse has a tail. - -Odin’s horse, Sleipner, symbolizes the winds of heaven, that blow from -eight quarters. In Skaane and Bleking, in Sweden, it was customary to -leave a sheaf of grain in the field for Odin’s horse, to keep him from -treading down the grain. Wednesday is named after Odin (Odinsday), and -on this day his horse was most apt to visit the fields. But in a higher -sense Sleipner is a Pegasos. Pegasos flew from the earth to the abodes -of the gods; Sleipner comes from heaven, carries the hero unharmed -through the dangers of life, and lifts the poet, who believes in the -spirit, up to his heavenly home. Grundtvig calls Sleipner the courser of -the poet’s soul; that is to say, of the Icelandic or Old Norse strophe -in poetry, which consisted of eight verses, or four octometers. The most -poetic is the most truthful interpretation of the myths. - - - SECTION V. ODIN’S JOURNEYS. - - -A whole chapter might be written about the wanderings of Odin, his -visits to the giants, to men, to battles, etc.; but as these records are -very voluminous, and are found to a great extent in the -semi-mythological Sagas, in which it is difficult to separate the -mythical and historical elements, we will make but a few remarks on this -subject. All his wanderings of course describe him as the all-pervading -spirit of the universe. They have the same significance as his horse -Sleipner, his ravens Hugin and Munin, etc. He descends to the bottom of -the sea for wisdom, he descends to earth to try the minds of men. In the -Elder Edda journeys of Odin form the subjects of the lays of -Vafthrudner, Grimner, Vegtam, etc. (See pp. 120-124.) In the lay of -Vafthrudner Odin visits the giant Vafthrudner for the purpose of proving -his knowledge. They propose questions relating to the cosmogony of the -Norse mythology, on the condition that the baffled party forfeit his -head. The giant incurs the penalty. Odin calls himself Gangraad, but by -the last question the giant recognizes him and is stricken with awe and -fear. The giant must perish since he has ventured into combat with Odin. -The mind subdues physical nature. When the giant recognizes Odin he -realizes his own depressed nature and must die. No rogue can look an -honest man in the eye. In Grimnersmál Odin assumes the name of Grimner, -and goes to try the mind of his foster-son Geirrod. Geirrod tortures him -and places him between two fires. And here begins the lay, in which Odin -glorifies himself and the power of the gods and pities his fallen -foster-son, but finally discloses himself and declares death to Geirrod -for his want of hospitality. Thus Odin closes his address to Geirrod in -the lay of Grimner: - - Many things I told thee, - But thou hast few remembered: - Thy friends mislead thee. - My friend’s sword - Lying I see - With blood all dripping. - - The fallen by the sword - Ygg shall now have; - Thy life is now run out: - Wrath with thee are the dises, - Odin thou now shalt see: - Draw near to me, if thou canst. - - Odin I am named, - Ygg I was called before, - Before that Thund, - Vaker and Skilfing, - Vafud and Hroptatyr; - With the gods Gaut and Jalk,[37] - Ofner and Svafner; - All which I believe to be - Names of me alone. - - - SECTION VI. ODIN AND MIMER. - - -In the lay of Vegtam, Odin goes to Hel, and wakes the prophetess to -learn the fate of his son Balder. He also takes counsel from the utmost -sources of the ocean, and listens to the voice from the deep. Some myths -refer to Odin’s pawning his eye with Mimer, others to his talking with -Mimer’s head. - -The Younger Edda, having stated that Mimer’s well is situated under that -root of the world-ash Ygdrasil that extends to Jotunheim, adds that -wisdom and wit lie concealed in it, and that Odin came to Mimer one day -and asked for a drink of water from the fountain. He obtained the drink, -but was obliged to leave one of his eyes in pawn for it. To this myth -refers the following passage from the Völuspá in the Elder Edda: - - Alone she[38] sat without, - When came that ancient - Dreaded prince[39] of the gods, - And in his eye she gazed. - -The vala to Odin: - - Of what wouldst thou ask me? - Odin! I know all, - Where thou thine eye didst sink - In the pure well of Mimer. - - Mimer drinks mead each morn - From Valfather’s pledge. - Understand ye yet, or what? - -This myth was given in connection with Ygdrasil, but it is repeated here -to shed a ray of light upon the character of Odin, and in this wise -Mimer is brought into a clearer sunlight also. - -In regard to Odin’s speaking with Mimer’s head, we have the following -passage in the lay of Sigdrifa: - - On the rock he[40] stood - With edged sword, - A helm on his head he bore. - _Then spake Mimer’s head_ - Its first wise word, - And true sayings uttered. - -And in Völuspá, when Ragnarok is impending: - - Mimer’s sons dance, - But the central tree takes fire - At the resounding - Gjallarhorn, - Loud blows Heimdal, - His horn is raised; - _Odin speaks - With Mimer’s head_. - -Odin’s eye is the sun. Mimer’s fountain is the utmost sources of the -ocean. Into it, Odin’s eye, the sun sinks every evening to search the -secrets of the deep, and every morning Mimer drinks the gold-brown mead -(aurora). When the dawn colors the sea with crimson and scarlet, then -Mimer’s white fountain is changed to golden mead; it is then Mimer, the -watcher of the fountain of knowledge, drinks with his golden horn the -clear mead which flows over Odin’s pledge. But Mimer means memory[41] -(Anglo-Saxon _meomor_), and as we know that our ancestors paid deep -reverence to the memories of the past, and that the fallen heroes, who -enjoyed the happiness of Valhal with Odin, reveled in the memory of -their deeds done on earth, it is proper to add that Mimer is an -impersonation of memory. Our spirit (Odin, _od_, _aand_) sinks down into -the depths of the past (memory, the sea, Odin’s fountain), and brings -back golden thoughts, which are developed by the knowledge which we -obtained from the depths beneath the sea of past history and experience. -What a vast ocean is the history and experience of our race! - - - SECTION VII. HLIDSKJALF. - - -Hlidskjalf is Odin’s throne. The accounts of it are very meagre. The -Younger Edda speaks of a stately mansion belonging to Odin called -Valaskjalf, which was built by the gods and roofed with pure silver, and -in which is the throne called Hlidskjalf. When Odin is seated on this -throne he can see over the whole world. But he not only looks, he also -listens. - - Odin listened - In Hlidskjalf, - -it is said in Odin’s Raven-song; in Grimner’s lay it is stated that Odin -and Frigg, his wife, were sitting in Hlidskjalf, looking over all the -world; and in the lay of Skirner we read that Frey, son of Njord, had -one day seated himself in Hlidskjalf. As Odin every morning sends out -his ravens, it seems to be his first business, as a good father, to look -out upon the world that he has made, and see how his children are doing, -and whether they need his providential care in any respect. Hlidskjalf -and Valhal must not be confounded. Valhal will be explained hereafter. -It is situated in Gladsheim, where Odin sat with his chosen heroes and -drank wine. But Valaskjalf is a place apart from Gladsheim, and on its -highest pinnacle above the highest arches of heaven is Odin’s throne, -Hlidskjalf. - - - SECTION VIII. THE HISTORICAL ODIN. - - -We have now presented the mythological Odin as based on the inscrutable -phenomena of nature, and have given some hints in regard to the ethical -or anthropomorphic element contained in each myth. Our next subject will -be Odin’s wives, their maid-servants, his sons, etc.; but before we -proceed to them we will give a short outline of the historical Odin, as -he is presented in the Heimskringla of Snorre Sturleson by Saxo -Grammaticus and others. Mr. Mallet, the French writer on Northern -Antiquities, has given a synoptical view of all that these writers have -said about the wanderings and exploits of this famous person, and we -will make an abstract from him. - -The Roman Empire had arrived at its highest point of power, and saw all -the then known world subject to its laws, when an unforeseen event -raised up enemies against it from the very bosom of the forests of -Scythia and on the banks of the Tanais. Mithridates by flying had drawn -Pompey after him into those deserts. The king of Pontus sought there for -refuge and new means of vengeance. He hoped to arm against the ambition -of Rome all the barbarous nations, his neighbors, whose liberty she -threatened. He succeeded in this at first, but all those peoples, ill -united as allies, poorly armed as soldiers, and still worse disciplined, -were forced to yield to the genius of Pompey. Odin is said to have been -of this number. He was obliged to flee from the vengeance of the Romans -and to seek, in countries unknown to his enemies, that safety which he -could no longer find in his own. - -Odin commanded the Asas, whose country was situated between the Pontus -Euxinus and the Caspian Sea. Their principal city was Asgard. Odin -having united under his banners the youth of the neighboring nations, -marched toward the west and north of Europe, subduing all the peoples he -met on his way and giving them to one or other of his sons for subjects. -Many sovereign families of the North are said to be descended from these -princes. Thus Hengist and Horsa, the Saxon chiefs who conquered Britain -in the fifth century, counted Odin in the number of their ancestors. So -did also the other Anglo-Saxon princes, as well as the greater part of -the princes of Lower Germany and the North. - -After having disposed of so many countries and confirmed and settled his -new governments, Odin directed his course toward Scandinavia, passing -through Holstein and Jutland. These provinces made him no resistance. -Then he passed into Funen (Denmark), which submitted as soon as he -appeared. In this island he remained for a long time and built the city -of Odense (_Odins-ve_, Odin’s sanctuary), which still preserves in its -name the memory of its founder. Hence he extended his authority over all -the North. He subdued the rest of Denmark and placed his son Skjold upon -its throne. The descendants of Skjold continued for many generations to -rule Denmark, and were called Skjoldungs. - -Odin, who seems to have been better pleased to give crowns to his -children than to wear them himself, afterwards passed over into Sweden, -where at that time ruled a prince by name Gylfe, who paid him great -honors and even worshiped him as a divinity. Odin quickly acquired in -Sweden the same authority as he had obtained in Denmark. The Swedes came -in crowds to do him homage, and by common consent bestowed the title of -king upon his son Yngve and his posterity. Hence sprung the Ynglings, a -name by which the kings of Sweden were for a long time distinguished. -Gylfe died and was forgotten; Odin acquired lasting fame by his -distinguished rule. He enacted new laws, introduced the customs of his -own country, and established at Sigtuna, an ancient city in the same -province as Stockholm, a supreme council or tribunal, composed of twelve -judges. Their business was to watch over the public weal, to distribute -justice to the people, to preside over the new worship, which Odin had -brought with him into the North, and to preserve faithfully the -religious and magical secrets which that prince deposited with them. He -levied a tax on every man throughout the country, but engaged on his -part to defend the inhabitants against all their enemies and to defray -the expense of the worship rendered to the gods at Sigtuna. - -These great acquisitions seem not, however, to have satisfied his -ambition. The desire of extending further his religion, his authority, -and his glory, caused him to undertake the conquest of Norway. His good -fortune followed him thither, and this kingdom quickly obeyed a son of -Odin named Sæming, who became the head of a family the different -branches of which reigned for a long time in Norway. - -After Odin had finished these glorious achievements he retired into -Sweden, where, perceiving his end to draw near, he would not wait for a -lingering disease to put an end to that life which he had so often and -so valiantly hazarded in the battle-field, but gathering round him the -friends and companions of his fortune, he gave himself nine wounds in -the form of a circle with the point of a lance, and many other cuts in -his skin with his sword. As he was dying he declared he was going back -to Asgard to take his seat among the gods at an eternal banquet, where -he would receive with great honors all who should expose themselves -intrepidly in battle and die bravely with their swords in their hands. -As soon as he had breathed his last they carried his body to Sigtuna, -where, in accordance with a custom introduced by him into the North, his -body was burned with much pomp and magnificence. - -Such was the end of this man, whose death was as extraordinary as his -life. It has been contended by many learned men that a desire of being -revenged on the Romans was the ruling principle of his whole conduct. -Driven by those enemies of universal liberty from his former home, his -resentment was the more violent, since the Goths considered it a sacred -duty to revenge all injuries, especially those offered to their -relations or country. He had no other view, it is said, in traversing so -many distant kingdoms, and in establishing with so much zeal his -doctrines of valor, but to arouse all nations against so formidable and -odious a nation as that of Rome. This leaven which Odin left in the -bosoms of the worshipers of the gods, fermented a long time in secret; -but in the fullness of time, the signal given, they fell upon this -unhappy empire, and, after many repeated shocks, entirely overturned it, -thus revenging the insult offered so many ages before to their founder. - -The Sagas paint Odin as the most persuasive of men. Nothing could resist -the force of his words. He sometimes enlivened his harangues with -verses, which he composed extemporaneously, and he was not only a great -poet, but it was he who taught the art of poetry to the Norsemen. He was -the inventor of the runic characters, which so long were used in the -North. This marking down the unseen thought that is in man with written -characters is the most wonderful invention ever made; it is almost as -miraculous as speech itself, and well may it be called a sort of second -speech. But what most contributed to make Odin pass for a god was his -skill in magic. He could run over the world in the twinkling of an eye; -he had the command of the air and the tempests, he could transform -himself into all sorts of shapes, could raise the dead, could foretell -things to come, could by enchantments deprive his enemies of health and -strength and discover all the treasures concealed in the earth. He knew -how to sing airs so tender and melodious, that the very plains and -mountains would open and expand with delight; the ghosts, attracted by -the sweetness of his songs, would leave their infernal caverns and stand -motionless around him. - -But while his eloquence, together with his august and venerable -deportment, procured him love and respect in a calm and peaceable -assembly, he was no less dreadful and furious in battle. He inspired his -enemies with such terror that they thought they could not describe it -better than by saying he rendered them blind and deaf. He would appear -like a wolf all desperate and biting his very shield for rage, he would -throw himself amidst the opposing ranks, making around him the most -horrible carnage, without receiving any wound himself. Such is the -historical Odin of the North, such was, in other words, the great -example that the Norsemen had to imitate in war and in peace. - - - SECTION IX. ODIN’S WIVES. - - -Odin’s wives are Jord (Fjorgyn, Hlodyn), Rind and Frigg. Heaven is -married to earth. This we find in all mythologies (Uranos and Gaia, Zeus -and Demeter, etc.) Among the Norsemen also the ruler of heaven and earth -(Odin) enters into marriage relations with his own handiwork. This -relation is expressed in three ways: Odin is married to Jord, to Frigg, -and to Rind. Jord is the original, uninhabited earth, or the earth -without reference to man; Frigg is the inhabited, cultivated earth, the -abode of man, and Rind is the earth when it has again become unfruitful, -when the white flakes of winter have covered its crust; it is in this -latter condition that she long resists the loving embraces of her -husband. These three relations are expressed still more clearly by their -children. With Jord Odin begets Thor, with Frigg Balder, and with Rind -Vale. Jord is the Greek Gaia, Frigg is Demeter, but the fortunate Greeks -had no goddess corresponding to Rind; they knew not the severe Norse -winter. - -Jord is sometimes called Fjorgyn and Hlodyn, but neither of these names -occur many times in the Eddas. There are only found occasional allusions -to her, such as the flesh of Ymer, the daughter of Annar, sister of Dag, -mother of Thor, etc. - -Frigg is the daughter of Fjorgyn and the first among the goddesses, the -queen of the asas and asynjes. Odin is her dearly beloved husband. She -sits with him in Hlidskjalf and looks out upon all the worlds, and for -the death of their son, the light Balder, they mourn together with all -nature. Frigg knows the fate of men, but she never says or prophesies -anything about it herself. She possesses a falcon-disguise, which Loke -once borrowed of her. She possesses a magnificent mansion Fensal, where -she sat weeping over Valhal’s misfortune after the death of Balder. It -is not certain whether Friday is named after Frigg or Freyja or after -Frey, but the probabilities are that it is Freyja’s day (_dies -Veneris_). While Frigg and Freyja are by many authors confounded, they -are nevertheless wholly different characters. Frigg is _asa_queen, -Freyja is _vana_dis. Frigg is a _mother’s_ love; Freyja is the love of -the _youth_ or _maiden_. The asas are land deities, the vans are -divinities of the water. The vana-goddess Freyja represents the surging, -billowy, unsettled love; the asynje Frigg represents love in its nobler -and more constant form. - - - SECTION X. FRIGG’S MAID-SERVANTS. - - -Fulla, Hlyn, Gnaa, Snotra, Var, Lofn (Sjofn), and Syn, are enumerated as -maid-servants of Frigg. - -Fulla goes about with her hair flowing over her shoulders and her head -adorned with a golden ribbon. She is intrusted with the toilette and -slippers of Frigg and admitted into the most important secrets of that -goddess. The word Fulla means full, fulness, and as the servant of Frigg -she represents the fulness of the earth, which is beautifully suggested -by her waving hair and golden ribbon (harvest), and when Balder sent the -ring Draupner from Hel, his wife Nanna sent Frigg a carpet, and Fulla a -gold ring. - -Hlyn has the care of those whom Frigg intends to deliver from peril. - -Gnaa is the messenger that Frigg sends into the various worlds on her -errands. She has a horse that can run through air and water, called -Hofvarpner (the hoof-thrower). Once, as she drove out, certain vans saw -her car in the air, when one of them exclaimed: - - What flies there? - What goes there? - In the air aloft what glides? - -She answered: - - I fly not, though I go, - And glide through the air - On Hofvarpner, - Whose sire’s Hamskerper[42] - And dame Gardrofa.[43] - -Gnaa is interpreted to mean the mild breezes, that Frigg sends out to -produce good weather. - -Var listens to the oaths that men take, and particularly the troth -plighted between man and woman, and punishes those who keep not their -promises. She is wise and prudent, and so penetrating that nothing -remains hidden from her. Her name Var means _wary_, careful. - -Lofn (_lofa_, _loben_, love) is so mild and gracious to those who invoke -her, that by a peculiar privilege which either Odin himself or Frigg has -given her, she can remove every obstacle that may prevent the union of -lovers sincerely attached to each other. Hence her name is applied to -denote love, and whatever is beloved by men. - -Sjofn delights in turning men’s hearts and thoughts to love; hence love -is called from her name _sjafni_. - -Syn keeps the door in the hall and shuts it against those who ought not -to enter. She presides at trials, when anything is to be denied on oath; -whence the proverb, Syn (negation) is set against it, when anything is -denied. - - - SECTION XI. GEFJUN, EIR. - - -The norns or destinies have been previously explained (see p. 190); -Nanna will be discussed in connection with Balder, and Freyja, the -goddess of love, in connection with Njord and Frey; but there are -besides these a few other goddesses, who demand our attention here. - -Gefjun is a maid, and all those who die maids become her hand-maidens. -Of her there is the following anecdote in the Younger Edda. King Gylfe -ruled over the land which is now called Sweden. It is related of him -that he once gave a wayfaring woman, as a recompense for her having -diverted him, as much land in his realm as she could plow with four oxen -in a day and a night.[44] This woman was however of the race of the -asas, and was called Gefjun. She took four oxen from the North, out of -Jotunheim, (but they were the sons she had had with a giant,) and set -them before a plow. Now the plow made such deep furrows that it tore up -the land, which the oxen drew westward out to the sea until they came to -a sound. There Gefjun fixed the land and called it Zealand. And the -place where the land had stood became water, and formed a lake which is -now called Logrinn (the sea) in Sweden, and the inlets of this lake -correspond exactly with the headlands of Zealand in Denmark. Thus saith -the Skald, Brage: - - Gefjun drew from Gylfe, - Rich in stored up treasure, - The land she joined to Denmark. - Four heads and eight eyes bearing, - While hot sweat trickled down them, - The oxen dragged the reft mass - That formed this winsome island. - -The etymology of Gefjun is uncertain. Some explain it as being a -combination of the Greek γῆ, and Norse _fjón_, separation (_terræ -separatio_). Grimm compares it with the Old Saxon _geban_, Anglo-Saxon, -_geofon_, _gifan_, the ocean. Grundtvig derives it from Anglo-Saxon -_gefean_, gladness. He says it is the same word as Funen (_Fyn_), and -that the meaning of the myth is that Funen and Jutland with united -strength tore Zealand from Sweden. This would then be a historical -interpretation. - -The derivation from _gefa_, to give, has also been suggested, and there -is no doubt that the plowing Gefjun is the goddess of agriculture. She -unites herself with the giants (the barren and unfruitful fields or -deserts) and subdues them, thus preparing the land for cultivation. In -this sense she is Frigg’s maid-servant. Gefjun, the plowed land, -develops into Frigg, the fruit-bearing earth; hence she is a maid, not a -woman. The maid _is not_, but _shall become_ fruitful. - -Eir is the goddess of the healing art, and this is about all that we -know of her; but that is a great deal. A healer for our frail body and -for the sick mind! what a beneficent divinity! - - - SECTION XII. RIND. - - -This goddess was mentioned in Section IX. It is the third form of earth -in its relation to Odin. Thus the lay of Vegtam, in the Elder Edda: - - Rind a son shall bear - In the wintry halls, - He shall slay Odin’s son - When one night old. - He a hand will not wash, - Nor his hair comb, - Ere he to the pile has borne - Balder’s adversary. - -Odin’s repeated wooing of this maid is expressed in Hávamál, of the -Elder Edda, as follows: - - The mind only knows - What lies near the heart; - That alone is conscious of our affections. - No disease is worse - To a sensible man - Than not to be content with himself. - - That I experienced - When in the reeds I sat - Awaiting my delight. - Body and soul to me - Was that discreet maiden: - Nevertheless I possess her not. - - Billing’s lass[45] - On her couch I found, - Sun-bright, sleeping. - A prince’s joy - To me seemed naught, - If not with that form to live. - - Yet nearer night, she said, - Must thou, Odin, come, - If thou wilt talk the maiden over; - All will be disastrous - Unless we alone - Are privy to such misdeed. - - I returned, - Thinking to love - At her wise desire; - I thought - I should obtain - Her whole heart and love. - - When next I came, - The bold warriors were - All awake, - With lights burning, - And bearing torches: - Thus was the way to pleasure closed. - - But at the approach of morn, - When again I came, - The household all was sleeping; - The good damsel’s dog - Alone I found - Tied to the bed. - - Many a fair maiden, - When rightly known, - Toward men is fickle: - That I experienced - When that discreet maiden I - Strove to win: - Contumely of every kind - That wily girl - Heaped upon me; - Nor of that damsel gained I aught. - -This is clearly the same story as is related by Saxo Grammaticus, as -follows: Odin loves a maiden, whose name is Rind, and who has a stubborn -disposition. Odin tried to revenge the death of his son Balder. Then he -was told by Rosthiof that he with Rind, the daughter of the king of the -Ruthenians, would beget another son, who would revenge his brother’s -death. Odin put on his broad-brimmed hat and went into the service of -the king, and won the friendship of the king, for as commander he put a -whole army to flight. He revealed his love to the king, but when he -asked the maiden for a kiss, she struck his ear. The next year he came -as a smith, called himself Rosterus, and offered the maiden a -magnificent bracelet and beautiful rings; but she gave his ear another -blow. The third time he came as a young warrior, but she thrust him away -from her so violently that he fell head first to the ground. Finally he -came as a woman, called himself Vecha, and said he was a doctress. As -Rind’s servant-maid, he washed her feet in the evening, and when she -became sick he promised to cure her, but the remedy was so bitter that -she must first be bound. He represented to her father that it, even -against her wish, must operate with all its dissolving power, and -permeate all her limbs before she could be restored to health. Thus he -won the maiden, as some think, with the secret consent of her father. -But the gods banished Odin from Byzantium, and accepted in his place a -certain Oller, whom they even gave Odin’s name. This Oller had a bone, -which he had so charmed by incantations that he could traverse the ocean -with it as in a ship. Oller was banished again by the gods, and betook -himself to Sweden; but Odin returned in his divine dignity and requested -his son Bous, whom Rind bad borne, and who showed a great proclivity for -war, to revenge the death of his brother. Saxo Grammaticus relates this -as confidently as if it were the most genuine history, not having the -faintest suspicion as to its mythical character. - -Saxo’s Rosthiof is mentioned in the Elder Edda as Hross-thiofr -(horse-thief), of Hrimner’s (the frost’s rime’s) race. Saxo’s Vecha is -Odin, who in the Elder Edda is called Vak. The latter portion of the -myth is not given in Hávamál, and were it not for faithful Saxo we -should scarcely understand that portion of the Elder Edda which was -quoted above. But with the light that he sheds upon it there is no -longer any doubt. Rind is the earth, not generally speaking, but the -earth who after the death of Balder is consigned to the power of winter. -Does not the English word _rind_ remind us of the hard-frozen crust of -the earth? Defiantly and long she resists the love of Odin; in vain be -proffers her the ornaments of summer; in vain he reminds her of his -warlike deeds, the Norseman’s most cherished enterprise in the -summer-season. By his all-powerful witchcraft he must dissolve and as it -were melt her stubborn mind. Finally she gives birth to Vale, the strong -warrior. - -In the incantation of Groa, in the Elder Edda, this is the first song -that the mother sings to her son: - - I will sing to thee first - One that is thought most useful, - Which Rind sang to Ran;[46] - That from thy shoulders thou shouldst cast - What to thee seems irksome: - Let thyself thyself direct. (Be independent!) - -What is it that seems so irksome to Rind and Ran, and that both cast -from their shoulders in order to become independent? It is the ice. When -Rind had thrown it off she requested the sea-goddess Ran to do likewise. - -The Greeks have a myth corresponding somewhat to this. The god of the -heavens, Zeus, comes down in the rain into Hera’s lap; but when she -resisted his entreaties Zeus let fall a shower of rain, while she was -sitting on the top of a mountain, and he changed himself to a -nightingale (a symbol of spring-time). Then Hera compassionately took -the wet and dripping bird into her lap. But look at the difference! Hera -soon gives way and pities, but our Norse Rind makes a desperate -resistance. It repeatedly looks as if Odin had conquered, but the maid -reassumes her stubborn disposition. How true this is of the climate in -the northern latitudes! Rind is not inapplicable to our Wisconsin -winters. - -Such is the physical interpretation of Odin’s relation to Frigg and -Rind. Heaven and earth are wedded together; and upon this marriage earth -presents itself in two forms: fruitful and blest, unfruitful and -imprisoned in the chains of cold and frost. As the king of the year Odin -embraces both of them. But Odin is also the spiritual (_aand_) king, who -unites himself with the human earthly mind. He finds it crude and -uncultured, but susceptible of impressions. Pure thoughts and noble -feelings are developed, which grow into blooming activities. But then -comes back again the unfeeling coldness and defiant stubbornness which -take possession of the mind, shutting out the influence of truth upon -the mind. It is a sad time when doubt and skepticism and despair every -night lay their leaden weight upon the poor man’s soul. However to the -honest seeker of truth it is only a transitory state of trial. A wise -Providence takes him with tender and patient hands again to his bosom. -He sends down showers of blessings or misfortunes upon him. With his -mild breath he melts the frozen heart, and it at once clothes itself -with garlands of divinest hues. With all his charms he touches the -wintry _rind_ that encases us, and the mind stands forth unmanacled and -free. What to the year is light summer and dark winter is to us bright -and gloomy periods of our existence, that succeed each other in their -turn, advancing or impeding our spiritual development, which must -continue forever. This is also contained in the myth about Odin and -Rind, nay, it is the better half. - - - SECTION XIII. GUNLAD. THE ORIGIN OF POETRY. - - -Poetry is represented as an inspiring drink. He who partakes of it is -_skáld_, poet. This drink was kept with the giants, where Gunlad -protected it. Odin goes down to the giants, conquers all obstacles, wins -Gunlad’s affection, and gets permission to partake of the drink. He -brings it to the upper world and gives it to men. Thus poetry originated -and developed. Thus it is related in the Younger Edda: - -Æger having expressed a wish to know how poetry originated, Brage, the -god of poetry, informed him that the asas and vans having met to put an -end to the war which had long been carried on between them, a treaty of -peace was agreed to and ratified by each party spitting into a jar. As a -lasting sign of the amity which was thenceforward to subsist between the -contending parties, the gods formed out of this spittle a being, to whom -they gave the name of Kvaser, and whom they endowed with such a high -degree of intelligence that no one could ask him a question that he was -unable to answer. Kvaser then traversed the whole world to teach men -wisdom, but the dwarfs, Fjalar and Galar, having invited him to a feast, -treacherously murdered him. They let his blood run into two cups and a -kettle. The name of the kettle is Odrœrer, and the names of the cups are -Son and Bodn. By mixing up his blood with honey they composed a drink of -such surpassing excellence that whoever partakes of it acquires the gift -of song (becomes a poet or man of knowledge, _skáld_, _eða fræðamaðr_). -When the gods inquired what had become of Kvaser, the dwarfs told them -that he had been suffocated with his own wisdom, not being able to find -anyone who, by proposing to him a sufficient number of learned -questions, might relieve him of its super-abundance. - -The dwarfs invited a giant, by name Gilling, and his wife. They proposed -to the giant to take a boat-ride with them out on the sea, but they -rowed on to a rock and capsized. Gilling could not swim, and perished, -but the dwarfs rowed ashore, and told his wife of his death, which made -her burst forth in a flood of tears. Then Fjalar asked her whether it -would not be some consolation to her to look out upon the water, where -her husband had perished; and when she consented to this, Fjalar said to -his brother Galar that he should get up above the door, and, as she -passed out through it, he should let fall a mill-stone upon her head, -for he was sick and disgusted with her crying. The brother did so, and -thus she perished also. A son of Gilling, a giant by name Suttung, -avenged these treacherous deeds. He took the dwarfs out to sea and -placed them on a shoal, which was flooded at high water. In this -critical position they implored Suttung to spare their lives, and accept -the verse-inspiring beverage, which they possessed, as an atonement for -their having killed his parents. Suttung, having agreed to these -conditions, released the dwarfs, and, carrying the mead home with him, -committed it to the care of his daughter Gunlad. Hence poetry is -indifferently called Kvaser’s blood, Suttung’s mead, the dwarfs’ ransom, -etc. - -How did the gods get possession of this valuable mead of Suttung? Odin -being fully determined to acquire it, set out for Jotunheim, and after -journeying for some time he came to a meadow, in which nine thralls were -mowing. Entering into conversation with them, Odin offered to whet their -scythes, an offer which they gladly accepted. He took a whetstone from -his belt and whetted their scythes, and finding that it had given their -scythes an extraordinarily keen edge the thralls asked him whether he -was willing to dispose of it; but Odin threw the whetstone up into the -air, and as all the thralls attempted to catch it as it fell, each -brought his scythe to bear on the neck of one of his comrades, so that -they were all killed in the scramble. Odin took up his night’s lodging -at the house of Suttung’s brother Bauge, who told him he was sadly at a -loss for laborers, his nine thralls having slain each other. Odin who -here called himself Bolverk (one who can perform the most difficult -work), said that for a draught of Suttung’s mead he would do the work of -nine men for him. Bauge answered that he had no control over it. Suttung -wanted it alone, but he would go with Bolverk and try to get it. These -terms were agreed on and Odin worked for Bauge the whole summer, doing -the work of nine men; but when winter set in he wanted his reward. Bauge -and Odin set out together, and Bauge explained to Suttung the agreement -between him and Bolverk, but Suttung was deaf to his brother’s -entreaties and would not part with a drop of the precious drink, which -was carefully preserved in a cavern under his daughter’s custody. Into -this cavern Odin was resolved to penetrate. We must invent some -stratagem, said he to Bauge. He then gave Bauge the augur, which is -called Rate, and said to him that he should bore a hole through the -rock, if the edge of the augur was sharp enough. Bauge did so, and said -that he now had bored through. But Odin, or Bolverk as he is here -called, blew into the augur-hole and the chips flew into his face. He -then perceived that Bauge intended to deceive him and commanded him to -bore clear through. Bauge bored again, and, when Bolverk blew a second -time, the chips flew the other way. Then Odin transformed himself into a -worm, crept through the hole, and resuming his natural shape won the -heart of Gunlad. Bauge put the augur down after him, but missed him. -After having passed three nights with the fair maiden, he had no great -difficulty in inducing her to let him take a draught out of each of the -three jars called Odrœrer, Bodn, and Son, in which the mead was kept. -But wishing to make the most of his advantage, he drank so deep that not -a drop was left in the vessels. Transforming himself into an eagle, he -then flew off as fast as his wings could carry him, but Suttung becoming -aware of the stratagem, also took upon himself an eagle’s guise and flew -after him. The gods, on seeing him approach Asgard, set out in the yard -all the jars they could lay their hands on, which Odin filled by -disgorging through his beak the wonder-working liquor he had drunk. He -was however so near being caught by Suttung, that he sent some of the -mead after him backwards, and as no care was taken of this it fell to -the share of poetasters. It is called the drink of silly poets. But the -mead discharged into the jars was kept for the gods and for those men -who have sufficient wit to make a right use of it. Hence poetry is -called Odin’s booty, Odin’s gift, the beverage of the gods, etc. - -But let us look at this myth in its older and purer form. Thus the Elder -Edda, in Hávamál: - - Oblivion’s heron ’t is called - That over potations hovers; - He steals the minds of men. - With this bird’s pinions - I was fettered - In Gunlad’s dwelling. - - Drunk I was, - I was over-drunk - At that cunning Fjalar’s. - It’s the best drunkenness - When every one after it - Regains his reason. - -This passage then refers to the effects of the strong drink of poetry, -and Odin recommends us to use it with moderation. Would it not be well -for some of our poets to heed the advice? - -Thus Hávamál again: - - The old giant[47] I sought; - Now I am come back; - Little got I there by silence; - In many words - I spoke to my advantage - In Suttung’s halls. - - Gunlad gave me, - On her golden seat, - A draught of the precious mead; - A bad recompense - I afterwards made her, - For her whole soul, - Her fervent love. - - Rate’s mouth I caused - To make a space, - And to gnaw the rock; - Over and under me - Were the giant’s ways: - Thus I my head did peril. - - Of a well-assumed form - I made good use: - Few things fail the wise; - For Odrœrer - Is now come up - To men’s earthly dwellings. - - ’Tis to me doubtful - That I could have come - From the giant’s courts - Had not Gunlad aided me - That good damsel - Over whom I laid my arm. - - On the day following - Came the frost-giants - To learn something of the High One. - In the High One’s hall: - After Bolverk they inquired - Whether he with the gods were come, - Or Suttung had destroyed him. - - Odin, I believe, - A ring-oath gave. - Who in his faith will trust? - Suttung defrauded, - Of his drink bereft, - And Gunlad made to weep. - -It is a beautiful idea that Odin creeps into Suttung’s hall as a -serpent, but when he has drunk the mead of poetry, when he has become -inspired, he soars away on eagles’ pinions. - -Odin’s name, Bolverk, may mean the one working evil, which might be said -of him in relation to the giants, or the one who accomplishes difficult -things, which then would impersonate the difficulty in mastering the art -of poetry. Without a severe struggle no one can gain a victory in the -art of poetry, and least of all in the Old Norse language. Gunlad (from -_gunnr_, struggle, and _laða_, to invite) invites Odin to this struggle. -She sits well fortified in the abode of the giant. She is surrounded by -stone walls. The cup in which was the mead is called Odrœrer -(_od-rœrer_, that which moves the spirit); that is, the cup of -inspiration; and the myth is as clear as these names. Kvaser is the -fruit of which the juice is pressed and mixed with honey; it produces -the inspiring drink. It is also pertinently said that Kvaser perishes in -his own wisdom. Does not the fruit burst from its superabundance of -juice? But do not take only the outside skin of this myth; press the -ethical juice out of it. - -It should be noticed here that Kvaser (the spit, the ripe fruit) is -produced by a union of asas and vans, an intimate union of the solid and -liquid elements. - -This myth also illustrates the wide difference between the Elder and the -Younger Edda. How much purer and poetic in the former than in the -latter! _Ex ipso fonte dulcius bibuntur aquæ._ In the Elder Edda is -water in which it is worth our while to fish. - - - SECTION XIV. SAGA. - - -Odin is not only the inventor of poetry, he also favors and protects -history, Saga. The Elder Edda: - - Sokvabek hight the fourth dwelling., - Over it flow the cool billows; - Glad drink there Odin and Saga - Every day from golden cups. - -The charming influence of history could not be more beautifully -described. - -Sokvabek is the brook of the deep. From the deep arise the thoughts and -roll as cool refreshing waves through golden words. Saga can tell, Odin -can think, about it. Thus they sit together day after day and night -after night and refresh their minds from the fountain of history. Saga -is the second of the goddesses. She dwells at Sokvabek, a very large and -stately abode. The stream of history is large, it is broad and deep. -Saga is from the word meaning _to say_. In Greece Klio was one of the -muses, but in Norseland Saga is alone, united with Odin, the father of -heroic deeds. Her favor is the hope of the youth and the delight of the -old man. - - - SECTION XV. ODIN AS THE INVENTOR OF RUNES. - - -The original meaning of the word rune is _secret_, and it was used to -signify a mysterious song, mysterious doctrine, mysterious speech, and -mysterious writing. Our ancestors had an alphabet called runes, before -they learned the so-called Roman characters. The runic stave-row was a -futhore (_f_, _u_, _th_, _o_, _r_, _k_), not an alphabet (_A_, _B_) as -in Greek or Latin. But what does it mean mythologically, that Odin is -the inventor of the runes? Odin himself says in his famous Rune-song in -the Elder Edda: - - I know that I hung - On a wind-rocked tree[48] - Nine whole nights, - With a spear wounded - And to Odin offered, - Myself to myself; - On that tree - Of which no one knows - From what root it springs. - - Bread no one gave me - Nor a horn of drink, - Downward I peered, - To runes applied myself - Wailing learnt them, - Then fell down thence. - - Potent songs nine - From the famed son I learned - Of Bolthorn, Bestla’s father, - And a draught obtained - Of the precious mead, - Drawn from Odrœrer. - - Then I began to bear fruit - And to know many things, - To grow and well thrive: - Word by word - I sought out words, - Fact by fact - I sought out facts. - - Runes thou wilt find - And explained characters, - Very large characters, - Very potent characters, - Which the great speaker depicted - And the high powers formed - And the powers’ prince graved. - - Odin among the asas, - But among the elves, Daain; - Odin as inventor of runes - And Dvalin for the dwarfs; - Aasvid for the giants runes risted, - Some I myself risted. - - Knowest thou how to rist them? - Knowest thou how to expound them? - Knowest thou how to depict them? - Knowest thou how to prove them? - Knowest thou how to pray? - Knowest thou how to offer? - Knowest thou how to send? - Knowest thou how to consume? - - ’T is better not to pray - Than too much offer; - A gift ever looks to a return. - ’T is better not to send - Than too much consume. - So Thund risted - Before the origin of men, - There he ascended - Where he afterwards came. - - Those songs I know - Which the king’s wife knows not - Nor son of man. - _Help_ the first is called, - For that will help thee - Against strifes and cares. - - For the second I know, - What the sons of men require - Who will as leeches live. - - For the third I know, - If I have great need - To restrain my foes, - The weapon’s edge I deaden: - Of my adversaries - Nor arms nor wiles harm aught. - - For the fourth I know, - If men place - Bonds on my limbs, - I so sing - That I can walk; - The fetter starts from my feet - And the manacle from my hands. - - For the fifth I know, - I see a shot from a hostile hand, - A shaft flying amid the host, - So swift it cannot fly, - That I cannot arrest it, - If only I get sight of it. - - For the sixth I know, - If one wounds me - With a green tree’s root,[49] - Also if a man - Declares hatred to me, - Harm shall consume _them_ sooner than me. - - For the seventh I know, - If a lofty house I see - Blaze o’er its inmates, - So furiously it shall not burn - That I cannot save it; - That song I can sing. - - For the eighth I know, - What to all is - Useful to learn; - Where hatred grows - Among the sons of men— - That I can quickly assuage. - - For the ninth I know, - If I stand in need - My bark on the water to save, - I can the wind - On the waves allay, - And the sea lull. - - For the tenth I know, - If I see troll-wives - Sporting in air, - I can so operate - That they will forsake - Their own forms - And their own minds. - - For the eleventh I know, - If I have to lead - My ancient friends to battle, - Under their shields I sing, - And with power they go - Safe to the fight, - Safe from the fight; - Safe on every side they go. - - For the twelfth I know, - If on a tree I see - A corpse swinging from a halter, - I can so rist - And in runes depict, - That the man shall walk, - And with me converse. - - For the thirteenth I know, - If on a young man - I sprinkle water,[50] - He shall not fall, - Though he into battle come: - That man shall not sink before swords. - - For the fourteenth I know, - If in the society of men - I have to enumerate the gods, - Asas and elves, - I know the distinctions of all. - This few unskilled can do. - - For the fifteenth I know. - What the dwarf of Thodrœrer[51] sang - Before Delling’s doors. - Strength he sang to the asas, - And to the elves prosperity, - Wisdom to Hroptatyr (Odin). - - For the sixteenth I know, - If a modest maiden’s favor and affection - I desire to possess, - The soul I change - Of the white-armed damsel, - And wholly turn her mind. - - For seventeenth I know, - That that young maiden will - Reluctantly avoid me. - These songs, Lodfafner, - Thou wilt long have lacked; - Yet it may be good, if thou understandest them, - Profitable if thou learnest them. - - For the eighteenth I know, - That which I never teach - To maid or wife of man, - (All is better - What _one_ only knows: - This is the closing of the songs) - Save her alone - Who clasps me in her arms, - Or is my sister. - - Now are sung the - _High One’s_ songs - In the High One’s hall, - To the sons of men all useful, - But useless to the giants’ sons. - Hail to him who has sung them! - Hail to him who knows them! - May he profit who has learnt them! - Hall to those who have listened to them! - -Odin’s sister or wife is, as we have seen, Frigg, the earth, and there -is much between heaven and earth of which the wisest men do not even -dream, much that the profoundest philosophy is unable to unravel, and -this is what Odin never teaches to maid or wife of man. - -The runes of Odin were risted on the shield which stands before the -shining god, on the ear of Aarvak (the ever-wakeful), and on the hoof of -Alsvin; on the wheels that roll under Rogner’s chariot, on Sleipner’s -reins, on the paw of the bear and on the tongue of Brage; on the claws -of the wolf, on the beak of the eagle, on bloody wings and on the end of -the bridge (the rainbow); on glass, on gold, on wine and on herb; on -Vile’s heart, on the point of Gungner (Odin’s spear), on Grane’s breast, -on the nails of the norn and on the beak of the owl. All, that were -carved, were afterwards scraped off, mixed with the holy mead and sent -out into all parts of the world. Some are with the asas, some with the -elves, and some with the sons of men. - -All this and even more that is omitted we find in the Elder Edda. What -are Odin’s runes? What but a new expression of his being? Odin’s runes -represent the might and wisdom with which he rules all nature, even its -most secret phenomena. Odin, as master of runes, is the spirit that -subdues and controls physical nature. He governs inanimate nature, the -wind, the sea, the fire, and the mind of man, the hate of the enemy and -the love of woman. Everything submits to his mighty sway, and thus the -runes were risted on all possible things in heaven and on earth. He is -the spirit of the world, that pervades everything, the almighty creator -of heaven and earth, or, to use more mythological expression, the father -of gods and men. - -Odin hung nine days on the tree (Ygdrasil) and sacrificed himself to -himself, and wounded himself with his own spear. This has been -interpreted to mean the nine months in which the child is developed in -its mother’s womb. Turn back and read the first strophes carefully, and -it will be found that there is some sense in this interpretation; but, -kind reader, did you ever try to subdue and penetrate into the secrets -of matter with your mind? Do you know that knowledge cannot be acquired -without labor, without struggle, without sacrifice, without solemn -consecration of one’s self to an idea? Do you remember that Odin gave -his eye in pawn for a drink from Mimer’s fountain? The spear with which -he now wounds himself shows how solemnly he consecrates himself. For the -sake of this struggle to acquire knowledge, the spirit offers itself to -itself. It knows what hardships and sufferings must be encountered on -the road to knowledge, but it bravely faces these obstacles, it wants to -wrestle with them; that is its greatness, its glory, its power. Nine -nights Odin hangs on the tree. Rome was not built in a day. _Tantæ molis -erat Romanas condere gentes!_ Neither is knowledge acquired in a day. -The mind is developed by a slow process. He neither eats nor drinks, he -fasts. You must also curb your bodily appetites, and, like Odin, look -down into the depths and penetrate the mysteries of nature with your -mind. Then will you learn all those wonderful songs that Odin learned -crying before he fell from the tree. - -Odin is the author of the runic incantations that played so conspicuous -a part in the social and religious life of the Norseman. The belief in -sorcery (_galdr_ and _seiðr_) was universal among the heathen Norsemen, -and it had its origin in the mythology, which represents the magic arts -as an invention of Odin. - - - SECTION XVI. VALHAL. - - -Thus the Elder Edda, in the lay of Grimner: - - Gladsheim is named the fifth dwelling; - There the golden-bright - Valhal stands spacious; - There Hropt[52] selects - Each day those men - Who die by weapons. - - Easily to be known is, - By those who to Odin come, - The mansion by its aspect. - Its roof with spears is laid, - Its hall with shields is decked, - With corselets are its benches strewed. - - Easily to be known is, - By those who to Odin come, - The mansion by its aspect. - A wolf hangs - Before the western door, - Over it an eagle hovers. - -Odin was preëminently the god of war. He who fell in battle came after -death to Odin in Valhal. There he began the battle anew, fell and arose -again. Glorious was the life in Valhal. - -The hall was called Valhal, that is, the hall of the slain; Odin was -called Valfather (father of the slain), and the maids he sent out to -choose the fallen heroes on the field of battle were called valkyries. -Valhal must not, as before stated, be confused with the silver-roofed -valaskjalf. - -The heroes who came to Valhal were called einherjes, from _ein_ and -_herja_, which together mean the excellent warrior, and we find that -Odin was also called Herja-father (father of heroes). - -Valhal is situated in Gladsheim. It is large and resplendent with gold; -spears support its ceiling, it is roofed with shields, and coats of mail -adorn its benches. Swords serve the purpose of fire, and of its immense -size we can form some idea when we read in the Elder Edda that - - Five hundred doors - And forty more - Methinks are in Valhal; - Eight hundred heroes through each door - Shall issue forth - Against the wolf to combat. - -Outside of Valhal stands the shining grove Glaser. All its leaves are -red gold, whence gold is frequently called Glaser’s leaves. - -What does Odin give all his guests to eat? If all the men who have -fallen in fight since the beginning of the world are gone to Odin in -Valhal, there must be a great crowd there. Yes, the crowd there is -indeed great, but great though it be, it will still be thought too -little when the wolf comes (the end of the world). But however great the -band of men in Valhal may be, the flesh of the boar Sæhrimner will more -than suffice for their sustenance. This boar is cooked every morning, -but becomes whole again every night. The cook is called Andhrimner and -the kettle Eldhrimner. Thus the Elder Edda: - - Andhrimner cooks - In Eldhrimner - Sæhrimner; - ’Tis the best of flesh; - But few know - What the einherjes eat. - -What do the guests of Odin drink? Do you imagine that Allfather would -invite kings and jarls and other great men and give them nothing but -water to drink? In that case many of those, who had endured the greatest -hardships and received deadly wounds in order to obtain access to -Valhal, would find that they had paid too great a price for their water -drink, and would indeed have reason to complain were they there to meet -with no better entertainment. But we shall see that the case is quite -otherwise; for the she-goat Heidrun (the clear stream) stands above -Valhal and feeds on the leaves of a very famous tree. This tree is -called Lerad (affording protection), and from the teats of the she-goat -flows mead in such great abundance that every day a bowl, large enough -to hold more than would suffice for all the heroes, is filled with it. -And still more wonderful is what is told of the stag, Eikthyrner (the -oak-thorned, having knotty horns), which also stands over Valhal and -feeds upon the leaves of the same tree, and while he is feeding so many -drops fall from his antlers down into Hvergelmer that they furnish -sufficient water for the thirty-six rivers that issuing thence flow -twelve to the abodes of the gods, twelve to the abodes of men, and -twelve to Niflheim. - -Ah! our ancestors were uncultivated barbarians, and that is proved by -the life in Valhal, where the heroes ate pork and drank mead! But what -are we, then, who do the same thing? Let us look a little more carefully -at the words they used. Food they called flesh, and drink, -mead,—expressions taken from life; but they connected an infinitely -higher idea with the heavenly nourishment. Although but few know what -the einherjes eat, we ought to know it. When we hear the word ambrosia, -we think of a very fine nourishment, although we do not know what it -was. In the _Iliad_ (14, 170), it is used of pure water. The words used -in the Norse mythology in reference to the food and drink of the gods -are very simple, And-hrimner, Eld-hrimner, and Sæ-hrimner. Hrim (rime) -is the first and most delicate transition from a liquid to a solid; -hrimner is the one producing this transition. The food was formed, as -the words clearly show, by air (_and_, _önd_, _aande_, breath), by fire -(_eld_), and by water (_sæ_, sea). We have here the most delicate -formation of the most delicate elements. There is nothing earthly in it. -The fundamental element is water boiled by the fire, which is nourished -by the air; and the drink is the clear stream, which flows from the -highest abodes of heaven, the pure ethereal current, which comes from -the distant regions where the winds are silent. Nay, we cannot even call -it a drink, but it is the purest and most delicate breath of the air, -that fills the lungs of the immortal heroes in Valhal. - -A mighty band of men there is in Valhal, and Odin must indeed be a great -chieftain to command such a numerous host; but how do the heroes pass -their time when they are not drinking? Answer: Every day, as soon as -they have dressed themselves, they ride out into the court, and there -fight until they cut each other into pieces. This is their pastime. But -when meal-time approaches, they remount their steeds and return to drink -mead from the skulls of their enemies[53] in Valhal. Thus the Elder -Edda: - - The einherjes all - On Odin’s plain - Hew daily each other, - While chosen the slain are. - From the battle-field they ride - And sit in peace with each other. - - - SECTION XVII. THE VALKYRIES (VALKYRJUR). - - -As the god of war, Odin sends out his maids to choose the fallen heroes -(_kjósa val_). They are called valkyries and valmaids (_valmeyar_). The -valkyries serve in Valhal, where they bear in the drink, take care of -the drinking-horns, and wait upon the table. Odin sends them to every -field of battle, to make choice of those who are to be slain and to sway -the victory. The youngest of the norns, Skuld, also rides forth to -choose the slain and turn the combat. More than a dozen valkyries are -named in the Elder Edda, and all these have reference to the activities -of war. - -This myth about Odin as the god of war, about Valhal and the valkyries, -exercised a great influence upon the mind and character of our -ancestors. The dying hero knows that the valkyries have been sent after -him to invite him home to Odin’s hall, and he receives their message -with joy and gladness. That the brave were to be taken after death to -Valhal was one of the fundamental points, if not the soul, of the Norse -religion.[54] The Norsemen felt in their hearts that it was absolutely -necessary to be brave. Odin would not care for them, but despise and -thrust them away from him, if they were not brave. And is there not some -truth in this doctrine? Is it not still a preëminent duty to be brave? -Is it not the first duty of man to subdue fear? What can we accomplish -until we have got rid of fear? A man is a slave, a coward, his very -thoughts are false, until he has got fear under his feet. Thus we find -that the Odinic doctrine, if we disentangle the real kernel and essence -of it, is true even in our times. A man must be valiant—he must march -forward and acquit himself like a man. How much of a man he is will be -determined in most cases by the completeness of his victory over fear. -Their views of Odin, Valhal and the valkyries made the Norsemen think it -a shame and misery not to die in battle; and if natural death seemed to -be coming on, they would cut wounds in their flesh, that Odin might -receive them as warriors slain. Old kings, about to die, had their -bodies laid in a ship; the ship was sent forth with sails set, and a -slow fire burning it, so that once out at sea it might blaze up in -flame, and in such manner bury worthily the hero both in the sky and in -the ocean. The Norse viking fought with an indomitable, rugged energy. -He stood in the prow of his ship, silent, with closed lips, defying the -wild ocean with its monsters, and all men and things. No Homer sang of -these Norse warriors and sea-kings, but their heroic deeds and wild -deaths are the ever-recurring theme of the skalds. - -The death of the Norse viking is beautifully described in the following -strophe from Professor Hjalmar Hjorth Boyesen’s poem, entitled _Odin’s -Ravens_: - - In the prow with head uplifted - Stood the chief like wrathful Thor; - Through his locks the snow-flakes drifted - Bleached their hue from gold to hoar. - Mid the crash of mast and rafter - Norsemen leaped through death with laughter - Up through Valhal’s wide-flung door. - -Regner Lodbrok thus ends his famous song, the Krákumál: - - Cease, my strain! I hear a voice - From realms where martial souls rejoice; - I hear the maids of slaughter call, - Who bid me hence to Odin’s hall: - High-seated in their blest abodes - I soon shall quaff the drink of gods. - The hours of life have glided by, - I fall, but smiling shall I die. - -And in the death-song of Hakon (_Hákonarmál_) we find the valkyries -Gondul and Skogul in the heat of battle: - - The god Tyr sent - Gondul and Skogul - To choose a king - Of the race of Ingve, - To dwell with Odin - In roomy Valhal. - -The battle being described, the skald continues: - - When lo! Gondul, - Pointing with her spear, - Said to her sister, - Soon shall increase - The band of the gods: - To Odin’s feast - Hakon is bidden. - - The king beheld - The beautiful maids - Sitting on their horses - In shining armor, - Their shields before them, - Solemnly thoughtful. - - The king heard - The words of their lips, - Saw them beckon - With pale hands, - And thus bespoke them: - Mighty goddesses, - Were we not worthy - You should choose us - A better doom? - - Skogul answered: - Thy foes have fallen, - Thy land is free, - Thy fame is pure; - Now we must ride - To greener worlds, - To tell Odin - That Hakon comes. - -An interpretation of the valkyries is not necessary. The god of war -sends his thoughts and his will to the carnage of the battle-field in -the form of mighty armed women, in the same manner as he sends his -ravens over all the earth. - -Ethically considered, then, Odin symbolizes the matchless hope of -victory that inspired the Norsemen, and from which their daring exploits -sprang; and we know that this hope of victory did not leave the hero -when he fell bleeding on the field of battle, but followed him borne in -valkyrian arms to Valhal, and thence he soared on eagle pinions to Gimle -on the everlasting hights. - -Footnote 35: - - Compare _Shakespeare_—Shylock and the pound of flesh: - - ... No jot of blood; - The words expressly are “a pound of flesh.” - -Footnote 36: - - Freyja, whom the gods had promised the giant, was Oder’s wife. - -Footnote 37: - - Jack the Giant-killer. - -Footnote 38: - - The vala, or prophetess. - -Footnote 39: - - Odin. - -Footnote 40: - - Odin. - -Footnote 41: - - See Vocabulary under the word _Mimer_. - -Footnote 42: - - He who hardens the hide. - -Footnote 43: - - Fence-breaker. - -Footnote 44: - - Compare with this myth Dido and the founding of Carthage. - -Footnote 45: - - Rind was daughter of Billing. - -Footnote 46: - - The goddess of the sea. - -Footnote 47: - - Suttung. - -Footnote 48: - - Ygdrasil. - -Footnote 49: - - Roots of trees were especially fitted for hurtful trolldom - (witchcraft). They produced mortal wounds. - -Footnote 50: - - The old heathen Norsemen sprinkled their children with water when they - named them. - -Footnote 51: - - The waker of the people. - -Footnote 52: - - Odin. - -Footnote 53: - - If the _North American Review_, or anybody else, thinks this is proof - of barbarism, we can refer them to the monks in Trier, who preserved - the skull of Saint Theodulf and gave sick people drink from it; and we - know several other such instances. Our Norse ancestors were not, then, - in this respect any more savage than the Christian bishops and monks. - See _North American Review_, January, 1875, p. 195. - -Footnote 54: - - See Thomas Carlyle’s _Heroes and Hero-worship_. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - HERMOD, TYR, HEIMDAL, BRAGE, AND IDUN. - - - SECTION I. HERMOD. - - -Odin’s sons are emanations of his own being. As the god of war, warlike -valor is one of his servants, and honor another. He invents the art of -poetry, but the execution of it he leaves to his son Brage. He does not -meddle with thunder, having left this work of a lower order to his son -Thor. He is the father of light and darkness, and he leaves the -beneficent light to diffuse itself and struggle with darkness -independently (Balder and Hoder). Nor does he himself watch the rainbow, -but let the watchful Heimdal take care of it. - -Hermod (the valiant in combat) was the son of Odin and messenger of the -gods. Odin himself gave him helmet and corselet, the means by which to -display his warlike character, and he is sent on all dangerous missions. -Of his many exploits the most important one is when he was sent on -Sleipner to Hel to bring Balder back. It was Hermod and Brage who were -sent to bid Hakon, the king, welcome, when he arrived at Valhal. - - - SECTION II. TYR. - - -Tyr’s name is preserved in Tuesday. He is the god of martial honor -(compare the German _Zier_). Tyr is the most daring and intrepid of all -the gods. It is he who dispenses valor in war; hence warriors do well to -invoke him. It has become proverbial to say of a man who surpasses all -others in valor, that he is Tyr-strong, or valiant as Tyr. A man noted -for his wisdom is also said to be wise as Tyr. He gives a splendid proof -of his intrepidity when the gods try to persuade the wolf Fenrer, as we -shall see hereafter, to let himself be bound up with the chain Gleipner. -The wolf fearing that the gods would never afterwards unloose him, -consented to be bound only on the condition that while they were -chaining him he should keep Tyr’s hand between this jaws. Tyr did not -hesitate to put his hand in the monster’s mouth, but when the Fenriswolf -perceived that the gods had no intention to unchain him, he bit the hand -off at that point which has ever since been called the wolf’s joint -(_úlfliðr_), the wrist. From that time Tyr has but one hand. - -Tyr is the son of Odin, and it is through him the latter, as the god of -war, awakens wild courage. Thus he is the god of honor, and when the -noble gods desire to tame the raging flames he naturally has to arouse -all his courage and even sacrifice a part of himself, just as we -frequently have to sacrifice some of our comforts to keep clear of -rogues and scoundrels. - - - SECTION III. HEIMDAL. (HEIMDALLR). - - -Heimdal is the son of Odin, and is called the white god (_hvíti áss_, -the pure, innocent god). He is the son of nine virgins, who were -sisters, and is a very sacred and powerful deity. Thus he says in the -Elder Edda: - - Born was I of mothers nine, - Son I am of sisters nine. - -He also bears the appellation of the gold-toothed, for his teeth were of -pure gold, and the appellation Hallinskide (_hallinskiði_, the owner of -the vaulted arch). His horse is called Gulltop (_goldtop_), and he -dwells in Himminbjorg, the mountains of heaven, at the end of Bifrost, -the rainbow. He is the warder of the gods, and is therefore placed on -the borders of heaven to prevent the giants from forcing their way over -the bridge. He requires less sleep than a bird and sees by night as well -as by day a hundred miles around him. So acute is his ear that no sound -escapes him, for he can even hear the grass growing on the earth and the -wool on a sheep’s back. He has a horn called Gjallar-horn, which is -heard throughout the universe. Thus the Elder Edda, in the lay of -Grimner: - - ’Tis Himminbjorg called - Where Heimdal they say - Hath dwelling and rule. - There the gods’ warder drinks - In peaceful old halls - Gladsome the good mead. - -Heimdal has a sword called Hofud (head); he figures at the death of -Balder and appears in Ragnarok. Physically interpreted, Heimdal is the -god of the rainbow, but the brilliant rainbow most beautifully -symbolizes the favoring grace of the gods. The rainbow itself is called -_ásbrú_ (asabridge) or Bifrost (the trembling way), and he who has seen -a perfect rainbow can appreciate how this resplendent arch among all -races has served as a symbol of peace, the bridge between heaven and -earth, the bridge connecting the races of the earth with the gods. Did -not God in Genesis set his bow in the cloud that it should be for a -token of a covenant between him and the earth? And when our poor -laboring masses get their taste cultivated for poetry, art, and -mythological lore,—when they have learned to appreciate our common -inheritance,—they will find that our Gothic history, folk-lore and -mythology together form - - A link - That binds us to the skies, - A bridge of _rainbows_ thrown across - The gulf of tears and sighs.[55] - -In Greece we find the goddess Iris as the impersonation of the rainbow; -while in the Bible the rainbow is not personified, and in no -mythological system does the graceful divinity of the rainbow enter so -prominently into the affairs of men as does our Heimdal. In the first -verse of Völuspá, all mankind is called the sons of Heimdal, and this -thought is developed in a separate lay in the Elder Edda, called -Rigsmál, the lay of Rig (Heimdal), to which the reader is referred. - - - SECTION IV. BRAGE AND IDUN. - - -Brage is the son of Odin, and Idun is Brage’s wife. Brage is celebrated -for his wisdom, but more especially for his eloquence and correct forms -of speech. He is not only eminently skilled in poetry, but the art -itself is from his name called _Brage_, which epithet is also used to -denote a distinguished poet or poetess. Runes are risted on his tongue. -He wears a long flowing beard, and persons with heavy beard are called -after him, beard-brage (_skeggbragi_). His wife Idun (_Iðunn_) keeps in -a box the apples which the gods, when they feel old age approaching, -have only to taste of to become young again. It is in this manner they -will be kept in renovated youth until Ragnarok. This is a great treasure -committed to the guardianship and good faith of Idun, and it shall be -related how great a risk the gods once ran. - -At the feast after the death of a king or jarl, it was customary among -the Norsemen for the heir to occupy a lower bench in front of the chief -seat, until Brage’s bowl was brought in. Then he arose, made a pledge, -and drank the cup of Brage. After that he was conducted into the seat of -his father. - -At the sacrificial feasts of the Norsemen, the conductor of the -sacrifice consecrated the drinking-horns as well as the sacrificed food. -The guests first drank Odin’s horn, for the victory and rule of the -king; next they drank Njord’s and Frey’s horns, for prosperous seasons -and for peace; and then many were accustomed to drink a horn to Brage, -the god of poetry. A characteristic ceremony in connection with this -horn was, that when the bowl was raised, the promise of performing some -great deed was made, which might furnish material for the songs of the -skalds. This makes the character of Brage perfectly clear. - -Idun’s name is derived from the root _ið_, and expresses a constant -activity and renovation, which idea becomes more firmly established by -the following myth. - - - SECTION V. IDUN AND HER APPLES. - - -Æger, the god of the sea, who was well skilled in magic, went to Asgard, -where the gods gave him a very good reception. Supper-time having come, -the twelve mighty gods, together with the goddesses Frigg, Freyja, -Gefjun, Idun, Gerd, Sigun, Fulla, and Nanna, seated themselves on their -lofty doom seats, in a hall around which were arranged swords of such -surpassing brilliancy that no other light was necessary. While they were -emptying their capacious drinking-horns, Æger, who sat next to Brage, -requested him to relate something concerning the asas. Brage instantly -complied with his request by informing him of what had happened to Idun. - -Once, he said, when Odin, Loke and Hœner went on a journey, they came to -a valley where a herd of oxen were grazing, and, being sadly in want of -provisions, did not scruple to kill one for their supper. Vain, however, -were their efforts to boil the flesh; they found it, every time they -took the lid off the kettle, as raw as when first put in. While they -were endeavoring to account for this singular circumstance a noise was -heard above them, and on looking up they beheld an enormous eagle -perched on the branch of an oak tree. If you are willing to let me have -my share of the flesh, said the eagle, it shall soon be boiled. And on -assenting to this proposal it flew down and snatched up a leg and two -shoulders of the ox—a proceeding which so incensed Loke that he picked -up a large pole and made it fall pretty heavily on the eagle’s back. It -was, however, not an eagle that Loke struck, but the renowned giant -Thjasse, clad in his eagle-plumage. Loke soon found this out to his -sorrow, for while one end of the pole stuck fast to the eagle’s back, he -was unable to let go his hold of the other end, and was consequently -trailed by the eagle-clad giant over rocks and forests until he was -almost torn to pieces, and he thought his arms would be pulled off at -the shoulders. Loke in this predicament began to sue for peace, but -Thjasse told him that he should never be released from his hold until he -bound himself by a solemn oath to bring Idun and her apples out of -Asgard. Loke very willingly gave his oath to bring about this, and went -back in a piteous plight to his companions. - -On his return to Asgard, Loke told Idun that in a forest not very far -from the celestial residence he had found apples growing, which he -thought were of a much better quality than her own, and that at all -events it was worth while to make a comparison between them. Idun, -deceived by his words, took her apples and went with him into the -forest, but they had no sooner entered it than Thjasse, clad in his -eagle-plumage, flew rapidly toward them, and, catching up Idun, carried -her and her treasure off with him to Jotunheim. The gods being thus -deprived of their renovating apples, soon became wrinkled and gray, old -age was creeping fast upon them when they discovered that Loke had been, -as usual, the contriver of all the mischief that had befallen them. -Inquiry was made about Idun in the assembly which was called, and the -last anybody knew about her was that she had been seen going out of -Asgard in company with Loke. They therefore threatened him with torture -and death if he did not instantly hit upon some expedient for bringing -back Idun and her apples to Asgard. This threat terrified Loke, and he -promised to bring her back from Jotunheim if Freyja would lend him her -falcon-plumage. He got the falcon-plumage of Freyja, flew in it to -Jotunheim, and finding that Thjasse was out at sea fishing, he lost no -time in transforming Idun into a nut and flying off with her in his -claws. But when Thjasse returned and became aware of what had happened, -he put on his eagle-plumage and flew after them. When the gods saw Loke -approach, holding Idun changed into a nut between his claws, and Thjasse -with his outspread eagle-wings ready to overtake him, they placed on the -walls of Asgard bundles of chips, which they set fire to the instant -Loke had flown over them; and as Thjasse could not stop his flight, the -fire caught his plumage, and he thus fell into the power of the gods, -who slew him within the portals of the celestial residence. - -When these tidings came to Thjasse’s daughter, Skade (_Skaði_, German -_Schade_, harm), she put on her armor and went to Asgard, fully -determined to avenge her father’s death; but the gods having declared -their willingness to atone for the deed, an amicable arrangement was -entered into. Skade was to choose a husband in Asgard, and the gods were -to make her laugh, a feat which she flattered herself it would be -impossible for any one to accomplish. Her choice of a husband was to be -determined by a mere inspection of the feet of the gods, it being -stipulated that the feet should be the only part of their persons -visible until she had made known her determination. In inspecting the -row of feet placed before her, Skade took a fancy to a pair which from -their fine proportions she thought certainly must be those of Balder. I -choose these, she said, for on Balder there is nothing unseemly. The -feet were however Njord’s, and Njord was given her for a husband; and as -Loke managed to make her laugh by playing some diverting antics with a -goat, the atonement was fully effected. It is even said that Odin did -more than had been stipulated, by taking out Thjasse’s eyes and placing -them to shine as stars in the firmament. - -This myth, interpreted by the visible workings of nature, means that -Idun (the ever-renovating spring) being in the possession of Thjasse -(the desolating winter), all the gods—that is, all nature—languishes -until she is delivered from her captivity. On this being effected, her -presence again diffuses joy and gladness, and all things revive; while -her pursuer, winter, with his icy breath, dissolves in the solar rays -indicated by the fires lighted on the walls of Asgard. The wintry blasts -rage so fearfully in the flames, that the flesh cannot be boiled, and -the wind even carries a burning (Loke) stick with it. The ethical -interpretation will suggest itself to every reader, and Idun is to -Brage, who sings among the trees and by the musical brooks of spring, -what a poetical contemplation of the busy forces of nature in producing -blossoms and ripening fruit must always be to every son of Brage. - -Footnote 55: - - Barry Cornwall. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - BALDER AND NANNA, HODER, VALE AND FORSETE. - - - SECTION I. BALDER. - - -Balder is the favorite of all nature, of all the gods and of men. He is -son of Odin and Frigg, and it may be truly said of him that he is the -best god, and that all mankind are loud in his praise. So fair and -dazzling is he in form and features, that rays of light seem to issue -from him; and we may form some idea of the beauty of his hair when we -know that the _whitest of all plants_ is called _Balder’s brow_.[56] -Balder is the mildest, the wisest and the most eloquent of all the gods, -yet such is his nature that the judgment he has pronounced can never be -altered. He dwells in the heavenly mansion called Breidablik (the -broad-shining splendor), into which nothing unclean can enter. Thus the -Elder Edda, in the lay of Grimner: - - Breidablik is the seventh, - Where Balder has - Built for himself a hall, - In that land - In which I know exists - The fewest crimes. - - - SECTION II. THE DEATH OF BALDER THE GOOD. - - -This was an event which the asas deemed of great importance. Balder the -Good having been tormented by terrible dreams, indicating that his life -was in great peril, communicated them to the assembled gods, who, -sorrow-stricken, resolved to conjure all things to avert from him the -threatened danger. Then Frigg exacted an oath from fire and water, from -iron and all other metals, as well as from stones, earths, diseases, -beasts, birds, poisons, and creeping things, that none of them would do -any harm to Balder. Still Odin feared that the prosperity of the gods -had vanished. He saddled his Sleipner and rode down to Niflheim, where -the dog from Hel met him; it was bloody on the breast and barked a long -time at Odin. Odin advanced; the earth trembled beneath him, and he came -to the high dwelling of Hel. East of the door he knew the grave of the -vala was situated; thither he rode and sang magic songs (_kvað galdra_), -until she unwillingly stood up and asked who disturbed her peace, after -she had been lying so long covered with snow and wet with dew. Odin -called himself Vegtam, a son of Valtam, and asked for whom the benches -were strewn with rings and the couches were swimming in gold. She -replied that the mead was brewed for Balder, but all the gods would -despair. When Odin asked further who should be Balder’s bane, she -answered that Hoder would hurl the famous branch and become the bane of -Odin’s son; but Rind should give birth to a son who, only one night old, -should wield a sword, and would neither wash his hands nor comb his hair -before he had avenged his brother. But recognizing Odin by an -enigmatical question, she said: You are not Vegtam, as I believed, but -you are Odin, the old ruler. Odin replied: You are no vala, but the -mother of three giants. Then the vala told Odin to ride home and boast -of his journey, but assured him that no one should again visit her thus -before Loke should be loosed from his chains and the ruin of the gods -had come. Thus the lay of Vegtam in the Elder Edda: - - Together were the gods - All in council, - And the goddesses - All in conference; - And they consulted - The mighty gods, - Why Balder had - Oppressive dreams. - - To that god his slumber - Was most afflicting; - His auspicious dreams - Seemed departed. - They the giants questioned, - Wise seers of the future, - Whether this might not - Forebode calamity. - - The responses said - That to death destined was - Uller’s kinsman, - Of all the dearest: - That caused grief - To Frigg and Svafner, - And to the other powers,— - On a course they resolved: - - That they would send - To every being, - Assurance to solicit, - Balder not to harm. - All species swore - Oaths to spare him: - Frigg received all - Their vows and compacts. - - Valfather fears - Something defective; - He thinks the haminjes[57] - May have departed; - The gods he convenes, - Their counsel craves; - At the deliberation - Much is devised. - - Up stood Odin, - Lord of men, - And on Sleipner he - The saddle laid; - Rode he thence down - To Niflheim. - A dog he met, - From Hel coming. - - It was blood-stained - On its breast, - On its slaughter-craving throat, - And nether jaw. - It barked - And widely gaped - At the father of magic song; - Long it howled. - - Forth rode Odin— - The ground thundered— - Till to Hel’s lofty - House he came; - Then rode Ygg (Odin) - To the eastern gate, - Where he knew there was - A vala’s grave. - - To the prophetess he began - A magic song to chant, - Toward the north looked, - Potent runes applied, - A spell pronounced, - An answer demanded, - Until compelled she rose - And with death-like voice she said: - - - THE VALA: - - What man is this, - To me unknown, - Who has for me increased - An irksome course? - I have with snow been decked, - By rain beaten, - And with dew moistened,— - Long have I been dead. - - - VEGTAM: - - Vegtam is my name, - I am Valtam’s son. - Tell thou me of Hel; - From earth I call on thee. - For whom are these benches - Strewed o’er with rings,— - Those costly couches - O’erlaid with gold? - - - THE VALA: - - Here stands mead - For Balder brewed, - Over the bright drink - A shield is laid; - But the race of gods - Is in despair. - By compulsion I have spoken, - Now will I be silent. - - - VEGTAM: - - Be not silent, vala! - I will question thee - Until all I know: - I will yet know - Who will Balder’s - Slayer be - And Odin’s son - Of life bereave. - - - THE VALA: - - Hoder will hither - His glorious brother send; - He of Balder will - The slayer be, - And Odin’s son - Of life bereave. - By compulsion I have spoken, - Now will I be silent. - - - VEGTAM: - - Be not silent, vala! - I will question thee - Until all I know: - I will yet know - Who on Hoder vengeance - Will inflict, - Or Balder’s slayer - Raise on the pile. - - - THE VALA: - - Rind a son shall bear - In the wintry halls: - He shall slay Odin’s son, - When one night old. - He a hand will not wash, - Nor his hair comb, - Ere to the pile he has borne - Balder’s adversary. - By compulsion I have spoken, - Now will I be silent. - - - VEGTAM: - - Be not silent, vala! - I will question thee - Until all I know: - I will yet know - Who are the maids - That weep at will - And heavenward cast - Their neck-veils. - Tell me that; - Till then thou sleepest not. - - - THE VALA: - - Not Vegtam art thou, - As I before believed; - Rather art thou Odin, - Lord of men. - - - ODIN: - - Thou art no vala, - Nor wise woman; - Rather art thou the mother - Of three thurses (giants). - - - THE VALA: - - Home ride thou, Odin! - And exult. - Thus shall never more - Man again visit me - Until Loke free - From his bonds escapes, - And Ragnarok - All-destroying comes. - -When it had been made known that nothing in the world would harm Balder, -it became a favorite pastime of the gods, at their meetings, to get -Balder to stand up and serve them as a mark, some hurling darts at him, -some stones, while others hewed at him with their swords and -battle-axes; for whatever they did none of them could harm him, and this -was regarded by all as a great honor shown to Balder. But when Loke -Laufeyarson beheld the scene he was sorely vexed that Balder was not -hurt. Assuming, therefore, the guise of a woman he went to Fensal, the -mansion of Frigg. That goddess, seeing the pretended woman, inquired of -her whether she knew what the gods were doing at their meetings. The -woman (Loke) replied that they were throwing darts and stones at Balder, -without being able to hurt him. - -Ay, said Frigg, neither metal nor wood can hurt Balder, for I have -exacted an oath from all of them. - -What! exclaimed the woman, have all things sworn to spare Balder? - -All things, replied Frigg, except one little shrub that grows on the -eastern side of Valhal, and is called mistletoe, and which I thought too -young and feeble to crave an oath from. - -As soon as Loke heard this he went away, and, resuming his natural form, -pulled up the mistletoe and repaired to the place where the gods were -assembled. There he found Hoder standing far to one side without -engaging in the sport, on account of his blindness. Loke going up to him -said: Why do not you also throw something at Balder? - -Because I am blind, answered Hoder, and cannot see where Balder is, and -besides I have nothing to throw with. - -Come then, said Loke, do like the rest, and show honor to Balder by -throwing this twig at him, and I will direct your arm toward the place -where he stands. - -Hoder then took the mistletoe, and under the guidance of Loke darted it -at Balder, who, pierced through and through, fell down lifeless. Surely -never was there witnessed, either among gods or men, a more atrocious -deed than this! When Balder fell the gods were struck speechless with -horror, and then they looked at each other; and all were of one mind to -lay hands on him who had done the deed, but they were obliged to delay -their vengeance out of respect for the sacred place (place of peace) -where they were assembled. They at length gave vent to their grief by -such loud lamentations that they were not able to express their grief to -one another. Odin, however, felt this misfortune most severely, because -he knew best how great was the mischief and the loss which the gods had -sustained by the death of Balder. When the gods were a little composed, -Frigg asked who among them wished to gain all her love and favor by -riding to the lower world to try and find Balder, and offer a ransom to -Hel if she will permit Balder to return to Asgard; whereupon Hermod, -surnamed the Nimble, offered to undertake the journey. Odin’s horse, -Sleipner, was then led forth and prepared for the journey; Hermod -mounted him and galloped hastily away. - -The god then took the dead body of Balder and carried it to the sea, -where lay Balder’s ship, Ringhorn, which was the largest of all ships. -But when they wanted to launch this ship, in order to make Balder’s -funeral pile on it, they were unable to move it from the place. In this -predicament they sent a messenger to Jotunheim for a certain giantess -named Hyrroken (the smoking fire), who came riding on a wolf and had -twisted serpents for her reins. As soon as she alighted Odin ordered -four berserks to hold her steed, but they were obliged to throw the -animal down on the ground before they could manage it. Hyrroken then -went to the prow of the ship, and with a single push set it afloat; but -the motion was so violent that fire sparkled from the underlaid rollers -and the whole earth shook. Thor, enraged at the sight, grasped his -mallet and would have broken the woman’s skull, had not the gods -interceded for her. Balder’s body was then carried to the funeral pile -on board the ship, and this ceremony had such an effect upon Balder’s -wife, Nanna, daughter of Nep, that her heart broke with grief, and her -body was laid upon the same pile and burned with that of her husband. -Thor stood beside the pile and consecrated it with his hammer Mjolner. -Before his feet sprang up a dwarf called Lit. Thor kicked him with his -foot into the fire, so that he also was burned. There was a vast -concourse of various kinds of people at Balder’s funeral procession. -First of all came Odin, accompanied by Frigg, the valkyries, and his -ravens. Then came Frey in his chariot, drawn by the boar Gullinburste -(gold-brush), or Slidrugtanne (the sharp-toothed). Heimdal rode his -horse Goldtop, and Freyja drove in her chariot drawn by cats. There were -also a great number of frost-giants and mountain-giants present. Odin -cast upon the funeral pile the famous ring Draupner, which had been made -for him by the dwarfs, and possessed the property of producing every -ninth night eight rings of equal weight. Balder’s horse, fully -caparisoned, was also laid upon the pile, and consumed in the same -flames with the body of his master. - -Meanwhile Hermod was proceeding on his mission. Of him it is to be -related that he rode nine days and as many nights through dark and deep -valleys, so dark that he could not discern anything, until he came to -the river Gjol and passed over the Gjallar bridge (bridge over the river -Gjol), which is covered with glittering gold. Modgud, the maiden who -kept the bridge, asked him his name and parentage, and added that the -day before five fylkes (kingdoms, bands) of dead men had ridden over the -bridge; but, she said, it did not shake as much beneath all of them -together as it does under you alone, and you have not the complexion of -the dead; why then do you ride here on your way to Hel? I ride to Hel, -answered Hermod, to seek for Balder; have you perchance seen him pass -this way? She replied that Balder had ridden over the Gjallar bridge, -and that the road to the abodes of death (to Hel) lay downward and -toward the north. - -Hermod then continued his journey until he came to the barred gates of -Hel. Then he alighted from his horse, drew the girths tighter, remounted -him and clapped both spurs into him. The horse cleared the gate with a -tremendous leap without touching it. Hermod then rode forward to the -palace, alighted and went in, where he found his brother Balder -occupying the most distinguished seat in the hall, and spent the night -in his company. The next morning he entreated Hel (death) to let Balder -ride home with him, representing to her the sorrow which prevailed among -the gods. Hel replied that it should now be tried whether Balder was so -universally beloved as he was said to be; if therefore, she added, all -things in the world, the living as well as the lifeless, will weep for -him, then he shall return to the gods, but if anything speak against him -or refuse to weep, then Hel will keep him. - -After this Hermod rose up. Balder went with him out of the hall and gave -him the ring Draupner, to present as a keepsake to Odin. Nanna sent -Frigg a carpet together with several other gifts, and to Fulla she sent -a gold finger-ring. Hermod then rode back to Asgard and related -everything that he had heard and witnessed. - -The gods upon this dispatched messengers throughout all the world to -beseech everything to weep, in order that Balder might be delivered from -the power of Hel. All things very willingly complied with the -request,—men, animals, the earth, stones, trees, and all metals, just as -we see things weep when they come out of the frost into the warm air. -When the messengers were returning, with the conviction that their -mission had been quite successful, they found on their way home a -giantess (ogress, Icel. _gýgr_), who called herself Thok. They bade her -also weep Balder out of the dominion of Hel. But she answered: - - Thok will weep - With dry tears[58] - For Balder’s death; - Neither in life nor in death - Gave he me gladness. - Let Hel keep what she has. - -It is supposed that this giantess (_gýgr_) was no other than Loke -Laufeyarson himself, who had caused the gods so many other troubles. -Thus the Elder Edda refers to the death of Balder in Völuspá: - - I saw the concealed - Fate of Balder, - The blood-stained god, - The son of Odin. - In the fields - There stood grown up, - Slender and passing fair, - The mistletoe. - - From that shrub was made, - As to me it seemed, - A deadly noxious dart; - Hoder shot it forth; - But Frigg bewailed - In Fensal - Valhal’s calamity. - Understand ye yet, or what? - -To conquer Vafthrudner, and to reveal himself, Odin asks him to solve -this last problem: - - What said Odin - In his son’s ear, - Ere he on the pile was laid? - -This is the question that Vafthrudner was unable to answer, and hence he -had to forfeit his head. N. M. Petersen thinks that Odin whispered into -Balder’s ear the name of the supreme god. - -This myth about the death of Balder finds an apt explanation in the -seasons of the year, in the change from light to darkness, in Norseland. -Balder represents the bright and clear summer, when twilight and -daybreak kiss each other and go hand in hand in these northern -latitudes. His death by Hoder is the victory of darkness over light, the -darkness of winter over the light of summer, and the revenge by Vale is -the breaking forth of new light after the wintry darkness. - -In this connection it is also worthy of notice that there used to be a -custom, which is now nearly forgotten, of celebrating the banishment of -death or darkness, the strife between winter and summer, together with -the arrival of the May-king and election of the May-queen. Forgotten! -yes, well may we ask how it could come to pass that we through long -centuries have worried and tortured ourselves with every scrap of Greek -and Latin we could find, without caring the least for our own beautiful -and profound memories of the past. Death was carried out in the image of -a tree and thrown in the water or burned. In the spring two men -represent summer and winter, the one clad in wintergreen or leaves, the -other in straw. They have a large company of attendants with them, armed -with staves, and they fight with each other until winter (or death) is -subdued. They prick his eyes out or throw him into the water. These -customs, which prevailed throughout the middle ages, had their root and -origin in the ancient myth given above. - -No myth can be clearer than this one of Balder. The Younger Edda says -distinctly that he is so fair and dazzling in form and features that -rays of light seem to issue from him. Balder, then, is the god of light, -the light of the world. Light is the best thing we have in the world; it -is white and pure; it cannot be wounded; no shock can disturb it; -nothing in the world can kill it excepting its own negative, darkness -(Hoder). Loke (fire) is jealous of it; the pure light of heaven and the -blaze of fire are each other’s eternal enemies. Balder does not fight, -the mythology gives no exploits by him; he only shines and dazzles, -conferring blessings upon all, and this he continues to do steadfast and -unchangeable, until darkness steals upon him, darkness that does not -itself know what harm it is doing; and when Balder is dead, cries of -lamentation are heard throughout all nature. All nature seeks light. -Does not the eye of the child seek the light of the morning, and does -not the child weep when light vanishes, when night sets in? Does not -this myth of Balder repeat itself in the old man, who like Gœthe, when -death darkened his eyes, cried out: _mehr licht_ (more light)? Does not -the eagle from the loftiest pinnacle of the mountain seek light? The -lark soars on his lofty pinions and greets in warbling notes the king of -day welcome back into his kingdom. The tree firmly rooted in the ground -strains toward the light, spreading upward in search of it. The bird of -passage on his free wing flies after and follows the light. Is it not -the longing after light that draws the bird southward in the fall when -the days shorten in the north, and draws the little wanderer back again -as soon as the long northern days set in with all their luminous and -long-drawn hours? As Runeberg epigrammatically has it: - - The bird of passage is of noble birth; - He bears a motto, and his motto is, - _Lux mea dux_, Light is my leader. - -Nay all living things, even the shells in the sea, every leaf of the oak -and every blade of grass seeks light, and the blind poet sings: - - Hail, holy light! offspring of heaven first born! - He that hath light within his own clear breast - May sit in the center and enjoy bright day; - But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts - Benighted walks under the midday sun.[59] - -And another bard: - - Light down from heaven descends, - Ether pure in flowing bowls; - Light up to heaven ascends, - A mediator for our souls. - -Ay, it would be resting satisfied with the shell to interpret Balder as -the mere impersonation of the natural light of heaven. He represents and -symbolizes in the profoundest sense the heavenly light of the soul and -of the mind, purity, innocence, piety. There can be no doubt that our -ancestors combined the ethical with the physical in this myth. All light -comes from heaven. The natural light shines into and illuminates the -eye, the spiritual shines into and illuminates the heart. Innocence -cannot be wounded. Arrogance and jealousy throw their pointed arrows of -slander at it, but they fall harmless to the ground. But there is one -inclination, one unguarded spot among our other strong guarded passions. -The mischief-maker knows how to find this and innocence is pierced. When -Balder dies, a dark veil enshrouds all nature, and thus history clothes -herself in mourning, not because the hero dies, but because the innocent -Lincoln is pierced by the bullet of the foul assassin, who turns to the -night and flees. Every time light is slain by darkness it is the -beautiful and good that is stricken down, but it is never stricken down -except to return and shine with increased splendor. Balder dies in -nature when the woods are stripped of their foliage, when the flowers -fade and the storms of winter howl. Balder dies in the spiritual world -when the good are led away from the paths of virtue, when the soul -becomes dark and gloomy, forgetting its heavenly origin. Balder returns -in nature when the gentle winds of spring stir the air, when the -nightingale’s high note is heard in the heavens, and the flowers are -unlocked to paint the laughing soil, when light takes the place of gloom -and darkness; Balder returns in the spiritual world when the lost soul -finds itself again, throws off the mantle of darkness, and like a -shining spirit soars on wings of light to heaven, to God, who gave it. - -The flower which is sacred to Balder, the Balder’s brow, is the -_anthemis cotula_. It is a complete flower with a yellow disc and white -rays, a symbol of the sun with its beaming light, a sunflower. What a -poetical thought! The light pouring down upon the earth from beneath -Balder’s eye-brows, and the hairs of his eye-lids are the beams. What a -theme for a Correggio, who succeeded so well in painting the innocence -of woman beaming from her half-closed eyes! - -Balder’s wife is Nanna. She dies broken-hearted at his death. She is the -floral goddess who always turns her smiling face toward the sun. Her -father was Nep (_nepr_, a bud), son of Odin. Nanna’s and Balder’s -sending the ring Draupner to Odin, a carpet to Frigg, and a ring to -Fulla, has been explained heretofore, and how beautifully it symbolizes -the return of earth’s flowery carpet, with fruitfulness and abundance, -will be evident to every thoughtful reader. - -The sorrow of all nature we easily understand when we know that Loke -represents fire and Balder is gone to Hel. All things weep, become damp, -when brought from the cold to the warm air, excepting fire, and we -remember that Thok, that is, Loke in disguise, wept dry tears (sparks); -but all genuine tears are caused by a change of the heart from coldness -to warmth. It is a common expression in Iceland yet to say that the -stones, when covered with dew, weep for Balder (_gráta Baldr_). Balder’s -ship, Ringhorn, is rightly called the largest of all ships. Ringhorn is -the whole world, and the whole earth is Balder’s funeral pile. The tops -of the mountains are the masts of this ship, which is round (ring) as -the whirling world. - -It is time we ceased talking about our barbarous ancestors, for, if we -rightly comprehend this myth of Balder, we know that they appreciated, -nay, profoundly and poetically appreciated, the light that fills the eye -and blesses the heart, and were sensitive to the pain that cuts through -the bosom of man even into its finest and most delicate fibers. In this -myth of Balder is interwoven the most delicate feelings with the -sublimest sentiments. Read it and comprehend it. Let the ear and heart -and soul be open to the voiceless music that breathes through it. And -when you have thus read this myth, in connection with the other myths -and in connection with the best Sagas, then do not say another word -about the North not having any literature! Thanks be to the norns, that -the monks and priests, whose most zealous work it was to root out the -memories of the past and reduce the gods of our fathers to commonplace -demons, did not succeed in their devastating mission in faithful -Iceland! Thanks be to Shakespeare, that he did not forget the stern, -majestic, impartial and beautiful norns, even though he did change them -into the wrinkled witches that figure in Macbeth! Nay, that this our -ancient mythology, in spite of the wintry blasts that have swept over -it, in spite of the piercing cold to which it has been exposed at the -hand of those who thought they came with healing for the nations, in -spite of all the persecution it has suffered from monks and bishops, -professors and kings; that it, in spite of all these, has been able to -bud and blossom in our Teutonic folk-lore, our May-queens, and popular -life, is proof of the strong vital force it contained, and proof, too, -of the vigorous thought of our forefathers who preserved it. And nowhere -is this more evident than in Norway. These stories which have their root -in the Norse mythology have been handed down by word of month from -generation to generation with remarkable fidelity. Look at those long -and narrow and deep valleys of Norway! Those great clefts are deep -furrows plowed in the mountain mass in order that it might yield a -bountiful crop of folk-lore, the seed of which is the Edda mythology. -Let us give our children a share in the harvest! - - - SECTION III. FORSETE. - - -Forsete is the son of Balder and Nanna. He possesses the heavenly -mansion called Glitner, and all disputants at law who bring their cases -before him go away perfectly reconciled. His tribunal is the best that -is to be found among gods and men. Thus the Elder Edda, in the lay of -Grimner: - - Glitner is the tenth mansion; - It is on gold sustained, - And also with silver decked. - There Forsete dwells - Throughout all time, - And every strife allays. - -Forsete means simply _president_. The island Helgoland was formerly -called Forseteland. Justice was dealt out in Norseland during the bright -season of the year, and only while the sun was up, in the open air, in -the flowering lap of nature. The sanctity of the assembly and purity of -justice is expressed by the golden columns and the silver roof of -Glitner. The splendor of Balder shone upon his son. - -Footnote 56: - - The _anthemis cotula_ is generally called _Baldersbraa_ in the North. - -Footnote 57: - - Guardian spirits. - -Footnote 58: - - The sparks of fire are dry tears. - -Footnote 59: - - Milton. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - THOR, HIS WIFE SIF AND SON ULLER. - - - SECTION I. GENERAL SYNOPSIS. - - -THOR (_þórr_, _þunarr_, Anglo-Saxon _þunor_, German _donner_, thunder), -after whom Thursday is named (Thor’s-day), is the chief god next after -Odin. He is a spring god, subduing the frost-giants. - -Thor wears a red beard, his nature is fire, he is girded with the belt -of strength, swings a hammer in his hand, rides in a chariot drawn by -two goats, from whose hoofs and teeth sparks of fire flash, and the -scarlet cloud reflects his fiery eyes, over his head he wears a crown of -stars, under his feet rests the earth, and it shows the footprints of -his mighty steps. He is called Asathor and also Akethor (from _aka_, to -ride), and is the strongest of gods and men. He is enormously strong and -terrible when angry, but, as is so frequently the case with very strong -men, his great strength is coupled with a thoroughly inoffensive -good-nature. His realm is named Thrudvang and his mansion Bilskirner, in -which are five hundred and forty halls. It is the largest house ever -built. Thus the Elder Edda, in the lay of Grimner: - - Five hundred halls - And forty more - Methinks has - Bowed Bilskirner; - Of houses roofed - There is none I know - My son’s[60] surpassing. - -Thor’s chariot is drawn by two goats, called Tanngnjost and Tanngrisner. -It is from his driving about in this chariot he is called Akethor -(charioteer-Thor). He possesses three very precious articles. The first -is a mallet called Mjolner, which both the frost and mountain giants -know to their cost, when they see it hurled against them in the air; and -no wonder, for it has split many a skull of their fathers and kindred. -The second rare thing he possesses is called the belt of strength or -prowess (Megingjarder). When he girds it about him his divine strength -is redoubled. The third precious article which he possesses is his iron -gauntlet, which he is obliged to put on whenever he lays hold on the -handle of his mallet. No one is so wise as to be able to relate all -Thor’s marvelous exploits. - -Now the reader will easily comprehend the following beautiful strophes -from the pen of Longfellow,[61] who has so ingeniously sprinkled his -literature with dews from Ygdrasil: - - I am the god Thor, - I am the war god, - I am the Thunderer! - Here in my Northland, - My fastness and fortress, - Reign I forever! - - Here amid icebergs - Rule I the nations; - This is my hammer, - Mjolner, the mighty - Giants and sorcerers - Cannot withstand it! - - These are the gauntlets - Wherewith I wield it - And hurl it afar off; - This is my girdle, - Whenever I brace it - Strength is redoubled! - - The light thou beholdest - Stream through the heavens, - In flashes of crimson, - Is but my red beard - Blown by the night-wind, - Affrighting the nations. - - Jove is my brother; - Mine eyes are the lightning; - The wheels of my chariot - Roll in the thunder, - The blows of my hammer - Ring in the earthquake! - - Force rules the world still, - Has ruled it, shall rule it; - Meekness is weakness, - Strength is triumphant; - Over the whole earth - Still is Thor’s-day! - -Thor is the father of Magne, whose mother is Jarnsaxa, and of Mode. He -is the husband of Sif and step-father of Uller; he is the protector of -Asgard and Midgard, and is frequently called Midgardsveor; his servants -are Thjalfe, and the sister of the latter, Roskva. Among Thor’s several -names the most common ones are Vingthor, Vingner, and Hlorride. All this -of course has reference to him as the god of thunder. Thor, as has been -observed, is þunarr, thunder. Thrudvang, his realm, is the heavy compact -cloud, where he reigns; his mansion, Bilskirner (_bil-skirnir_), are the -flushes of lightning that for a moment (_bil_[62]) light up the heavens; -his goats, Tanngnjost (teeth-gnasher) and Tanngrisner (fire-flashing -teeth), symbolize the flashes of lightning, and so does also his red -beard. Mjolner, his hammer, is the crusher (compare the English word -_mill_[63]); his belt, Megingjarder, is the girdle of strength; his -sons, Magne and Mode, symbolize strength and courage. Vingthor is the -flying thunderstorm and Hlorride is he who rides in the flaming chariot. -His servant Thjalfe is the busy one, and Roskva is the rapid or nimble -one. That Thor is the god of thunder is also most clearly shown in the -Younger Edda, where it is related that Thor goes on foot and is obliged -every day to wade the rivers Kormt and Ormt, and two others called -Kerlaung, when he goes to sit in judgment with the other gods at the -Urdar-fount, and cannot ride, as do the other gods. If he did not walk -as he goes to the doomstead under the ash Ygdrasil, the Asabridge would -be in flames and the holy waters would become boiling hot, that is, if -Thor should drive over Bifrost in his thunder-chariot. - -Thor’s wife, Sif, is another symbol of the earth. She is called the -fair-haired. Gold is called Sif’s hair on account of the myth already -related, according to which Loke cuts off her hair and gets dwarfs to -forge for her golden locks. The interpreters of mythology are not -willing to give to Sif the field waving with ripe grain, which belongs -to the god Frey, being symbolized by his boar Goldenbristle, but say -that Sif is the mountain clad with grass, in contradistinction to -Jarnsaxa, who reigns in the barren deserts. Hrungner, that is, the naked -rock, tried to win the favor of Sif, but did not succeed. - -Uller is the son of Sif and the step-son of Thor. He is so well skilled -in the use of the bow, and can go so fast on his snow-skates (_skees_), -that in these arts no one can contend with him. He is also very handsome -in his person and possesses every quality of a warrior; wherefore it is -proper to invoke him in single combats. Uller’s mansion is Ydaler -(valleys of rain). From his running on skees we judge that he is a -personification of winter, and if the artist chooses him for his theme, -he must represent him standing on snow-shoes, clad in winter-suit, with -bow and arrow in his hands. We are now prepared to give some of Thor’s -adventures. - - - SECTION II. THOR AND HRUNGNER. - - -Thor had once gone eastward to crush trolls, but Odin rode on his horse, -Sleipner, to Jotunheim, and came to a giant by name Hrungner. Then asked -Hrungner what man that was, who with a helmet of gold rode through the -air and over the sea, and added that it was an extraordinarily good -horse he had. Odin replied that he would wager his head that so good a -horse could not be found in Jotunheim. Hrungner said that it was indeed -a very excellent horse, but he had one, by name Goldfax (gold-mane), -that could take much longer paces, and he immediately sprang upon his -horse and galloped away after Odin. Odin constantly kept ahead, but -Hrungner’s giant nature had become so excited that before he was himself -aware of it he had come within the gates of Asgard. When he came to the -door of the hall the gods invited him to drink, which as soon as he had -entered he demanded. Then the gods set before him the bowls out of which -Thor was accustomed to drink, and them he emptied each in one draught. -And when he had become drunk, he gave the freest vent to his loud -boastings. He was going to take Valhal, he said, and carry it off to -Jotunheim; he would demolish Asgard and kill the gods, except Freyja and -Sif, whom he would take home with him; and while Freyja was pouring the -celestial beverage into the bowls for him he remarked that he was going -to drink up all the ale of the gods. When the gods at length grew tired -of his arrogance, they named Thor, who immediately came and swung his -hammer and was very much enraged, and asked who was to blame that -dogwise giants should be permitted to drink there, or who had given -safety to Hrungner in Valhal, and why Freyja should pour ale for him as -she did at the feasts of the gods. Hrungner, looking at Thor with -anything but a friendly eye, answered that Odin had invited him and that -he was under his protection. Thor said that Hrungner should come to rue -that invitation before he came out; but the giant answered that it would -be but little honor to Asathor to kill him, unarmed as he was; it would -be a better proof of his valor if he dared contend with him at the -boundaries of his territory, at Grjottungard (_Grjóttunagarðar_). -Foolish was it also of me, continued Hrungner, to leave my shield and my -flint-stone at home; had I my weapons here we would now try a -holmgang;[64] but I declare you to be a coward if you kill me unarmed. -Thor would not excuse himself from a duel when he was challenged out on -a holm; this was something that no one had ever offered him before. -Hrungner now went his way and hastened home. This journey of Hrungner -was much talked of by the giants, and especially did his challenge of -Thor awaken their interest, and it was of great importance to them which -of the two should come out from the combat victorious. For if Hrungner, -who was the most powerful among the giants, should be conquered, they -might look for nothing but evil from Thor. They therefore made at -Grjottungard a man of clay, nine rasts (miles?) high and three rasts -broad between the shoulders; they could not find a heart corresponding -to his size, and therefore took one out of a mare; but this fluttered -and trembled when Thor came. Hrungner had a heart of hard stone, sharp -and three-cornered; his head was also of stone, and likewise his shield, -which was broad and thick, and this shield he held before himself when -he stood at Grjottungard waiting for Thor. His weapon was a flint-stone, -which he swung over his shoulders, so that it was no trifle to join in -combat with him. By his side stood the clay-giant, that is called -Mokkerkalfe (_Mökkrkálfi_), and was so extremely terrified that the -sweat poured from off him. Thor went to the holmgang together with -Thjalfe, a servant, whom he had got from a peasant by the sea. Thjalfe -ran to the place where Hrungner was standing, and said to him: You stand -unguarded, giant; you hold the shield before you, but Thor has seen you; -he comes with violence from beneath the earth and attacks you. Then -Hrungner hastily put the shield beneath his feet and stood on it, but he -seized his flint-stone with both hands. Presently he saw flashes of -lightning and heard loud crashings, and then he saw Thor in his -asamight, rushing forward with impetuous speed, swinging his hammer and -throwing it from the distance against Hrungner. The latter lifted the -flint-stone with both his hands and threw it with all his might against -the hammer; the two met in the air and the flint-stone broke into two -pieces, one piece of which fell on the ground (and hence the flint -mountains), while the other fell with such force against the head of -Thor that he fell forward to the ground; but the hammer Mjolner hit -Hrungner right in the head and crushed his skull into small pieces, he -himself falling over Thor, so that his foot lay across Thor’s neck. -Thjalfe contended with Mokkerkalfe, who fell with little honor. Then -Thjalfe went over to Thor, and was going to take Hrungner’s foot away, -but he was not able to do it. Thereupon came all the gods to -Grjottungard, when they had learned that Thor had fallen, but neither -was any one of them able to remove the foot of the giant. Then came -Magne (_magni_, strength), the son of Thor and Jarnsaxa; he was only -three nights old and he threw Hrungner’s foot off from Thor saying: It -was a great mishap, father, that I came so late; this giant, I think, I -could have slain with my fist. Thor stood up and lovingly greeted his -son, adding that he would give him the giant’s horse Goldfax; but Odin -remarked that this was wrongfully done of Thor to give the son of a hag -(_gýgjar syni_, son of Jarnsaxa) and not his father so excellent a -horse. - -Thor returned home to Thrudvang, and the flint-stone sat fast in his -head. Then came a sorceress, whose name was Groa, wife of Orvandel the -Wise; she sang her magic songs over Thor until the flint-stone became -loose. But when Thor perceived this, and was just expecting that the -stone would disappear, he desired to reward Groa for her cure, and -gladden her heart. He accordingly related to her how he had waded from -the north over the rivers Elivagar and had borne Orvandel on his back in -a basket from Jotunheim; and in evidence he told her that one toe of -Orvandel had protruded from the basket and had frozen, wherefore he had -broken it off and thrown it up into the sky and made of it the star -which is called Orvandel’s toe. Finally he added that it would not be -long before Orvandel would come home again. But Groa became so delighted -with this news that she forgot all her magic songs and the flint-stone -became no looser than it was, and it sticks fast in Thor’s head yet. -Therefore no one must throw a flint-stone across the floor, for then the -stone in Thor’s head is moved. Thus sings the Skald, Thjodolf of Hvin: - - We have ample evidence - Of the terrible giant’s journey - To Grjottungard, - With berg-folks’ consuming fire - The blood boiled in Meile’s brother,[65] - The moon-land trembled. - When earth’s son went - To the steel-gloved contest. - - In bright flame stood - All the realms of the sky - For Uller’s step-father, - And the earth rocked; - To pieces flew Svolner’s widow - When the span of goats - Drew the sublime chariot - And its divine master - To the meeting with Hrungner. - -The most prominent feature of this myth is the lightning which strikes -down among the rocks and splits them. Hrungner (from _hruga_, to -wrinkle, to heap up) is the naked, wrinkled mountains with their peaks. -Everything is made of stone. Hrungner’s heart and head and shield and -weapon were all of stone; beside him stands the clayey mountain -(Mokkerkalfe) clad in mist (_mökkr_), and the contest is at -Grjottungard, on the boundary of the stone-covered field. Thor crushes -the mountain to make way for agriculture. Thjalfe is the untiring labor, -which prepares the rock for cultivation. He advises Hrungner to protect -himself from below with his shield. The cultivation of the mountain must -begin at the foot of it; there labors the industrious farmer. When he -looks up the mountain lifts its rocky head like a huge giant of stone, -but the clouds gather around the giant’s head, the lightnings flash and -split it. Thjalfe may also be regarded as a concomitant of the -thunderstorm, and would then represent the pouring rain, as Thor had got -him from a peasant by the sea, and he contends with the mountain of -clay, from which the water pours down. Thor’s forehead may also -represent the face of the earth, from which he rises as the son of -earth, and we know that Minerva sprang forth full-grown and equipped -from the brain of Zeus. Orvandel[66] and Groa (to grow) refer to the -seed sprouting (Orvandel) and growing. Thor carries the seed in his -basket over the ice-cold streams (Elivagar), that is, he preserves -plant-life through the winter; the sprout ventures out too early in the -spring and a toe freezes off; and it is a beautiful idea that the gods -make shining stars of everything in the realm of giants that has became -useless on earth, and what more charming theme can the painter ask for -than Thor carrying on his divine shoulders the reckless Orvandel wading -through the ice streams of winter? - -Before proceeding to the next myth, we will pause here for a moment and -take a cursory look at history, to see whether a few outlines of it do -not find their completest reflection in this stone-hearted myth about -Hrungner and Thor. - -Hrungner on his horse _Goldfax_, racing with Odin and Sleipner, in the -most perfect manner represents the Roman _poetastry_, reveling in the -_wealth_ robbed from the nations of the earth, in rivalry with the -genuine Greek _poetry_ and philosophy; for Sleipner is Pegasos; and when -the Roman poetasters are in the hight of their glory Hrungner is -entertained at Asgard, drunk and crazy, bragging and swearing that he -will put all the gods to death excepting Sif (Fortuna) and Freyja -(Venus), destroy Asgard and move Valhal to Jotunheim; or, in other -words, Venus and Fortuna are the only divinities that shall be -worshiped; all religion (Asgard) shall be rooted out and history -(Valhal) shall only serve to glorify Rome. - -But in the course of time the North begins to take part in determining -the destinies of the world; Thor comes home, and shortly afterwards a -duel is fought between the Goth and Roman (Vandal) in which Rome is -worsted, which could not be expressed more fitly than by the fortunate -blow of Mjolner, which crushes the stone-hearted and stone-headed Giant -(Roman Vandalism). - -But the Goth becomes Romanized, he becomes a slave of Roman thought and -Roman civilization, and thus Hrungner falls upon Thor, with his foot -upon Thor’s neck, until his son Magne comes and takes it away. Magne is -the Anglo-Saxon who created a Gothic Christianity and a Gothic -book-speech; and well might the Anglo-Saxon be called Magne, son of -Asathor and the hag Jarnsaxa, for Magne is the mythical representation -of the mechanical arts, which have received their most perfect -development in England and America (the Anglo-Saxons). And we need only -to look at the literature of England and America to observe with what -pleasure Magne (the Anglo-Saxon) is a great child, who rides the horse -Goldfax (the Latin language), at which Odin (the Goth) may well complain -that it was wrongfully done, although the spirit of the North (Odin) -might rather envy the horse (Romanism) its rider than the rider (the -Anglo-Saxon) his horse. - -In regard to the piece of flint-stone that remained in Thor’s forehead, -and sticks there yet, we know, alas! that it is too true that the -schools and the literature of all the Teutonic races suffer more or less -from the curse of Romanism; and this they suffer in spite of the German -sorceress Groa (Luther), who in the sixteenth century loosened the ugly -Roman popery in Thor’s forehead, without his getting rid of it; for he -began boasting too soon, and Groa (the Lutheran Reformation) became so -glad on account of her husband with his frozen toe (German scholasticism -and soulless philosophy elevated to the skies), that she forgot not her -Latin but her magic Teutonic songs; and hence we look in vain for a -complete system of German mythology and old German poetry. - -Who the Mokkerkalfe who assisted Hrungner is, in this picture, it is -difficult to say, unless it be the Arab, and he may well be called a -brother of the Roman (Hrungner) against Thor. The Mokkerkalfe had a -mare’s heart in him, and we know that love of horses has forever been a -characteristic of the Arabs; and the Frank, who defeated the Arab on the -historical arena, must then be Thjalfe, who was a servant of Thor. - -Thus this myth is disposed of and its application in a prophetic sense -has been pointed out. It is not claimed that the ancient Norsemen had in -their minds Arabs and Greeks and Romans and Franks and Anglo-Saxons, but -that they had in their minds a profound comprehension of the relations -of things, the supreme law of the universe; and history is but the -reflection of the sublimest riddles in nature. - - - SECTION III. THOR AND GEIRROD.[67] - - -It is worth relating how Thor made a journey to Geirrodsgard without his -hammer Mjolner, or belt Megingjarder, or his iron gloves; and that was -Loke’s fault. For when Loke once, in Frigg’s falcon-guise, flew out to -amuse himself, curiosity led him to Geirrodsgard, where he saw a large -hall. He sat down and looked in through an opening in the wall, but -Geirrod observed him and ordered one of his servants to seize the bird -and bring it to him. But the wall was so high that it was difficult to -climb up, and it amused Loke that it gave the servant so much trouble, -and he thought was time enough to fly away when the servant had got over -the worst. As the latter now caught at him, he spread his wings and made -efforts (stritted) with his feet, but the feet were fast, so that he was -seized and brought to the giant. When the latter saw his eyes he -mistrusted that it was no bird; and when Loke was silent and refused to -answer the questions put to him, Geirrod locked him down in a chest and -let him hunger for three months. Thus Loke finally had to confess who he -was, and to save his life he had to make an oath to Geirrod that he -should get Thor to Geirrodsgard without his hammer or his belt of -strength. - -On the way Thor visited the hag Grid, mother of Vidar the Silent. She -informed him, in regard to Geirrod, that he was a dogwise and dangerous -giant, and she lent him her belt of strength, her iron gloves and her -staff, which is called Gridarvold. Thor then went to the river Vimer, -which is exceedingly large; then he buckled the belt around him and -stemmed the wild torrent with his staff, but Loke and Thjalfe held -themselves fast in the belt. When he had come into the middle of the -river it grew so much that the waves washed over his shoulders. Then -quoth Thor: - - Wax not, Vimer, - Since to wade I desire - To the realms of giants! - Know, if thou waxest - Then waxes my asamight - As high as the heavens! - -Up in a cleft he saw Geirrod’s daughter, Gjalp, who stood on both sides -of the stream and caused its growth; then took he a large stone and -threw after her. At its source the stream must be stemmed, and he always -hit what he aimed at. At the same time he reached the land and got hold -of a shrub, and so he escaped out of the river; hence comes the adage -that a shrub saved Thor. When Thor with his companions had now come to -Geirrod, lodgings were given them in a house, but there was only one -chair in it, and on this Thor sat down. Then he noticed that the chair -was raised under him toward the roof. He then put Grid’s staff against -the beams and pressed himself down against the chair; then a noise was -heard, upon which followed a great screaming, for Geirrod’s daughters, -Gjalp and Greip, had been sitting under the chair and he had broken the -backs of both or them. Then quoth Thor: - - Once I employed - My asamight - In the realm of giants, - When Gjalp and Greip, - Geirrod’s daughters, - Wanted to lift me to heaven. - -Then Geirrod invited Thor into the hall to see games. Large fires burned -along the hall, and when Thor had come opposite to Geirrod the latter -took with a pair of tongs a red-hot iron wedge and threw it after Thor; -he seized it with the iron gloves and lifted it up into the air, but -Geirrod ran behind an iron post to defend himself. Thor threw the wedge, -which struck through the post and through Geirrod and through the wall, -so that it went outside and into the ground. - -Geirrod is the intense heat which produces violent thunderstorms, and -hence his daughter the violent torrent. Of course Loke (fire) is locked -up and starved through the hottest part of the summer; but this myth -needs no explanation, and we proceed to the next. - - - SECTION IV. THOR AND SKRYMER. - - -One day the god Thor, accompanied by Loke, set out on a journey in his -car drawn by his goats. Night coming on, they put up at a peasant’s -cottage, when Thor killed his goats, and, after flaying them, put them -in a kettle. When the flesh was boiled he sat down with his -fellow-traveler to supper, and invited the peasant and his wife and -their children to partake of the repast. The peasant’s son was named -Thjalfe and his daughter Roskva. Thor bade them throw all the bones into -the goats’ skins, which were spread out near the fireplace, but young -Thjalfe broke one of the shank-bones to come at the marrow. Thor having -passed the night in the cottage, rose at the dawn of day, and when he -had dressed himself he took his hammer, Mjolner, and, lifting it up, -consecrated the goats’ skins, which he had no sooner done than the two -goats reassumed their wonted form, with the exception that one of them -limped on one of its hind legs. Thor, perceiving this, said that the -peasant or one of his family had handled the shank-bone of this goat too -roughly, for he saw clearly that it was broken. It may readily be -imagined how frightened the peasant was, when he saw Thor knit his brows -and seize the handle of his hammer with such force that the knuckles of -his fingers grew white with the exertion. But the peasant, as we might -expect, and his whole family, screamed aloud, sued for peace, and -offered all they possessed as an atonement for the offense committed. -But when Thor saw their fright he desisted from his wrath and became -appeased, and he contented himself by requiring their children, Thjalfe -and Roskva, who thus became his servants and have accompanied him ever -since. Thor let his goats remain there, and proceeded eastward on the -way to Jotunheim clear to the sea. Then he went across the deep ocean, -and when he came to the other shore he landed with Loke, Thjalfe and -Roskva. They had traveled but a short distance when they came to a large -forest, through which they wandered until night set in. Thjalfe was -exceedingly fleet-footed; he carried Thor’s provision-sack, but the -forest was a bad place for finding anything eatable to stow into it. -When it had become dark they looked around for lodgings for the night -and found a house. It was very large, with a door that took up the whole -breadth of one of the ends of the building; here they chose them a place -to sleep in. At midnight they were alarmed by a great earthquake. The -earth trembled beneath them and the whole house shook. Then Thor stood -up and called his companions to seek with him a place of safety. On the -right they found an adjoining chamber, into which they entered; but -while the others, trembling with fear, crept into the farthest corner of -this retreat, Thor remained in the doorway, with his hammer in his hand, -prepared to defend himself whatever might happen. Then they heard a -rumbling and roaring. When the morning began to dawn, Thor went out and -saw a man lying a short distance from the house in the woods. The giant -was large, lay sleeping, and snored loudly. Then Thor could understand -whence the noise had come in the night. He girded himself with his belt -of strength, and his divine strength grew; at the same time the man -awoke and arose hastily. But it is related that Thor on this occasion -became so amazed that he forgot to make use of his mallet; he asked the -man for his name, however. The latter answered that his name was -Skrymer; but your name I do not need to ask about, said he; I know you -are Asathor; but what have you done with my mitten? Thereupon Skrymer -stretched out his hand and picked up his mitten, which Thor then -perceived was what they had taken over night for a house, the chamber -where they had taken refuge being the thumb. Skrymer asked whether Thor -wanted him for a traveling companion, and when Thor consented to this, -Skrymer untied his provision-sack and began to eat his breakfast. Thor -and his companions did the same in another place. Then Skrymer proposed -that they should put their provisions together, and when Thor gave his -consent to this, Skrymer put all the food into one sack and slung it on -his back. He went before them all day with tremendous strides, but -toward evening he sought out for them a place where they might pass the -night, beneath a large oak. Then said Skrymer to Thor that he was going -to lie down to sleep; the others might in the meantime take the -provision-sack and prepare their supper. Then Skrymer fell asleep, and -snored tremendously, and Thor took the provision-sack to untie it; but, -incredible though it may appear, not a single knot could he untie, nor -render a single string looser than it was before. Seeing that his labor -was in vain, Thor became angry, seized the hammer Mjolner with both -hands, went over to Skrymer and struck him on the head. But Skrymer -awoke and asked whether there had fallen a leaf down upon his head, and -whether they had eaten their supper and were ready to go to sleep? Thor -answered that they were just going to sleep, and went to lie down under -another oak, but also here it was dangerous to sleep. At midnight Thor -again heard how fast Skrymer slept and snored, so outrageously that a -thundering noise was heard through the whole woods. Arising he went over -to the giant, swung his hammer with all his might, and struck him right -in the skull, and the hammer entered the head clear to the handle. -Skrymer, suddenly awakening, said: What is the matter now? Did an acorn -fall down upon my head? How is it with you, Thor. Thor went hastily away -and said that he had just waked up; it was midnight, he said, and time -to sleep. Then thought he that if he could get an opportunity to give -the giant a third blow he should never see the light of day any more, -and he now lay watching to see whether Skrymer was fast asleep again. -Shortly before day-break he heard that the giant was sleeping again. He -got up, hastened over to him, swung his hammer with all his might, and -gave him such a blow on the temples that the head of the hammer was -buried in the giant’s head. Skrymer arose, stroked his chin and said: Do -there sit birds above me in the tree? It seemed to me as I awoke that -some moss fell down upon me out of the boughs; but are you awake, Thor? -It seems to me that it is time to arise and dress, and you have not now -a long journey to the castle which is called Utgard. I have heard you -have whispered among yourselves that I am not small of stature, but you -shall find larger men when you come to Utgard. I am going to give you -good advice: do not brag too much. Utgard-Loke’s courtiers will not -brook the boasting of such insignificant little fellows as you are. If -you will not heed his advice you had better turn back, and that is in -fact the best thing for you to do. But if you are determined to go -further then hold to the east; my way lies northward to those mountains -that you see yonder. Skrymer then taking the provision-sack, slung it on -his back and disappeared in the woods, and it has never been learned -whether the asas wished to meet him again or not. - -Thor now went on with his companions till it was noon, when their eyes -beheld a castle standing on a great plain, and it was so high that they -had to bend their necks quite back in order to be able to look over it. -They advanced to the castle; there was a gate to the entrance, which was -locked. Thor tried to open it, but could not, and being anxious to get -within the castle, they crept between the bars of the gate. They saw the -palace before them, the door was open, and they entered, where they saw -a multitude of men, of whom the greater number were immensely large, -sitting on two benches. Then they came into the presence of the king, -Utgard-Loke, and saluted him; but it took some time before he would -deign to look at them, and he smiled scornfully, so that one could see -his teeth, saying: It is tedious to ask for tidings of a long journey, -but if I am not mistaken this little stripling must be Asathor; perhaps, -however, you are really bigger than you look. Well, what are the feats -that you and your companions are skilled in? No one is tolerated among -us here unless he distinguishes himself by some art or accomplishment. -Then said Loke: I understand an art, of which I am prepared to give -proof, and that is, that there is none here who can eat his food as fast -as I can. To this Utgard-Loke made reply: Truly that is an art, if you -can achieve it, which we shall now see. He called to the men, who sat on -one end of the bench, that he, whose name was Loge (flame), should come -out on the floor and contend with Loke. A trough was brought in full of -meat. Loke seated himself at one end and Loge at the other; both ate as -fast as they could and met in the middle of the trough. Loke had picked -the meat from the bones, but Loge had consumed meat, bones and trough -all together; and now all agreed that Loke was beaten. Then asked -Utgard-Loke, what that young man could do. It was Thjalfe. He answered, -that he would run a race with any one that Utgard-Loke would appoint. -Utgard-Loke replied that this was a splendid feat, but added that he -must be very swift if he expected to win, but they should see, for it -would soon be decided. Utgard-Loke arose and went out; there was a very -good race-course on the level field. Then he called a little fellow, by -name Huge (thought) and bade him race with Thjalfe. The first time they -ran Huge was so much in advance that at the turning back in the course -he met Thjalfe. You must ply your legs better, Thjalfe, said -Utgard-Loke, if you expect to win, though I must confess that there -never came a man here swifter of foot than you are. They ran a second -time, but when Huge came to the end and turned around, Thjalfe was a -full bow-shot from the goal. Well run, both of you, said Utgard-Loke, -but I think Thjalfe will hardly win, but the third race shall decide it. -They accordingly ran a third time, but Huge had already reached the goal -before Thjalfe had got half-way. Then all who were present cried out -that there had been sufficient trial of skill in this art. Utgard-Loke -then asked Thor in what arts he would choose to give proof of his skill -for which he was so famous. Thor answered that he preferred to contend -in drinking with any one that wished. Utgard-Loke consented, and -entering the palace he called his cup-bearer, and bade him bring the -large horn which his courtiers were obliged to drink out of when they -had trespassed in any way against established usage. The cup-bearer -brought the horn, gave it to Thor, and Utgard-Loke said: Whoever is a -good drinker will empty that horn at a single draught, though some men -make two of it; but there is no so wretched drinker that he cannot -exhaust it at the third draught. Thor looked at the horn and thought it -was not large, though tolerably long; however, as he was very thirsty he -set it to his lips, and without drawing breath drank as long and as deep -as he could, in order that he might not be obliged to make a second -draught of it. But when his breath gave way and he set the horn down, he -saw to his astonishment that there was little less of the liquor in it -than before. Utgard-Loke said: That is well drunk, but not much to boast -of; I should never have believed but that Asathor could have drunk more; -however, of this I am confident, you will empty it at the second -draught. Thor made no reply, but put the horn to his mouth and drank as -long as he had breath, but the point of the horn did not rise as he -expected; and when he withdrew the horn from his mouth it seemed to him -that its contents had sunk less this time than the first; still the horn -could now be carried without spilling. Utgard-Loke said: How now, Thor, -have you not saved for the third draught more than you can make away -with? You must not spare yourself more in performing a feat than befits -your skill, but if you mean to drain the horn at the third draught you -must drink deeply. You will not be considered so great a man here as you -are thought to be among the asas if you do not show greater skill in -other games than you appear to have shown in this. Then Thor became -angry, put the horn to his mouth, and drank with all his might, so as to -empty it entirely; but on looking into the horn he found that its -contents had lessened but little, upon which he resolved to make no -further attempt, but gave back the horn to the cup-bearer. Then said -Utgard-Loke: It is now plain that your strength is not so great as we -thought it to be. Will you try some other games, for we see that you -cannot succeed in this? Yes, said Thor, I will try something else, but I -am sure that such draughts as I have been drinking would not have been -counted small among the asas, but what new trial have you to propose? -Utgard-Loke answered: We have a very trifling game here, in which we -exercise none but children. Young men think it nothing but play to lift -my cat from the ground, and I should never have proposed this to Asathor -if I had not already observed that you are by no means what we took you -for. Thereupon a large gray cat ran out upon the floor. Thor advancing -put his hand under the cat’s body and did his utmost to raise it from -the floor, but the cat, bending its back in the same degree as Thor -lifted, had notwithstanding all Thor’s efforts only one of its feet -lifted up, seeing which Thor made no further effort. Then said -Utgard-Loke: The game has terminated just as I expected; the cat is -large, but Thor is small and little compared with our men. Then said -Thor: Little as you call me I challenge any one to wrestle with me, for -now I am angry. I see no one here, replied Utgard-Loke, looking around -on the benches, who would not think it beneath him to wrestle with you; -but let somebody call hither that old woman, my nurse, Elle (old age), -and let Thor prove his strength with her, if he will. She has thrown to -the ground many a man not less strong and mighty than Thor is. A -toothless old woman then entered the hall and she was told by -Utgard-Loke to wrestle with Thor. To cut the story short, the more Thor -tightened his hold the firmer she stood. Finally, after a violent -struggle, Thor began to lose his footing, and it was not long before he -was brought down on one knee. Then Utgard-Loke stepped forward and told -them to stop, adding that Thor had now no occasion to ask anyone else in -the hall to wrestle with him, and it was also getting late. He therefore -showed Thor and his companions to their seats, and they passed the night -there enjoying the best of hospitality. - -The next morning, at break of day, Thor and his companions arose, -dressed themselves and prepared for their departure. Utgard-Loke then -came and ordered a table to be set for them, on which there wanted no -good provisions, either meat or drink. When they had breakfasted they -set out on their way. Utgard-Loke accompanied them out of the castle, -and on parting he asked Thor how he thought his journey had turned out, -and whether he had found any man more mighty than himself. Thor answered -that he could not deny that he had brought great dishonor upon himself; -and what mortifies me the most, he added, is that you will consider me a -man of little importance. Then said Utgard-Loke: Now I will tell you the -truth, since you are out of my castle, where as long as I live and reign -you shall never re-enter, and you may rest assured that had I known -before what might you possessed, and how near you came plunging us into -great trouble, I would not have permitted you to enter this time. Know -then that I have all along deceived you by my illusions; first, in the -forest, where I arrived before you, and there you were unable to untie -the provision-sack, because I had bound it with tough iron wire in such -a manner that you could not discover how the knot ought to be loosened. -After this you gave me three blows with your hammer; the first one, -though it was the least, would have ended my days had it fallen on me, -but I brought a rocky mountain before me, which you did not perceive; -but you saw near my castle a mountain in which were three square glens, -the one deeper than the other, and those were the marks of your hammer. -I have made use of similar illusions in the contests you have had with -my courtiers. In the first, Loke was hungry and devoured all that was -set before him, but Loge was in reality nothing else but wild-fire, and -therefore consumed not only the meat, but the trough which contained it. -Huge, with whom Thjalfe contended in running, was my thought, and it was -impossible for Thjalfe to keep pace with it. When you tried to empty the -horn you performed indeed an exploit so marvelous that had I not seen it -myself I should never have believed it. The one end of the horn stood in -the sea, which you did not perceive, and when you come to the shore you -will see how much the ocean has diminished by what you drank. This is -now called the ebb. You performed a feat no less wonderful when you -lifted the cat, and, to tell the truth, when we saw that one of his paws -was off the floor we were all of us terror-stricken, for what you took -for a cat was in reality the great Midgard-serpent, that encompasses the -whole earth, and he was then barely long enough to inclose it between -his head and tail, so high had your hand raised him up toward heaven. -Your wrestling with Elle was also a most astonishing feat, for there -never yet was, nor will there ever be, a man for whom Old Age (for such -in fact was Elle) will not sooner or later lay low, if he abides her -coming. But now, as we are going to part, let me tell you that it will -be better for both of us if you never come near me again, for should you -do so I shall again defend myself with other illusions, so that you will -never prevail against me. On hearing these words Thor grasped his -hammer, and lifted it into the air, but as he was about to strike -Utgard-Loke was nowhere, and when he turned back to the castle to -destroy it, he saw only beautiful verdant plains around him and no -castle. He therefore retraced his steps without stopping till he came to -Thrudvang. But he had already resolved to make that attack on the -Midgard-serpent, which afterwards took place. - -It is said in the Younger Edda that no one can tell anything more _true_ -of this journey of Thor’s, but if the reader wants to see the most -beautiful thing that has been said about this journey, he must learn -Danish and read Œlenschlæger’s poem entitled _Thor’s Journey to -Jotunheim_.[68] We have only to add that as the asas had their Loke, so -the giants had their _Utgard-Loke_. - - - SECTION V. THOR AND THE MIDGARD-SERPENT. - - -The gods were having a feast at Æger’s, and could not get enough to eat -and drink. The reason was that Æger was in want of a kettle for brewing -ale. He asked Thor to go and fetch it, but neither the asas nor the vans -knew where it could be found, before Tyr said to Thor: East of the -rivers Elivagar, near the borders of heaven, dwells the dogwise Hymer, -and this my father has a kettle which is strong and one rast (mile) -deep. Do you think we can get it? said Thor. Yes, by stratagem it may be -gotten, answered Tyr. Tyr, and Thor under the semblance of a young man, -now started out and traveled until they came to Egil. With him they left -the goats and proceeded further to Hymer’s hall, and we shall presently -see how Thor made amends for his journey to Utgard-Loke. At Hymer’s hall -Tyr found his grandmother, an ugly giantess with nine hundred heads, but -his mother, a beautiful woman, brought him a drink. She advised her -guests to conceal themselves under the kettles in the hall, for her -husband was sometimes cruel toward strangers. Hymer came home from his -fishing late in the evening; the jokuls resounded as he entered the -hall, and his beard was full of frost. I greet you welcome home, Hymer, -said the woman; our son, whom we have been so long expecting, has now -come home to your halls, and in company with him is the enemy of the -giants and the friend of man, Veor (_i.e._ Asgardsveor, the protector of -Asgard). See how they have concealed themselves at the gable end of the -hall, behind the post yonder. Hymer threw a glance in the direction -pointed out by his wife, and the post instantly flew into shivers at the -look of the giant, the beam broke, and eight kettles fell down; one so -hard and strong that it did not break in falling. The gods came forth, -and straight the old giant gazed at his enemy. It was no pleasant sight -to see Thor before him, but still he ordered three steers to be killed -and served on the table. Thor alone ate two. This meal seemed to the -friend of Hrungner somewhat extravagant, and he remarked that the next -evening they would have to live on fish. The following morning, at break -of day, when Thor perceived that Hymer was making a boat ready for -fishing, he arose and dressed himself, and begged the giant to let him -row out to sea with him. Hymer answered that such a puny stripling as he -was could be of no use to him; besides, he said, you will catch your -death of cold if I go far out and remain as long as I am accustomed to -do. Thor said that for all that he would row as far from the land as -Hymer had a mind, and was not sure which of them would be the first who -might wish to row back again. At the same time he was so enraged that he -was much inclined to let his hammer ring at the giant’s skull without -further delay, but intending to try his strength elsewhere he subdued -his wrath, and asked Hymer what he meant to bait with. Hymer told him to -look out for a bait himself. Thor instantly went up to a herd of oxen -that belonged to the giant, and seizing the largest bull, that bore the -name Himinbrjoter (heaven-breaker), wrung off his head, and returning -with it to the boat, put out to sea with Hymer. Thor rowed aft with two -oars, and with such force that Hymer, who rowed at the prow, saw with -surprise how swiftly the boat was driven forward. He then observed that -they were come to the place where he was wont to angle for flat-fish, -but Thor assured him that they had better go on a good way further. They -accordingly continued to ply their oars, until Hymen cried out that if -they did not stop they would be in danger from the great -Midgard-serpent. Notwithstanding this, Thor persisted in rowing further, -and in spite of Hymer’s remonstrances it was a long time before he would -lay down his oars. When they finally stopped, Hymer soon drew up two -whales at once with his bait. Then Thor took out a fishing line, -extremely strong, made with wonderful art and furnished with an equally -strong hook, on which he fixed the bull’s head and cast his line into -the sea. The bait soon reached the bottom, and it may be truly said that -Thor then deceived the Midgard-serpent not a whit less than Utgard-Loke -had deceived Thor when he obliged him to lift up the serpent in his -hand; for the monster greedily caught at the bait and the hook stuck -fast in his palate. Stung with the pain, the serpent tugged at the hook -so violently that Thor was obliged to hold fast with both hands in the -pegs that bear against the oars. But his wrath now waxed high, and -assuming all his divine power he pulled so hard at the line that his -feet forced their way through the boat and went down to the bottom of -the sea, while with his hands he drew up the serpent to the side of the -vessel. It is impossible to express by words the scene that now took -place. Thor on the one hand darting looks of wrath at the serpent, while -the monster on the other hand, rearing his head, spouted out floods of -venom upon him. When the giant Hymer beheld the serpent he turned pale -and trembled with fright, and seeing moreover that the water was -entering his boat on all sides, he took out his knife, just as Thor -raised his hammer aloft, and cut the line, on which the serpent sank -again under water. According to another version valiant Thor hauled the -venom-potted serpent up to the edge of the boat, his hands struck -against the side of the boat and with both his feet he stepped through, -so that he stood on the bottom of the sea. With his hammer he struck the -serpent in the forehead; the mountains thundered, the caves howled, and -the whole old earth shrank together; but the serpent sank to the bottom, -for at the sight of it the giant became so terrified that he cut the -line. Then, according to both versions, Thor struck Hymer such a blow on -the ear with his fist that the giant fell headlong into the water. The -giant was not glad when they rowed back. While he carried his two -whales, Thor took the boat, with oars and all, and carried it to the -house of the giant. Then the giant challenged Thor to show another -evidence of his strength and requested him to break his goblet. Thor, -sitting, threw it through some large posts, but it was brought whole to -the giant. But Thor’s fair friend gave him friendly advice: Throw it -against the forehead of Hymer, said she, it is harder than any goblet. -Then Thor assumed his asastrength. The giant’s forehead remained whole, -but the round wine-goblet was broken. The giant had lost a great -treasure; that drink, said he, was too hot; but there yet remained for -Thor one trial of his strength, and that was to bring the kettle out of -his hall. Twice Tyr tried to lift it, but it was immovable. Then Thor -himself took hold of it at the edge with so great force that he stepped -through the floor of the hall; the kettle he lifted onto his head, and -its rings rung at his heels. They had gone a long distance before Odin’s -son looked back and saw a many-headed multitude rushing impetuously from -the caves with Hymer. Then he lifted the kettle from his shoulders, -swung the murderous Mjolner and slew all the mountain-giants. After that -he proceeded to Egil, where he had left his goats; and he had not gone -far thence before one of the goats dropped down half dead. It was lame, -and we remember from a previous myth that a peasant near the sea had to -give Thor his son Thjalfe and daughter Roskva as bond-servants for -laming one of his goats. Thor finally came to the feast of the gods and -had the kettle with him, and there was nothing now to hinder Æger from -furnishing ale enough at the feast, that he prepared for the gods at -every harvest time. - -This myth forms the subject of the lay of Hymer in the Elder Edda. The -whole myth of course represents the thunderstorm in conflict with the -raging sea; but a historical counterpart of this struggle of Thor with -Hymer and the Midgard-serpent is so forcibly suggested that we cannot -omit it. It is Luther’s struggle with the pope Romanism. Luther, the -heroic Thor, saw his enemy, but did not strike just in the right time -and in the right way, and the golden opportunity was lost after Hymer -(the pope) had severed the fishing-line; that is after the old memories -were destroyed, when the golden line connecting the Germans with their -poetic dawn had been divided, and Romanism, with blood-stained breast, -with close embrace first twined around the whole school system of -Germany and north Europe, and horribly mangled their grand mission with -its fangs, and then seized the Teutonic Laocoon and his sons and bound -their unsophisticated Teutonic hearts in its mighty folds. Ay, this -_Roman_ Midgard-serpent, with its licentiousness, arrogance, despotism, -unbridled ambition, unbounded egotism, dry reasoning and soulless -philosophy, has grasped the _Goth_ twice, yes thrice, about the middle, -and winding its scaly book thrice around his neck, has overtopped him. -In vain he has striven to tear asunder its knotted and gory spires. He -can but shriek to heaven for help, and may Thor hear his cry and come to -his rescue! May Thor next time embark well armed with his gloves and -belt and hammer; but he had better leave the giant slain on shore. Yet -Luther did a noble work. Although his first intention was to leave the -giant unmolested, and only take his kettle from him, still, when he -found a determined opposition threatening, he turned around, set down -his kettle, and slew both the giant and the many-headed multitude (pope, -cardinals, bishops, etc.) that followed him. But Luther erred in not -establishing a thoroughly Teutonic in place of a Romanic school system. -Thus he left his great work only half finished. If he had made good use -of his hammer at the time, much valuable knowledge about our Teutonic -ancestors might have been collected and preserved which now is lost -forever. - - - SECTION VI. THOR AND THRYM. - - -This is a very beautiful myth, and we will give it complete as it is -found in the Elder Edda, in the lay of Thrym. We give our own -translation: - - Wrathful was Vingthor - As he awaked - And his hammer - Did miss; - His beard shook, - His hair trembled, - The son of earth - Looked around him. - - Thus first of all - He spoke: - Mark now Loke - What I say! - What no one knows - Either on earth - Or in high heaven,— - The hammer is stolen. - - Went they to Freyja’s - Fair dwelling; - - There in these words - Thor first spoke: - Wilt thou, Freyja, lend - Me thy feather-guise, - That I my hammer - Mjolner may fetch? - - I gave it thee gladly - Though it were of gold; - I would instantly give it - Though it were of silver. - - Flew then Loke— - The feather-guise whizzed; - Out he flew - From home of asas, - In he flew - To home of giants. - - On the hill sat Thrym; - The king of giants - Twisted gold-bands - For his dogs, - Smoothed at leisure - The manes of his horses. - - - THRYM: - - How fare the asas? - How fare the elves? - Why comest thou alone - To Jotunheim? - - - LOKE: - - Ill fare the asas, - Ill fare the elves, - Hast thou concealed - The hammer of Thor? - - - THRYM: - - I have concealed - The hammer of Thor - Eight rasts - Beneath the ground; - No man - Brings it back - Unless he gives me - Freyja as my bride. - - Flew then Loke— - The feather-guise whizzed; - Out he flew - From home of giants, - In he flew - To home of asas. - Met him Thor - First of all - And thus addressed him: - - Hast thou succeeded - In doing thine errand? - Then tell before perching - Long messages; - What one says sitting - Is often of little value, - And falsehood speaks he - Who reclines. - - - LOKE: - - Well have I succeeded - In doing my errand; - Thrym has thy hammer, - The king of the giants. - No man - Brings it back - Unless he gives him - Freyja as bride. - - Went they then the fair - Freyja to find, - First then Thor - Thus addressed her: - Dress thyself, Freyja, - In bridal robes, - Together we will ride - To Jotunheim. - - Angry grew Freyja, - And she raged - So the hall of the asas - Must shake. - Her heavy necklace, - Brisingamen, broke; - Then would I be - A lovesick maid - If with thee I would ride - To Jotunheim. - - Then all the asas - Went to the _Thing_, - To the _Thing_ went - All the asynjes, - The powerful divinities, - And held consult, - How they should get - The hammer back. - - Then spake Heimdal - The whitest god— - Foreknowing was he, - As the vans are all: - Dress we Thor - In bridal robes, - Brisingamen - Must he wear. - - Let jingle keys - About his waist; - Let a woman’s dress - Cover his knees; - On his bosom we put - Broad broaches, - And artfully we - His hair braid. - - Spoke then Thor, - The mighty god: - Mock me all - The asas would, - If in bridal robes - I should be dressed. - - Spoke then Loke - Laufeyarson: - Be silent Thor; - Stop such talk. - Soon will giants - Build in Asgard - If thou thy hammer - Bring not back. - - Dressed they then Thor - In bridal-robes; - Brisengumen - He had to wear; - Keys let they jingle - About his waist, - And a woman’s dress - Fell over his knees; - On his bosom they placed - Broad broaches, - And artfully they - His hair did braid. - - Spoke then Loke - Laufeyarson: - For thee must I - Be servant-maid; - Ride we both - To Jotunheim. - - Home were driven - Then the goats, - And hitched to the car; - Hasten they must— - The mountains crashed. - The earth stood in flames, - Odin’s son - Rode to Jotunheim. - - Spoke then Thrym, - The king of giants; - Giants! arise - And spread my benches! - Bring to me - Freyja as bride, - Njord’s daughter, - From Noatun. - - Cows with golden horns - Go in the yard, - Black oxen - To please the giant; - Much wealth have I, - Many gifts have I; - Freyja, methinks, - Is all I lack. - - Early in the evening - Came they all; - Ale was brought - Up for the giant. - One ox Thor ate, - Eight salmon - And all the delicacies - For the women intended; - Sif’s husband besides - Drank three barrels of mead. - - Spoke then Thrym, - The king of giants: - Where hast thou seen - Such a hungry bride? - I ne’er saw a bride - Eat so much, - And never a maid - Drink more mead. - - Sat there the shrewd - Maid-servant near;[69] - Thus she replied - To the words of Thrym: - Nothing ate Freyja - In eight nights, - So much did she long - For Jotunheim. - - Behind the veil - Thrym sought a kiss, - But back he sprang - The length of the hall: - Why are Freyja’s - Eyes so sharp? - From her eyes it seems - That fire doth burn. - - Sat there the shrewd - Maid-servant near, - And thus she spake, - Answering the giant: - Slept has not Freyja - For eight nights, - So much did she long - For Jotunheim. - - In came the poor - Sister of Thrym; - For bridal gift - She dared to ask: - Give from the hand - The golden rings, - If thou desirest - Friendship of me, - Friendship of me— - And love. - - Spoke then Thrym, - The king of giants: - Bring me the hammer - My bride to hallow: - Place the hammer - In the lap of the maid; - Wed us together - In the name of Var.[70] - - Laughed then Thor’s - Heart in his breast; - Severe in mind - He knew his hammer, - First slew he Thrym, - Tho king of giants, - Crushed then all - That race of giants; - - Slew the old - Sister of Thrym, - She who asked - For a bridal gift; - Slap she got - For shining gold, - Hammer blows - For heaps of rings; - Thus came Odin’s son - Again by his hammer. - -Thrym (from _þruma_) is the noisy, thundering imitator of Thor. While -the thunder sleeps, the giant forces of nature howl and rage in the -storms and winds, they have stolen the hammer from Thor. Thor goes and -brings his hammer back and the storms are made to cease. It has been -suggested that Thor is the impersonation of truth, and the Younger Edda -speaks of him as one _never having yet uttered an_ UNTRUTH. It has also -been claimed that the name of his realm _Thrud_-vang contains the same -root as our English word _truth_, but this we leave for the reader to -examine for himself. Before the Norsemen learned to make the sign of the -cross, they made the sign of the hammer upon themselves and upon other -things that they thereby wished to secure against evil influences. - -Now let us glance at the last appearance of Thor on the stage of this -world. The Norse king, Olaf the saint, was eagerly pursuing his work of -Christian reform in Norway, and we find him sailing with fit escort -along the western shore of that county from haven to haven, dispensing -justice or doing other royal work. On leaving a certain haven, it is -found that a stranger of grave eyes and aspect, with red beard and of a -robust and stately figure, has stepped in. The courtiers address him; -his answers surprise by their pertinency and depth. At length he is -brought to the king. The strangers conversation here is not less -remarkable, as they sail along the beautiful shore; but after awhile he -addresses King Olaf thus: Yes, King Olaf, it is all beautiful, with the -sun shining on it there; green, fruitful, a right fair home for you; and -many a sore day had Thor, many a wild fight with the mountain giants, -before he could make it so. And now you seem minded to put away Thor. -King Olaf, have a care! said the stranger, knitting his brows; and when -they looked again he was nowhere to be found. This is the last myth of -Thor, a protest against the advance of Christianity, no doubt -reproachfully set forth by some conservative pagan.[71] - -Footnote 60: - - Thor’s. - -Footnote 61: - - From _Tales of a Wayside Inn_. - -Footnote 62: - - _Bil_ is a common word in Norseland, meaning _moment_. - -Footnote 63: - - But see also Vocabulary, under the word _Mjolner_. - -Footnote 64: - - Holmgang (literally _isle-gang_) is a duel taking place on a small - island. Each combatant was attended by a second who had to protect him - with a shield. The person challenged had the right to strike the first - blow. When the opponent was wounded, so that his blood stained the - ground, the seconds might interfere and put an end to the combat. He - that was the first wounded had to pay the holmgang fine. - -Footnote 65: - - A name for Thor. - -Footnote 66: - - A Orvandel, from _aur_, earth, and _vendill_, the sprout (_vöndr_), - ruler = the seed. - -Footnote 67: - - This Geirrod must not be confounded with Odin’s foster-son Geirrod, - son of Hraudung (see p. 228). - -Footnote 68: - - The next best thing is William Edward Frye’s translation of - Œlenschlæger’s work entitled _The Gods of the North_. London, 1845. - -Footnote 69: - - Loke. - -Footnote 70: - - The goddess who presides over marriages. - -Footnote 71: - - Thomas Carlyle, _Heroes and Hero-worship_. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - VIDAR. - - -On the way to Geirrod (see p. 310) we noticed that Thor visited the hag -Grid, and she lent him three things, counterparts of Thor’s own -treasures, her belt of strength, iron gloves and staff. Grid belongs to -the race of giants; she dwells in the wild, unsubdued nature, but is not -hostile toward the gods. Her belt, gloves and staff, her name, the place -where she dwells between Asgard and Jotunheim, her ability to give Thor -information about Geirrod, all give evidence of her wild and powerful -character. - -She is the mother of Vidar, who is a son of Odin. Hence we have here, as -in the case of Tyr, a connecting link between the giants and asas. -Through Tyr the gods are related to the raging sea, through Vidar to the -wild desert and the forests. Vidar is surnamed the Silent. He is almost -as strong as Thor himself, and the gods place great reliance on him in -all critical conjunctures. He is the brother of the gods. He has an iron -shoe; it is a thick shoe, of which it is said that material has been -gathered for it through all ages. It is made of the scraps of leather -that have have been cut off from the toes and heels in cutting patterns -for shoes. These pieces must therefore be thrown away by the shoemaker -who desires to render assistance to the gods. He is present at Æger’s -feast, where Odin says to him: - - Stand up, Vidar! - And let the wolf’s father[72] - Be guest at the feast, - That Loke may not - Bring reproach on us - Here in Æger’s hall. - -His realm is thus described in the Elder Edda: - - Grown over with shrubs - And with high grass - Is Vidar’s wide land. - There sits Odin’s - Son on the horse’s back: - He will avenge his father. - -He avenges his father in the final catastrophe, in Ragnarok; for when -the Fenris-wolf has swallowed Odin, Vidar advances, and setting his foot -on the monster’s lower jaw he seizes the other with his hand, and thus -tears and rends him till he dies. It is now his shoe does him such -excellent service. After the universe has been regenerated - - There dwell Vidar and Vale - In the gods’ holy seats, - When the fire of Surt is slaked. - -Vidar’s name (from _viðr_, a forest) indicates that he is the god of the -primeval, impenetrable forest, where neither the sound of the ax nor the -voice of man was ever heard; and hence he is also most fittingly -surnamed the Silent God. Vidar is, then, imperishable and incorruptible -nature represented as an immense indestructible forest, with the iron -trunks of the trees rearing their dense and lofty tops toward the -clouds. Who has ever entered a thick and pathless forest, wandered about -in its huge shadows and lost himself in its solemn darkness, without -feeling deeply sensible to the loftiness of the idea that underlies -Vidar’s character. Vidar is the Greek Pan, the representative of -incorruptible nature. He is not the ruler of the peaceful grove near the -abode of the gods, where Idun dwells, but of the great and wild primeval -forest, that man never yet entered. The idea of Vidar’s woods is -imperishableness, while that of Idun’s grove is the constant renovation -and rejuvenation of the life of the gods. The gods and all the work of -their hands shall perish, and it is nowhere stated that Idun survives -Ragnarok. Odin himself perishes, and with him all his labor and care for -man; but nature does not perish. If that should be entirely destroyed, -then it could not be _regenerated_. If matter should perish, where would -then the spirit take its dwelling? If Vidar did not exist, where would -Vale be? The glory of the world, the development that has taken place, -and the spirit revealed in it, perish; but not Vidar, for he is the -imperishable, wild, original nature, the eternal matter, which reveals -its force to, but is not comprehended by, man; a force which man sees -and reveres, without venturing an explanation; but when all the works of -man are destroyed by consuming flames, this force of eternal matter will -be revealed with increased splendor. - -Thus we find the power and strength of the gods expressed in two myths, -in Thor and in Vidar, both sons of Odin, who is, as the reader knows, -the father of all the gods. Thor is the thundering, noisy, crushing, but -withal beneficent, god; Vidar is silent, dwells far away from, and -exercises no influence upon, the works of man, except as he inspires a -profound awe and reverence. Thor is the visible, in their manifestations -wonderful, constantly returning and all-preserving, workings of nature; -Vidar is the quiet, secretly working, hidden and self-supporting -imperishableness. Popularity, fame, position, influence, wealth,—all -that makes so much stir and bustle in the world—shall perish; but the -quiet working of the soul, the honest pursuit of knowledge, the careful -secret development of the powers of the human mind, shall live forever. -And Vidar and Vale (mind and knowledge) shall together inhabit the -sacred dwellings of the gods, when the waves of time have ceased to -roll: Vidar as the god of imperishable matter, Vale as the god of -eternal light (spirit) that shines upon it. - -Footnote 72: - - Loke. - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - THE VANS. - - - SECTION I. NJORD AND SKADE. - - -Two opposite elements in nature are united in order to produce life. The -opposite elements are expressed in the mythology by the terms asas and -vans. In our language and mode of expression that would mean the solid -and the liquid, the masculine and the feminine. Water, the _par -excellence_ representative of liquids, may symbolize various ideas. It -may typify sorrow; it then manifests itself in tears, and sorrow is -fleeting as the flowing tears. Water may symbolize gladness, happiness, -and blessings, that flow in gushing streams along the pathway of life; -and it may also be used as the symbol of innocence, purity, and wealth. -These ideas may be regarded as a general interpretation of the vans, and -we find them reflected in the triune vana-deity; Njord with his children -Frey and Freyja, who rise from the sea and unite themselves with the -asa-divinity in heaven and on earth. - -Njord is called Vanagod, and he dwells in the heavenly region called -Noatun. He rules over the winds and checks the fury of the sea and of -fire, and is therefore invoked by seafarers and fishermen. He is so -wealthy that he can give possessions and treasures to those who call on -him for them. Yet Njord is not of the lineage of the asas, for he was -born and bred in Vanaheim. But the vans gave him as hostage to the asas, -receiving from them in his stead Hœner. By this means peace was -reëstablished between the asas and vans. (See Part II, Chap. 1, Sec. -13.) - -Njord took to wife Skade, the daughter of the giant Thjasse.[73] She -preferred dwelling in the abode formerly belonging to her father, which -is situated among rocky mountains in the region called Thrymheim, but -Njord loved to reside near the sea. They at last agreed that they should -pass together nine nights in Thrymheim and then three in Noatun. But one -day when Njord came back from the mountains to Noatun, he thus sang: - - Am weary of the mountains, - Not long was I there, - Only nine nights: - The howl of the wolves - Methought sounded ill - To the song of the swans. - -To which Skade sang in reply: - - Sleep could I not - On my sea-strand couch - For screams of the sea-fowl. - _There_ wakes me - When from the wave he comes - Every morn the mew (gull). - -Skade then returned to the rocky mountains and dwelt in Thrymheim. There -fastening on her skees and taking her bow she passes her time in the -chase of wild beasts, and is called Andre-dis (Skee-goddess). Thus it is -said: - - Thrymheim it’s called - Where Thjasse dwelled, - That stream-mighty giant; - But Skade now dwells, - Skee-bride of the gods, - In her father’s old mansion. - -Njord is the god of the sea; that is to say, of that part of the sea -which is immediately connected with the earth, that part of the sea -which is made serviceable to man, where fishing and commerce carried on. -His dwelling is Noatun, which means land of ships (_nór_, ship; _tún_, -yard, place). Njord’s realm is bounded on the one side by the earth, the -land, and on the other by the raging ocean, where Æger with his -daughters reigns. Njord’s wife is Skade (harm), the wild mountain -stream, which plunges down from the high rocks, where she prefers to -dwell, and pours herself into the sea. Her dwelling is Thrymheim, the -_roaring home_, at the thundering waterfall. Taken as a whole, the myth -is very clear and simple. - -The compromise between Njord and Skate, to dwell nine nights in -Thrymheim (home of uproar, storms) and three nights in Noatun, of course -has reference to the severe northern latitudes, where rough weather and -wintry storms prevail during the greater part of the year. - - - SECTION II. ÆGER AND RAN. - - -These do not belong to the vana-divinities, but are given here in order -to have the divinities of the sea in one place. As Njord is the mild, -beneficent sea near the shore, so Æger is the wild, turbulent, raging -sea far from the land, where fishing and navigation cannot well be -carried on; the great ocean, and yet bordering on the confines of then -asas. Hence Æger’s twofold nature; he is a giant, but still has -intercourse with the gods. Thus in Mimer, Æger and Njord, we have the -whole ocean represented, from its origin, Mimer, to its last stage of -development, to Njord, in whom, as a beneficent divinity, it unites -itself with the gods; that is to say, blesses and serves the enterprises -of men. - -Æger visits the gods, and the latter visit him in return; and it was -once when the gods visited him that his brewing-kettle was found too -small, so that Thor had to go to the giant Hymer and borrow a larger -one. In Æger’s hall the bright gold was used instead of fire, and there -the ale passed around spontaneously. Ran is his wife. She has a net, in -which she catches those who venture out upon the sea. Æger and Ran have -nine daughters, the waves. Loke once borrowed Ran’s net, to catch the -dwarf Andvare, who in the guise of a fish dwelt in a waterfall. With her -hand she is able to hold the ships fast. It was a prevailing opinion -among the ancient Norsemen that they who perished at sea came to Ran; -for Fridthjof, who with his companions was in danger of being wrecked, -talks about his having to rest on Ran’s couch instead of Ingeborg’s, and -as it was not good to come empty-handed to the halls of Ran and Æger, he -divided a ring of gold between himself and his men. - -Thus Tegner has it in _Fridthjof_ at Sea: - - Whirling cold and fast - Snow-wreaths fill the sail; - Over dock and mast - Patters heavy hail. - - The very stem they see so more, - So thick is darkness spread, - As gloom and horror hover o’er - The chamber of the dead. - - Still to sink the sailor dashes - Implacable each angry wave; - Gray, as if bestrewn with ashes, - Yawns the endless, awful grave. - -Then says Fridthjof: - - For us in bed of ocean - Azure pillows _Ran_ prepares, - On thy pillow, Ingeborg, - Thou thinkest upon me. - Higher ply, my comrades, - Ellida’s sturdy oars; - Good ship, heaven-fashioned, - Bear us on an hour. - -The storm continues: - - O’er the side apace - Now a sea hath leapt; - In an instant’s space - Clear the deck is swept. - - From his arm now Fridthjof hastens - To draw his ring, three marks in weight; - Like the morning sun it glistens, - The golden gift of Bele great. - With his sword in pieces cutting - The famous work of pigmied art, - Shares he quickly, none forgetting, - Unto every man a part. - -Then says Fridthjof again: - - Gold is good possession - When one goes a-wooing; - Let none go empty-handed - Down to azure _Ran_. - Icy are her kisses, - Fickle her embraces; - But we’ll charm the sea-bride - With our ruddy gold. - -How eager Ran is to capture those who venture out upon her domain is -also illustrated in another part of Fridthjof’s Saga, where King Ring -and his queen Ingeborg ride over the ice on the lake to a banquet. -Fridthjof went along on skates. Thus Tegner again: - - They speed as storms over ocean speed; - The queen’s prayers little King Ring doth heed. - - Their steel-shod comrade standeth not still, - He flieth past them as swift as he will. - - Many a rune on the ice cutteth he; - Fair Ingeborg’s name discovereth she. - - So on their glittering course they go, - But _Ran_, the traitress, lurketh below. - - A hole in her silver roof she hath reft, - Down sinketh the sleigh in the yawning cleft. - -But, fortunately, Fridthjof was not far away. He came to their rescue, -and - - With a single tug he setteth amain - Both steed and sleigh on the ice again. - -Of Æger’s and Ran’s daughters, the waves, it is said that they -congregate in large numbers according to the will of their father. They -have pale locks and white veils; they are seldom mild in their -disposition toward men; they are called billows or surges, and are -always awake when the wind blows. They lash the sounding shores, and -angrily rage and break around the holms;[74] they have a hard bed -(stones and rocks), and seldom play in calm weather. The names of the -daughters of Æger and Ran represent the waves in their various -magnitudes and appearances. Thus Himinglœfa, the sky-clear; Duva, the -diver; Blodughadda, the bloody- or purple-haired; Hefring, the swelling; -Bylgja, billow; Kolga, raging sea, etc. - -These myths are very simple and need no extended explanations. Æger is -the Anglo-Saxon _eagor_, the sea. He is also called Hler, the shelterer -(_hlé_, Anglo-Saxon _hleo_, Danish _Læ_, English _lee_), and Gymer, the -concealing (_geyma_, Anglo-Saxon _gyman_, Norse _gjemme_, to conceal, to -keep). These names express the sea in its uproar, in its calmness, and -as the covering of the deep. The name of his wife, Ran (robbery or the -robbing; _rœna_, to plunder), denotes the sea as craving its sacrifice -of human life and of treasures. It is a common expression in Norseland -that the sea brews and seethes, and this at once suggests Æger’s -kettles. The foaming ale needs no butler but passes itself around, and -there is plenty of it. That Æger, when visited by the gods, illuminated -his hall with shining gold, refers of course to the phosphorescent light -of the sea (Icelandic _marelldr_, Norse _morild_). Those who are -familiar with the sea cannot fail to have seen the sparks of fire that -apparently fly from it when its surface is disturbed in the dark. Thus -the servants of Æger, Elde and Funfeng (both words meaning fire), are -properly called excellent firemen. The relation between Njord and Æger -seems to be the same as between Okeanos, the great water encircling the -earth, and Pontus, the Mediterranean, within the confines of the earth. - -Some of the old Norse heroes are represented as possessing a terrifying -helmet, Æger’s helmet (_gishjálmr_); and thus, as Odin’s golden helmet -is the beaming sky, and as the dwarfs cover themselves with a helmet of -fog, so Æger wears on his brow a helmet made of dense darkness and -heaven-reaching, terrifying breakers. - -Æger and his family, it is certain, did not belong among the asas, yet -they were regarded, like them, as mighty beings, whose friendship was -sought by the gods themselves; and England, that proud mistress of the -sea, is the reflection of the myth of Æger, showing what grand results -are achieved historically, when human enterprise and heroism enter into -friendly relations with the sea, making it serve the advancement of -civilization,—when the gods go to Æger’s hall to banquet. - - - SECTION III. FREY. - - -Njord had two children—a son Frey and a daughter Freyju, both fair and -mighty. Frey is one of the most celebrated of the gods. He presides over -rain and sunshine and all the fruits of the earth, and should be invoked -to obtain good harvests, and also for peace. He moreover dispenses -wealth among men. He is called van and vanagod, yeargod and goods-giver -(_fégjafi_). He owns the ship Skidbladner and also Goldenbristle -(_gullinbursti_) or Slidrugtanne (the sharp-toothed), a boar with golden -bristles, with which he rides as folk-ruler to Odin’s hall. In time’s -morning, when he was yet a child, the gods gave him Alfheim (home of -elves) as a present. - -Of Frey’s ship Skidbladner, we have before seen (see p. 220) how it was -made by the dwarfs, sons of Ivald, and presented to Frey. It was so -large that all the gods with their weapons and war stores could find -room on board it. As soon as the sails are set a favorable breeze arises -and carries it to its place of destination, and it is made of so many -pieces, and with so much skill, that when it is not wanted for a voyage -Frey may fold it together like a piece of cloth and put it into his -pocket. - -Njord had the consolation, when he was sent as hostage to the gods, that -he begat a son whom no one hates, but who is the best among the gods. -Thus the Elder Edda, in Æger’s banquet to the gods, where Loke also was -present: - - NJORD: - - It is my consolation— - For I was from a far-off place - Sent as a hostage to the gods— - That I begat that son - Whom no one hates, - And who is regarded - Chief among the gods. - -To which LOKE makes reply: - - Hold thy tongue, Njord! - Subdue thy arrogance; - I will conceal it no longer - That with thy sister - A son thou didst beget - Scarcely worse than thyself. - -But TYR defends Frey: - - Frey is the best - Of all the chiefs - Among the gods. - He causes not tears - To maids or mothers: - His desire is to loosen the fetters - Of those enchained. - - - LOKE: - - Hold thy tongue, Tyr! - Never thou couldst - Use both hands, - Since thy right one, - As I now remember, - The wolf Fenrer took from you. - - - TYR: - - I lack a hand, - Thou lackest good reputation,— - Sad it is to lack such a thing; - Nor does the wolf fare well,— - In chains he pines - Till the end of the world. - - - LOKE: - - Hold thy tongue, Tyr! - Thy wife and I - Had a son together, - But thou, poor fellow, - Received not a farthing - In fine from me. - - - FREY: - - The wolf I see lie - At the mouth of the river - Until the powers perish. - Mischief-maker! - If thou dost not hold thy tongue - Thou also shalt be bound. - - - LOKE: - - For gold thou bought’st - Gymer’s daughter, - And sold thy sword - At the same time; - But when the sons of Muspel - Come riding from the dark woods, - What hail thou, poor fellow, - To rely upon? - -Frey has a servant by name BYGVER, who responds to Loke: - - Know that, were I born - Of so noble a race - As Ingun’s Frey, - And had I - So glorious a hall, - I would crush the evil crow, - Break his bones to the marrow! - -LOKE then turns upon Bygver, and calls him a little impertinent thing, -that always hangs about Frey’s ears and cries under the millstone (can -the reader help thinking at this moment of Robert Burns’ famous poem, -_John Barleycorn?_); a good-for-nothing fellow, who never would divide -good with men, and when the heroes fought they could not find him, for -he was concealed in the straw of the bed. - -Frey’s maid-servant is Beyla, Bygver’s wife, whom Loke calls the ugliest -and filthiest hag that can be found among the offspring of the gods. Of -course Loke exaggerates and uses abusive language, but it was in truth a -sorry thing for Frey that he traded his sword away, for it is to this -fact he owes his defeat when he encounters Surt in Ragnarok. - -Frey’s wife was Gerd, a daughter of Gymer, and their son was Fjolner. -Frey was worshiped throughout the northern countries. In the common -formula of the oath his name was put first: HJÁLPI MÉR SVÁ FREYR OK -NJÖRÐR OK HINN ALMÁTTKI ÁS! that is, So help me Frey and Njord and the -almighty Asa (Odin). On Jul-eve (Christmas eve) it was customary to lead -out a boar, which was consecrated to Frey, and which was called the -atonement boar. On this the persons present laid their hands and made -solemn vows; and at the feast, where the flesh of the sacrificed animal -was eaten by the assembled guests, there was drunk, among other horns, a -horn to Njord and Frey for prosperous seasons and for peace. - -Everything about Frey goes to show that he is the god of the earth’s -fruitfulness. The sea, Njord, rises as vapor and descends in rain upon -the land, making it fruitful. There has been much dispute about the -etymological meaning of the word Frey. Finn Magnússon derives it from -_frœ_, Norse _frö_, meaning seed. Grimm, on the other hand, thinks the -fundamental idea is mildness, gladness (compare German _froh_, Norse -_fryd_). A derived meaning of the word is man, masculine of Freyja -(German _frau_), meaning woman. - - - SECTION IV. FREY AND GERD. - - -Frey had one day placed himself in Hlidskjalf, and looked out upon all -the worlds. He also saw Jotunheim, and perceived a large and stately -mansion which a maid was going to enter, and as she raised the latch of -the door so great a radiancy was thrown from her hand, that the air and -waters and all worlds were illuminated by it. It was Gerd, a daughter of -the giant Gymer and Aurboda, relatives of Thjasse. At this sight Frey, -as a just punishment for his audacity in mounting on that sacred throne, -was struck with sudden sadness, so that on his return home he could -neither speak nor sleep nor drink, nor did any one dare to inquire the -cause of his affliction. Frey’s messenger was named Skirner. Njord sent -for him and requested of him, as did also Skade, that he should ask Frey -why he thus refused to speak to any one. - -Thus the Elder Edda, in the lay of Skirner: - - - SKADE: - - Skirner, arise, and swiftly run - Where lonely sits our pensive son; - Bid him to parley, and inquire - ’Gainst whom he teems with sullen ire. - - - SKIRNER: - - Ill words I fear my lot will prove, - If I your son attempt to move; - If I bid parley, and inquire - Why teems his soul with savage ire. - -Reluctantly Skirner then proceeded to Frey, and thus addressed him: - - - SKIRNER: - - Prince of the gods, and first in fight! - Speak, honored Frey, and tell me right: - Why spends my lord the tedious day - In his lone hall, to grief a prey? - - - FREY: - - Oh, how shall I, fond youth, disclose - To you my bosom’s heavy woes? - The ruddy god shines every day, - But dull to me his cheerful ray. - - - SKIRNER: - - Your sorrows deem not I so great - That you the tale should not relate: - Together sported we in youth, - And well may trust each other’s truth. - - - FREY: - - In Gymer’s court I saw her move, - The maid who fires my breast with love; - Her snow-white arms and bosom fair - Shone lovely, kindling sea and air. - Dear is she to my wishes, more - Than e’er was maid to youth before; - But gods and elves, I wot it well, - Forbid that we together dwell. - - - SKIRNER: - - Give me that horse of wondrous breed - To cross the nightly flame with speed; - And that self-brandished sword to smite - The giant race with strange affright. - - - FREY: - - To you I give this wondrous steed - To pass the watchful fire with speed; - And this, which borne by valiant wight, - Self-brandished will his foemen smite. - -Frey, having thus given away his sword, found himself without arms when -he on another occasion fought with Bele, and hence it was that he slew -him with a stag’s antlers. This combat was, however, a trifling affair, -for Frey could have killed him with a blow of his fist, had he felt -inclined; but the time will come when the sons of Muspel will sally -forth to the fight in Ragnarok, and then indeed will Frey truly regret -having parted with his falchion. Having obtained the horse and sword, -Skirner set out on his journey, and thus he addressed his horse: - - Dark night is spread; ’t is time, I trow, - To climb the mountains hoar with snow; - Both shall return, or both remain - In durance, by the giant ta’en. - -Skirner rode into Jotunheim, to the court of Gymer. Furious dogs were -tied there before the gate of the wooden inclosure which surrounded -Gerd’s bower. He rode toward a shepherd, who was sitting on a mound, and -thus addressed him: - - Shepherd, you, that sit on the mound, - And turn your watchful eyes around, - How may I lull these bloodhounds? say; - How speak unharmed with Gymer’s may? - - - THE SHEPHERD: - - Whence and what are you? doomed to die? - Or, dead, revisit you the sky? - For ride by night or ride by day, - You ne’er shall come to Gymer’s may. - - - SKIRNER: - - I grieve not, I, a better part - Fits him who boasts a ready heart: - At hour of birth our lives were shaped; - The doom of fate can ne’er be ’scaped. - -But Gerd inside hears the stranger, and thus speaks to her maid-servant: - - What sounds unknown my ears invade, - Frightening this mansion’s peaceful shade; - The earth’s foundation rocks withal, - And trembling shakes all Gymer’s hall. - - - THE MAID-SERVANT: - - Dismounted stands warrior sheen; - His courser crops the herbage green. - - - GERD: - - Haste! bid him to my bower with speed, - To quaff unmixed the pleasant mead; - And good betide us; for I fear - My brother’s murderer is near. - -Skirner having entered, Gerd thus addresses him: - - What are you, elf or asas’ son? - Or from the wiser vanas sprung? - Alone to visit our abode, - O’er bickering flames, why have you rode? - - - SKIRNER: - - Nor elf am I, nor asas’ son; - Nor from the wiser vanas sprung: - Yet o’er the bickering flames I rode - Alone to visit your abode. - Eleven apples here I hold, - Gerd, for you, of purest gold; - Let this fair gift your bosom move - To grant young Frey your precious love. - - - GERD: - - Eleven apples take not I - From man as price of chastity: - While life remains, no tongue shall tell - That Frey and I together dwell. - - - SKIRNER: - - Gerd, for you this wondrous ring, - Burnt on young Balder’s pile, I bring, - On each ninth night shall other eight - Drop from it. all of equal weight. - - - GERD: - - I take not, I, that wondrous ring, - Though it from Balder’s pile you bring: - Gold lack not I, in Gymer’s bower; - Enough for me my father’s dower. - - - SKIRNER: - - Behold this bright and slender wand, - Unsheathed and glittering in my hand! - Refuse not, maiden! lest your head - Be severed by the trenchant blade. - - - GERD: - - Gerd will ne’er by force be led - To grace a conqueror’s hateful bed; - But this I trow, with main and might - Gymer shall meet your boast in fight. - - - SKIRNER: - - Behold this bright and slender wand, - Unsheathed and glittering in my hand! - Slain by its edge your sire shall lie, - That giant old is doomed to die. - -As this has no effect upon Gerd’s mind, Skirner heaps blows upon her -with a magic wand, and at the same time he begins his incantations, -scoring runic characters as he sings: - - E’en as I list, the magic wand - Shall tame you! Lo, with charmed hand - I touch you, maid! There shall you go - Where never man shall learn your woe. - On some high, pointed rock, forlorn - Like eagle, shall you sit at morn; - Turn from the world’s all-cheering light, - And seek the deep abyss of night. - Food shall to you more loathly show - Than slimy serpent creeping slow, - When forth you come, a hideous sight, - Each wondering eye shall stare with fright; - By all observed, yet sad and lone; - ’Mongst shivering giants wider known - Than him who sits unmoved on high, - The guard of heaven with sleepless eye. - ’Mid charms and chains and restless woe, - Your tears with double grief shall flow. - Now sit down, maid, while I declare - Your tide of sorrow and despair. - Your bower shall be some giant’s cell, - Where phantoms pale shall with you dwell; - Each day to the frosty giant’s hall, - Comfortless, wretched, shall you crawl; - Instead of joy, and pleasure gay, - Sorrow and tears and sad dismay; - With some three-headed giant wed, - Or pine upon a lonely bed; - From morn to morn love’s secret fire - Shall gnaw your heart with vain desire; - Like barren root of thistle pent - In some high ruined battlement. - O’er shady hill, through greenwood round, - I sought this wand; the wand I found. - Odin is wroth, and mighty Thor; - E’en Frey shall now your name abhor. - But ere o’er your ill-fated head - The last dread curse of heaven be spread, - Giants and Thurses far and near, - Suttung’s sons, and ye asas, hear - How I forbid with fatal ban - This maid the joys, the fruit of man. - Cold Grimner is that giant hight - Who you shall hold in realms of might; - Where slaves in cups of twisted roots - Shall bring foul beverage from the goats; - Nor sweeter draught, nor blither fare - Shall you, sad virgin, ever share. - ’Tis done! I wind the mystic charm; - Thus, thus I trace the giant form; - And three fell characters below, - Fury and Lust and restless Woe. - E’en as I wound, I straight unwind - This fatal spell, if you are kind. - - - GERD: - - Now hail, now hail, you warrior bold! - Take, take this cup of crystal cold, - And quaff the pure metheglin old. - Yet deemed I ne’er that love could bind - To vana-youth my hostile mind. - - - SKIRNER: - - I turn not home to bower or hall - Till I have learnt mine errand all; - Where you will yield the night of joy - To brave Njord’s, the gallant boy. - - - GERD: - - Bar-isle is hight, the seat of love; - Nine nights elapsed, in that known grove - Shall brave Njord’s, the gallant boy, - From Gerd take the kiss of joy. - -Then Skirner rode home. Frey stood forth and hailed him and asked what -tidings. - - FREY: - - Speak, Skirner, speak and tell with speed! - Take not the harness from your steed, - Nor stir your foot, till you have said, - How fares my love with Gymer’s maid! - - - SKIRNER: - - Bar-isle is hight, the seat of love; - Nine nights elapsed, in that known grove - To brave Njord’s, the gallant boy, - Will Gerd yield the kiss of joy. - - - FREY: - - Long is one night, and longer twain; - But how for three endure my pain? - A month of rapture sooner flies - Than half one night of wishful sighs. - -This poem illustrates how beautifully a myth can be elaborated. Gerd is -the seed; Skirner is the air that comes with the sunshine. Thus the myth -is easily explained: The earth, in which the seed is sown, resists the -embrace of Frey; his messenger Skirner, who brings the seed out into the -light, in vain promises her the golden ears of harvest and the ring, the -symbol of abundance. She has her giant nature, which has not yet been -touched by the divine spirit; she realizes not the glory which she can -attain to by Frey’s love. Skirner must conjure her, he must use -incantations, he must show her how she, if not embraced by Frey, must -forever be the bride of the cold frost, and never experience the joys of -wedded life. She finally surrenders herself to Frey, and they embrace -each other, when the buds burst forth in the grove. This myth then -corresponds to Persephone, the goddess of the grain planted in the -ground. Demeter’s sorrow on account of the naked, forsaken field, from -which the sprout shall shoot forth from the hidden reed, is Frey’s -impatient longing; and Skirner is Mercurius, who brings Proserpina up -from the lower world. - -But the myth has also a deeper ethical signification. Our forefathers -were not satisfied with the mere shell; and Frey’s love to Gerd, which -is described so vividly in the Elder Edda, is taken from the nature of -love, with all its longings and hopes, and is not only a symbol of what -takes place in visible nature. As the warmth of the sun develops the -seed, thus love develops the heart; love is the ray of light (Skirner) -sent from heaven, which animates and ennobles the clump of earth. Gerd -is the maid, who is engaged in earthly affairs and does not yet realize -anything nobler than her every-day cares. Then love calls her; in her -breast awakens a new life; wonderful dreams like gentle breezes embrace -her, and when the dreams grow into consciousness her eyes are opened to -a higher sphere of existence. This myth is most perfectly reflected in -the love-story of Fridthjof’s Saga, an old Norse romance moulded into a -most fascinating Epic Poem by Tegner. A good English translation of this -poem appeared a few years ago in London, and was republished in this -country under the auspices of Bayard Taylor. It is also translated into -almost every other European language, and is justly considered one of -the finest poetical productions of this century. - - - SECTION V. WORSHIP OF FREY. - - -The Sagas tell us, as has already been stated, that Frey was worshiped -extensively throughout the northern countries. - -In Throndhjem there was during the reign of Olaf Tryggvesson a temple in -which Frey was zealously worshiped. When the king, having overthrown the -statue of the god, blamed the bondes for their stupid idolatry, and -asked them wherein Frey had evinced his power, they answered: Frey often -talked with us, foretold us the future, and granted us good seasons and -peace. - -The Norse chieftain Ingemund Thorstenson, who in the days of the tyrant -Harald Hairfair emigrated from Norway and settled in Vatnsdal, Iceland, -built near his homestead a temple, which appears to have been specially -dedicated to Frey, who had in a manner pointed out a dwelling-place to -him; for in digging a place for his pillars of the high-seat -(_öndvegis-súlur_, something similar to the Greek Hermes and Roman -Penates), Ingemund found in the earth an image of Frey, which he had -lost in Norway. - -The Icelander Thorgrim of Seabol was a zealous worshiper of Frey, and -conducted sacrificial festivals in his honor during the winter nights. -He was killed in his bed by Gisle, and a famous funeral service was -given him; but one thing, says the Saga of Gisle Surson, also happened, -which seemed remarkable. Snow never settled on Thorgrim’s how -(grave-mound) on the south side, nor did it freeze; it was thought that -Frey loved him so much, because he had sacrificed to him, that he did -not want it to grow cold between them. - -In the vicinity of the estate Tver-aa, in Eyjafjord in Iceland, there -was a temple dedicated to Frey, and the place became so holy that no -guilty person dared to tarry there, for Frey did not allow it. When the -chieftain Thorkel the Tall was banished from Tver-aa by Glum Eyjolfson, -who is universally known as Vigaglum, he led a full-grown ox to Frey’s -temple before he left, and thus addressed the god: Long have you been to -me a faithful friend, O Frey! Many gifts have you received from me and -rewarded me well for them. Now I give you this ox, in order that Glum -may some day have to leave Tver-aa no less reluctantly than I do. And -now give to me a sign to show whether you accept this offering or not. -At that moment the ox bellowed loudly and fell dead upon the ground. -Thorkel considered this a good omen, and moved away with a lighter -heart. Afterwards (it is related in Vigaglum’s Saga) Glum in his old -days became involved in a dangerous suit for manslaughter, which ended -in his having to relinquish Tver-aa to Ketil, son of Thorvald Krok, whom -he confessed having killed. On the night before he rode to the _thing_ -(assembly, court), where his case was to be decided, he dreamed that -there had congregated a number of men at Tver-aa to meet Frey; he saw -many down by the river (_á_ is river in Icelandic), and there sat Frey -on a bench. Glum asked who they were, and they answered: We are your -departed relatives, and have come to pray Frey that you may not be -driven from Tver-aa; but it avails us nothing. Frey answers us short and -angrily and now remembers the ox which Thorkel the Tall gave to him. -Glum awoke, and from that time he said that he was on unfriendly terms -with Frey. - -In the temple at Upsala, in Sweden, Frey, together with Odin and Thor, -was especially worshiped; and by the story of the Norseman Gunnar -Helming, who in Sweden gave himself out as Frey, it is attested that the -people in some provinces of Sweden put their highest trust in this god, -and even believed him sometimes to appear in human form. - -The horse, it appears, was regarded as a favorite animal of Frey. At his -temple in Throndhjem it is said there were horses belonging to him. It -is related of the Icelander Rafnkel that he loved Frey above all other -gods, and bestowed upon him an equal share in all his best possessions. -He had a brown horse called Frey-fax (compare Col-fax, Fair-fax, etc.), -which he loved so highly that he made a solemn vow to kill the man who -should ride this horse against his will, a vow he also fulfilled. -Another Icelander, Brand, also had a horse called Frey-fax, which he -made so much of that he was said to believe in it as in a divinity. - -Frey’s boar, Gullinburste, has been referred to in connection with the -Jul or Christmas festivities, and there are found many examples of -swine-sacrifice in the old Norse writings. King Hedrek made solemn vows -on the atonement-boar on Jul-eve, and in one of the prose supplements to -the ancient Edda poem of Helge Hjorvardson we find that the -atonement-boar is mentioned as being led out on Jul-eve, in order that -they might lay lands upon it and make solemn vows. - -A highly valued wooden statue or image of Frey was found in a temple at -Throndhjem, which king Olaf Tryggvesson hewed in pieces in the presence -of the people. Kjotve the Rich, king of Agder in Norway, one of the -chiefs who fought against Harald Fairhair, had a weight upon which the -god Frey was sculptured in silver. This treasure, which he held in great -veneration, fell after the battle into the hands of King Harald, and he -presented it to his friend, the chieftain Ingemund Thorstenson, who -afterwards carried the image in a purse and held it in very high esteem. -This last-mentioned image was probably borne as an amulet, as was often -the case, no doubt, with the gold braeteates which are found in the -grave-hows and in the earth, having upon them the images of men and -animals, and which are furnished with a clasp for fastening to a -necklace. - - - SECTION VI. FREYJA. - - -The goddess of love is Freyja, also called Vanadis or Vanabride. She is -the daughter of Njord and the sister of Frey. She ranks next to Frigg. -She is very fond of love ditties, and all lovers would do well to invoke -her. It is from her name that women of birth and fortune are called in -the Icelandic language _hús freyjur_ (compare Norse _fru_ and German -_frau_). Her abode in heaven is called Folkvang, where she disposes of -the hall-seats. To whatever field of battle she rides she asserts her -right to one half the slain, the other half belonging to Odin. Thus the -Elder Edda, in Grimner’s lay: - - Folkvang ’tis called - Where Freyja has right - To dispose of the hall-seats. - Every day of the slain - She chooses the half - And leaves half to Odin. - -Her mansion, Sessrymner (having many or large seats), is large and -magnificent; thence she rides out in a car drawn by two cats. She lends -a favorable ear to those who sue for her assistance. She possesses a -necklace called Brisingamen, or Brising. She married a person called -Oder, and their daughter, named Hnos, is so very handsome that whatever -is beautiful and precious is called by her name _hnossir_ (that means, -nice things). It is also said that she had two daughters, Hnos and -Gerseme, the latter name meaning precious. But Oder left his wife in -order to travel into very remote countries. Since that time Freyja -continually weeps, and her tears are drops of pure gold; hence she is -also called the fair-weeping goddess (_it grátfagra goð_). In poetry, -gold is called Freyja’s tears, the rain of Freyja’s brows or cheeks. She -has a great variety of names, for, having gone over many countries in -search of her husband, each people gave her a different name. She is -thus called Mardal, Horn, Gefn, Syr, Skjalf and Thrung. It will also be -remembered, from the chapter about Thor, that Freyja had a falcon-guise, -and how the giant Thrym longed to possess her. In the lay of Hyndla, in -the Elder Edda, Freyja comes to her friend and sister, the giantess -Hyndla, and requests her to ride to Valhal, to ask for success for her -favorite Ottar; promising the giantess to appease Odin and Thor, who of -course were enemies to the giants. Hyndla is inclined to doubt Freyja’s -remarks, especially as she comes to her with Ottar in the night. Who -this Ottar was we do not know, excepting that he was a son of the Norse -hero, Instein, and hence probably a Norseman. He was heir to an estate, -but his right to it was disputed by Angantyr. It was therefore necessary -to make his title good, and to enumerate his ancestors, but for this he -was too ignorant. Meanwhile he had always been a devout worshiper of the -asynjes (goddesses), and had especially worshiped Freyja by making -sacrifices, images, and erecting altars to her. Hence it is that she -wishes to help him in this important case, but finds that she is not -able, and it was for this reason she saddled her golden boar and went to -the wise giantess Hyndla, who was well posted in regard to the -pedigrees, origin and fates of gods, giants and men. Hyndla consents to -giving the information asked for, and so she enumerates first the -immediate ancestors of Ottar on his father’s and mother’s side, then -speaks of the king so famous in olden times, Halfdan Gamle, the original -progenitor of the Skjolds and several other noble families of the North. -And as these royal families were said to be descended from the gods and -the latter again from the giants, Hyndla gives some of their genealogies -also. Thus she gets an opportunity to speak of Heimdal and his giant -mothers, then of Loke and of the monsters descended from him, which -shall play so conspicuous a part in Ragnarok, then of the mighty god of -thunder, and finally of a god yet more mighty, whom she ventures not to -name, and here she ends her tale. She will not prophesy further than to -where Odin is swallowed by the Fenris-wolf and the world by the yawning -abyss. Freyja after this asks her for a drink of remembrance to give to -Ottar, her guest and favorite, in order that he might be able to -remember the whole talk and the pedigree two days afterwards, when the -case between him and Angantyr should be decided by proofs of this kind. -Hyndla refuses to do this, and upbraids her with abusive language. By -this Freyja is excited to wrath and threatens to kindle a fire around -the giantess, from which she would not be able to escape, if she did not -comply with her request. When the threat begins to be carried out (at -the breaking forth of the flaming aurora in the morning) Hyndla gives -the requested drink, but at the same time curses it. Freyja is not -terrified by this, but removes the curse by her blessing and earnest -prayers to all divinities for the success of her beloved Ottar. - -We should like to give the lay in full, as it is found in the Elder -Edda, but having quoted several strophes from it before, and it being -quite long, we reluctantly omit it. We advise our readers, however, by -all means to read the ELDER EDDA. There is more profound thought in it -than in any other human work, not even Shakespeare excepted. What a pity -that it is so little known! - -Women came after death to Freyja. When Egil Skallagrimson had lost his -young son, and was despairing unto death on this account, his daughter -Thorgerd, who was married to Olaf in Lax-aa-dal, comes to console him; -and when she hears that he will neither eat nor drink, then she also -says that she has not and will not eat or drink before she comes to -Freyja. With _her_, lovers who have been faithful unto death are -gathered; therefore Hagbard sings: Love is renewed in Freyja’s halls. - -Freyja is the goddess of love between man and woman. Hence we find in -her nature, beauty, grace, modesty, the longings, joys, and tears of -love, and we find also that burning love in the heart which breaks out -in wild flames. She rules in _Folk_vang, in the human dwellings, where -there are seats enough for all. No one escapes her influence. Odin -shares the slain equally with her, for the hero has _two_ grand objects -in view—to conquer his enemy and to win the heart of the maiden. - -Thus the Norse mythology teaches us that the sturdy Norseman was not -insusceptible to impressions from beauty nor unmoved by love. The most -beautiful flowers were named after Freyja’s hair and eye-dew, and even -animate objects, which, like the flowers, were remarkable for their -beauty, were named after this goddess, as for instance the butterfly -(Icel. _Freyjuhœna_—Freyja’s hen). - -There is a semi-mythological Saga called Orvarodd’s Saga. Orvarodd -signifies Arrow-odd; and as this same Arrow-odd is implicated in a large -number of love exploits, it has been suggested that he may be Freyja’s -husband, whose name the reader remembers was Oder, the stem of which is -_od_, and hence we have in the North also not only a _goddess_ of love, -but also a god of love (Cupid), with his arrows! - -Freyja’s cats symbolize sly fondling and sensual enjoyment. The name of -her husband, Oder, means sense, understanding, but also wild desire. The -various names bestowed upon Freyja when she travels among the different -nations denote the various modes by which love reveals itself in human -life. The goddesses Sjofn, Lofn, and Var, heretofore mentioned, were -regarded as messengers and attendants of Freyja. Friday (_dies Veneris_) -is named after her. (See page 237.) - - - SECTION VII. A BRIEF REVIEW. - - -The lives and exploits of the propitious divinities have now been -presented; and in presenting the myths we have not only given the forces -and phenomena of nature symbolized by the myths, but we have also tried -to bring the mythology down from heaven to the earth, and exhibit the -value it had in the minds of our ancestors. We have tried, as Socrates -did with his philosophy, to show what influence the myths have had upon -the life of our forefathers; in other words, we have tried to put a -kernel into the shell. We have tried to present the mythology, not as -the science and laws by which the universe is governed, but as -something—call it science or what you will—by which to illustrate how -the contemplation of the forces and phenomena of nature have influenced -human thought and action. Language is in its origin nothing but -impressions from nature, which having been revolved for a time in the -human mind find their expression in words. Poetry is in its origin -nothing else but expressions of human thought and feeling called forth -by the contemplation of the wonderful works of God. And this is also -true of mythology. - -We have found the propitious divinities divided into three classes, -those of heaven, those of earth, and those of the sea. The union or -marriage between heaven and earth has been promoted in various myths. -The king of heaven is but _one_, but he embraces the earth in various -forms, and the earth is, in a new form, wedded to the god of thunder; -nay, the vans, or divinities of the sea, arise and fill the land with -blessings in various ways. The manner in which the gods are combined and -interlinked with each other in one grand system is a feature peculiar to -the Norse mythology. There is not, as in the Greek, a series of separate -groups and separate dwellings, but the gods come in frequent contact -with each other. Odin rules in the heavens, Thor in the clouds, Heimdal -in the rainbow, Balder in the realms of light, Frey with his elves of -light in the earth, but the sun affects them all: it is Odin’s eye, it -is Balder’s countenance, Heimdal needs it for his rainbow, and Frey -governs its rays; and still the sun itself rides as a beaming maid with -her horses from morning until evening. The earth has its various forms, -and the seed planted in the earth has its own god (Frey), surrounded by -the spirits of the groves, the forests and the fountains. And the king -of heaven unites man with nature; he not only provides for his animal -life, but also breathes into him a living soul and inspires him with -enthusiasm. He sits with Saga at the fountain of history; he sends out -his son Brage, the god of poetry and eloquence, and unites him with -Idun, the rejuvenating goddess, whose carefully protected rivers meander -through the grove full of fruit trees bearing golden apples; and he lets -his other son, Balder, the ruler of light, marry the industrious -flower-goddess, Nanna, who with her maids spreads a fragrant carpet over -the earth. And as the god of thunder rules but to protect heaven and -earth, so the naked desert and the impenetrable forest exist only to -remind us of the incorruptible vital force of nature, safe against all -attacks. The imperishableness of nature appears more strikingly in the -stupendous mountains and gigantic forests than in the fertile, -cultivated and protected parts of the earth. Now let us again ask: Is -there nothing here for the poet or artist? Has the Norse mythology -nothing that can be elaborated and clothed with beautiful forms and -colors? Does this mythology not contain germs that art can develop into -fragrant leaves, swelling buds and radiant blossoms? Does not this our -Gothic inheritance deserve a place with the handmaids of literature? -Will not our poets, public speakers, lecturers, essayists, and writers -of elegant literature generally, who make so many quaint allusions to, -and borrow so many elegant and suggestive illustrations from, Greek -mythology; will they not, we say, do their own ancestors the honor to -dip their pen occasionally into the mythology of the Gothic race? It is -bad practice to borrow when we can get along without it, besides the -products of the south thrive not well in our northern Gothic soil and -climate. Ygdrasil grows better here, and that is a tree large enough and -fruitful enough to sustain the Gothic race with enthusiasm and -inspiration for centuries yet to come, and to supply a a whole race of -future bards and poets and artists with a precious and animating elixir. -Our next generation will comprehend this. - -Footnote 73: - - How Skade came to choose Njord when she was permitted to choose a - husband among the gods, seeing only their feet, was related on page - 277. - -Footnote 74: - - Rocky islands. - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - THE DEVELOPMENT OF EVIL. LOKE AND HIS OFFSPRING. - - - SECTION I. LOKE. - - -We have now made an acquaintance with the lives and exploits or the good -and propitious divinities, with the asas and vans. But what of the evil? -Whence come they, and how have they been developed? Many a philosopher -has puzzled his brain with this vexed question, and the wisest minds are -still engaged in deep meditations in regard to it. It is and will remain -an unsolved problem. But what did the old Goths, and particularly our -Norse forefathers, think about the development of evil? What forms did -it assume among them? How did it spring forth in nature, and how did it -impress the minds and hearts of the people? These are questions now to -be answered. - -There are in the Norse mythology two individuals by the name of Loke. -The one is _Utgard_-Loke, hideous in his whole being, and his character -was sketched in the myth about Thor and Skrymer (see pp. 312-322); he -represents physical and moral evil in all its naked loathsomeness. The -other is _Asa_-Loke, of whom there also have been accounts given at -various times in connection with the propitious gods; and it is of him -solely we are now to speak, as the former belongs wholly to the race of -giants. Asa-Loke, whom we shall hereafter call by his common name, Loke, -is the same evil principle in all its various manifestations; but as he -makes his appearance among the gods, he represents evil in the seductive -and seemingly beautiful form in which it glides about through the world. -We find him flowing in the veins of the human race and call him sin, or -passion. In nature he is the corrupting element in air, fire and water. -In the bowels of the earth he is the volcanic flame, in the sea he -appears as a fierce serpent, and in the lower world we recognize him as -pale death. Thus, like Odin, Loke pervades all nature. And in no -divinity is it more clear than in this, that the idea proceeding from -the visible workings of nature entered the human heart and mind and -there found its moral or ethical reflection. Loke symbolises sin, -shrewdness, deceitfulness, treachery, malice, etc. Loke is indeed in his -development one of the profoundest myths. In the beginning he was -intimately connected with Odin, then he became united with the air, and -finally he impersonates the destructive fire. And in these changes he -keeps growing worse and worse. - -In the banquet of Æger he reminds Odin that they in the beginning of -time had their blood mixed. Thus the Elder Edda: - - LOKE: - - Do thou mind, Odin, - That we in time’s morning - Mixed blood together! - Then thou pretendedst - That thou never wouldst ask a drink - Unless it was offered to both of us. - -Sameness of blood symbolizes sameness of mind, and Loke is in the -Younger Edda called Odin’s brother, the uncle of the gods. Under the -name of Loder, or Lopter, Loke took part in the creation of man; he gave -the senses, the sources of evil desires, the passions, the fire of the -veins. Thus he is like the fire, which is beneficent and necessary for -development, but also dangerous and destructive. With the giantess -Angerboda (producing sorrow) he begat the wolf Fenrer, but the most -disgusting monster is the woman Hel, who is a daughter of Loke. _Odin_ -unites himself with the gigantic force in nature, but he does this to -develop, ennoble and elevate it. _Loke_ unites himself with crude -matter, but by this union he only still further develops the evil -principle, which then expresses itself in all kinds of terrible -phenomena: the sea tosses its waves against heaven itself, and rushes -out upon the land; the air trembles; then comes snow and howling winds; -the rain splashes down upon the earth, etc. Such is also his influence -upon the human mind. He is the sly, treacherous father of lies. In -appearance he is beautiful and fair, but in his mind he is evil, and in -his inclinations he is inconstant. Notwithstanding his being ranked -among the gods, he is the slanderer of the gods, the grand contriver of -deceit and fraud, the reproach of gods and men. Nobody renders him -divine honors. He surpasses all mortals in the arts of perfidy and -craft. - -There is some dispute about the real meaning of Loke’s name. Some derive -it from the Icelandic _lúka_, to end, thus arguing that Loke is the end -and consummation of divinity. Another definition is given, taken from -the Icelandic _logi_ (Anglo-Saxon _lîg_), according to which the primary -meaning would be fire, flame. He is also called Loder, or Lopter (the -aërial; compare Norse _luft_, Anglo-Saxon _lyft_, air); and this would -seem to corroborate the definition of Loke as fire. Loder (_lodern_, to -blaze) would then designate him in the character of the blazing earthly -fire, and Lopter as the heated and unsteady air. He is son of the giant -Farbaute, that is, the one who strikes the ships, the wind. His mother -is Laufey, or Nal, the former meaning leaf-isle, and the latter needle. -Oak trees produce leaves and pines produce needles; both Laufey and Nal -are therefore combustibles. His brothers are Byleist (dwelling -destroyer, raging flame), and Helblinde, the latter being another name -for Odin. - -In the previous chapters it has frequently been seen how Loke time and -again accompanied the gods, they making use of his strength and cunning; -but it has also been shown how he acted in concert with the jotuns and -exposed the gods to very great perils and then extricated them again by -his artifices. By Loke’s advice the gods engage the artificer to build a -dwelling so well fortified that they should be perfectly safe from the -incursions of the frost-giants. For this the artificer is to receive -Freyja, providing he completes his work within a stipulated time; but -Loke prevented him from completing his task by the birth of Sleipner. -When the dwarfs forge the precious things for the gods, it is he who -brings about that the work lacks perfection, and even the handle of -Thor’s mallet, Mjolner, becomes too short; for evil is everywhere -present and makes the best things defective. He cuts the hair of the -goddess Sif, and by this he makes way for the forging of the precious -articles; thus evil often in spite of itself produces good results. -Examples of this abound in the history of the world. Loke gives Thjasse -an opportunity to rob Idun, but brings her back again and thus causes -Thjasse’s death. He hungers at Geirrod’s, and causes Thor to undertake -his dangerous journey; but he also looks after Thor’s hammer, and -accompanies him as maid-servant to get it back. He steals Freyja’s -Brisingamen, and quarrels with Heimdal about it. But his worst deed is -Balder’s death. For these reasons Loke is in Old Norse poetry called: -son of Farbaute, son of Laufey, son of Nal, brother of Byleist, brother -of Helblinde, father of the Fenris-wolf, father of the Midgard-serpent, -father of Hel, uncle of Odin, visitor and chest-goods of Geirrod, thief -of Brisingamen and of Idun’s apples, defender of Sigyn (his wife), Sif’s -hair destroyer, adviser of Balder’s bane, etc. - -Odin, Hœner and Loke are often together. It is related that they once -set out to explore the whole world. They came to a stream, and followed -it until they came to a force (cascade) where there sat an otter near -the force. It had caught a salmon in the force and sat half sleeping -eating it. Then Loke picked up a stone and threw it at the otter, struck -it in the head and then boasted of his deed, for he had killed or -captured both the otter and salmon with one stone. They then took the -salmon and otter with them and came to a gard (farm), where they entered -the house. The bonde,[75] who lived there, hight Hreidmar, an able -fellow well skilled in necromancy. The gods asked for night lodgings, -but added that they were supplied with provisions whereupon they showed -what they had caught. But when Hreidmar saw the otter he called to him -his sons Fafner and Regin, and told them that their brother Odder -(otter) Wad been slain, and who had done it. Father and sons then attack -the gods, overpower and bind them, and then inform them that the otter -was Hreidmar’s son. The gods offered a ransom for their lives, as large -as Hreidmar himself would determine it; they made a treaty accordingly, -confirming it with oaths. When the otter then had been flayed, Hreidmar -took the skin and demanded that they should fill it with shining gold -and then perfectly cover it with the same. These were the terms of -agreement. Then Odin sent Loke to the home of the swarthy elves -(Svartalf-heim), where he met the dwarf Andvare (wary, cautious spirit), -who lived as a fish, in the water. Loke borrowed Ran’s net and caught -him, and demanded of him, as a ransom for his life, all the gold he had -in the rock, where he dwelt. And when they came into the rock the dwarf -produced all the gold which he possessed, which was a considerable -amount; but Loke observed that the dwarf concealed under his arm a gold -ring, and ordered him to give it up. The dwarf prayed Loke by all means -to let him keep it; for when he kept this ring, he said, he could -produce for himself more of the metal from it. But Loke said that he -should not keep so much as a penny, and took the ring from him, and went -out. Then said the dwarf, that that ring should be the bane of the -person who possessed it. Loke had no objection to this, and said that, -in order that this purpose should be kept, he should bring these words -to the knowledge of him who should possess it. Then Loke returned to -Hreidmar, and showed Odin the gold; but when the latter saw the ring he -thought it was pretty; he therefore, taking it, gave Hreidmar the rest -of the gold. Hreidmar then filled the otter-skin as well as he could, -and set it down when it was full. Then Odin went to cover the bag with -gold, and afterwards bade Hreidmar whether the bag was perfectly -covered; but Hreidmar examined, and looked carefully in every place, and -found an uncovered hair near the mouth, which Odin would have to cover, -or the agreement would be broken. Then Odin produced the ring and -covered the hair with it, and said that they now had paid the -otter-ransom. But when Odin had taken his spear, and Loke his shoes, so -that they had nothing more to fear, Loke said that the curse of the -dwarf Andvare should be fulfilled, and that this gold and this ring -should be the bane of him who possessed it. From this myth it is that -gold is poetically called otter-ransom. - -And the curse was fulfilled. This curse of ill-gotten gold became the -root of a series of mortal calamities, which are related in the latter -part of the Elder Edda, in the songs about Sigurd Fafner’s bane, or the -Slayer of Fafner; about Brynhild, about Gudrun’s sorrow, Gudrun’s -revenge, in the song about Atle, etc. The curse on the gold, pronounced -upon it by Andvare, the dwarf, is the grand moral in these wonderful -songs, and never was moral worked out more terribly. Even Shakespeare -has no tragedy equal to it. When Odin and Loke had gone away, Fafner and -Regin demanded from their father, Hreidmar, a share of the ransom in the -name of their brother Odder; but Hreidmar refused, so Fafner pierced his -father with a sword while he slept. Thus Hreidmar died, but Fafner took -all the gold. Then Regin demanded his paternal inheritance, but Fafner -refused to give it, and disappeared. Another prominent character in the -Edda is Sigurd, who frequently visited Regin and told him that Fafner, -having assumed the shape of a monstrous dragon, lay on Gnita Heath, and -had Æger’s helmet, the helmet of terror, before which all living -trembled. Regin made a sword for Sigurd, which was called Gram; it was -so sharp that when it stood in the river and a tuft of wool floated on -the current, the sword would cut the wool as easily as the water. With -this sword Sigurd cut Regin’s anvil in twain. Regin excites Sigurd to -kill Fafner, and accordingly Sigurd and Regin proceeded on their way to -Gnita Heath, and discovered Fafner’s path, whereupon the latter (Fafner) -crept into the water. In the way Sigurd dug a large grave and went down -into it. When Fafner now crept away from the gold he spit poison, but -this flew over Sigurd’s head, and as Fafner passed over the grave Sigurd -pierced him with his sword to the heart. Fafner trembled convulsively, -and fiercely shook his head and tail. Sigurd sprang out of the grave -when they saw each other. Then a conversation takes place between them, -in which Fafner heaps curses upon Sigurd until the former expires. Regin -had gone away while Sigurd killed Fafner, but came back while Sigurd was -wiping the blood off the sword. - - REGIN: - - Hail to thee now, Sigurd! - Now thou best victory won - And Fafner slain. - Among all men who tread the earth - Most fearless - I proclaim thee to be born. - - - SIGURD: - - Uncertain it is to know, - When we all come together, - Sons of victorious gods, - Who was born most fearless; - Many a man is brave - Who still does not thrust the blade - Into another man’s breast. - - - REGIN: - - Glad art thou now, Sigurd, - Glad of thy victory. - As thou wipest Gram on the grass. - Thou hast my - Brother wounded, - Let myself have some share therein. - - - SIGURD: - - It was thou who caused - That I should ride - Hither over frosty mountains; - His wealth and life - Would the spotted snake still possess, - Hadst thou not excited me to fight. - -Then went Regin to Fafner and cut the heart out of him with the sword -called Ridel, and afterwards drank the blood from the wound. He said: - - Sit down now, Sigurd! - I will go to sleep: - Hold Fafner’s heart by the fire. - Such a repast - Will I partake of - After this drink of blood. - - - SIGURD: - - Thou didst absent thyself - When I in Fafner’s blood - My sharp blade stained. - I set my strength - Against the power of the dragon - While thou didst lie in the heath - - - REGIN: - - Long wouldst thou - Have let the old - Troll lie in the heath, - Hadst thou not used - The sword which I made, - Thy sharpened blade. - - - SIGURD: - - Courage is better - Than sword-strength - Where angry men must fight; - For the brave man - I always see win - Victory with a dull blade. - It it better for the brave man - Than for the coward - To join in the battle, - It is better for the glad - Than for the sorrowing - In all circumstances. - -Sigurd took Fafner’s heart, put it on a spit and roasted it; but when he -thought it must be roasted enough, and when the juice oozed out of the -heart, he felt of it with his fingers to see whether it was well done. -He burned himself, and put his finger into his mouth, but when the blood -of Fafner’s heart touched his tongue he understood the song of birds. He -heard birds singing in the bushes, and seven birds sang a strophe each, -talking about how Regin might avenge his brother, kill Sigurd, and -possess the treasure alone, when Sigurd finally says: - - Not so violent - Will fate be, that Regin - Shall announce my death; - For soon shall both - Brothers go - Hence to Hel. - -And he cut the head off Regin, ate afterwards Fafner’s heart, and drank -both his and Regin’s blood. Then Sigurd heard the birds sing: - - Sigurd! gather - Golden rings; - It is not royal - To be smothered by fear. - I know a maid - Fairer than all - Endowed with gold, - If thou couldst but get her. - To Gjuke lie - Green paths, - Fortune beckons - The wanderers forward; - There a famous king - Has fostered a daughter,— - Her thou, Sigurd, must win. - -Sigurd followed the track of the dragon to his nest and found it open. -Its doors and door-frames, and all the beams and posts of the place, -were of iron, but the treasure was buried in the ground. There Sigurd -found a large heap of gold, with which he filled two chests. Then he -took the helmet of terror (Æger’s helmet), a gold cuirass, the sword -Hrotte, and many treasures, which he put on the back of the horse Grane, -but the horse would not proceed before Sigurd mounted it also. - -This is but the beginning of this terrible tragedy, but our space does -not allow us here to enter upon all the fatal results of the curse of -Andvare. In the fate, first of Sigurd and Brynhild, and afterwards of -Sigurd and Gudrun, is depicted passion, tenderness and sorrow with a -vivid power which nowhere has a superior. The men are princely warriors -and the women are not only fair, but godlike, in their beauty and vigor. -The noblest sentiments and most heroic actions are crossed by the -foulest crimes and the most terrific tragedies. In this train of events, -produced by the curse of Andvare alone, there is material for a score of -dramas of the most absorbing character. In the story of Sigurd and -Brynhild, as we find it in the latter part of the Elder Edda, there are -themes for tragic and heroic composition that would become as immortal -as Dante’s _Inferno_ or Shakespeare’s _Macbeth_, for they are based on -our profoundest sympathies, and appeal most forcibly to our ideas of the -beautiful and the true. - -The ring Andvarenant (Andvare’s gift), as it is called, here as -elsewhere, symbolizes wealth, which increases in the hands of the wary, -careful Andvare (_and-vari_, wary). But for avarice, that never gets -enough, it becomes a destructive curse. It is perfectly in harmony with -Loke’s character to be satisfied and pleased with the curse attached to -the ring.[76] - - - SECTION II. LOKE’S CHILDREN. THE FENRIS-WOLF. - - -Loke’s wife was Sigyn; their son was Nare or Narfe, and a brother of him -was Ale (Ole) or Vale. - -With the hag, Angerboda, Loke had three children. Angerbode was a -giantess of Jotunheim, and her name means anguish-boding. The children’s -names are Fenrer or Fenris-wolf, the Midgard-serpent called -Jormungander, and Hel. Tho gods were not long ignorant that these -monsters continued to be bred up in Jotunheim, and, having had recourse -to divination, became aware of all the evils they would have to suffer -from them; that they were sprung from such a bad mother was a _bad_ -omen, and from such a father, one still worse. Allfather (Odin) -therefore deemed it advisable to send the gods to bring them to him. -When they came, he threw the serpent into that deep ocean by which the -earth is encircled. But the monster has grown to such an enormous size, -that holding his tail in his mouth he engirdles the whole earth. Hel he -cast headlong into Niflheim, and gave her power over nine worlds -(regions), into which she distributes those who are sent to her,—that is -to say, all who die through sickness or old age. Here she possesses a -habitation protested by exceedingly high walls and strongly-barred -gates. Her hall is called Elvidner (place of storm); hunger is her -table; starvation, her knife; delay, her man-servant; slowness, her -maid-servant; precipice, her threshold; care, her bed; and burning -anguish forms the hangings of her apartments. The one half of her body -is livid, the other half the color of human flesh. She may therefore -easily be recognized; the more so as she has a dreadfully stern and grim -countenance. - -The wolf Fenrer was bred up among the gods, but Tyr alone had courage -enough to go and feed him. Nevertheless, when the gods perceived that he -every day increased prodigiously in size, and that the oracles warned -then that he would one day become fatal to them, they determined to make -a very strong iron chain for him, which they called Leding. Taking this -fetter to the wolf, they requested him to try his strength on it. -Fenrer, perceiving that the enterprise would not be very difficult for -him, let them do what they pleased, permitted himself to be bound, and -then by great muscular exertion burst the chain and set himself at -liberty. The gods having seen this, made another chain, twice as strong -as the former, and this they called Drome. They prevailed on the wolf to -put it on, assuring him that, by breaking this, he would give an -incontestible proof of his strength; it would be a great honor to him if -so great a chain could not hold him. - -The wolf saw well enough that it would not be so easy to break this -fetter, but finding at the same time that his strength had increased -since he broke Leding, and thinking that he could never become famous -without running some risk, he voluntarily submitted to be chained. When -the gods told him that they had finished their task, Fenrer shook -himself violently, stretched his limbs, rolled on the ground, and at -last burst his chains, which flew in pieces all around him. He thus -freed himself from Drome. From that time we have the proverbs, to get -loose out of Leding, or to dash out of Drome, when anything is to be -accomplished by powerful efforts. - -After this the gods despaired of ever being able to bind the wolf; -wherefore Odin sent Skirner, the messenger of Frey, down to the abode of -the dark elves (Svartalf-heim), to engage certain dwarfs to make the -chain called Gleipner. It was made out of six things, namely, the noise -made by the footstep of a cat, the beard of a woman, the roots of the -mountains, the sinews of the bear, the breath of the fish, and the -spittle of birds (the enumeration of these things produces alliteration -in Icelandic). And although you, says he who relates this in the Younger -Edda, may not have heard of these things before, you may easily convince -yourself that I have not been telling you lies. You may have observed -that woman has no beard, that cats make no noise when they run, and that -there are no roots under the mountains; but it is a nevertheless none -the less true what I have related, although there may be some things -that you are not able to furnish proof of. - -How was this chain smithied? It was perfectly smooth and soft like a -silken string, and yet, as we shall presently see, very firm and strong. -When this fetter was brought to the gods, they were profuse in their -thanks to Skirner for the trouble he had given himself and for having -done his errand so well, and taking the wolf with them they proceeded to -a lake called Amsvartner, to a holm (rocky island) which is called -Lyngve. They showed the string to the wolf, and expressed their wish -that he would try to break it, at the same time assuring him that it was -somewhat stronger than its thinness would warrant a person in supposing -it to be. They took it themselves one after another in their hands, and, -after attempting in vain to break it, said: You alone, Fenrer are able -to accomplish such a feat. Methinks, replied the wolf, that I shall -acquire no fame by breaking such a slender thread, but if any deceit or -artifice has been employed in making it, slender though it seems, it -shall never come on my feet. - -The gods assured him that he would easily break a limber silken cord, -since he had already burst asunder iron fetters of the most solid -construction; but if you should not succeed in breaking it, they added, -you will show that you are too weak to cause the gods any fear, and we -will not hesitate to set you at liberty without delay. I fear much, -replied the wolf, that if you once bind me so fast that I shall be -unable to free myself by my own efforts, you will be in no haste to -loose me. Loath am I therefore to have this cord wound around me, but in -order that you may not doubt my courage, I will consent, provided one of -you put his hand into my mouth, as a pledge that you intend me no -deceit. The gods looked wistfully at one another, and thought the -conditions severe, finding that they had only the choice of two evils, -and no one would sacrifice his hand, until Tyr, as has formerly been -related, stepped forward and intrepidly put his hand between the -monster’s jaws. Thereupon the gods having tied up the wolf, he violently -stretched himself as he had formerly done, and used all his might to -disengage himself, but the more efforts he made the tighter became the -cord. Then all the gods burst out in laughter at the sight, excepting -Tyr, who lost his hand. - -When the gods saw that the wolf was effectually bound, they took the -chain called Gelgja, which was attached to the cord, and drew it through -the middle of a large rock called Gjol, which they sank deep into the -earth; afterwards, to make it still more secure, they fastened the end -of the cord to another massive stone called Thvite, which they sank -still deeper. The wolf made in vain the most violent efforts to break -loose, and, opening his tremendous jaws, and turning in every possible -direction, endeavored to bite the gods. They, seeing this, thrust a -sword into his mouth within his outstretched jaws, so that the hilt -stood in his lower jaw and the point in the roof of the mouth; and this -is called his palate-spar (_gómsparri_). He howls horribly, and the foam -flows continually from his month in such abundance that it forms the -river called Von; from which the wolf is also sometimes called -Vonargander. There he will remain until Ragnarok, the Twilight of the -gods. But why did not the gods slay the wolf, when they have so much -evil to fear from him? Because they had so much respect for the sanctity -of their peace-steads that they would not stain them with the blood of -the wolf, although prophecies foretold to them that he must one day -become the bane of Odin. - -The Fenris-wolf is the earthly fire chained by man, exceedingly -ferocious when let loose, as has been terribly illustrated by our recent -fires in Chicago and her sister city Boston; as a devouring wolf it -attacks and licks up the dwellings of men, as it is said in the lay of -Haakon: - - Fearfully fares - The Fenris-wolf - Over the fields of men - When he is loosed. - -Once it shall, with its upper jaw reaching to the heavens and with the -lower jaw on the earth, advance with terror and destruction, and destroy -the fire and flame of heaven, Odin (the sun). At present it is fettered -on the island, where a grave is dug and a furnace is built of stone, -with the draft (mouth) partially barred, so that the fire is surrounded -by things which prevent its spreading. It is managed and controlled by -men for their advantage, and it is so useful that no one would think of -entirely destroying it (killing it). - - - SECTION III. JORMUNDGANDER, OR THE MIDGARD-SERPENT. - - -The Midgard- or world-serpent we have already become tolerably well -acquainted with, and recognize in him the wild tumultuous sea. Thor -contended with him; he got him on his hook, but did not succeed in -killing him. We also remember how Thor tried to lift him in the form of -a cat. The North abounds in stories about the sea-serpent, which a -nothing but variations of the original myth of the Eddas. Odin cast him -into the sea, where he shall remain until he is conquered by Thor in -Ragnarok. - - - SECTION IV. HEL. - - -The goddess, or giantess (it is difficult to decide what to call her), -Hel, is painted with vivid colors. She rules over nine worlds in -Niflheim, where she dwells under one of the roots of Ygdrasil. Her home -is called Helheim. The way thither, Hel-way, is long. Hermod traveled it -in nine days and nine nights. Its course is always downward and -northward. Her dwelling is surrounded by a fence or inclosure with one -or more large gates. Gloomy rivers flow through her world. One of these -streams is called Slid, which rises in the east and flows westward -through valleys of venom, and is full of mud and swords. A dog stands -outside of a cave (Gnipahellir). With blood-stained breast and loud -howling this dog came from Hel to meet Odin, when the latter rode down -to wake the vala, who lay buried in her grave-mound east of the -Hel-gate, and to inquire about the fate of Balder. Horrible is the -coming of Hel, for she binds the dying man with strong chains that -cannot be broken. Anguish gnaws his heart, and every evening Hel’s maids -come and invite him. These maids are also represented as dead women, who -come in the night and invite him who is dying to their benches. And to -the vision of the dying man opens a horrible, gloomy world of fog; he -sees the sun, the genuine star of day, sink and disappear, while he, on -the other hand, hears the gate of Hel harshly grate on its hinges, -opening to receive him. Hel receives all that die of sickness or old -age. But it also seems that others, both good and evil, come there; for -Balder we know came to Hel, after he had been slain by Hoder. And -Sigurd, who we remember slew Fafner, was afterwards assassinated by -Gunnar and went to Hel; and thither went also Brynhild, in her beautiful -car, after she had been burned on her funeral pile. Hel’s company is -large, but she has dwellings enough for all; for her regions extend -widely, and her palaces are terribly high and have large gates. Of -course it is all shadows, but it has the appearance of reality. - -For Balder, - - The decorated seats - Were strewn with rings; - The lordly couch - Was radiant with gold, - And the pure mead - Was brewed for him. - -But there seems to have been a place set aside far down in the deepest -abyss of Hel for the wicked; for it is said that the evil went to Hel, -and thence to Niflhel, that is, down into the ninth world. And it is -here, in this most infernal pit, that the palace is named Anguish; the -table, Famine; the waiters, Slowness and Delay; the threshold, -Precipice, and the bed, Care. It is here Hel is so livid and ghastly -pale that her very looks inspire horror. - -Hel’s horse has three feet. Hel-shoes were tied on to the feet of the -dead, even though they went to Valhal. - -Our English word _hell_ is connected with the goddess Hel,[77] and to -kill is in Norse _at slaa ihel_ (i-Hel). The faith in this goddess is -not yet perfectly eradicated from the minds of the people. Her dog is -yet heard barking outside of houses as a warning that death is near. She -wanders about from place to place as a messenger of death. In the story -of Olaf Geirstada-alf it is a large ox, that goes from farm to farm, and -at his breath people sink down dead. In the popular mind in Norway this -messenger of death is sometimes thought to be a three-footed goat, and -at other times a white three-footed horse. To see it is a sure sign of -death. When a person has recovered from a dangerous illness, it is said -that he has given Death a bushel of oats, for her wants must be -supplied, and Hel wandering about in the guise of a goat, ox or horse, -may accept oats as a compromise. - -It may also be noticed here, that the so-called Black Plague, or Black -Death, that ravaged Norway as well as many other European countries -about the middle of the fourteenth century, assumed in the minds of the -Norsemen the form of an old hag (Thok, Hel, Loke), going through the -realm from parish to parish with a rake and a broom. In some parishes -she used the rake, and there a few were spared; in other parishes she -used the broom, and there all perished, and the parishes were swept -clean. - - - SECTION V. THE NORSEMEN’S IDEA OF DEATH.[78] - - -The Norse mythology shows that our ancestors had a deeply-rooted belief -in the immortality of the soul. They believed in a state of retribution -beyond the grave. The dissolution of the body was typified by Balder’s -death, and like the latter it was result of Loke’s malignity, just as -the devil brought death upon Adam and Eve, and through them upon all -mankind. - -But while we find the belief in the imperishableness of the soul firmly -established, the ideas regarding the state of existence after death were -somewhat unsettled. We are soon to present the Eddaic doctrines of -future life, but in connection with Hel it seems proper to give some -further explanation of the ideas that our forefathers entertained of -death. Hel’s gate is open, or ajar, said the old Goths, when the shades -of death went out through the darkness of night and terrified all; but -it is also open to receive the child with rosy cheeks as well as the man -with hoary locks and trembling gait. - -The future state was regarded as a continuation of our earthly -existence. This is proved by the custom so prevalent among the Norsemen -of supplying the dead with the best part of their property and the first -necessities of life. A coin was put under the dead man’s tongue, that he -might be able to defray his first expenses with it on his way to his -final abode. Of course the dead went either to Odin or to Hel, but the -relation between Valhal and Helheim presented difficulties which the -Norsemen strove in various ways to solve. It was said that they who are -slain in battle go to Odin in Valhal, while those who die of sickness or -old age go to Hel in Helheim. But according to this it would be the kind -of death alone which decided the soul’s future state; only those who -fell by weapons would ascend to the glad abodes of heaven, while all who -die of sickness would have to wander away to the dark world of the -abyss, and there were people in whose eyes nothing except warlike deeds -was praiseworthy. But the Odinic mythology, taken as a whole, presents a -different view, although it must be admitted, as has before repeatedly -been stated, that bravery was a cardinal virtue among our Norse -ancestors. - -We remember, from a previous chapter in this book, that the spirit or -soul of man was a gift of Odin, while the body, blood and external -beauty were a gift of Loder, who afterwards separated from the trinity -of Odin, Hœner and Loder and became the mischievous Loke. Thus the soul -belonged to the spirit-world, or Heaven, and the body to the material -world, to the Deep. The two, soul and body, were joined together in this -earthly life, but at its close they were separated, and each returned to -its original source. The soul, with its more refined bodily form in -which it was thought to be enveloped, went to the home of the gods, -while the body, with the grosser material life, which was conceived to -be inseparable from it, went to the abodes of Hel to become the prey of -Loke’s daughter. Thus man’s being was divided between Odin and Hel. -Odin, whose chief characteristic was _god of war_, seems to have claimed -his share chiefly from those who fell in battle; and this probably may -suggest to us some reason why Balder went to Hel. Balder is not a -fighting god, he only shines, conferring numberless blessings on -mankind, and death finally steals upon him. Odin seems not to have much -need of his like. Thus death by arms came to be considered a happy lot, -by the zealous followers of the asa-faith, for it was a proof of Odin’s -favor smiling upon them. He who fell by arms was called by Odin to -himself, before Hel laid claim to her share of his being; he was Odin’s -chosen son, who with longing was awaited in Valhal, that he, in the -ranks of the einherjes, might assist and sustain the gods in their last -battle, in Ragnarok. In accordance with this theory we find in the -ancient song of praise to the fallen king Erik Blood-ax, that Sigmund -asks Odin this question: - - Why snatch him then, father, - From fortune and glory? - Why not leave him rather - To fill up his story - On victory’s road? - - - ODIN: - - Because no man knows - When gray wolf[79] so gory - His grisly maw shows - In Asgard’s abode; - Therefore Odin calls - And Erik fain falls - To follow his liege lord - And fight for his god. - -By this Odin means to say, we do not know when the Fenris-wolf may come, -and therefore we may need Erik’s assistance. In the same sense the -valkyrie is made by Eyvind Skaldespiller, in Hákonarmál, to say: - - Now _are strengthened the host of the gods_, - Since they have Haakon - And his valiant army - Home to themselves brought. - -But because the dead who were slain by arms were thought to be called to -Valhal, to unite themselves with the hosts of the einherjes, it was not -supposed that Hel did not get her share in their being; nor was it -supposed, on the other hand, that the soul of every one who died a -natural death was shut out from heaven and forced to follow the body -down into the abodes of Hel. That it was virtue, on the whole, and not -bravery alone, which was to be rewarded in another life, and that it was -wickedness and vice that were to be punished, is distinctly shown in the -first poem of the Elder Edda, where it says of Gimle: - - The virtuous there - Shall always dwell, - And evermore - Delights enjoy; - -while perjurers, murderers and adulterers shall wade through thick -venom-streams in Naastrand. But it must be remembered that Gimle and -Naastrand had reference to the state of things after Ragnarok, the -Twilight of the gods; while Valhal and Hel have reference to the state -of things between death and Ragnarok,—a time of existence corresponding -somewhat to what is called _purgatory_ by the Catholic church. It may -however be fairly assumed that the ideas which our ancestors had of -reward and punishment concerning the preceding middle state (purgatory) -of the dead, were similar to those which they had concerning the state -after Ragnarok. - -It was certainly believed that the soul of the virtuous, even though -death by arms had not released it from the body and raised it up to the -rank of the real einherjes, still found an abode in heaven, either in -Valhal or in Vingolf or in Folkvang. The skald, Thjodolf of Hvin, makes -King Vanlande go to Odin, although Hel tortured him; and Egil -Skallagrimson, lamenting the death of his drowned son, knows that the -son has come to the home of the gods (Gudheimr), while of himself he -says that he fearlessly awaits the coming of Hel. - -Of Nanna we read that she went with her husband, Balder, to Hel; but the -souls of noble women were believed to go to heaven after death. There -they found an abode with Freyja, and the spirits of maidens with Gefjun. -When it is said that Freyja shares the slain with Odin, it may be -supposed to mean that the slain, who in life had loved wives, were -united to them again with Freyja. - -On the other hand, it was as certainly believed that blasphemy and -baseness might shut out even the bravest from Valhal. In the Saga of -Burnt Njal, Hakon Jarl says of the bold but wicked Hrap, who had seduced -his benefactor’s daughter and burned a temple: The man who did this -shall be banished from Valhal and never come thither. - -The reader may think that the statements here presented show some -inconsistency in the theory and plan of salvation according to the -doctrines of the Norse mythology. We admit that there _seems_ to be some -inconsistency, but let us ask, is not this charge also frequently made -against the Scriptures? Is not the church, on this very question of the -plan of salvation, divided into two great parties, the one insisting on -faith and the other on works? The one party quoting and requoting Paul, -in his epistle to the Romans (iii, 28), where he says, that man is -justified by _faith_ without the deeds of the law; and the other -appealing to James’ epistle (ii, 24), where he says, that by works a man -is justified, and not by faith only. And as the most eminent divines -have found harmony in the principles of the Mosaic-Christian religion as -laid down in the Scriptures, so we venture to assert that a profound -study of the Odinic mythology will enable the student to elicit a -sublime harmony in its doctrines and principles. - -The strict construction of the asa-doctrine appears to be this, that -although man in the intermediate state, between death and Ragnarok, was -divided between Odin and Hel, yet each one’s share of his being, after -death, was greater or less according to the life he had lived. The -spirit of the virtuous and the brave had the power to bear up to heaven -with it after death the better part of its corporeal being, and Hel -obtained only the dust. But he whose spirit, by wickedness and base, -sensual lust was drawn away from heaven, became in all his being the -prey of Hel. His soul was not strong enough to mount freely up to the -celestial abodes of the gods, but was drawn down into the abyss by the -dust with which it had ever been clogged. Perhaps the representation of -Hel as being half white and half pale-blue had its origin in this -thought, that to the good, death appeared as a bright (white) goddess of -deliverance, but to the wicked, as a dark and punishing deity. - -When the drowned came to the halls of Ran, the sea-goddess took the part -of Hel; that is, Ran claimed the body as her part, while the spirit -ascended to heaven. - -Bondsmen came to Thor after death. This seems to express the idea, that -their spirits had not the power to mount up with free-born heroes to the -higher celestial abodes, but were obliged to linger midway, as it were, -among the low floating clouds under the stern dominion of Thor;—a -thought painful to the feelings of humanity, but nevertheless not -inconsistent with the views of our ancestors in ancient times. But when -the bondsmen, as was the custom in the most ancient Gothic times, -followed their master on the funeral pile, the motive must have been -that they would continue to serve him in the future life, or their -throwing themselves on their master’s funeral pile could have no meaning -whatever. - -The old Norsemen had many beautiful ideas in connection with death. Thus -in the lay of Atle it is said of him who dies that he goes to the other -light. That the dead in the mounds were a state of consciousness is -illustrated by the following passages from Fridthiof’s Saga: - - Now, children, lay us in two lofty graves - Down by the sea-shore, near the deep-blue waves: - Their sounds shall to our souls be music sweet, - Singing our dirge as on the strand they beat. - - When round the hills the pale moonlight is thrown - And midnight dews fall on the Bautn-stone, - We’ll sit, O Thorsten, in one rounded graves - And speak together o’er the gentle waves. - -Finally, it is a beautiful thought that there was a sympathetic union -between the dead and the living. As the Persians believed that the -rivers of the lower world grew by the tears of the living and interfered -with the happiness of the departed, so the Norse peasant still believes -that when a daughter weeps for the death of her father she must take -care that no tear falls on his corpse, for thereby the peace of the -deceased would be disturbed. We find this same thought expressed in the -Elder Edda, where Helge says to Sigrun: - - Thou alone causest, Sigrun - From Sevafjeld, - That Helge is bathed - In sorrow’s dew. - - Thou weepest, gold-adorned, - Sunbright woman! - Cruel tears, - Before thou goest to sleep. - Every bloody tear - Fell on the king’s breast, - Ice-cold and swelling - With sorrow. - -Thus also in the old song of Aage and Else: - - Whenever thou grievest, - My coffin is within - As livid blood: - Whenever thou rejoicest, - My coffin is within - Filled with fragrant roses. - - - SECTION VI. LOKE’S PUNISHMENT. - - -Loke and Balder struggled for the government of the world. Loke -gradually grew victorious in his terrible children, while Balder, -defenseless and innocent, had nothing but his shining purity with which -to oppose Loke’s baseness. Loke’s wickedness reached its culminating -point in the death of Balder and in the hag Thok, who with arid tears -would wail Balder from Hel. - -According to the Younger Edda it would seem that Loke was punished -immediately after the death of Balder, but according to the Elder Edda -the banquet of Æger seems to have taken place after the death of Balder, -and there Loke was present to pour out in words his enmity to the -defeated gods. When Æger had received the large kettle, that Thor had -brought him from the giant Hymer, he brewed ale for the gods and invited -them to a banquet. The gods and elves were gathered there, but Thor was -not present. Æger’s servants were praised for their attentiveness and -agility. This Loke could not bear to hear, and he killed one of them by -name Funfeng. The gods drove him into the woods, but when they had -seated themselves at the table and had begun to drink he came back -again, and asked Elder, the other servant of Æger, what the gods talked -about at the banquet. They talk about their weapons and about their -bravery, replied Elder, but neither the gods nor the elves speak well of -you. Then, said Loke, I must go into Æger’s hall, to look at the -banquet: scolding and evil words bring I to the sons of the gods and mix -evil in their ale. Then Loke went into the hall; but when they who were -there saw who had entered, they were all silent. Then said Loke to the -gods: - - Thirsty I hither - To the hall came— - Long way I journeyed— - The gods to ask - Whether one would grant me - A drink of the precious mead. - - Why are ye silent, gods! - And sit so stubborn? - Have ye lost your tongues? - Give me a seat - And place at the banquet, - Or turn me away. - - - BRAGE: - - The gods will never - Give you a seat - And place at the banquet: - Well know the gods - To whom they will give - Pleasure at the banquet. - -Then Loke begins to abuse the gods, and reminds Odin how they once mixed -blood together,—and Vidar must yield him his seat. But before Loke drank -he greeted all the gods and goddesses excepting Brage, who occupied the -innermost bench. And now Loke pours out his abuse upon all the gods and -goddesses, much of which has been given heretofore. His last quarrel is -with Sif, the wife of Thor. But then Beyla hears the mountains quake and -tremble. It is Thor that is coming; and when he enters the hall he -threatens to crush every bone in Loke’s body; and to him Loke finally -yields, for he knows that Thor carries out his threats. On going out he -heaps curses upon Æger, and hopes that he (Æger) may never more make -banquets for the gods, but that flames may play upon his realm and burn -him too. - -Loke now fled and hid himself in the mountains. There he built him a -dwelling with four doors, so that he could see everything that passed -around him. Often in the daytime he assumed the likeness of a salmon and -concealed himself under the waters of a cascade called Fraananger Force, -where he employed himself in divining and circumventing whatever -stratagems the gods might have recourse to in order to catch him. One -day as he sat in his dwelling he took flax and yarn and worked them into -meshes, in the manner that nets have since been made by fishermen. Odin -had however, sitting in Hlidskjalf, discovered Loke’s retreat; and the -latter, becoming aware that the gods were approaching, threw his net -into the fire and ran to conceal himself in the river. When the gods -entered Loke’s house, Kvaser, who as the most distinguished among them -all for his quickness and penetration, traced out in the hot embers the -vestiges of the net which had been burnt, and told Odin that it must be -an invention to catch fish. Whereupon they set to work and wove a net -after the model they saw imprinted in the ashes. This net, when -finished, they threw into the river in which Loke had hid himself. Thor -held one end of the net and all the other gods laid hold of the other -end, thus jointly drawing it along the stream. Notwithstanding all their -precautions the net passed over Loke, who had crept between two stones, -and the gods only perceived that some living thing had touched the -meshes. They therefore cast their net a second time, hanging so great a -weight to it that it everywhere raked the bed of the river. But Loke, -perceiving that he had but a short distance to the sea, swam onward and -leapt over the net into the force. Tho gods instantly followed him and -divided themselves into two bands. Thor, wading along in mid-stream, -followed the net, whilst the others dragged it along toward the sea. -Loke then perceived that he had only two chances of escape,—either to -swim out to the sea, or to leap again over the net. He chose the latter, -but as he took a tremendous leap Thor caught him in his hand. Being -however extremely slippery, he would have escaped had not Thor held him -fast by the tail; and this is the reason why salmon have had their tails -ever since so fine and slim. - -The gods having thus captured Loke, they dragged him without -commiseration into a cavern, wherein they placed three sharp-pointed -rocks, boring a hole through each of them. Having also seized Loke’s -children, Vale and Nare, or Narfe, they changed the former into a wolf, -and in this likeness he tore his brother to pieces and devoured him. The -gods then made cords of his intestines, with which they bound Loke on -the points of the rocks, one cord passing under his shoulders, another -under his loins, and a third under his hams, and afterwards transformed -these cords to fetters of iron. Then the giantess Skade took a serpent -and suspended it over him in such a manner that the venom should fall -into his face, drop by drop. But Sigyn, Loke’s wife, stands by him and -receives the drops, as they fall, in a cup, which she empties as often -as it is filled. But while she is doing this, venom falls upon Loke, -which makes him shriek with horror and twist his body about so violently -that the whole earth shakes; and this produces what men call -earthquakes. There will Loke lie until Ragnarok. - -Here we have Loke in the form of a salmon. Slippery as a salmon, is as -common an adage in Norseland as our American: slippery as an eel. Lobe -himself makes the net by which he is caught and ruined. This is very -proper; sin and crime always bring about their own ruin. The chaining of -Loke is one of the grandest myths in the whole mythology. That Loke -represents fire in its various forms, becomes clearer with every new -fact, every new event in his life. Skade is the cold mountain stream, -that pours its venom upon Loke. Sigyn takes much of it away, but some of -it will, in spite of her, come in contact with the subterranean fire, -and the earth quakes and the geysers spout their scalding water. But who -cannot see human life represented in this grand picture? All great -convulsions in the history of man are brought about in the same manner, -and beside the great forces of revolution stand the pious, gentle and -womanly minds who with the cup of religion or with the eloquence of the -pure spirit prevent the most violent outbreaks of storm among the -nations, and pour their quieting oils upon the disturbed waters. And who -does not remember cases at the shrine of the family, where the -inevitable consequences of man’s folly and crime produce convulsive -crises, misfortunes and misery, which the wife shares, prevents and -moderates with her soft hand, gentle tears, and soothing words,—always -cheerful and never growing weary. It is woman’s divine work in life, in -a quiet manner to bring consolation and comfort, and never to despair. - -As the earth and sea in their various manifestations are represented by -various divinities, so the fire also presents various forms. It is -celestial, united with Odin; it is earthly in the Fenris-wolf, and it is -subterranean in the chained Loke. That Loke symbolizes fire, is also -illustrated by the fact that the common people in Norway, when they hear -the fire crackling, say that Loke is whipping his children. In a wider -sense Loke is in one word the evil one, the devil. The common people -also know Loke as a divinity of the atmosphere. When the sun draws -water, they say that Loke is drinking water. When vapors arise from the -earth and float about in the atmosphere, this phenomenon is also -ascribed to Loke. When he sows his oats among the grain, he produces a -peculiar aërial phenomenon, of which the novelist Blicher speaks in one -of his romances, saying that this trembling motion of the air, which the -people call Loke’s oats, confuses and blinds the eyes. Nay, truly it -confuses and blinds, for we need not take this only in a literal sense. -It is that motion which shocks the nerves of man when the soul conceives -evil thoughts; it is that nervous concussion which shocks the whole -system of the criminal when he goes to commit his foul misdeed. - -Having now given a description of Loke,—having painted with words the -character of this wily, mischievous, sly and deceitful divinity,—we ask, -with Petersen, where is the painter who will present him in living -colors on canvas? We want a personal representation of him. We want his -limbs, his body and his head. Where is the painter who can give his chin -the proper form, his mouth the right shape, paint his dimples with those -deep and fine wrinkles when he smiles, and do justice to his nose and -upper lip? Who will paint those delicate elevations and depressions of -his cheeks, that terrible brilliancy of his eyes, his subtle and crafty -forehead, and his hair at once stiff and wavy? Who will paint this -immortal youth who yet everywhere reveals his old age, or this old man -whose face mocks at everything like a reckless youth? Here is a theme -without a model, a theme for a master of the art. - - - SECTION VII. THE IRON POST. - - -The following story from the south of Germany illustrates how stories -can be remodeled and changed as to their external adornment and still -preserve their fundamental feature. The reader will not fail to discover -Loke in the following tradition, entitled _Der Stock im Eisen_, a story -which in its most original form must date back to the time when Loke was -known in Germany. - -Opposite St. Stephen’s Tower in Vienna there is found, it is said, one -of the old landmarks of this city, the so-called _Stock im Eisen_ (the -iron post). It is a post that has in the course of time become blackened -and charred, and into which nail after nail has been driven so close -together that there is not room for a single one more, and the post is -literally inclosed in an iron casing. This covering of iron keeps the -dry post in an upright position, and near the ground it is fastened by -an iron ring with unusually wonderful lock. In olden times this post was -a landmark, for to it extended the great Wienerwald. In connection with -it the following tale is told by H. Meinert: - - A young good-looking locksmith apprentice, by name Reinbert, had - secretly won the heart and become engaged to his master’s daughter - Dorothea; but there was not much hope that she would ever become his - wife. One evening the two lovers agreed to meet outside the city: - they forget themselves in their conversation, in their doubts and - their hopes, and hear not the clock that strikes the hour when the - gate of the city is to be closed; and the lover has forgotten to - take money along to get it opened. But what a misfortune if they - should be shut out, what a disgrace to his beloved, if it should - become known that she has spent the night outside the city, outside - of her father’s house, in company with a man! Suddenly there arises - as it were from the ground a pale man, with the contour of his face - sharply marked, with wonderful flashing eyes, wearing a black cloak - and black hat, and in the latter waves a cock-feather. Reinbert - involuntarily shudders as he sees him, but still he does not forget - his misfortune in being shut out of the city; he therefore explains - his distress to the stranger, and asks him to lend him enough to pay - the gate-watch. Like for like! whispers the stranger into Reinbert’s - ear; if I am to help you and your beloved out of your distress, then - you must promise me upon the salvation of your soul never any Sunday - to neglect the holy mass. Reinbert hesitates; but it is in fact a - pious promise, and necessity knows no laws. He promises, and the - gate opens as it were spontaneously. - - Four weeks later, when Reinbert sat in his workshop, the door opens - and that strange man enters. Reinbert shudders at the sight of him; - but when the stranger does not even care to look at him and only - asks for his master, he regains his peace of mind. When the - apprentices had called the master, the visitor ordered an iron - fastening, with lock and bolt, and the master is willing to - undertake the work. But now began the stranger (cunning as Loke) - with a wonderful knowledge of details to mention all the different - parts of the lock, explained with great eloquence the whole plan of - it, and took special pains to describe the manner in which the - springs must necessarily be bent and united; and although both the - master and the apprentices had to admit that such a lock was not - without the range of possibilities,—nay, that it would indeed be a - masterpiece,—still their heads began to swim when they tried to - think of its wonderful construction and arrange the plan in their - minds, and they had to admit that they did not trust themselves to - do the work. Then the stranger’s mouth assumed a deeply-furrowed, - indescribably scornful smile; and he said with contempt: Call - yourselves master and apprentices, when you do not know how to - undertake a work that the youngest one among you can do in less than - an hour! The youngest one among us, murmured the apprentices; do you - think that Reinbert would be able to do it,—he is the youngest one - among us? O yes, said the stranger, he there can do it, or his look - must deceive me much. With these words he called out the astounded - Reinbert, explained to him once more the plan of the lock, and - added: If you do not save the honor of the smiths, the whole world - shall know their disgrace: but if you can get the lock ready within - two hours, no master will refuse you his daughter, after you have - saved his reputation. Yes indeed, said the master, if you can - perform such an impossibility, Dorothea shall be yours. While the - stranger described the nature of the lock, Reinbert had sunk into - deep reflections; to his soul the narrow workshop widened into a - large plain; he saw a beautiful, happy future blooming before him; - by strange and wonderful voices he heard himself styled the master - of masters; and his beloved he saw approaching him with the bridal - wreath entwined in her locks; and just at that moment he heard his - master’s words: If you can perform such an impossibility, Dorothea - shall be yours. He immediately began his work; it seemed as if he - were working with a hundred arms: each blow of the hammer gave form - to a part of the work; by a peculiar resounding the hammer-blows - seemed to multiply, as if more invisible hands hammered with him, - while the stranger in the red glare of the flame looked like a - pillar of fire (Loke). After the lapse of an hour the work was - finished. Apprentices and master looked at it and examined it, - shaking their heads, and with mouths wide open; but there was no - doubt that Reinbert had accomplished a masterpiece never seen - before, and the master ascribed it to his enthusiasm awakened by his - love. The stranger took the lock and went ahead; the master with - Reinbert and all his apprentices and the members of his family - followed, and all proceeded to the place where the iron post (Stock - im Eisen) now stands. Here the stranger placed an iron chain around - the post and fastened it with Reinbert’s lock. When they returned, - the stranger had disappeared, and with him the key to the marvelous - lock. - -We omit a part of the story, taking only that part which has reference -to Loke. - - On account of slander, Reinbert had to travel far and wide before he - finally got his beloved Dorothea. A few days after he had returned, - the government issued a proclamation to the effect that whatever - smith could make a key that would open that lock should thereby get - his diploma of mastership. Reinbert announced himself a candidate, - and repaired to his workshop to make the key. But for the first time - his work did not seem to succeed. The iron was stubborn and would - not assume the form required; and it seemed astonishing to him, when - he at last had succeeded in giving the key the proper form, and put - it into the furnace to temper it, it was turned and twisted when he - took it out again. His impatience grew into wrath. But when he at - length, after many unsuccessful attempts, had got the key ready and - put it into the furnace and carefully scrutinized to see what it was - that thus always ruined his work, he saw in the midst of the fire a - claw seize after the key, and terror-stricken he discovered that - disagreeable stranger’s twisted face (Loke) staring at him out of - the burning furnace. He quickly snatched the key away, turned it, - seized it with the tongs at the other end, and put it into the fire - again; and lo and behold! when he took it out the handle was - somewhat twisted, but the head preserved its right shape. (We - remember that it was Loke’s fault that the handle of Thor’s hammer - became rather short.) - - Reinbert now announced to the government that the key was ready; and - the day after the government officials and the citizens marched in - procession to the iron post, and Reinbert’s key opened the lock. In - his enthusiasm at his success he threw the key high up in the air, - but to everybody’s surprise it did not come down again. It was - sought for everywhere, but could nowhere be found, and Reinbert had - to promise to make a new one some time. To commemorate the fact that - it had been possible to open the lock he drove a nail into the - woodon post, and since that time every smith has done the same when - he left Vienna; thus this post was formed with its numberless nails. - - Reinbert became a master and married his beloved. Up to this time he - had kept his promise and had attended upon the holy mass every - Sunday; he began to drink and gamble, but he conscientiously - continued to keep his promise. Finally it happens that he once - stayed a little too long at the gambling-house, and hastens - terrified in order not too late to church. But the door of St. - Stephen’s church is closed. Outside sits an old woman (Loke assumed - the guise of a woman[80] after Balder’s death), who, in answer to - his question, informs him that mass is out. Filled with deadly - anguish he rushes back to his comrades, who laughed at him and - insisted that, as as began at half-past eleven o’clock, and as it - was only three-quarters past eleven, the mass could not yet be over. - He hastens back again: the church-door is now open, but at the very - moment he enters, the priest leaves the altar—the mass is over. The - old woman rises, seizes him by the arms, and his soul departs from - him. - -Thus the myth develops into traditionary story, and one story begets -another; they wander about from the south to the north and from the -north to the south, and change with the times, reminding us of the -various manifestations of life; reminding us how human things circulate -and develop, each inextricably interwoven with all, and always reminding -us, too, that there is a heaven above the earth and an existence beyond -what is allotted to us mortals on earth. - - - SECTION VIII. A BRIEF REVIEW. - - -We have now completed the second part of our work, and witnessed the -life and exploits of the gods. It remains now to sum up briefly the main -features of, and the principal lessons taught in, this portion of the -mythology. - -We cannot fail to have observed that the life of the gods is, in the -first place, a reflection of the workings of visible nature, and, in the -second place, a reflection and foreshadowing of the life of man, -particularly of life in its various manifestations in the history of the -Gothic race. We have also witnessed how wonderfully the interests and -works of the gods—nay, how absolutely the gods themselves—are -interlinked with each other,—that centralizing thought which, as has -been said before, forms one of the most prominent characteristics of -Norse or Gothic mythology, thought and history. - -We have seen how the divinities and demons, after having been created, -enter upon various activities, contend with each other and are -reconciled, and how new beings are developed in this struggle, all -destined to fight on one side or the other in the final conflict. - -The myth reflects nature and society, the one inextricably in communion -with the other; and in the development of nature and society we find -three relations: the relation of the asas to the giants, the relation of -the asas to the vans, and the relation of Loke to Odin. The asas and the -giants try to unite, but meet with poor success, their natures are too -opposite. The union of the asas and vans is accomplished with but little -difficulty; while between Odin and Loke there is a tendency to separate -more and more. The beginning of warfare between the gods and the giants -is the beginning of nature’s development; the giants storm the heavens -and are repulsed; this struggle lasts through life, and in it Sleipner -is produced. Later, begins the war between the asas and vans, which ends -in peace, and with this peace begins the development of society; the -asas and vans together forming a series of beautiful myths, that have -reference to war, to the cultivation of the earth, to the civilizing -influences of the water, to the greater development of the mind and -heart,—that is, to knowledge, love, humanity and peace,—the object of -which reconciliation, reached by labor and struggles. But enmity soon -arises among the gods themselves. Odin’s union with Loke is dissolved. -In the midst of the good there is evil. The evil proceeds from the good -by separation, by taking a wrong course. The unity of the spirit is -destroyed when anything tears itself loose from it and assumes an -independent position in opposition to it. Loke separates himself from -Odin and develops himself independently. He acts like Odin; he permeates -all nature and the soul of man; but he does it independently, and the -result is that the powers of evil spread over the earth in the form of -Loke’s children. Everything becomes wild and tumultuous. Fire rages in -its frantic fury in the character of the Fenris-wolf. The -Midgard-serpent represents the furious convulsions of the sea; cowardice -seizes the heart and begets the pale Hel, death without conflict, life -as a mere shadow. Thus it goes on. Knowledge rightly used is a blessing, -but unconstrained by prudence it degenerates into cunning and -deceitfulness; killing is honorable, but unconstrained by justice and -valor it becomes foul murder; to break a promise that can no longer be -kept is proper, but when done recklessly it is perjury. We find, -throughout the life of the gods, light and darkness well defined and -distinctly separated. Loke fluctuates between the two; he gradually -leaves light and unites himself to darkness. The darkness of night -supplants the light of day; the gloomy winter overcomes the shining -summer. The gods learn that they are subject to the infirmities of old -age; the rejuvenating Idun sinks into the abyss. From the depths below, -Odin receives warnings that the light of life may be extinguished. Loke -begins his conflict with Balder; finally his stratagem and cunning gain -a victory, and all the sorrowing of nature is in vain. Loke is chained, -but Balder does not return from Hel. Vale has avenged his brother’s -death, but the end of life is at hand. And now we are prepared for -RAGNAROK, followed by the REGENERATION OF THE EARTH. - -Footnote 75: - - Peasant, farmer. - -Footnote 76: - - To anyone who wishes to read this great epic of the North, we would - recommend the _Völsunga Saga_ translated by Eiríkr Magnússon and - William Morris. London, 1872. - -Footnote 77: - - They are both derived from the Anglo-Saxon _hélan_ or _helian_, to - cover, to conceal; compare the English _to hill_. - -Footnote 78: - - For a more complete discussion of this subject the reader is referred - to Keyser’s _Religion of the Northmen_ translated by Barclay Pennock. - New York, 1854. - -Footnote 79: - - The Fenris-wolf. - -Footnote 80: - - Thok. - - - - - PART III. - RAGNAROK AND REGENERATION. - - - SKULD. - - Lítið sjáum aptr, - En ekki fram; - Skyggir Skuld fyrir sjón. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - RAGNAROK. - - -The final destruction of the world, and regeneration of gods and men, is -called Ragnarok; that is, the Twilight of the gods (_Ragna_, from -_regin_, gods, and _rökr_, darkness). - -The journey through life has been a long one, and yet we have not -reached the end, for the end is also the beginning. Death is the center, -where the present and future existence meet. When life ends, there is a -change, there comes a new day and a sun without a shadow. - -In comparing the Greek mythology with the Norse, it was stated, that the -Norse has a theoktonic myth, while the Greek lacks the final act of the -grand drama. The Greeks knew of no death of the gods; their gods were -immortal. And yet, what were they but an ideal conception of the forms -of life? And this life with all its vanity, pomp and glory, the Greek -loved so dearly, that he thought it must last forever. He imagined an -everlasting series of changes. But what will then the final result be? -Shall the thundering Zeus forever continue to thunder? Shall the -faithless Aphrodite forever be unfaithful? Shall Typhon forever go on -with his desolations? Shall the sinner continue to sin forever, and -shall the world continue without end to foster and nourish evil? These -are questions that find no satisfactory answer in the Greek mythology. - -Among the Norsemen, on the other hand, we find in their most ancient -records a clearly expressed faith in the perishableness of all things; -and we find this faith at every step that the Norsemen has taken. The -origin of this faith we seek in vain; it conceals itself beneath the -waters of the primeval fountains of their thoughts and aspirations. They -regarded death as but the middle of a long life. They considered it -cowardice to spare a life that is to return; they thought it folly to -care for a world that must necessarily perish; while they knew that -their spirits would be clothed with increased vigor in the other world. -Happy were they who lived beneath the polar star, for the greatest fear -that man knows, the fear of death, disturbed them not. They rushed -cheerfully upon the sword; they entered the battle boldly, for, like -their gods, who every moment looked forward to the inevitable Ragnarok, -they knew that life could be purchased by a heroic death. - -The very fact that the gods in the creation proceeded from the _giant_ -Ymer foreshadowed their destruction. The germ of death was in their -nature from the beginning, and this germ would gradually develop as -their strength gradually became wasted and consumed. That which is born -must die, but that which is not born cannot grow old. - -The gradual growth of this germ of death, and corresponding waste of the -strength of the gods, is profoundly sketched throughout the mythology. -The gods cannot be conquered, unless they make themselves weak; but such -is the very nature of things, that they must do this. To win the -charming Gerd, Frey must give away his sword, but when the great final -conflict comes he has no weapon. In order that the Fenris-wolf may be -chained, Tyr must risk his right hand, and he loses it. How shall he -then fight in Ragnarok? Balder could not have died, had not the gods -been blind and presumptuous; their thoughtlessness put weapons into the -hands of their enemy. Hoder would never have thrown the fatal mistletoe, -had not their own appointed game been an inducement to him to honor his -brother. When Loke became separated from Odin, the death of the gods was -a foregone conclusion. - -The imperfection of nature is also vividly depicted in the Eddas. The -sun was so scorching hot that the gods had to place a shield before it; -the fire was so destructive that the gods had to chain it, in order that -it might not bring ruin upon the whole world. Life, after the natural -death, was not continued only in the shining halls of Valhal, but also -in the subterranean regions among the shades of Hel. - -Our old Gothic fathers, in the poetic dawn of our race, investigated the -origin and beginning of nature and time. The divine poetic and -imaginative spark in them lifted them up to the Eternal, to that -wonderful secret fountain which is the source of all things. They looked -about them in profound meditation to find the image and reflection of -that glorious harmony which their soul in its heavenly flight had found, -but in all earthly things they discovered strife and warfare. When the -storms bent the pine trees on the mountain tops, and when the foaming -waves rolled in gigantic fury against the rocky cliffs, the Norseman saw -strife. When the growl of the bear and the howl of the wolf blended with -the moaning of the winds and the roaring of the waters, he heard strife. -In unceasing conflict with the earth, with the beasts and with each -other, he saw men stand, conquer, and fall. If he lifted his weary eye -toward the skies, he saw the light struggling with darkness and with -itself. When light arose out of darkness, it was greeted with -enthusiasm; when it sank again into darkness, its rays were broken and -it dissolved in glimmering colors; and if he looked down into the heart -of man, into his own breast, he found that all this conflict of opposing -elements in the outward world did but faintly symbolize that terrible -warfare pervading and shattering his whole being. Well might he long for -peace, and can we wonder that this deep longing for rest and peace, -which filled his heart in the midst of all his struggles,—can we wonder, -we say, that his longing for peace found a grand expression in a final -conflict through which imperishableness and harmony were attained? - -This final conflict, this dissolution of nature’s and life’s disharmony, -the Edda presents to us in the death of the gods, which is usually, as -stated, called Ragnarok. - -There is nothing more sublime in poetry than the description, in the -Eddas, of Ragnarok. It is preceded by ages of crime and terror. The vala -looks down into Niflheim, - - There saw she wade - In the heavy streams - Men—foul murderers, - And perjurers, - And them who other’s wives - Seduce to sin. - -The growing depravity and strife in the world proclaim the approach of -this great event. First there is a winter called Fimbul-winter, during -which snow will fall from the four corners of the world; the frosts will -be very severe, the winds piercing, the weather tempestuous, and the sun -will impart no gladness. Three such winters shall pass away without -being tempered by a single summer. Three other similar winters follow, -during which war and discord will spread over the whole earth. Brothers -for the sake of mere gain shall kill each other, and no one shall spare -either his parents or his children. Thus the Elder Edda: - - Brothers slay brothers; - Sisters’ children - Shed each other’s blood. - Hard is the world; - Sensual sin grows huge. - There are sword-ages, ax-ages; - Shields are cleft in twain; - Storm-ages, murder-ages; - Till the world falls dead, - And men no longer spare - Or pity one another. - -Then shall happen such things as may truly be regarded as great -miracles. The Fenris-wolf shall devour the sun, and a severe loss will -that be to mankind. The other wolf[81] will take the moon, and this, -too, will cause great mischief. Then the stars shall be hurled from the -heavens, and the earth shall be shaken so violently that trees will be -torn up by the roots, the tottering mountains will tumble headlong from -their foundations, and all bonds and fetters will be shivered to pieces. -The Fenris-wolf then breaks loose and the sea rushes over the earth on -account of the Midgard-serpent writhing in giant rage and gaining the -land. On the waters floats the ship Naglfar (nail-ship), which is -constructed of the nails of dead men. For this reason great care should -be taken to die with pared nails, for he who dies with his nails unpared -supplies materials for the building of this ship, which both gods and -men wish may be finished as late as possible. But in this flood shall -Naglfar float, and the giant Hrym be its steersman. - -The Fenris-wolf advances and opens his enormous mouth; the lower jaw -reaches to the earth and the upper one to heaven, and he would open it -still wider had he room to do so. Fire flashes from his eyes and -nostrils. The Midgard-serpent, placing himself by the side of the -Fenris-wolf, vomits forth floods of poison, which fill the air and the -waters. Amidst this devastation the heavens are rent in twain, and the -sons of Muspel come riding through the opening in brilliant array. Surt -rides first, and before and behind him flames burning fire. His sword -outshines the sun itself. Bifrost (the rainbow), as they ride over it, -breaks to pieces. Then they direct their course to the battle-field -called Vigrid. Thither repair also the Fenris-wolf and the -Midgard-serpent, and Loke with all the followers of Hel, and Hrym with -all the frost-giants. But the sons of Muspel keep their effulgent bands -apart on the battle-field, which is one hundred miles (rasts) on each -side. - -Meanwhile Heimdal arises, and with all his strength he blows the -Gjallar-horn to arouse the gods, who assemble without delay. Odin then -rides to Mimer’s fountain and consults Mimer how he and his warriors are -to enter into action. The ash Ygdrasil begins to quiver, nor is there -anything in heaven or on earth that does not fear and tremble in that -terrible hour. The gods and all the einherjes of Valhal arm themselves -with speed and sally forth to the field, led on by Odin with his golden -helmet, resplendent cuirass, and spear called Gungner. Odin places -himself against the Fenris-wolf. Thor stands by his side, but can render -him no assistance, having himself to combat the Midgard-serpent. Frey -encounters Surt, and terrible blows are exchanged ere Frey falls; and he -owes his defeat to his not having that trusty sword which he gave to -Skirner. That day the dog Garm, that had been chained in the Gnipa-cave, -breaks loose. He is the most fearful monster of all, and attacks Tyr, -and they kill each other. Thor gains great renown for killing the -Midgard-serpent, but at the same time, retreating nine paces, he falls -dead upon the spot, suffocated with the floods of venom which the dying -serpent vomits forth upon him. The wolf swallows Odin, but at that -instant Vidar advances, and setting his foot upon the monster’s lower -jaw he seizes the other with his hand, and thus tears and rends him till -he dies. Vidar is able to do this because he wears those shoes which -have before been mentioned, and for which stuff has been gathered in all -ages, namely, the shreds of leather which are cut off to form the toes -and heels of shoes; and it is on this account that those who desire to -render service to the gods should take care to throw such shreds away. -Loke and Heimdal fight and kill each other. Then Surt flings fire and -flame over the world. Smoke wreathes up around the all-nourishing tree -(Ygdrasil), the high flames play against the heavens, and earth consumed -sinks down beneath the sea. - -All this is vividly and sublimely presented in the Elder Edda, thus: - - East of Midgard in the Ironwood - The old hag[82] sat, - Fenrer’s terrible - Race she fostered. - One[83] of them - Shall at last - In the guise of a troll - Devour the moon. - - It feeds on the bodies - Of men, when they die: - The seats of the gods - It stains with red blood: - The sunshine blackens - In the summers thereafter - And the weather grows bad— - Know ye now more or not? - - The hag’s watcher, - The glad Edger, - Sat on the hill-top - And played his harp; - Near him crowed - In the bird-wood - A fair-red cock - Which Fjalar hight. - - Among the gods crowed - The gold-combed cock, - He who wakes in Valhal - The hosts of heroes; - Beneath the earth - Crows another, - The root-red cock, - In the halls of Hel. - - Loud barks Garm - At Gnipa-cave; - The fetters are severed, - The wolf is set free,— - Vale knows the future. - More does she see - Of the victorious gods - Terrible fall. - -The wolf referred to in the first strophe is Maanegarm (the -moon-devourer), of whom we have made notice before. The hag in the -Ironwood is Angerboda (anguish-boding), with whom Loke begat children. -Evil is being developed. The gods become through Loke united with the -giants. The wood is of iron, hard and barren; the children are ravenous -wolves. On the hill-top sits Egder (an eagle), a storm-eagle, the -howling wind that rushes through the wood, and howling wind is the music -produced upon his harp. The cock is a symbol of fire, and it is even to -this day a common expression among the Norsemen, when a fire breaks out, -that _the red cock is crowing over the roof of the house_. There are -three cocks, one in the bird-wood, one in heaven, and one in the lower -regions with Hel. The idea then is, that the cock as a symbol of fire -announces the coming of Ragnarok in all the regions of the world. The -vala continues: - - Mimer’s sons play; - To battle the gods are called - By the ancient - Gjallar-horn. - Loud blows Heimdal, - His sound is in the air; - Odin talks - With the head of Mimer. - - Quivers then Ygdrasil, - The strong-rooted ash; - Rustles the old tree - When the giant gives way. - All things tremble - In the realms of Hel, - Till Surt’s son - Swallows up Odin. - - How fare the gods? - How fare the elves? - Jotunheim shrieks. - The gods hold Thing; - The dwarfs shudder - Before their cleft caverns, - Where behind rocky walls they dwell. - Know ye now more or not? - - Loud barks Garm[84] - At Gnipa-cave; - The fetters are severed, - The wolf is set free,— - Vala knows the future. - More does she see - Of the victorious gods’ - Terrible fall. - - From the east drives Hrym, - Bears his child before him; - Jormungander welters - In giant fierceness; - The waves thunder; - The eagle screams, - Rends the corpses with pale beak, - And Naglfar is launched. - - A ship from the east nears, - The hosts of Muspel - Come o’er the main, - But Loke is pilot. - All grim and gaunt monsters - Conjoin with the wolf, - And before them all goes - The brother of Byleist.[85] - - From the south wends Surt - With seething fire; - The sun of the war-god - Shines in his sword; - Mountains together dash, - And frighten the giant-maids; - Heroes tread the paths to Hel, - And heaven in twain is rent. - - Over Hlin[86] then shall come - Another woe, - When Odin goes forth - The wolf to combat, - And he[87] who Bele slew - ’Gainst Surt rides; - Then will Frigg’s - Beloved husband[88] fall. - - Loud barks Garm - At Gnipa-cave; - The fetters are severed, - The wolf is set free,— - Vala knows the future. - More does she see - Of the victorious gods’ - Terrible fall. - - Then Vidar, the great son - Of Victory’s father, - Goes forth to fight - With the ferocious beast; - With firm grasp his sword - In the giant-born monster’s heart - Deep he plants, - And avenges his father. - - Then the famous son[89] - Of Hlodyn[90] comes; - Odin’s son comes - To fight with the serpent; - Midgard’s ward[91] - In wrath slays the serpent. - Nine paces away - Goes the son of Fjorgyn; - He totters, wounded - By the fierce serpent. - All men - Abandon the earth. - - The sun darkens, - The earth sinks into the ocean: - The lucid stars - From heaven vanish; - Fire and vapor - Rage toward heaven; - High flames - Involve the skies. - - Loud barks Garm - At Gnipa-cave; - The fetters are severed, - The wolf is set free,— - Vala knows the future. - More does she see - Of the victorious gods’ - Terrible fall. - -These strophes are taken from Völuspá (the prophecy of the vala); and -besides these we also have a few strophes of the lay of Vafthrudner, in -the Elder Edda, referring to the final conflict: - - VAFTHRUDNER: - - Tell me, Gagnraad,[92] - Since on the floor thou wilt - Prove thy proficiency, - How that plain is called, - Where in fight shall meet - Surt and the gentle gods? - - - GAGNRAAD (ODIN): - - Vigrid the plain is called, - Where in fight shall meet - Surt and the gentle gods; - A hundred rasts it is - On every side. - That plain is to them decreed. - -And in the second part of this same poem, in which Odin asks and -Vafthrudner answers: - - - GAGNRAAD (ODIN): - - What of Odin will - The end of life be, - When the powers perish? - - - VAFTHRUDNER: - - The wolf will - The father of men devour; - Him Vidar will avenge: - He his cold jaws - Will cleave - In conflict with the wolf. - -The terrible dog mentioned several times is Hel’s bloody-breasted and -murderous hound. Like the Fenris-wolf and Loke, this dog had been bound -at Gnipa-cave, although the Eddas tell us nothing about when or how this -was done. - -When it is said that another woe comes over Hlin, the maid-servant is -placed for Frigg herself; and the former woe implied is the death of -Balder, _the other woe_ meaning the approaching death of Odin. - -It is worthy of notice, that as this final conflict is inevitable, the -gods proceed to it, not with despair and trembling, but joyfully and -fearlessly as to a game, for it is the last. Odin rides to the battle -adorned; he knows that he must die, and for this very reason he -decorates himself as does a bride for the wedding, and the gods follow -him; even those who are defenseless voluntarily expose themselves on the -plain of Vigrid. They are determined to die. - -Which are the powers that now oppose each other? On the one side we have -those who have ruled and blessed heaven and earth; and fighting against -them we find their eternal enemies, those powers which had sprung into -being before heaven and earth were created, and those which had -developed in the earth and in the sea, and which no asa-might can -conquer. From Muspelheim come the sons of Muspel in shining armor; from -Muspel’s world came originally the sun, moon and stars. It is a -fundamental law in nature that all things destroy themselves, all things -contain an inherent force that finally brings ruin; that is the meaning -of perishableness or corruption. A second host consists of the -frost-giants. From the body of the old giant Ymer was formed the earth, -the sea, the mountains, the trees, etc.; the giants must therefore -assist in the destruction of their own work. The third host is Loke and -his children, born in time and the offspring of that which was created. -They are the destructive elements in that which was created; the ocean -becoming a fierce serpent, mid the fire a devouring wolf. Loke himself -is the volcanic fire which the earth has produced within its bowels; and -then there is all that is cowardly represented by the pale Hel with her -bloodless shadows, the life which has turned into shadowy death. All -these forces oppose each other. Those who fought in life mutually -conquer each other in death. Odin, whose heaven is the source of all -life, is slain by the Fenris-wolf, the earthly fire, which has brought -all kinds of activities into the life of man; but the wolf, after he has -conquered, falls again at the hands of Vidar, the imperishable, -incorruptible force of nature. In this duel heaven and earth are -engaged. The god of the clouds, Thor, contends with the -Midgard-serpent,—many a struggle they have had together; now the clouds -and ocean mutually destroy each other. Since the death of Balder, Frey -is the most pure and shining divinity. His pure and noble purpose and -longing are still within him, but his sword, his power, is gone. Hence -he is stricken down by Surt, the warder of Muspelheim. Heimdal stretched -his brilliant rainbow over the earth, Loke his variegated stream of fire -within the earth; the one proclaiming mercies and blessings, the other -destruction; both perish in Ragnarok. Hel and her pale host also betake -themselves to the final contest, but the Eddas say nothing about their -taking part in the fight. How can they? They are nothing but emptiness, -the mere vanity of the heart, in which there is no substance; they are -but the darkness which enwraps the earth, and are not capable of deeds. - -Thus is Ragnarok! The great antagonism pervading the world is removed in -a final struggle, in which the contending powers mutually destroy each -other. Ragnarok is an outbreak of all the chaotic powers, a conflict -between them and the established order of creation. Fire, water, -darkness and death work together to destroy the world. The gods and -their enemies meet in a universal, world-embracing wrestle and duel, and -mutually destroy each other. The flames of Surt, the supreme fire-god, -complete the overthrow, and the last remnant of the consumed earth sinks -into the ocean. - -Footnote 81: - - Moongarm. See Vocabulary. - -Footnote 82: - - Angerboda. See p. 179. - -Footnote 83: - - Moongarm. See p. 180. - -Footnote 84: - - Hel’s dog. - -Footnote 85: - - Loke. - -Footnote 86: - - One of Frigg’s maid-servants. - -Footnote 87: - - Frey. - -Footnote 88: - - Odin. - -Footnote 89: - - Thor. - -Footnote 90: - - Another name for Frigg. - -Footnote 91: - - Defender. - -Footnote 92: - - Odin. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - REGENERATION. - - -But when the heavens and the earth and the whole world have been -consumed in flames, when the gods and all the einherjes and all mankind -have perished,—what then? Is not man immortal? Are not all men to live -in some world or other forever? The vala looks again, and - - She sees arise - The second time, - From the sea, the earth - Completely green: - Cascades do fall, - The eagle soars, - From lofty mounts - Pursues its prey. - - The gods convene - On Ida’s plains, - And talk of the powerful - Midgard-serpent: - They call to mind - The Fenris-wolf - And the ancient runes - Of the mighty Odin. - - Then again - The wonderful - Golden tablets - Are found in the grass: - In time’s morning - The leader of the gods - And Odin’s race - Possessed them. - - The fields unsown - Yield their growth; - All ills cease; - Balder comes. - Hoder and Balder, - Those heavenly gods, - Dwell together in Hropt’s[93] halls. - Conceive ye this or not? - -Vidar and Vale survive; neither the flood nor Surt’s flame has harmed -them, and they dwell on the plain of Ida, where Asgard formerly stood. -Thither come the sons of Thor, Mode and Magne, bringing with them their -father’s hammer, Mjolner. Hœner is there also, and comprehends the -future. Balder and Hoder sit and converse together; they call to mind -their former knowledge and the perils they underwent, and the fight with -the wolf Fenrer, and with the Midgard-serpent. The sons of Hoder and -Balder inhabit the wide Wind-home. The sun brings forth a daughter more -lovely than herself, before she is swallowed by Fenrer; and when the -gods have perished, the daughter rides in her mother’s heavenly course. - -During the conflagration caused by Surt’s fire, a woman by name Lif -(life) and a man named Lifthraser lie concealed in Hodmimer’s forest. -The dew of the dawn serves then for food, and so great a race shall -spring from them that their descendants shall soon spread over the whole -earth. - -Then the vala - - Sees a hall called Gimle; - It outshines the sun, - Of gold its roof; - It stands in heaven: - The virtuous there - Shall always dwell, - And evermore - Delights enjoy. - -Toward the north on the Nida-mountains stands a large hall of shining -gold, which the race of Sindre, that is the dwarfs, occupy. There is -also another hall called Brimer, which is also in heaven, in the region -Okolner, and there all who delight in quaffing good drink will find -plenty in store for them. Good and virtuous beings inhabit all these -halls. - -But there is also a place of punishment. It is called Naastrand (strand -of dead bodies). In Naastrand there is a vast and terrible structure, -with doors that face to the north. It is built entirely of the backs of -serpents, wattled together like wicker-work. But all the serpents’ heads -are turned toward the inside of the hall, and continually vomit forth -floods of venom, in which wade all those who have committed murder, -perjury, or adultery. The vala, in the Elder Edda, - - Saw a hall - Far from the sun, - On the strand of dead bodies, - With doors toward the north. - Venom drops - Through the loopholes; - Formed is that hall - Of wreathed serpents. - - There saw she wade - Through heavy streams, - Perjurers - And murderers - And adulterers; - There Nidhug sucked - The bodies of the dead - And the wolf tore them to pieces. - Conceive ye this or not? - - Then comes the mighty one[94] - To the great judgment; - From heaven he comes, - He who guides all things: - Judgments he utters; - Strifes he appeases, - Laws he ordains - To flourish forever. - -Or as it is stated in Hyndla’s lay, after she has described Heimdal, the -sublime protector of the perishable world: - - Then comes another - Yet more mighty, - But him dare I not - Venture to name; - Few look further forward - Than to the time - When Odin goes - To meet the wolf. - -And when the vale in Völuspá, beginning with the primeval time, has -unveiled, in the most profound sentences, the whole history of the -universe,—when she has gone through every period of its development down -through Ragnarok and the Regeneration, the following is her last vision: - - _There_ comes the dark - Dragon[95] flying, - The shining serpent - From the Nida-mountains - In the deep. - - Over the plain it flies; - Dead bodies Nidhug - Drags in his whizzing plumage,— - Now must Nidhug sink. - -Thus ends the vala’s prophecy (_völuspá_.) She has revealed the decrees -of the Father of Nature; she has described the conflagration and -renovation of the world, and now proclaims the fate of the good and of -the evil. - -The world and the things in it perish, but not the forces. Some of the -gods reappear in the regenerated earth, while some do not. They who -reappear are mentioned in pairs, excepting Hœner, who is alone. Balder -and Hoder are together; likewise Vidar and Vale, and Mode and Magne. -Neither Odin nor Thor nor the vans appear. They perished with the world, -for they represented the developing forces of this world; they were -divinities representing that which came into being and had existence in -it. On the other hand, Balder and Hoder came back from Hel. They -represent light and darkness; but they are alike in this respect, that -they are nothing substantial, nothing real, they are only the condition -for something to be, or we might say they are the space, the firmament, -in which something may exist. They are the two brothers whose sons shall -inhabit the wide Wind-home. Thus when heaven and earth have passed away -there is nothing remaining but the wide expanse of space with light and -darkness, who not only rule together in perfect harmony, but also -permeate each other and neutralize each other. - -Hœner comes back. He was originally one of the trinity with Odin and -Loder (Loke); but the gods received Njord as a hostage from the vans, -and gave to the vans in return Hœner, as a security of friendship -between them. This union between the asas and vans is now dissolved. -Hœner has nothing more to do among the vans. Their works all perished -with the old earth. He is the developing, creative force that is needed -now in the new world as it was in the old. - -Vidar is the imperishable force in original nature, that is, in crude -nature, but at the same time united with the gods. He is the connecting -link between gods and giants. His mother was Grid, a giantess, and his -father was Odin. The strong Vale begotten of Odin and Rind (the -slumbering earth) is the imperishable force of nature which constantly -renews itself in the earth as a habitation of man. Both Vidar and Vale -are avenging gods. Vale avenges the death of Balder, and Vidar the death -of Odin, and thus we have in Vidar and Vale representatives of the -imperishable force of nature in two forms, the one without and the other -within the domain of man, both purified and renewed in the regenerated -earth. - -In the atmosphere and in the dense clouds reigned Thor, with his -flashing fire and clattering thunder. Thunder and lightning have passed -away, but the forces that produced them, courage and strength, are -preserved in Thor’s sons, Mode (courage) and Magne (strength). They have -their father’s hammer, Mjolner, and with it they can strike to the right -and to the left, permeating the new heaven and new earth. What a well of -profound thought are the Eddas! - -The parents of the new race of men are called Lif and Lifthraser. Life -cannot perish. It lies concealed in Hodmimer’s forest, which the flame -of Surt was not able to destroy. The new race of mankind seem to possess -a far nobler nature than the former, for they subsist on the morning -dew. - -Do Mimer and Surt live? They are the fundamental elements of fire and -water. The Eddas are not clear on this point, but an affirmative answer -seems to be suggested in the fact that the better part of every being is -preserved. - -The good among men find their reward in Gimle; for he that made man gave -him a soul, which shall live and never perish, though the body shall -have mouldered away or have been burnt to ashes; and all that are -righteous shall dwell with him in the place called Gimle, says the -Younger Edda. The dwarfs have their Sindre, and their golden hall on the -Nida-mountains; and the giant has his shining drinking hall, Brimer, but -it is situated in Okolner (not cool), where there is no more frost. - -The Elder Edda seems to point out two places of punishment for men. -Giants and dwarfs are not punished, for they act blindly, they have no -free will. But the wicked of mankind go to Naastrand and wade in streams -of serpent-venom, and thence they appear to be washed down into -Hvergelmer, that horrible old kettle, where their bodies are torn by -Nidhug, the dragon of the uttermost darkness. - -There is a day of judgment. The good and bad are separated. The god, -whom the Edda dare not name, is the judge. The Younger Edda once calls -him Allfather, for he is to the new world what Odin was to the old. He -was before the beginning of time, and at the end of time he enters upon -his eternal reign. - -The reward is eternal. Is the punishment also eternal? When light and -darkness (Balder and Hoder) can live peaceably together,—when darkness -can resolve itself into light,—cannot then the evil be dissolved in the -good; cannot the eternal streams of goodness wash away the evil? We -think so, and the Edda seems to justify us in this thought; at least the -Elder Edda seems to take this view of the subject. Listen again to the -last vision of the vala: - - _There_ comes the dark - Dragon flying, - The shining serpent - From the Nida-mountains - In the deep. - Over the plain it flies; - Dead bodies Nidhug - Drags in his whizzing plumage,— - _Now must Nidhug sink_.[96] - -When there is an intermediate state, a transition, a purification, a -purgatory, then this purification must sooner or later be accomplished; -and that is the day of the great judgment, _when Nidhug must sink_, and -nevermore lift his wings loaded with dead bodies. This idea is -beautifully elaborated in _Zendavista_. The Edda has it in a single -line, but the majority of its interpreters have not comprehended it. We -who are permeated by the true Christian spirit, we know how great joy -there is in heaven over a sinner who is converted; we know the God of -mercy, who does not desire the ruin of a single sinner, and the God of -omnipotence, who with his hand is able to press the tears of repentance -from the heart, though it be hard as steel; we comprehend why he lets -Nidhug sink down. All darkness shall be cleared up and be gilded by the -shining light of heaven. - -Such was the origin, the development, the destruction and regeneration -of the world. And now, says the Younger Edda, as it closes the deluding -of King Gylfe, if you have any further questions to ask, I know not who -can answer you; for I never heard tell of anyone who could relate what -will happen in the other ages of the world. Make therefore the best use -you can of what has been imparted to you. - -Upon this Ganglere heard a terrible noise all around him. He looked, but -could see neither palace nor city anywhere, nor anything save a vast -plain. He therefore set out on his return to his kingdom, where he -related all that he had seen and heard; and ever since that time these -tidings have been handed down from man to man by oral tradition, and we -add, may the stream of story never cease to flow! May the youth, the -vigorous man, and the grandfather with his silvery locks, forever -continue to refresh their minds by looking into and drinking from the -fountain that reflects the ancient history of the great Gothic race! - -In closing, we would present this question: Shall we have northern art? -We have southern art (Hercules and Hebe), we have oriental art (Adam and -Eve), and now will some one complete the trilogy by adding Loke and -Sigyn? Ay, let us have another Thorvaldsen, and let him devote himself -to _northern art_. Here is a new and untrodden field for the artist. Ye -Gothic poets and painters and sculptors! why stand ye here idle? - -Footnote 93: - - Odin’s. - -Footnote 94: - - The Supreme God. - -Footnote 95: - - Nidhug. - -Footnote 96: - - We present this view of the subject from N. M. Petersen, who suggests - that the common reading of this passage _hon_ ought to be _hann_,—that - is _he_, not _she_. In our translation we have supplied the noun - _Nidhug_, while if we had followed the other authorities we would have - used the noun _vala_. Petersen remarks that the word sink (_sökkvask_) - is a natural expression when applied to the dragon, who sinks into the - abyss, but forced and unnatural when applied to the vala. He also - quotes another passage (the last line in Brynhild’s Hel-ride, where - Brynhild says to the hag: Sink thou (_sökkstu!_) of giantkind!) from - the Elder Edda which corroborates his view. As the reader will - observe, we have adopted Petersen’s view entirely. - - - - - VOCABULARY OF THE PRINCIPAL PROPER NAMES OCCURRING IN THE NORSE - MYTHOLOGY, - - - WITH A BRIEF SYNOPSIS OF THE CHARACTER AND EXPLOITS OF - THE GODS, EXPLANATIONS, ETYMOLOGICAL - DEFINITIONS, ETC. - - GIVING - - THE ORIGINAL ICELANDIC FORM OF THE WORD IN THE VOCABULARY, - - AND ADDING, AFTER THE SYNOPSIS, - - THE ANGLICIZED FORM USED BY THE AUTHOR - THROUGHOUT THE WORK. - - ARRANGED BY THE AUTHOR FROM THE BEST SOURCES. - - -A - -ÆGIR [Anglo-Sax. _eagor_, the sea]. The god presiding over the stormy -sea. He entertains the gods every harvest, and brews ale for them. It -still survives in provincial English for the sea-wave on rivers. Have a -care, there is the _eager_ coming!—(Carlyle’s Heroes and Hero-worship.) -_Æger._ - -AGNAR. A son of King Hraudung and foster-son of Frigg. _Agnar._ - -AGNAR. A son of King Geirrod. He gives a drink to Grimner (Odin). -_Agnar._ - -ÁLFR [Anglo-Sax. _ælf_, _munt-ælfen_, _sæ-elfen_, _wudu-elfen_, etc.; -Eng. _elf_, _elves_; Germ. _alb_ and _elfen_, _Erl-_ in _Erl_könig -(Goethe) is, according to Grimm, a corrupt form from the Danish -_Elle_konge like _Elver_konge; in the west of Iceland the word is also -pronounced _álbr_]. An elf, fairy; a class of beings like the dwarfs, -between gods and men. They were of two kinds: elves of light -(_Ljósálfar_) and elves of darkness (_Dökkálfar_). The abode of the -elves is _Álfheimr_, fairy-land, and their king is the god Frey. _Elf._ - -ALFÖÐR or ALFAÐIR [Father of all]. The name of Odin as the supreme god. -It also refers to the supreme and unknown god. _Allfather._ - -ÁLFHEIMR [_álf_, elf, and _heimr_, home]. Elf-land, fairy-land. Frey’s -dwelling, given him as a tooth-gift. _Alfheim._ - -ALSVIÐR [_sviðr_ (_svinnr_), rapid, wise]. All-wise. One of the horses -of the sun. _Alsvid._ - -ALVÍSS [All-wise]. The dwarf who answers Thor’s questions in the lay of -Alvis. _Alvis._ - -AMSVARTNIR. [The etymology is doubtful; perhaps from _ama_, to vex, -annoy, and _svartnir_ (_svartr_), black.] The name of the sea, in which -the island was situated where the wolf Fenrer was chained. _Amsvartner._ - -ÁNNARR or ÓNARR. Husband of night and father of Jord (_jörð earth_). -_Annar._ - -ANDRÍMNIR [_önd_, soul, spirit, breath, and _hrímnir_, _hrím_. -Anglo-Sax. _hrím_; Eng. _rime_, hoar-frost; _hrímnir_, the one producing -the hoar-frost]. The cook in Valhal. _Andhrimner._ - -ANDVARI. The name of a gurnard-shaped dwarf; the owner of the fatal ring -called _Andvaranautr_. _Andvare._ - -ANDVARAFORS. The force or waterfall in which the dwarf Andvare kept -himself in the form of a gurnard (pike). _Andvare-Force._ - -ANDVARANAUTR [_önd_, spirit; _varr_, cautious; _nautr_, Germ. ge-_nosse_ -(from Icel. _njota_), a donor]. The fatal ring given by Andvare (the -wary spirit). _Andvarenaut._ - -ANGANTYR. He has a legal dispute with Ottar Heimske, who is favored by -Freyja. _Angantyr._ - -ANGEYJA. One of Heimdal’s nine mothers. Says the Elder Edda in the Lay -of Hyndla: Nine giant maids gave birth to the gracious god, at the -world’s margin. These are: Gjalp, Greip, Eistla, Angeyja, Ulfrun, -Eyrgjafa, Imd, Atla, and Jarnsaxa. _Angeyja._ - -ANGRBOÐA [Anguish-boding]. A giantess; mother of the Fenris-wolf by -Loke. _Angerboda._ - -ÁRVAKR [Early awake]. The name of one of the horses of the sun. -_Aarvak._ - -ÁSS or ÁS, plural ÆSIR. The _asas_, gods. The word appears in such -English names as _Os_born, _Os_wald, etc. With an _n_ it is found in the -Germ. _Ans_gar (Anglo-Sax. _Os_car). It is also found in many -Scandinavian proper names, as _As_björn, _As_trid, etc. The term _æsir_ -is used to distinguish Odin, Thor, etc., from the _vanir_. (vans). -_Asa._ - -ÁSA-LOKI. Loke, so called to distinguish him from Utgard-Loke, who is a -giant. _Asa-Loke._ - -ÁSA-PÓRR. A common name for Thor. _Asa-Thor._ - -ÁSGARÐR. The residence of the gods (_asas_). _Asgard._ - -ASKR [Anglo-Sax. _äsc_, an ash]. The name of the first man created by -Odin, Hœner and Loder. _Ask._ - -ÁSYNJA; plural ÁSYNJUR. A goddess; feminine of _Áss_. _Asynje._ - -ATLA. One of Heimdal’s nine mothers. _Atla._ - -AUÐHUMLA; also written AUÐHUMBLA. [The etymology of this word is -uncertain. Finn Magnússon derives it from _auðr_, void, and _hum_, -darkness, and expresses the name by _aër nocturnus_.] The cow formed -from the frozen vapors resolved into drops. She nourished the giant -Ymer. _Audhumbla._ - -AURBOÐA [_aurr_, wet clay or loam; _boða_, to announce]. Gymer’s wife -and Gerd’s mother. _Aurboda._ - -AURGELMIR [_aurr_, wet clay or loam]. A giant; grandfather of Bergelmer; -called also Ymer. _Aurgelmer._ - -AUSTRI. A dwarf presiding over the east region. _Austre._ _East._ - - -B - -BALDR. [Anglo-Sax. _baldor_, princeps, the best, foremost]. The god of -the summer-sunlight. He was son of Odin and Frigg; slain by Hoder, who -was instigated by Loke. He returns after Ragnarok. His dwelling is -Breidablik. _Balder._ - -BARREY [Needle-isle]. A cool grove in which Gerd agreed with Skirner to -meet Frey. _Barey._ - -BAUGI. A brother of Suttung, for whom (Baugi) Odin worked one summer in -order to get his help in obtaining Suttung’s mead of poetry. _Bauge._ - -BELI. A giant, brother of Gerd, slain by Frey. _Bele_. - -BERGELMIR [_berg_, rock]. A giant; son of Thrudgelmer and grandson of -Aurgelmer. _Bergelmer._ - -BESTLA. Wife of Bur and mother of Odin. _Bestla._ - -BEYLA. Frey’s attendant; wife of Bygver. _Beyla._ - -BIFRÖST [_bifast_, to tremble, _röst_ (compare Eng. _rest_), a space, a -way; the trembling way, _via tremula_]. The rainbow. _Bifrost._ - -BILSKIRNIR [_bil_, a moment; _skir_, serene, shining]. The heavenly -abode of Thor, from the flashing of light in the lightning. -_Bilskirner._ - -BÖLÞORN [Evil thorn]. A giant: father of Bestla, Odin’s mother. -_Bolthorn._ - -BÖLVERKR [Working terrible things]. An assumed name of Odin, when he -went to get Suttung’s mead. _Bolverk._ - -BOÐN. [Compare Anglo-Sax. _byden_, dolium.] One of the three vessels in -which the poetical mead was kept. Hence poetry is called the wave of the -_boðn_. _Bodn._ - -BÖRR [_burr_, a son; compare Eng. _born_, Scotch _bairn_, Norse _barn_, -a child]. A son of Bure and father of Odin, Vile and Ve. _Bor._ - -BRAGI. [Compare Anglo-Sax. _brego_, princeps.] The god of poetry. A son -of Odin. He is the best of skalds. _Brage._ - -BREIÐABLIK [Literally broad-blink, from _breiðr_, broad, and _blika_ -(Germ. _blicken_; Eng. to _blink_), to gleam, twinkle]. Balder’s -dwelling. _Breidablik._ - -BRÍSINGAMEN. Freyja’s necklace or ornament. _Brisingamen._ - -BURI. [This word is generally explained as meaning _the bearing_, _i. -e._ father; but we think that it is the same as the Anglo-Saxon _býre_, -son, descendant, offspring. We do not see how it can be conceived as an -active participle of the verb _bera_, to bring forth. See p. 195, where -we have followed Keyser.] The father of Bor. He was produced by the -cow’s licking the stones covered with rime. _Bure._ - -BYGGVIR. Frey’a attendant; Beyla’s husband. _Bygver._ - -BYLEIPTR [The flame of the dwelling]. The brother of Loke. _Byleipt._ - - -D - -DAGR [Day]. Son of Delling. _Dag._ - -DÁINN. A hart that gnaws the branches of Ygdrasil. _Daain._ - -DELLINGR [_deglinger_ (_dagr_, day), dayspring]. The father of Day. -_Delling._ - -DÍS; plural DÍSIR. Attendant spirit or guardian angel. Any female mythic -being may be called Dís. _Dis._ - -DRAUPNIR [_drjúpa_; Eng. _drip_; Germ. _traufen_; Dan. _dryppe_]. Odin’s -ring. It was put on Belder’r funeral-pile. Skirner offered it to Gerd. -_Draupner._ - -DRÓMI. One of the fetters by which the Fenris-wolf was fettered. -_Drome._ - -DUNEYRR, DURAPRÓR. Harts that gnaw the branches of Ygdrasil. _Duneyr_; -_Durathror_. - -DURINN. The dwarf, second in degree. _Durin._ - -DVALINN. A dwarf. _Dvalin._ - -DVERGR [Anglo-Sax. _dweorg_; Eng. _dwarf_; Germ. _zwerg_; Swed. -_dwerg_]. A dwarf. In modern Icelandic lore dwarfs disappear, but remain -in local names, as Dverga-steinn (compare the Dwarfie Stone in Scott’s -_Pirate_), and in several words and phrases. From the belief that dwarfs -lived in rocks an echo is called _dwerg-mál_ (dwarf-talk), and -_dwerg-mála_ means to echo. The dwarfs were skilled in metal-working. - - -E - -EDDA. The word means a great-grandmother. The name usually applied to -the mythological collection of poems discovered by Brynjolf Sveinsson in -the year 1643. He, led by a fanciful and erroneous suggestion, gave to -the book which he found the name Sæmundar Edda, Edda of Sæmund. This is -the so-called _Elder Edda_. Then there is the _Younger Edda_, a name -applied to a work written by Snorre Sturleson, and containing old -mythological lore and the old artificial rules for verse-making. The -ancients applied the name _Edda_ only to this work of Snorre. The _Elder -Edda_ was never so called. And it is also uncertain whether Snorre -himself knew his work by the name Edda. In the Rigsmál (Lay of Rig) Edda -is the progenitrix of the race of thralls. - -EGÐIR. An eagle that appears at Ragnarok. _Egder._ - -EGILL. The father of Thjalfe; a giant dwelling near the sea. Thor left -his goats with him on his way to the giant Hymer. _Egil._ - -EIKÞYRNIR. [_eik_, oak, and _þyrnir_, a thorn]. A hart that stands over -Odin’s hall (Valhal). From his antlers drops into the abyss water from -which rivers flow. _Eikthyrner._ - -EINHERI; plural EINHERJAR. The only (_ein_) or great champions; the -heroes who have fallen in battle and been admitted into Valhal. -_Einherje._ - -EIR. [The word means _peace_, _clemency_.] An attendant of Menglod, and -the best of all in the healing art. _Eir._ - -EISTLA. One of Heimdal’s nine mothers. _Eistla._ - -ELDHRÍMNIR. [_eld_, fire, and _hrímnir_, the one producing rime]. The -kettle in which the boar Sæhrimner is cooked in Valhal. _Eldhrimner._ - -ELDIR. The fire-producer; a servant of Æger. _Elder._ - -ÉLIVÁGAR. The ice-waves; poisonous cold streams that flow out of -Niflheim. _Elivagar._ - -EMBLA. The first woman. The gods found two lifeless trees, the _ask_ -(ash) and the _embla_; of the ash they made _man_, of the embla, -_woman_. It is a question what kind of tree the embla was; some suggest -a metathesis, viz. _emla_, from _almr_ (elm), but the compound -_emblu-askr_, in one of Egil’s poems, seems to show that the _embla_ was -in some way related to the ash. _Embla._ - -EYRGJAFA. One of Heimdal’s nine mothers. _Eyrgjafa._ - - -F - -FÁFNIR. Son of Hreidmar. He kills his father to get possession of the -Andvarenaut. He afterwards changes himself into a dragon and guards the -treasure on Gnita-heath. He is slain by Sigurd, and his heart is roasted -and eaten. _Fafner._ - -FALHÓFNIR [Barrel-hoof, hollow-hoof]. One of the horses of the gods. -_Falhofner._ - -FARBAUTI [Ship-beater, ship-destroyer]. The father of Loke. _Farbaute._ - -FENRIR or FENRISÚLFR. The monster-wolf. He is the son of Loke. He bites -the hand Tyr. The gods put him in chains, where he remains until -Ragnarok. In Ragnarok he gets loose, swallows the sun and conquers Odin, -but is killed by Vidar. _Fenrer_ or _Fenris-wolf_. - -FENSALIR. The abode of Frigg. _Fensal._ - -FJALAR. A misnomer for Skrymer, in whose glove Thor took shelter. -_Fjalar._ - -FJALAR. A dwarf, who slew Kvaser, and composed from his blood the poetic -mead. _Fjalar._ - -FJALAR. A cock that crows at Ragnarok. _Fjalar._ - -FIMAFENGR [_fimr_, quick, nimble]. The nimble servant of Æger. He was -slain by the jealous Loke. _Fimafeng._ - -FIMBUL. [Compare Germ. _fimmel_, an iron wedge; Bohem. _fimol_; Swed. -_fimmel-stång_, the handle of a sledge-hammer; in Icel. obsolete, and -only used in four or five compounds in old poetry.] It means _mighty -great_. In the mythology we have: - -FIMBULFAMBI. A mighty fool. _Fimbulfambe._ - -FIMBULTÝR. The mighty god, great helper (Odin). _Fimbultyr._ - -FIMBULVETR [_vetr_, winter]. The great and awful winter of three years’ -duration preceding the end of the world. _Fimbul-winter._ - -FIMBULÞUL. A heavenly river (_þul_, roaring.) _Fimbulthul._ - -FIMBULÞULR. The great wise man (Odin’s High-song, 143). _Fimbulthuler._ - -FJÖLNIR. A name of Odin. _Fjolner._ - -FJÖRGYN. A personification of the earth; mother of Thor. _Fjorgyn._ - -FÓLKVANGR [Anglo-Sax. _folc_; Germ. _volk_; Eng. _folk_, people, and -_vangr_ (Ulfilas, _waggs_), paradise; Anglo-Sax. _wang_; Dan. _vang_, a -field]. The folk-field. Freyja’s dwelling. _Folkvang._ - -FORNJÓTR. The ancient giant. He was father of Æger or Hler, the god of -the ocean; of Loge, flame or fire, and of Kaare, wind. His wife was Ran. -These divinities are generally regarded as belonging to an earlier -mythology, probably that of the Fins or Celts, and we omitted them in -our work. _Fornjot._ - -FORSETI [The fore-sitter, president, chairman]. Son of Balder and Nanna. -His dwelling is Glitner, and his office is peace-maker. _Forsete._ - -FRÁNANGRS-FORS. The force or waterfall into which Loke, in the likeness -of a salmon, cast himself, and where the gods caught him and bound him. -_Fraananger-Force._ - -FREKI. One of Odin’s wolves. _Freke._ - -FREYJA [Feminine of Freyr]. The daughter of Njord and sister of Frey. -She dwells in Folkvang. Half the fallen in battle belong to her. She -lends her feather disguise to Loke. She is the goddess of love. Her -husband is Oder. Her necklace is Brisingamen. She has a boar with golden -bristles. _Freyja._ - -FREYR [Goth. _frauja_; Gr. χύρτος, Anglo-Sax. _freâ_; Heliand _frô_, a -lord]. He is son of Njord, husband of Skade, slayer of Bele, and falls -in conflict with Surt in Ragnarok. Alfheim was given him as a -tooth-gift. The ship Skidbladner was built for him. He falls in love -with Gerd, Gymer’s fair daughter. He gives his trusty sword to Skirner. -_Frey._ - -FRIGG. [Compare Anglo-Sax. _frigu_, love]. She is the wife of Odin, and -mother of Balder and of other gods. She is the queen of the gods. She -sits with Odin in Hlidskjalf. She exacts an oath from all things that -they shall not harm Balder. She mourns Balder’s death. _Frigg._ - -FULLA [Fullness]. Frigg’s attendant. She takes care of Frigg’s toilette, -clothes and slippers. Nanna sent her a finger-ring from Helheim. She -wears her hair flowing over her shoulders. _Fulla._ - - -G - -GALAR. One of the dwarfs who killed Kvaser. Fjalar was the other. -_Galar._ - -GAGNRÁÐE. A name assumed by Odin when he went to visit Vafthrudner. -_Gagnraad._ - -GANGLERI. One of Odin’s names in Grimner’s Lay. _Ganglere._ - -GANGLERI. A name assumed by King Gylfe when he came to Asgard. -_Ganglere._ - -GANÐROFA [Fence-breaker]. The goddess Gnaa has a horse by name -Hofvarpner. The sire of this horse is Hamskerper, and its mother is -Garðrofa. _Gardrofa._ - -GARMR. A dog that barks at Ragnarok. He is called the largest and best -among dogs. _Garm._ - -GEFJUN or GEFJON. A goddess. She is a maid, and all those who die maids -become her maid-servants. She is present at Æger’s feast. Odin says she -knows men’s destinies as well as he does himself. _Gefjun._ - -GEIRRÖÐR. A son of King Hraudung and foster-son of Odin; he becomes king -and is visited by Odin, who calls himself Grimner. He is killed by his -own sword. There is also a giant by name Geirrod, who was once visited -by Thor. _Geirrod._ - -GEIRSKÖGUL. A valkyrie. _Geirskogul._ - -GEIRVIMUL. A heavenly river. _Geirvimul._ - -GERÐR. Daughter of Gymer, a beautiful young giantess; beloved by Frey. -_Gerd._ - -GERI [_gerr_, greedy]. One of Odin’s wolves. _Gere._ - -GERSEMI [Anglo-Sax. _gersuma_, a costly thing.] One of Freyja’s -daughters. _Gerseme._ - -GJALLARBRÚ [_gjalla_, to yell, to resound; Anglo-Sax. _giellan_]. The -bridge across the river Gjol, near Helheim. The bridge between the land -of the living and the dead. _Gjallar-bridge._ - -GJALLARHORN. Heimdal’s horn, which he will blow at Ragnarok. _Gjallar -horn_. - -GILLING. Father of Suttung, who possessed we poetic mead. He was slain -by Fjalar and Galar. _Gilling._ - -GIMLI [_gimill_, _himill_, _himin_, heaven]. The abode of the righteous -after Ragnarok. _Gimle._ - -GJÁLP. One of Heimdal’s nine mothers. _Gjalp._ - -GINNUNGA-GAP. [Compare Anglo-Sax. _gin_ or _ginn_, vast, wide. (The -_unga_ may be the adverbial ending added to _ginn_, as in _eall-unga_, -adv. from _all_, all.)] The great yawning gap, the premundane abyss, the -chaos or formless void, in which dwelt the supreme powers before the -creation. In the eleventh century the sea between Greenland and Vinland -(America) was called Ginnunga-gap. _Ginungagap._ - -GJÖLL. The one of the rivers Elivagar that flowed nearest the gate of -Hel’s abode. _Gjol._ - -GÍSL [Sunbeam]. One of the horses of the gods. _Gisl._ - -GLAÐR [Clear, bright]. One of the horses of the gods. _Glad._ - -GLAÐSHEIMR [Home of brightness or gladness]. Odin’s dwelling. -_Gladsheim._ - -GLASIR. A grove in Asgard. _Glaser._ - -GLEIPNIR. The last fetter with which the wolf Fenrer was bound. -_Gleipner._ - -GLER [The glassy]. One of the horses of the gods. _Gler._ - -GLITNIR [The glittering]. Forsete’s golden hall. _Glitner._ - -GNÁ. She is the messenger that Frigg sends into the various worlds on -her errands. She has a horse called Hofvarpner, that can run through air -and water. _Gnaa._ - -GNÍPAHELLIR. The cave before which the dog Garm barks. _The Gnipa-cave._ - -GNÍTAHEIÐR. Fafner’s abode, where he kept the treasure called -Andvarenaut. _Gnita-heath._ - -GÓINN. A serpent under Ygdrasil. _Goin._ - -GÖLL. A valkyrie. _Gol._ - -GÖMUL. A heavenly river. _Gomul._ - -GÖNDUL. A valkyrie. _Gondul._ - -GÖPUL. A heavenly river. _Gopul._ - -GRÁBAKR [Gray-back]. One of the serpents under Ygdrasil. _Graabak._ - -GRÁÐ. A heavenly river. _Graad._ - -GRAFVITNIR, GRAFVÖLLUÐR. Serpents under Ygdrasil. _Grafvitner_; -_Grafvollud_. - -GREIP [Anglo-Sax. _grâp_; Eng. _grip_]. One of Heimdal’s nine giant -mothers. _Greip._ - -GRÍMNIR [Icel. _grima_; Anglo-Sax. _grîma_; Dan. _grime_, a -horse-halter]. A kind of hood or cowl covering the upper part of the -face. Grimner is a name of Odin from his traveling in disguise. -_Grimner._ - -GRÓA [Icel. _gróa_; Anglo Sax. _growan_; Eng. _grow_; Lat. _crescere_, -_crev_-i]. The giantess mother of Orvandel. Thor went to her to have her -charm the flint-stone out of his forehead. _Groa._ - -GULLFAXI [Gold-mane]. The giant Hrungner’s horse. _Goldfax._ - -GULLINKAMBI [Gold-comb]. A cock that crows at Ragnarok. _Gullinkambe_ or -_Goldcomb_. - -GULLTOPPR [Gold-top]. Heimdal’s horse. _Goldtop._ - -GULLVEIG [Gold-drink, gold-thirst]. A personification of gold. She is -pierced and thrice burnt, and yet lives. _Gulveig._ - -GULLINBURSTI [Golden bristles]. The name of Frey’s hog. _Gullinburste._ - -GUNGNIR [Dan. _gungre_, to tremble violently]. Odin’s spear. _Gungner._ - -GUNNLÖÐ; genitive GUNNLAÐAR [Icel. _gunnr_, war, battle; Anglo-Sax. -_gûð_; Old High Germ. _gundia_; and Icel. _löð_ (_laða_, to invite), -invitation; Anglo-Sax. _gelaðian_, to invite]. One who invites war. She -was daughter of the giant Suttung, and had charge of the poetic mead. -Odin got it from her. _Gunlad._ - -GYLFI. A king of Svithod, who visited Asgard under the name of Ganglere. -The first part of the Younger Edda is called Gylfaginning, which means -the Delusion of Gylfe. _Gylfe._ - -GYLLIR [Golden]. One of the horses of the gods. _Gyller._ - -GÝMIR. A giant: the father of Gerd, the beloved of Frey. _Gymer._ - -GÝMIR. Another name of the ocean divinity Æger. _Gymer._ - - -H - -HALLINSKÍÐI. Another name of the god Heimdal. The possessor of the -leaning (_halla_) way (_skeið_). _Hallinskid._ - -HAMSKERPIR [Hide-hardener]. A horse; the sire of Hofvarpner, which was -Gnaa’s horse. _Hamskerper._ - -HÁR [Anglo. Sax. _heáh_; Eng. _high_; Ulfilas _hauhs_]. The High One, -applied to Odin. _Haar._ - -HÁRBARÐR. The name assumed by Odin in the Lay of Harbard. _Harbard._ - -HEIÐRUNR [Bright-running]. A goat that stands over Valhal. _Heidrun._ - -HEIMDALR. The etymology has not been made out. He was the heavenly -watchman in the old mythology, answering to St. Peter in the medieval. -According to the Lay of Rig (Heimdal), he was the father and founder of -the different classes of men, nobles, churls and thralls. He has a horn -called Gjallar-horn, which he blows at Ragnarok. His dwelling is -Himinbjorg. He is the keeper of Bifrost (the rainbow). Nine giantesses -are his mothers. _Heimdal._ - -HEL. [Ulfilas _halja_, ᾅδης; Anglo-Sax. and Eng. _hell_; Heliand and Old -High Germ. _hellia_; Germ. _Hölle_; Dan. at slaa, i-_hjel_, to kill]. -The goddess of death, born of Loke and Angerboda. She corresponds to -Proserpina. Her habitation is Helheim, under one of the roots of -Ygdrasil. _Hel._ - -HELBLINDI. A name of Odin. _Helblinde._ - -HELGRINDR. The gates of Hel. _Helgrind_ or _Helgate_. - -HELHEIM. The abode of Hel. _Helheim._ - -HERFÖÐR, HERJAFÖÐR. [The father of hosts]. A name of Odin. _Her-father._ - -HERMOÐR [Courage of hosts]. Son of Odin, who gives him helmet and -corselet. He went on Sleipner to Hel to bring Balder back. _Hermod._ - -HILDISVINI [_hildr_ (Anglo-Sax. _hild_) means war]. Freyja’s hog. -HILDE-SVINE. - -HIMINBJÖRG [_himinn_, heaven, and _björg_, help, defense; hence heaven -defender]. Heimdal’s dwelling. _Himinbjorg._ - -HIMINBRJÓTR [Heaven-breaker]. One of the giant Hymer’s oxen. -_Himinbrjoter._ - -HLÉSEY. The abode of Æger. _Hlesey._ - -HLIÐSKJÁLF [from _hlið_, gate, and _skjálf_, shelf, bench]. The seat of -Odin, whence he looked out over all the worlds. _Hlidskjalf._ - -HLÍN. One of the attendants of Frigg; but Frigg herself is sometimes -called by this name. _Hlin._ - -HLÓÐYN. A goddess; a names of the earth; Thor’s mother. _Hlodyn._ - -HLÓRIDI [from _hlóa_; Anglo-Sax. _hlowan_; Eng. _low_, to bellow, roar, -and _reið_, thunder]. One of the names of Thor; the bellowing thunderer. -_Hloride._ - -HNIKARR, HNIKUÐR. Names of Odin, Hnikar and Hnikuder. - -HNOSS [Anglo-Sax. _hnossian_, to hammer]. A costly thing; the name of -one of Freyja’s daughters. _Hnos._ - -HODDMÍMISHOLT. Hodmimer’s holt or grove, where the two human beings Lif -and Lifthraser were preserved during Ragnarok. _Hodmimer’s forest._ - -HÖÐR. The slayer of Balder. He is blind, returns to life in the -regenerated world. The Cain of the Norse mythology. _Hoder._ - -HŒNIR. One of the three creating gods. With Odin and Loder Hœner creates -Ask and Embla, the first human pair. _Hœner._ - -HÓFVARPNIR [Hoof-thrower]. Guaa’s horse. His father is Hamskerper and -mother Gardrofa. _Hofvarpner._ - -HRÆSVELGR [Corpse-swallower]. A giant in an eagle’s plumage, who -produces the wind. _Hræsvelger._ - -HRAUÐUNGR. Geirrod’s father. _Hraudung._ - -HREIÐMARR. Father of Regin and Fafner. He exacts the blood-fine from the -gods for slaying Otter. He is slain by Fafner. _Hreidmar._ - -HRÍMFAXI [Rime-mane]. The horse of Night. _Rimefax._ - -HRÍMÞURSAR [Anglo-Sax. _hrîm_; Eng. _rime_, hoar-frost]. Rime-giants or -frost-giants, who dwell under one of Ygdrasil’s roots. _Giants._ - -HROÐVITNIR. A wolf; father of the wolf Hate. _Hrodvitner._ - -HROPTR. One of Odin’s names. _Hropt._ - -HRUNGNIR. A giant; friend of Hymer. Thor fought with him and slew him. -_Hrungner._ - -HRINGHORNI. The ship upon which Balder’s body was burned. _Hringhorn._ - -HROSSÞJÓFR [Horse-thief]. A giant. _Hrosthjof._ - -HUGINN [Mind]. One of Odin’s ravens. _Hugin._ - -HVERGELMIR [The old kettle]. The spring in the middle of Niflheim, -whence flowed the rivers Elivagar. The Northern Tartaros. _Hvergelmer._ - -HÝMIR. A giant with whom Thor went fishing when he caught the -Midgard-serpent. His wife was the mother of Tyr. Tyr and Thor went to -him to procure a kettle for Æger. _Hymer._ - -HYNDLA. A vala visited by Freyja, who comes to her to learn the -genealogy of her favorite Ottar. _Hyndla._ - - -I - -IÐAVÖLLR. A plain where the gods first assemble, where they establish -their heavenly abodes, and where they assemble again after Ragnarok. The -plains of Ide. _Idavold._ - -IÐUNN. Daughter of the dwarf Ivald; she was wife of Brage, and the -goddess of early spring. She possesses rejuvenating apples of which the -gods partake. _Idun._ - -IFING. A river which divides the giants from the gods. _Ifing._ - -IMÐ. One of Heimdal’s nine giant mothers. _Imd._ - -ÍMR. A son of the giant Vafthrudner. _Im._ - -INGUNAR-FREYR. One of the names of Frey. _Ingun’s Frey._ - -INNSTEINN. The father of Ottar Heimske; the favorite of Freyja. -_Instein._ - -ÍVALDI. A dwarf. His sons construct the ship Skidbladner. _Ivald._ - - -J - -JAFNHÁR [Equally high]. A name of Odin. _Evenhigh._ _Jafnhaar._ - -JÁLKR. A name of Odin (Jack the Giant-killer?). _Jalk._ - -JÁRNSAXA [Iron-chopper]. One of Heimdel’s nine giant mothers. -_Jarnsaxa._ - -JÁRNVIÐR [Iron-wood]. A wood east of Midgard, peopled by giantesses -called Jarnvids. This wood had iron leaves. _Jarnvid._ - -JÁRNVIÐIUR. The giantesses in the Iron-wood. _Jarnvids._ - -JÖRD. Wife of Odin and mother of Thor. Earth. _Jord._ - -JÖTUNN [Anglo-Sax. _eoten_]. A giant. The giants were the earliest -created beings. Tho gods question them in regard to Balder. Thor -frequently contends with them. Famous giants are: Ymer, Hymer, Hrungner, -Orvandel, Gymer, Skrymer, Vafthrudner and Thjasse. _Giant._ - -JÖTUNHEIMAR (plural). The Utgaard; the home of the giants in the -outermost parts of the earth. _Jotunheim._ - - -K - -KERLAUGAR (plural). Two rivers which Thor every day must cross. -_Kerlaug._ - -KÖRMT. Another river which Thor every day must pass. _Kormt._ - -KVÁSIR. The hostage given by the vans to the asas. His blood, when -slain, was the poetical mead kept by Suttung. _Kvaser._ - - -L - -LÆÐINGR. One of the fetters with which the Fenris-wolf was bound. -_Læding._ - -LÆRAÐR [Furnishing protection]. A tree near Valhal. _Lærad._ - -LANDVIÐI. [A mountain range overgrown with trees is _viði_.] Vidar’s -abode. The primeval forests. _Landvide._ - -LAUFEY [Leafy island]. Loke’s mother. _Laufey._ - -LEIFÞRASIR, LIF. The two persons preserved in Hodmimer’s grove during -Surt’s conflagration in Ragnarok; the last beings in the old and the -first in the new world. _Lif_ and _Lifthraser_. - -LÉTTFETI [Light-foot]. One of the horses of the gods. _Lightfoot._ - -LITR. A dwarf that Thor kicked into Balder’s funeral pile. _Liter._ - -LODDFÁFNIR. A protégé of Odin. _Lodfafner._ - -LOÐURR [Compare Germ. _lodern_, to flame]. One of the three gods (Odin, -Hæner and Loder) who create Ask and Embla, the first man and woman. He -is identical with Loke. _Loder._ - -LOKI [Icel. _lúka_, to end, finish: Loke is the end and consummation of -divinity]. The evil giant-god of the Norse mythology. He steers the ship -Naglfar in Ragnarok. He borrows Freyja’s feather-garb and accompanies -Thor to the giant Thrym, who has stolen Thor’s hammer. He is the father -of Sleipner; but also of the Midgaard-serpent, of the Fenris-wolf and of -Hel. He causes Balder’s death, abuses the gods in Æger’s feast, but is -captured in Fraanangerforce and is bound by the gods. _Loke._ - -LOPTR [The aërial]. Another name of Loke. _Lopter._ - - -M - -MAGNI [_megin_, might, strength]. A son of Thor. _Magne._ - -MÁNI [Ulfilas _mêna_; Anglo-Sax. _môna_; Eng. _moon_]. Brother of Sol -(the sun, feminine), and both were children of the giant Mundilfare. -_Moon_ or _Maane_. - -MARDÖLL or MARÞOLL. One of the names of Freyja. _Mardallar grátr_ (the -tears of Mardal), gold. _Mardal._ - -MÁNAGARMR [Moon-swallower]. A wolf of Loke’s offspring. He devours the -moon. _Maanegarm_ or _Moongarm_. - -MANNHEIMAR (plural) [Homes of man]. Our earth. _Manheim._ - -MEILI. A son of Odin. _Meile._ - -MIÐGARÐR. [In Cumberland, England, are three farms: _High-garth_, -_Middle-garth_, _Low-garth_.] The mid-yard, middle-town, that is, the -earth, is a mythological word common to all the ancient Teutonic -languages. Ulfilas renders the Gr. [Greek: oikoumenê] by _midjungards_; -Heliand calls the earth _middil-gard_; the Anglo-Saxon homilies, instead -of earth, say _middan-geard_ (_meddlert_, Jamieson), and use the word us -an appellative; but the Icelandic Edda alone has preserved the true -mythical bearing of this old Teutonic word. The earth (Midgard), the -abode of men, is seated in the middle of the universe, bordered by -mountains and surrounded by the great sea (_ûthaf_); on the other side -of this sea is the Utgard (out-yard), the abode of the giants; the -Midgard is defended by the yard to burgh Asgard (the burgh of the gods) -lying in the middle (the heaven being conceived as rising above the -earth). Thus the earth and mankind are represented as a stronghold -besieged by the powers of evil from without, defended by the gods from -above and from within. _Midgard._ - -MIÐGARÐSORMR [The serpent of Midgaard]. The world-serpent hidden in the -ocean, whose coils gird around the whole Midgard. Thor once fishes for -him, and gets him on his hook. In Ragnarok Thor slays him, but falls -himself poisoned by his breath. _Midgard-serpent._ - -MÍMAMEIÐR. A mythic tree; no doubt the same as Ygdrasil. It derives its -name from Mimer, and means Mimer’s tree. _Mimameider._ - -MÍMIR. The name of the wise giant keeper of the holy well Mímis-brunnr, -the burn (bourn, brun) of Mimer, the well of wisdom, in which Odin -pawned his eye for wisdom; a myth which is explained as symbolical of -the heavenly vault with its single eye, the sun, setting in the sea. Is -the likeness of the word to the Latin _memor_ only accidental? The true -etymology of Mímir is not known. _Mimer._ - -MJÖLNIR. [The derivation from _mala_ or _mola_ (to crush) is, though -probable, not certain. The word may be akin to Goth. _milhma_, cloud; -Swed. _moln_; Dan. _mulm_; Norse _molnas_ (Ivor Aasen), to grow dark -from bands of clouds arising.] Thor’s formidable hammer. After Ragnarok, -it is possessed by his sons Mode and Magne. _Mjolner._ - -MISTILTEINN [Old High Germ. _mistil_; Germ. _mistel_; Anglo-Sax. -_mistel_ or _mistel-tâ_; Eng. _mistletoe_]. The mistletoe or -mistle-twig, the fatal twig by which Balder, the white sun-god, was -slain. After the death of Balder, Ragnarok set in. Balder’s death was -also symbolical of the victory of darkness over light, which comes every -year at midwinter. The mistletoe in English households at Christmas time -is no doubt a relic of a rite lost in the remotest heathendom, for the -fight of light and darkness at midwinter was a foreshadowing of the -final overthrow in Ragnarok. The legend and the word are common to all -Teutonic peoples of all ages. _Mistletoe._ - -MÓÐI [Courage]. A son of Thor. _Mode._ - -MÓÐSOGNIR. The dwarf highest in degree or rank. _Modsogner._ - -MÓINN. A serpent under Ygdrasil. _Moin._ - -MUNDILFARI. Father of the sun and moon. _Mundilfare._ - -MUNINN [Memory]. One of Odin’s ravens. _Munin._ - -MÚSPELL. The name of an abode of fire. It is peopled by _Múspells lýðir_ -(the men of Muspel), a host of fiends, who are to appear at Ragnarok and -destroy the world by fire. _Muspel._ (See next word.) - -MÚSPELLSHEIMR. The abode of Muspel. This interesting word (_Múspell_) -was not confined to the Norse mythology, but appears twice in the old -Saxon poem Heliand, thus: (1) _mutspelli cumit on thiustra naht, also -thiof ferit_ (_mutspelli_ comes in dusky night, as a thief fares,—that -is, But the day of the Lord will come as a thief in the night), and (2) -_mutspellis megin obar man ferit_ (the main of _mutspelli_ fares over -men). A third instance is an Old High German poem on the Last Day, thus: -_dâr ni mac denne mac andremo helfan vora demo muspille_ (there no man -can help another against the _muspel-doom_). In these instances _muspel_ -stands for the _day of judgment_, _the last day_, and answers to -Ragnarok of the Norse mythology. The etymology is doubtful, for _spell_ -may be the _weird_, _doom_, Lat. _fatum_; or it may be _spoil_, -_destruction_. The former part, _mús_ or _muod_, is more difficult to -explain. The Icelandic _mús_ is an assimilated form. _Muspelheim._ - -MÖKKURKÁLFI [_mökkr_ means a dense cloud]. A clay giant in the myth of -Thor and Hrungner. _Mokkerkalfe._ - - -N - -NAGLFAR [Nail-ship]. A mythical ship made of nail-parings. It appears in -Ragnarok. _Naglfar._ _Nailship._ - -NÁL [Needle]. Mother of Loke. _Naal._ - -NANNA. Daughter of Nep (bud); mother of Forsete and wife of Balder. She -dies of grief at the death of Balder. _Nanna._ - -NARI or NARFI. Son of Loke. Loke was bound by the intestines of Nare. -_Nare_ or _Narfe_. - -NÁSTRÖND [The shore of corpses]. A place of punishment for the wicked -after Ragnarok. _Naastrand._ - -NIÐAFJÖLL. The Nida-mountains toward the north, where there is after -Ragnarok a golden hall for the race of Sindre (the dwarfs). NIDAFELL. - -NIÐHÖGGR. A serpent of the nether world, that tears the carcases of the -dead. He also lacerates Ygdrasil. _Nidhug._ - -NIFLHEIMR [_nifl_; Old High Germ. _nibul_; Germ. _nebel_; Lat. _nebula_; -Gr. νεφέλη, mist, fog.] The world of fog or mist; the nethermost of the -rime worlds. The place of punishment (Hades). It was visited by Odin -when he went to inquire after the fate of Balder. _Niflheim._ - -NJÖRÐR. A van, vanagod. He was husband of Skade, and father of Frey and -Freyja. He dwells in Noatun. _Njord._ - -NÓATÚN [Place of ships]. Njord’s dwelling; Njord being a divinity of the -water or sea. _Noatun._ - -NORÐRI [North]. A dwarf presiding over the northern regions. _Nordre_ or -_North_. - -NÓTT. Night; daughter of Norve. _Night._ - -NORN; plural NORNIR. The weird sisters; the three heavenly norns -(_parcæ_, fates) Urd, Verdande, and Skuld (Past, Present, and Future); -they dwelt at the fountain of Urd, and ruled the fate of the world. -Three norns were also present at the birth of every man and cast the -weird of his life. _Norn._ - - -O - -ÓÐINN [Anglo-Sax. _Wodan_; Old High Germ. _Wodan_]. Son of Bor and -Bestla. He is the chief of the gods. With Vile and Ve he parcels out -Ymer. With Hœner and Loder he creates Ask and Embla. He is the -fountain-head of wisdom, the founder of culture, writing and poetry, the -progenitor of kings, the lord of battle and victory. He quaffs with Saga -in Sokvabek. He has two ravens, two wolves and a spear. His throne is -Hlidskjalf, from where he looks out over all the worlds. In Ragnarok he -is devoured by the Fenris-wolf. _Odin._ - -ÓÐR. Freyja’s husband. _Oder._ - -ÓÐRŒRIR [The spirit-mover]. One of the vessels in which the blood of -Kvaser, that is, the poetic mead, was kept. The inspiring nectar. -_Odrœrer._ - -OFNIR. A serpent under Ygdrasil. _Ofner._ - -ÓKÓLNIR [Not cool]. After Ragnarok the giants have a hall (ale-_hall_) -called Brimer, at Okolner. - -ÖKU-ÞÓRR [Icel. _aka_; Lat. _agere_; Gr. ἄγειν (compare English _yoke_), -to drive, to ride]. A name of Thor as a charioteer. _Akethor._ - -ÓSKI [Wish]. A name of Odin. _Oske._ _Wish._ - -OTR [OTTER]. A son of Hreidmar; in the form of an otter killed by Loke. -_Oter._ - -ÓTTARR or ÓTTARR HEIMSKI [Stupid]. A son of Instein, a protégé of -Freyja. He has a contest with Angantyr. Hyndla gives him a cup of -remembrance. _Ottar._ - - -R - -RAGNARÖK [_ragna_, from _regin_, god; _rök_ may be Old High Germ. -_rahha_, sentence, judgment, akin to _rekja_; _rök_, from _rekja_, is -the whole development from creation to dissolution, and would, in this -word, denote the dissolution, doomsday, of the gods; or it may be from -_rökr_ (_reykkr_, smoke), twilight, and then the word means the twilight -of the gods.] The last day; the dissolution of the gods and the world. -_Ragnarok._ - -RÁN [Rob]. The goddess of the sea; wife of Æger. _Ran._ - -RATATOSKR. A squirrel that runs up and down the branches of Ygdrasil. -_Ratatosk._ - -RATI. An auger used by Odin in obtaining the poetic mead. _Rate._ - -REGINN. Son of Hreidmar; brother of Fafner and Otter. _Regin._ - -RINDR [Eng. _rind_, crust]. A personification of the hard frozen earth. -Mother of Vale. The loves of Odin and Rind resemble those of Zeus and -Europa in Greek legends. _Rind._ - -RÖSKVA. The name of the maiden follower of Thor. She symbolizes the ripe -fields of harvest. _Roskva._ - - -S - -SÆHRÍMNIR [_sær_, sea; _hrímnir_, rime-producer]. The name of the boar -on which the gods and heroes in Valhal constantly feed. _Sæhrimner._ - -SAGA [History]. The goddess of history. She dwells in Sokvabek. _Saga._ - -SESSRÚMNIR [Seat-roomy]. Freyja’s large-seated palace. _Sesrumner._ - -SÍÐSHÖTTR [Long-hood]. One of Odin’s names, from his traveling in -disguise with a large hat on his head hanging down over his face. -_Sidhat._ - -SÍÐSKEGGR [Long-beard]. One of Brage’s names. It is also a name of Odin -in the lay of Grimner. _Sidskeg._ - -SIF. The wife of Thor and mother of Uller. [Ulfilas _sibja_; Anglo-Sax. -_sib_; Eng. gos-_sip_, god-_sib_; Heliand _sibbia_; Old High Germ. -_sibba_; Germ. _sippe_. The word denotes affinity.] Sif, the -golden-haired goddess, wife of Thor, betokens mother earth with her -bright green grass. She was the goddess of the sanctity of the family -and wedlock, and hence her name. _Sif._ - -SIGFAÐÍR [Father of victory]. A name of Odin. _Sigfather._ - -SIGYN. Loke’s wife. She holds a basin to prevent the venom from dropping -into Loke’s face. _Sigyn._ - -SILFRINTOPPR [Silver-tuft]. One of the horses of the gods. _Silvertop._ - -SINDRI. One of the most famous dwarfs. _Sindre._ - -SINIR [Sinew]. One of the horses of the gods. _Siner._ - -SJÖFN. One of the goddesses. She delights in turning men’s hearts to -love. _Sjofn._ - -SKAÐI [_scathe_, harm, damage]. A giantess; daughter of Thjasse and the -wife of Njord. She dwells in Thrymheim. Hangs a venom serpent over -Loke’s face. _Skade._ - -SKEIÐBRÍMIR [Race-runner]. One of the horses of the gods. _Skeidbrimer._ - -SKIÐBLAÐNIR. The name of the famous ship of the god Frey. _Skidbladner._ - -SKINFAXI [Shining-mane]. The horse of Day. _Skinfax._ - -SKÍRNIR [The bright one]. Frey’s messenger. _Skirner._ - -SKRÝMIR. The name of a giant; the name assumed by Utgard-Loke. -_Skrymer._ - -SKULD [Shall]. The norn of the future. _Skuld._ - -SKÖGUL. A valkyrie. _Skogul._ - -SLEIPNIR [The slipper]. The name of Odin’s eight-footed steed. He is -begotten by Loke with Svadilfare. _Sleipner._ - -SNOTRA [Neat]. The name of one of the goddesses. _Snotra._ - -SÖKKMÍMIR [Mimer of the deep]. A giant slain by Odin. _Sokmimer._ - -SÖKKVABEKKR. A mansion where Odin and Saga quaff from golden beakers. -_Sokvabek._ - -SÓL [Sun]. Daughter of Mundilfare. She drives the horses that draw the -car of the sun. _Sol._ - -SONR. One of the vessels containing the poetic mead. _Son._ - -SUDRI [South]. A dwarf presiding over the south region. _Sudre._ -_South._ - -SURTR. A fire-giant in Ragnarok; contends with the gods on the plain of -Vigrid; guards Muspelheim. _Surt._ - -SUTTUNGR. The giant possessor of the poetic mead. _Suttung._ - -SVAÐILFARI. A horse; the sire of Sleipner. _Svadilfare._ - -SVAFNIR. A serpent under Ygdrasil. _Svafner._ - -SVALINN [Cooler]. The shield placed before the sun. _Svalin._ - -SVÁSUÐR [Delightful]. The name of a giant; the father of the sun. -_Svasud._ - -SÝN. A minor goddess. _Syn._ - - -T - -TÝR; genitive TYS, dative and accusative Tý. [Compare Icel. _tivi_, god; -_Twisco_ (_Tivisco_) in Tacitus’ _Germania_. For the identity of this -word with Sanscrit _dyaus_, _dívas_, heaven; Gr. Ζεύς (Διός); Lat. -_divus_, see Max Müller’s _Lectures on the Science of Language_, 2d -series, p. 425.] Properly the generic name of the highest divinity, and -remains in many compounds. In the mythology he is the one-armed god of -war. The Fenris-wolf bit one hand off him. He goes with Thor to Hymer to -borrow a kettle for Æger. He is son of Odin by a giantess. _Tyr._ - - -Þ (TH). - -ÞJÁLFI. The name of the servant and follower of Thor. The word properly -means a delver, digger (Germ. _delber_, _delben_, to dig). The names -Thjalfe and Roskva indicate that Thor was the friend of the farmers and -the god of agriculture. _Thjalfe._ - -ÞJAZI [ÞJASSI]. A giant; the father of Njord’s wife, Skade. His dwelling -was Thrymheim; he was slain by Thor. _Thjasse._ - -ÞÓRR. [Anglo-Sax. _þunor_; Eng. _thunder_; North Eng. _thunner_; Dutch -_donder_; Old High Germ. _donar_; Germ. _donner_; Helίand _thunar_; -Danish _tor_, in _tor_-den (compare Lat. _tono_ and _tonitrus_.) The -word _Þórr_ is therefore formed by absorption of the middle _n_, and -contraction of an old dissyllabic _þonor_ into one syllable, and is a -purely Scandinavian form; hence in Anglo-Saxon charters or diplomas it -is a sure sign of forgery when names compounded with _þur_- appear in -deeds pretending to be of a time earlier than the Danish invasion in the -ninth century; although in later times they abound. The English -_Thursday_ is a later form, in which the phonetic rule of the -Scandinavian tongue has been followed; but perhaps it is a North English -form]. The god of thunder, keeper of the hammer, the ever-fighting -slayer of trolls and destroyer of evil spirits, the friend of mankind, -the defender of the earth, the heavens and the gods; for without Thor -and his hammer the earth would become the helpless prey of the giants. -He was the consecrator, the hammer being the cross or holy sign of the -ancient heathen, hence the expressive phrase on a heathen Danish runic -stone: _Þurr vigi þassi runar_ (Thor consecrate these runes!) Thor was -the son of Odin and Fjorgyn (mother earth); he was blunt, hot-tempered, -without fraud or guile, of few words and ready stroke—such was Thor, the -favorite deity of our forefathers. The finest legends of the Younger -Edda and the best lays of the Elder Edda refer to Thor. His hall is -Bilskirner. He slays Thjasse, Thrym, Hrungner, and other giants. In -Ragnarok he slays the Midgard-serpent, but falls after retreating nine -paces, poisoned by the serpent’s breath. _Thor._ - -ÞRIÐI [Third]. A name of Odin in Gylfaginning. _Thride._ - -ÞRÚÐGELMIR. The giant father of Bergelmer. _Thrudgelmer._ - -ÞRÚÐHEIMR or ÞRÚÐVANGR. Thor’s abode. _Thrudheim_; _Thrudvang_. - -ÞRÚÐR. The name of a goddess; the daughter of Thor and Sif. _Thrud._ - -ÞRYMHEIMR. Thjasse’s and Skade’s dwelling. _Thrymheim._ - -ÞRYMR. The giant who stole Thor’s hammer and demanded Freyja for it. -_Thrym._ - -ÞÖKK. The name of a giantess (supposed to have been Loke in disguise) in -the myth of Balder. She would not weep for his death. _Thok._ - - -U - -ÚLFRÚN. One of Heimdal’s nine giant mothers. _Ulfrun._ - -ULLR. The son of Sif and stepson of Thor. His father is not named. He -dwells in Ydaler. _Uller._ - -URÐARBRUNNR. The fountain of the norn Urd. The Urdar-fountain. The weird -spring. - -URÐR [Anglo-Sax. _wyrd_; Eng. _weird_; Heliand _wurth_]. One of the -three norns. The norn of the past, that which has been. _Urd._ - -ÚTGARÐAR [The out-yard]. The abode of the giant Utgard-Loke. _Utgard._ - -ÚTGARÐA-LOKI. The giant of Utgard visited by Thor. He calls himself -Skrymer. _Utgard-Loke._ - - -V - -VAFÞRÚÐNIR. A giant visited by Odin. They try each other in questions -and answers. The giant is defeated and forfeits his life. _Vafthrudner._ - -VALASKJÁLF. One of Odin’s dwellings. _Valaskjalf._ - -VALFÖÐR [Father of the slain]. A name of Odin. _Valfather._ - -VALGRIND. A gate of Valhal. _Valgrind._ - -VALHÖLI. [The hall of the slain. Icel. _valr_; Anglo-Sax. _wœl_, the -slain]. The hall to which Odin invited those slain in battle. _Valhal._ - -VALKYRJA [The chooser of the slain]. A troop of goddesses, handmaidens -of Odin. They serve in Valhal, and are sent on Odin’s errands. -_Valkyrie._ - -VALI. Brother of Balder. Slays Hoder when only one night old. Rules with -Vidar after Ragnarok. _Vale._ - -VALI. A son of Loke. _Vale._ - -VALTAMR. A fictitious name of Odin’s father. _Valtam._ - -VÉ. A brother of Odin (Odin, Vile and Ve). _Ve._ - -VEGTAMR. A name assumed by Odin. _Vegtam._ - -VANAHEIMAR. The abode of the vans. _Vanaheim._ - -VANR; plural VANIR. Those deities whose abode was in Vanaheim, in -contradistinction to the asas, who dwell in Asgard: Njord, Frey and -Freyja. The vans waged war with the asas, but were afterwards, by virtue -of a treaty, combined and made one with them. The vans were deities of -the sea. _Van._ - -VÉORR [Defender]. A name of Thor. _Veor._ - -VERÐANDI [from _verða_, to become; Germ. _werden_]. The norn of the -present, of that which is. - -VESTRI. The dwarf presiding over the west region. _Vestre._ _West._ - -VIÐARR. Son of Odin and the giantess Grid. He dwells in Landvide. He -slays the Fenris-wolf in Ragnarok. Rules with Vale after Ragnarok. -_Vidar._ - -VÍGRIÐR [Icel. _víg_; Ulfilas _wiahjo_, μάγη, a fight, a battle]. The -field of battle where the gods and the sons of Surt meet in Ragnarok. -_Vigrid._ - -VÍLI. Brother of Odin and Ve. These three sons of Bor and Bestla -construct the world out of Ymer’s body. _Vile._ - -VÍMUR. A river that Thor crosses. _Vimer._ - -VINDSVALR [Wind-cool]. The father of winter. _Vindsval._ - -VINDHEIMR [Wind-home]. The place that the sons of Balder and Hoder are -to inhabit after Ragnarok. _Vindheim._ _Wind-home._ - -VIN-GÓLF [The mansion of bliss]. The palace of the asynjes. _Vingolf._ - -VINGÞÓRR. A name of Thor. _Vingthor._ - -VÓR. The goddess of betrothals and marriages. _Vor._ - - -Y - -ÝDALIR. Uller’s dwelling. _Ydaler._ - -YGGR. A name of Odin. _Ygg._ - -YGGDRASILL [The bearer of Ygg (Odin)]. The world-embracing ash tree. The -whole world is symbolized by this tree. _Ygdrasil._ - -ÝMIR. The huge giant in the cosmogony, out of whose body Odin, Vile and -Ve created the world. The progenitor of the giants. He was formed out of -frost and fire in Ginungagap. _Ymer._ - - - - - INDEX. - - - A - - Aachen, 92. - - Aage, 397. - - Aarvak, 159, 177, 178, 259. - - Acts of the Apostles, 25. - - Adam, 82, 390, 436. - - Adelsten, Hakon, 110. - - Adonis, 53. - - Æger, 39, 40, 98, 110, 123, 247, 274, 322, 323, 327, 337, 338, 343-349, - 372, 377, 381, 397-399. - - Æschylus, 78. - - Afternoon, 180. - - Agder, 363. - - Agnar, 122, 156. - - Ahriman, 81. - - Alexander, 88, 96. - - Ale, 382. - - Alfheim, 186, 348. - - Allfather, 49, 182, 193, 216, 434. - - Alsvinn, 159, 177, 178. - - Alsvin, 259. - - Alvis, 124. - - America, American, etc., 34, 52, 59, 74, 92, 94, 96, 113, 128, 208, - 308, 309, 401. - - Amsvartner, 384. - - Andunson (Thorgeir), 202. - - Andhrimner, 263, 264. - - Andvare, 344, 376, 377, 381. - - Angantyr, 365, 366. - - Angerboda, 373, 382, 419, 420. - - Anglo-Saxon, 23, 36, 43, 47, 48, 72, 74, 75, 79, 117, 126, 165, 177, - 223, 230, 233, 240, 298, 308, 309, 347, 373. - - Annar, 178, 237. - - Aphrodite, 53, 413. - - Apollo, 40. - - Arab, 309. - - Argos, 72, 87. - - Asa-bridge, 189, 301. - - Asaheim, 54, 187, 208. - - Asas (a people), 232. - - Asgard, 35, 36, 38, 40, 101, 123, 126, 182, 185, 217, 221, 233, 234, - 250, 274-277, 287, 289, 300, 302, 303, 308, 323, 332, 337, 392, 429. - - Asia, 81. - - Ask, 82, 100, 183, 185, 187, 196. - - Atle, 377, 396. - - Athens, 59, 92. - - Aud, 156, 178. - - Audhumbla, 173, 174, 195. - - Augustus, 71, 89. - - Aurboda, 352. - - Aurgelmer, 173, 174, 194. - - Austre, 183. - - Avon, 78. - - - B - - Babel, 82, 175. - - Balder, 29, 39, 49, 53, 54, 57, 60, 64, 65, 82, 84, 90, 96, 98, 106, - 109, 110, 113, 121, 123, 124, 185, 186, 189, 193, 208, 222, 229, - 237-239, 241, 243, 244, 270, 272, 277-297, 356, 369, 375, 388, 390, - 391, 394, 397, 407, 409, 415, 425, 426, 429, 432-434. - - Barleycorn (John), 351. - - Bascom (Dr. John), 17, 114. - - Bauge, 249. - - Bele, 345, 354, 423. - - Beowulf, 36, 43, 47, 126, 131. - - Bergelmer, 173-175, 194. - - Berghild, 210. - - Berzelius, 28. - - Bestla, 174, 254. - - Beyla, 357, 399. - - Bifrost, 98, 101, 181, 186, 189, 272, 301, 418. - - Bil, 182. - - Billing, 242. - - Bilskirner, 186, 298, 300. - - Bjarkemaal, 62. - - Björnson (Björnstjerne), 95. - - Black Plague, 389. - - Black Sea, 82. - - Bleking, 226. - - Blicher, 402. - - Blodughadda, 347. - - Boccaccio, 126. - - Bodn, 247, 249. - - Bolthorn, 174, 254. - - Bolverk, 149, 249, 252. - - Bor, 174-176, 183. - - Boston, 386. - - Bous, 244. - - Boyesen (Hjalmar Hjorth), 18, 267. - - Braalund, 210. - - Brage, 90, 96-98, 123, 126, 159, 185, 220, 240 (the skald), 247, 259, - 270, 273-278, 369, 398, 399. - - Brand, 363. - - Breidablik, 186, 279. - - Brimer, 430, 434. - - Brisingamen, 331, 364, 374, 375. - - Brok, 106, 220, 221. - - Brynhild, 48, 118, 200, 377, 381, 388, 435. - - Bugge (Sophus), 116. - - Bull (Ole), 96, 202. - - Bure, 174. - - Burns (Robert), 351. - - Bygver, 350, 351. - - Byleist, 374, 375, 422. - - Bylgja, 347. - - Byrger, 182. - - Byzantium, 244. - - - C - - Cambridge (Eng.), 72. - - Carpenter (Dr. S. H.), 17, 75. - - Carthage, 240. - - Carlyle, 27, 37, 47, 54, 69, 72, 205, 266, 336. - - Caspian Sea, 82, 232. - - Castalian fountain, 72, 97. - - Catholic church, 31, 43, 49, 205, 393. - - Cato, 88. - - Charlemagne, 42. - - Chicago, 386. - - Christ, 31, 39, 41, 42, 49, 57, 82. - - Christian, Christianity, etc., 25, 27, 29, 31, 32, 33, 35, 37, 39, 40, - 42, 44, 45, 47, 49, 50, 62, 70, 79, 94, 95, 113, 115, 128, 163, 201, - 205, 265, 308, 335, 336, 394, 435. - - Cicero, 89. - - Clarendon press, 72. - - Cleasby (Richard), 72. - - Colfax, 363. - - Cologne, 92. - - Constantinople, 65, 92. - - Cornwall (Barry) 28, 273. - - Correggio, 294. - - Creation, 60, 171-187. - - Cupid, 367. - - - D - - Daain, 190, 255. - - Dan, 105. - - Danaides, 64. - - Dane, Danish, Denmark, etc., 34, 35, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 47, 60, 72, - 83, 108, 233, 240, 322, 347. - - Dante, 381. - - Danube, 69. - - Darwin, 199. - - Dasent, 35, 36, 47, 48, 50, 51, 72, 205. - - Day, 178, 179, 237. - - Decameron, 126. - - Declaration of Independence, 92, 129. - - Delling, 178, 179, 258. - - Delphi, 57. - - Demeter, 236, 237, 359. - - Demosthenes, 77. - - Deucalion, 56. - - Dido, 240. - - Dorothea, 403-407. - - Draupner, 106, 217, 220-223, 238, 288, 289, 299. - - Drome, 383, 384. - - Duneyr, 190. - - Durathror, 190. - - Durin, 183, 184. - - Dutch, 43, 95. - - Duva, 347. - - Dvalin, 105, 190, 255. - - Dwarfs, 27, 29, 98, 99, 101, 102-109, 175. - - - E - - Edda (Elder), 116-125. - - Edda (Younger), 125-127. - - Edinburgh, 72. - - Egder, 420, 421. - - Egil, 326. - - Egil Skallagrimson, 367, 394. - - Egyptians, 23. - - Eikthyrner, 263. - - Eir, 241. - - Elder, 347, 398. - - Eldhrimner, 263, 264. - - Elektra, 53. - - Elivagar, 97, 172, 173, 305, 307, 323. - - Elle, 320, 322. - - Ellida, 345. - - Else, 397. - - Elves, 201. - - Elvidner, 382. - - Embla, 82, 183, 185, 187, 196. - - England, English, etc., 23, 34, 35, 40, 42, 43-48, 52, 59, 65, 71, 72, - 74, 75, 76, 78, 92, 113, 118, 119, 128, 129, 165, 205, 208, 233, - 301, 308, 309, 347, 348, 360, 389. - - Ennius, 89. - - Erik Blood-ax, 392. - - Eros, 69. - - Etrurian, 74. - - Europe, European, etc., 35, 48, 49, 51, 52, 59, 68, 71, 75, 77, 92, 99, - 111, 113, 120, 129, 164, 233, 327, 360, 389. - - Euxinus, 232. - - Eve, 82, 390, 436. - - Evening, 180. - - Eyjafjord, 361. - - Eyvind Skaldespiller, 392. - - - F - - Fafner, 375, 377-380, 388. - - - Fairfax (Harald), 26, 48, 49, 361, 363. - - Falhofner, 189. - - Farbaute, 374, 375. - - Fengr, 219. - - Fenris-wolf, 25, 53, 271, 338, 350, 366, 373, 375, 382-387, 402, 409, - 414, 417-419, 425-429. - - Fensal, 186, 237, 285, 290. - - Fimbul-winter, 416. - - Fjalar, 133, 247, 248, 250. - - Fjolner, 219, 351. - - Fjorgyn, 123, 236, 237, 423. - - Folkvang, 186, 364, 367, 393. - - Forenoon, 180. - - Forsete, 185, 186, 296, 297. - - Forseteland, 297. - - Fortuna, 308. - - Fraananger Force, 399. - - France, French, etc., 34, 41, 42, 48, 65, 75, 92, 113, 155, 232. - - Frank, 48, 309. - - Freke, 219, 220. - - Frey, 46, 98, 104, 106, 108, 109, 122, 165, 185, 200, 221, 231, 237, - 239, 274, 288, 301, 341, 348-363, 369, 414, 418, 423, 426. - - Freyja, 110, 123, 125, 165, 186, 215, 224-226, 237-239, 274, 276, 288, - 303, 308, 328-334 341, 348, 352, 364-368, 374, 394. - - Friday, 237, 367, 420. - - Fridthjof, 344-346, 360, 396. - - Frigg, 53, 98, 121-123, 186, 222, 231, 236-241, 245, 259, 274, 279-281, - 285-290, 294, 310, 364, 422, 425. - - Frisians, 87. - - Frye (W. E.), 322. - - Fulla, 110, 238, 274, 289, 295. - - Funen, 233, 240, 241. - - Funfeng, 347, 398. - - - G - - Gagnraad, 121, 227, 424, 425. - - Gaia, 236, 237. - - Galar, 247, 248. - - Ganglere, 174, 195, 436. - - Gardrofa, 239. - - Garm, 419-424. - - Gausta-fjeld, 33, 66. - - Gaut, 228. - - Gefjun, 123, 240, 241, 274. - - Gefn, 365. - - Geirrod, 122, 228, 310-312, 337, 374, 375. - - Gelgja, 385. - - Genesis, 55, 89, 272. - - Gerd, 122, 200, 274, 351-360, 414. - - Gere, 219, 220. - - German, Germany, etc., 34, 35, 39-49, 59, 72-75, 79, 118, 119, 126, - 196, 203, 233, 270, 277, 298, 309, 327, 352, 364, 403. - - Gerseme, 364. - - Giants, 29, 36, 38-40, 56, 60, 84, 86, 98, 102, 104, 105, 172, 173. - - Gibraltar, 69. - - Gilling, 247, 248. - - Gimle, 54, 101, 128, 185, 187, 269, 393, 430, 434. - - Ginungagap, 56, 66, 98, 171, 172, 175, 188. - - Gisl, 189. - - Gisle Surson, 361. - - Gjallar-bridge, 187, 208, 288, 289. - - Gjallar-horn, 188, 230, 272, 418, 421. - - Gjalp, 311. - - Gjol, 172, 187, 288, 385. - - Gjake, 380. - - Gladsheim, 98, 182, 231, 261, 262. - - Glaser, 262. - - Gleipner, 271, 384. - - Glener, 177. - - Glitner, 186, 296, 297. - - Glommen, 103. - - Glum, 361, 362. - - Gnaa, 238, 239, 245. - - Gnipa-cave, 419-425. - - Gnipa-heller, 387. - - Gnipa-heath, 377. - - - God (the supreme), 24-34, 49, 54, 62, 66, 80, 119, 173, 272, 294, 368, - 415, 431, 435. - - Goethe, 40, 292. - - Goin, 190. - - Golden Age, 183. - - Goldfax, 302-309. - - Goldtop, 189, 272, 288. - - Gondul, 267. - - Gothic, 23, 33, 42-47, 51, 61, 62, 71, 73, 74, 78, 79, 94, 95, 111-114, - 117, 125-129, 165, 205, 208, 235, 273, 308, 327, 370, 371, 390, 395, - 407, 408, 415, 436. - - Graabak, 191. - - Grafvitner, 190. - - Grafvollud, 191. - - Gram, 155, 377, 378. - - Grane, 159, 259, 381. - - Greek, Greece, etc., 23-25, 51-79, 81, 87-89, 92, 97, 111-119, 192, - 193, 198, 237, 240, 245, 253, 254, 273, 291, 308, 309, 339, 361, - 369, 370, 413. - - Greenland, 65, 92. - - Greip, 311. - - Grid, 310, 311, 337, 433. - - Gridarvold, 310. - - Grimm (the brothers), 35, 39, 45, 86, 240, 352. - - Grimner, 90, 122, 176, 178, 181, 219, 220, 227-231, 261, 272, 279, 296, - 298, 358, 364. - - Grjottungard, 303-307. - - Groa, 305-309. - - Grundtvig, 16, 19, 60, 227, 240. - - Gudrun, 377, 381. - - Gullinburste, 106, 288, 301, 348, 363. - - Gungner, 159, 220-224, 259, 418. - - Gunlad, 91, 132, 148, 149, 200, 246-253. - - Gunnar Helming, 362, 388. - - Gylfaginning, 126. - - Gylfe, 126, 233, 234, 240, 436. - - Gymer, 347, 350-359. - - - H - - Haar, 91, 194, 195. - - Hagbard, 367. - - Hakon, 267-270, 386, 394. - - Hákonarmál, 392. - - Halfdan Gamle, 365. - - Hallfred, 44. - - Hallinskide, 271. - - Hamarsheimt, 110, 328-336. - - Hamder, 62. - - Hamlet, 78. - - Hamskerper, 239. - - Harald Haardraade, 92. - - Harald Haarfager. See Fairfax. - - Harbard, 122, 123. - - Hate Hrodvitneson, 179, 181. - - Hauch, 60. - - Hávamál, 120, 128-155, 163, 241, 244, 250, 251. - - Hebe, 436. - - Hebrews, 76, 77, 89. - - Hedrik, 363. - - Hefring, 347. - - Heiddraupner, 159. - - Heidrun, 263. - - Heimdal, 53, 84, 93, 101, 102, 171, 185-189, 208, 230, 270-273, 288, - 331, 357, 366, 369, 375, 419-431. - - Heimskringla, 50, 82, 125, 232. - - Hekla (Mt.), 34, 100. - - Hel, Helheim, Helgate, etc., 63, 84, 124, 128, 172, 187, 200, 205, 208, - 229, 238, 270, 280-283, 287-290, 295, 373, 375, 380, 382, 387-397, - 409, 415, 418-432. - - Helblinde, 374, 375. - - Helge, 49, 210, 363, 396. - - Helgoland, 297. - - Hengist, 48, 233. - - Hera, 87, 245. - - Herbert, 352. - - Hercules, 65, 78, 92, 119, 436. - - Hermes, 361. - - Hermion, 57. - - Hermod, 91, 216, 270, 287-289. - - Herodotus, 77, 88. - - Hesiod, 118. - - Himinbjorg, 186, 272. - - Himinbrjoter, 324. - - Himinglœfa, 346. - - Hindoos, 23, 53, 81. - - Hjalmgunnar, 156. - - Hjaltalin, 72. - - Hjuke, 182. - - Hler, 347. - - Hlidskjalf, 185, 187, 231, 237, 352, 399. - - Hlin, 238, 422, 425. - - Hlodyn, 236, 237, 423. - - Hnikar, 218. - - Hnos, 364. - - Hoddropner, 159. - - Hoder, 29, 82, 84, 185, 270, 280, 284, 286, 290-292, 388, 414, 429, - 432, 434. - - Hodmimer, 429, 433. - - Hœner, 81, 183, 185, 196, 215, 275, 342, 375, 391, 429-433. - - Hofud, 272. - - Hofvarpner, 238, 239. - - Holstein, 83, 233. - - Homer, 52, 77, 88, 89, 116, 118, 119, 267. - - Horn, 365. - - Horsa, 48, 233. - - Howitts (William and Mary), 80, 118. - - Hræsvelger, 181, 182, 197. - - Hrap, 394. - - Hraudung, 310. - - Hreidmar, 375-377. - - Hrimfaxe, 178, 179. - - Hrimner, 244. - - Hropt, 158, 261, 429. - - Hroptatyr, 228, 258. - - Hrotte, 381. - - Hrungner, 91, 199, 200, 301-310, 324. - - Hrym, 39, 418, 422. - - Hvergelmer, 172, 187, 188, 190, 208, 263, 434. - - Huge, 317-321. - - Hugin, 29, 219, 227. - - Hulder, 201. - - Humber, 40. - - Hunding, 218, 219. - - Hymer, 39, 101, 123, 199, 322-328, 344, 397. - - Hyndla, 24, 54, 124, 215, 365, 366, 431. - - Hyrroken, 287. - - - I - - Ibsen, 95. - - Iceland, 25, 34-50, 65, 72, 75, 77, 81, 92, 116, 117, 126, 129, 227, - 290, 295, 296, 347, 361-364, 367, 373, 384. - - Ida’s Plains, 428, 429. - - Idavold, 182-187. - - Idun, 90, 98, 109, 123, 273-278, 339, 369, 374, 375, 409. - - Ifing, 187. - - Iliad, 89, 116, 264. - - India, 81, 116. - - Ingeborg, 344, 366. - - Ingemund, 25, 361, 363. - - Ingun, 351. - - Ingve, 267. - - Instein, 365. - - Io, 87. - - Iris, 53, 273. - - Iron post, 403-407. - - Italy, 15, 75, 92. - - Ivald, 220, 227, 348. - - Ixion, 63. - - - J - - Jack the Giant-killer, 228. - - Jafuhaar, 91, 196. - - Jalk, 228. - - Japhet, 83. - - Jarnsaxa, 300-308. - - Jarnved, 179, 180. - - Jehovah. See God. - - Jew, 33, 58. - - Jochumson, 167. - - Jonsson (Arngrim), 26. - - Jord, 178, 236, 237. - - Jormungander, 100, 101, 382, 387, 422. - - Jotunheim, 38, 91, 101, 110, 177, 183, 184, 187, 196-198, 208, 209, - 225, 226, 229, 240, 248, 276, 287, 302, 305, 313, 322, 329-332, 334, - 337, 352, 354, 382, 421. - - Judas, 82. - - Judea, 57. - - Jul, 357, 363. - - Jupiter, 98, 300. - - Jutland, 83, 233, 241. - - - K - - Kadroma, 199. - - Keightley (Thomas), 201-205. - - Kerlaung, 189, 301. - - Ketil, 362. - - Keyser (Prof. R.), 47, 86, 126, 128, 130, 163, 164, 390. - - Kjotve, 363. - - Klio, 253. - - Kolga, 347. - - Kormt, 189, 301. - - Kvaser, 91, 247, 248, 252, 253, 399. - - - L - - Ladrones Islands, 38. - - Laing (Samuel), 72, 129. - - Laocoon, 327. - - - Latin, Rome, Roman, etc., 23, 31, 42-44, 49, 68, 71-79, 83, 84, 88-99, - 113, 117, 119, 128, 165, 232, 235, 254, 201, 308, 309, 327, 328, - 361. - - Lanfey, 374, 375. - - Lax-aa-dal, 367. - - Leding, 383. - - Lerad, 263. - - Lif, 429, 433. - - Lifthrase, 420, 433. - - Lightfoot, 189. - - Lincoln, 294. - - Lit, 288. - - Ljosalfahelm, 187. - - Lodbrok (Regner), 267. - - Loder, 81, 183, 185, 196, 215, 372, 373, 391, 432. - - Lodfafner, 150-154. - - Lofn, 238, 239, 368. - - Loge, 317, 321. - - Logrinn, 240. - - Loire, 92. - - Loke, 28, 29, 38, 65, 81-84, 98, 102-113, 123, 124, 185, 196, 220-226, - 237, 260, 275-277, 281, 285, 286, 290, 292, 295, 301, 310-312, 317, - 321, 322, 328-336, 338, 344, 349, 350, 351, 371-409, 414, 418-436. - - London, 72. - - Longfellow (H. W.), 96, 97, 99, 299. - - Loptr, 105, 372, 373. - - Lord’s Supper, 31. - - Luther, 73, 309, 327, 328. - - Lybia, 69. - - Lynge, 218. - - Lyngve, 384. - - - M - - Maane, 177, 182. - - Maane (Thorkel), 25, 26. - - Maanegarm, 180, 417, 419, 420. - - Macbeth, 296, 381. - - Magna Charta, 92, 129. - - Magne, 29, 300, 301, 305, 308, 309, 429, 432, 433. - - Magnússon (E.), 72, 382. - - Magnussen (Finn), 352. - - Mallet, 232. - - Mannaheim, 187. - - Mannigfual, 87. - - Mardal, 365. - - Mars, 73, 89, 98. - - Marsh (George P.), 76. - - Mars’ Hill, 25. - - Maurer (Konrad), 72. - - Mediterranean Sea, 76, 347. - - Megingjarder, 29, 299, 301, 310. - - Meile, 306. - - Meinert (H.), 403. - - Mercurius, 360. - - Mermaid, 204. - - Merman, 204. - - Midgard, 82, 98, 99, 175-179, 183, 187, 197, 224, 300, 419, 423. - - Midgard-serpent, 53, 96, 123, 322-328, 375, 382, 387, 409, 417-419, - 426, 428, 429. - - Midnight, 180. - - Millers, 28. - - Milton, 69, 293. - - Mimer, 69, 96, 98, 103, 159, 188, 189, 208, 209, 229, 230, 260, 344, - 418, 421, 433. - - Minerva, 307. - - Mithridates, 83, 232. - - Mjolner, 28, 79, 101-103, 110, 225, 288, 299, 301, 305, 308, 310, 312, - 315, 326, 329, 374, 429, 433. - - Mnemosyne, 53. - - Mode, 300, 301, 429, 432, 433. - - Modgud, 289. - - Modsogner, 183, 184. - - Möbius, 72. - - Mæso-Gothic, 75, 206. - - Moin, 190. - - Mokkerkalfe, 91, 304-309. - - Montesquieu, 129. - - Morning, 180. - - Morris (William), 72, 382. - - Moses, Mosaic, 33, 70, 79, 89, 198, 394. - - Müller (Max), 47, 74. - - Munch (P. A.) 47. - - Mundilfare, 177, 178. - - Munin, 29, 53, 219, 227. - - Muspel, 181, 350, 354, 418, 422, 425. - - Muspelheim, 54, 56, 98, 172, 175, 176, 187, 193, 425, 427. - - - N - - Naastrand, 62, 99, 100, 128, 393, 430, 434. - - Naglfar, 178, 417, 418, 422. - - Nal, 374, 375. - - Nanna, 84, 90, 98, 106, 109, 113, 222, 238, 239, 274, 287, 289, 294, - 296, 369, 394. - - Nare, or Narfe, 382, 400. - - Necks, 203. - - Nep, 288, 294. - - Nere, 211. - - Newtons, 28. - - Nida-mountains, 430, 431, 434, 435. - - Nidhug, 187, 188, 190, 208, 431-435. - - Niebelungen-Lied, 43, 47, 118, 126. - - Niflheim, 56, 98, 124, 172, 187, 188, 194, 208, 220, 264, 280, 282, - 382, 387, 416. - - Niflhel, 389. - - Night, 177-179. - - Niobe, 57. - - Nisses, 203. - - Nix, 105. - - Njal, 394. - - Njord, 123, 185, 186, 200, 231, 239, 274, 277, 333, 341-364, 432. - - Noah, 55, 82, 83. - - Noatun, 186, 333, 341-343. - - Noon, 180. - - Nordre, 183. - - Normandy, 48, 92. - - Norns, 62, 109, 205. - - North American Review, 265. - - North Sea, 34, 37. - - Norve, 177, 179. - - Nottingham, 39. - - Numa Pompilius, 74. - - - O - - Odense, 233. - - Oder, 226, 364-368. - - - Odin, 24, 26, 29, 35, 40, 49, 53-56, 74, 81-84, 87, 90, 91, 96, 98, - 101, 103, 106, 108-113, 116, 120-130, 144, 147, 149, 155-159, 163, - 165, 171, 174, 175, 182-189, 193-200, 206, 209, 215-300, 302, 303, - 308, 309, 326, 332, 335-339, 347-351, 358, 362-369, 372-376, - 382-395, 398-402, 408, 409, 414, 418-434. - - Odrœrer, 140, 247-254. - - Oehlenschlæger, 95, 108, 322. - - Oersted, 28. - - Ofner, 191, 228. - - Okeanos, 53, 347. - - Okolner, 430, 434. - - Olaf Geirstada-alf, 389. - - Olaf in Lax-aa-dal, 367. - - Olaf the Saint, 335, 336. - - Ole, 382. - - Oller, 244. - - Olympos, 53, 54. - - Ormt, 189, 301. - - Orvandel, 305-307. - - Orvar-Odd, 367. - - Ottar, 365, 366. - - Otté (E. C.), 165. - - Oxford, 72. - - - P - - Pæstum, 118. - - Paganism, 42, 49. - - Palestine, 65. - - Pan, 339. - - Paris, 92. - - Parnassos, 56, 72. - - Paul (the apostle), 25, 394. - - Pegasos, 227, 308. - - Penates, 361. - - Pennock (Barclay), 390. - - Persephone, 359. - - Persia, 81, 396. - - Peter, 394. - - Petersen (N. M.), 47, 116, 117, 291, 402, 435. - - Plato, 77. - - Plautus, 89. - - Pluto, 81. - - Pompey, 83, 232. - - Pontus, 83, 232, 347. - - Proserpina, 360. - - Psyche, 69. - - Pyrrha, 56. - - Pythia, 57. - - - Q - - Quirinus, 74. - - - R - - Rafnagud, 219. - - Rafnkel, 363. - - - Ragnarok, 25, 60, 61, 66, 84, 96, 100, 102, 120, 123, 230, 272, 273, - 285, 338, 339, 351, 354, 366, 386, 387, 392-395, 401, 409, 413-427, - 431. - - Ran, 98, 103, 110, 245, 343-348, 376, 395. - - Rask (Rasmus), 72, 82, 83. - - Ratatosk, 190. - - Rate, 148, 249-251. - - Reformation, 129. - - Regeneration, 428-436. - - Regin, 375-379. - - Reinbert, 403-407. - - Rhine, 69, 92. - - Ridel, 379, 380. - - Rig, 124, 273. - - Rind, 236-246, 280, 284, 433. - - Ring (King), 346. - - Ringhorn, 287, 295. - - Rjukan Force, 66. - - Rogner, 159, 259. - - Rolf Ganger, 48. - - Rolleif, 25. - - Romance, 58, 70, 75. - - Rome, Roman. See Latin. - - Romulus, 73, 89. - - Roskva, 300, 312, 313, 326. - - Rosterus, 243. - - Rosthiof, 243, 344. - - Rouen 48. - - Rudbek, 88. - - Rune, 42, 50. - - Runeburg, 293. - - Rune Song, 254-259. - - Runic Chapter, 155, 273. - - Russia, 41, 92. - - Ruthenians, 243. - - - S - - Sabines, 73, 74. - - Saga (Goddess), 186, 253, 369. - - Sagas (Histories), 36, 38, 43, 44, 49, 72, 77, 88, 96, 126, 127, - 218-223, 227, 235, 295, 360, 361. - - Sæger, 182. - - Sæhrimner, 69, 263, 264. - - Sæming, 234. - - Sæmund, 37, 38, 50, 116. - - Sars (J. E.), 47. - - Saturnus, 165. - - Saxo Grammaticus, 82, 232, 243, 244. - - Saxon, 40, 42, 48, 233, 240. - - Scandinavian, Scandinavia, 34, 35, 40-47, 59, 72, 75, 89, 95, 96, 129, - 201, 233. - - Scotland, 39, 40, 75, 203. - - Scheldt, 92. - - Scythia, 232. - - Seabold, 361. - - Seine, 48, 92. - - Seneca, 78. - - Sesrumner, 186, 364. - - Seva-fjeld, 396. - - Shakespeare, 40, 52, 78, 79, 119, 222, 296, 366, 377, 381. - - Sibylline, 89. - - Sicily, 48. - - Sif, 28, 29, 102, 103, 107-109, 220, 221, 300, 301, 303, 308, 333, 374, - 375, 399. - - Sigdrifa, 128, 129, 155-163, 230. - - Sigfrid, 118. - - Sigmund, 156, 216, 218, 392. - - Sigrun, 396. - - Sigtuna, 234, 235. - - Sigurd, 48, 130, 155-163, 218, 219, 377-381, 388. - - Sigyn, 111, 274, 375, 382, 401, 436. - - Silfrintop, 189. - - Simul, 182. - - Sindre, 106, 107, 220, 221, - (Hall, 430, 434.) - - Siner, 189. - - Sisyphos, 64. - - Siva, 81. - - Sjofn, 238, 239, 368. - - Skaane, 226. - - Skade, 200, 277, 341-343, 352, 400, 401. - - Skáldskaparmál, 126. - - Skeidbrimer, 189. - - Skidbladner, 34, 122, 220, 348. - - Skilfing, 228. - - Skinfaxe, 178, 179. - - Skirner, 122, 231, 352-360, 384, 419. - - Skjalf, 365. - - Skjold, 83, 233, 365. - - Skogul, 267, 268. - - Skol, 179, 181. - - Skrymer, 312-322, 371. - - Skuld, 98, 110, 165, 189, 210, 265. - - Sleipner, 159, 189, 217, 224-227, 259, 270, 280, 282, 287, 302, 308, - 374, 408. - - Slid, 387. - - Slidrugtanne, 288, 348. - - Snorre Sturleson, 38, 50, 82, 116, 125, 232. - - Snotra, 238. - - Socrates, 88, 368. - - Sokmimer, 200. - - Sokvabek, 186, 253. - - Sol, 177. - - Solomon, 89, 120. - - Solon, 88. - - Son, 247, 249. - - Spanish, 38, 65, 75, 92. - - Sparta, 59. - - Spirit of Laws, 129. - - Sterkodder, 199. - - Stockholm, 234. - - Stephens (George), 23. - - Stephens (St.), 403-407. - - Stromkarl, 96. - - Sudre, 183. - - Sulun, 82. - - Surt, 172, 338, 351, 418-433. - - Suttung, 148, 149, 248-252, 358. - - Svadilfare, 224-226. - - Svafner, 191, 228, 281. - - Svalin, 177, 178. - - Svartalf-heim, 187, 376, 384. - - Svasud, 180, 182. - - Svithjod, 82. - - Svolner, 306. - - Swedes, 34, 35, 41-47, 83, 126, 226, 233, 234, 240, 241, 244, 362. - - Syn, 238, 239. - - Syr, 365. - - - T - - Tanais, 232. - - Tanngnjost, 299. - - Tanngrisner, 299, 301. - - Tantalos, 63. - - Tartaros, 60, 63. - - Taylor, Bayard, 360. - - Tegner, 95, 344, 346, 360. - - Teutonic, 34-36, 41-52, 70-78, 90, 296, 309, 327, 328. - - Thames, 48. - - Thaumas, 53. - - Theodolf, St., 265. - - Thessalian, 57. - - Thibet 199. - - Thjalfe, 91, 300-326. - - Thjasse, 275-277, 342, 352, 374. - - Thjodolf of Hvin, 306, 393. - - Thjodrœrer, 258. - - Thok, 65, 290, 295, 389, 397, 407. - - Thor, 26-29, 39, 40, 46, 49, 52, 53, 74, 79, 82, 84, 87, 91, 93, 96, - 98-124, 165, 185-189, 220-226, 237, 267, 270, 287, 288, 298-339, - 358, 362, 365, 369, 371, 374, 387, 395-400, 406, 418, 426, 429, 432, - 433. - - Thorgerd, 367. - - Thorgrim, 361. - - Thorkel, 361, 362. - - Thorp, Benjamin, 46, 72. - - Thorstein, 396. - - Thorwald Krok, 362. - - Thorwaldsen, Albert, 436. - - Thride, 91, 196. - - Throndhjem, 360-363. - - Thrudgelmer, 173, 194. - - Thrudheim, 186. - - Thrudvang, 186, 298, 300, 305, 322, 335. - - Thrung, 365. - - Thrym, 39, 111, 123, 124, 200, 328-336, 365. - - Thrymheim, 342, 343. - - Thund (Odin), 228, 255. - - Thvite, 386. - - Tiberias, 92. - - Tityos, 63. - - Trent, 39. - - Trier, 265. - - Trinity, 81, 91. - - Trolls, 202. - - Troy, 118. - - Tryggvesson, Olaf, 44, 360, 363. - - Tuesday, 270. - - Tver-aa, 361, 362. - - Twilight of the gods. See Ragnarok. - - Tyndall, 28. - - Typhon, 413. - - Tyr, 157, 165, 185, 267, 270, 271, 323, 326, 337, 349, 350, 383, 385, - 414, 419. - - - U - - Uller, 185, 186, 281, 300-306. - - Ulfilas, 206. - - United States, 65. - - Upsala, 362. - - Uranos, 236. - - Urd, Urdar-fount, etc., 95, 98, 110, 149, 165, 169, 189, 190, 191, 208, - 200, 301. - - Utgard, 196, 315, 316. - - Utgard-Loke, 316-325, 371. - - - V - - Vafthrudner, 120, 121, 173-181, 227, 290, 291, 424, 425. - - Vafud, 228. - - Vak, 244. - - Vaker, 228. - - Valaskjalf, 231. - - Vale, 185, 237, 245, 291, 338-340, 382, 400, 409, 429-433. - - Valfather. See Odin. - - Valhal, 60, 98, 108-112, 122, 128, 185, 215, 216, 224, 230, 231, 237, - 261-269, 286, 290, 302-308, 365, 389-394, 415-420. - - Valkyries, 69, 110, 112, 265-269. - - Valtam, 280, 283. - - Vanaheim, 187, 341. - - Vandal, 79, 308. - - Vanlande, King, 393. - - Vans, 341-370. - - Var, 238, 239, 334, 368. - - Vasud, 180. - - Vatnsdal, 361. - - Ve, 56, 81, 91, 174, 175, 195, 215. - - Vecha, 243, 244. - - Vedfolner, 190. - - Vedic, 52, 116. - - Vegtam, 124, 227, 229, 241, 280-285. - - Venus, 237, 308, 367. - - Veor, 323. - - Verdande, 98, 110, 165, 189, 209. - - Vestre, 183. - - Vidar, 185, 310, 333-340, 398, 419-433. - - Vienna, 403-407. - - Vidfin, 182. - - Viga-glum, 361, 362. - - Vigfusson, Gudbrand, 72. - - Vigrid, 418, 425. - - Vile, 56, 81, 84, 91, 174, 175, 195, 215, 259. - - Vimer, 311. - - Vindlone, 180. - - Vindsval, 180, 181. - - Vinland, 52, 65. - - Vingolf, 183, 185, 216, 393. - - Volsung and Volsung Saga, 217, 218, 322. - - Volund, 124. - - Völuspá, 120, 171, 176, 180-183, 209, 229, 230, 273, 290, 424, 431. - - Von, 386. - - Vonargander, 386. - - Voring Force, 66. - - - W - - Wagner, 199. - - Welhaven, 95. - - Wergeland, 95. - - Wiener-wald, 403-407. - - Wind-home, 429, 432. - - Wisconsin, 245. - - - Y - - Ydaler, 186, 302. - - Ygdrasil, 74, 82, 86, 87, 94, 98, 120, 122, 188-191, 205-209, 217, 229, - 254, 260, 299, 301, 370, 387, 418-421. - - Ygg, 206, 228, 282. - - Ymer, 40, 56, 66, 82, 96, 122, 125, 171-176, 183, 194-196, 215, 237, - 414, 426. - - Ynglings, 233. - - Yngve, 233. - - - Z - - Zealand, 240, 241. - - Zendavista, 435. - - Zeus, 53-56, 236, 245, 307, 413. - - - - - ● Transcriber’s Notes: - ○ Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only - when a predominant form was found in this book. - ○ Text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_). - ○ Footnotes have been moved to follow the chapters in which they are - referenced. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NORSE MYTHOLOGY; OR THE RELIGION OF -OUR FOREFATHERS, CONTAINING ALL THE MYTHS OF THE EDDAS, SYSTEMATIZED AND -INTERPRETED *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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